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Christopher Columbus was a man that many learn in their childhood age here in America. When someone ask me who Christopher Columbus is, I identify him as a man who explored. Throughout his exploration to find a new route to South America but while not knowing he made a wrong turn, ended up finding North America by accident. He is the man who discovered the land that we live on today and if it wasn’t for him we would not be here today. I believe that American politicians should follow many different rules to justify a federal holiday. I believe that one of those rules should be that we should celebrate an occasion that impacts all if not most of the American people to create a holiday a national holiday that should be supported though out the United States. A big reason why I believe it should affect more than just a couple people is so that everyone in the nation can truly understand why the national celebration is important. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "A Great Explorer Christopher Columbus" essay for youCreate order In the article 8 Reasons To Hate Columbus Day by Aaron Sankin it speaks of many reasons why not only one person in the united states hate Columbus Day but many US Citizens hate it. It speaks about many different reasons such as how Columbus is a horrible human being and also how his journey brought many horrible things to the new explored country and its people. In the article Columbus Day vs Indigenous People By Valerio Viale also states many reasons why we should not celebrate Columbus Day as a national holiday because of how his actions have affected many people and that their heritages were severely affected by them in a negative way. In this article there is a fight about the people who do not want to celebrate Columbus day because of the effect it had on their people many of years ago they find the holiday to be disrespectful to their heritage and then put up a fight to try and get the national holiday to be about them so that everyone can respect and honor the people who lost their lives because of Christopher Columbus. Even though there are people who think that the holiday should no longer be celebrated there are still people who believe that it should. In the article IN PERSON; In Defense Of Columbus by Mary Ann Castronovo she writes about a professor who devoted his life to study about the renaissance time named Mr. Connell who studied about Columbus and his doings at his time and states why we should still celebrate the holiday because although he did do horrible things his discoveries had a huge impact on us today. Mr. Connell is not the only person who believes that Columbus has had a huge impact on us today either. Another author named Kari has written an article calling it 10 Reasons Why We Celebrate Columbus Day. And in this article, she states on how even though many things went wrong about Columbus what he has done had impacted so many people including us and we should celebrate him for that. We are all humans and humans make mistakes which happen to Christopher Columbus as well but the overall picture of what he has done for us is what we should celebrate him for. In these articles there are many things that my mind thinks about. I can see why many people push to not celebrate the holiday, but I can also see why people push that we still should celebrate the holiday. I believe that the holiday has a huge impact on so many people then and even now in our time. Some people see the impacts as negative however I don’t believe that they are seeing it in the right way. I believe that Christopher Columbus should be celebrated. Yes, he could have been a horrible person, or he could have been a really great person, but we do not know that side of the story because we were not physically there. Yes, we do hear stories and read about what others back in the day had to say about Columbus, but we do not entirely know that it is true. However, here is what we do know. Columbus sailed on three ships as stated in Kari’s article 10 reasons why to celebrate Columbus Day and found a new land that had not at the time been discovered to other Europeans. Yes, there could have been thousands of people before him who discovered the land, but he is the one who brought word to us back on the other side of the world and informed us and brought us to the new world. His achievement for doing that should be appreciated. I believe that it should be appreciated because If it is not we could still be living in Great Britain or in Spain or any other country in the world not allowed to do that things that we can now such as have the freedom of religion, and speech. Columbus brought us a new land and allowed us to come to create our own government for our own well-being. Yes, there were some horrible things that happened however if you look at the whole picture there is so much good that has come from him as well as bad and not everyone is perfect, so I believe that we should still celebrate Columbus Day. I believe that our leaders should find a way to be able and celebrate not only Columbus and his journey but to celebrate everything good and bad from it so that we as individuals can learn and be knowledgeable about everything that happened during and after Columbus and how it got us here today. Maybe Columbus day could be renamed to something that allows us to think about it all so we can all celebrate and respect our part in that time. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	<urn:uuid:4d453e75-14a4-4d0c-a840-9a3c0c91236c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studydriver.com/a-great-explorer-christopher-columbus/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00522.warc.gz	en	0.983057	1,134	3.34375	3	[ -0.296355664730072, 0.3998718857765198, 0.39696913957595825, 0.13779085874557495, -0.14308781921863556, 0.10864144563674927, 0.4718836545944214, 0.08721136301755905, -0.2757483124732971, 0.027622878551483154, 0.30209624767303467, 0.28783029317855835, -0.25468534231185913, 0.460127204656600...	1	Christopher Columbus was a man that many learn in their childhood age here in America. When someone ask me who Christopher Columbus is, I identify him as a man who explored. Throughout his exploration to find a new route to South America but while not knowing he made a wrong turn, ended up finding North America by accident. He is the man who discovered the land that we live on today and if it wasn’t for him we would not be here today. I believe that American politicians should follow many different rules to justify a federal holiday. I believe that one of those rules should be that we should celebrate an occasion that impacts all if not most of the American people to create a holiday a national holiday that should be supported though out the United States. A big reason why I believe it should affect more than just a couple people is so that everyone in the nation can truly understand why the national celebration is important. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "A Great Explorer Christopher Columbus" essay for youCreate order In the article 8 Reasons To Hate Columbus Day by Aaron Sankin it speaks of many reasons why not only one person in the united states hate Columbus Day but many US Citizens hate it. It speaks about many different reasons such as how Columbus is a horrible human being and also how his journey brought many horrible things to the new explored country and its people. In the article Columbus Day vs Indigenous People By Valerio Viale also states many reasons why we should not celebrate Columbus Day as a national holiday because of how his actions have affected many people and that their heritages were severely affected by them in a negative way. In this article there is a fight about the people who do not want to celebrate Columbus day because of the effect it had on their people many of years ago they find the holiday to be disrespectful to their heritage and then put up a fight to try and get the national holiday to be about them so that everyone can respect and honor the people who lost their lives because of Christopher Columbus. Even though there are people who think that the holiday should no longer be celebrated there are still people who believe that it should. In the article IN PERSON; In Defense Of Columbus by Mary Ann Castronovo she writes about a professor who devoted his life to study about the renaissance time named Mr. Connell who studied about Columbus and his doings at his time and states why we should still celebrate the holiday because although he did do horrible things his discoveries had a huge impact on us today. Mr. Connell is not the only person who believes that Columbus has had a huge impact on us today either. Another author named Kari has written an article calling it 10 Reasons Why We Celebrate Columbus Day. And in this article, she states on how even though many things went wrong about Columbus what he has done had impacted so many people including us and we should celebrate him for that. We are all humans and humans make mistakes which happen to Christopher Columbus as well but the overall picture of what he has done for us is what we should celebrate him for. In these articles there are many things that my mind thinks about. I can see why many people push to not celebrate the holiday, but I can also see why people push that we still should celebrate the holiday. I believe that the holiday has a huge impact on so many people then and even now in our time. Some people see the impacts as negative however I don’t believe that they are seeing it in the right way. I believe that Christopher Columbus should be celebrated. Yes, he could have been a horrible person, or he could have been a really great person, but we do not know that side of the story because we were not physically there. Yes, we do hear stories and read about what others back in the day had to say about Columbus, but we do not entirely know that it is true. However, here is what we do know. Columbus sailed on three ships as stated in Kari’s article 10 reasons why to celebrate Columbus Day and found a new land that had not at the time been discovered to other Europeans. Yes, there could have been thousands of people before him who discovered the land, but he is the one who brought word to us back on the other side of the world and informed us and brought us to the new world. His achievement for doing that should be appreciated. I believe that it should be appreciated because If it is not we could still be living in Great Britain or in Spain or any other country in the world not allowed to do that things that we can now such as have the freedom of religion, and speech. Columbus brought us a new land and allowed us to come to create our own government for our own well-being. Yes, there were some horrible things that happened however if you look at the whole picture there is so much good that has come from him as well as bad and not everyone is perfect, so I believe that we should still celebrate Columbus Day. I believe that our leaders should find a way to be able and celebrate not only Columbus and his journey but to celebrate everything good and bad from it so that we as individuals can learn and be knowledgeable about everything that happened during and after Columbus and how it got us here today. Maybe Columbus day could be renamed to something that allows us to think about it all so we can all celebrate and respect our part in that time. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	1,123	ENGLISH	1
Project update. Written by the Yellow House Leaders, JJ and Ruby. In Prescot Primary, every year group studies subjects of the National Curriculum through a project theme. We think this helps us to make connections and remember what we have learned. Read on to find out what each year has learned about this term! Y1 have been studying the Great Fire of London. This fire started in a bakery and so the children have learned how to bake bread of their own. It was scrumptious! Y2 loved their 'Pirate Day' when they dressed up as sea explorers, RNLI heroes or pirates. So many geographical skills were explored during the day and everyone had great fun too. On the 6th of December, Y5 had special day focusing on the history of the 1300s and the Black Death (a terrible disease that spread across Europe during the mid 1300s). All of the children had lots of fun dressing up as peasants, knights and doctors. We interviewed Thom and this is what he had to say about Plague Day: “I liked the part where we had a revolt with Wat Tyler (the leader). He tried to ride away on his horse but he died half way.” Y6 have also done some exciting things. Mrs Scott and Mrs Ward-Thompson have bought ingredients such as onions and tomatoes for them to make the classic Raw Mexican Salsa. Everybody helped make it and in the end, they all had a tasty snack. It was a bit messy but it was also fun. Y6 also made hot chocolate as they explored the importance of cocoa in the Ancient Mayan civilisation. We interviewed a few more children from Year 5 and 6 and asked them why they like events like these. They said that they like these events because it’s something really different compared to writing. I also questioned them about how they help you learn. They answered back saying that if you experience something then it will be easier to remember them when you're writing about it.	<urn:uuid:c7db6aa0-d445-4e7a-b085-7b1d61a659bc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.prescotprimary.org.uk/news/?pid=7&nid=2&storyid=129	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00029.warc.gz	en	0.98686	409	3.4375	3	[ -0.3651301860809326, 0.03514786437153816, 0.8325552940368652, -0.34120070934295654, 0.08877470344305038, -0.26123061776161194, -0.3384740650653839, 0.29551348090171814, -0.5534858107566833, -0.0793967992067337, 0.05531473085284233, -0.09621673822402954, -0.006572985090315342, 0.24766503274...	14	Project update. Written by the Yellow House Leaders, JJ and Ruby. In Prescot Primary, every year group studies subjects of the National Curriculum through a project theme. We think this helps us to make connections and remember what we have learned. Read on to find out what each year has learned about this term! Y1 have been studying the Great Fire of London. This fire started in a bakery and so the children have learned how to bake bread of their own. It was scrumptious! Y2 loved their 'Pirate Day' when they dressed up as sea explorers, RNLI heroes or pirates. So many geographical skills were explored during the day and everyone had great fun too. On the 6th of December, Y5 had special day focusing on the history of the 1300s and the Black Death (a terrible disease that spread across Europe during the mid 1300s). All of the children had lots of fun dressing up as peasants, knights and doctors. We interviewed Thom and this is what he had to say about Plague Day: “I liked the part where we had a revolt with Wat Tyler (the leader). He tried to ride away on his horse but he died half way.” Y6 have also done some exciting things. Mrs Scott and Mrs Ward-Thompson have bought ingredients such as onions and tomatoes for them to make the classic Raw Mexican Salsa. Everybody helped make it and in the end, they all had a tasty snack. It was a bit messy but it was also fun. Y6 also made hot chocolate as they explored the importance of cocoa in the Ancient Mayan civilisation. We interviewed a few more children from Year 5 and 6 and asked them why they like events like these. They said that they like these events because it’s something really different compared to writing. I also questioned them about how they help you learn. They answered back saying that if you experience something then it will be easier to remember them when you're writing about it.	407	ENGLISH	1
There were concentration camps, forced labor camps, extermination or death camps, transit camps, and prisoner-of-war camps. The living conditions of all camps were brutal. Dachauone of the first Nazi concentration camps, opened in Marchand at first interned only known political opponents of the Nazis: It was truly brutal. Below are ten things people should know about this camp. Beginnings The concentration camp was established in when prisoners were ordered to move to Mauthausen from the Dachau camp. It had 32 barracks, a couple of buildings for the officers, and was surrounded by electric barbed wire. There was also a stone wall in place. The camp was near a quarry, which was intentional. Two camps were built relatively close to each other, named Mauthausen and Gusen. Highly Profitable Slave Labor The big attraction for this camp came to be its slave labor, but it did not start that way. At first, it was a place for criminals. In the spring ofthat changed and it became a labor camp that was to house political prisoners. The labor tactics used allowed this to be the most profitable camp in the Nazi regime. They could make and do a lot of things at the camp. It had its own quarry. Not only were its profit margins high, its production was as well. It produced more completed work than any other labor camp. Entrance to the camp, seen during wartime. Many did, as more than 40 would go on to utilize the prisoners. Some of these businesses are still relevant today. A couple of the big names: Bayer— Still in business. Still in business, and known for their weapons. Their parent company is Swiss Arms. Steyr-Daimler-Puch— No longer in business as of Worked in several fields, including weapons and vehicles. The company at one time during the war employed Ferdinand Porsche, who designed a few military vehicles for them. The company also had experience with Fiat, assembling one of their vehicles and building engines for a few others. Worked to Death The labor was not there just for work. It was also a means to an end. The idea was simple: Working hours could run from as early as four or five in the morning until seven or eight at night. Once prisoners were too weak, tired or ill to work, they would be sent away to be killed. Popular Means of Killing Many inmates were shipped off to die, while others died on site. At first, there was no gas chamber at the facility. A hose would be hooked up to the exhaust of a van which had its engine running. Carbon monoxide fumes would funnel along the hose into the prisoners in the back of the van causing poisoning and suffocation. Eventually, this would change, when the camp built a gas chamber, able to kill people at a time. Zyklon B was often used by the Nazis to kill inmates. Another form of killing were beatings. Prisoners were subjected to abuse for anything the regime saw as wrong and were often beaten to death. Prisoners are seen being forced play leap frog. Inmate Demographic Originally, the goal was to keep the camp limited to those assumed intelligent, such as professors, or those who worked in the arts, etc.May 30, · Watch video · Eicke’s regulations served as a blueprint for the operation of all concentration camps in Nazi Germany. Dachau Expansion: Late s Conditions at the camp were brutal and overcrowded. The. Large numbers were executed or died from the brutal treatment and disease. About a dozen concentration camps were in operation until the early s, but some of them were closed and merged into the remaining six camps for the purpose of maintaining better secrecy and control. There were concentration camps, forced labor camps, extermination or death camps, transit camps, and prisoner-of-war camps. The living conditions of all camps were brutal. Dachau, one of the first Nazi concentration camps, opened in March , and at first interned only known political opponents of the Nazis: Communists, Social Democrats, . The concentration camps were administered since by the Concentration Camps Inspectorate (CCI) Conditions were brutal and prisoners were often sent to the gas chambers or killed on site if they did not work quickly enough. Final Camps of Death. 9. Buchenwald. Buchenwald was a forced labor camp located in Germany. Prisoners were forced to work in weapons and armament facilities. The concentration camps, T he Nazis set up their first concentration camp, Dachau, in the wake of Hitler’s takeover of power in By the end of the war, 22 main concentration camps were established, together with around 1, affiliate camps, Aussenkommandos, and thousands of .	<urn:uuid:f7b456b4-a744-434a-b2cf-a5c2b3193616>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lylycimydaz.pfmlures.com/were-concentration-camps-as-brutal-as-7303vf.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00271.warc.gz	en	0.989251	988	3.46875	3	[ -0.09330911934375763, 0.582832396030426, -0.03688688948750496, 0.11538507789373398, -0.06362168490886688, 0.2650545835494995, 0.07422710955142975, -0.0017845234833657742, -0.16363339126110077, -0.39322689175605774, 0.2592823803424835, -0.04741007834672928, -0.08166901767253876, 0.675100445...	1	There were concentration camps, forced labor camps, extermination or death camps, transit camps, and prisoner-of-war camps. The living conditions of all camps were brutal. Dachauone of the first Nazi concentration camps, opened in Marchand at first interned only known political opponents of the Nazis: It was truly brutal. Below are ten things people should know about this camp. Beginnings The concentration camp was established in when prisoners were ordered to move to Mauthausen from the Dachau camp. It had 32 barracks, a couple of buildings for the officers, and was surrounded by electric barbed wire. There was also a stone wall in place. The camp was near a quarry, which was intentional. Two camps were built relatively close to each other, named Mauthausen and Gusen. Highly Profitable Slave Labor The big attraction for this camp came to be its slave labor, but it did not start that way. At first, it was a place for criminals. In the spring ofthat changed and it became a labor camp that was to house political prisoners. The labor tactics used allowed this to be the most profitable camp in the Nazi regime. They could make and do a lot of things at the camp. It had its own quarry. Not only were its profit margins high, its production was as well. It produced more completed work than any other labor camp. Entrance to the camp, seen during wartime. Many did, as more than 40 would go on to utilize the prisoners. Some of these businesses are still relevant today. A couple of the big names: Bayer— Still in business. Still in business, and known for their weapons. Their parent company is Swiss Arms. Steyr-Daimler-Puch— No longer in business as of Worked in several fields, including weapons and vehicles. The company at one time during the war employed Ferdinand Porsche, who designed a few military vehicles for them. The company also had experience with Fiat, assembling one of their vehicles and building engines for a few others. Worked to Death The labor was not there just for work. It was also a means to an end. The idea was simple: Working hours could run from as early as four or five in the morning until seven or eight at night. Once prisoners were too weak, tired or ill to work, they would be sent away to be killed. Popular Means of Killing Many inmates were shipped off to die, while others died on site. At first, there was no gas chamber at the facility. A hose would be hooked up to the exhaust of a van which had its engine running. Carbon monoxide fumes would funnel along the hose into the prisoners in the back of the van causing poisoning and suffocation. Eventually, this would change, when the camp built a gas chamber, able to kill people at a time. Zyklon B was often used by the Nazis to kill inmates. Another form of killing were beatings. Prisoners were subjected to abuse for anything the regime saw as wrong and were often beaten to death. Prisoners are seen being forced play leap frog. Inmate Demographic Originally, the goal was to keep the camp limited to those assumed intelligent, such as professors, or those who worked in the arts, etc.May 30, · Watch video · Eicke’s regulations served as a blueprint for the operation of all concentration camps in Nazi Germany. Dachau Expansion: Late s Conditions at the camp were brutal and overcrowded. The. Large numbers were executed or died from the brutal treatment and disease. About a dozen concentration camps were in operation until the early s, but some of them were closed and merged into the remaining six camps for the purpose of maintaining better secrecy and control. There were concentration camps, forced labor camps, extermination or death camps, transit camps, and prisoner-of-war camps. The living conditions of all camps were brutal. Dachau, one of the first Nazi concentration camps, opened in March , and at first interned only known political opponents of the Nazis: Communists, Social Democrats, . The concentration camps were administered since by the Concentration Camps Inspectorate (CCI) Conditions were brutal and prisoners were often sent to the gas chambers or killed on site if they did not work quickly enough. Final Camps of Death. 9. Buchenwald. Buchenwald was a forced labor camp located in Germany. Prisoners were forced to work in weapons and armament facilities. The concentration camps, T he Nazis set up their first concentration camp, Dachau, in the wake of Hitler’s takeover of power in By the end of the war, 22 main concentration camps were established, together with around 1, affiliate camps, Aussenkommandos, and thousands of .	972	ENGLISH	1
Milton wrote “Lycidas” a few months after his friend, Edward King, died in a shipwreck in 1637. The poem is a pastoral elegy—a form of poetry used to memorialize the dead—and has become one of the most famous reflections on loss in the English language. In the poem, Milton uses the death of the imaginary Lycidas as an occasion to mourn the death of his friend. His elegy weaves together classical and Christian images, moving from the pastoral tradition to the poem’s final consolation: the promise of a harmonious song in Heaven, where Lycidas has been resurrected and lives again. Milton and Edward King met at Cambridge, where they were classmates and literary rivals. Though King had published just 12 poems at the time of his death, his friends and teachers wrote a collection of poetry praising his talent and mourning the loss of what he might have accomplished. Milton published “Lycidas” in 1638 as part of that collection. Though Milton wrote “Lycidas” to memorialize his dead friend, the poem is also doing much more. It is not so much an obituary for King as a poem written on the occasion of King’s death. By reimagining himself and King as two shepherds, Milton distances himself from King’s actual death and puts his poem in dialogue with the conventions of pastoral poetry. More than King, "Lycidas" is about the relationship between grief and the traditions available to a poet who wants to express grief. By writing a pastoral elegy, Milton positions himself at the end of a tradition of great poets and suggests that he deserves a place among them. Pastoral poetry began with Theocritus, a classical Greek poet who wrote about shepherds having singing competitions in the fields. Theocritus’s shepherds often sing about the dead, and seem to lose themselves in emotion, but their elegies are also highly structured. Though they appear to speak from their hearts, they are always competing with others for the honor of composing the best poem. Milton never mentions a competition between shepherds in “Lycidas,” but Milton’s readers would have had these singing battles at the back of their mind as they read his elegy. Pastoral poetry has a long history, and anyone who uses the form is putting themselves in conversation with all the poets famous for their pastoral poems. By writing a pastoral elegy, Milton is announcing to the world that he wants to compete with writers like Theocritus and Virgil. Even as he mourns his dead friend, he is establishing his own claim to literary fame through a poem that puts him in a singing competition with some of the greatest poets in history.	<urn:uuid:a0e3f6ed-8468-48eb-9d79-3b8fd1dd3259>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gradesaver.com/lycidas	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00012.warc.gz	en	0.985744	577	4.09375	4	[ 0.02814755216240883, -0.30032676458358765, 0.11637357622385025, 0.05845361948013306, -0.04587959498167038, -0.6006466746330261, 0.21090637147426605, 0.15743595361709595, 0.10974016785621643, -0.15606454014778137, -0.1905345618724823, 0.008702409453690052, -0.2507994771003723, 0.16986504197...	1	Milton wrote “Lycidas” a few months after his friend, Edward King, died in a shipwreck in 1637. The poem is a pastoral elegy—a form of poetry used to memorialize the dead—and has become one of the most famous reflections on loss in the English language. In the poem, Milton uses the death of the imaginary Lycidas as an occasion to mourn the death of his friend. His elegy weaves together classical and Christian images, moving from the pastoral tradition to the poem’s final consolation: the promise of a harmonious song in Heaven, where Lycidas has been resurrected and lives again. Milton and Edward King met at Cambridge, where they were classmates and literary rivals. Though King had published just 12 poems at the time of his death, his friends and teachers wrote a collection of poetry praising his talent and mourning the loss of what he might have accomplished. Milton published “Lycidas” in 1638 as part of that collection. Though Milton wrote “Lycidas” to memorialize his dead friend, the poem is also doing much more. It is not so much an obituary for King as a poem written on the occasion of King’s death. By reimagining himself and King as two shepherds, Milton distances himself from King’s actual death and puts his poem in dialogue with the conventions of pastoral poetry. More than King, "Lycidas" is about the relationship between grief and the traditions available to a poet who wants to express grief. By writing a pastoral elegy, Milton positions himself at the end of a tradition of great poets and suggests that he deserves a place among them. Pastoral poetry began with Theocritus, a classical Greek poet who wrote about shepherds having singing competitions in the fields. Theocritus’s shepherds often sing about the dead, and seem to lose themselves in emotion, but their elegies are also highly structured. Though they appear to speak from their hearts, they are always competing with others for the honor of composing the best poem. Milton never mentions a competition between shepherds in “Lycidas,” but Milton’s readers would have had these singing battles at the back of their mind as they read his elegy. Pastoral poetry has a long history, and anyone who uses the form is putting themselves in conversation with all the poets famous for their pastoral poems. By writing a pastoral elegy, Milton is announcing to the world that he wants to compete with writers like Theocritus and Virgil. Even as he mourns his dead friend, he is establishing his own claim to literary fame through a poem that puts him in a singing competition with some of the greatest poets in history.	561	ENGLISH	1
Nov. 3, 2013 -- Denmark was the only European country to save almost all of its Jewish residents from the Holocaust. After being tipped off about imminent roundups by prominent Nazis, resisters evacuated the country's 7,000 Jews to Sweden by boat. A new book examines this historical anomaly. They left at night, thousands of Jewish families, setting out by car, bicycle, streetcar or train. They left the Danish cities they had long called home and fled to the countryside, which was unfamiliar to many of them. Along the way, they found shelter in the homes of friends or business partners, squatted in abandoned summer homes or spent the night with hospitable farmers. "We came across kind and good people, but they had no idea about what was happening at the time," writes Poul Hannover, one of the refugees, about those dark days in which humanity triumphed. At some point, however, the refugees no longer knew what to do next. Where would they be safe? How were the Nazis attempting to find them? There was no refugee center, no leadership, no organization and exasperatingly little reliable information. But what did exist was the art of improvisation and the helpfulness of many Danes, who now had a chance to prove themselves. Members of the Danish underground movement emerged who could tell the Jews who was to be trusted. There were police officers who not only looked the other way when the refugees turned up in groups, but also warned them about Nazi checkpoints. And there were skippers who were willing to take the refugees across the Baltic Sea to Sweden in their fishing cutters, boats and sailboats. A Small Country With a Big Heart Denmark in October 1943 was a small country with a big heart. It had been under Nazi occupation for three-and-a-half years. And although Denmark was too small to have defended itself militarily, it also refused to be subjugated by the Nazis. The Danes negotiated a privileged status that even enabled them to retain their own government. They assessed their options realistically, but they also set limits on how far they were willing to go to cooperate with the Germans. The small country defended its democracy, while Germany, a large, warmongering country under Hitler, was satisfied with controlling the country from afar and, from then on, viewed Denmark as a "model protectorate." That was the situation until the summer of 1943, when strikes and acts of sabotage began to cause unrest. This prompted the Germans to threaten Denmark with court martials and, in late August, to declare martial law. The Danish government resigned in protest. At this point, the deportation and murder of European Jews had already been underway for some time in other countries that had submitted to Nazi control. In the Netherlands, Hungary, Greece, Lithuania, Latvia and Poland, the overwhelming majority of Jews, between 70 and 90 percent of the Jewish population, disappeared and were murdered. The Nazis deported and killed close to half of all Jews in Estonia, Belgium, Norway and Romania. About a fifth of French and Italian Jews died. As historian Peter Longerich writes, the Holocaust was dependent, "to a considerable extent, on the practical cooperation and support of an occupied country or territory." The Danes provided no assistance to the Nazis in their "Jewish campaign" in Denmark. They viewed the Jews as Danes and placed them under their protection, a story documented in "Countrymen," a new book by Danish author Bo Lidegaard. "The history of the rescue of the Danish Jews," writes Lidegaard, "is only a tiny part of the massive history of the Shoah. But it teaches us a lesson, because it is a story about the survival instinct, civil disobedience and the assistance provided by an entire people when, outraged and angry, it rebelled against the deportation of its fellow Danes." Ten Years Documenting the Danish Resistance Lidegaard, born in 1958, is a tall intellectual with many talents. As a diplomat, he represented his country in Geneva and Paris. After that, he served as an adviser to two succeeding Danish prime ministers and, in 2009, he organized the United Nations Conference on Climate Change in Copenhagen. He has been the editor-in-chief of Politiken, Denmark's large, left-liberal daily newspaper, since April 2011. He worked on his book for 10 years. During a conversation in Hamburg, Lidegaard said that he was interested in finding out why Denmark had wanted to save the Jews -- and why the Nazis allowed them to be saved. Two men played a key role in the affair -- two German Nazis, each with his own story. One of the Germans was named Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz. He was from a merchant's family in the northern port city of Bremen and joined the Nazi Party in 1932. Duckwitz was a Nazi and an anti-Semite out of conviction. He worked for Alfred Rosenberg, one of Hitler's race ideologues, who was sentenced to death in Nuremberg in 1946 and executed. Duckwitz gradually developed an aversion to the Nazis' brutishness and bloodlust. Because he was familiar with Denmark from his earlier days and had a fondness for the country, he went to Copenhagen in September 1939, working as a shipping expert for the German Reich's Ministry of Transport. Germany occupied Denmark on April 9, 1940, but the protectorate was allowed to direct its internal affairs. It kept a certain amount of latitude and rejected the Nazis' demand that it introduce the death penalty and segregate Jews. The country asserted itself as much as it could. Germany declared Denmark a model for the protectorates that Hitler intended to establish in Western Europe after the end of the war. The Nazis initially sent only 89 officials to the country, and they were responsible for 3.8 million Danes. By contrast, Berlin sent 22,000 officials to France. Unlike France, Denmark was small and had only a small Jewish population. The country also had no raw materials of importance to the war effort. Denmark supplied agricultural products to Germany, but its economic role was relatively small. An Enemy from Within Duckwitz wrote a manuscript describing his official and unofficial activities in Copenhagen. The document, which remains in the political archive of the German Foreign Ministry today, both complements and contradicts Lidegaard's account. Part of Duckwitz's job was to manage German ships calling at Danish ports. He signed agreements with Danish government agencies that regulated "the reciprocal use of tonnage." He was also required to report to Berlin when the Danish underground committed acts of sabotage against ships. In addition, Duckwitz established ties with Social Democrats and young labor leader Hans Hedtoft, and he assisted Danes who had fallen into the Germans' clutches. Duckwitz's office soon became unofficially known as "the office for rescuing people." A Nazi himself, Duckwitz became an opponent of the Nazis who simultaneously had good connections in Berlin. The Nazis could hardly have failed to notice the change. They threatened to recall him several times but never followed through. Duckwitz exemplified what the German philosopher Hannah Arendt called "the role played by the German authorities in Denmark, their obvious sabotage of orders from Berlin," a phenomenon that she found astonishing. "It is the only case we know of in which the Nazis met with open native resistance, and the result seems to have been that those exposed to it changed their minds. The second German was and remained a staunch Nazi and anti-Semite. Werner Best was a senior official at the Reich Main Security Office, where he worked closely with SS leader Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich, the head of the agency. But then Best quarreled with Heydrich and fell from favor. He left Berlin and joined the German military administration of France, where he managed the internment and persecution of Jews, earning the nickname "Bloodhound of Paris." In the summer of 1942, Best was sent to Denmark as Berlin's new plenipotentiary, which made him the highest authority in the protectorate. "Best was to play a key role in the fate of the Danish Jews, but exactly what that role was is still debated today," writes Lidegaard. Lidegaard believes that Best was an opportunist who, in the fall of 1943, was smart enough to recognize that the war was lost for Germany. He tolerated what Duckwitz was doing, because he assumed that he would be treated more leniently after the war if he had turned a blind eye to Duckwitz's activities. But Duckwitz would have disagreed with Lidegaard. He saw Best as a man who had changed his mind in Copenhagen, in the way Hannah Arendt described. In his manuscript, Duckwitz writes that the Nazis had intended from the beginning to proceed eventually against the Jews in Denmark. In early September 1943, Best and Duckwitz received word from Berlin that Hitler's cohorts were pushing to have the Danish Jews deported. This prompted Best to take initiative, writes Duckwitz. On Sept. 8, the plenipotentiary sent a telegram to Berlin in which he proposed that the German military, the Wehrmacht, should take action against the Jews in Denmark -- in effect appropriating what had, until then, only been a rumor. But that was only a trick, suggests the well-meaning Duckwitz, who asserts that Best had believed "that his suggestion to launch a campaign against the Danish Jews would be rejected outright. He saw a great benefit in taking the initiative away from those groups that wanted Hitler to persecute the Jews in Denmark." As Duckwitz tells it, Best had never meant the Nazis to take up his suggestion. He had bluffed and miscalculated. But Lidegaard doesn't buy that assessment. He believes it was an earnest request. In any case, the response arrived from Berlin on Sept. 19, 1943. Hitler approved of Best's proposal and had ordered Himmler to execute the plan. Preempting the 'Jewish Campaign' Duckwitz promptly notified his Danish informants in the government, among the Social Democrats and within the Jewish community. He traveled to Sweden and told Prime Minister Per Albin Hansson what was about to happen. The Swedish government instructed its envoy in Copenhagen to freely issue passports to Danish Jews and made preparations to accept refugees at home. The "Jewish Campaign" began on the night of Oct. 1. The German security forces consisted of 1,300 to 1,400 police officers, together with Danish volunteers and the Schalburg Corps, an SS unit consisting of Danes. Several hundred Jews fell into their hands, and 202 were designated for deportation and taken, along with 150 Danish communists, to the Wartheland, a ship with the capacity to hold 5,000 passengers. Neither the German Wehrmacht nor the police "proved to be especially eager to help the Gestapo hunt down the Danish Jews," writes Lidegaard. The campaign was declared over at 1 a.m., and Best wrote in his report to Berlin that Denmark had been "de-Jewed." "De-Jewed?" One can hardly assume that the Nazis failed to notice that only a few hundred people had been transported on the large ship, while at the same time, thousands of Jews were fleeing to the coast in order to escape to Sweden. It is also difficult to imagine that Duckwitz's conspiratorial activities remained completely unnoticed in Berlin. So why didn't the Nazis do anything about it? Denmark simply wasn't that important to them, Lidegaard said during the conversation in Hamburg. Besides, he added, the Nazis knew that the Danes would protect their Jews from mass deportation. They had opted to present Denmark to the world as a model protectorate, so they decided for once to dispense with violent reprisals. What about Duckwitz and Best? Lidegaard believes they acted in the knowledge that Berlin had only a moderate interest in Denmark. One of the oddities of the Danish situation, he says, is that Adolf Eichmann traveled to Copenhagen in November 1943 and expressed his satisfaction with the "Jewish Campaign." In the end, 7,742 Jews were able to flee to Sweden across the Baltic Sea. Each of the refugees received government support in Sweden if it was needed. The Danish government also advocated on behalf of those who had been deported. After negotiations with Himmler, 423 Danes were released from the Theresienstadt concentration camp in early 1945. How many Danish Jews were killed? An estimated 70, or one percent of the country's Jewish population at the time. Denmark is a shining exception in the history of the European Holocaust. Both Best and Duckwitz survived the war in Copenhagen. Best was arrested, testified in the Nuremberg War Crimes trial and was later extradited to Denmark. The Copenhagen Municipal Court sentenced him to death on Sep. 20, 1948, but in appeal proceedings his sentence was reduced to 12 years in prison. He was given credit for his behavior in the fall of 1943, and in response to pressure from the new German government in Bonn, he was released on Aug. 24, 1951. After that, he worked in the office of Ernst Achenbach, a politician with the liberal Free Democratic Party (FDP), for the rehabilitation of former Nazis. He provided the defense with exonerating material in many Nazi trials without making an appearance himself. In Germany, Best lived undisturbed for two decades. Only in the late 1960s did documents and witnesses turn up to shed light on his past in the Reich Main Security Office. But his trial was repeatedly postponed for health reasons. Best, an eternally colorful but sinister figure, died in June 1989. Duckwitz remained in Copenhagen after the war, initially working as a representative of the West German chambers of commerce. He entered the diplomatic service when the Foreign Ministry was rebuilt in West Germany. He returned to Denmark as the West German ambassador in 1955. Ten years later, he chose to retire early, because he disagreed with Bonn's policy of marginalizing East Germany. But soon Chancellor Willy Brandt brought him back and made him his chief negotiator for the Treaty of Warsaw, which was designed to reconcile Poles and Germans. Soon after the end of the war, Denmark honored Duckwitz, the converted Nazi, for his role in the rescue campaign. In 1971, two years before his death, Yad Vashem, Israel's memorial to the Jewish victims of the Holocaust, presented him with its "Righteous Among the Nations" award.	<urn:uuid:05cc0c4d-a544-4639-b213-332daa11eb88>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://abcnews.go.com/International/denmark-saved-jews-nazis/story?id=20750027	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00490.warc.gz	en	0.983649	2,992	3.328125	3	[ -0.03197887912392616, 0.616823673248291, -0.2517094612121582, 0.052155472338199615, 0.4328400492668152, 0.30174949765205383, -0.42080026865005493, 0.2667692005634308, 0.2087467610836029, 0.02111281454563141, 0.2697901129722595, -0.04792821779847145, -0.07106630504131317, 0.2144033312797546...	4	Nov. 3, 2013 -- Denmark was the only European country to save almost all of its Jewish residents from the Holocaust. After being tipped off about imminent roundups by prominent Nazis, resisters evacuated the country's 7,000 Jews to Sweden by boat. A new book examines this historical anomaly. They left at night, thousands of Jewish families, setting out by car, bicycle, streetcar or train. They left the Danish cities they had long called home and fled to the countryside, which was unfamiliar to many of them. Along the way, they found shelter in the homes of friends or business partners, squatted in abandoned summer homes or spent the night with hospitable farmers. "We came across kind and good people, but they had no idea about what was happening at the time," writes Poul Hannover, one of the refugees, about those dark days in which humanity triumphed. At some point, however, the refugees no longer knew what to do next. Where would they be safe? How were the Nazis attempting to find them? There was no refugee center, no leadership, no organization and exasperatingly little reliable information. But what did exist was the art of improvisation and the helpfulness of many Danes, who now had a chance to prove themselves. Members of the Danish underground movement emerged who could tell the Jews who was to be trusted. There were police officers who not only looked the other way when the refugees turned up in groups, but also warned them about Nazi checkpoints. And there were skippers who were willing to take the refugees across the Baltic Sea to Sweden in their fishing cutters, boats and sailboats. A Small Country With a Big Heart Denmark in October 1943 was a small country with a big heart. It had been under Nazi occupation for three-and-a-half years. And although Denmark was too small to have defended itself militarily, it also refused to be subjugated by the Nazis. The Danes negotiated a privileged status that even enabled them to retain their own government. They assessed their options realistically, but they also set limits on how far they were willing to go to cooperate with the Germans. The small country defended its democracy, while Germany, a large, warmongering country under Hitler, was satisfied with controlling the country from afar and, from then on, viewed Denmark as a "model protectorate." That was the situation until the summer of 1943, when strikes and acts of sabotage began to cause unrest. This prompted the Germans to threaten Denmark with court martials and, in late August, to declare martial law. The Danish government resigned in protest. At this point, the deportation and murder of European Jews had already been underway for some time in other countries that had submitted to Nazi control. In the Netherlands, Hungary, Greece, Lithuania, Latvia and Poland, the overwhelming majority of Jews, between 70 and 90 percent of the Jewish population, disappeared and were murdered. The Nazis deported and killed close to half of all Jews in Estonia, Belgium, Norway and Romania. About a fifth of French and Italian Jews died. As historian Peter Longerich writes, the Holocaust was dependent, "to a considerable extent, on the practical cooperation and support of an occupied country or territory." The Danes provided no assistance to the Nazis in their "Jewish campaign" in Denmark. They viewed the Jews as Danes and placed them under their protection, a story documented in "Countrymen," a new book by Danish author Bo Lidegaard. "The history of the rescue of the Danish Jews," writes Lidegaard, "is only a tiny part of the massive history of the Shoah. But it teaches us a lesson, because it is a story about the survival instinct, civil disobedience and the assistance provided by an entire people when, outraged and angry, it rebelled against the deportation of its fellow Danes." Ten Years Documenting the Danish Resistance Lidegaard, born in 1958, is a tall intellectual with many talents. As a diplomat, he represented his country in Geneva and Paris. After that, he served as an adviser to two succeeding Danish prime ministers and, in 2009, he organized the United Nations Conference on Climate Change in Copenhagen. He has been the editor-in-chief of Politiken, Denmark's large, left-liberal daily newspaper, since April 2011. He worked on his book for 10 years. During a conversation in Hamburg, Lidegaard said that he was interested in finding out why Denmark had wanted to save the Jews -- and why the Nazis allowed them to be saved. Two men played a key role in the affair -- two German Nazis, each with his own story. One of the Germans was named Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz. He was from a merchant's family in the northern port city of Bremen and joined the Nazi Party in 1932. Duckwitz was a Nazi and an anti-Semite out of conviction. He worked for Alfred Rosenberg, one of Hitler's race ideologues, who was sentenced to death in Nuremberg in 1946 and executed. Duckwitz gradually developed an aversion to the Nazis' brutishness and bloodlust. Because he was familiar with Denmark from his earlier days and had a fondness for the country, he went to Copenhagen in September 1939, working as a shipping expert for the German Reich's Ministry of Transport. Germany occupied Denmark on April 9, 1940, but the protectorate was allowed to direct its internal affairs. It kept a certain amount of latitude and rejected the Nazis' demand that it introduce the death penalty and segregate Jews. The country asserted itself as much as it could. Germany declared Denmark a model for the protectorates that Hitler intended to establish in Western Europe after the end of the war. The Nazis initially sent only 89 officials to the country, and they were responsible for 3.8 million Danes. By contrast, Berlin sent 22,000 officials to France. Unlike France, Denmark was small and had only a small Jewish population. The country also had no raw materials of importance to the war effort. Denmark supplied agricultural products to Germany, but its economic role was relatively small. An Enemy from Within Duckwitz wrote a manuscript describing his official and unofficial activities in Copenhagen. The document, which remains in the political archive of the German Foreign Ministry today, both complements and contradicts Lidegaard's account. Part of Duckwitz's job was to manage German ships calling at Danish ports. He signed agreements with Danish government agencies that regulated "the reciprocal use of tonnage." He was also required to report to Berlin when the Danish underground committed acts of sabotage against ships. In addition, Duckwitz established ties with Social Democrats and young labor leader Hans Hedtoft, and he assisted Danes who had fallen into the Germans' clutches. Duckwitz's office soon became unofficially known as "the office for rescuing people." A Nazi himself, Duckwitz became an opponent of the Nazis who simultaneously had good connections in Berlin. The Nazis could hardly have failed to notice the change. They threatened to recall him several times but never followed through. Duckwitz exemplified what the German philosopher Hannah Arendt called "the role played by the German authorities in Denmark, their obvious sabotage of orders from Berlin," a phenomenon that she found astonishing. "It is the only case we know of in which the Nazis met with open native resistance, and the result seems to have been that those exposed to it changed their minds. The second German was and remained a staunch Nazi and anti-Semite. Werner Best was a senior official at the Reich Main Security Office, where he worked closely with SS leader Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich, the head of the agency. But then Best quarreled with Heydrich and fell from favor. He left Berlin and joined the German military administration of France, where he managed the internment and persecution of Jews, earning the nickname "Bloodhound of Paris." In the summer of 1942, Best was sent to Denmark as Berlin's new plenipotentiary, which made him the highest authority in the protectorate. "Best was to play a key role in the fate of the Danish Jews, but exactly what that role was is still debated today," writes Lidegaard. Lidegaard believes that Best was an opportunist who, in the fall of 1943, was smart enough to recognize that the war was lost for Germany. He tolerated what Duckwitz was doing, because he assumed that he would be treated more leniently after the war if he had turned a blind eye to Duckwitz's activities. But Duckwitz would have disagreed with Lidegaard. He saw Best as a man who had changed his mind in Copenhagen, in the way Hannah Arendt described. In his manuscript, Duckwitz writes that the Nazis had intended from the beginning to proceed eventually against the Jews in Denmark. In early September 1943, Best and Duckwitz received word from Berlin that Hitler's cohorts were pushing to have the Danish Jews deported. This prompted Best to take initiative, writes Duckwitz. On Sept. 8, the plenipotentiary sent a telegram to Berlin in which he proposed that the German military, the Wehrmacht, should take action against the Jews in Denmark -- in effect appropriating what had, until then, only been a rumor. But that was only a trick, suggests the well-meaning Duckwitz, who asserts that Best had believed "that his suggestion to launch a campaign against the Danish Jews would be rejected outright. He saw a great benefit in taking the initiative away from those groups that wanted Hitler to persecute the Jews in Denmark." As Duckwitz tells it, Best had never meant the Nazis to take up his suggestion. He had bluffed and miscalculated. But Lidegaard doesn't buy that assessment. He believes it was an earnest request. In any case, the response arrived from Berlin on Sept. 19, 1943. Hitler approved of Best's proposal and had ordered Himmler to execute the plan. Preempting the 'Jewish Campaign' Duckwitz promptly notified his Danish informants in the government, among the Social Democrats and within the Jewish community. He traveled to Sweden and told Prime Minister Per Albin Hansson what was about to happen. The Swedish government instructed its envoy in Copenhagen to freely issue passports to Danish Jews and made preparations to accept refugees at home. The "Jewish Campaign" began on the night of Oct. 1. The German security forces consisted of 1,300 to 1,400 police officers, together with Danish volunteers and the Schalburg Corps, an SS unit consisting of Danes. Several hundred Jews fell into their hands, and 202 were designated for deportation and taken, along with 150 Danish communists, to the Wartheland, a ship with the capacity to hold 5,000 passengers. Neither the German Wehrmacht nor the police "proved to be especially eager to help the Gestapo hunt down the Danish Jews," writes Lidegaard. The campaign was declared over at 1 a.m., and Best wrote in his report to Berlin that Denmark had been "de-Jewed." "De-Jewed?" One can hardly assume that the Nazis failed to notice that only a few hundred people had been transported on the large ship, while at the same time, thousands of Jews were fleeing to the coast in order to escape to Sweden. It is also difficult to imagine that Duckwitz's conspiratorial activities remained completely unnoticed in Berlin. So why didn't the Nazis do anything about it? Denmark simply wasn't that important to them, Lidegaard said during the conversation in Hamburg. Besides, he added, the Nazis knew that the Danes would protect their Jews from mass deportation. They had opted to present Denmark to the world as a model protectorate, so they decided for once to dispense with violent reprisals. What about Duckwitz and Best? Lidegaard believes they acted in the knowledge that Berlin had only a moderate interest in Denmark. One of the oddities of the Danish situation, he says, is that Adolf Eichmann traveled to Copenhagen in November 1943 and expressed his satisfaction with the "Jewish Campaign." In the end, 7,742 Jews were able to flee to Sweden across the Baltic Sea. Each of the refugees received government support in Sweden if it was needed. The Danish government also advocated on behalf of those who had been deported. After negotiations with Himmler, 423 Danes were released from the Theresienstadt concentration camp in early 1945. How many Danish Jews were killed? An estimated 70, or one percent of the country's Jewish population at the time. Denmark is a shining exception in the history of the European Holocaust. Both Best and Duckwitz survived the war in Copenhagen. Best was arrested, testified in the Nuremberg War Crimes trial and was later extradited to Denmark. The Copenhagen Municipal Court sentenced him to death on Sep. 20, 1948, but in appeal proceedings his sentence was reduced to 12 years in prison. He was given credit for his behavior in the fall of 1943, and in response to pressure from the new German government in Bonn, he was released on Aug. 24, 1951. After that, he worked in the office of Ernst Achenbach, a politician with the liberal Free Democratic Party (FDP), for the rehabilitation of former Nazis. He provided the defense with exonerating material in many Nazi trials without making an appearance himself. In Germany, Best lived undisturbed for two decades. Only in the late 1960s did documents and witnesses turn up to shed light on his past in the Reich Main Security Office. But his trial was repeatedly postponed for health reasons. Best, an eternally colorful but sinister figure, died in June 1989. Duckwitz remained in Copenhagen after the war, initially working as a representative of the West German chambers of commerce. He entered the diplomatic service when the Foreign Ministry was rebuilt in West Germany. He returned to Denmark as the West German ambassador in 1955. Ten years later, he chose to retire early, because he disagreed with Bonn's policy of marginalizing East Germany. But soon Chancellor Willy Brandt brought him back and made him his chief negotiator for the Treaty of Warsaw, which was designed to reconcile Poles and Germans. Soon after the end of the war, Denmark honored Duckwitz, the converted Nazi, for his role in the rescue campaign. In 1971, two years before his death, Yad Vashem, Israel's memorial to the Jewish victims of the Holocaust, presented him with its "Righteous Among the Nations" award.	3,123	ENGLISH	1
Do you explode in anger? Isolate yourself from friends? Or act in some other way that causes problems? Like many other people, you may not know why or how to change. A common technique called functional analysis (also called chain analysis or behavioral analysis) may help. The purpose of functional analysis is to help you discover the purpose (or function) of your behavior. By analyzing the chain of behaviors leading up to the problem behavior, you can learn more about the function of that problem behavior. You can then consider whether there might be other, healthier behaviors that might be able to serve that same function. The best way to understand this technique is to read through the following steps and then practice doing them: What behavior do you want to change? Identify a behavior that is causing you problems. Example: Nancy struggles with feeling jealous. When her girlfriend Stacy goes out with colleagues after work, she texts her every few minutes as she anxiously awaits her return home. What happened as a result of this behavior? Identify what problems that behavior causes. Example: In response to the constant texting, Stacy turns off her phone while she’s out, and then they inevitably fight about the situation when she gets home. Think about your experiences just prior to the problematic behavior. What sensations were you aware of in your body? What were you thinking? What were you feeling? What were you doing? What was the situation you were in? Example: In considering this issue, Nancy was aware that she was extremely tense as she thought about Stacy out with other people, probably enjoying their company more than hers and possibly even flirting with someone. She was aware of becoming increasingly anxious and jealous until she felt like she couldn’t take it anymore – which was when she began texting. What did those experiences make you want to do? What was the function of your behavior? Consider what you were trying to accomplish by engaging in the problem behavior. Example: As Nancy considered the chain of experiences that led to her texting, she realized that she was texting as a way to reassure herself that she was still important to Stacy. The longer Stacy stayed out, the stronger Nancy’s jealousy grew, and the angrier her texts became (essentially punishing Stacy for rejecting her). What might have made you more vulnerable to the problem behavior? People struggle with certain situations for various reasons, such as internal feelings or beliefs, past experiences, or certain aspects of their situation. Example: Nancy knew that being cheated on in her previous relationship left her distrustful, even though Stacy never gave her reason to suspect infidelity. She also realized that she had been planning a quiet evening home together, which made this situation more difficult. What are some ways that you could address similar situations differently, getting what you really want? Think about each step along the way, considering how you might have responded differently. Example: After Nancy calmed down, she thought about how what she really wanted was to know that she was important to Stacy and that Stacy would remain faithful. She talked with Stacy about this, and they agreed to communicate better about plans. Also, Nancy agreed to communicate her struggles more clearly at the time so that Stacy could reassure her. Completing a functional analysis takes effort. If you find that you are unable to gain clarity on why you repeat certain behaviors or you cannot make changes, you might want to ask someone you trust to help. Or, you might want to seek out therapy. However you do it, increasing your awareness of the function of your behavior is an important step toward choosing a healthier path.	<urn:uuid:374fc2bc-cc6b-449f-afb0-f974ada0ceae>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blogs.webmd.com/relationships/20191218/how-to-change-relationship-damaging-behaviors	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00510.warc.gz	en	0.984238	735	3.34375	3	[ -0.33544299006462097, -0.04540475830435753, 0.10323783755302429, -0.22726020216941833, -0.24318400025367737, -0.07744728028774261, 1.1630985736846924, 0.5885912775993347, 0.20266231894493103, -0.5685471296310425, 0.5134674310684204, 0.08635134994983673, 0.29281944036483765, 0.2313555628061...	3	Do you explode in anger? Isolate yourself from friends? Or act in some other way that causes problems? Like many other people, you may not know why or how to change. A common technique called functional analysis (also called chain analysis or behavioral analysis) may help. The purpose of functional analysis is to help you discover the purpose (or function) of your behavior. By analyzing the chain of behaviors leading up to the problem behavior, you can learn more about the function of that problem behavior. You can then consider whether there might be other, healthier behaviors that might be able to serve that same function. The best way to understand this technique is to read through the following steps and then practice doing them: What behavior do you want to change? Identify a behavior that is causing you problems. Example: Nancy struggles with feeling jealous. When her girlfriend Stacy goes out with colleagues after work, she texts her every few minutes as she anxiously awaits her return home. What happened as a result of this behavior? Identify what problems that behavior causes. Example: In response to the constant texting, Stacy turns off her phone while she’s out, and then they inevitably fight about the situation when she gets home. Think about your experiences just prior to the problematic behavior. What sensations were you aware of in your body? What were you thinking? What were you feeling? What were you doing? What was the situation you were in? Example: In considering this issue, Nancy was aware that she was extremely tense as she thought about Stacy out with other people, probably enjoying their company more than hers and possibly even flirting with someone. She was aware of becoming increasingly anxious and jealous until she felt like she couldn’t take it anymore – which was when she began texting. What did those experiences make you want to do? What was the function of your behavior? Consider what you were trying to accomplish by engaging in the problem behavior. Example: As Nancy considered the chain of experiences that led to her texting, she realized that she was texting as a way to reassure herself that she was still important to Stacy. The longer Stacy stayed out, the stronger Nancy’s jealousy grew, and the angrier her texts became (essentially punishing Stacy for rejecting her). What might have made you more vulnerable to the problem behavior? People struggle with certain situations for various reasons, such as internal feelings or beliefs, past experiences, or certain aspects of their situation. Example: Nancy knew that being cheated on in her previous relationship left her distrustful, even though Stacy never gave her reason to suspect infidelity. She also realized that she had been planning a quiet evening home together, which made this situation more difficult. What are some ways that you could address similar situations differently, getting what you really want? Think about each step along the way, considering how you might have responded differently. Example: After Nancy calmed down, she thought about how what she really wanted was to know that she was important to Stacy and that Stacy would remain faithful. She talked with Stacy about this, and they agreed to communicate better about plans. Also, Nancy agreed to communicate her struggles more clearly at the time so that Stacy could reassure her. Completing a functional analysis takes effort. If you find that you are unable to gain clarity on why you repeat certain behaviors or you cannot make changes, you might want to ask someone you trust to help. Or, you might want to seek out therapy. However you do it, increasing your awareness of the function of your behavior is an important step toward choosing a healthier path.	712	ENGLISH	1
The history of Wisconsin changed a lot from 19th century to present day, especially the economy. The main reason why it has changed is the technology. Technology keeps on changing and becoming more advanced. Another reason why the economy isn't booming and times are really tough, economy always has its ups and downs. Economics first started off way back in the 19th century, and basically started in 1830 when it was open for white settlement and this doesn't include the Native Americans. This was 18 years before Wisconsin actually became a state. The only thing for economy back then was agriculture, and was mainly wheat. This was soon to be a booming economy. In the 1800's mining also became a good contributor to the economy. Mining and agriculture was the only two big things that contributed to the economy at the time. Mining was really big at the time, this is the reason we have a miner on our Wisconsin flag. Mining continued to become a good contributor to the economy for years on. On May 29, 1848 Wisconsin became the nation's 30th state. At this time our economy in Wisconsin was booming from Wisconsin becoming a state. During this time, papermaking began in Wisconsin, and started in Milwaukee. Paper mills were opening up, and this also helped boost Wisconsin's economy during this time. Things seemed to be getting better financially during this time. During the 19th century a lot came about and was invented. The biggest invention in this time was the railroad tracks and the steam engine train. This was open and started to be used in 1851, and started building in 1847. This was a huge deal for transportation from city to city; this was the only transportation that was actually quick and easy. Could you imagine relying on the steam engine train these days? I don't think anyone would have enough patience for it. Wisconsin economy has changed a lot in just one century. Help make the economy better in not only Wisconsin, but other states in the United States of America as well. You can most definitely make a difference. Now that we are living in the 21st century, things have really changed. Our economy has gone downhill even more and it isn't just in Wisconsin. It has changed for the worse all throughout the US. It is hard to find a job and it feels as though as the financial collapse is coming soon. With the value of the paper dollar decreasing everyday, it feels as though the financial collapse could be any day now. It is up to us as Americans and as team effort to make this country more stable.	<urn:uuid:77d9d970-8caa-4212-8667-41fcc1629b09>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.infobarrel.com/Wisconsin's_Economy	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00178.warc.gz	en	0.991539	517	3.328125	3	[ -0.40442705154418945, -0.11113953590393066, 0.26214200258255005, 0.1907326579093933, 0.03576499968767166, 0.14436973631381989, -0.25335782766342163, 0.17272181808948517, -0.3488976061344147, -0.3511744737625122, 0.21771186590194702, 0.3749658465385437, 0.015887577086687088, 0.2123930305242...	5	The history of Wisconsin changed a lot from 19th century to present day, especially the economy. The main reason why it has changed is the technology. Technology keeps on changing and becoming more advanced. Another reason why the economy isn't booming and times are really tough, economy always has its ups and downs. Economics first started off way back in the 19th century, and basically started in 1830 when it was open for white settlement and this doesn't include the Native Americans. This was 18 years before Wisconsin actually became a state. The only thing for economy back then was agriculture, and was mainly wheat. This was soon to be a booming economy. In the 1800's mining also became a good contributor to the economy. Mining and agriculture was the only two big things that contributed to the economy at the time. Mining was really big at the time, this is the reason we have a miner on our Wisconsin flag. Mining continued to become a good contributor to the economy for years on. On May 29, 1848 Wisconsin became the nation's 30th state. At this time our economy in Wisconsin was booming from Wisconsin becoming a state. During this time, papermaking began in Wisconsin, and started in Milwaukee. Paper mills were opening up, and this also helped boost Wisconsin's economy during this time. Things seemed to be getting better financially during this time. During the 19th century a lot came about and was invented. The biggest invention in this time was the railroad tracks and the steam engine train. This was open and started to be used in 1851, and started building in 1847. This was a huge deal for transportation from city to city; this was the only transportation that was actually quick and easy. Could you imagine relying on the steam engine train these days? I don't think anyone would have enough patience for it. Wisconsin economy has changed a lot in just one century. Help make the economy better in not only Wisconsin, but other states in the United States of America as well. You can most definitely make a difference. Now that we are living in the 21st century, things have really changed. Our economy has gone downhill even more and it isn't just in Wisconsin. It has changed for the worse all throughout the US. It is hard to find a job and it feels as though as the financial collapse is coming soon. With the value of the paper dollar decreasing everyday, it feels as though the financial collapse could be any day now. It is up to us as Americans and as team effort to make this country more stable.	543	ENGLISH	1
There must be a reason why the Viking warriors still have their names known in modern times. Many claimed that the Vikings were savage to their victims, pillaging, raping, rading, etc. But the truth was, if they had not become savage, they would have died. Medieval society was never like our modern time. This blog post will discuss 4 out of 8 major qualities for a Viking warrior. The Viking warriors were courageous. Courage was one of the most important points for anyone to become a warrior. Courageous people could be described as those individuals who really believed in themselves. Viking army warriors usually knew exactly what they stood up for as well as who they really were. The Vikings also worshipped Thor God of thunder and storm who was famous for his courage. This was believed to make up the trait of courage for the Vikings. The Vikings were ambitious. Extremely ambitious for something bigger and better. They dreamt of new land and they set out to find new land. The Vikings did not agree to stay in their ancestral land only. The Vikings always looked beyond their boundaries. They never lived in their comfort zone. Maybe they truly knew that their life would begin when they stepped out of their comfort zone. Keeping themselves ambitious for what they wanted, they made their names be heard around the cosmos. Viking ships brought the Viking beyond their boundaries It was true that the Vikings could sacrifice their life for their faith, quite like a martyr. But it didn’t mean that the Vikings wanted their death to be in vain. The Vikings treasured their life a lot. Many literal sources suggested this opinion. For example, in Havamal stanza 71 said that: The lame can ride horse, the handless drive cattle, the deaf one can fight and prevail, ’tis happier for the blind than for him on the bale-fire, but no man hath care for a corpse. The stanza above suggested that those with physical disabilities had a chance to make something remarkable in life. But no one would care about the deceased ones if their life had nothing to write about. This showed the Viking tradition of treasuring their life. Every time they could take a breath, they felt grateful for that. This was a common thing in the Viking community. To their enemies, they were savage, sparing them no lives. But to their brothers, they could even sacrifice their life for the good of their best brothers. The concept of brothers in the Vikings and in any military army did not have to do with the blood. If they treated each other good, they became brothers. Brotherhood was not by blood, but by bonds.	<urn:uuid:ecd455f6-8df9-438e-864c-54ff9172ee33>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://stirshitupshow.com/about-vikings/8-qualities-of-a-viking-warrior-part-1/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00503.warc.gz	en	0.986172	546	3.34375	3	[ -0.4230838418006897, 0.47539466619491577, -0.10962178558111191, -0.04185166954994202, -0.13434481620788574, 0.16009436547756195, 0.12122517824172974, 0.29676663875579834, 0.2259749472141266, -0.26426252722740173, 0.3160858750343323, -0.1767619252204895, 0.22566565871238708, -0.097071334719...	1	There must be a reason why the Viking warriors still have their names known in modern times. Many claimed that the Vikings were savage to their victims, pillaging, raping, rading, etc. But the truth was, if they had not become savage, they would have died. Medieval society was never like our modern time. This blog post will discuss 4 out of 8 major qualities for a Viking warrior. The Viking warriors were courageous. Courage was one of the most important points for anyone to become a warrior. Courageous people could be described as those individuals who really believed in themselves. Viking army warriors usually knew exactly what they stood up for as well as who they really were. The Vikings also worshipped Thor God of thunder and storm who was famous for his courage. This was believed to make up the trait of courage for the Vikings. The Vikings were ambitious. Extremely ambitious for something bigger and better. They dreamt of new land and they set out to find new land. The Vikings did not agree to stay in their ancestral land only. The Vikings always looked beyond their boundaries. They never lived in their comfort zone. Maybe they truly knew that their life would begin when they stepped out of their comfort zone. Keeping themselves ambitious for what they wanted, they made their names be heard around the cosmos. Viking ships brought the Viking beyond their boundaries It was true that the Vikings could sacrifice their life for their faith, quite like a martyr. But it didn’t mean that the Vikings wanted their death to be in vain. The Vikings treasured their life a lot. Many literal sources suggested this opinion. For example, in Havamal stanza 71 said that: The lame can ride horse, the handless drive cattle, the deaf one can fight and prevail, ’tis happier for the blind than for him on the bale-fire, but no man hath care for a corpse. The stanza above suggested that those with physical disabilities had a chance to make something remarkable in life. But no one would care about the deceased ones if their life had nothing to write about. This showed the Viking tradition of treasuring their life. Every time they could take a breath, they felt grateful for that. This was a common thing in the Viking community. To their enemies, they were savage, sparing them no lives. But to their brothers, they could even sacrifice their life for the good of their best brothers. The concept of brothers in the Vikings and in any military army did not have to do with the blood. If they treated each other good, they became brothers. Brotherhood was not by blood, but by bonds.	529	ENGLISH	1
Yoga is a mystifying tradition from India. It involves physical poses (asanas), breathing exercises (pranayama), philosophy and forms of meditation, which are not only used to reach transcendent states of awareness, but to take care of one’s body and health as well. It holds a special place in the heart and culture of India and is a manifestation of Indian history and beliefs. Unfortunately, the development of yoga began over 5,000 years ago (possibly longer) and much of it’s early history was lost due to oral transmission and the poor writing mechanisms available at the time. Despite it’s early history being shrouded in mystery, there is still much we can learn about this ancient practice. The history of yoga is often sectioned into four periods, pre-classical, classical, post-classical, and modern. The earliest mention of Yoga is found in an ancient religious text, the Rig Veda. The Vedas were a collection of religious texts, including songs, mantras, and rituals, to be used by Brahmans, who were local priests of the time. Over time, yoga was developed even further and the Brahmans and seers who were using these practices wrote a further composition known as the Upanishads. The Upanishads contained over 200 various scriptures and further refined the original practices and rituals from the Vedas. The most well-known Yogic text from this time is probably the Bhagavad-Gîtâ, written around 500 B.C, and remains widely read today. It was through these later texts that the practices of awareness, karma, and wisdom were developed. The pre-classical period was fragmented in nature and consisted of a wide variety of ideas, beliefs, and practices. The people of India were relatively tribal at this time and it was difficult to form any unified systems. The classical period is where Patanjali released his famous sutras which described the ‘eight-limbed path’, which contained direct steps to obtaining enlightenment. This was the first time yogic traditions were formed into a formal system. The yogic traditions of Patanjali consider to have a mesmerizing hold upon yoga and continues to shape it’s formation even in modern times. Several hundred years later, we reach the post-classical period of Yoga. Many practitioners of this time began to reject Vedic traditions. They became more concerned with fueling the body, and remaining in good health. It was around this time that Tantra Yoga was developed. Tantra Yoga incorporated many unique practices to cleanse the body and mind. It was believed that the body was a tool in and of itself, and could be used to further one’s development along the path to samadhi. This deep connection between body and mind led to Hatha Yoga, which is one of the more popular forms still practiced today, particularly in the West. Yoga began to travel to the West between the late 1800s and the early 1900s. Yogis began traveling to Europe and America to give talks and introduce people to their culture and way of life. A notable example is when Swami Vivekananda gave talks in 1893 at the Parliament of Religions in Chicago. Other prominent figures such as Swami Sivananda and T. Krishnamacharya also began promoting Hatha Yoga around this time. Sivananda wrote extensively on Yoga and his books formed much of the foundation for modern yoga. In 1924 Krishnamacharya opened the first Hatha Yoga school in Mysore. Some of his students included B.K.S. Iyengar, Pattabhi Jois, and T.K.V. Desikachar. The development of yoga in the West grew slowly until 1947 when Indra Devi opened a yoga studio in Hollywood. Since then, yoga became quite popular and has remained so since.	<urn:uuid:ad2f4dee-2c74-4a49-91e3-5c258f3c87da>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://culture-exchange.blog/history-of-yoga/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00435.warc.gz	en	0.982307	799	3.328125	3	[ 0.16861236095428467, -0.11237160861492157, 0.19886121153831482, -0.05869424343109131, -0.3291400074958801, 0.04334618151187897, 0.2475873827934265, -0.19359132647514343, 0.45574891567230225, -0.0036923487205058336, -0.1496402770280838, -0.16215673089027405, -0.006873969454318285, 0.5593421...	12	Yoga is a mystifying tradition from India. It involves physical poses (asanas), breathing exercises (pranayama), philosophy and forms of meditation, which are not only used to reach transcendent states of awareness, but to take care of one’s body and health as well. It holds a special place in the heart and culture of India and is a manifestation of Indian history and beliefs. Unfortunately, the development of yoga began over 5,000 years ago (possibly longer) and much of it’s early history was lost due to oral transmission and the poor writing mechanisms available at the time. Despite it’s early history being shrouded in mystery, there is still much we can learn about this ancient practice. The history of yoga is often sectioned into four periods, pre-classical, classical, post-classical, and modern. The earliest mention of Yoga is found in an ancient religious text, the Rig Veda. The Vedas were a collection of religious texts, including songs, mantras, and rituals, to be used by Brahmans, who were local priests of the time. Over time, yoga was developed even further and the Brahmans and seers who were using these practices wrote a further composition known as the Upanishads. The Upanishads contained over 200 various scriptures and further refined the original practices and rituals from the Vedas. The most well-known Yogic text from this time is probably the Bhagavad-Gîtâ, written around 500 B.C, and remains widely read today. It was through these later texts that the practices of awareness, karma, and wisdom were developed. The pre-classical period was fragmented in nature and consisted of a wide variety of ideas, beliefs, and practices. The people of India were relatively tribal at this time and it was difficult to form any unified systems. The classical period is where Patanjali released his famous sutras which described the ‘eight-limbed path’, which contained direct steps to obtaining enlightenment. This was the first time yogic traditions were formed into a formal system. The yogic traditions of Patanjali consider to have a mesmerizing hold upon yoga and continues to shape it’s formation even in modern times. Several hundred years later, we reach the post-classical period of Yoga. Many practitioners of this time began to reject Vedic traditions. They became more concerned with fueling the body, and remaining in good health. It was around this time that Tantra Yoga was developed. Tantra Yoga incorporated many unique practices to cleanse the body and mind. It was believed that the body was a tool in and of itself, and could be used to further one’s development along the path to samadhi. This deep connection between body and mind led to Hatha Yoga, which is one of the more popular forms still practiced today, particularly in the West. Yoga began to travel to the West between the late 1800s and the early 1900s. Yogis began traveling to Europe and America to give talks and introduce people to their culture and way of life. A notable example is when Swami Vivekananda gave talks in 1893 at the Parliament of Religions in Chicago. Other prominent figures such as Swami Sivananda and T. Krishnamacharya also began promoting Hatha Yoga around this time. Sivananda wrote extensively on Yoga and his books formed much of the foundation for modern yoga. In 1924 Krishnamacharya opened the first Hatha Yoga school in Mysore. Some of his students included B.K.S. Iyengar, Pattabhi Jois, and T.K.V. Desikachar. The development of yoga in the West grew slowly until 1947 when Indra Devi opened a yoga studio in Hollywood. Since then, yoga became quite popular and has remained so since.	799	ENGLISH	1
The building of defense walls in Olsztynek was started after 1414, after the so-called the Hunger War, when the Polish army seriously destroyed the town and its surroundings. The last time their proper condition was noticed, was during the Thirteen Years War in the second half of the fifteenth century. In the 17th century, the entire town was severely damaged by the Swedish wars. The devastated the town walls were no longer an effective defense against cannonballs. After a fire in 1685, the towers were adapted to houses. As a result of another fire in 1804, the German Gate located near the castle was destroyed, and the subsequent years of the 19th century caused further damages to the town’s fortifications, which were treated as an easily available source of building materials. The moat surrounding the town was filled up and turned into gardens. The line of fortifications ran along an irregular rectangle. The length of the entire wall was about 1000 meters, the height reached 9 meters, and the thickness at the widest point at the base was up to 2 meters. A fieldstone was used to build the foundations, while the upper parts of the walls were erected with a brick. Although the upper fragments of the walls have not survived to our times, it can be assumed that they were crowned with a sidewalk and battlement made of bricks. The defensive wall was strengthen with half towers, opened from the side of the town, which were all together 13. South East section had a round, corner tower and six half towers, open from the town, spread every 20-30 meters. There were three half towers in the south-west and there were five half towers in the northwest section. In the north-east, apart from the castle gate and fortifications, there was not a single tower. Two gates led to the cities: High, also known as the German, next to the castle and Nidzicka, called Poland in the southern part of the walls. Outside the walls there was already unreadable moat, fed by the water of the Jemiołówka river. To this day, the defensive walls in Olsztynek have survived on a large part of the original perimeter, unfortunately in a heavily reduced form. Town gates have not survived. Of towers in the best condition is the so-called Mrongowiusz’s house, that is a half tower, transformed into a parish. Czubiel L., Domagała T., Zabytkowe ośrodki miejskie Warmii i Mazur, Olsztyn 1969. Website zabytek.pl, Miejskie mury obronne Olsztynek.	<urn:uuid:64d2df89-7d7d-4ae9-995d-79bcb8edb457>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://medievalheritage.eu/en/main-page/heritage/poland/olsztynek-city-defensive-walls/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00514.warc.gz	en	0.984236	565	3.859375	4	[ -0.12238834798336029, 0.3960668444633484, 0.4463956654071808, 0.3366703689098358, -0.03881622850894928, -0.28539082407951355, -0.09471601247787476, 0.2666385769844055, -0.5285546183586121, -0.2096678763628006, -0.33307522535324097, -0.6254905462265015, -0.09598128497600555, 0.2511180937290...	10	The building of defense walls in Olsztynek was started after 1414, after the so-called the Hunger War, when the Polish army seriously destroyed the town and its surroundings. The last time their proper condition was noticed, was during the Thirteen Years War in the second half of the fifteenth century. In the 17th century, the entire town was severely damaged by the Swedish wars. The devastated the town walls were no longer an effective defense against cannonballs. After a fire in 1685, the towers were adapted to houses. As a result of another fire in 1804, the German Gate located near the castle was destroyed, and the subsequent years of the 19th century caused further damages to the town’s fortifications, which were treated as an easily available source of building materials. The moat surrounding the town was filled up and turned into gardens. The line of fortifications ran along an irregular rectangle. The length of the entire wall was about 1000 meters, the height reached 9 meters, and the thickness at the widest point at the base was up to 2 meters. A fieldstone was used to build the foundations, while the upper parts of the walls were erected with a brick. Although the upper fragments of the walls have not survived to our times, it can be assumed that they were crowned with a sidewalk and battlement made of bricks. The defensive wall was strengthen with half towers, opened from the side of the town, which were all together 13. South East section had a round, corner tower and six half towers, open from the town, spread every 20-30 meters. There were three half towers in the south-west and there were five half towers in the northwest section. In the north-east, apart from the castle gate and fortifications, there was not a single tower. Two gates led to the cities: High, also known as the German, next to the castle and Nidzicka, called Poland in the southern part of the walls. Outside the walls there was already unreadable moat, fed by the water of the Jemiołówka river. To this day, the defensive walls in Olsztynek have survived on a large part of the original perimeter, unfortunately in a heavily reduced form. Town gates have not survived. Of towers in the best condition is the so-called Mrongowiusz’s house, that is a half tower, transformed into a parish. Czubiel L., Domagała T., Zabytkowe ośrodki miejskie Warmii i Mazur, Olsztyn 1969. Website zabytek.pl, Miejskie mury obronne Olsztynek.	570	ENGLISH	1
Look! Up in the air! It's a bird! It's a plane! No, it's a pterosaur! A what? When we think of prehistoric flying things, it's usually the more well-known feathered dinosaurs, such as archeopteryx, that we conjure in our minds. But the pterosaur, which reached unbelievable sizes and was related more closely to lizards, enjoyed remarkable success at life up in the air, where it monitored the heavens and chased ancient insects for eons. The pterosaur is the subject of Flying Monsters, a new 3-D IMAX film opening today in the Denver Museum of Nature and Science's IMAX theater. To learn a little more about Pterosaurs, we talked with Joe Sertich, a curator at the museum, who knows a lot about the big guys and thinks Flying Monsters is a pretty good introduction. Here's what he had to say, right after the coming attractions. Westword: Tell us a little about the pterosaur. Why isn't it that well-known? Joe Sertich: It's often mistaken as a dinosaur, and they're closely related, but basically it was the first reptile to begin flying. Insects went into air, and at first, there was nothing there to to eat them. There was all this food flying through the air, and lizards and reptiles were the first to go into the air after them. Pterosaurs are the innovators, the first things to go to the air and take advantage of that different kind of ecosystem. They didn't have feathers -- they actually used wing membranes, like bats have, to fly. Eventually, they became huge. Some were the size of an airplane. Why were they so big? They started out small. The first ones were the size of sparrows or ravens. The largest lizard on the ground was about the size of a giraffe, but once they took to the air and had to compete with birds, they had to find something else to do -- by becoming big, they were reinventing themselves, and that was the best way for them to to continue forward. How long were they around? And what was their range? They pretty much appeared around the same time the first dinosaurs appeared, about 220 million years ago, and they lived until about the same times the dinosaurs went extinct. They were just as successful as dinosaurs, yet they've been overlooked. They had a global range. Remains have been found in Africa, Madagasacar, North America -- many, many places. It looks like they were a fairly active group like dinosaurs and birds. They grew quickly, and were potentially warmblooded. Why don't we hear about the pterosaur more? They are really rare. Like a bird today, the had bones that were very hollow and delicate. These guys had bones that were even more delicate than bird bones - some as thin as a sheet of paper. In a normal setting where bones are buried, the pterosaur fossils don't survive easily. On the other hand, some have been found with incredible preservation, even a bit of fuzz or fur still intact. Why should people come see this movie? Did you like it? We Believe Local Journalism is Critical to the Life of a City Engaging with our readers is essential to Westword's mission. Make a financial contribution or sign up for a newsletter, and help us keep telling Denver's stories with no paywalls. Support Our Journalism It's one of the better dinosaur/paleontology movies I've seen in a long time. The pterosaurs, especially in flight, are very well done -- its a lot like Avatar. But it also mixes in a lot of good information. It really is cool. I think some IMAX movies are kind of hokey. Some of the ones about dinosaurs seem to be made just so they can show one running around and eating another. To keep up with the Froyd's-eye-view of arts and culture in Denver, "like" my fan page on Facebook.	<urn:uuid:be0adab1-ade9-48a5-966f-b04a872a6b6c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.westword.com/arts/flying-monsters-looms-large-at-the-imax-3-d-theater-a-qanda-with-dmns-curator-joe-sertich-5816499	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00254.warc.gz	en	0.987047	856	3.453125	3	[ 0.18759921193122864, -0.0019431844120845199, 0.13439442217350006, 0.015986017882823944, -0.508135199546814, 0.14065180718898773, 0.22431685030460358, 0.5373378992080688, -0.26648813486099243, 0.06976190954446793, -0.09942910075187683, -0.3222978711128235, 0.20815832912921906, 0.25905716419...	1	Look! Up in the air! It's a bird! It's a plane! No, it's a pterosaur! A what? When we think of prehistoric flying things, it's usually the more well-known feathered dinosaurs, such as archeopteryx, that we conjure in our minds. But the pterosaur, which reached unbelievable sizes and was related more closely to lizards, enjoyed remarkable success at life up in the air, where it monitored the heavens and chased ancient insects for eons. The pterosaur is the subject of Flying Monsters, a new 3-D IMAX film opening today in the Denver Museum of Nature and Science's IMAX theater. To learn a little more about Pterosaurs, we talked with Joe Sertich, a curator at the museum, who knows a lot about the big guys and thinks Flying Monsters is a pretty good introduction. Here's what he had to say, right after the coming attractions. Westword: Tell us a little about the pterosaur. Why isn't it that well-known? Joe Sertich: It's often mistaken as a dinosaur, and they're closely related, but basically it was the first reptile to begin flying. Insects went into air, and at first, there was nothing there to to eat them. There was all this food flying through the air, and lizards and reptiles were the first to go into the air after them. Pterosaurs are the innovators, the first things to go to the air and take advantage of that different kind of ecosystem. They didn't have feathers -- they actually used wing membranes, like bats have, to fly. Eventually, they became huge. Some were the size of an airplane. Why were they so big? They started out small. The first ones were the size of sparrows or ravens. The largest lizard on the ground was about the size of a giraffe, but once they took to the air and had to compete with birds, they had to find something else to do -- by becoming big, they were reinventing themselves, and that was the best way for them to to continue forward. How long were they around? And what was their range? They pretty much appeared around the same time the first dinosaurs appeared, about 220 million years ago, and they lived until about the same times the dinosaurs went extinct. They were just as successful as dinosaurs, yet they've been overlooked. They had a global range. Remains have been found in Africa, Madagasacar, North America -- many, many places. It looks like they were a fairly active group like dinosaurs and birds. They grew quickly, and were potentially warmblooded. Why don't we hear about the pterosaur more? They are really rare. Like a bird today, the had bones that were very hollow and delicate. These guys had bones that were even more delicate than bird bones - some as thin as a sheet of paper. In a normal setting where bones are buried, the pterosaur fossils don't survive easily. On the other hand, some have been found with incredible preservation, even a bit of fuzz or fur still intact. Why should people come see this movie? Did you like it? We Believe Local Journalism is Critical to the Life of a City Engaging with our readers is essential to Westword's mission. Make a financial contribution or sign up for a newsletter, and help us keep telling Denver's stories with no paywalls. Support Our Journalism It's one of the better dinosaur/paleontology movies I've seen in a long time. The pterosaurs, especially in flight, are very well done -- its a lot like Avatar. But it also mixes in a lot of good information. It really is cool. I think some IMAX movies are kind of hokey. Some of the ones about dinosaurs seem to be made just so they can show one running around and eating another. To keep up with the Froyd's-eye-view of arts and culture in Denver, "like" my fan page on Facebook.	831	ENGLISH	1
Sherlock Inghram was two months shy of his 18th birthday when he pledged his service to King George V and enlist as a member of the Canadian Expeditionary Force in the First World War. The 17-year-old from Rock Creek signed up to join with his father, Barton (Bart), in the Canadian Forestry Corps on May 11, 1917. On his own registration documents signed the same day, Bart indicated that his son was already 18. So, soon after completing his medical evaluation — five-foot nine-inches, 145 pounds, fair skin, blue eyes like his father and “distinguishing marks or scars: nil” — the underage private boarded a boat in Halifax and stepped onto a Liverpool dock on July 4, one day after he turned 18. The Inghrams were two among thousands of much-needed Canadians who served in the forests of Europe in the First World War. By 1916, Great Britain was quickly burning through its timber supply and sourcing 70 per cent of its lumber from Canada was becoming increasingly unsustainable. Cargo space was nonexistent onboard transport vessels that were busy dodging German U-boat attacks on the trans-Atlantic journey.	<urn:uuid:d4e4cc92-39fa-4816-8110-a698a0577663>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://forestindustry.com/2019/11/06/cutting-down-the-kaiser-how-canadian-lumberjacks-helped-win-the-first-world-war/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00048.warc.gz	en	0.987536	236	3.265625	3	[ -0.2146577090024948, 0.5144330263137817, 0.4861798882484436, -0.33562418818473816, -0.3258207142353058, -0.518024206161499, 0.010343462228775024, 0.12508727610111237, -0.2942954897880554, 0.15880858898162842, 0.2513030171394348, -0.4685503840446472, -0.1383546143770218, 0.4171096086502075,...	7	Sherlock Inghram was two months shy of his 18th birthday when he pledged his service to King George V and enlist as a member of the Canadian Expeditionary Force in the First World War. The 17-year-old from Rock Creek signed up to join with his father, Barton (Bart), in the Canadian Forestry Corps on May 11, 1917. On his own registration documents signed the same day, Bart indicated that his son was already 18. So, soon after completing his medical evaluation — five-foot nine-inches, 145 pounds, fair skin, blue eyes like his father and “distinguishing marks or scars: nil” — the underage private boarded a boat in Halifax and stepped onto a Liverpool dock on July 4, one day after he turned 18. The Inghrams were two among thousands of much-needed Canadians who served in the forests of Europe in the First World War. By 1916, Great Britain was quickly burning through its timber supply and sourcing 70 per cent of its lumber from Canada was becoming increasingly unsustainable. Cargo space was nonexistent onboard transport vessels that were busy dodging German U-boat attacks on the trans-Atlantic journey.	254	ENGLISH	1
Historically, federal income taxes in the Unites States have seen tax rates as high as 94%. Between 1944 and 1963, marginal taxes for top salaries (over $200,000) were around 91% – 94%. This is a huge difference compared to today with rates as low as 37% for top incomes over $500,000. Marginal income tax rates have decreased from 91% in 1963 to 35% during the George W. Bush administration. This has led to an increase in economic inequality in the US from the 1980s. When did taxation start in the United States? The first attempt to tax income in the United States was in 1643 when several colonies instituted a “faculties and abilities” tax. Tax collectors would literally go door to door and ask if the individual had income during the year. If so, the tax was computed on the spot. The income tax raised little revenue, and was viewed as a supplement to more traditional forms of property taxation. (source: Wikipedia) Taxation in the United States began during the colonial period. This led to protests that later caused the American Revolution. The government was funded through tariffs on imported goods. Local authorities were responsible for collecting property taxes on land and buildings and also poll taxes from voters. Later, federal inheritance taxes were introduced in 1900, while the income taxes were introduced during the Civil War in the 1890s. The 16th Amendment was ratified in 1913, which made income tax legal. Taxes during the Colonial Period During the colonial period, taxes were significantly low at local, colonial and imperial levels. However, a revolution arose due to the question of whether it was fair for the Americans to pay taxes while they were not represented in parliament. Between 1944 and 1963, marginal taxes for top salaries (over $200,000) were around 91% – 94%. Development of the Modern Income Tax In 1913, Congress re-adopted the income tax in 1913 at a rate of 1% on incomes above $3,000 while income above $500,000 was taxed 6%. However, in 1918, income tax was increased to 77% for all incomes above $1,000,000. The increase in tax was to raise money to finance World War I. Later in 1922, the marginal taxes fell to 58% and 25% in 1925 and later to 24% in 1929. It was a significant decrease from the tax that was during World War I. Nevertheless, during the Great Depression in 1932, taxes were raised again to 63% and was later followed by a series of increase in income tax. During World War II, Congress introduced quarterly taxation to achieve equality and not to generate revenue. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was proposing a 100% income tax on all incomes above $25,000, but Congress failed to pass the proposed bill. Instead Roosevelt introduced a salary cap to achieve similar results on all contracts between the private sector and the federal government. Between 1944 and 1963, marginal taxes for top salaries (over $200,000) were around 91% – 94%. Since 1964 marginal taxes began to drop Since 1964, marginal taxes for top salaries began to drop, wherein 1964 they dropped to 77% and 70% in 1965 an up to 1981. Due to inflation, taxes were adjusted in 1978 so that only the rich were taxed highly. From 1982 to 1986, the tax rate was lowered to 50%. President Ronald Reagan raised gas and payroll taxes in 1984 and closed all loopholes for the businesses. Later, the tax rate was reduced, with the highest marginal tax rate being 38.5% for individuals in 1987. It was then lowered to 28% between 1988 and 1990. During the reign of George H. W. Bush, the tax was raised to 31% between 1991 and 1992. In 1993, Clinton’s administration proposed an increase in tax marginal rate to 39.6%. The rate lasted up to 2000. However, President George W. Bush lowered the marginal rate to 39.1% in 2001, 38.6% in 2002 and 35% in 2003 up to 2010. In 2010, Congress passed the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Re-authorization and Job Creation Act and was signed by President Barrack Obama on December 17, 2010. This saw an increment in the tax bracket and then later, inflation made people fall into tax brackets that belonged to the rich until they were later adjusted because of inflation. People earning the lowest incomes are exempted from taxation while they receive subsidies from the federal government. How has Reduction in Income Tax Led to Inequality? Tax is one of the ways used by the government to create equality in society. Since 1964, there have been radical changes in income taxes both under the Republican and the Democratic governments. Since the administration of Johnson, marginal income tax rates have decreased from 91% in 1963 to 35% during the George W. Bush administration. It has led to an increase in economic inequality in the US from the 1980s. Some of the items that lead to inequality in the society are tax expenditures that include deductions, exemptions and preferential tax rates. For example, the 2011 Congressional Research Service report showed that capital gains and dividends were significant contributors to economic inequality. There is a negative correlation between economic inequality and economic growth. Societies with a high proportion of citizens with none to little access to resources in the economy, may call for demands in redistribution. Besides, high levels of unemployment may lead to adverse effects on inequality. Increased inequalities have a significant impact on economic growth, especially in countries with a high level of urbanization. It adds pressure to unemployment, which then adversely affects economic growth due to high demand in the redistribution of resources. Moreover, it strains human capital and drives people into more poverty, conflicts and unrest in a country. Therefore, long term solutions to economic growth are to reduce economic inequalities and controlled unemployment. High-income tax ensures that those with few resources benefit from what the rich have accumulated when wealth is redistributed. It provides that the society is intact since there is the redistribution of wealth. Vincent is a Kenyan writer with an interest in finance, business, technology and health niche. He holds a Bachelors degree in Applied Statistics with computing from the University of Eldoret.	<urn:uuid:dbd6b4e5-ba50-4598-b50c-c06e45163dbe>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://fififinance.com/us/historical-income-tax-us	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00410.warc.gz	en	0.980808	1,269	3.6875	4	[ -0.7045759558677673, 0.002887205220758915, 0.13207590579986572, -0.12278199940919876, 0.14966407418251038, 0.5913894772529602, -0.26325541734695435, 0.2872278094291687, 0.027875715866684914, 0.3521652817726135, 0.47998204827308655, 0.32889848947525024, -0.21903082728385925, 0.4703390598297...	1	Historically, federal income taxes in the Unites States have seen tax rates as high as 94%. Between 1944 and 1963, marginal taxes for top salaries (over $200,000) were around 91% – 94%. This is a huge difference compared to today with rates as low as 37% for top incomes over $500,000. Marginal income tax rates have decreased from 91% in 1963 to 35% during the George W. Bush administration. This has led to an increase in economic inequality in the US from the 1980s. When did taxation start in the United States? The first attempt to tax income in the United States was in 1643 when several colonies instituted a “faculties and abilities” tax. Tax collectors would literally go door to door and ask if the individual had income during the year. If so, the tax was computed on the spot. The income tax raised little revenue, and was viewed as a supplement to more traditional forms of property taxation. (source: Wikipedia) Taxation in the United States began during the colonial period. This led to protests that later caused the American Revolution. The government was funded through tariffs on imported goods. Local authorities were responsible for collecting property taxes on land and buildings and also poll taxes from voters. Later, federal inheritance taxes were introduced in 1900, while the income taxes were introduced during the Civil War in the 1890s. The 16th Amendment was ratified in 1913, which made income tax legal. Taxes during the Colonial Period During the colonial period, taxes were significantly low at local, colonial and imperial levels. However, a revolution arose due to the question of whether it was fair for the Americans to pay taxes while they were not represented in parliament. Between 1944 and 1963, marginal taxes for top salaries (over $200,000) were around 91% – 94%. Development of the Modern Income Tax In 1913, Congress re-adopted the income tax in 1913 at a rate of 1% on incomes above $3,000 while income above $500,000 was taxed 6%. However, in 1918, income tax was increased to 77% for all incomes above $1,000,000. The increase in tax was to raise money to finance World War I. Later in 1922, the marginal taxes fell to 58% and 25% in 1925 and later to 24% in 1929. It was a significant decrease from the tax that was during World War I. Nevertheless, during the Great Depression in 1932, taxes were raised again to 63% and was later followed by a series of increase in income tax. During World War II, Congress introduced quarterly taxation to achieve equality and not to generate revenue. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was proposing a 100% income tax on all incomes above $25,000, but Congress failed to pass the proposed bill. Instead Roosevelt introduced a salary cap to achieve similar results on all contracts between the private sector and the federal government. Between 1944 and 1963, marginal taxes for top salaries (over $200,000) were around 91% – 94%. Since 1964 marginal taxes began to drop Since 1964, marginal taxes for top salaries began to drop, wherein 1964 they dropped to 77% and 70% in 1965 an up to 1981. Due to inflation, taxes were adjusted in 1978 so that only the rich were taxed highly. From 1982 to 1986, the tax rate was lowered to 50%. President Ronald Reagan raised gas and payroll taxes in 1984 and closed all loopholes for the businesses. Later, the tax rate was reduced, with the highest marginal tax rate being 38.5% for individuals in 1987. It was then lowered to 28% between 1988 and 1990. During the reign of George H. W. Bush, the tax was raised to 31% between 1991 and 1992. In 1993, Clinton’s administration proposed an increase in tax marginal rate to 39.6%. The rate lasted up to 2000. However, President George W. Bush lowered the marginal rate to 39.1% in 2001, 38.6% in 2002 and 35% in 2003 up to 2010. In 2010, Congress passed the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Re-authorization and Job Creation Act and was signed by President Barrack Obama on December 17, 2010. This saw an increment in the tax bracket and then later, inflation made people fall into tax brackets that belonged to the rich until they were later adjusted because of inflation. People earning the lowest incomes are exempted from taxation while they receive subsidies from the federal government. How has Reduction in Income Tax Led to Inequality? Tax is one of the ways used by the government to create equality in society. Since 1964, there have been radical changes in income taxes both under the Republican and the Democratic governments. Since the administration of Johnson, marginal income tax rates have decreased from 91% in 1963 to 35% during the George W. Bush administration. It has led to an increase in economic inequality in the US from the 1980s. Some of the items that lead to inequality in the society are tax expenditures that include deductions, exemptions and preferential tax rates. For example, the 2011 Congressional Research Service report showed that capital gains and dividends were significant contributors to economic inequality. There is a negative correlation between economic inequality and economic growth. Societies with a high proportion of citizens with none to little access to resources in the economy, may call for demands in redistribution. Besides, high levels of unemployment may lead to adverse effects on inequality. Increased inequalities have a significant impact on economic growth, especially in countries with a high level of urbanization. It adds pressure to unemployment, which then adversely affects economic growth due to high demand in the redistribution of resources. Moreover, it strains human capital and drives people into more poverty, conflicts and unrest in a country. Therefore, long term solutions to economic growth are to reduce economic inequalities and controlled unemployment. High-income tax ensures that those with few resources benefit from what the rich have accumulated when wealth is redistributed. It provides that the society is intact since there is the redistribution of wealth. Vincent is a Kenyan writer with an interest in finance, business, technology and health niche. He holds a Bachelors degree in Applied Statistics with computing from the University of Eldoret.	1,521	ENGLISH	1
Drawing inspiration from many sources, be they cultural or even corporate, the figure known today as Santa Claus is a mercurial figure that changes for almost every region he’s in. His clothes, his figure, his behavior, and even his name change from one region to another. He’s associated now with names like Father Christmas, Kris Kringle, and of course Santa Claus. But regardless of what influences he may have mixed with over time, the figure started long ago with a man named Saint Nicholas. Living in the city of Myra in the 4th century AD, in what is now Turkey, Saint Nicholas is the root of many of the stories and traditions that dominate the Christmas season.Having been associated with stories of great generosity and a penchant for secret gift giving, Nicholas was a natural fit for the gift giving season. And, as a Saint, he was also an acceptable figure to associate with the Christian holiday (even if it was originally a pagan holiday instead). However, one question presents itself: How does the Bishop of Myra, far from the Arctic circle, end up on the North Pole of all places? Despite his association with the cold north today, the figure of Saint Nicholas was originally not associated with any specific location. In the earliest days he was, like all saints, essentially a disembodied spirit that performed miraculous acts from beyond the grave. This figure, as such, was generally thought to be essentially “everywhere” and yet nowhere. Gift giving in these earliest days was either not a common occurrence, was a personal affair, or was attributed to other figures such as the Christkind (a cherub-like figure in Europe which became the origin of the name “Kris Kringle”). And Saint Nicholas’ association with the season was both through his feast day (observed in early December) and the generosity he was known for while alive. However this changed as the figure of Saint Nicholas became more heavily associated with the season and gained new names and attributes over time. Soon enough he was associated with gift giving, often traveling with an associate who would punish wicked children while he rewarded the good. Entities such as the Krampus, Belsnickel, and Zwarte Piet came to exist in this time as living entities and Saint Nick became more tangible alongside them. And as he became tangible he finally had a home again according to at least one story – one that was no where near the North Pole. In the Netherlands, joined by a crew of Zwarte Piets, Sinterklaas arrives by steam boat in the early days of December. Originally this boat was to be used to not only bring gifts but also to take kidnapped children back to Sinterklaas’ shop for misbehaving. This was inspired in part by actual historical events in the region, but the result was that the boat was said to come from and return to one place in particular. Should these misbehaving children be kidnapped and loaded onto the boat, they’d soon find themselves in Sinterklaas’ home – Spain. Though this tradition has changed and the Zwarte Piet has become a friendlier (if somewhat controversial) figure, them coming from Spain made sense at the time. Back in the day, these figures were associated with Moors from Spain and the history of Moorish pirates raiding coastal towns for centuries in the past. As such, Santa, traveling with these Moors, apparently came from the same place they did. Though the tradition has changed slightly over time (and is under pressure to change more due to the black makeup involved), the fact that Santa travels into the Netherlands from Spain hasn’t changed in all that time. In fact, no one really saw Santa as coming from the frozen north until the work of an artist named Thomas Nast. Nast was a prolific political cartoonist in the late 1800s and was responsible for creating several iconic figures in American culture. He was responsible for the elephant representing the Republican party, the donkey for the Democrats, and Uncle Sam just to name a few. But another thing he was a great influence on was forming much of the basis for our modern day Santa Claus. Though drawing a great deal of influence from the European depictions, Nast was responsible for contributing much of the details we now associate with Santa Claus – including his home in the North Pole. It was at this time that expeditions to reach the North Pole were being undertaken by explorers and no one had successfully reached the elusive place atop the world. Stories of an inaccessible place constantly covered in snow seemed to be the perfect location for Santa. The figure had long been associated with the winter months and the idea of a “white Christmas” was already quite popular. The North Pole, perpetually covered in snow, seemed like a place where it would always be Christmas and an elusive figure could be kept hidden for all this time. As such, Nast put him there, and the image stuck. But not everyone agrees to put Santa in this neutral territory. Many countries with territory over the Arctic circle claim to be the true home of the jolly fat man. The Danes say that he lives in Greenland and that anyone who thinks differently is under a misunderstanding. After all, according to them, his warehouse is on the North Pole but his actual home is somewhat more south on Greenland. Meanwhile Finland claims him to be in a place called Lapland, where they have literal Santa Claus tours. Even the US and Canada get in on it, with one place in Alaska called “North Pole” capitalizing on it and Canada devoting one of their postal codes to Santa’s workshop – H0H 0H0. But one of the more unique claims I’ve seen is the one made by the Norwegians town of Drøbak. Not satisfied to just claim he currently lives there, the people of Drøbak even say that Santa was actually born there – under a rock in “Vindfangerbukta”. Nevermind that a man named Saint Nicholas actually existed and lived in a place called Myra – someone that viking-like clearly came from Norway. Whatever version of the story you believe in, the idea of Santa in the frozen north started with Nast – who likely never imagined people would start erecting small tourist traps dedicated to the figure just north of the Arctic circle. And, ironically, Saint Nicholas himself, though now forever associated with these quaint, snowy villages… Probably would have frozen his ass off. (I write novels and dabble in screenplays. I too live far from the arctic circle, so this Christmas you may find me on twitter talking about unseasonably warm weather.)	<urn:uuid:db0ad69c-294c-4dbd-8769-3159c5a1e3ec>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://jeremyvarner.com/blog/2017/12/the-many-homes-of-santa/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00464.warc.gz	en	0.982185	1,389	3.28125	3	[ 0.3469822406768799, 0.28812992572784424, 0.5700405836105347, -0.1336691677570343, 0.19100478291511536, -0.3366624116897583, 0.4374326467514038, 0.2695164680480957, 0.04773513972759247, 0.13894478976726532, 0.08156754076480865, 0.0727044939994812, 0.17532315850257874, 0.1790125072002411, ...	7	Drawing inspiration from many sources, be they cultural or even corporate, the figure known today as Santa Claus is a mercurial figure that changes for almost every region he’s in. His clothes, his figure, his behavior, and even his name change from one region to another. He’s associated now with names like Father Christmas, Kris Kringle, and of course Santa Claus. But regardless of what influences he may have mixed with over time, the figure started long ago with a man named Saint Nicholas. Living in the city of Myra in the 4th century AD, in what is now Turkey, Saint Nicholas is the root of many of the stories and traditions that dominate the Christmas season.Having been associated with stories of great generosity and a penchant for secret gift giving, Nicholas was a natural fit for the gift giving season. And, as a Saint, he was also an acceptable figure to associate with the Christian holiday (even if it was originally a pagan holiday instead). However, one question presents itself: How does the Bishop of Myra, far from the Arctic circle, end up on the North Pole of all places? Despite his association with the cold north today, the figure of Saint Nicholas was originally not associated with any specific location. In the earliest days he was, like all saints, essentially a disembodied spirit that performed miraculous acts from beyond the grave. This figure, as such, was generally thought to be essentially “everywhere” and yet nowhere. Gift giving in these earliest days was either not a common occurrence, was a personal affair, or was attributed to other figures such as the Christkind (a cherub-like figure in Europe which became the origin of the name “Kris Kringle”). And Saint Nicholas’ association with the season was both through his feast day (observed in early December) and the generosity he was known for while alive. However this changed as the figure of Saint Nicholas became more heavily associated with the season and gained new names and attributes over time. Soon enough he was associated with gift giving, often traveling with an associate who would punish wicked children while he rewarded the good. Entities such as the Krampus, Belsnickel, and Zwarte Piet came to exist in this time as living entities and Saint Nick became more tangible alongside them. And as he became tangible he finally had a home again according to at least one story – one that was no where near the North Pole. In the Netherlands, joined by a crew of Zwarte Piets, Sinterklaas arrives by steam boat in the early days of December. Originally this boat was to be used to not only bring gifts but also to take kidnapped children back to Sinterklaas’ shop for misbehaving. This was inspired in part by actual historical events in the region, but the result was that the boat was said to come from and return to one place in particular. Should these misbehaving children be kidnapped and loaded onto the boat, they’d soon find themselves in Sinterklaas’ home – Spain. Though this tradition has changed and the Zwarte Piet has become a friendlier (if somewhat controversial) figure, them coming from Spain made sense at the time. Back in the day, these figures were associated with Moors from Spain and the history of Moorish pirates raiding coastal towns for centuries in the past. As such, Santa, traveling with these Moors, apparently came from the same place they did. Though the tradition has changed slightly over time (and is under pressure to change more due to the black makeup involved), the fact that Santa travels into the Netherlands from Spain hasn’t changed in all that time. In fact, no one really saw Santa as coming from the frozen north until the work of an artist named Thomas Nast. Nast was a prolific political cartoonist in the late 1800s and was responsible for creating several iconic figures in American culture. He was responsible for the elephant representing the Republican party, the donkey for the Democrats, and Uncle Sam just to name a few. But another thing he was a great influence on was forming much of the basis for our modern day Santa Claus. Though drawing a great deal of influence from the European depictions, Nast was responsible for contributing much of the details we now associate with Santa Claus – including his home in the North Pole. It was at this time that expeditions to reach the North Pole were being undertaken by explorers and no one had successfully reached the elusive place atop the world. Stories of an inaccessible place constantly covered in snow seemed to be the perfect location for Santa. The figure had long been associated with the winter months and the idea of a “white Christmas” was already quite popular. The North Pole, perpetually covered in snow, seemed like a place where it would always be Christmas and an elusive figure could be kept hidden for all this time. As such, Nast put him there, and the image stuck. But not everyone agrees to put Santa in this neutral territory. Many countries with territory over the Arctic circle claim to be the true home of the jolly fat man. The Danes say that he lives in Greenland and that anyone who thinks differently is under a misunderstanding. After all, according to them, his warehouse is on the North Pole but his actual home is somewhat more south on Greenland. Meanwhile Finland claims him to be in a place called Lapland, where they have literal Santa Claus tours. Even the US and Canada get in on it, with one place in Alaska called “North Pole” capitalizing on it and Canada devoting one of their postal codes to Santa’s workshop – H0H 0H0. But one of the more unique claims I’ve seen is the one made by the Norwegians town of Drøbak. Not satisfied to just claim he currently lives there, the people of Drøbak even say that Santa was actually born there – under a rock in “Vindfangerbukta”. Nevermind that a man named Saint Nicholas actually existed and lived in a place called Myra – someone that viking-like clearly came from Norway. Whatever version of the story you believe in, the idea of Santa in the frozen north started with Nast – who likely never imagined people would start erecting small tourist traps dedicated to the figure just north of the Arctic circle. And, ironically, Saint Nicholas himself, though now forever associated with these quaint, snowy villages… Probably would have frozen his ass off. (I write novels and dabble in screenplays. I too live far from the arctic circle, so this Christmas you may find me on twitter talking about unseasonably warm weather.)	1,345	ENGLISH	1
A Brief History of History Key facts about history - Our idea of history has changed over time, and has been influenced by many things. - The word 'history' comes from the Ancient Greek word for 'inquiry'. - Herodotus is considered as the father of history - Today, there are many different ways people approach and understand history People you need to know - Johannes Guttenberg - credited with introducing the printing press to Europe. - Herodotus - Ancient Greek historian, considered the father of history, who lived in the fifth century BCE'Before common era', the non-religious way of saying 'BC' (which means 'before Christ').'Before common era', the non-religious way of saying 'BC' (which means 'before Christ').. In the ancient past, what we would call ‘history’ was something created and recreated to fit a purpose: a king might invent a history of himself and his family to explain why he took the throne, or a myth might be made to explain a brutal war. Facts, or what actually happened, didn’t matter as much as the story. The past, when told like this, moved: stories changed over time to suit those telling them. Almost 2,500 years ago a Greek from Halicarnassus (Bodrum in Turkey) named Herodotus set out to change this. He was born towards the end of the Persian Wars, in which the Greeks fought the Persians (who were based in modern-day Iran, but whose empire stretched from the Aegean Sea in the west to parts of China in the east) in the great battles of Marathon, Thermopylae (where the Spartan 300 stood), and Salamis. He wanted to record the events that had happened and find out what had caused them, and so travelled around, finding information in records and talking to people.As Herodotus said in his Histories ‘The purpose is to prevent the traces of human events from being erased by time, and to preserve the fame of the important and remarkable achievements produced by both Greeks and non-Greeks; among the matters covered is, in particular, the cause of the hostilities between Greeks and non-Greeks.’ The Histories, Robin Waterfield translation (2008) He called his work his ‘Inquiry’. In Ancient Greek, the word was ‘Historia’.The more specific translation of ‘historia’ is choosing wisely between conflicting accounts Other people in the ancient world learned of his work and were inspired, and so the practice of history began. When the Romans came along, they adopted much of Greek learning,Greek remained the language of the learned during the Roman period, and was the most common language spoken in Rome. The great universities of the time, our Oxbridge, were in Greece (at Rhodes and Athens) and those who fancied themselves either as academics or cultured (such as the Emperor Nero) would flock to Greece. However, Roman traditionalists, particularly in the Senate, did not find this philhellenism becoming, feeling it threatened their ideals of masculinity. Medicine also remained in Greek hands during the Roman Empire, which explains why most of our medical terminology comes from Greek. including history (the word for which they adopted into their Latin language, and it came to mean ‘a narrativeA story; in the writing of history it usually describes an approach that favours story over analysis.A story; in the writing of history it usually describes an approach that favours story over analysis. of past events’) and the practice spread further. Roman writers such as Cicero laid down rules for the writing of history. These included that the truth should be told impartially (regardless of who it might offend); should be organised chronologically and geographically; it should provide a narrative of great events, their causes and their protagonists; and that it should be well written. Once belief in Christianity took hold across Europe, learning and knowledge became more limited and was restricted to monks and others within the Church. As all books had to be written by hand, monks would spend days writing and copying texts.There’s a fabulous legend relating to the largest known surviving medieval manuscript in the world, the Codex Gigas. Thought to have been created in the 13th century, it contains the full Bible, plus a number of historic documents written in Latin. The myth goes that the monk who created it had broken his monastic vows, and as punishment was to be walled up alive. In bargaining for his life, he promised to pen in one night a book that would contain all of human knowledge and glorify the monastery forever. He was allowed to set about his task, but by midnight he was sure that he would fail, and would therefore suffer his punishment. To avoid it, he is said to have made a pact with the devil, who completed the manuscript for him, and put his signature (a picture of the devil) within it. The book has since been known as the Devil’s Bible. Tests have shown that it would have taken five years of solid writing to have completed it. This meant that the Church controlled the information, and decided what other people should know. History continued to be recorded and studied, but now it was within the limits of a Christian understanding of the world, and within the limits of Christian scripture, which was taken as truth.Rich families might commission works of history, and would also have greater access to information. Western medieval knowledge expanded thanks to contact with the Arab world during the Crusades, and again as direct trade with the rest of the world increased. In 1440, Johannes Guttenberg introduced the printing press to Europe.He’s usually credited with the invention of the printing press, although printing had been in use in Asia for at least 600 years before Europe got a press. Instead of relying on monks to copy books, more books could now be printed in less time. Reliance on the Church for information reduced and more information from a variety of sources became available. At the same time, interest in Classical Greece and Rome grew, and learned people looked to the ancient writers, such as Cicero, to inspire them.This was partly due to the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, which caused a wave of Greek speaking intellectuals and Greek texts to spread into Europe. It was also around this time that the meaning of the word ‘history’ became what it is today: the study of the past through the written word. However, belief in the Bible as the truth was still strong, so people fit what they learned about the world and the past into the story told in the Bible.One good example of this is the Red Lady of Paviland. The Reverand William Buckland discovered a set of bones stained red with ochre buried in a cave on the Gower Peninsula. As a creationist, he believed that no human remains could be older than the Great Flood, and that the world itself was only born in 4004BC. Buckland therefore decided the bones belonged a woman of ill repute (hence the red staining) dating to the Roman period, who had been a follower of a Roman camp (which was actually an Iron AgeThe Iron Age of the British Isles covers the period from about 800BCE to the Roman invasion of 43CE, and follows on from the Bronze Age.The Iron Age of the British Isles covers the period from about 800BCE to the Roman invasion of 43CE, and follows on from the Bronze AgeThe Bronze Age was a time between the Neolithic and the Iron Age, which is characterised by the use of the alloy bronze. In Britain it lasted from about 2500BCE until about 800BCE.. fort). However, the Red Lady was in fact a man, possibly a shaman or someone of great importance, who lived around 33,000 years ago. This carried on until the 19th century when archaeological finds, such as dinosaurs and prehistoric humans, became too many to ignore. Scientific discoveries made the great minds of the day rethink their dependence on Christianity for understanding history, and began to look at history in new ways. One of these ways was to see it as a progression of events, a move from ‘bad’ to ‘good’ across the years. Others saw in history a time that was inspiring, to which they wanted to return. The stories told in history changed, as did their meaning, and that is the history we have been left with today. Things to think about - How has history changed over the last 3,000 years? - What is meant by history today? - What does the way we study history tell us about ourselves? - What does history mean to you? Things to do - Read some history books written at different times to see how people's approach to history has changed. - Try writing a historical event from different perspectives in time.	<urn:uuid:97324f2a-791f-404d-8fec-5834da3c73cb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gethistory.co.uk/reference/history-explained/a-brief-history-of-history	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00428.warc.gz	en	0.981972	1,841	3.4375	3	[ 0.26752081513404846, 0.4620189666748047, 0.6524076461791992, 0.008604185655713081, -0.2612426280975342, -0.31830504536628723, 0.31151247024536133, 0.20968377590179443, -0.20988750457763672, -0.06844363361597061, -0.12307745963335037, -0.32061076164245605, -0.21139967441558838, 0.4574828743...	15	A Brief History of History Key facts about history - Our idea of history has changed over time, and has been influenced by many things. - The word 'history' comes from the Ancient Greek word for 'inquiry'. - Herodotus is considered as the father of history - Today, there are many different ways people approach and understand history People you need to know - Johannes Guttenberg - credited with introducing the printing press to Europe. - Herodotus - Ancient Greek historian, considered the father of history, who lived in the fifth century BCE'Before common era', the non-religious way of saying 'BC' (which means 'before Christ').'Before common era', the non-religious way of saying 'BC' (which means 'before Christ').. In the ancient past, what we would call ‘history’ was something created and recreated to fit a purpose: a king might invent a history of himself and his family to explain why he took the throne, or a myth might be made to explain a brutal war. Facts, or what actually happened, didn’t matter as much as the story. The past, when told like this, moved: stories changed over time to suit those telling them. Almost 2,500 years ago a Greek from Halicarnassus (Bodrum in Turkey) named Herodotus set out to change this. He was born towards the end of the Persian Wars, in which the Greeks fought the Persians (who were based in modern-day Iran, but whose empire stretched from the Aegean Sea in the west to parts of China in the east) in the great battles of Marathon, Thermopylae (where the Spartan 300 stood), and Salamis. He wanted to record the events that had happened and find out what had caused them, and so travelled around, finding information in records and talking to people.As Herodotus said in his Histories ‘The purpose is to prevent the traces of human events from being erased by time, and to preserve the fame of the important and remarkable achievements produced by both Greeks and non-Greeks; among the matters covered is, in particular, the cause of the hostilities between Greeks and non-Greeks.’ The Histories, Robin Waterfield translation (2008) He called his work his ‘Inquiry’. In Ancient Greek, the word was ‘Historia’.The more specific translation of ‘historia’ is choosing wisely between conflicting accounts Other people in the ancient world learned of his work and were inspired, and so the practice of history began. When the Romans came along, they adopted much of Greek learning,Greek remained the language of the learned during the Roman period, and was the most common language spoken in Rome. The great universities of the time, our Oxbridge, were in Greece (at Rhodes and Athens) and those who fancied themselves either as academics or cultured (such as the Emperor Nero) would flock to Greece. However, Roman traditionalists, particularly in the Senate, did not find this philhellenism becoming, feeling it threatened their ideals of masculinity. Medicine also remained in Greek hands during the Roman Empire, which explains why most of our medical terminology comes from Greek. including history (the word for which they adopted into their Latin language, and it came to mean ‘a narrativeA story; in the writing of history it usually describes an approach that favours story over analysis.A story; in the writing of history it usually describes an approach that favours story over analysis. of past events’) and the practice spread further. Roman writers such as Cicero laid down rules for the writing of history. These included that the truth should be told impartially (regardless of who it might offend); should be organised chronologically and geographically; it should provide a narrative of great events, their causes and their protagonists; and that it should be well written. Once belief in Christianity took hold across Europe, learning and knowledge became more limited and was restricted to monks and others within the Church. As all books had to be written by hand, monks would spend days writing and copying texts.There’s a fabulous legend relating to the largest known surviving medieval manuscript in the world, the Codex Gigas. Thought to have been created in the 13th century, it contains the full Bible, plus a number of historic documents written in Latin. The myth goes that the monk who created it had broken his monastic vows, and as punishment was to be walled up alive. In bargaining for his life, he promised to pen in one night a book that would contain all of human knowledge and glorify the monastery forever. He was allowed to set about his task, but by midnight he was sure that he would fail, and would therefore suffer his punishment. To avoid it, he is said to have made a pact with the devil, who completed the manuscript for him, and put his signature (a picture of the devil) within it. The book has since been known as the Devil’s Bible. Tests have shown that it would have taken five years of solid writing to have completed it. This meant that the Church controlled the information, and decided what other people should know. History continued to be recorded and studied, but now it was within the limits of a Christian understanding of the world, and within the limits of Christian scripture, which was taken as truth.Rich families might commission works of history, and would also have greater access to information. Western medieval knowledge expanded thanks to contact with the Arab world during the Crusades, and again as direct trade with the rest of the world increased. In 1440, Johannes Guttenberg introduced the printing press to Europe.He’s usually credited with the invention of the printing press, although printing had been in use in Asia for at least 600 years before Europe got a press. Instead of relying on monks to copy books, more books could now be printed in less time. Reliance on the Church for information reduced and more information from a variety of sources became available. At the same time, interest in Classical Greece and Rome grew, and learned people looked to the ancient writers, such as Cicero, to inspire them.This was partly due to the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, which caused a wave of Greek speaking intellectuals and Greek texts to spread into Europe. It was also around this time that the meaning of the word ‘history’ became what it is today: the study of the past through the written word. However, belief in the Bible as the truth was still strong, so people fit what they learned about the world and the past into the story told in the Bible.One good example of this is the Red Lady of Paviland. The Reverand William Buckland discovered a set of bones stained red with ochre buried in a cave on the Gower Peninsula. As a creationist, he believed that no human remains could be older than the Great Flood, and that the world itself was only born in 4004BC. Buckland therefore decided the bones belonged a woman of ill repute (hence the red staining) dating to the Roman period, who had been a follower of a Roman camp (which was actually an Iron AgeThe Iron Age of the British Isles covers the period from about 800BCE to the Roman invasion of 43CE, and follows on from the Bronze Age.The Iron Age of the British Isles covers the period from about 800BCE to the Roman invasion of 43CE, and follows on from the Bronze AgeThe Bronze Age was a time between the Neolithic and the Iron Age, which is characterised by the use of the alloy bronze. In Britain it lasted from about 2500BCE until about 800BCE.. fort). However, the Red Lady was in fact a man, possibly a shaman or someone of great importance, who lived around 33,000 years ago. This carried on until the 19th century when archaeological finds, such as dinosaurs and prehistoric humans, became too many to ignore. Scientific discoveries made the great minds of the day rethink their dependence on Christianity for understanding history, and began to look at history in new ways. One of these ways was to see it as a progression of events, a move from ‘bad’ to ‘good’ across the years. Others saw in history a time that was inspiring, to which they wanted to return. The stories told in history changed, as did their meaning, and that is the history we have been left with today. Things to think about - How has history changed over the last 3,000 years? - What is meant by history today? - What does the way we study history tell us about ourselves? - What does history mean to you? Things to do - Read some history books written at different times to see how people's approach to history has changed. - Try writing a historical event from different perspectives in time.	1,846	ENGLISH	1
Leonardo Da Vinci is the greatest European renaissance artist whose work and life is still shrouded in mystery centuries after his death. The world would be a very different place today if not for this genius that brought art and science together. Leonardo Da Vinci was determined to bring art to life by touching on everything from rocks to the human body. His work has influenced every corner of the world which is why he is still considered the greatest artist that ever lived. While the world celebrates this eccentric artist, it is important to look at the shocking and fascinating experiences that surrounded his life. He Never Finished Drawing the Mona Lisa Leonardo Da Vinci had a strange habit of leaving his works unfinished. Mona Lisa is one of the best paintings in the world today and perfect according to most who have seen it. This mystified painting depicts a sitter with an enigmatic expression which is really hard to express. It is not clear who the person really is but many people believe she was La Gioconda, the wife of a certain famous Florentine. It is not clear if this work was commissioned because Leonardo never gave it to the owner since starting the painting in 1503. He carried it on him all the time for four years but according to Vasari, Da Vinci’s biographer, he abandoned the painting before its completion. Whether he left it that way to send a message or he got paralyzed before finishing it as some people have claimed, Mona Lisa remains the ultimate expression of perfect artwork. He Disagreed With the Biblical Timing of Events Charles Darwin is believed to be the first man that publicly opposed the biblical version of how the earth was formed but Da Vinci had explained it centuries earlier in his notebook and paintings. Leonardo Da Vinci was an ardent geologist that studied mountain and river formation processes for many years despite being unschooled. While working for Ludovico Sforza in Milan, Da Vinci got a chance of walking in the Alps. He discovered fossils of Fish and seashells up in the mountains. He also studied rock strata along rivers and on the mountain and came to the conclusion that the six-day creation story in the book of Genesis did not add up. Leonardo argued that years of the combined forces of nature was responsible for most of the incredible natural phenomena we see today. It is quite controversial considering the strong Catholic environment he lived in even working for the pope at one time. He Was Almost Executed for Sodomy Leonardo’s sexuality was a mystery throughout his life and still is even after his death. He never married and is not known to have had close relations with women. Many historians believe that Da Vinci was just a curious scientist who explored the sexuality of both men and women but never got down to getting in a relationship himself. However, in 1476, just around his 24th birthday, Leonardo Da Vinci was anonymously accused of committing acts of Sodomy with a local Goldsmith’s apprentice in Florence. The state was keen on eradicating sodomy at the time and the preferred punishment was burning at the stake. It is not clear if these charges were baseless or true but Leonardo was later released because no witness came forward to support the claim giving him a chance to impress the world a lot more. His Largest Artwork Was Completed 500 Years Later Da Vinci sought the patronage of Ludovico Sforza, the Duke of Milan in 1482. In return for the patronage, Da Vinci was commissioned to create art for Sforza and Milan. This task was expensive but the duke was committed to paying for it at all cost. His greatest challenge for Da Vinci was creating the largest equestrian statue ever created in the world to honor his father Francesco. Da Vinci created a clay model of the statue but immediately after the duke bought the bronze to build the statue, The French army attacked Milan and the soldiers used Davinci’s clay model as target practice. His designs were discovered in Madrid in 1965 prompting Charles Dent, a retired pilot from Pennsylvania to seek the completion of this great artwork. He bought the services of Nina Akamu, a sculptor who finished the statue in 1999, 500 years after Da Vinci’s death. He Wrote His Works in Reverse Every artist has a signature and Davinci, being left-handed, coded his work through a detailed right to left scripting. The main reason for writing like this still remains mysterious but it obviously made his work more admirable. Many believe he used mirror writing to hide his personal ideas from other people and the Catholic church. This method of writing not only kept his hands and work clean, but it also allowed him to write faster because he was left-handed. While some people argue that he was dyslexic, other historians simply believe that this was a way of signing his work. However, when writing to other people, Da Vinci wrote in the usual left to write the script. Over 7000 pages of his work exist today and they have to be held against a mirror to be read. He Was an Illegitimate Child Leonardo Da Vinci was born on April 15th, 1452 In Tuscan, Vinci to Messer Piero Fruosino di Antonia, a legal worker in Florence but he never took his father’s surname. Leonardo Da Vinci Simply means Leonardo of Vinci, no surname because his father had an extramarital affair with Caterina, a peasant from the middle east. Little is known about the rest of his early life and it is not clear whether his father was really in the picture although Da Vinci lived with him at the age of three. However, considering the deep-rooted traditional Catholic values at the time, bastards really had no claim on their father’s fortunes meaning Da Vinci just had to work through life on his own. His father, however, helped him get a position of apprenticeship at the workshop of Verrocchio, one of the most famous artists in Florence at the time. Bill Gates Currently Owns His Precious Original Notebook There are more than 7000 pages of Leonardo Da Vinci’s work owned by different museums and individuals around the world. This material includes 30 notebooks considered the most expensive written pieces in the world. Bill Gates owns the most famous of these notebooks known as Codex Leicester which he acquired at an auction for $30.8 million. It is considered the most expensive book in the world, also the most valuable artifact of the Italian Renaissance period alongside the Mona Lisa. The 72-page book is more of a collection of brainstorming paperwork than an actual book. Leonardo used it between 1506 to 1510 to write his ideas and philosophies regarding the Earth, sun and the moon among other paintings of human anatomy and parachute designs. It is however messy and difficult to read without a keen eye and, of course, a mirror. He Largely Pioneered the Study of Human Anatomy Unlike other artists of his time, Leonardo Da Vinci believed in bringing art as close to people’s daily lives and human nature as possible. From a young age, he pictured the human body and really wanted to understand how the organs in the body combined to sustain life. His view was however more mechanical than biological. At his time, the only reliable facts on human anatomy were based on the findings of Galen, a roman anatomist that relied on animal cadavers. He liked dissecting bodies, a practice that brought him trouble many times with Florentine authorities and the church. There were no organ donors at the time so Da Vinci would pick unclaimed bodies of drunkards and outlaws and dissect them. This source of specimen caused him a shortage of female bodies which is why he got the female reproductive system wrong. The rest of his work is, however, accurate and has been used to study anatomy for years. He Designed the First Armored Car Depending on how you look at it, Da Vinci’s design can be used both as the first design of an armored car or a tank. This design was made in 1485 during Da Vinci’s application for patronage from the Duke of Milan. There was a wave of violence and war as the French and the Ottomans threatened to invade Italy making his designs invaluable. Da Vinci’s war machine was able to move in all directions armed with cannons at 360 degrees to shoot in all directions. If brought to life, this design would have made the ultimate weapon that could infiltrate enemy ranks without getting hit because of the slanting turtle shell design that could deflect enemy fire. Although the design earned Da Vinci a place in Milan, there is no record that his design was ever used by the Duke of Milan. They, however, prove that Da Vinci was a versatile genius able to apply art in every aspect of life. He Was Unschooled This is the most astonishing aspect of Leonardo Da Vinci’s life because he set off into the world armed with nothing but basic math, reading and writing skills. The only training, he received was at Verrocchio’s art shop in Florence where he learned to paint but his works are way greater than any regular artist. He had may rival artists during his lifetime the most formidable being Michelangelo who received schooling at the Florence Humanists academy but Da Vinci was way better than all of them. It is now more than 500 years since his death but Leonardo Da Vinci’s work cannot be fully explained by the best scholars of our time but he never attended any school. He was the perfect result of great imagination, curiosity, and determination of exploring the world around him. Davinci is the greatest self-taught scientist and engineer of all time because everything he designed was as a result of his own observation and personal-training.	<urn:uuid:0b2e844e-0891-47ea-8fdf-2df81443d0c2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://listgecko.com/10-interesting-facts-about-leonardo-da-vinci/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00333.warc.gz	en	0.982345	2,026	3.328125	3	[ -0.023189395666122437, 0.2537144422531128, 0.20258080959320068, -0.00289211911149323, -0.49430084228515625, 0.03942405432462692, 0.08333704620599747, 0.422307550907135, 0.3609110116958618, 0.1746416836977005, 0.06949487328529358, -0.4936366379261017, 0.06472501158714294, 0.4737218618392944...	3	Leonardo Da Vinci is the greatest European renaissance artist whose work and life is still shrouded in mystery centuries after his death. The world would be a very different place today if not for this genius that brought art and science together. Leonardo Da Vinci was determined to bring art to life by touching on everything from rocks to the human body. His work has influenced every corner of the world which is why he is still considered the greatest artist that ever lived. While the world celebrates this eccentric artist, it is important to look at the shocking and fascinating experiences that surrounded his life. He Never Finished Drawing the Mona Lisa Leonardo Da Vinci had a strange habit of leaving his works unfinished. Mona Lisa is one of the best paintings in the world today and perfect according to most who have seen it. This mystified painting depicts a sitter with an enigmatic expression which is really hard to express. It is not clear who the person really is but many people believe she was La Gioconda, the wife of a certain famous Florentine. It is not clear if this work was commissioned because Leonardo never gave it to the owner since starting the painting in 1503. He carried it on him all the time for four years but according to Vasari, Da Vinci’s biographer, he abandoned the painting before its completion. Whether he left it that way to send a message or he got paralyzed before finishing it as some people have claimed, Mona Lisa remains the ultimate expression of perfect artwork. He Disagreed With the Biblical Timing of Events Charles Darwin is believed to be the first man that publicly opposed the biblical version of how the earth was formed but Da Vinci had explained it centuries earlier in his notebook and paintings. Leonardo Da Vinci was an ardent geologist that studied mountain and river formation processes for many years despite being unschooled. While working for Ludovico Sforza in Milan, Da Vinci got a chance of walking in the Alps. He discovered fossils of Fish and seashells up in the mountains. He also studied rock strata along rivers and on the mountain and came to the conclusion that the six-day creation story in the book of Genesis did not add up. Leonardo argued that years of the combined forces of nature was responsible for most of the incredible natural phenomena we see today. It is quite controversial considering the strong Catholic environment he lived in even working for the pope at one time. He Was Almost Executed for Sodomy Leonardo’s sexuality was a mystery throughout his life and still is even after his death. He never married and is not known to have had close relations with women. Many historians believe that Da Vinci was just a curious scientist who explored the sexuality of both men and women but never got down to getting in a relationship himself. However, in 1476, just around his 24th birthday, Leonardo Da Vinci was anonymously accused of committing acts of Sodomy with a local Goldsmith’s apprentice in Florence. The state was keen on eradicating sodomy at the time and the preferred punishment was burning at the stake. It is not clear if these charges were baseless or true but Leonardo was later released because no witness came forward to support the claim giving him a chance to impress the world a lot more. His Largest Artwork Was Completed 500 Years Later Da Vinci sought the patronage of Ludovico Sforza, the Duke of Milan in 1482. In return for the patronage, Da Vinci was commissioned to create art for Sforza and Milan. This task was expensive but the duke was committed to paying for it at all cost. His greatest challenge for Da Vinci was creating the largest equestrian statue ever created in the world to honor his father Francesco. Da Vinci created a clay model of the statue but immediately after the duke bought the bronze to build the statue, The French army attacked Milan and the soldiers used Davinci’s clay model as target practice. His designs were discovered in Madrid in 1965 prompting Charles Dent, a retired pilot from Pennsylvania to seek the completion of this great artwork. He bought the services of Nina Akamu, a sculptor who finished the statue in 1999, 500 years after Da Vinci’s death. He Wrote His Works in Reverse Every artist has a signature and Davinci, being left-handed, coded his work through a detailed right to left scripting. The main reason for writing like this still remains mysterious but it obviously made his work more admirable. Many believe he used mirror writing to hide his personal ideas from other people and the Catholic church. This method of writing not only kept his hands and work clean, but it also allowed him to write faster because he was left-handed. While some people argue that he was dyslexic, other historians simply believe that this was a way of signing his work. However, when writing to other people, Da Vinci wrote in the usual left to write the script. Over 7000 pages of his work exist today and they have to be held against a mirror to be read. He Was an Illegitimate Child Leonardo Da Vinci was born on April 15th, 1452 In Tuscan, Vinci to Messer Piero Fruosino di Antonia, a legal worker in Florence but he never took his father’s surname. Leonardo Da Vinci Simply means Leonardo of Vinci, no surname because his father had an extramarital affair with Caterina, a peasant from the middle east. Little is known about the rest of his early life and it is not clear whether his father was really in the picture although Da Vinci lived with him at the age of three. However, considering the deep-rooted traditional Catholic values at the time, bastards really had no claim on their father’s fortunes meaning Da Vinci just had to work through life on his own. His father, however, helped him get a position of apprenticeship at the workshop of Verrocchio, one of the most famous artists in Florence at the time. Bill Gates Currently Owns His Precious Original Notebook There are more than 7000 pages of Leonardo Da Vinci’s work owned by different museums and individuals around the world. This material includes 30 notebooks considered the most expensive written pieces in the world. Bill Gates owns the most famous of these notebooks known as Codex Leicester which he acquired at an auction for $30.8 million. It is considered the most expensive book in the world, also the most valuable artifact of the Italian Renaissance period alongside the Mona Lisa. The 72-page book is more of a collection of brainstorming paperwork than an actual book. Leonardo used it between 1506 to 1510 to write his ideas and philosophies regarding the Earth, sun and the moon among other paintings of human anatomy and parachute designs. It is however messy and difficult to read without a keen eye and, of course, a mirror. He Largely Pioneered the Study of Human Anatomy Unlike other artists of his time, Leonardo Da Vinci believed in bringing art as close to people’s daily lives and human nature as possible. From a young age, he pictured the human body and really wanted to understand how the organs in the body combined to sustain life. His view was however more mechanical than biological. At his time, the only reliable facts on human anatomy were based on the findings of Galen, a roman anatomist that relied on animal cadavers. He liked dissecting bodies, a practice that brought him trouble many times with Florentine authorities and the church. There were no organ donors at the time so Da Vinci would pick unclaimed bodies of drunkards and outlaws and dissect them. This source of specimen caused him a shortage of female bodies which is why he got the female reproductive system wrong. The rest of his work is, however, accurate and has been used to study anatomy for years. He Designed the First Armored Car Depending on how you look at it, Da Vinci’s design can be used both as the first design of an armored car or a tank. This design was made in 1485 during Da Vinci’s application for patronage from the Duke of Milan. There was a wave of violence and war as the French and the Ottomans threatened to invade Italy making his designs invaluable. Da Vinci’s war machine was able to move in all directions armed with cannons at 360 degrees to shoot in all directions. If brought to life, this design would have made the ultimate weapon that could infiltrate enemy ranks without getting hit because of the slanting turtle shell design that could deflect enemy fire. Although the design earned Da Vinci a place in Milan, there is no record that his design was ever used by the Duke of Milan. They, however, prove that Da Vinci was a versatile genius able to apply art in every aspect of life. He Was Unschooled This is the most astonishing aspect of Leonardo Da Vinci’s life because he set off into the world armed with nothing but basic math, reading and writing skills. The only training, he received was at Verrocchio’s art shop in Florence where he learned to paint but his works are way greater than any regular artist. He had may rival artists during his lifetime the most formidable being Michelangelo who received schooling at the Florence Humanists academy but Da Vinci was way better than all of them. It is now more than 500 years since his death but Leonardo Da Vinci’s work cannot be fully explained by the best scholars of our time but he never attended any school. He was the perfect result of great imagination, curiosity, and determination of exploring the world around him. Davinci is the greatest self-taught scientist and engineer of all time because everything he designed was as a result of his own observation and personal-training.	2,003	ENGLISH	1
The Populist Party started to grow in the late nineteenth century because a lot of people were by their side. People agreed with that they wanted to achieve and what they were fighting for. In 1891, the Populist Party was viewed as a political party representing the discontent of farmers and small business owners. At first, the Populist Party was known as the Farmer’s Alliance. It was created in 1876 in Texas ; their goal was to end the crop-lien system. This system basically developed the growth of cotton crops in the south and leaned on sharecroppers and tenants farmers, meaning they did not own their land. These people worked with seeds, tools and supplies they purchased using loans so they could grow the cotton and after the harvest and collection of the cotton was done, the workers were expected to pay back the loans in the form of cotton crops. Things got bad when the price for cotton started going down so the workers were left with nothing after the crops were collected by the creditors. The Farmers Alliance was fighting for a fair pay basically, they were tired of doing everything so someone else could have their money when they literally did everything themselves and are left with nothing after the collection of the crops. The price drops for crops were not to blame on the workers but yet they were still being treated like if it was. The Farmers alliance also absorbed The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry, founded in 1868 in New York. Together, they advocated and fought for the nation’s agrarian workers and rural communities. The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry, was created after the Panic of 1873, a financial crisis that resulted in bankruptcy of several railroads throughout the nation, which left people with depressed wages and low prices on crops. The campaign of 1896 is very important besucase it’s the year the Populist decide to support the democratic presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan. Because of the the Populist decision to support Bryan, the party was absorbed by the Democratic Party and became one. The Populist started to vanish in 1908 and transformed itself into the Progressice movement. This movement would still achieve the same goals and help the same causes the Populist supported. This movement would fight for anti-trust legislation, greater federal regulation of private industry and a stronger support system for the nations agricultural and working classes.	<urn:uuid:64595b56-8f20-4e67-9247-440fb4e83140>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alpinrunning.org/the-and-small-business-owners-at-first-the/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00409.warc.gz	en	0.987226	492	3.765625	4	[ -0.5119694471359253, 0.005447838921099901, -0.22920414805412292, 0.14655041694641113, 0.027490006759762764, -0.06695499271154404, -0.533654510974884, 0.15479658544063568, -0.23062200844287872, -0.026082130149006844, 0.4335908591747284, -0.12284320592880249, 0.2758467197418213, 0.0160440001...	3	The Populist Party started to grow in the late nineteenth century because a lot of people were by their side. People agreed with that they wanted to achieve and what they were fighting for. In 1891, the Populist Party was viewed as a political party representing the discontent of farmers and small business owners. At first, the Populist Party was known as the Farmer’s Alliance. It was created in 1876 in Texas ; their goal was to end the crop-lien system. This system basically developed the growth of cotton crops in the south and leaned on sharecroppers and tenants farmers, meaning they did not own their land. These people worked with seeds, tools and supplies they purchased using loans so they could grow the cotton and after the harvest and collection of the cotton was done, the workers were expected to pay back the loans in the form of cotton crops. Things got bad when the price for cotton started going down so the workers were left with nothing after the crops were collected by the creditors. The Farmers Alliance was fighting for a fair pay basically, they were tired of doing everything so someone else could have their money when they literally did everything themselves and are left with nothing after the collection of the crops. The price drops for crops were not to blame on the workers but yet they were still being treated like if it was. The Farmers alliance also absorbed The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry, founded in 1868 in New York. Together, they advocated and fought for the nation’s agrarian workers and rural communities. The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry, was created after the Panic of 1873, a financial crisis that resulted in bankruptcy of several railroads throughout the nation, which left people with depressed wages and low prices on crops. The campaign of 1896 is very important besucase it’s the year the Populist decide to support the democratic presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan. Because of the the Populist decision to support Bryan, the party was absorbed by the Democratic Party and became one. The Populist started to vanish in 1908 and transformed itself into the Progressice movement. This movement would still achieve the same goals and help the same causes the Populist supported. This movement would fight for anti-trust legislation, greater federal regulation of private industry and a stronger support system for the nations agricultural and working classes.	495	ENGLISH	1
Governor. Ellerbe was born on April 7, 1862, the son of the Marion District planter William Shackelford Ellerbe and Sarah Elizabeth Haselden. Ellerbe began his education at Pine Hill Academy in Marion. He attended Wofford College and Vanderbilt University but, due to poor health, withdrew without taking a degree. Returning to Marion County, Ellerbe purchased his own plantation and established a lucrative mercantile business in the town of Marion. On June 29, 1887, Ellerbe married Henrietta Rogers. The couple eventually had six children. Ellerbe entered politics in 1889 when he joined the Farmers Alliance. However, his membership was suspended when it was discovered that he engaged in merchandising. In 1890 Ellerbe became state comptroller general, the youngest man ever elected to statewide office in South Carolina. He was reelected in 1892. Considered to be a more moderate member of Benjamin R. Tillman’s “Reform” faction, he was one of four Tillman followers who ran for governor in 1894. Tillman, the outgoing governor, eventually lent his tremendous prestige and support to another candidate, John Gary Evans, a lawyer from Aiken and Tillman’s spokesman in the S.C. House of Representatives. Evans won, but many Tillman supporters expressed dismay that leadership within their party had gone to a lawyer rather than to a farmer, Ellerbe. Ellerbe won the election for governor in 1896 at the age of thirty-four. This election was the first to utilize the new county primary election system established by the state constitution the previous year. At the beginning of his term, South Carolina was in an economic depression due largely to low cotton prices. Conditions improved somewhat during his tenure. During his governorship, racial segregation became more rigid, as railroads operating in South Carolina were required to provide separate coaches for blacks and whites. Positive accomplishments included the organization of four new counties in 1897: Dorchester, Bamberg, Greenwood, and Cherokee. Ellerbe energetically promoted the state’s mobilization efforts during the Spanish-American War. He pushed for the establishment of a juvenile reformatory, which became a reality the year after his death. In addition, he received some credit for the lull in partisan discord within state politics during his tenure. Ellerbe won reelection in 1898, despite a strong challenge from Claudius C. Featherstone, an upcountry lawyer who ran independently as a prohibitionist. The main issue in the contest was the increasingly corrupt and unpopular dispensary system, by which the state had controlled the sale of alcohol since 1892. Fearing defeat and hoping for support from Columbia’s newspaper, the State, Ellerbe privately informed its editor, Narcisco G. Gonzales, that he intended to soften his insistence on the dispensary plan. After the election, however, Ellerbe tried to backpedal closer to his original stance. Gonzalez then exposed their agreement, publishing part of their correspondence. Ellerbe, however, died of illness on June 2, 1899, and the State subsequently declared that it had never doubted Ellerbe’s stated intention to relieve factional strife within the state. Simkins, Francis Butler. The Tillman Movement in South Carolina. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1926. Wallace, David Duncan. The History of South Carolina. 4 vols. New York: American Historical Society, 1935.	<urn:uuid:bac1404e-fa58-4453-9429-d17db5c2b302>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.scencyclopedia.org/sce/entries/ellerbe-william-haselden/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00151.warc.gz	en	0.980448	717	3.390625	3	[ -0.22578753530979156, 0.06871353089809418, 0.19323496520519257, -0.3753862679004669, 0.01829083450138569, -0.18758155405521393, 0.44397833943367004, -0.08062310516834259, -0.45872169733047485, 0.43100425601005554, 0.17483127117156982, -0.16333431005477905, 0.3980850577354431, 0.26391550898...	1	Governor. Ellerbe was born on April 7, 1862, the son of the Marion District planter William Shackelford Ellerbe and Sarah Elizabeth Haselden. Ellerbe began his education at Pine Hill Academy in Marion. He attended Wofford College and Vanderbilt University but, due to poor health, withdrew without taking a degree. Returning to Marion County, Ellerbe purchased his own plantation and established a lucrative mercantile business in the town of Marion. On June 29, 1887, Ellerbe married Henrietta Rogers. The couple eventually had six children. Ellerbe entered politics in 1889 when he joined the Farmers Alliance. However, his membership was suspended when it was discovered that he engaged in merchandising. In 1890 Ellerbe became state comptroller general, the youngest man ever elected to statewide office in South Carolina. He was reelected in 1892. Considered to be a more moderate member of Benjamin R. Tillman’s “Reform” faction, he was one of four Tillman followers who ran for governor in 1894. Tillman, the outgoing governor, eventually lent his tremendous prestige and support to another candidate, John Gary Evans, a lawyer from Aiken and Tillman’s spokesman in the S.C. House of Representatives. Evans won, but many Tillman supporters expressed dismay that leadership within their party had gone to a lawyer rather than to a farmer, Ellerbe. Ellerbe won the election for governor in 1896 at the age of thirty-four. This election was the first to utilize the new county primary election system established by the state constitution the previous year. At the beginning of his term, South Carolina was in an economic depression due largely to low cotton prices. Conditions improved somewhat during his tenure. During his governorship, racial segregation became more rigid, as railroads operating in South Carolina were required to provide separate coaches for blacks and whites. Positive accomplishments included the organization of four new counties in 1897: Dorchester, Bamberg, Greenwood, and Cherokee. Ellerbe energetically promoted the state’s mobilization efforts during the Spanish-American War. He pushed for the establishment of a juvenile reformatory, which became a reality the year after his death. In addition, he received some credit for the lull in partisan discord within state politics during his tenure. Ellerbe won reelection in 1898, despite a strong challenge from Claudius C. Featherstone, an upcountry lawyer who ran independently as a prohibitionist. The main issue in the contest was the increasingly corrupt and unpopular dispensary system, by which the state had controlled the sale of alcohol since 1892. Fearing defeat and hoping for support from Columbia’s newspaper, the State, Ellerbe privately informed its editor, Narcisco G. Gonzales, that he intended to soften his insistence on the dispensary plan. After the election, however, Ellerbe tried to backpedal closer to his original stance. Gonzalez then exposed their agreement, publishing part of their correspondence. Ellerbe, however, died of illness on June 2, 1899, and the State subsequently declared that it had never doubted Ellerbe’s stated intention to relieve factional strife within the state. Simkins, Francis Butler. The Tillman Movement in South Carolina. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1926. Wallace, David Duncan. The History of South Carolina. 4 vols. New York: American Historical Society, 1935.	751	ENGLISH	1
What’s in an ice core? That seems like an odd question. But essentially, that is what we are trying to figure out. We use climate records from ice cores all the time to learn about the past climate and its variability and they are amongst the most important contributors to our understanding of how the Earth’s climate has changed over time. So, shouldn’t we know “what’s in an ice core”? Yes, we do. But what is still an open issue is if we can interpret ice-core records at shorter time scales, say decades to years. To answer this question, we set out with the help of the SPI Polar Access Fund to drill one of a few shallow ice cores In Northeast Greenland during the 2019 summer season. Even though having worked with ice core samples for all of my scientific career, actually drilling a core myself was a completely new adventure. It posed a bunch of interesting and challenging problems along the way. But with the help of some experienced people from our partners in Denmark all problems from logistical to mechanical were solved along the way. In the end we managed to drill down to 80 m depth and with a bit of luck, the ice at the bottom of the core will be from the beginning of the 18th century. The biggest and somewhat strange issue we ran into, was that it was just too warm during the day to drill. If it is relatively warm (-5 to -10 degrees) and sunny the drill gets warmed up by the sun and can get stuck in the bore hole. To avoid that risk, we had to work during the night. Even though the sun is still quite high up in the sky during the polar summer nights, temperatures are much, much cooler. Even though this meant missing out on a lot of sleep, the spirit during the after-dinner drilling sessions was always great. We were treated to spectacular light and the quiet night-time camp atmosphere with most of the others in camp resting… By Tobias Erhardt, Polar Access Fund Grantee 2019	<urn:uuid:6bbfef42-8f18-4bb0-b6a0-d6888429d0ea>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://swisspolar.ch/2019/12/09/field-notes/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00429.warc.gz	en	0.980611	416	3.75	4	[ -0.07320397347211838, 0.28964856266975403, 0.15778367221355438, 0.09705671668052673, 0.2806912362575531, 0.48518553376197815, 0.2992422878742218, -0.0016579106450080872, -0.09260796755552292, -0.0873083770275116, 0.3657463490962982, -0.44052207469940186, 0.40044766664505005, 0.261505693197...	3	What’s in an ice core? That seems like an odd question. But essentially, that is what we are trying to figure out. We use climate records from ice cores all the time to learn about the past climate and its variability and they are amongst the most important contributors to our understanding of how the Earth’s climate has changed over time. So, shouldn’t we know “what’s in an ice core”? Yes, we do. But what is still an open issue is if we can interpret ice-core records at shorter time scales, say decades to years. To answer this question, we set out with the help of the SPI Polar Access Fund to drill one of a few shallow ice cores In Northeast Greenland during the 2019 summer season. Even though having worked with ice core samples for all of my scientific career, actually drilling a core myself was a completely new adventure. It posed a bunch of interesting and challenging problems along the way. But with the help of some experienced people from our partners in Denmark all problems from logistical to mechanical were solved along the way. In the end we managed to drill down to 80 m depth and with a bit of luck, the ice at the bottom of the core will be from the beginning of the 18th century. The biggest and somewhat strange issue we ran into, was that it was just too warm during the day to drill. If it is relatively warm (-5 to -10 degrees) and sunny the drill gets warmed up by the sun and can get stuck in the bore hole. To avoid that risk, we had to work during the night. Even though the sun is still quite high up in the sky during the polar summer nights, temperatures are much, much cooler. Even though this meant missing out on a lot of sleep, the spirit during the after-dinner drilling sessions was always great. We were treated to spectacular light and the quiet night-time camp atmosphere with most of the others in camp resting… By Tobias Erhardt, Polar Access Fund Grantee 2019	412	ENGLISH	1
In the late 19th century there was a period known as the scramble for Africa, during which almost the entire continent was placed under colonial rule. Ethiopia has the distinction of being one of only two countries who retained their independence. This blog will discuss the work of one of the great emperors during this period for his country, and how he saw off a colonising effort with resounding success Menelik became Emperor of Ethiopia on the death of Yohannnes in 1889. His was a negotiated, but unchallenged succession. He had been born into the ruling family of the Kingdom of Shawa (in the south of modern Ethiopia), rising to his throne in 1865. He had challenged for the Imperial throne in 1874. To cease his challenge Yohannes negotiated his submission in return for armaments and being acknowledged as Imperial heir. His succession completed the Unification of Ethiopia, which had been a dream of Tewedros. As King (or Negus) of Shawa, Menelik had expansionist polices, conquering numerous areas to the provinces to the south and west. As well as being expansionist Menelik was a moderniser, particularly later into his reign. He reformed the taxation 1892, introducing a tithe for the upkeep of the army to end the endemic existence by looting the local area. He also introduced a new Ethiopia currency, in contrast to the use of European coins. While this did not take off it was used as a political piece as during the dispute with Italy Menelik moved the mint to Paris. In granting the modernisation concessions he was also canny at playing the European powers against each other. For example he granted the railway building to France, but halted it when they tried to use it as a territorial stake, and granted the banking concession to their colonial rival England. He also oversaw the intro of telegraph and postal system the latter of which let to Ethiopia being involved in its first international community. Menelik and Italy The 1936 invasion of Ethiopia by Italy is a fairly well known part of history. What is less well known is that it was, in effect, round two of the confrontation between the two countries. Italy had begun an encroachment during the reign of Yohannes, claiming the port of Massawa from which they could not be removed. In 1875 Menelik was in contact with them as king of Shawa, having an ambassador constantly in attendance at his court, and using the connection to access physicians and military equipment. There is also suggestion that they assisted in his expansion of Shawa. This friendship led to two treaties while he was King of Shawa, offering Italian aid to negotiate with Europe, as well as armaments and a promise to respect Ethiopian boundaries. These bonds were cemented further with the signing of the treaty of Wuchale only 2 months after Menelik became Emperor. In this treaty the Italians became the first European country to recognise his sovereignty, and granted his rights to import arms across their territories. In return they gained the lands of, which became Ereitrea. As shall be seen however there was a sting in the tail. The Wuchale treaty was also significant because it had two copies, one in Italian and one in Amharic, the Ethiopian Language. This was quite significant as it was common for such treaties to be written in the European language alone. The two versions of the treaty would be the root of the future relationship between Italy and Ethiopia. There was a subtle difference in the two versions, Article 17 in the Amharic version, offered the Italians as intermediaries in negotiations with other European powers, while the Italian version insisted on the Ethiopians going through the Italians in all communications. Effectively this placed Ethiopia under an unofficial protectorate. Initially, once the difference was discovered matters remained cordial, Menelik sent his cousin to Italy as a negotiator, while accepting an Italian loan of 4 million Lire. However on 11th October 1890 Italy officially announced its protectorate of Ethiopia, and crossed the Wuchale treaty boundary, invading Adwa in the North. Initially they also gained the alliance of Yohannes son Ras Mangasha and other nobles of Tegray. There was then a lull of three years, during which Menelik imported arms in quantity from France and Russia, and started to pay back the Italian loan, refusing to be beholden to them. It was only in 1893 that he broke off cordial relations with them. It was the Italians, forced by outside circumstances who made the next move. These outside circumstances were two; Firstly Ras Mangasha defected to Menelik, secondly there was a revolt in Eritrea against the harsh rule of the Italians. While this was put down it led the Italian Government to decide that their only course of action to regain face was a full scale invasion of Ethiopia. Initially this went quite well, they defeated Ras Mangasha twice and gained the entire province of Tegray. On 17th September 1895 Menelik issued a mobilisation order to his army for assembly on 16th October. In force the Ethiopians went on to win two early victories, enough to raise the discussion of peace talks. In this the Italians demanded that they could retain the whole of Tegray, to which Menelik would not agree. The Italian Prime Minister sent a telegram to the general, demanding that all sacrifice to be made to preserve honour. The Italians set for a first light attack on 1st March, intended to be a surprise. However that element was soon lost, conveyed either by Eritreans or Tegrayan defectors. Further ant-Italian sympathies aided Menelik as the Eritreans and locals were very willing to guide his armies to the best positions. In contrast the Italians had little local knowledge and inaccurate maps of the mountainous terrain. Menelik had a distinct numerical advantage in terms of men for the battle; 100,000 armed with modern rifles, compared to 17,000 ( 10,596 Italians, the remainder Eritrean levies). There was closer equality in canon, but it was numbers and information which proved to be the critical factor, enabling each of the three Italian divisions to be engaged by a separate group of Menelik’s army. In the end the Italians suffered a 43% casualty rate, with only one of the six generals escaping unscathed. Of the other five, three were killed, one wounded and one captured. In retreating they also left behind much of their baggage and 11,000 rifles As well as a military victory, Adwa had weighty political repercussions. Back in Italy it led to Anti Government and anti-war demonstrations. For Ethiopia the new Addis Ababa treaty which the Italians signed cancelled out Wuchale; acknowledging Menelik’s independent sovereignty and the original Eritrean borders. Internationally the French and British also dispatched diplomatic parties to sign treaties of friendship with Menelik, as did the Tsar of Russia, the Sudanese Mahdists and the Sultan of the Ottoman empire. It was this acknowledgment and the peace that followed which allowed Menelik to concentrate on the modernisation of his country, some of which was outlined above Recommended Reading if you’re interested: Richard Pankhurst The Ethiopeans: A History (Blackwell, 1998) Bahru Zewde A History of Modern Ethiopia 1855-1974 (Currey, 1991) All feedback appreciated as this is my first post for the Blog	<urn:uuid:7c5eeada-c1de-4474-abc5-b429ed9c476e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wuhstry.wordpress.com/2018/01/22/menelik-ethiopia-and-italians/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00396.warc.gz	en	0.98313	1,533	3.734375	4	[ -0.4950051009654999, 0.45895999670028687, 0.4110405445098877, -0.10894519090652466, -0.27404266595840454, -0.5729292631149292, 0.03388744592666626, 0.16386492550373077, -0.31238576769828796, 0.04799994081258774, 0.05376606062054634, -0.4580264985561371, 0.08782491832971573, 0.1488476991653...	3	In the late 19th century there was a period known as the scramble for Africa, during which almost the entire continent was placed under colonial rule. Ethiopia has the distinction of being one of only two countries who retained their independence. This blog will discuss the work of one of the great emperors during this period for his country, and how he saw off a colonising effort with resounding success Menelik became Emperor of Ethiopia on the death of Yohannnes in 1889. His was a negotiated, but unchallenged succession. He had been born into the ruling family of the Kingdom of Shawa (in the south of modern Ethiopia), rising to his throne in 1865. He had challenged for the Imperial throne in 1874. To cease his challenge Yohannes negotiated his submission in return for armaments and being acknowledged as Imperial heir. His succession completed the Unification of Ethiopia, which had been a dream of Tewedros. As King (or Negus) of Shawa, Menelik had expansionist polices, conquering numerous areas to the provinces to the south and west. As well as being expansionist Menelik was a moderniser, particularly later into his reign. He reformed the taxation 1892, introducing a tithe for the upkeep of the army to end the endemic existence by looting the local area. He also introduced a new Ethiopia currency, in contrast to the use of European coins. While this did not take off it was used as a political piece as during the dispute with Italy Menelik moved the mint to Paris. In granting the modernisation concessions he was also canny at playing the European powers against each other. For example he granted the railway building to France, but halted it when they tried to use it as a territorial stake, and granted the banking concession to their colonial rival England. He also oversaw the intro of telegraph and postal system the latter of which let to Ethiopia being involved in its first international community. Menelik and Italy The 1936 invasion of Ethiopia by Italy is a fairly well known part of history. What is less well known is that it was, in effect, round two of the confrontation between the two countries. Italy had begun an encroachment during the reign of Yohannes, claiming the port of Massawa from which they could not be removed. In 1875 Menelik was in contact with them as king of Shawa, having an ambassador constantly in attendance at his court, and using the connection to access physicians and military equipment. There is also suggestion that they assisted in his expansion of Shawa. This friendship led to two treaties while he was King of Shawa, offering Italian aid to negotiate with Europe, as well as armaments and a promise to respect Ethiopian boundaries. These bonds were cemented further with the signing of the treaty of Wuchale only 2 months after Menelik became Emperor. In this treaty the Italians became the first European country to recognise his sovereignty, and granted his rights to import arms across their territories. In return they gained the lands of, which became Ereitrea. As shall be seen however there was a sting in the tail. The Wuchale treaty was also significant because it had two copies, one in Italian and one in Amharic, the Ethiopian Language. This was quite significant as it was common for such treaties to be written in the European language alone. The two versions of the treaty would be the root of the future relationship between Italy and Ethiopia. There was a subtle difference in the two versions, Article 17 in the Amharic version, offered the Italians as intermediaries in negotiations with other European powers, while the Italian version insisted on the Ethiopians going through the Italians in all communications. Effectively this placed Ethiopia under an unofficial protectorate. Initially, once the difference was discovered matters remained cordial, Menelik sent his cousin to Italy as a negotiator, while accepting an Italian loan of 4 million Lire. However on 11th October 1890 Italy officially announced its protectorate of Ethiopia, and crossed the Wuchale treaty boundary, invading Adwa in the North. Initially they also gained the alliance of Yohannes son Ras Mangasha and other nobles of Tegray. There was then a lull of three years, during which Menelik imported arms in quantity from France and Russia, and started to pay back the Italian loan, refusing to be beholden to them. It was only in 1893 that he broke off cordial relations with them. It was the Italians, forced by outside circumstances who made the next move. These outside circumstances were two; Firstly Ras Mangasha defected to Menelik, secondly there was a revolt in Eritrea against the harsh rule of the Italians. While this was put down it led the Italian Government to decide that their only course of action to regain face was a full scale invasion of Ethiopia. Initially this went quite well, they defeated Ras Mangasha twice and gained the entire province of Tegray. On 17th September 1895 Menelik issued a mobilisation order to his army for assembly on 16th October. In force the Ethiopians went on to win two early victories, enough to raise the discussion of peace talks. In this the Italians demanded that they could retain the whole of Tegray, to which Menelik would not agree. The Italian Prime Minister sent a telegram to the general, demanding that all sacrifice to be made to preserve honour. The Italians set for a first light attack on 1st March, intended to be a surprise. However that element was soon lost, conveyed either by Eritreans or Tegrayan defectors. Further ant-Italian sympathies aided Menelik as the Eritreans and locals were very willing to guide his armies to the best positions. In contrast the Italians had little local knowledge and inaccurate maps of the mountainous terrain. Menelik had a distinct numerical advantage in terms of men for the battle; 100,000 armed with modern rifles, compared to 17,000 ( 10,596 Italians, the remainder Eritrean levies). There was closer equality in canon, but it was numbers and information which proved to be the critical factor, enabling each of the three Italian divisions to be engaged by a separate group of Menelik’s army. In the end the Italians suffered a 43% casualty rate, with only one of the six generals escaping unscathed. Of the other five, three were killed, one wounded and one captured. In retreating they also left behind much of their baggage and 11,000 rifles As well as a military victory, Adwa had weighty political repercussions. Back in Italy it led to Anti Government and anti-war demonstrations. For Ethiopia the new Addis Ababa treaty which the Italians signed cancelled out Wuchale; acknowledging Menelik’s independent sovereignty and the original Eritrean borders. Internationally the French and British also dispatched diplomatic parties to sign treaties of friendship with Menelik, as did the Tsar of Russia, the Sudanese Mahdists and the Sultan of the Ottoman empire. It was this acknowledgment and the peace that followed which allowed Menelik to concentrate on the modernisation of his country, some of which was outlined above Recommended Reading if you’re interested: Richard Pankhurst The Ethiopeans: A History (Blackwell, 1998) Bahru Zewde A History of Modern Ethiopia 1855-1974 (Currey, 1991) All feedback appreciated as this is my first post for the Blog	1,612	ENGLISH	1
Daniel Hudson Burnham was a famous American architect who designed and planned many important buildings and cities in the United States. He was born in New York City into a religious family and was raised in Chicago. After finishing his school he faced a tough time getting admission into a university because of which, he became an apprentice at an architectural firm of William Le Baron Jenny, who was considered as the ‘father of skyscrapers’ at that time. With time, Burnham changed his architect firm and met with his future partner John Wellborn Root there. Both Root and Burnham started their own architect firm and were considered to be aces of their game. Burnham was a creative visionary and Root was more grounded and practical in his approach. But after the premature death of Root, Burnham formed a company called D.H. Burnham & Company and started the biggest project of his career called the ‘World’s Columbian Exposition’ in Chicago. He created a ‘White City’ there, which is still considered to be a work of genius. His work was recognized by Harvard and Yale universities and he received honorary degrees from them. - Daniel Burnham was born on 4 September 1846 in Henderson, New York City. His family moved to Chicago, Illinois when he was very young. He was brought up in a religious environment.He did his schooling from a public school in Chicago but he could not get admission in a university and repeatedly failed his admissions tests for Harvard and Yale. This led him to choose politics as a career for himself.His ‘politics’ stint did not work out for him and he did an apprenticeship as a draftsman at the architecture firm of William Le Baron Jenny.Continue Reading BelowCareer - In 1872, Burnham started to work as a draftsman at the firm of Carter, Drake and Wight and within a year, he started a partnership with his co-worker John Wellborn Root. The partnership was a profitable one.Both Burnham and Root complimented each other as Burnham was a visionary and designer and Root was a brilliant draftsman and a physics genius. They both got their first project from John Sherman to construct his Prairie Avenue house.From 1873-81, after the Great Chicago Fire, both Root and Burnham took up the magnanimous task to rebuild the whole city from scratch, the firm designed more than 165 private houses and 75 public and private buildings.All the buildings that Root and Burnham built had European touch to it. Eventually the firm adapted to new age techniques and constructed buildings like ‘The Rookery’, the ‘Reliance Building’, the ‘Monadnock’ building, etc.In 1893, after the death of Root, Burnham took up the role to serve as the chief of construction and chief of consulting architect for the World’s Columbian Exposition, Chicago. It was the most famous work of his life.Burnham constructed the ‘White City’ for the Columbian Exposition along with many architecture firms from all over the eastern United States. It has buildings, landscapes, boulevards, gardens and classical structures.Around the same time, he was awarded an honorary degree from Harvard and Yale for his brilliant work for the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago. He was also elected as the president of the American Institute of Architects.In 1900s, Burnham was hired by the U.S. Philippine Commission to design cities of Baguio and Manila. He designed the Flatiron Building, New York, around the same time and did planning for the Beaux-Arts Union Station, Washington.In 1909, Burnham planned to make Chicago into a beautiful city. After the great success of the ‘White City’, he ignored all the practical aspects of planning a city and kept focusing on the visual features. Around 300 million US dollars were put into it.Continue Reading BelowAccording to his plan there would be a lakefront and river and every resident of the city will be within a walking distance of a park. An island was eventually built within the city which provides for natural conservation and a beautiful sight.In 1912, Burnham’s company became the world’s largest architecture company and a model for many other rising architecture firms in America. He was named by President Taft to be the Chairman of the Committee on the Fine Arts.Personal Life & Legacy - Burnham married Margaret Sherman in 1876. She was the daughter of a wealthy stockyard executive. They had a long marriage and produced three sons and two daughters.In 1912, Burnham died in Heidelberg, Germany. He was survived by his two sons - Hubert and Daniel Jr. His sons succeeded him and named the company as ‘Burnham Brothers’ and they donated most of his drawings.The original drawings and records of Burnham’s work that was donated by his sons after his death to the Art Institute of Chicago eventually made for the Burnham Library, which has one of the vast collections of architectural information in the world.America has paid tribute to Burnham in the form of Burnham Park, Daniel Burnham Court in Chicago, Burnham Park in Baguio City, Daniel Burnham Court in San Francisco, etc.Trivia - Burnham’s partner Root died at an early age of pneumonia in 1891.Louis Sullivan, the greatest architect of the Chicago School used to dislike Burnham’s taste and work and used to call it ‘feudal’ and ‘imperial’. He was of the view that it was setting the modern architecture 50 years back.He had sent his sons to study architecture in Paris’ Ecole des Beaux-Arts to learn the classical techniques in architecture since he was himself influenced by the architecture and aesthetics of Rome and Greece. How To CiteArticle Title- Daniel Burnham BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/daniel-burnham-3736.phpLast Updated- November 09, 2017 People Also Viewed	<urn:uuid:54836908-f01a-4ace-838f-3e54509627de>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/daniel-burnham-3736.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00362.warc.gz	en	0.984996	1,272	3.546875	4	[ -0.08092768490314484, 0.5029813051223755, 0.5047378540039062, -0.2968668043613434, -0.5727736949920654, -0.08511266112327576, 0.0834994986653328, 0.06652425229549408, -0.41293561458587646, -0.23834381997585297, -0.1986958533525467, 0.042594052851200104, 0.10531654953956604, 0.2087444067001...	1	Daniel Hudson Burnham was a famous American architect who designed and planned many important buildings and cities in the United States. He was born in New York City into a religious family and was raised in Chicago. After finishing his school he faced a tough time getting admission into a university because of which, he became an apprentice at an architectural firm of William Le Baron Jenny, who was considered as the ‘father of skyscrapers’ at that time. With time, Burnham changed his architect firm and met with his future partner John Wellborn Root there. Both Root and Burnham started their own architect firm and were considered to be aces of their game. Burnham was a creative visionary and Root was more grounded and practical in his approach. But after the premature death of Root, Burnham formed a company called D.H. Burnham & Company and started the biggest project of his career called the ‘World’s Columbian Exposition’ in Chicago. He created a ‘White City’ there, which is still considered to be a work of genius. His work was recognized by Harvard and Yale universities and he received honorary degrees from them. - Daniel Burnham was born on 4 September 1846 in Henderson, New York City. His family moved to Chicago, Illinois when he was very young. He was brought up in a religious environment.He did his schooling from a public school in Chicago but he could not get admission in a university and repeatedly failed his admissions tests for Harvard and Yale. This led him to choose politics as a career for himself.His ‘politics’ stint did not work out for him and he did an apprenticeship as a draftsman at the architecture firm of William Le Baron Jenny.Continue Reading BelowCareer - In 1872, Burnham started to work as a draftsman at the firm of Carter, Drake and Wight and within a year, he started a partnership with his co-worker John Wellborn Root. The partnership was a profitable one.Both Burnham and Root complimented each other as Burnham was a visionary and designer and Root was a brilliant draftsman and a physics genius. They both got their first project from John Sherman to construct his Prairie Avenue house.From 1873-81, after the Great Chicago Fire, both Root and Burnham took up the magnanimous task to rebuild the whole city from scratch, the firm designed more than 165 private houses and 75 public and private buildings.All the buildings that Root and Burnham built had European touch to it. Eventually the firm adapted to new age techniques and constructed buildings like ‘The Rookery’, the ‘Reliance Building’, the ‘Monadnock’ building, etc.In 1893, after the death of Root, Burnham took up the role to serve as the chief of construction and chief of consulting architect for the World’s Columbian Exposition, Chicago. It was the most famous work of his life.Burnham constructed the ‘White City’ for the Columbian Exposition along with many architecture firms from all over the eastern United States. It has buildings, landscapes, boulevards, gardens and classical structures.Around the same time, he was awarded an honorary degree from Harvard and Yale for his brilliant work for the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago. He was also elected as the president of the American Institute of Architects.In 1900s, Burnham was hired by the U.S. Philippine Commission to design cities of Baguio and Manila. He designed the Flatiron Building, New York, around the same time and did planning for the Beaux-Arts Union Station, Washington.In 1909, Burnham planned to make Chicago into a beautiful city. After the great success of the ‘White City’, he ignored all the practical aspects of planning a city and kept focusing on the visual features. Around 300 million US dollars were put into it.Continue Reading BelowAccording to his plan there would be a lakefront and river and every resident of the city will be within a walking distance of a park. An island was eventually built within the city which provides for natural conservation and a beautiful sight.In 1912, Burnham’s company became the world’s largest architecture company and a model for many other rising architecture firms in America. He was named by President Taft to be the Chairman of the Committee on the Fine Arts.Personal Life & Legacy - Burnham married Margaret Sherman in 1876. She was the daughter of a wealthy stockyard executive. They had a long marriage and produced three sons and two daughters.In 1912, Burnham died in Heidelberg, Germany. He was survived by his two sons - Hubert and Daniel Jr. His sons succeeded him and named the company as ‘Burnham Brothers’ and they donated most of his drawings.The original drawings and records of Burnham’s work that was donated by his sons after his death to the Art Institute of Chicago eventually made for the Burnham Library, which has one of the vast collections of architectural information in the world.America has paid tribute to Burnham in the form of Burnham Park, Daniel Burnham Court in Chicago, Burnham Park in Baguio City, Daniel Burnham Court in San Francisco, etc.Trivia - Burnham’s partner Root died at an early age of pneumonia in 1891.Louis Sullivan, the greatest architect of the Chicago School used to dislike Burnham’s taste and work and used to call it ‘feudal’ and ‘imperial’. He was of the view that it was setting the modern architecture 50 years back.He had sent his sons to study architecture in Paris’ Ecole des Beaux-Arts to learn the classical techniques in architecture since he was himself influenced by the architecture and aesthetics of Rome and Greece. How To CiteArticle Title- Daniel Burnham BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/daniel-burnham-3736.phpLast Updated- November 09, 2017 People Also Viewed	1,257	ENGLISH	1
Extremely rare pink grasshopper discovered in garden A British woman came across a rare sight in her grandmother's garden in Gloucestershire: a pink grasshopper. Kate Culley, 41, was helping the family out when she noticed the unusually coloured insect. "I was surprised — you don't expect to see a pink grasshopper," she said in an interview with SWNS. "It was unusual, I've never seen one like that before." It's not the first time someone has come across one. In a 2013 blog post for National Geographic, researcher Victoria Hillman wrote that she and her team found six pink grasshoppers. "I certainly hadn't and didn't even know you could have a pink grasshopper, let alone actually see one for real in the wild!" she wrote. "They do exist but rarely make it to adulthood as they are easily picked off by predators as they are so conspicuous against the green foliage compared to the normal green and brownish morphs which is one of the reasons they are hardly ever seen." Pink grasshoppers are the result of erythrism — a genetic mutation that is caused by a recessive gene that's similar to the one that leads to albinism. Creatures that have erythrism produce a higher level of red pigmentation, whereas albinism is characterised by the lack of colour.	<urn:uuid:688abfee-004b-4947-881e-2d2d3c2cca59>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.aol.co.uk/living/2019/08/19/extremely-rare-pink-grasshopper-discovered-in-garden/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00435.warc.gz	en	0.984723	288	3.296875	3	[ -0.10929600894451141, -0.3162913918495178, 0.22438719868659973, 0.005305773112922907, 0.21836243569850922, 0.2654491662979126, 0.3734833300113678, 0.23006145656108856, 0.0046088723465800285, 0.21962763369083405, 0.5410718321800232, -0.4892158508300781, -0.1470808982849121, 0.34267017245292...	1	Extremely rare pink grasshopper discovered in garden A British woman came across a rare sight in her grandmother's garden in Gloucestershire: a pink grasshopper. Kate Culley, 41, was helping the family out when she noticed the unusually coloured insect. "I was surprised — you don't expect to see a pink grasshopper," she said in an interview with SWNS. "It was unusual, I've never seen one like that before." It's not the first time someone has come across one. In a 2013 blog post for National Geographic, researcher Victoria Hillman wrote that she and her team found six pink grasshoppers. "I certainly hadn't and didn't even know you could have a pink grasshopper, let alone actually see one for real in the wild!" she wrote. "They do exist but rarely make it to adulthood as they are easily picked off by predators as they are so conspicuous against the green foliage compared to the normal green and brownish morphs which is one of the reasons they are hardly ever seen." Pink grasshoppers are the result of erythrism — a genetic mutation that is caused by a recessive gene that's similar to the one that leads to albinism. Creatures that have erythrism produce a higher level of red pigmentation, whereas albinism is characterised by the lack of colour.	282	ENGLISH	1
Individual study: Successful breeding in captive Artibeus Novick A. (1960) Successful breeding in captive Artibeus. Journal of Mammalogy, 41, 508-509 This study is summarised as evidence for the intervention(s) shown on the right. The icon shows which synopsis it is relevant to. Breed bats in captivity A study in 1958–1959 in a laboratory in Connecticut, USA (Novick 1960) found that three of five Jamaican fruit-eating bats Artibeus jamaicensis born in captivity survived for 10-50 days and appeared to be in good health. Three bat pups were born 11, 12 and 13 months after their mothers were captured in the wild and had survived for 10–50 days at the time of the study. One other pregnancy was aborted (seven months after the mother was captured) and one bat pup died within 24 h of birth (eight months after the mother was captured). Twelve adult bats were captured in Mexico in July and August 1958 and brought to the laboratory in September 1958 to establish a breeding colony. They were kept in a darkened flight room at 80˚F and fed banana and melon. Vitamins were added to drinking water. The captive bats were regularly observed for 13 months from September 1958 (dates not reported). (Summarised by Anna Berthinussen)	<urn:uuid:9f8e27e6-3968-4f30-bbea-dfd3e6f332e2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.conservationevidence.com/individual-study/6940	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00184.warc.gz	en	0.982075	278	3.328125	3	[ -0.16867177188396454, 0.40780922770500183, -0.07404863834381104, 0.10870242118835449, 0.2540826201438904, 0.24409206211566925, -0.06295125186443329, 0.3789024353027344, -0.2594344913959503, 0.060285232961177826, -0.004991699010133743, -0.8076879382133484, -0.0669960230588913, 0.04255182296...	4	Individual study: Successful breeding in captive Artibeus Novick A. (1960) Successful breeding in captive Artibeus. Journal of Mammalogy, 41, 508-509 This study is summarised as evidence for the intervention(s) shown on the right. The icon shows which synopsis it is relevant to. Breed bats in captivity A study in 1958–1959 in a laboratory in Connecticut, USA (Novick 1960) found that three of five Jamaican fruit-eating bats Artibeus jamaicensis born in captivity survived for 10-50 days and appeared to be in good health. Three bat pups were born 11, 12 and 13 months after their mothers were captured in the wild and had survived for 10–50 days at the time of the study. One other pregnancy was aborted (seven months after the mother was captured) and one bat pup died within 24 h of birth (eight months after the mother was captured). Twelve adult bats were captured in Mexico in July and August 1958 and brought to the laboratory in September 1958 to establish a breeding colony. They were kept in a darkened flight room at 80˚F and fed banana and melon. Vitamins were added to drinking water. The captive bats were regularly observed for 13 months from September 1958 (dates not reported). (Summarised by Anna Berthinussen)	323	ENGLISH	1
A pair of infant skeletons were found wearing other children's skulls as helmets in a 2,000-year-old grave site - Archaeologists recently uncovered skeletal remains from 11 people in two burial mounds in Ecuador. - Each mound contained an infant buried wearing a helmet made from the skull of an older child. - In a new study, researchers offer possible explanations for this manner of burial, which is unprecedented in the archaeological record. - The infants and older children weren't sacrificed, the study says; they likely died from starvation and disease following a volcanic eruption. - Visit Business Insider's homepage for more stories. In a pair of Ecuadorian burial mounds, researchers recently found an archaeological puzzle: Two 2,100-year-old infant skulls appeared to be wearing the skulls of older kids. "The infant dead were interred wearing a "helmet" made from crania of other children," the researchers wrote in a new study about the finding published in the journal Latin American Antiquity. This is only known evidence of children's skulls being used as helmets in a burial ceremony anywhere in the archaeological record. The two mounds at the grave site, located near the town of Salango on the central coast of Ecuador, contained remains from 11 individuals in total - infants, children, and adults alike. But only one skull in each mound was layered inside a larger skull. The study authors aren't sure why the children were buried with this extra headgear, but said it could represent an attempt to protect the infants in the afterlife. The two burial mounds, which date back to 100 BCE, were built by a group of people called Guangala who lived in the area starting around that time and remained there for the next few centuries. A research team from the Universidad Técnica de Manabí excavated the site between 2014 and 2016. In one mound, archaeologists found the skull of an infant that died at 18 months old, which was buried wearing the skull of a child between 4 and 12 years old. In the second mound, the team uncovered a more complete skeleton of an infant between 6 and 9 months old. That skull was encased in a skull helmet from a child between 2 and 12 years old. In both cases, the skull helmets sat snugly on their owners' heads. That suggests to the archaeologists that the older children's skulls were likely still fleshy when they were converted into helmets, since the helmets wouldn't otherwise have fit so tightly and remained that way over thousands of years. The team therefore thinks both the infants and the children who provided the helmets were buried at the same time. Anthropologist Sara Juengst, lead author of the new study, told Business Insider that "what the relationship was, if any, between the primary burials and additional skulls is unclear currently." Future DNA studies could help clarify that, Juengst added. The infants' cause of death isn't clear either. "We don't have any evidence that any of these children were sacrificed," Juengst said. "It seems likely they died of natural causes, rather than through sacrifice, because they have a lot of indicators of pretty extreme malnutrition and disease stress." Child burials were ritually significant Human heads were powerful symbols in South American ritual burials. Skulls could represent vanquished enemies, revered kin, and symbolic connections to ancestors and the spiritual realm - which is why they are sometimes referred to as "trophy heads," the authors wrote. But while adult trophy heads are often found at grave sites, skulls belonging to children are far more rare. "Adult skulls were regularly manipulated in different ways in the pre-hispanic Andes, but child skulls are less commonly involved," Juengst said. The study authors offer few theories as to why the infants were interred this way. Likely, Juengst said, the Guangala hoped this "mortuary headgear" would ensure that these infants had extra protection or extra links to ancestors. This extra protection may have been deemed necessary if the children had died following some sort of natural or social disaster. Young people were also seen by many Andean groups, including the Guangala, as special in ritual circumstances. Children's souls, in particular, could benefit the living by positively affecting agricultural production, human fertility, and seasonal patterns of rain, Juengst and her colleagues wrote. The Salango infants were buried following a volcanic eruption The two skull-helmet-clad infants were buried just above a layer of volcanic ash, the researchers reported, which suggests an eruption occurred in nearby highlands prior to their deaths. Juengst thinks the consequences of this volcanic eruption, such as a loss of crops or trouble finding fish and game, could have triggered disease outbreaks and starvation among the Guangala. Once the children died from these causes, Juengst suggested, they were ritually buried with the unprecedented skull helmets. "The treatment of the two infants was part of a larger, complex ritual response to environmental consequences of the eruption," she said.	<urn:uuid:4eab0500-439e-4594-a446-2cdc18bba17f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.businessinsider.in/science/news/a-pair-of-infant-skeletons-were-found-wearing-other-childrens-skulls-as-helmets-in-a-2000-year-old-grave-site/articleshow/72149379.cms	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00271.warc.gz	en	0.981913	1,043	3.421875	3	[ -0.3911122679710388, 0.1839333325624466, 0.43312162160873413, 0.07358156889677048, -0.351642370223999, 0.20494431257247925, -0.1364593207836151, 0.00879463367164135, -0.364776611328125, 0.08945266902446747, 0.17925192415714264, -0.31048256158828735, 0.05827284976840019, 0.5733115077018738,...	1	A pair of infant skeletons were found wearing other children's skulls as helmets in a 2,000-year-old grave site - Archaeologists recently uncovered skeletal remains from 11 people in two burial mounds in Ecuador. - Each mound contained an infant buried wearing a helmet made from the skull of an older child. - In a new study, researchers offer possible explanations for this manner of burial, which is unprecedented in the archaeological record. - The infants and older children weren't sacrificed, the study says; they likely died from starvation and disease following a volcanic eruption. - Visit Business Insider's homepage for more stories. In a pair of Ecuadorian burial mounds, researchers recently found an archaeological puzzle: Two 2,100-year-old infant skulls appeared to be wearing the skulls of older kids. "The infant dead were interred wearing a "helmet" made from crania of other children," the researchers wrote in a new study about the finding published in the journal Latin American Antiquity. This is only known evidence of children's skulls being used as helmets in a burial ceremony anywhere in the archaeological record. The two mounds at the grave site, located near the town of Salango on the central coast of Ecuador, contained remains from 11 individuals in total - infants, children, and adults alike. But only one skull in each mound was layered inside a larger skull. The study authors aren't sure why the children were buried with this extra headgear, but said it could represent an attempt to protect the infants in the afterlife. The two burial mounds, which date back to 100 BCE, were built by a group of people called Guangala who lived in the area starting around that time and remained there for the next few centuries. A research team from the Universidad Técnica de Manabí excavated the site between 2014 and 2016. In one mound, archaeologists found the skull of an infant that died at 18 months old, which was buried wearing the skull of a child between 4 and 12 years old. In the second mound, the team uncovered a more complete skeleton of an infant between 6 and 9 months old. That skull was encased in a skull helmet from a child between 2 and 12 years old. In both cases, the skull helmets sat snugly on their owners' heads. That suggests to the archaeologists that the older children's skulls were likely still fleshy when they were converted into helmets, since the helmets wouldn't otherwise have fit so tightly and remained that way over thousands of years. The team therefore thinks both the infants and the children who provided the helmets were buried at the same time. Anthropologist Sara Juengst, lead author of the new study, told Business Insider that "what the relationship was, if any, between the primary burials and additional skulls is unclear currently." Future DNA studies could help clarify that, Juengst added. The infants' cause of death isn't clear either. "We don't have any evidence that any of these children were sacrificed," Juengst said. "It seems likely they died of natural causes, rather than through sacrifice, because they have a lot of indicators of pretty extreme malnutrition and disease stress." Child burials were ritually significant Human heads were powerful symbols in South American ritual burials. Skulls could represent vanquished enemies, revered kin, and symbolic connections to ancestors and the spiritual realm - which is why they are sometimes referred to as "trophy heads," the authors wrote. But while adult trophy heads are often found at grave sites, skulls belonging to children are far more rare. "Adult skulls were regularly manipulated in different ways in the pre-hispanic Andes, but child skulls are less commonly involved," Juengst said. The study authors offer few theories as to why the infants were interred this way. Likely, Juengst said, the Guangala hoped this "mortuary headgear" would ensure that these infants had extra protection or extra links to ancestors. This extra protection may have been deemed necessary if the children had died following some sort of natural or social disaster. Young people were also seen by many Andean groups, including the Guangala, as special in ritual circumstances. Children's souls, in particular, could benefit the living by positively affecting agricultural production, human fertility, and seasonal patterns of rain, Juengst and her colleagues wrote. The Salango infants were buried following a volcanic eruption The two skull-helmet-clad infants were buried just above a layer of volcanic ash, the researchers reported, which suggests an eruption occurred in nearby highlands prior to their deaths. Juengst thinks the consequences of this volcanic eruption, such as a loss of crops or trouble finding fish and game, could have triggered disease outbreaks and starvation among the Guangala. Once the children died from these causes, Juengst suggested, they were ritually buried with the unprecedented skull helmets. "The treatment of the two infants was part of a larger, complex ritual response to environmental consequences of the eruption," she said.	1,043	ENGLISH	1
(1) With the electromagnetic activity of celestial bodies, we acquired the certainty that our Sun will become a huge star in a distant time, by going up the branch of the Galaxy. But, at the moment, and because it still possesses Neptune, Uranus, Saturn and Jupiter which are yet growing within its family with their satellites, by increasing its overall inertia, the Sun is coming down at the moment towards the edge of the Galaxy. For these reasons, we know that solar family is one of the youngest families of the Wheel. But this youth is also noticeable by the moderate climate which is the result of the stabilization of the Earth which took place recently. Needing this stability, the humanity thus exists only recently. And it is in order that it remains that on God sends his only Son today. (2) Let's remind that these are the great and fast changes in temperature caused by the comings and goings of the Earth which shaped the continents. That is why, on the climatic and geologic aspect, there were many changes along the eras, till the beginning of the quaternary where the Earth stabilized. And it is because of this stabilization (which had only little influence on the relief) that it is very difficult to distinguish the tertiary from the quaternary, notably by studying grounds and climates. However it is easy to admit that the quaternary era (the sixth day) is the only era which could offer the climate and the conditions of life favorable to the existence of humanity. And it is this day when man was created, as Moses very well illustrated it. (3) The beginning of the quaternary was essentially marked by the climatic change of the Earth which, having again traveled closer to the Sun, warmed itself constantly. The age of the quaternary, where the climate became temperate, gives as well the approximate age of the humanity that we can reasonably estimate at ten thousand years. At the beginning of this era, it was also the period when the big glaciers ended melting. We can also make such estimation based on the growth of humanity. We have already made this calculation, and we weren't able to situate the origin of man much more than ten thousand years... What moreover corresponds better to the vestiges that we find from the human presence. (4) Because of the evident youth of solar family and all that we studied on the formation and the great changes in temperature, notably in the extremities of the eras, nobody can believe any longer that man existed since four million years, but instead that he exists since about ten thousand years, at the most. We have to estimate likewise the previous eras in thousand revolutions only, and not in million or billion years which challenge the understanding. (5) To understand the world and to know its destiny, it is inevitably necessary to have in mind that man is in his childhood on this planet which is itself at the bottom of the great spiral and initially of its existence. And, with the help of the snake, it is necessary to imagine how was the continual improvement of the conditions of life which allowed the creation of the humanity in its four colors with which are connected all peoples. These various and invaluable colors of men are consecutive, them too, at the progressive reheating of the Earth which was happening at the approach of the Sun. Here's how: (6) We observe here the Earth at the exit of the tertiary, at the end of the comings and goings movement which admitted it to the quaternary where it stabilized. Although already warmed and covered with a very large number of animal species, the earth got a little closer to the Sun, by tightening gradually its orbits which brought it slowly in the region of the sky where we are today. What allowed obviously the equatorial region to become temperate at first. Then, while progressing forward, this sweeter temperature extended under all latitudes. This, finally created the proper conditions of life necessary for human existence which appeared at first at the equator (under tropics), and then they divided up on the whole globe which warmed itself slowly. (7) It is then obvious that they are the very BLACK men who were created the first ones in the equatorial regions (1). Then, a little later and further from the equator (2), came the men less black and rather BROWNS of skin. Later even and always farther (3), they are the YELLOW men who arrived on earth. And lastly (4), they are the WHITE men who were born by ending the creation. These are the four generations which appeared one after the other and without disruption on the face of the Earth. (8) Verily, when in the sixth day the garden was completed and filled with animals of all kinds, God created humanity in a same movement and in the single degraded color, passing by these four nuances. The humanity is the same as a single thread dyes for the first quarter in black, for the second quarter in brown, for the third quarter in yellow, and for the fourth quarter in white. It is about the four columns of God's temple, about the four degressive and distinct colors of humanity which are subdivided into races, peoples, tribes, families, into couples and children. (9) If we consider that because of the Earth movement and the appearance of the favorable climate to human existence, approximately one thousand years were necessary to create people of a color, four thousand years were then used to create the whole humanity. The first black men were probably created approximately ten thousand years ago, and the last white men approximately six thousand years ago. Four thousand years would have been indispensable to create all the peoples under the Sun, and six thousand years furthermore so that they multiply each in their colors and fill the whole Earth. Although, being approximated and vague, these durations are however likely and very close to what was the historical past of humanity. We are now at the term of the six days, there where the world is led in the whole truth by the Son of man; and we are now entering in the seventh day, which is the beginning of God's reign, as it is expressed in genesis. (10) The first couples of every race, were successively created here and there all around the globe. But, independently of the temperate climate which was indispensable to them, men needed the vegetable and animal creation which preceded them for their formation and to be able to remain. That is why, without the variety of the worlds of the previous eras, and without the vegetables and animals which preceded us in our era, the human world wouldn't be. It was indeed necessary to go through the climatic changes of the past and of the previous worlds so that our world exists today. What means, once again, that the living beings of an era couldn't be those from another era where the elements didn't correspond to what they were. It is such that no creature can be the right and just answer to the different life conditions from those which are at the origin of its color and of its race. (11) How then should we represent man in regards to the Earth itself? It is written in Genesis: Then the Lord God formed a man from the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being. This pictorial description of the formation of the man, shows that the dust (the matter) which composes the earth composes necessarily the human body. Therefore, as for every being, man is integral part of the planet. It is the mouth and the spirit of the Earth; he is its child and the reason of existence of solar family. This is similar in all stellar families of the Galaxy, because by existing everywhere, life shows itself everywhere in God's universe. Stop then looking for its origin here on earth, because the breath of life comes from above and not from below. (12) Being the last-born, man necessarily benefited from all which preceded him. And if we can't exactly know how God created him, we can nevertheless grasp that he continues to exist by the same ingredients necessary for his creation. We can also compare the man at a sum of added units the ones to others. When we compose a number, we add unit to unit. This way, one thousand is one thousand times one, and so on for all the numbers which cannot express anything else but a quantity of units. We notice while by adding a unit furthermore to a certain quantity, we can make tip over this quantity already formed in another category, as one more step of a ladder makes you change floor. (13) Because of it, and although few things differ physically between man and the monkey appeared just before him, you shouldn't deduce that he was a monkey who has transformed himself in time. But we shall say: because by adding one more unit it can provoke a change of category or floor, why the enrichment of the natural and pervading environment, resulting from the work of the earth, wouldn't have been able to increase by a little the chromosome of the small monkeys which were going to develop in the entrails of their mother? Wouldn't the monkeys so have been able to give birth to the first men of the forests whose ancestors would be at the beginning of humanity? Wouldn't be then likely that after the formation of the monkeys, it was the formation of the black men who engendered gradually less dark and brown men who, in turn, engendered yellow men likewise, and these last ones of the whites; all this during a period of four thousand years? (14) Lets all know, on this subject, that it is easier to envisage the original birth of man and woman in its entirety, from the bosom of the Earth. However, that men are created one way or another, fast or less fast, it doesn't have to be a part of our essential concerns, because we are here in difficult domains of access for the creature and where God doesn't ask us to go. Let's try rather to see that every creation had its originality and that it deviated from the previous one, because this is how was made the variety of the species along the eras and from the water. (15) Verily, the important part is that we become aware of the real youth of man; and that this one is son of the universe before being a son of the Earth, and that it was never an animal, neither different from what we know of him today. His size, his morphology, his appearance, his intelligence and his capacities have never changed. Only his knowledge increased because of different experiences that he acquired. Born bipedal, above all and in the perfection of all shapes, man will eternally stay so to differ from the animal kingdom which he dominates. (16) For the one who is saint of mind, it is easy to visualize the creation in its whole, beginning necessarily with the simplest living being, and ending by the most complex of all life beings, this last being man, the representative and the temple of the Divinity. The purpose of the book of life is to show it, to show who man is, where he comes from, where he goes, and how he has to live to not destroy anything. (17) Beyond the celestial bodies from which we come from, the principle of existence can show us what man is compared to animal. How? First of all, we know that this principle which gets by integration-disintegration, or by intake-consumption, can also be understood by emission-reception of any creative force. In my language, to receive is everything which enters in oneself, and to emit is everything which goes out of oneself. Everything we receive from universe enters into us so we can exist and remain. Therefore, we understand that the first organisms didn't need to emit to be alive. They only had to receive to exist. So, the first living organisms existed only by direct creation, and not by procreation. It is only as the conditions of life increased, grew rich and was getting complicated in a sense, that creatures needed to resort to the intelligence and to procreation to remain. Which means emitting. (18) This evolution has been from species to species and from world to world, until man appeared who dominates everything by his tremendous capacities. And it is his great spirit which allows him today to grasp the depths of the sky; while, for the animal, the universe limits itself in the middle of where it lives. It sees the Sun, the Earth, the elements and the beings quite as men can; but, for it, the world limits it to what surrounds it. Its intelligence remains then restricted. (19)This is why, even if it's about a skillful monkey and studious on the evening of the world, it could not be taught to know that Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are solid bodies, surrounded with a gigantic atmosphere, which are getting ready to shine as the Sun. Consequently, it will never know that stars do shine thanks to their celestial bodies and each illuminates their world where there are expressive and skillful monkeys like him. Limited in his reasoning, and not being able to know the science of the Creator which brings him the being, the breath and the movement, he belongs necessarily at animal kingdom. Then, quite as his ancestors who were born monkeys, will remain as a monkey and will never be scholar... (20) Contrary to the animal which is a part of its building, the man saint of mind, him, can be led in the whole truth. That is why, on the evening, when he arrives at the skull site with the Son, he grasps easily the hidden sense from an allegory, a metaphor or a parabola, because his ears can hear that day what means: get up, take your bed and walk! He understands all Scripture's words, and it is without forcing that he sees this time what is the resurrection of the dead in the last day and why it is written: in these days, blind persons will see. It is so, because by being freed from the scientific lies and the religious lies, man, whose spirit doesn't stop increasing along the centuries, can on the evening of the world easily differentiate the good from evil, as well as the truth from the fake. He is then at the zenith of the understanding and discerns perfectly the elements of universe which give him substance and spirit. He then coalesces with his Creator and becomes aware that this light which distinguishes him from the animal makes of him the greatest creature which could exist. (21) I speak about you, the humbles of the Earth, you all the circumcised of heart who quickly understand the words of the Son of man. I am not talking about those who have difficulty to take the horse in race and still wondering: can we be certain that, in the universe, man is the greatest existing creature for which stars shine? (22) At this question, I answer once again that it is the multiple perceptions of the man which compose his consciousness, his spirit with which he can identify all elements of the universe which gives him existence. And it is always his spirit which endows him with the word by which he thinks and holds reasoning. That is why, when he demonstrates both faces of the universal electromagnetism and the processes which bring his existence, man emits as much as he receives. He can then reach summits to which he didn't expect. (23) What can we indeed demonstrate beyond the living universe which gives us existence? When we do it, we demonstrate God. Then we know that we are ourselves his temple, his house. Then we light up and change necessarily. Man is then indeed the first state of the angel. Which differentiates him of the animal. That is why I said that, in the universe, there can't be a being superior to the one who becomes an angel. And this is what you become, you who arise a second time from the spirit, with me. (24) We cannot know what man is from what we observe of him or from what he does, as I already said it. To understand who he is, let's remind that it is necessary to exclude at first the fact that beings were able to remain from one era to another, because the snake is showing us this impossibility, except maybe for some simple organisms which appeared on the warm dorsals at the bottom of basins. It is also necessary to think that being the last-born, man isn't a species as the others but a whole, because a species remains only if it is followed by the other one. What can't be the case for man who, created lastly, benefited from all of which existed to be the temple where God lives. Only man understands the universe. And when he reaches it, as you are doing it today, he can then only identified himself to Divinity. (25) It is also advisable to remember that by being always the sum of the elements which precede it and which give it shape and abilities, a species is necessarily an integral part of the following species which is then even more complex than the previous one. To engrave in self this phenomenon of inheritance, let's think that the recently created species carries in it, let's say, colors (the genes) of all the species which preceded it. So, the creation appears like a single organism living within which if only a single species is missing it would be a real mutilation and a misfortune for ever. (26) When they speak about prehominids, the great scientists evoke quadrupeds which were transformed and stood up in time, to become gradually monkeys' bipeds, hairless, with a human face... They so evoke singular beings which, in a space time, were not quite animals and not yet men. Knowing that you are very numerous to believe them, I ask you anew: a species which would have gradually lost its animal capacities to live, and which wouldn't have acquired those of men for do it, what would it thus have become meanwhile to survive during the millions of years necessary for its evolution? Besides, if the evolution of the species was real, why then there would have been extinction of the species of the previous eras? Wouldn't they have been able to last until our days, transforming itself by adaptation? (27) This famous evolution, which would be an unlimited intelligence as it seem, would have been able to transform the living species during times and wouldn't have however been able to prevent the ageing of the species and individuals? Wouldn't it have been able to put an end to death? Is it because of this incapacity which blemish the extent of its enormous possibilities, that the evolution would have begun to elaborate this tremendous system of procreation within beings? If this is what you still believe, then tell me how come that not being able to prevent the disappearance of the species, it would have nevertheless been able to imagine such perfections in the procreation? Is it also necessary to hear that this evolution would be an entity having a purpose? What would it be exactly in your minds? (28) The study of the eras shows in the certainty that plants, insects and animals were never others than what they were or are in their sort. Certainly, there were different species from those nowadays which disappeared for the reasons we saw, but no one was transformed. And the most recent ones, which appeared at the beginning of the quaternary or before, were formed such as we know them. It was the same for men who, as vegetables and animals, appeared each in turn, and such as they are on the continents where existed their elements of life. The entire second part of the book is indeed the formal proof. (29) Thus exclude the evolution of the species lauded by the scientists, because it is them who evolve in the unconsciousness! And refrain from believing that everything which has feathers is intended to fly. Because the ostriches or the penguins were by no means created to fly in the air, but to be on the ground for the ostriches and in the water for the penguins. This is, because feathers aren't inevitably intended to make fly the creature. They can also serve for accumulating and for regulating the electromagnetic force, to give shade, to isolate from the heat or from the cold, or yet for relieving or for weighing more a being in the water where it moves. For the same reasons of diversity, we also find marine mammals and flying mammals, such dolphins or bats, which weren't conceived to live on the ground. (30) Because they are always created according to the given living conditions, the beings which live in abyss or on mountains stay quite naturally in the environment where they were created and with which they make one. Not coming from somewhere else, their elements of life do not live elsewhere than where they live. And they stay there, because the creature cannot remove itself from its vital environment. That is why every living being is endowed with a constitution and with a metabolism which don't allow it to live somewhere else than within elements having served to create it. And it will always be like so, be convinced.	<urn:uuid:39bcbeff-9388-4b4a-af49-a5190f7d6ea8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thebookoflife.eu/the-rules-of-existence/the-birth-of-humanity.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00333.warc.gz	en	0.980794	4,345	3.46875	3	[ -0.2732390761375427, 0.2352527230978012, 0.0615873821079731, -0.3161742687225342, 0.19398145377635956, -0.03657522052526474, -0.15083563327789307, 0.08754882216453552, 0.1054195761680603, 0.15315952897071838, 0.41829460859298706, -0.4354468286037445, 0.3027249276638031, 0.2528301477432251,...	2	(1) With the electromagnetic activity of celestial bodies, we acquired the certainty that our Sun will become a huge star in a distant time, by going up the branch of the Galaxy. But, at the moment, and because it still possesses Neptune, Uranus, Saturn and Jupiter which are yet growing within its family with their satellites, by increasing its overall inertia, the Sun is coming down at the moment towards the edge of the Galaxy. For these reasons, we know that solar family is one of the youngest families of the Wheel. But this youth is also noticeable by the moderate climate which is the result of the stabilization of the Earth which took place recently. Needing this stability, the humanity thus exists only recently. And it is in order that it remains that on God sends his only Son today. (2) Let's remind that these are the great and fast changes in temperature caused by the comings and goings of the Earth which shaped the continents. That is why, on the climatic and geologic aspect, there were many changes along the eras, till the beginning of the quaternary where the Earth stabilized. And it is because of this stabilization (which had only little influence on the relief) that it is very difficult to distinguish the tertiary from the quaternary, notably by studying grounds and climates. However it is easy to admit that the quaternary era (the sixth day) is the only era which could offer the climate and the conditions of life favorable to the existence of humanity. And it is this day when man was created, as Moses very well illustrated it. (3) The beginning of the quaternary was essentially marked by the climatic change of the Earth which, having again traveled closer to the Sun, warmed itself constantly. The age of the quaternary, where the climate became temperate, gives as well the approximate age of the humanity that we can reasonably estimate at ten thousand years. At the beginning of this era, it was also the period when the big glaciers ended melting. We can also make such estimation based on the growth of humanity. We have already made this calculation, and we weren't able to situate the origin of man much more than ten thousand years... What moreover corresponds better to the vestiges that we find from the human presence. (4) Because of the evident youth of solar family and all that we studied on the formation and the great changes in temperature, notably in the extremities of the eras, nobody can believe any longer that man existed since four million years, but instead that he exists since about ten thousand years, at the most. We have to estimate likewise the previous eras in thousand revolutions only, and not in million or billion years which challenge the understanding. (5) To understand the world and to know its destiny, it is inevitably necessary to have in mind that man is in his childhood on this planet which is itself at the bottom of the great spiral and initially of its existence. And, with the help of the snake, it is necessary to imagine how was the continual improvement of the conditions of life which allowed the creation of the humanity in its four colors with which are connected all peoples. These various and invaluable colors of men are consecutive, them too, at the progressive reheating of the Earth which was happening at the approach of the Sun. Here's how: (6) We observe here the Earth at the exit of the tertiary, at the end of the comings and goings movement which admitted it to the quaternary where it stabilized. Although already warmed and covered with a very large number of animal species, the earth got a little closer to the Sun, by tightening gradually its orbits which brought it slowly in the region of the sky where we are today. What allowed obviously the equatorial region to become temperate at first. Then, while progressing forward, this sweeter temperature extended under all latitudes. This, finally created the proper conditions of life necessary for human existence which appeared at first at the equator (under tropics), and then they divided up on the whole globe which warmed itself slowly. (7) It is then obvious that they are the very BLACK men who were created the first ones in the equatorial regions (1). Then, a little later and further from the equator (2), came the men less black and rather BROWNS of skin. Later even and always farther (3), they are the YELLOW men who arrived on earth. And lastly (4), they are the WHITE men who were born by ending the creation. These are the four generations which appeared one after the other and without disruption on the face of the Earth. (8) Verily, when in the sixth day the garden was completed and filled with animals of all kinds, God created humanity in a same movement and in the single degraded color, passing by these four nuances. The humanity is the same as a single thread dyes for the first quarter in black, for the second quarter in brown, for the third quarter in yellow, and for the fourth quarter in white. It is about the four columns of God's temple, about the four degressive and distinct colors of humanity which are subdivided into races, peoples, tribes, families, into couples and children. (9) If we consider that because of the Earth movement and the appearance of the favorable climate to human existence, approximately one thousand years were necessary to create people of a color, four thousand years were then used to create the whole humanity. The first black men were probably created approximately ten thousand years ago, and the last white men approximately six thousand years ago. Four thousand years would have been indispensable to create all the peoples under the Sun, and six thousand years furthermore so that they multiply each in their colors and fill the whole Earth. Although, being approximated and vague, these durations are however likely and very close to what was the historical past of humanity. We are now at the term of the six days, there where the world is led in the whole truth by the Son of man; and we are now entering in the seventh day, which is the beginning of God's reign, as it is expressed in genesis. (10) The first couples of every race, were successively created here and there all around the globe. But, independently of the temperate climate which was indispensable to them, men needed the vegetable and animal creation which preceded them for their formation and to be able to remain. That is why, without the variety of the worlds of the previous eras, and without the vegetables and animals which preceded us in our era, the human world wouldn't be. It was indeed necessary to go through the climatic changes of the past and of the previous worlds so that our world exists today. What means, once again, that the living beings of an era couldn't be those from another era where the elements didn't correspond to what they were. It is such that no creature can be the right and just answer to the different life conditions from those which are at the origin of its color and of its race. (11) How then should we represent man in regards to the Earth itself? It is written in Genesis: Then the Lord God formed a man from the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being. This pictorial description of the formation of the man, shows that the dust (the matter) which composes the earth composes necessarily the human body. Therefore, as for every being, man is integral part of the planet. It is the mouth and the spirit of the Earth; he is its child and the reason of existence of solar family. This is similar in all stellar families of the Galaxy, because by existing everywhere, life shows itself everywhere in God's universe. Stop then looking for its origin here on earth, because the breath of life comes from above and not from below. (12) Being the last-born, man necessarily benefited from all which preceded him. And if we can't exactly know how God created him, we can nevertheless grasp that he continues to exist by the same ingredients necessary for his creation. We can also compare the man at a sum of added units the ones to others. When we compose a number, we add unit to unit. This way, one thousand is one thousand times one, and so on for all the numbers which cannot express anything else but a quantity of units. We notice while by adding a unit furthermore to a certain quantity, we can make tip over this quantity already formed in another category, as one more step of a ladder makes you change floor. (13) Because of it, and although few things differ physically between man and the monkey appeared just before him, you shouldn't deduce that he was a monkey who has transformed himself in time. But we shall say: because by adding one more unit it can provoke a change of category or floor, why the enrichment of the natural and pervading environment, resulting from the work of the earth, wouldn't have been able to increase by a little the chromosome of the small monkeys which were going to develop in the entrails of their mother? Wouldn't the monkeys so have been able to give birth to the first men of the forests whose ancestors would be at the beginning of humanity? Wouldn't be then likely that after the formation of the monkeys, it was the formation of the black men who engendered gradually less dark and brown men who, in turn, engendered yellow men likewise, and these last ones of the whites; all this during a period of four thousand years? (14) Lets all know, on this subject, that it is easier to envisage the original birth of man and woman in its entirety, from the bosom of the Earth. However, that men are created one way or another, fast or less fast, it doesn't have to be a part of our essential concerns, because we are here in difficult domains of access for the creature and where God doesn't ask us to go. Let's try rather to see that every creation had its originality and that it deviated from the previous one, because this is how was made the variety of the species along the eras and from the water. (15) Verily, the important part is that we become aware of the real youth of man; and that this one is son of the universe before being a son of the Earth, and that it was never an animal, neither different from what we know of him today. His size, his morphology, his appearance, his intelligence and his capacities have never changed. Only his knowledge increased because of different experiences that he acquired. Born bipedal, above all and in the perfection of all shapes, man will eternally stay so to differ from the animal kingdom which he dominates. (16) For the one who is saint of mind, it is easy to visualize the creation in its whole, beginning necessarily with the simplest living being, and ending by the most complex of all life beings, this last being man, the representative and the temple of the Divinity. The purpose of the book of life is to show it, to show who man is, where he comes from, where he goes, and how he has to live to not destroy anything. (17) Beyond the celestial bodies from which we come from, the principle of existence can show us what man is compared to animal. How? First of all, we know that this principle which gets by integration-disintegration, or by intake-consumption, can also be understood by emission-reception of any creative force. In my language, to receive is everything which enters in oneself, and to emit is everything which goes out of oneself. Everything we receive from universe enters into us so we can exist and remain. Therefore, we understand that the first organisms didn't need to emit to be alive. They only had to receive to exist. So, the first living organisms existed only by direct creation, and not by procreation. It is only as the conditions of life increased, grew rich and was getting complicated in a sense, that creatures needed to resort to the intelligence and to procreation to remain. Which means emitting. (18) This evolution has been from species to species and from world to world, until man appeared who dominates everything by his tremendous capacities. And it is his great spirit which allows him today to grasp the depths of the sky; while, for the animal, the universe limits itself in the middle of where it lives. It sees the Sun, the Earth, the elements and the beings quite as men can; but, for it, the world limits it to what surrounds it. Its intelligence remains then restricted. (19)This is why, even if it's about a skillful monkey and studious on the evening of the world, it could not be taught to know that Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are solid bodies, surrounded with a gigantic atmosphere, which are getting ready to shine as the Sun. Consequently, it will never know that stars do shine thanks to their celestial bodies and each illuminates their world where there are expressive and skillful monkeys like him. Limited in his reasoning, and not being able to know the science of the Creator which brings him the being, the breath and the movement, he belongs necessarily at animal kingdom. Then, quite as his ancestors who were born monkeys, will remain as a monkey and will never be scholar... (20) Contrary to the animal which is a part of its building, the man saint of mind, him, can be led in the whole truth. That is why, on the evening, when he arrives at the skull site with the Son, he grasps easily the hidden sense from an allegory, a metaphor or a parabola, because his ears can hear that day what means: get up, take your bed and walk! He understands all Scripture's words, and it is without forcing that he sees this time what is the resurrection of the dead in the last day and why it is written: in these days, blind persons will see. It is so, because by being freed from the scientific lies and the religious lies, man, whose spirit doesn't stop increasing along the centuries, can on the evening of the world easily differentiate the good from evil, as well as the truth from the fake. He is then at the zenith of the understanding and discerns perfectly the elements of universe which give him substance and spirit. He then coalesces with his Creator and becomes aware that this light which distinguishes him from the animal makes of him the greatest creature which could exist. (21) I speak about you, the humbles of the Earth, you all the circumcised of heart who quickly understand the words of the Son of man. I am not talking about those who have difficulty to take the horse in race and still wondering: can we be certain that, in the universe, man is the greatest existing creature for which stars shine? (22) At this question, I answer once again that it is the multiple perceptions of the man which compose his consciousness, his spirit with which he can identify all elements of the universe which gives him existence. And it is always his spirit which endows him with the word by which he thinks and holds reasoning. That is why, when he demonstrates both faces of the universal electromagnetism and the processes which bring his existence, man emits as much as he receives. He can then reach summits to which he didn't expect. (23) What can we indeed demonstrate beyond the living universe which gives us existence? When we do it, we demonstrate God. Then we know that we are ourselves his temple, his house. Then we light up and change necessarily. Man is then indeed the first state of the angel. Which differentiates him of the animal. That is why I said that, in the universe, there can't be a being superior to the one who becomes an angel. And this is what you become, you who arise a second time from the spirit, with me. (24) We cannot know what man is from what we observe of him or from what he does, as I already said it. To understand who he is, let's remind that it is necessary to exclude at first the fact that beings were able to remain from one era to another, because the snake is showing us this impossibility, except maybe for some simple organisms which appeared on the warm dorsals at the bottom of basins. It is also necessary to think that being the last-born, man isn't a species as the others but a whole, because a species remains only if it is followed by the other one. What can't be the case for man who, created lastly, benefited from all of which existed to be the temple where God lives. Only man understands the universe. And when he reaches it, as you are doing it today, he can then only identified himself to Divinity. (25) It is also advisable to remember that by being always the sum of the elements which precede it and which give it shape and abilities, a species is necessarily an integral part of the following species which is then even more complex than the previous one. To engrave in self this phenomenon of inheritance, let's think that the recently created species carries in it, let's say, colors (the genes) of all the species which preceded it. So, the creation appears like a single organism living within which if only a single species is missing it would be a real mutilation and a misfortune for ever. (26) When they speak about prehominids, the great scientists evoke quadrupeds which were transformed and stood up in time, to become gradually monkeys' bipeds, hairless, with a human face... They so evoke singular beings which, in a space time, were not quite animals and not yet men. Knowing that you are very numerous to believe them, I ask you anew: a species which would have gradually lost its animal capacities to live, and which wouldn't have acquired those of men for do it, what would it thus have become meanwhile to survive during the millions of years necessary for its evolution? Besides, if the evolution of the species was real, why then there would have been extinction of the species of the previous eras? Wouldn't they have been able to last until our days, transforming itself by adaptation? (27) This famous evolution, which would be an unlimited intelligence as it seem, would have been able to transform the living species during times and wouldn't have however been able to prevent the ageing of the species and individuals? Wouldn't it have been able to put an end to death? Is it because of this incapacity which blemish the extent of its enormous possibilities, that the evolution would have begun to elaborate this tremendous system of procreation within beings? If this is what you still believe, then tell me how come that not being able to prevent the disappearance of the species, it would have nevertheless been able to imagine such perfections in the procreation? Is it also necessary to hear that this evolution would be an entity having a purpose? What would it be exactly in your minds? (28) The study of the eras shows in the certainty that plants, insects and animals were never others than what they were or are in their sort. Certainly, there were different species from those nowadays which disappeared for the reasons we saw, but no one was transformed. And the most recent ones, which appeared at the beginning of the quaternary or before, were formed such as we know them. It was the same for men who, as vegetables and animals, appeared each in turn, and such as they are on the continents where existed their elements of life. The entire second part of the book is indeed the formal proof. (29) Thus exclude the evolution of the species lauded by the scientists, because it is them who evolve in the unconsciousness! And refrain from believing that everything which has feathers is intended to fly. Because the ostriches or the penguins were by no means created to fly in the air, but to be on the ground for the ostriches and in the water for the penguins. This is, because feathers aren't inevitably intended to make fly the creature. They can also serve for accumulating and for regulating the electromagnetic force, to give shade, to isolate from the heat or from the cold, or yet for relieving or for weighing more a being in the water where it moves. For the same reasons of diversity, we also find marine mammals and flying mammals, such dolphins or bats, which weren't conceived to live on the ground. (30) Because they are always created according to the given living conditions, the beings which live in abyss or on mountains stay quite naturally in the environment where they were created and with which they make one. Not coming from somewhere else, their elements of life do not live elsewhere than where they live. And they stay there, because the creature cannot remove itself from its vital environment. That is why every living being is endowed with a constitution and with a metabolism which don't allow it to live somewhere else than within elements having served to create it. And it will always be like so, be convinced.	4,338	ENGLISH	1
I need help for this project with Michael Jackson's significance to black history. Please help me.? Okay so i am doing this project and i chose Michael Jackson. and im suppose to answer this question too a my design brief:What can I create to illustrate the significance of Michael Jackson to black or African-American American History? btw i am in 9th grade in the I.B program. So i need help to find what was Michael Jackson's significance to black history. Like what did he do that was so significance to black history. Links would be much appreciated. Please dont give me the same old Wikipedia links please. - 9 years agoFavorite Answer I think for MJ he was one of those black American who really pushed the definition of what it meant to be a black American. I'm not black, not American. But my assessment of Michael is that.. he never allowed people to limit him with their stereotypical views of what it meant to be black and what does it mean to be American. He inspired a new breed of global black Americans, who are instantly recognized all over the world, not for their innate blackness but more for their universal appeal. He is one of those people who could connect with any audience, regardless of their racial identity or background. This is something not easy to do, even for MNCs and global conglomerates. He used the currency of time as his conduit. Not the traditions of before. But that's not to say he abandoned his heritage. In fact very far from that. His musical influences are clearly black, but instead of staying with his roots. He took his roots with him and given his visionary sense of music and dance, pushed his influences to a state that it has never been. He was born in a period where most blacks were fighting to gain equality for their civil rights. But because he was a child prodigy, and could earn a lot of money from a very young age. He so called "escaped" a lot of troubles by charming his way through prejudices with his youth and talent. At that time, music was one way that black Americans could really achieve the American Dream, and Michael did that and more. I'm not too sure whether black people can identify with him in terms of his experience. I don't think anyone can though. But I think in terms of his personal struggles in particular with the law and the legal system, they could look up to him. One of the reasons why Michael didn't go to trial for the 1993 allegations, was because he wasn't sure as a black man would he attain justice. It was very strange, here we have a black superstar who is physically white. Who has achieved so much success, and yet still he wasn't confident about how just he would be treated by the American judicial system. That shows that the fear of being black in America, is still there - child prodigy or not. I think this is a very interesting point you could explore. In comparison to the 2003 allegations, MJ was confident, but still frightened, although there was no evidence that the prosecutors could bring against him. This is a black innocent man who was frightened of the possibility of injustice. And it is the 21st century. So this shows me that although he didn't have to struggle for the civil rights movements. He knows he is black, and what it meant to be black in America. He is very much aware. But fortunately for him, he had Tom Messereau, a world class lawyer known to do loads of pro bono work for the black community. After that in his later years MJ spent a lot of his time, connecting with the black community, in a way that he has never done before. Actually connecting to them at grassroot level, focusing on an area he was an expert in, Music and the Music Industry. While denouncing, ignorance of roots, culture and heritage.. and racism he continued to preach his ideology of peace and color blinded-ness. Another area you could explore was MJ's love for children. MJ has always been a highly sensitive child. That's probably why he could sing like that. Ever since he was a young child, you could see that he loved children. In very old videos of MJ, you would see very young MJ always doting on little babies and children. He is like this new age sensitive guy, with innate paternal instincts. Which is something very rare in men in general. In fact, I feel that Michael single handedly helped inspire a different image of a black man. Sensitive, highly spiritual, very successful, very family oriented, very fatherly, gentle, fragile, intelligent, well spoken, family oriented, a very present and doting father. I think you can easily pull out statistics for your paper, and show how many african american children grow up without a father. In Mj's childrens' case they grew up with an absent mum and a very doting father. You can say all you want about the fact that the kids aren't black. But they are still raised by a black american father. He spent a lot of his time speaking for families and worked hard to fight for meaningful family experience for all people, not just black Americans. Something you don't usually see among black males, or any male for that matter. - ilikecupcakeLv 69 years ago He was the first African-American that MTV ever allowed to play. This broke racial barriers, and this inspired other black artists. Now, you have music videos of ALL races being played in the media- not just "white" people. Michael Jackson contributed to that. & as far as "African-American History" .. well, just how you had famous black leaders in the past, MJ was the biggest entertainer of all time and he was Black. That should contribute to Black History itself.. - 9 years ago He proved that Blacks can do anything. He influenced Oprah, Obama, a lot of the black artists of today wouldn't be where they are now. And on top of that his Thriller album is STILL the best selling album of all time. No one can beat it. Even he couldn't. Oh and he was the first African-American artist on MTV. He wanted to be on there before but they didn't let him. Then at some point and time they BEGGED him to be on MTV. - 9 years ago Well I don't know too much about him, but I do know that he was the first African American to have a video on MTV. Sorry I couldn't help you more than that. - How do you think about the answers? You can sign in to vote the answer. - Anonymous9 years ago Look it up. I know alot about him, But there are plenty of websites on him.	<urn:uuid:25d6f564-6962-463a-8247-4025525bdcde>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20110205123625AAWl6Qb	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00372.warc.gz	en	0.988192	1,396	3.328125	3	[ -0.26912957429885864, 0.5138661861419678, 0.13925445079803467, -0.22551226615905762, -0.1696818470954895, 0.2664088010787964, 0.16760048270225525, 0.044155314564704895, -0.29198768734931946, -0.23574228584766388, 0.1676701307296753, 0.008627718314528465, -0.24933817982673645, 0.21411678194...	1	I need help for this project with Michael Jackson's significance to black history. Please help me.? Okay so i am doing this project and i chose Michael Jackson. and im suppose to answer this question too a my design brief:What can I create to illustrate the significance of Michael Jackson to black or African-American American History? btw i am in 9th grade in the I.B program. So i need help to find what was Michael Jackson's significance to black history. Like what did he do that was so significance to black history. Links would be much appreciated. Please dont give me the same old Wikipedia links please. - 9 years agoFavorite Answer I think for MJ he was one of those black American who really pushed the definition of what it meant to be a black American. I'm not black, not American. But my assessment of Michael is that.. he never allowed people to limit him with their stereotypical views of what it meant to be black and what does it mean to be American. He inspired a new breed of global black Americans, who are instantly recognized all over the world, not for their innate blackness but more for their universal appeal. He is one of those people who could connect with any audience, regardless of their racial identity or background. This is something not easy to do, even for MNCs and global conglomerates. He used the currency of time as his conduit. Not the traditions of before. But that's not to say he abandoned his heritage. In fact very far from that. His musical influences are clearly black, but instead of staying with his roots. He took his roots with him and given his visionary sense of music and dance, pushed his influences to a state that it has never been. He was born in a period where most blacks were fighting to gain equality for their civil rights. But because he was a child prodigy, and could earn a lot of money from a very young age. He so called "escaped" a lot of troubles by charming his way through prejudices with his youth and talent. At that time, music was one way that black Americans could really achieve the American Dream, and Michael did that and more. I'm not too sure whether black people can identify with him in terms of his experience. I don't think anyone can though. But I think in terms of his personal struggles in particular with the law and the legal system, they could look up to him. One of the reasons why Michael didn't go to trial for the 1993 allegations, was because he wasn't sure as a black man would he attain justice. It was very strange, here we have a black superstar who is physically white. Who has achieved so much success, and yet still he wasn't confident about how just he would be treated by the American judicial system. That shows that the fear of being black in America, is still there - child prodigy or not. I think this is a very interesting point you could explore. In comparison to the 2003 allegations, MJ was confident, but still frightened, although there was no evidence that the prosecutors could bring against him. This is a black innocent man who was frightened of the possibility of injustice. And it is the 21st century. So this shows me that although he didn't have to struggle for the civil rights movements. He knows he is black, and what it meant to be black in America. He is very much aware. But fortunately for him, he had Tom Messereau, a world class lawyer known to do loads of pro bono work for the black community. After that in his later years MJ spent a lot of his time, connecting with the black community, in a way that he has never done before. Actually connecting to them at grassroot level, focusing on an area he was an expert in, Music and the Music Industry. While denouncing, ignorance of roots, culture and heritage.. and racism he continued to preach his ideology of peace and color blinded-ness. Another area you could explore was MJ's love for children. MJ has always been a highly sensitive child. That's probably why he could sing like that. Ever since he was a young child, you could see that he loved children. In very old videos of MJ, you would see very young MJ always doting on little babies and children. He is like this new age sensitive guy, with innate paternal instincts. Which is something very rare in men in general. In fact, I feel that Michael single handedly helped inspire a different image of a black man. Sensitive, highly spiritual, very successful, very family oriented, very fatherly, gentle, fragile, intelligent, well spoken, family oriented, a very present and doting father. I think you can easily pull out statistics for your paper, and show how many african american children grow up without a father. In Mj's childrens' case they grew up with an absent mum and a very doting father. You can say all you want about the fact that the kids aren't black. But they are still raised by a black american father. He spent a lot of his time speaking for families and worked hard to fight for meaningful family experience for all people, not just black Americans. Something you don't usually see among black males, or any male for that matter. - ilikecupcakeLv 69 years ago He was the first African-American that MTV ever allowed to play. This broke racial barriers, and this inspired other black artists. Now, you have music videos of ALL races being played in the media- not just "white" people. Michael Jackson contributed to that. & as far as "African-American History" .. well, just how you had famous black leaders in the past, MJ was the biggest entertainer of all time and he was Black. That should contribute to Black History itself.. - 9 years ago He proved that Blacks can do anything. He influenced Oprah, Obama, a lot of the black artists of today wouldn't be where they are now. And on top of that his Thriller album is STILL the best selling album of all time. No one can beat it. Even he couldn't. Oh and he was the first African-American artist on MTV. He wanted to be on there before but they didn't let him. Then at some point and time they BEGGED him to be on MTV. - 9 years ago Well I don't know too much about him, but I do know that he was the first African American to have a video on MTV. Sorry I couldn't help you more than that. - How do you think about the answers? You can sign in to vote the answer. - Anonymous9 years ago Look it up. I know alot about him, But there are plenty of websites on him.	1,387	ENGLISH	1
Feast Day of Pope St. John XXIII St. John XXIII was known also known as “Good Pope John”. Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli was born in 1881 near Borgano, Italy. He was the oldest of 13 children. Angelo joined the Secular Franciscan Order. After he was ordained a priest in 1904, he returned to Rome to study canon law. He became the bishop’s secretary, Church history teacher in the seminary and publisher of the diocesan paper. During World War I, he served as a stretcher bearer for the Italian army. During World War II he was a papal diplomat, serving in Bulgaria, Turkey and France. With the help of Germany’s ambassador in Turkey, Archbishop Roncalli, he helped save approximately 24,000 Jewish people from death. In 1953 he was named a cardinal and Bishop. He was elected Pope at the age of 77, taking the name of John. He soon called an ecumenical council and presided over the first session of the Second Vatican Council. The purpose of the Council was to bring the church into the modern world. It also was an effort to end hostilities between religions. Eastern Orthodox, Anglican and Protestant religious leaders were invited to attend. Pope John XXIII earned the title Good Pope John because of his kind and cheerful demeanor. He died on June 3, 1963. He was beatified November 15, 1881 by Pope John Paul II. He was canonized on the same day as Pope John Paul II by Pope Benedict on April 27, 2014. On the Second Ecumenical Vatican Council, Pope John XXIII said: ”The Ecumenical Council will surely be, even more than a new and magnificent Pentecost, a real and new Epiphany, one of the many revelations which have been renewed and are continually being renewed in the course of history, but one of the greatest of all.” St. John XXIII, pray for us.	<urn:uuid:3da69538-93d7-4b6f-8126-231a1707c41d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dailybeatitude.com/index.php?archive=2019-10-11	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00158.warc.gz	en	0.986623	415	3.296875	3	[ -0.3947932720184326, 0.2816533148288727, 0.08300767093896866, 0.08375177532434464, -0.33698228001594543, -0.1758747547864914, -0.3417113721370697, 0.1738080233335495, 0.21009112894535065, 0.031618133187294006, -0.30512839555740356, -0.03501496836543083, 0.2806284725666046, 0.17695240676403...	4	Feast Day of Pope St. John XXIII St. John XXIII was known also known as “Good Pope John”. Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli was born in 1881 near Borgano, Italy. He was the oldest of 13 children. Angelo joined the Secular Franciscan Order. After he was ordained a priest in 1904, he returned to Rome to study canon law. He became the bishop’s secretary, Church history teacher in the seminary and publisher of the diocesan paper. During World War I, he served as a stretcher bearer for the Italian army. During World War II he was a papal diplomat, serving in Bulgaria, Turkey and France. With the help of Germany’s ambassador in Turkey, Archbishop Roncalli, he helped save approximately 24,000 Jewish people from death. In 1953 he was named a cardinal and Bishop. He was elected Pope at the age of 77, taking the name of John. He soon called an ecumenical council and presided over the first session of the Second Vatican Council. The purpose of the Council was to bring the church into the modern world. It also was an effort to end hostilities between religions. Eastern Orthodox, Anglican and Protestant religious leaders were invited to attend. Pope John XXIII earned the title Good Pope John because of his kind and cheerful demeanor. He died on June 3, 1963. He was beatified November 15, 1881 by Pope John Paul II. He was canonized on the same day as Pope John Paul II by Pope Benedict on April 27, 2014. On the Second Ecumenical Vatican Council, Pope John XXIII said: ”The Ecumenical Council will surely be, even more than a new and magnificent Pentecost, a real and new Epiphany, one of the many revelations which have been renewed and are continually being renewed in the course of history, but one of the greatest of all.” St. John XXIII, pray for us.	436	ENGLISH	1
Italy - 1917 In May the Tenth Battle of Isonzo ended with the same result as the previous battles - high losses for little gain. Italian General Luigi Cadorna was still determined to break through to the port of Trieste in Austria-Hungary. The eleventh battle took place in September and the heavy losses left Austria-Hungary having to ask Germany to send soldiers to help them. The Twelfth Battle of Isonzo, also known as Caporetto, took place in November. German and Austrian soldiers broke through the Italian line leaving the Italian armies battered and in chaos. They retreated to the Piave River but about 275,000 Italians were taken prisoner. This defeat led to a meeting of the Allied war leaders who agreed to create the Supreme War Council to oversee all Allied plans. British and French soldiers were rushed to the Italian Front to help and General Cadorna was replaced by General Armando Diaz. The massive defeat at Caporetto didn't break the Italian fighting spirit. Instead it made them more determined and they regrouped ready for the battles of 1918. Italian mechanised transport retreats during the disastrous Battle of Caporetto. Animals played many important roles during the war. Here, in the snowy terrain of the Italian Front, a dog is carrying ammunition in a special saddlebag on his back.	<urn:uuid:3a7a4a01-7754-4739-a2e6-99e954cd5cb5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://walesatwar.org/en/theatresofwar/italy_1917	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00343.warc.gz	en	0.981909	277	3.75	4	[ -0.43973010778427124, 0.36077314615249634, 0.13970418274402618, -0.012849113903939724, -0.5585398077964783, -0.22268231213092804, 0.15791234374046326, 0.19551947712898254, -0.3264628052711487, 0.041234925389289856, -0.008243641816079617, -0.5178768634796143, 0.33773374557495117, 0.51240170...	5	Italy - 1917 In May the Tenth Battle of Isonzo ended with the same result as the previous battles - high losses for little gain. Italian General Luigi Cadorna was still determined to break through to the port of Trieste in Austria-Hungary. The eleventh battle took place in September and the heavy losses left Austria-Hungary having to ask Germany to send soldiers to help them. The Twelfth Battle of Isonzo, also known as Caporetto, took place in November. German and Austrian soldiers broke through the Italian line leaving the Italian armies battered and in chaos. They retreated to the Piave River but about 275,000 Italians were taken prisoner. This defeat led to a meeting of the Allied war leaders who agreed to create the Supreme War Council to oversee all Allied plans. British and French soldiers were rushed to the Italian Front to help and General Cadorna was replaced by General Armando Diaz. The massive defeat at Caporetto didn't break the Italian fighting spirit. Instead it made them more determined and they regrouped ready for the battles of 1918. Italian mechanised transport retreats during the disastrous Battle of Caporetto. Animals played many important roles during the war. Here, in the snowy terrain of the Italian Front, a dog is carrying ammunition in a special saddlebag on his back.	282	ENGLISH	1
Slavery in America stems well back to when the New World was first discovered and was led by the country to start the African Slave Trade- Portugal. The African Slave Trade was first exploited for use on plantations in what is now called the Caribbean, and eventually reached the southern coasts of America. The African natives were of all ages and sexes. Women usually worked in the homes, cooking and cleaning, whereas men were sent out into the plantations to farm. Young girls would usually help in the house also and young boys would help in the farm by bailing hay and loading wagons with crops. Since trying to capture the native Indians, the Arawaks and Caribs, failed (Small Pox had killed them instead), the Europeans said out to capture African slaves.Order now During what was called, “The Triangular Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade,” the Europeans shipped the slaves from Africa. This was an organized route where Europeans would travel to Africa bringing manufactured goods, capture Africans and take them to the Caribbean, and then take the crops and goods and bring them back to Europe. The African people, in order to communicate invented a language that was a mixture of all the African languages combined, called Creole. This language now varies from island to island. They also kept their culture, which accounts for calypso music and the instruments used in these songs. Slavery was common all over the world until 1794 when France signed the Act of the National Convention abolishing slavery. It would take America about a hundred years to do the same. George Washington was America’s hero. He was America’s first president. He was a slave owner. He deplored slavery but did not release his slaves. His will stated that they would be released after the death of his wife (The Volume Library, 1988). Washington wasn’t the only president to have slaves. Thomas Jefferson wrote, “All men are created equal” but died leaving his blacks in slavery. In 1775 black Americans were sent to fight in the revolutionary army. The British proposed that if a black man were to join their army, they would be set free afterwards. America originally planned not to let the blacks fight in the army, but when hearing this, let them enlist. Only Georgia and South Carolina refused to let them enlist, but paid for their racism when each lost 25,000 blacks to the British. The slaves returned on a honorable discharge after securing America’s freedom, but were not able to return to their own freedom (Software Toolworks Encyclopedia; 1992). Slavery continued and so did the numbers of slaves trying to escape to the free states or into Canada. A runaway slave would be found by bloodhounds, which were trained, at the time, to find black slaves. Then, the slave, upon returning, would be executed or severely whipped. The “Underground Railroad” was a project that helped black slaves escape into Canada, especially Amherstburg. The system involved 3,000 white helpers and freed an estimated 75,000 people after the civil war. Slavery in the middle of the 1800’s was abolished except for the rebellion states in the south. In 1863, the Emancipation Proclamation was issued which made slavery illegal in the states that had rebelled and allowed black slaves to serve in the army and get other jobs, or continue to work on the plantations, as employees making money. The nightmare of slavery was over but a new one was to begin. One that was worse for it was prevalent but was secret and silent. One that still exists today. One that does not shrink but rather grows and prospers in a place that claims to be totally against the mistreatment of minorities. Racism was then and still is upon us in every major part of our day-to-day ideology. Martin Luther King once said, “I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.” Ku Klux Klan. Neo Nazis. The Aryan Nations. The American Nazi Party. What are these groups? Why are they present in a land of supposed equality of all men? They are there because there	<urn:uuid:9a1641d9-0332-4a19-97d1-5505f892e707>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://artscolumbia.org/essays/slavery-in-america-essay-79975/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00288.warc.gz	en	0.983311	879	4.09375	4	[ -0.3751537799835205, 0.5219746828079224, -0.013364609330892563, -0.0031696108635514975, -0.25746017694473267, -0.0705789178609848, -0.14993268251419067, -0.507625937461853, -0.06299050897359848, 0.13543350994586945, 0.5615909099578857, 0.0717397928237915, -0.5488370656967163, 0.19615009427...	2	Slavery in America stems well back to when the New World was first discovered and was led by the country to start the African Slave Trade- Portugal. The African Slave Trade was first exploited for use on plantations in what is now called the Caribbean, and eventually reached the southern coasts of America. The African natives were of all ages and sexes. Women usually worked in the homes, cooking and cleaning, whereas men were sent out into the plantations to farm. Young girls would usually help in the house also and young boys would help in the farm by bailing hay and loading wagons with crops. Since trying to capture the native Indians, the Arawaks and Caribs, failed (Small Pox had killed them instead), the Europeans said out to capture African slaves.Order now During what was called, “The Triangular Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade,” the Europeans shipped the slaves from Africa. This was an organized route where Europeans would travel to Africa bringing manufactured goods, capture Africans and take them to the Caribbean, and then take the crops and goods and bring them back to Europe. The African people, in order to communicate invented a language that was a mixture of all the African languages combined, called Creole. This language now varies from island to island. They also kept their culture, which accounts for calypso music and the instruments used in these songs. Slavery was common all over the world until 1794 when France signed the Act of the National Convention abolishing slavery. It would take America about a hundred years to do the same. George Washington was America’s hero. He was America’s first president. He was a slave owner. He deplored slavery but did not release his slaves. His will stated that they would be released after the death of his wife (The Volume Library, 1988). Washington wasn’t the only president to have slaves. Thomas Jefferson wrote, “All men are created equal” but died leaving his blacks in slavery. In 1775 black Americans were sent to fight in the revolutionary army. The British proposed that if a black man were to join their army, they would be set free afterwards. America originally planned not to let the blacks fight in the army, but when hearing this, let them enlist. Only Georgia and South Carolina refused to let them enlist, but paid for their racism when each lost 25,000 blacks to the British. The slaves returned on a honorable discharge after securing America’s freedom, but were not able to return to their own freedom (Software Toolworks Encyclopedia; 1992). Slavery continued and so did the numbers of slaves trying to escape to the free states or into Canada. A runaway slave would be found by bloodhounds, which were trained, at the time, to find black slaves. Then, the slave, upon returning, would be executed or severely whipped. The “Underground Railroad” was a project that helped black slaves escape into Canada, especially Amherstburg. The system involved 3,000 white helpers and freed an estimated 75,000 people after the civil war. Slavery in the middle of the 1800’s was abolished except for the rebellion states in the south. In 1863, the Emancipation Proclamation was issued which made slavery illegal in the states that had rebelled and allowed black slaves to serve in the army and get other jobs, or continue to work on the plantations, as employees making money. The nightmare of slavery was over but a new one was to begin. One that was worse for it was prevalent but was secret and silent. One that still exists today. One that does not shrink but rather grows and prospers in a place that claims to be totally against the mistreatment of minorities. Racism was then and still is upon us in every major part of our day-to-day ideology. Martin Luther King once said, “I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.” Ku Klux Klan. Neo Nazis. The Aryan Nations. The American Nazi Party. What are these groups? Why are they present in a land of supposed equality of all men? They are there because there	884	ENGLISH	1
Robins Science Week 2019 During Science week, Robins worked with their year two buddies on a joint experiment. First of all, they made buckets of muddy water, with leaves and sticks added to some of the mixtures. Then they were given various items such as netting, funnels, beakers and cloth to use to complete the challenge of trying to make the water clear again through filtration. It was a tough task but through lots of trial and error they realised they could use different thinks to help ‘strain’ the water and remove the debris. When they went back to class they thought about how this links to the journey water makes from reservoirs to our taps. They also considered how many people in the world don’t have access to clean water and explored how many children in Africa and other countries are affected by this.	<urn:uuid:2c2fd226-34d2-49e3-82af-b405a4018793>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.midfield.bromley.sch.uk/gallery/?pid=314&gcatid=22&albumid=128	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00255.warc.gz	en	0.983573	175	3.421875	3	[ 0.002504230011254549, 0.10812291502952576, 0.06459284573793411, -0.10279939323663712, -0.0935027077794075, -0.21336869895458221, 0.5365862846374512, 0.41013267636299133, -0.2340238243341446, 0.10904473811388016, -0.06521766632795334, -0.6900292634963989, 0.38629150390625, 0.045281063765287...	1	Robins Science Week 2019 During Science week, Robins worked with their year two buddies on a joint experiment. First of all, they made buckets of muddy water, with leaves and sticks added to some of the mixtures. Then they were given various items such as netting, funnels, beakers and cloth to use to complete the challenge of trying to make the water clear again through filtration. It was a tough task but through lots of trial and error they realised they could use different thinks to help ‘strain’ the water and remove the debris. When they went back to class they thought about how this links to the journey water makes from reservoirs to our taps. They also considered how many people in the world don’t have access to clean water and explored how many children in Africa and other countries are affected by this.	171	ENGLISH	1
Fossils reveal new details of how dinosaurs lived By Robyn Williams on The Science Show New technology is producing rapid progress in many areas of science and the study of dinosaurs is no different. Fossilised remains in museums can reveal dinosaurs’ colour, the force of their bite, how fast they could run and even how they cared for their young. The fossil finds continue and Professor Michael Benton explains how technology is revealing the animals’ secrets. Next week in part 2, Michael Benton discusses the chances of dinosaurs being resurrected, and how dinosaurs are revealing secrets about the history of life on Earth. Professor of Palaeontology University of Bristol Robyn Williams: The dinosaurs were around until 65 million years ago, but now Michael Benton from Bristol, with a new book, insists there's still plenty more to know. Dinosaurs Rediscovered, the title, How a scientific revolution is rewriting history. Now, that's a huge claim, Professor Benton, how do you justify it? Michael Benton: Yes, it is, and I started to write the book because I wanted to show how we know about the history of life, because people would often say, well, you can't really know about dinosaurs in much detail unless you have a time machine. I think people know we have the skeletons, they've seen them in museums, but how could you know what they eat, how fast do they run, how do they reproduce, even what colours are they. And I realised that during my many years as a palaeontologist I've seen a big change in the field, and this has come about because we have developed objective testing methods of actually getting at some of those questions. Robyn Williams: And what happened in 1984? Why was that a pivotal year? Michael Benton: Well, 1984 was pivotal for various reasons, but in the study of dinosaurs it was the beginning of application of cladistic methods to their classifications. So up to that time people had thought that dinosaurs originated from many different sources, they all happened to be quite large but there was no single common ancestor. And then a number of people, including myself, a cheeky young PhD student, we applied these methods which had been developed in other areas, but gave a rather more objective approach, a testable approach to determining the tree of life and the classification of living things. And we discovered that dinosaurs were monophyletic, which means they have a single ancestor, and that actually was the beginning of quite a revolution in our understanding of dinosaur evolution. Robyn Williams: What was the ancestor? Michael Benton: Well, the ancestor was quite a small creature. About the nearest we have is an animal called eoraptor, which means 'first hunter'. A great name. This beast was discovered in Argentina. If I describe it, it's about a metre to 1.5 metres in length, it's about the height of a seven- or eight-year-old child, it's running on its hind legs, it has rather strong arms but it didn't use those for locomotion, and the jaws are lined with carnivorous teeth, sharp-edged teeth that somehow point back down the throat. So this was a hunter, it probably lived on it lizards and things like that, and that seems to be the archetype of the first dinosaur. Robyn Williams: And of course the dinosaurs lived a very long time, and they lived…well, in the beginning presumably at a time when there were no flowering plants and so they had the place to themselves. But asking a few fairly straightforward questions, why were so many so big? Michael Benton: That's a great question and I think it's one of the reasons that I'm very excited about dinosaurs. Often people think, oh, dinosaurs, it's just for kids, but I would say the fact that many dinosaurs got to be so huge, and by that we mean there are many dinosaurs that weighed perhaps 50 tonnes, so that's 10 times the size of the biggest elephant, how did they get to be so huge? And that actually poses a big question for biology, physics and a lot of other areas of science. So if we frame it that way, we know they existed and we know they got to be so huge, we know that an elephant couldn't be so huge, it just couldn't find enough food to fuel itself. And then that opens a whole series of questions about, well, how did they do it? I think this is a nice example because it allows us to define what it is to be a scientist, because at one time people maybe said, oh well, maybe gravity was less in the Jurassic than it is today, and we would have to say, well, unless you've got pretty good evidence for that you can't say that. And as far as we know the Earth was pretty much the same then as it is today. Others have suggested, well, maybe they were able to be so gigantic because they lived in lakes and they somehow floated about. But again, that's not very plausible and there is no independent evidence. So we have to assume that they stomped about on land like an elephant, and if you stood beside an elephant, to imagine that 10 times the size is just bewildering. Robyn Williams: You must have had to eat all day long. Michael Benton: Well yes, that's right, you'd assume so, and yet when people have looked into this, tried to reconstruct the energy budget of a dinosaur, we realise that they don't follow the energy budget of a mammal. They were reptiles, and yet they were also warm blooded, and they grew fast. These giant brontosaurus-type dinosaurs, they start out from an egg that's about the size of a rugby ball, so the egg isn't huge, it isn't in proportion like a chicken egg to a chicken. If that were the case it would be the size of a smart car, but they lay moderately small eggs. They had to grow fast because you've got to get to sexual maturity quickly because in evolutionary terms you can't take 100 years to mature, otherwise the risk of death is just far too much before you can breed. And the way they did it was that they didn't spend a lot of their food or any of their food on maintaining their body temperature. So nine-tenths of the food that you eat, nine-tenths is devoted to maintaining your warm-bloodedness, which means keeping a constant body temperature. And of course that's very advantageous, it allows us to be active all the time, we don't have to switch off and snooze overnight like lizards and snakes do. But it comes at a big cost, and the dinosaurs had cracked it by being huge and living in quite warm climates. They didn't have to expend that energy. And so one of those large dinosaurs would eat about as much as an elephant, and yet it could be 10 times the size. Robyn Williams: Indeed, and of course the mechanics of having all those joints that could keep up that weight is another story. But just to ask a fairly obvious question; how can you tell these days what colour they were? Michael Benton: Yes, this was the one that convinced me that it was worth writing the book, because I used to say when I would give talks at schools to kids and so on, I would say, well, what do you think we know, did they lay eggs? Oh yeah, we know, we've seen eggs, and we know what they could eat because you can look at the shapes of their teeth. And so the kids know all that stuff. But then you say, 'What colour were they?' And that's the one thing where you think, yes, you need a time machine. We can only tell the colour of dinosaurs that had feathers. All dinosaurs had the potential to have feathers but only the smaller ones it seems actually had feathers. And within the structure of a bird feather and indeed within our hair, the colour is carried within special structures that are buried within the feather or the hair. And you can see these structures under the scanning electron microscope, they are called melanosomes because they carry the pigment melanin. And in human beings and in all mammals we get our hair colour purely from one or other kind of melanin. There's the standard sort that gives the black, brown and grey colours, and there's a special kind of melanin called pheomelanin that gives ginger colour, and that accounts for the hair colour of all mammals. So the red kangaroo has got pheomelanin, the red squirrel has got pheomelanin, any human friend of yours with ginger hair, they have pheomelanin, it's a very special pigment. And indeed birds have the same, and the relationship of the type of melanin and its chemical structure gives a particular shape to those melanosomes. So the ginger ones are spherical like a little ball, and the black ones are sausage-shaped. So when you look inside the feather or hair, and indeed this applies to the fossils…so the extraordinary thing is these remarkable new fossils from China include large numbers of dinosaurs with beautifully preserved feathers, we've put them under the microscope, we can detect whether they have the sausage shape or the spherical type of melanosomes, it gives us the colour. So that was something we and a number of other groups discovered at the same time in 2010. And so we can now reconstruct. And what we discovered to our amazement was not only could you tell the colours, but many of the dinosaurs we were looking at actually had quite complex patterns of colours. So, one of them had a ginger and white striped tail. Another one had dark coloured wings with bars of white across the width of the wing and had a crest on its head that was ginger in colour. And so that led us to realise that not only were dinosaur feathers coloured, but they had patterns that were not to do with camouflage, these were to do with display. So they were kind of hopping around like peacocks and so on, showing off their tails. Robyn Williams: Michael Benton, whose delightful new book is called The Dinosaurs Rediscovered: How a scientific revolution is rewriting history. And he returns next week with more dino revelations. The Dinosaurs Rediscoveredby Michael Benton, Thames and Hudson	<urn:uuid:a585a456-a205-4e09-975d-9535d67b4e12>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/scienceshow/dinosaurs-reveal-secrets-about-the-history-of-life-on-earth/11351594	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00346.warc.gz	en	0.981382	2,157	3.53125	4	[ -0.23113952577114105, 0.15810658037662506, 0.09406092762947083, 0.16881364583969116, -0.08695778250694275, 0.004808767233043909, 0.0505540668964386, 0.39240217208862305, -0.39352279901504517, 0.23044100403785706, 0.2866463363170624, -0.11176007986068726, -0.004075832199305296, 0.3224445581...	2	Fossils reveal new details of how dinosaurs lived By Robyn Williams on The Science Show New technology is producing rapid progress in many areas of science and the study of dinosaurs is no different. Fossilised remains in museums can reveal dinosaurs’ colour, the force of their bite, how fast they could run and even how they cared for their young. The fossil finds continue and Professor Michael Benton explains how technology is revealing the animals’ secrets. Next week in part 2, Michael Benton discusses the chances of dinosaurs being resurrected, and how dinosaurs are revealing secrets about the history of life on Earth. Professor of Palaeontology University of Bristol Robyn Williams: The dinosaurs were around until 65 million years ago, but now Michael Benton from Bristol, with a new book, insists there's still plenty more to know. Dinosaurs Rediscovered, the title, How a scientific revolution is rewriting history. Now, that's a huge claim, Professor Benton, how do you justify it? Michael Benton: Yes, it is, and I started to write the book because I wanted to show how we know about the history of life, because people would often say, well, you can't really know about dinosaurs in much detail unless you have a time machine. I think people know we have the skeletons, they've seen them in museums, but how could you know what they eat, how fast do they run, how do they reproduce, even what colours are they. And I realised that during my many years as a palaeontologist I've seen a big change in the field, and this has come about because we have developed objective testing methods of actually getting at some of those questions. Robyn Williams: And what happened in 1984? Why was that a pivotal year? Michael Benton: Well, 1984 was pivotal for various reasons, but in the study of dinosaurs it was the beginning of application of cladistic methods to their classifications. So up to that time people had thought that dinosaurs originated from many different sources, they all happened to be quite large but there was no single common ancestor. And then a number of people, including myself, a cheeky young PhD student, we applied these methods which had been developed in other areas, but gave a rather more objective approach, a testable approach to determining the tree of life and the classification of living things. And we discovered that dinosaurs were monophyletic, which means they have a single ancestor, and that actually was the beginning of quite a revolution in our understanding of dinosaur evolution. Robyn Williams: What was the ancestor? Michael Benton: Well, the ancestor was quite a small creature. About the nearest we have is an animal called eoraptor, which means 'first hunter'. A great name. This beast was discovered in Argentina. If I describe it, it's about a metre to 1.5 metres in length, it's about the height of a seven- or eight-year-old child, it's running on its hind legs, it has rather strong arms but it didn't use those for locomotion, and the jaws are lined with carnivorous teeth, sharp-edged teeth that somehow point back down the throat. So this was a hunter, it probably lived on it lizards and things like that, and that seems to be the archetype of the first dinosaur. Robyn Williams: And of course the dinosaurs lived a very long time, and they lived…well, in the beginning presumably at a time when there were no flowering plants and so they had the place to themselves. But asking a few fairly straightforward questions, why were so many so big? Michael Benton: That's a great question and I think it's one of the reasons that I'm very excited about dinosaurs. Often people think, oh, dinosaurs, it's just for kids, but I would say the fact that many dinosaurs got to be so huge, and by that we mean there are many dinosaurs that weighed perhaps 50 tonnes, so that's 10 times the size of the biggest elephant, how did they get to be so huge? And that actually poses a big question for biology, physics and a lot of other areas of science. So if we frame it that way, we know they existed and we know they got to be so huge, we know that an elephant couldn't be so huge, it just couldn't find enough food to fuel itself. And then that opens a whole series of questions about, well, how did they do it? I think this is a nice example because it allows us to define what it is to be a scientist, because at one time people maybe said, oh well, maybe gravity was less in the Jurassic than it is today, and we would have to say, well, unless you've got pretty good evidence for that you can't say that. And as far as we know the Earth was pretty much the same then as it is today. Others have suggested, well, maybe they were able to be so gigantic because they lived in lakes and they somehow floated about. But again, that's not very plausible and there is no independent evidence. So we have to assume that they stomped about on land like an elephant, and if you stood beside an elephant, to imagine that 10 times the size is just bewildering. Robyn Williams: You must have had to eat all day long. Michael Benton: Well yes, that's right, you'd assume so, and yet when people have looked into this, tried to reconstruct the energy budget of a dinosaur, we realise that they don't follow the energy budget of a mammal. They were reptiles, and yet they were also warm blooded, and they grew fast. These giant brontosaurus-type dinosaurs, they start out from an egg that's about the size of a rugby ball, so the egg isn't huge, it isn't in proportion like a chicken egg to a chicken. If that were the case it would be the size of a smart car, but they lay moderately small eggs. They had to grow fast because you've got to get to sexual maturity quickly because in evolutionary terms you can't take 100 years to mature, otherwise the risk of death is just far too much before you can breed. And the way they did it was that they didn't spend a lot of their food or any of their food on maintaining their body temperature. So nine-tenths of the food that you eat, nine-tenths is devoted to maintaining your warm-bloodedness, which means keeping a constant body temperature. And of course that's very advantageous, it allows us to be active all the time, we don't have to switch off and snooze overnight like lizards and snakes do. But it comes at a big cost, and the dinosaurs had cracked it by being huge and living in quite warm climates. They didn't have to expend that energy. And so one of those large dinosaurs would eat about as much as an elephant, and yet it could be 10 times the size. Robyn Williams: Indeed, and of course the mechanics of having all those joints that could keep up that weight is another story. But just to ask a fairly obvious question; how can you tell these days what colour they were? Michael Benton: Yes, this was the one that convinced me that it was worth writing the book, because I used to say when I would give talks at schools to kids and so on, I would say, well, what do you think we know, did they lay eggs? Oh yeah, we know, we've seen eggs, and we know what they could eat because you can look at the shapes of their teeth. And so the kids know all that stuff. But then you say, 'What colour were they?' And that's the one thing where you think, yes, you need a time machine. We can only tell the colour of dinosaurs that had feathers. All dinosaurs had the potential to have feathers but only the smaller ones it seems actually had feathers. And within the structure of a bird feather and indeed within our hair, the colour is carried within special structures that are buried within the feather or the hair. And you can see these structures under the scanning electron microscope, they are called melanosomes because they carry the pigment melanin. And in human beings and in all mammals we get our hair colour purely from one or other kind of melanin. There's the standard sort that gives the black, brown and grey colours, and there's a special kind of melanin called pheomelanin that gives ginger colour, and that accounts for the hair colour of all mammals. So the red kangaroo has got pheomelanin, the red squirrel has got pheomelanin, any human friend of yours with ginger hair, they have pheomelanin, it's a very special pigment. And indeed birds have the same, and the relationship of the type of melanin and its chemical structure gives a particular shape to those melanosomes. So the ginger ones are spherical like a little ball, and the black ones are sausage-shaped. So when you look inside the feather or hair, and indeed this applies to the fossils…so the extraordinary thing is these remarkable new fossils from China include large numbers of dinosaurs with beautifully preserved feathers, we've put them under the microscope, we can detect whether they have the sausage shape or the spherical type of melanosomes, it gives us the colour. So that was something we and a number of other groups discovered at the same time in 2010. And so we can now reconstruct. And what we discovered to our amazement was not only could you tell the colours, but many of the dinosaurs we were looking at actually had quite complex patterns of colours. So, one of them had a ginger and white striped tail. Another one had dark coloured wings with bars of white across the width of the wing and had a crest on its head that was ginger in colour. And so that led us to realise that not only were dinosaur feathers coloured, but they had patterns that were not to do with camouflage, these were to do with display. So they were kind of hopping around like peacocks and so on, showing off their tails. Robyn Williams: Michael Benton, whose delightful new book is called The Dinosaurs Rediscovered: How a scientific revolution is rewriting history. And he returns next week with more dino revelations. The Dinosaurs Rediscoveredby Michael Benton, Thames and Hudson	2,142	ENGLISH	1
Italian Early Renaissance Painter, 1445-1510 Italian painter and draughtsman. In his lifetime he was one of the most esteemed painters in Italy, enjoying the patronage of the leading families of Florence, in particular the Medici and their banking clients. He was summoned to take part in the decoration of the Sistine Chapel in Rome, was highly commended by diplomatic agents to Ludovico Sforza in Milan and Isabella d Este in Mantua and also received enthusiastic praise from the famous mathematician Luca Pacioli and the humanist poet Ugolino Verino. By the time of his death, however, Botticelli s reputation was already waning. He was overshadowed first by the advent of what Vasari called the maniera devota, a new style by Perugino, Francesco Francia and the young Raphael, whose new and humanly affective sentiment, infused atmospheric effects and sweet colourism took Italy by storm; he was then eclipsed with the establishment immediately afterwards of the High Renaissance style, which Vasari called the modern manner, in the paintings of Michelangelo and the mature works of Raphael in the Vatican. From that time his name virtually disappeared until the reassessment of his reputation that gathered momentum in the 1890s Related Paintings of Sandro Botticelli :. \| prayer in the Garden (mk36) \| Older Kneeling Mago \| The Birth of Venus \| Domenico Ghirlandaio,Stories of john the (mk36) \| The Adoration of the Kings \| Related Artists:James Joseph Jacques Tissot James Jacques Joseph Tissot (15 October 1836 - 8 August 1902) was a French painter, who spent much of his career in Britain. Tissot was born in Nantes, France. In about 1856, he began study at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris under Hippolyte Flandrin and Lamothe, and became friendly with Edgar Degas and James Abbott McNeill Whistler. Tissot exhibited in the Paris Salon for the first time in 1859, two portraits of women and three scenes in medieval dress from Faust. The latter show the influence of the Belgian painter Henri Leys (Jan August Hendrik Leys), whom he had met in Antwerp in 1859. In the mid-1860s, however, Tissot began to concentrate on depicting women, often although not always shown in modern dress. Like contemporaries such as Alfred Stevens and Claude Monet, Tissot also explored japonisme, including Japanese objects and costumes in his pictures. A portrait of Tissot by Degas from these years (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) shows him with a Japanese screen hanging on the wall.Charles Hawthorne Charles Webster Hawthorne (January 8, 1872 ?C November 29, 1930) was an American portrait and genre painter and a noted teacher who founded the Cape Cod School of Art in 1899. He was born in Maine, started as an office-boy in a stained-glass factory in New York, studied at night school and with Henry Siddons Mowbray and William Merritt Chase, and abroad in both Holland and Italy. When he was eighteen, Hawthorne went to New York and studied painting at the National Academy of Design and the Art Students League. Among his teachers were Frank Vincent DuMond and George de Forest Brush. But Hawthorne declared that the most dominant influence in his career was William Merritt Chase, with whom he worked as both a pupil and assistant. Both men were naturally talented teachers and figurative painters who were drawn to rich color and the lusciousness of oil paint as a medium. Chase passed on a Munich tradition of tone values and tone painting, and Hawthorne learned all he could. While studying abroad in Holland as Chase's assistant, Hawthorne was influenced to start his own school of art. His winters were spent in Paris and New York City, his summers at Provincetown, Massachusetts, the site of his school. While in Paris Hawthorne became a full member of the French Soci??t?? Nationale des Beaux-Arts in 1917.GRAMATICA, Antiveduto Italian Baroque Era Painter, 1571-1626 Italian painter. He was from a Sienese family. According to Baglione, his parents were journeying from Siena to Rome when his mother went into labour and gave birth to him at an inn, an inconvenience that had been foreseen ('antiveduto') by his father and led to his unusual name. For a brief period he was a pupil of Giandomenico Angelini ( fl 1550-1600), under whom he painted small-scale works, mainly on copper. His prolific production of devotional paintings, portraits and copies of portraits won him swift success; in 1593 he became a member of the Accademia di S Luca and in 1604 of the Congregazione dei Virtuosi. His early portraits have not been identified; they included highly popular copies of a series of Famous Men then at the Villa Medici, works that Caravaggio probably also copied when he worked for some months in his studio on his arrival in Rome in 1592	<urn:uuid:f52b4884-ecf9-48d6-b898-a5d80126b0d7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://sandrobotticelli.org/painting-Sandro%20Botticelli-pallade%20e%20il%20centauro-58311.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00546.warc.gz	en	0.983138	1,090	3.34375	3	[ -0.035180721431970596, 0.31348007917404175, 0.17733094096183777, 0.14616858959197998, -0.5208097696304321, 0.1619241088628769, 0.09728732705116272, 0.20314925909042358, 0.09591403603553772, -0.13835468888282776, -0.09339460730552673, -0.09292822331190109, 0.32076728343963623, 0.40162044763...	1	Italian Early Renaissance Painter, 1445-1510 Italian painter and draughtsman. In his lifetime he was one of the most esteemed painters in Italy, enjoying the patronage of the leading families of Florence, in particular the Medici and their banking clients. He was summoned to take part in the decoration of the Sistine Chapel in Rome, was highly commended by diplomatic agents to Ludovico Sforza in Milan and Isabella d Este in Mantua and also received enthusiastic praise from the famous mathematician Luca Pacioli and the humanist poet Ugolino Verino. By the time of his death, however, Botticelli s reputation was already waning. He was overshadowed first by the advent of what Vasari called the maniera devota, a new style by Perugino, Francesco Francia and the young Raphael, whose new and humanly affective sentiment, infused atmospheric effects and sweet colourism took Italy by storm; he was then eclipsed with the establishment immediately afterwards of the High Renaissance style, which Vasari called the modern manner, in the paintings of Michelangelo and the mature works of Raphael in the Vatican. From that time his name virtually disappeared until the reassessment of his reputation that gathered momentum in the 1890s Related Paintings of Sandro Botticelli :. \| prayer in the Garden (mk36) \| Older Kneeling Mago \| The Birth of Venus \| Domenico Ghirlandaio,Stories of john the (mk36) \| The Adoration of the Kings \| Related Artists:James Joseph Jacques Tissot James Jacques Joseph Tissot (15 October 1836 - 8 August 1902) was a French painter, who spent much of his career in Britain. Tissot was born in Nantes, France. In about 1856, he began study at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris under Hippolyte Flandrin and Lamothe, and became friendly with Edgar Degas and James Abbott McNeill Whistler. Tissot exhibited in the Paris Salon for the first time in 1859, two portraits of women and three scenes in medieval dress from Faust. The latter show the influence of the Belgian painter Henri Leys (Jan August Hendrik Leys), whom he had met in Antwerp in 1859. In the mid-1860s, however, Tissot began to concentrate on depicting women, often although not always shown in modern dress. Like contemporaries such as Alfred Stevens and Claude Monet, Tissot also explored japonisme, including Japanese objects and costumes in his pictures. A portrait of Tissot by Degas from these years (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) shows him with a Japanese screen hanging on the wall.Charles Hawthorne Charles Webster Hawthorne (January 8, 1872 ?C November 29, 1930) was an American portrait and genre painter and a noted teacher who founded the Cape Cod School of Art in 1899. He was born in Maine, started as an office-boy in a stained-glass factory in New York, studied at night school and with Henry Siddons Mowbray and William Merritt Chase, and abroad in both Holland and Italy. When he was eighteen, Hawthorne went to New York and studied painting at the National Academy of Design and the Art Students League. Among his teachers were Frank Vincent DuMond and George de Forest Brush. But Hawthorne declared that the most dominant influence in his career was William Merritt Chase, with whom he worked as both a pupil and assistant. Both men were naturally talented teachers and figurative painters who were drawn to rich color and the lusciousness of oil paint as a medium. Chase passed on a Munich tradition of tone values and tone painting, and Hawthorne learned all he could. While studying abroad in Holland as Chase's assistant, Hawthorne was influenced to start his own school of art. His winters were spent in Paris and New York City, his summers at Provincetown, Massachusetts, the site of his school. While in Paris Hawthorne became a full member of the French Soci??t?? Nationale des Beaux-Arts in 1917.GRAMATICA, Antiveduto Italian Baroque Era Painter, 1571-1626 Italian painter. He was from a Sienese family. According to Baglione, his parents were journeying from Siena to Rome when his mother went into labour and gave birth to him at an inn, an inconvenience that had been foreseen ('antiveduto') by his father and led to his unusual name. For a brief period he was a pupil of Giandomenico Angelini ( fl 1550-1600), under whom he painted small-scale works, mainly on copper. His prolific production of devotional paintings, portraits and copies of portraits won him swift success; in 1593 he became a member of the Accademia di S Luca and in 1604 of the Congregazione dei Virtuosi. His early portraits have not been identified; they included highly popular copies of a series of Famous Men then at the Villa Medici, works that Caravaggio probably also copied when he worked for some months in his studio on his arrival in Rome in 1592	1,136	ENGLISH	1
The lack of respect from the African Americans in the burial ground can be compared to Fortune’s Bones and the lack of respect he had while alive and deceased. Throughout history African Americans are ridiculed, tortured and disrespected. With the African Burial Ground National Monument, it is a step to finally give them the respect and peace that they deserve. In Fortune’s Bones, Fortune, was a slave, his wife’s name was Dinah, he had two sons, Africa and Jacob, and two daughters, Mira and Roxa. Dr. Preserved Porter, was Fortune’s master and a physician whose specialty was setting broken bones. Fortune lived in Waterbury, Connecticut, it the late 1700s. “His wife was worth ten dollars. And their son a hundred sixty-six(Nelson, 13).” This quote shows how most African Americans were not treated like human beings. You cannot give humans a price and sell them for money, they are not an item. The one thing that shocked me a lot was how much of a price difference there was between Fortune’s wife and his son. His wife was worth only 10 dollars, where his son was worth 66. This is still unacceptable but the older woman was worth so much less than the young boy. This was because the boy had more to offer, he could work longer and harder than the woman. Fortune died in 1798, and Dr. Porter died in 1803. “In Dr. Porter’s will, he left Dinah to his wife, Lydia. He gave Jacob to his daughter Hannah. No one knows what happened to Africa, Mira, and Roxa(Nelson,14).” Not only did Dr. Porter give away people to his family as gifts, but he separated a family from their loved ones. He separated this family in a time when they needed each other most, after a loved one died. I found it sickening that these people could just be written away in a will, they had no choice of what happened to themselves and it was their own life. It’s sad that these people lived in fear, not knowing what was going to happen next in life, whether it was being separated from your family forever, or not making it after a hard day of work. Not only was Fortune’s life hard as he was living it, but it was just as difficult when he was deceased. “When Fortune died, he wasn’t buried. Instead, Dr. Porter preserved Fortune’s skeleton to study(Nelson, 16).” Not only did Fortune have a difficult life while he was alive, but now even when he has passed away they will not let him rest in peace. Dr. Porter took apart Fortune, bone by bone, he boiled the bones to clean them of fat and drilled the bones to drain them of fluid. Fortune should have been buried in a cemetery so that he could rest eternally in peace, but he was not so fortunate. While studying Fortune’s bones, scientists found that Fortune’s lower back had been broken, then healed and his shoulders, hands, and feet all had been injured. This proved that Fortune’s life had lots of strenuous labor, but the scientists could not discover the diseases Fortune supposedly had and the cause of his death. Fortune’s bones were passed down throughout Dr. Porters family for generations until Fortune’s name was lost and forgotten and the bones were renamed as, Larry. Over the centuries “Larry” was lost in an attic, until he was discovered by a crew of workers hired to renovate a new building. Over the years, not only was Fortune’s name forgotten, his story was too. People made up so many rumors about who it was but no one knew Fortune’s story. Eventually Fortune’s bones were placed in the Mattatuck Museum, one Waterbury resident even said, “Larry was the thing to see when you go to the museum. I don’t think anybody ever envisioned that this was truly a human being(Nelson, 22).” Fortune was kept there for years until he was taken out of his case and put into storage. “The museum now believed that displaying the skeleton was disrespectful. It wasn’t just a bunch of bones. It was the remains of someone’s son, maybe father(Nelson, 26).” In the 1990s, historians researched Fortune and found local records and archaeologists and anthropologists studied Fortunes bone and found the truth about Fortune’s life, how he worked, suffered and even how he died. Fortune finally had the ability to rest in eternal peace. The fact that Fortune did not get the respect he deserved until he had been deceased for so many years can be compared to the African Americans buried at the African Burial Ground National Monument. The African Americans buried here did not get to rest in peace either, they suffered when the ground they were buried on was dug apart and their remains were rediscovered. “Excavations began in July 1991, several skeletal remains were recovered. One year later, 390 burials were removed and GSA intended to remove 200 additional burials.” Archaeologists and anthropologists studied the bones they found and discovered the remains were individuals with filed teeth in hourglass shapes, which is a popular cultural tradition in West Africa. “Based on lesions found on the bones, slaves suffered from hard physical labor and malnutrition. Some of the anthropologists assert that the bone pathologies indicated slaves were literally “worked to death.” This is almost exactly like Fortune’s life, he was worked to death and when he was dead, he was still treated like he did not mean anything. These African Americans did not have names to know who they were, just like how Fortune’s name was changed while his bones were getting passed along. These people were treated like they were good enough to be treated like human beings, they did not get the respect that they deserve and it is sad to think people thought it was okay to treat others like this. The African Burial Ground National Monument ensures that these bodies are kept at rest, and in peace, not bothered at all. The African Burial Ground National Monument is designated a National Historic Landmark, so it is protected and can not be dug up and built on. On October 1, 2007, the memorial was completed and opened for visitors and you can still visit it in Manhattan New York City today. Mayor David Dinkins had spoke about the memorial and had said, “The African Burial Ground is irrefutable testimony to the contributions and suffering of our ancestors.” Although these African Americans did not have respect and peace for a long time, just like Fortune, they are able to have it now. This memorial gives all of these African Americans, their families and ancestors security that they will not be bothered and will now be able to be honored and respected as they deserve. It was very upsetting to me to read about Fortune and these African Americans who had a life full of suffering and torture, were not able to pass with peacefulnes and dignity attached to them. The African Burial Ground is a step in the right direction but there are still so many cases where slaves and other African Americans never get to rest eternally and obtain recognition.	<urn:uuid:41891160-143d-4416-b107-17a44d5f4e94>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://morrison.sunygeneseoenglish.org/2019/12/03/the-lack-of-respect-african-americans-received-in-regards-to-their-bodies-after-death/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00459.warc.gz	en	0.990577	1,519	3.75	4	[ -0.19849956035614014, 0.6823275089263916, 0.23577047884464264, -0.16727092862129211, -0.2235756814479828, 0.06612318754196167, 0.35208791494369507, -0.05943351238965988, -0.23920458555221558, 0.056962478905916214, 0.4098166227340698, 0.06214422360062599, 0.2138121873140335, 0.0959239378571...	6	The lack of respect from the African Americans in the burial ground can be compared to Fortune’s Bones and the lack of respect he had while alive and deceased. Throughout history African Americans are ridiculed, tortured and disrespected. With the African Burial Ground National Monument, it is a step to finally give them the respect and peace that they deserve. In Fortune’s Bones, Fortune, was a slave, his wife’s name was Dinah, he had two sons, Africa and Jacob, and two daughters, Mira and Roxa. Dr. Preserved Porter, was Fortune’s master and a physician whose specialty was setting broken bones. Fortune lived in Waterbury, Connecticut, it the late 1700s. “His wife was worth ten dollars. And their son a hundred sixty-six(Nelson, 13).” This quote shows how most African Americans were not treated like human beings. You cannot give humans a price and sell them for money, they are not an item. The one thing that shocked me a lot was how much of a price difference there was between Fortune’s wife and his son. His wife was worth only 10 dollars, where his son was worth 66. This is still unacceptable but the older woman was worth so much less than the young boy. This was because the boy had more to offer, he could work longer and harder than the woman. Fortune died in 1798, and Dr. Porter died in 1803. “In Dr. Porter’s will, he left Dinah to his wife, Lydia. He gave Jacob to his daughter Hannah. No one knows what happened to Africa, Mira, and Roxa(Nelson,14).” Not only did Dr. Porter give away people to his family as gifts, but he separated a family from their loved ones. He separated this family in a time when they needed each other most, after a loved one died. I found it sickening that these people could just be written away in a will, they had no choice of what happened to themselves and it was their own life. It’s sad that these people lived in fear, not knowing what was going to happen next in life, whether it was being separated from your family forever, or not making it after a hard day of work. Not only was Fortune’s life hard as he was living it, but it was just as difficult when he was deceased. “When Fortune died, he wasn’t buried. Instead, Dr. Porter preserved Fortune’s skeleton to study(Nelson, 16).” Not only did Fortune have a difficult life while he was alive, but now even when he has passed away they will not let him rest in peace. Dr. Porter took apart Fortune, bone by bone, he boiled the bones to clean them of fat and drilled the bones to drain them of fluid. Fortune should have been buried in a cemetery so that he could rest eternally in peace, but he was not so fortunate. While studying Fortune’s bones, scientists found that Fortune’s lower back had been broken, then healed and his shoulders, hands, and feet all had been injured. This proved that Fortune’s life had lots of strenuous labor, but the scientists could not discover the diseases Fortune supposedly had and the cause of his death. Fortune’s bones were passed down throughout Dr. Porters family for generations until Fortune’s name was lost and forgotten and the bones were renamed as, Larry. Over the centuries “Larry” was lost in an attic, until he was discovered by a crew of workers hired to renovate a new building. Over the years, not only was Fortune’s name forgotten, his story was too. People made up so many rumors about who it was but no one knew Fortune’s story. Eventually Fortune’s bones were placed in the Mattatuck Museum, one Waterbury resident even said, “Larry was the thing to see when you go to the museum. I don’t think anybody ever envisioned that this was truly a human being(Nelson, 22).” Fortune was kept there for years until he was taken out of his case and put into storage. “The museum now believed that displaying the skeleton was disrespectful. It wasn’t just a bunch of bones. It was the remains of someone’s son, maybe father(Nelson, 26).” In the 1990s, historians researched Fortune and found local records and archaeologists and anthropologists studied Fortunes bone and found the truth about Fortune’s life, how he worked, suffered and even how he died. Fortune finally had the ability to rest in eternal peace. The fact that Fortune did not get the respect he deserved until he had been deceased for so many years can be compared to the African Americans buried at the African Burial Ground National Monument. The African Americans buried here did not get to rest in peace either, they suffered when the ground they were buried on was dug apart and their remains were rediscovered. “Excavations began in July 1991, several skeletal remains were recovered. One year later, 390 burials were removed and GSA intended to remove 200 additional burials.” Archaeologists and anthropologists studied the bones they found and discovered the remains were individuals with filed teeth in hourglass shapes, which is a popular cultural tradition in West Africa. “Based on lesions found on the bones, slaves suffered from hard physical labor and malnutrition. Some of the anthropologists assert that the bone pathologies indicated slaves were literally “worked to death.” This is almost exactly like Fortune’s life, he was worked to death and when he was dead, he was still treated like he did not mean anything. These African Americans did not have names to know who they were, just like how Fortune’s name was changed while his bones were getting passed along. These people were treated like they were good enough to be treated like human beings, they did not get the respect that they deserve and it is sad to think people thought it was okay to treat others like this. The African Burial Ground National Monument ensures that these bodies are kept at rest, and in peace, not bothered at all. The African Burial Ground National Monument is designated a National Historic Landmark, so it is protected and can not be dug up and built on. On October 1, 2007, the memorial was completed and opened for visitors and you can still visit it in Manhattan New York City today. Mayor David Dinkins had spoke about the memorial and had said, “The African Burial Ground is irrefutable testimony to the contributions and suffering of our ancestors.” Although these African Americans did not have respect and peace for a long time, just like Fortune, they are able to have it now. This memorial gives all of these African Americans, their families and ancestors security that they will not be bothered and will now be able to be honored and respected as they deserve. It was very upsetting to me to read about Fortune and these African Americans who had a life full of suffering and torture, were not able to pass with peacefulnes and dignity attached to them. The African Burial Ground is a step in the right direction but there are still so many cases where slaves and other African Americans never get to rest eternally and obtain recognition.	1,486	ENGLISH	1
Thomas Henry Huxley F.R.S. (May 4, 1825 - June 29, 1895) was a British biologist, known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his defence of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. His scientific debates against Richard Owen demonstrated that there were close similarities between the cerebral anatomy of humans and gorillas. Interestingly, Huxley did not accept many of Darwin's ideas (e.g. gradualism), and was more interested in advocating a materialist professional science than in defending natural selection. A talented populariser of science, he coined the term "agnosticism" to describe his stance on religious belief. He also is credited with inventing the concept of "biogenesis", a theory stating that all cells arise from other cells. Huxley was born in the village of Ealing near London, being the seventh of eight children of George Huxley, a teacher of mathematics at Ealing. At seventeen he commenced regular medical studies at Charing Cross Hospital, where he had obtained a scholarship. At twenty he passed his first M.B. examination at the University of London, winning the gold medal for anatomy and physiology. In 1845 he published his first scientific paper, demonstrating the existence of a hitherto unrecognized layer in the inner sheath of hairs, a layer that has been known since as Huxley's layer. Huxley then applied for an appointment in the navy. He obtained the post of surgeon to HMS Rattlesnake, about to start for surveying work in Torres Strait. Rattlesnake left England on December 3, 1846, and once they had arrived in the southern hemisphere Huxley devoted his time to the study of marine invertebrates. He began to send details of his discoveries back to England, and his paper, On the Anatomy and the Affinities of the Family of Medusae was printed by the Royal Society in the Philosophical Transactions in 1849. Huxley united, with the Medusae, the Hydroid and Sertularian polyps, to form a class to which he subsequently gave the name of Hydrozoa. The connection he made was that all the members of the class consisted of two membranes enclosing a central cavity or stomach. This is characteristic of what are now called the Cnidaria. He compared this feature to the serous and mucous structures of embryos of higher animals. The value of Huxley's work was recognized, and on returning to England in 1850 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In the following year, at the age of twenty-six, he not only received the Royal medal, but was elected on the council. He secured the friendship of Joseph Dalton Hooker and John Tyndall, who remained his lifelong friends. The Admiralty retained him as a nominal assistant-surgeon, in order that he might work on the observations he had made during the voyage of Rattlesnake. He was thus enabled to produce various important memoirs, especially those on certain Ascidians, in which he solved the problem of Appendicularian organism whose place in the animal kingdom Johannes Peter Müller had found himself wholly unable to assign and on the morphology of the Cephalous Mollusca. Huxley resigned from the navy, and in July 1854 he became lecturer at the School of Mines and naturalist to the Geological Survey in the following year. His most important research belonging to this period was the Croonian Lecture delivered before the Royal Society in 1858 on The Theory of the Vertebrate Skull. In this he rejected Richard Owen's view that the bones of the skull and the spine were analogous, an opinion previously held by Goethe and Lorenz Oken. In 1859 The Origin of Species was published. Huxley had previously rejected Lamarck's theory of transmutation on the basis that there was insufficient evidence to support it. However he believed that Darwin at least gave a hypothesis which was good enough as a working basis, even though he believed evidence was still lacking, and became one of Darwin's main supporters in the debate that followed the book's publication. He did this in a lecture at the Royal Institution in February 1860, and spoke in favour of Darwinism in the debate at the British Association meeting at the Oxford University Museum in June. He was joined on this occasion by his friend Hooker, and they were opposed by the Bishop of Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce and Robert FitzRoy, the captain of HMS Beagle. Following this Huxley concentrated on the subject of man's origins, maintaining that man was related to apes. In this he was opposed by Richard Owen, who stated that man was clearly marked off from all other animals by the anatomical structure of his brain. This was actually inconsistent with known facts, and was effectually refuted by Huxley in various papers and lectures, summed up in 1863 in Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature. The thirty-one years during which Huxley occupied the chair of natural history at the School of Mines were largely occupied with palaeontological research. Numerous memoirs on fossil fishes established many far-reaching morphological facts. The study of fossil reptiles led to his demonstrating, in the course of lectures on birds, delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons in 1867, the fundamental affinity of the two groups which he united under the title of Sauropsida. From 1870 onwards he was drawn away from scientific research by the claims of public duty. From 1862 to 1884 be served on ten Royal Commissions. From 1871 to 1880 he was a secretary of the Royal Society, and from 1881 to 1885 he was president. He was made a Privy Councillor in 1892. In 1870 he was president of the British Association at Liverpool, and in the same year was elected a member of the newly constituted London School Board. In 1888 he was awarded the Copley Medal by the Royal Society. His health completely broke down in 1885. In 1890 he moved from London to Eastbourne, where after a painful illness he died. Huxley was the founder of a very distinguished family of British academics, including his grandsons Aldous Huxley (the writer), Sir Julian Huxley (the first Director General of UNESCO and founder of the World Wildlife Fund), and Sir Andrew Huxley (the physiologist and Nobel laureate). - Many of Thomas Henry Huxley's works can be found at Project Gutenberg, including: - Life and Letters of Thomas Henry Huxley, Vol. 1 (http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/5084), Vol. 2 (http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/5226), Vol. 3 (http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/5799) - The Huxley File at Clark University, (http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/)	<urn:uuid:9cd9be04-9990-4966-af26-acdd1d3513bb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.statemaster.com/encyclopedia/T.H._Huxley	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00182.warc.gz	en	0.981317	1,435	3.515625	4	[ 0.01577412709593773, 0.19823968410491943, 0.014672180637717247, 0.1450599581003189, -0.2842442989349365, 0.05789206922054291, 0.563606858253479, 0.3866461515426636, -0.05751265585422516, -0.08226834237575531, 0.10029934346675873, -1.0925064086914062, 0.1550191193819046, 0.19669805467128754...	1	Thomas Henry Huxley F.R.S. (May 4, 1825 - June 29, 1895) was a British biologist, known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his defence of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. His scientific debates against Richard Owen demonstrated that there were close similarities between the cerebral anatomy of humans and gorillas. Interestingly, Huxley did not accept many of Darwin's ideas (e.g. gradualism), and was more interested in advocating a materialist professional science than in defending natural selection. A talented populariser of science, he coined the term "agnosticism" to describe his stance on religious belief. He also is credited with inventing the concept of "biogenesis", a theory stating that all cells arise from other cells. Huxley was born in the village of Ealing near London, being the seventh of eight children of George Huxley, a teacher of mathematics at Ealing. At seventeen he commenced regular medical studies at Charing Cross Hospital, where he had obtained a scholarship. At twenty he passed his first M.B. examination at the University of London, winning the gold medal for anatomy and physiology. In 1845 he published his first scientific paper, demonstrating the existence of a hitherto unrecognized layer in the inner sheath of hairs, a layer that has been known since as Huxley's layer. Huxley then applied for an appointment in the navy. He obtained the post of surgeon to HMS Rattlesnake, about to start for surveying work in Torres Strait. Rattlesnake left England on December 3, 1846, and once they had arrived in the southern hemisphere Huxley devoted his time to the study of marine invertebrates. He began to send details of his discoveries back to England, and his paper, On the Anatomy and the Affinities of the Family of Medusae was printed by the Royal Society in the Philosophical Transactions in 1849. Huxley united, with the Medusae, the Hydroid and Sertularian polyps, to form a class to which he subsequently gave the name of Hydrozoa. The connection he made was that all the members of the class consisted of two membranes enclosing a central cavity or stomach. This is characteristic of what are now called the Cnidaria. He compared this feature to the serous and mucous structures of embryos of higher animals. The value of Huxley's work was recognized, and on returning to England in 1850 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In the following year, at the age of twenty-six, he not only received the Royal medal, but was elected on the council. He secured the friendship of Joseph Dalton Hooker and John Tyndall, who remained his lifelong friends. The Admiralty retained him as a nominal assistant-surgeon, in order that he might work on the observations he had made during the voyage of Rattlesnake. He was thus enabled to produce various important memoirs, especially those on certain Ascidians, in which he solved the problem of Appendicularian organism whose place in the animal kingdom Johannes Peter Müller had found himself wholly unable to assign and on the morphology of the Cephalous Mollusca. Huxley resigned from the navy, and in July 1854 he became lecturer at the School of Mines and naturalist to the Geological Survey in the following year. His most important research belonging to this period was the Croonian Lecture delivered before the Royal Society in 1858 on The Theory of the Vertebrate Skull. In this he rejected Richard Owen's view that the bones of the skull and the spine were analogous, an opinion previously held by Goethe and Lorenz Oken. In 1859 The Origin of Species was published. Huxley had previously rejected Lamarck's theory of transmutation on the basis that there was insufficient evidence to support it. However he believed that Darwin at least gave a hypothesis which was good enough as a working basis, even though he believed evidence was still lacking, and became one of Darwin's main supporters in the debate that followed the book's publication. He did this in a lecture at the Royal Institution in February 1860, and spoke in favour of Darwinism in the debate at the British Association meeting at the Oxford University Museum in June. He was joined on this occasion by his friend Hooker, and they were opposed by the Bishop of Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce and Robert FitzRoy, the captain of HMS Beagle. Following this Huxley concentrated on the subject of man's origins, maintaining that man was related to apes. In this he was opposed by Richard Owen, who stated that man was clearly marked off from all other animals by the anatomical structure of his brain. This was actually inconsistent with known facts, and was effectually refuted by Huxley in various papers and lectures, summed up in 1863 in Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature. The thirty-one years during which Huxley occupied the chair of natural history at the School of Mines were largely occupied with palaeontological research. Numerous memoirs on fossil fishes established many far-reaching morphological facts. The study of fossil reptiles led to his demonstrating, in the course of lectures on birds, delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons in 1867, the fundamental affinity of the two groups which he united under the title of Sauropsida. From 1870 onwards he was drawn away from scientific research by the claims of public duty. From 1862 to 1884 be served on ten Royal Commissions. From 1871 to 1880 he was a secretary of the Royal Society, and from 1881 to 1885 he was president. He was made a Privy Councillor in 1892. In 1870 he was president of the British Association at Liverpool, and in the same year was elected a member of the newly constituted London School Board. In 1888 he was awarded the Copley Medal by the Royal Society. His health completely broke down in 1885. In 1890 he moved from London to Eastbourne, where after a painful illness he died. Huxley was the founder of a very distinguished family of British academics, including his grandsons Aldous Huxley (the writer), Sir Julian Huxley (the first Director General of UNESCO and founder of the World Wildlife Fund), and Sir Andrew Huxley (the physiologist and Nobel laureate). - Many of Thomas Henry Huxley's works can be found at Project Gutenberg, including: - Life and Letters of Thomas Henry Huxley, Vol. 1 (http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/5084), Vol. 2 (http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/5226), Vol. 3 (http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/5799) - The Huxley File at Clark University, (http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/)	1,497	ENGLISH	1
The ghost of William Shakespeare's play, Hamlet, has a clear mission.He knows that the king's death must be avenged, he knows that Hamlet must do it, and he is very clear about how it should be done.The ghost knows that he mustfirst convince Hamlet that he is who he says he is, and then he must convince Hamlet to avenge his death.His concerns are related primarily to Gertrude and Claudius but he also thinks that all of Denmark should be aware of the terrible deed that has been done.The ghost of Hamlet has a strong sense of self and he is very aware of the immediate surrounding as well as the bigger picture.He also has a plan and Hamlet is the only person that can carry out the plan. The ghost in Hamlet is one that exhibits extreme self-control throughout the entire play.We can see an example of this when the ghost and Hamlet talk at the end of Act I.The ghost is very well aware of who he is, although Hamlet expresses much doubt about his identity.When the ghost tells Hamlet that he is "thy father's spirit" (Shakespeare I.v.14), we believe him because his character is strong.He is also aware of the fact that he is a ghost: Doomed for a certain term to walk the night And for the day confined to fast in fires Till the foul crimes done in my day of nature Here we see how the ghost is not only aware of the fact that he is a ghost but he knows why.He knows that he cannot tell the secrets of his house but if he could, they would freeze Hamlet's blood. The ghost is also aware of Hamlet's place in all of this.It is simply to avenge his father's death, a "foul and most unnatural murder" (I.v.31).It is also important to note how the ghost is able to see the bigger picture.He wants Hamlet to know that he was not just murdered but he was murdered in a foul way by those closest to him.He tells Hamlet that because of how he died	<urn:uuid:ac42e951-d320-4ae1-84d5-816c7800faf8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/the-ghost-in-shakespeares-hamlet/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00321.warc.gz	en	0.983553	445	3.703125	4	[ -0.10773802548646927, -0.03698229044675827, 0.40760520100593567, -0.18514512479305267, -0.035976801067590714, 0.00254952535033226, 0.7889578342437744, 0.22899222373962402, -0.18643535673618317, -0.20251868665218353, 0.2539495825767517, -0.26215118169784546, -0.6059604287147522, 0.388396799...	1	The ghost of William Shakespeare's play, Hamlet, has a clear mission.He knows that the king's death must be avenged, he knows that Hamlet must do it, and he is very clear about how it should be done.The ghost knows that he mustfirst convince Hamlet that he is who he says he is, and then he must convince Hamlet to avenge his death.His concerns are related primarily to Gertrude and Claudius but he also thinks that all of Denmark should be aware of the terrible deed that has been done.The ghost of Hamlet has a strong sense of self and he is very aware of the immediate surrounding as well as the bigger picture.He also has a plan and Hamlet is the only person that can carry out the plan. The ghost in Hamlet is one that exhibits extreme self-control throughout the entire play.We can see an example of this when the ghost and Hamlet talk at the end of Act I.The ghost is very well aware of who he is, although Hamlet expresses much doubt about his identity.When the ghost tells Hamlet that he is "thy father's spirit" (Shakespeare I.v.14), we believe him because his character is strong.He is also aware of the fact that he is a ghost: Doomed for a certain term to walk the night And for the day confined to fast in fires Till the foul crimes done in my day of nature Here we see how the ghost is not only aware of the fact that he is a ghost but he knows why.He knows that he cannot tell the secrets of his house but if he could, they would freeze Hamlet's blood. The ghost is also aware of Hamlet's place in all of this.It is simply to avenge his father's death, a "foul and most unnatural murder" (I.v.31).It is also important to note how the ghost is able to see the bigger picture.He wants Hamlet to know that he was not just murdered but he was murdered in a foul way by those closest to him.He tells Hamlet that because of how he died	429	ENGLISH	1
Own a Seldom-Seen Official Stamp Specimen Older Official stamps can be challenging to find – and are even more scarce overprinted for use as Specimen stamps. But now you can own this 1875 24¢ War Department Official Specimen stamp. Specimen stamps are an often-overlooked area of philately. They were produced and distributed primarily to serve as samples for local and foreign postal authorities. Having reference collections allowed clerks to distinguish valid postage from counterfeits, which encouraged the exchange of international mail by discouraging fraud. Specimen stamps were created by adding overprints to regular stamps to render them invalid for postage. Although they were produced in very limited quantities, Specimen stamps are surprisingly affordable. Add #O91S to your collection today. Why Were Officials Issued? The roots of Official stamps stretch back nearly 200 years. In 1791, Congress passed an act establishing post offices and routes in the United States. One of the clauses of the act allowed for franking privileges. Franking allowed members of the government to send mail for free if for government purposes. From time to time, the law was changed and more and more people were added. What began as a privilege soon became abused. With every change of the law, more people were added to the list of those who had franking privileges. In an 1869 report, Postmaster General John Creswell noted that 31,933 people were then permitted to send mail for free. That meant a $5,000,000 yearly expense for the Federal government! Abuses ranged from using franking to send laundry to the cleaners, to more serious complaints surrounding elections. Incumbent Congressmen were able to send vast amounts of campaign material through the mail for free, giving them a sizable advantage over challengers. One legend also tells of a senator who sent his horse home to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, by franking its bridle! Creswell finally won the power to abolish free franking in January 1873. Five weeks later, Congress passed legislation approving a new system for government mail, in which offices were issued special stamps for their use. These quickly were called “Official Mail” because their use was strictly limited to government mail. They also quickly became unpopular with Congressmen, who complained loudly about the burden of mailing costs. In spite of the complaints, the franking privileges officially ended on July 1, 1873, the day Official stamps were then required on all government mail. Each department was issued its own set of stamps. Many of the designs were taken from the current series of regular postage stamps being printed at that time – the so-called “Bank Note Issues.” The department names were inscribed on the stamps instead of the usual “US Postage” and each set was printed in its own distinct color. Only the Post Office Department had its own unique design – a numeral in an oval frame. In 1877, a new law attached a $300 penalty for the use of Official stamps on personal mail. However, that same act also restored a limited franking privilege, and the effects were quickly noticed. Revenue from official stamps dropped from over $1.1 million to $370,000 – in one year. In 1884, the Officials were declared obsolete and were replaced with the “penalty” envelope. These envelopes were imprinted with an official emblem and carried a warning against unauthorized use by private individuals. Official Mail stamps made a brief return in 1910. Over the course of two years, six Postal Savings Official stamps were issued for government use concerning the Postal Savings program. However, those stamps were only in use for four years. Many may have expected that to be the end of US Officials. However, in 1983, the issue of government postage accountability became an issue once again. As a result, the USPS issued six new stamps on January 12, 1983. The new stamps weren’t department specific and didn’t duplicate previous designs. Instead, they pictured the Great Seal of the United States. They also included the words, “Penalty for private use $300.” The USPS continued to issue Official Mail stamps until 2009.	<urn:uuid:92602591-9ee3-4de0-a3eb-34a9e780af7a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mysticstamp.com/Products/United-States/O91S/USA/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00008.warc.gz	en	0.982888	859	3.6875	4	[ -0.6318955421447754, 0.41327744722366333, 0.13531863689422607, -0.0558551624417305, 0.03855296969413757, -0.021204624325037003, 0.18125545978546143, 0.21992795169353485, -0.5411007404327393, 0.08353491127490997, 0.19360202550888062, 0.15085023641586304, -0.05909924581646919, 0.196977004408...	1	Own a Seldom-Seen Official Stamp Specimen Older Official stamps can be challenging to find – and are even more scarce overprinted for use as Specimen stamps. But now you can own this 1875 24¢ War Department Official Specimen stamp. Specimen stamps are an often-overlooked area of philately. They were produced and distributed primarily to serve as samples for local and foreign postal authorities. Having reference collections allowed clerks to distinguish valid postage from counterfeits, which encouraged the exchange of international mail by discouraging fraud. Specimen stamps were created by adding overprints to regular stamps to render them invalid for postage. Although they were produced in very limited quantities, Specimen stamps are surprisingly affordable. Add #O91S to your collection today. Why Were Officials Issued? The roots of Official stamps stretch back nearly 200 years. In 1791, Congress passed an act establishing post offices and routes in the United States. One of the clauses of the act allowed for franking privileges. Franking allowed members of the government to send mail for free if for government purposes. From time to time, the law was changed and more and more people were added. What began as a privilege soon became abused. With every change of the law, more people were added to the list of those who had franking privileges. In an 1869 report, Postmaster General John Creswell noted that 31,933 people were then permitted to send mail for free. That meant a $5,000,000 yearly expense for the Federal government! Abuses ranged from using franking to send laundry to the cleaners, to more serious complaints surrounding elections. Incumbent Congressmen were able to send vast amounts of campaign material through the mail for free, giving them a sizable advantage over challengers. One legend also tells of a senator who sent his horse home to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, by franking its bridle! Creswell finally won the power to abolish free franking in January 1873. Five weeks later, Congress passed legislation approving a new system for government mail, in which offices were issued special stamps for their use. These quickly were called “Official Mail” because their use was strictly limited to government mail. They also quickly became unpopular with Congressmen, who complained loudly about the burden of mailing costs. In spite of the complaints, the franking privileges officially ended on July 1, 1873, the day Official stamps were then required on all government mail. Each department was issued its own set of stamps. Many of the designs were taken from the current series of regular postage stamps being printed at that time – the so-called “Bank Note Issues.” The department names were inscribed on the stamps instead of the usual “US Postage” and each set was printed in its own distinct color. Only the Post Office Department had its own unique design – a numeral in an oval frame. In 1877, a new law attached a $300 penalty for the use of Official stamps on personal mail. However, that same act also restored a limited franking privilege, and the effects were quickly noticed. Revenue from official stamps dropped from over $1.1 million to $370,000 – in one year. In 1884, the Officials were declared obsolete and were replaced with the “penalty” envelope. These envelopes were imprinted with an official emblem and carried a warning against unauthorized use by private individuals. Official Mail stamps made a brief return in 1910. Over the course of two years, six Postal Savings Official stamps were issued for government use concerning the Postal Savings program. However, those stamps were only in use for four years. Many may have expected that to be the end of US Officials. However, in 1983, the issue of government postage accountability became an issue once again. As a result, the USPS issued six new stamps on January 12, 1983. The new stamps weren’t department specific and didn’t duplicate previous designs. Instead, they pictured the Great Seal of the United States. They also included the words, “Penalty for private use $300.” The USPS continued to issue Official Mail stamps until 2009.	890	ENGLISH	1
The landed gentry, or simply the gentry, is a largely historical British social class consisting in theory of landowners who could live entirely from rental income, or at least had a country estate. It belonged to aristocracy, but was distinct from, and socially "below", British peerage, although in fact some of the landed gentry were wealthier than some peers, and many gentry were related to peers. They often worked as administrators of their own lands, while others became public, political, religious, and armed forces figures. The decline of this privileged class largely stemmed from the 1870s agricultural depression; however, there are still many hereditary gentry in the UK to this day, many of whom transferred their landlord-style management skills after the agricultural depression into the business of land agency, the act of buying and selling land. The designation "landed gentry" originally referred exclusively to members of the upper class who were landlords and also commoners in the British sense - that is, they did not hold peerages - but usage became more fluid over time. Similar or analogous social systems of landed gentry also sprang up in countries that maintained a colonial system; the term is employed in many British colonies such as the Colony of Virginia and some parts of India. By the late 19th century, the term was also applied to peers such as the Duke of Westminster who lived on landed estates. The book series Burke's Landed Gentry recorded the members of this class. Successful burghers often used their accumulated wealth to buy country estates, with the aim of establishing themselves as landed gentry. All of the first group, and very many of the last three, were "armigerous", having obtained the right to carry a coats of arms. In many Continental societies, this was exclusively the right of the nobility, and at least the upper clergy. In France this was originally true but many of the landed gentry, burghers and wealthy merchants were also allowed to register coats of arms and become "armigerous". The term landed gentry, although originally used to mean nobility, came to be used of the lesser nobility in England around 1540. Once identical, eventually nobility and landed gentry became complementary, in the sense that their definitions began to fill in parts of what the other lacked. The historical term gentry by itself, so Peter Coss argues, is a construct that historians have applied loosely to rather different societies. Any particular model may not fit a specific society, yet a single definition nevertheless remains desirable. The phrase landed gentry referred in particular to the untitled members of the landowning upper class. The most stable and respected form of wealth has historically been land, and great prestige and political qualifications were (and to a lesser extent still are) attached to land ownership. The primary meaning of "landed gentry" encompasses those members of the land-owning classes who are not members of the peerage. It was an informal designation: one belonged to the landed gentry if other members of that class accepted one as such. A newly rich man who wished his family to join the gentry (and they nearly all did so wish), was expected not only to buy a country house and estate, but also to sever all financial ties with the business which had made him wealthy in order to cleanse his family of the "taint of trade". However, during the 19th century, as the new rich of the Industrial Revolution became more and more numerous and politically powerful, this expectation was gradually relaxed. From the late 16th-century, the gentry emerged as the class most closely involved in politics, the military and law. It provided the bulk of Members of Parliament, with many gentry families maintaining political control in a certain locality over several generations (see List of political families in the United Kingdom). Owning land was a prerequisite for suffrage (the civil right to vote) in county constituencies until the Reform Act 1832; until then, Parliament was largely in the hands of the landowning class. Members of the landed gentry were upper class (not middle class); this was a highly prestigious status. Particular prestige was attached to those who inherited landed estates over a number of generations. These are often described as being from "old" families. Titles are often considered central to the upper class, but this is certainly not universally the case. For example, both Captain Mark Phillips and Vice Admiral Sir Timothy Laurence, the first and second husbands of the Princess Anne, lacked any rank of peerage, yet could scarcely be considered anything other than upper class. The agricultural sector's middle class, on the other hand, comprise the larger tenant farmers, who rent land from the landowners, and yeoman farmers, who were defined as "a person qualified by possessing free land of forty shillings annual [feudal] value, and who can serve on juries and vote for a Knight of the Shire. He is sometimes described as a small landowner, a farmer of the middle classes."Anthony Richard Wagner of the Richmond Herald wrote that "a Yeoman would not normally have less than 100 acres" (40 hectares) and in social status is one step down from the gentry, but above, say, a husbandman. So while yeoman farmers owned enough land to support a comfortable lifestyle, they nevertheless farmed it themselves and were excluded from the "landed gentry" because they worked for a living, and were thus "in trade" as it was termed. Apart from a few "honourable" professions connected with the governing elite (the clergy of the established church, the officer corps of the British Armed Forces, the diplomatic and civil services, the bar or the judiciary), such occupation was considered demeaning by the upper classes, particularly by the 19th century, when the earlier mercantile endeavours of younger sons were increasingly discontinued. Younger sons, who could not expect to inherit the family estate, were instead urged into professions of state service. It became a pattern in many families that while the eldest son would inherit the estate and enter politics, the second son would join the army, the third son go into law, and the fourth son join the church. Persons who are closely related to peers are also more correctly described as gentry than as nobility, since the latter term, in the modern British Isles, is synonymous with "peer". However, this popular usage of 'nobility' omits the distinction between titled and untitled nobility. The titled nobility in Britain are the peers of the realm, whereas the untitled nobility comprise those here described as gentry. David Cannadine wrote that the gentry's lack of titles "did not matter, for it was obvious to contemporaries that the landed gentry were all for practical purposes the equivalent of continental nobles, with their hereditary estates, their leisured lifestyle, their social pre-eminence, and their armorial bearings". British armigerous families who hold no title of nobility are represented, together with those who hold titles through the College of Arms, by the Commission and Association for Armigerous Families of Great Britain at CILANE. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the names and families of those with titles (specifically peers and baronets, less often including those with the non-hereditary title of knight) were often listed in books or manuals known as "Peerages", "Baronetages", or combinations of these categories, such as the "Peerage, Baronetage, Knightage, and Companionage". As well as listing genealogical information, these books often also included details of the right of a given family to a coat of arms. They were comparable to the Almanach de Gotha in continental Europe. Novelist Jane Austen, whose family were not quite members of the landed gentry class, summarised the appeal of these works, particularly for those included in them: Sir Walter Elliot, of Kellynch Hall, in Somersetshire, was a man who, for his own amusement, never took up any book but the Baronetage; there he found occupation for an idle hour, and consolation in a distressed one; there his faculties were roused into admiration and respect, by contemplating the limited remnant of the earliest patents; there any unwelcome sensations, arising from domestic affairs changed naturally into pity and contempt as he turned over the almost endless creations of the last century; and there, if every other leaf were powerless, he could read his own history with an interest which never failed.-- Jane Austen, Persuasion, chapter 1, page 1 In the 1830s, one peerage publisher, John Burke, expanded his market and his readership by publishing a similar volume for people without titles, which was called A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Commoners of Great Britain and Ireland, enjoying territorial possessions or high official rank, popularly known as Burke's Commoners. Burke's Commoners was published in four volumes from 1833 to 1838. Subsequent editions were re-titled A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Landed Gentry; or, Commons of Great Britain and Ireland or Burke's Landed Gentry. Burke's Landed Gentry continued to appear at regular intervals throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, driven, in the 19th century, principally by the energy and readable style of the founder's son and successor as editor, Sir John Bernard Burke (who generally favoured the romantic and picturesque in genealogy over the mundane, or strictly correct). A review of the 1952 edition in Time noted: Landed Gentry used to limit itself to owners of domains that could properly be called "stately" (i.e. more than 500 acres or 200 hectares). Now it has lowered the property qualification to 200 acres (0.81 km2) for all British families whose pedigrees have been "notable" for three generations. Even so, almost half of the 5,000 families listed in the new volume are in there because their forefathers were: they themselves have no land left. Their estates are mere street addresses, like that of the Molineux-Montgomeries, formerly of Garboldisham Old Hall, now of No. 14 Malton Avenue, Haworth. The last three-volume edition of Burke's Landed Gentry was published between 1965 and 1972. A new series, under new owners, was begun in 2001 on a regional plan, starting with Burke's Landed Gentry; The Kingdom in Scotland. However, these volumes no longer limit themselves to people with any connection, ancestral or otherwise, with land, and they contain much less information, particularly on family history, than the 19th and 20th century editions. The popularity of Burke's Landed Gentry gave currency to the expression Landed Gentry as a description of the untitled upper classes in England (although the book also included families in Wales, Scotland and Ireland, where, however, social structures were rather different). Families were arranged in alphabetical order by surname, and each family article was headed with the surname and the name of their landed property, e.g. "Capron of Southwick Hall". There was then a paragraph on the owner of the property, with his coat of arms illustrated, and all his children and remoter male-line descendants also listed, each with full names and details of birth, marriage, death, and any matters tending to enhance their social prestige, such as school and university education, military rank and regiment, Church of England cures held, and other honours and socially approved involvements. Cross references were included to other families in Burke's Landed Gentry or in Burke's Peerage and Baronetage: thus encouraging browsing through connections. Professional details were not usually mentioned unless they conferred some social status, such as those of civil service and colonial officials, judges and barristers. After the section dealing with the current owner of the property, there usually appeared a section entitled Lineage which listed, not only ancestors of the owner, but (so far as known) every male-line descendant of those ancestors, thus including many people in the ranks of the "Landed Gentry" families who had never owned an acre in their lives but who might share in the status of their eponymous kin as connected, however remotely to the landed gentry or to a county family. This section does not cite any sources. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Great Depression of British Agriculture at the end of the 19th century, together with the introduction in the 20th century of increasingly heavy levels of taxation on inherited wealth, put an end to agricultural land as the primary source of wealth for the upper classes. Many estates were sold or broken up, and this trend was accelerated by the introduction of protection for agricultural tenancies, encouraging outright sales, from the mid-20th century. So devastating was this for the ranks formerly identified as being of the landed gentry that Burke's Landed Gentry began, in the 20th century, to include families historically in this category who had ceased to own their ancestral lands. The focus of those who remained in this class shifted from the lands or estates themselves, to the stately home or "family seat" which was in many cases retained without the surrounding lands. Many of these buildings were purchased for the nation and preserved as monuments to the lifestyles of their former owners (who sometimes remained in part of the house as lessees or tenants) by the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty. The National Trust, which had originally concentrated on open landscapes rather than buildings, accelerated its country house acquisition programme during and after the Second World War, partly because of the widespread destruction of country houses in the 20th century by owners who could no longer afford to maintain them. Those who retained their property usually had to supplement their incomes from sources other than the land, sometimes by opening their properties to the public. In the 21st century, the term "landed gentry" is still used, as the landowning class still exists, but it increasingly refers more to historic than to current landed wealth or property in a family. Moreover, the deference which was once automatically given to members of this class by most British people has almost completely dissipated as its wealth, political power and social influence have declined, and other social figures such as celebrities have grown to take their place in the public's interest. (By the late 17th century)....a number of local squires were added to the governing bodies, even appointed as mayors...	<urn:uuid:fab1880d-9de5-4c81-a311-a0aa340737b5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Landed_gentry	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00407.warc.gz	en	0.980484	2,999	3.84375	4	[ 0.15504717826843262, 0.26642850041389465, 0.10751022398471832, -0.25890132784843445, 0.1420104205608368, -0.11314576119184494, 0.1536000370979309, -0.4341939687728882, 0.2886494994163513, 0.10807071626186371, -0.12753650546073914, -0.4255978465080261, 0.22058604657649994, 0.208557844161987...	1	The landed gentry, or simply the gentry, is a largely historical British social class consisting in theory of landowners who could live entirely from rental income, or at least had a country estate. It belonged to aristocracy, but was distinct from, and socially "below", British peerage, although in fact some of the landed gentry were wealthier than some peers, and many gentry were related to peers. They often worked as administrators of their own lands, while others became public, political, religious, and armed forces figures. The decline of this privileged class largely stemmed from the 1870s agricultural depression; however, there are still many hereditary gentry in the UK to this day, many of whom transferred their landlord-style management skills after the agricultural depression into the business of land agency, the act of buying and selling land. The designation "landed gentry" originally referred exclusively to members of the upper class who were landlords and also commoners in the British sense - that is, they did not hold peerages - but usage became more fluid over time. Similar or analogous social systems of landed gentry also sprang up in countries that maintained a colonial system; the term is employed in many British colonies such as the Colony of Virginia and some parts of India. By the late 19th century, the term was also applied to peers such as the Duke of Westminster who lived on landed estates. The book series Burke's Landed Gentry recorded the members of this class. Successful burghers often used their accumulated wealth to buy country estates, with the aim of establishing themselves as landed gentry. All of the first group, and very many of the last three, were "armigerous", having obtained the right to carry a coats of arms. In many Continental societies, this was exclusively the right of the nobility, and at least the upper clergy. In France this was originally true but many of the landed gentry, burghers and wealthy merchants were also allowed to register coats of arms and become "armigerous". The term landed gentry, although originally used to mean nobility, came to be used of the lesser nobility in England around 1540. Once identical, eventually nobility and landed gentry became complementary, in the sense that their definitions began to fill in parts of what the other lacked. The historical term gentry by itself, so Peter Coss argues, is a construct that historians have applied loosely to rather different societies. Any particular model may not fit a specific society, yet a single definition nevertheless remains desirable. The phrase landed gentry referred in particular to the untitled members of the landowning upper class. The most stable and respected form of wealth has historically been land, and great prestige and political qualifications were (and to a lesser extent still are) attached to land ownership. The primary meaning of "landed gentry" encompasses those members of the land-owning classes who are not members of the peerage. It was an informal designation: one belonged to the landed gentry if other members of that class accepted one as such. A newly rich man who wished his family to join the gentry (and they nearly all did so wish), was expected not only to buy a country house and estate, but also to sever all financial ties with the business which had made him wealthy in order to cleanse his family of the "taint of trade". However, during the 19th century, as the new rich of the Industrial Revolution became more and more numerous and politically powerful, this expectation was gradually relaxed. From the late 16th-century, the gentry emerged as the class most closely involved in politics, the military and law. It provided the bulk of Members of Parliament, with many gentry families maintaining political control in a certain locality over several generations (see List of political families in the United Kingdom). Owning land was a prerequisite for suffrage (the civil right to vote) in county constituencies until the Reform Act 1832; until then, Parliament was largely in the hands of the landowning class. Members of the landed gentry were upper class (not middle class); this was a highly prestigious status. Particular prestige was attached to those who inherited landed estates over a number of generations. These are often described as being from "old" families. Titles are often considered central to the upper class, but this is certainly not universally the case. For example, both Captain Mark Phillips and Vice Admiral Sir Timothy Laurence, the first and second husbands of the Princess Anne, lacked any rank of peerage, yet could scarcely be considered anything other than upper class. The agricultural sector's middle class, on the other hand, comprise the larger tenant farmers, who rent land from the landowners, and yeoman farmers, who were defined as "a person qualified by possessing free land of forty shillings annual [feudal] value, and who can serve on juries and vote for a Knight of the Shire. He is sometimes described as a small landowner, a farmer of the middle classes."Anthony Richard Wagner of the Richmond Herald wrote that "a Yeoman would not normally have less than 100 acres" (40 hectares) and in social status is one step down from the gentry, but above, say, a husbandman. So while yeoman farmers owned enough land to support a comfortable lifestyle, they nevertheless farmed it themselves and were excluded from the "landed gentry" because they worked for a living, and were thus "in trade" as it was termed. Apart from a few "honourable" professions connected with the governing elite (the clergy of the established church, the officer corps of the British Armed Forces, the diplomatic and civil services, the bar or the judiciary), such occupation was considered demeaning by the upper classes, particularly by the 19th century, when the earlier mercantile endeavours of younger sons were increasingly discontinued. Younger sons, who could not expect to inherit the family estate, were instead urged into professions of state service. It became a pattern in many families that while the eldest son would inherit the estate and enter politics, the second son would join the army, the third son go into law, and the fourth son join the church. Persons who are closely related to peers are also more correctly described as gentry than as nobility, since the latter term, in the modern British Isles, is synonymous with "peer". However, this popular usage of 'nobility' omits the distinction between titled and untitled nobility. The titled nobility in Britain are the peers of the realm, whereas the untitled nobility comprise those here described as gentry. David Cannadine wrote that the gentry's lack of titles "did not matter, for it was obvious to contemporaries that the landed gentry were all for practical purposes the equivalent of continental nobles, with their hereditary estates, their leisured lifestyle, their social pre-eminence, and their armorial bearings". British armigerous families who hold no title of nobility are represented, together with those who hold titles through the College of Arms, by the Commission and Association for Armigerous Families of Great Britain at CILANE. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the names and families of those with titles (specifically peers and baronets, less often including those with the non-hereditary title of knight) were often listed in books or manuals known as "Peerages", "Baronetages", or combinations of these categories, such as the "Peerage, Baronetage, Knightage, and Companionage". As well as listing genealogical information, these books often also included details of the right of a given family to a coat of arms. They were comparable to the Almanach de Gotha in continental Europe. Novelist Jane Austen, whose family were not quite members of the landed gentry class, summarised the appeal of these works, particularly for those included in them: Sir Walter Elliot, of Kellynch Hall, in Somersetshire, was a man who, for his own amusement, never took up any book but the Baronetage; there he found occupation for an idle hour, and consolation in a distressed one; there his faculties were roused into admiration and respect, by contemplating the limited remnant of the earliest patents; there any unwelcome sensations, arising from domestic affairs changed naturally into pity and contempt as he turned over the almost endless creations of the last century; and there, if every other leaf were powerless, he could read his own history with an interest which never failed.-- Jane Austen, Persuasion, chapter 1, page 1 In the 1830s, one peerage publisher, John Burke, expanded his market and his readership by publishing a similar volume for people without titles, which was called A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Commoners of Great Britain and Ireland, enjoying territorial possessions or high official rank, popularly known as Burke's Commoners. Burke's Commoners was published in four volumes from 1833 to 1838. Subsequent editions were re-titled A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Landed Gentry; or, Commons of Great Britain and Ireland or Burke's Landed Gentry. Burke's Landed Gentry continued to appear at regular intervals throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, driven, in the 19th century, principally by the energy and readable style of the founder's son and successor as editor, Sir John Bernard Burke (who generally favoured the romantic and picturesque in genealogy over the mundane, or strictly correct). A review of the 1952 edition in Time noted: Landed Gentry used to limit itself to owners of domains that could properly be called "stately" (i.e. more than 500 acres or 200 hectares). Now it has lowered the property qualification to 200 acres (0.81 km2) for all British families whose pedigrees have been "notable" for three generations. Even so, almost half of the 5,000 families listed in the new volume are in there because their forefathers were: they themselves have no land left. Their estates are mere street addresses, like that of the Molineux-Montgomeries, formerly of Garboldisham Old Hall, now of No. 14 Malton Avenue, Haworth. The last three-volume edition of Burke's Landed Gentry was published between 1965 and 1972. A new series, under new owners, was begun in 2001 on a regional plan, starting with Burke's Landed Gentry; The Kingdom in Scotland. However, these volumes no longer limit themselves to people with any connection, ancestral or otherwise, with land, and they contain much less information, particularly on family history, than the 19th and 20th century editions. The popularity of Burke's Landed Gentry gave currency to the expression Landed Gentry as a description of the untitled upper classes in England (although the book also included families in Wales, Scotland and Ireland, where, however, social structures were rather different). Families were arranged in alphabetical order by surname, and each family article was headed with the surname and the name of their landed property, e.g. "Capron of Southwick Hall". There was then a paragraph on the owner of the property, with his coat of arms illustrated, and all his children and remoter male-line descendants also listed, each with full names and details of birth, marriage, death, and any matters tending to enhance their social prestige, such as school and university education, military rank and regiment, Church of England cures held, and other honours and socially approved involvements. Cross references were included to other families in Burke's Landed Gentry or in Burke's Peerage and Baronetage: thus encouraging browsing through connections. Professional details were not usually mentioned unless they conferred some social status, such as those of civil service and colonial officials, judges and barristers. After the section dealing with the current owner of the property, there usually appeared a section entitled Lineage which listed, not only ancestors of the owner, but (so far as known) every male-line descendant of those ancestors, thus including many people in the ranks of the "Landed Gentry" families who had never owned an acre in their lives but who might share in the status of their eponymous kin as connected, however remotely to the landed gentry or to a county family. This section does not cite any sources. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Great Depression of British Agriculture at the end of the 19th century, together with the introduction in the 20th century of increasingly heavy levels of taxation on inherited wealth, put an end to agricultural land as the primary source of wealth for the upper classes. Many estates were sold or broken up, and this trend was accelerated by the introduction of protection for agricultural tenancies, encouraging outright sales, from the mid-20th century. So devastating was this for the ranks formerly identified as being of the landed gentry that Burke's Landed Gentry began, in the 20th century, to include families historically in this category who had ceased to own their ancestral lands. The focus of those who remained in this class shifted from the lands or estates themselves, to the stately home or "family seat" which was in many cases retained without the surrounding lands. Many of these buildings were purchased for the nation and preserved as monuments to the lifestyles of their former owners (who sometimes remained in part of the house as lessees or tenants) by the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty. The National Trust, which had originally concentrated on open landscapes rather than buildings, accelerated its country house acquisition programme during and after the Second World War, partly because of the widespread destruction of country houses in the 20th century by owners who could no longer afford to maintain them. Those who retained their property usually had to supplement their incomes from sources other than the land, sometimes by opening their properties to the public. In the 21st century, the term "landed gentry" is still used, as the landowning class still exists, but it increasingly refers more to historic than to current landed wealth or property in a family. Moreover, the deference which was once automatically given to members of this class by most British people has almost completely dissipated as its wealth, political power and social influence have declined, and other social figures such as celebrities have grown to take their place in the public's interest. (By the late 17th century)....a number of local squires were added to the governing bodies, even appointed as mayors...	3,077	ENGLISH	1
Why Do Dogs Bury Bones? Why Do Dogs Bury Bones Dogs seem to love burying things. Some breeds tend to dig more than others. These are often breeds which were bred for hunting and digging up prey. These include the dachshund, beagles and some types of terriers. Other breeds, usually those from cold climates developed a digging behaviour which they used to excavate underground sleeping places. These breeds include Huskies and Chows. There are various theories about why dogs bury their food. dogs may bury bones to Avoid Sharing Dogs were originally pack animals. They hunted for food, but carrion also formed a large part of their diet. The food item was often more than they could eat in one go. An individual dog would bury some of the food and come back for it later. He didn’t want to lose it to another animal or fight over it with another member of the pack. burying food may stop it rotting Buried food doesn’t rot as fast as food on the surface. The soil protected the food from the sun so that it didn’t go rancid as quickly. The animal could return later and dig up the item when food was scarce. Dogs existed in a feast or famine situation and didn’t know where their next meal was coming from. Modern domestic dogs still have the burying instinct even though they are fed on a regular basis. They are often fed more than once a day. If they are fed outside, they could be hiding their food from scavengers such as crows and other birds. that visit that visit their yard. They could also be digging and burying things because they are bored.	<urn:uuid:97d9cbf1-e735-4b34-818b-349a496fd8ec>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://dogsaremyuniverse.com/why-do-dogs-bury-bones/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00444.warc.gz	en	0.987106	349	3.296875	3	[ -0.07512947171926498, -0.4182601869106293, 0.28389352560043335, 0.32058244943618774, 0.24727043509483337, -0.016428910195827484, 0.026232153177261353, 0.16576087474822998, -0.09006483852863312, -0.11803644895553589, 0.14051617681980133, -0.7629770040512085, 0.27665990591049194, 0.036281064...	2	Why Do Dogs Bury Bones? Why Do Dogs Bury Bones Dogs seem to love burying things. Some breeds tend to dig more than others. These are often breeds which were bred for hunting and digging up prey. These include the dachshund, beagles and some types of terriers. Other breeds, usually those from cold climates developed a digging behaviour which they used to excavate underground sleeping places. These breeds include Huskies and Chows. There are various theories about why dogs bury their food. dogs may bury bones to Avoid Sharing Dogs were originally pack animals. They hunted for food, but carrion also formed a large part of their diet. The food item was often more than they could eat in one go. An individual dog would bury some of the food and come back for it later. He didn’t want to lose it to another animal or fight over it with another member of the pack. burying food may stop it rotting Buried food doesn’t rot as fast as food on the surface. The soil protected the food from the sun so that it didn’t go rancid as quickly. The animal could return later and dig up the item when food was scarce. Dogs existed in a feast or famine situation and didn’t know where their next meal was coming from. Modern domestic dogs still have the burying instinct even though they are fed on a regular basis. They are often fed more than once a day. If they are fed outside, they could be hiding their food from scavengers such as crows and other birds. that visit that visit their yard. They could also be digging and burying things because they are bored.	341	ENGLISH	1
- Puritans were Christians. The Bible was the guidebook for their lives. They strove to abide by the Bible in every way and expected others to do so as well. Native Americans had religious beliefs but no holy books. Some of their religions were monotheistic, like Christianity. Others were polytheistic. Nature plays a prominent role in the belief systems of Native American tribes because of their closeness with the land. - The laws of the Puritans were strictly biblical. They applied the Bible to every aspect of their legal system. However, the commandment "Thou shalt not kill" did not apply to their legal system. They hanged Quakers in Boston Common for not leaving and killed the accused witches whom Puritan judges convicted at the Salem witch trials. The laws of the Puritans were famously strict and the punishments harsh. Traditional Native American legal systems did not apply Christian principles. The goal of any punishment was to appease the members of the tribe. The offended and the offender would decide the punishment amongst themselves. - The Puritan community, particularly in Boston, Massachusetts, was averse to people of outside religions. They did not want people who were not Puritan in their community. Puritans would banish or even punish visitors and residents who would not convert or leave. In some cases, the punishment was death. Because of this, their community was tightly knit and successful, but their strict views did not appeal to enough people for their community to remain successful. The Native Americans were not as exclusive, trading between tribes and intermarrying to strengthen bonds. Their communities' success was dependent upon their ability to live off the land and survive intertribal wars, not on adherence to religious laws. - The clothing of Native Americans was starkly different from that of Puritans. Native Americans wore clothing made with animal skin and natural adornments, such as feathers. When it was hot, they wore very little clothing. Puritans had strict laws about clothing. They would not allow as much exposure of skin as Native Americans did. They also did not allow people to wear flashy clothing or adornments that were beyond their means. In other words, only rich Puritans could wear colorful and decorative clothing.	<urn:uuid:33c590d1-9c40-4ca4-9957-879464c736d4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.itags.org/articles_i9hbha.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00322.warc.gz	en	0.990881	450	4.25	4	[ 0.033822380006313324, 0.4528563618659973, -0.17830325663089752, -0.5037450194358826, -0.004030422307550907, -0.06062783673405647, 0.27858829498291016, -0.22252364456653595, -0.03433307632803917, 0.6257030963897705, -0.24345234036445618, -0.005506285931915045, -0.047839030623435974, -0.0136...	3	- Puritans were Christians. The Bible was the guidebook for their lives. They strove to abide by the Bible in every way and expected others to do so as well. Native Americans had religious beliefs but no holy books. Some of their religions were monotheistic, like Christianity. Others were polytheistic. Nature plays a prominent role in the belief systems of Native American tribes because of their closeness with the land. - The laws of the Puritans were strictly biblical. They applied the Bible to every aspect of their legal system. However, the commandment "Thou shalt not kill" did not apply to their legal system. They hanged Quakers in Boston Common for not leaving and killed the accused witches whom Puritan judges convicted at the Salem witch trials. The laws of the Puritans were famously strict and the punishments harsh. Traditional Native American legal systems did not apply Christian principles. The goal of any punishment was to appease the members of the tribe. The offended and the offender would decide the punishment amongst themselves. - The Puritan community, particularly in Boston, Massachusetts, was averse to people of outside religions. They did not want people who were not Puritan in their community. Puritans would banish or even punish visitors and residents who would not convert or leave. In some cases, the punishment was death. Because of this, their community was tightly knit and successful, but their strict views did not appeal to enough people for their community to remain successful. The Native Americans were not as exclusive, trading between tribes and intermarrying to strengthen bonds. Their communities' success was dependent upon their ability to live off the land and survive intertribal wars, not on adherence to religious laws. - The clothing of Native Americans was starkly different from that of Puritans. Native Americans wore clothing made with animal skin and natural adornments, such as feathers. When it was hot, they wore very little clothing. Puritans had strict laws about clothing. They would not allow as much exposure of skin as Native Americans did. They also did not allow people to wear flashy clothing or adornments that were beyond their means. In other words, only rich Puritans could wear colorful and decorative clothing.	453	ENGLISH	1
Our wormery making activity inspired our learning and the children wanted to find out more about worms so that's exactly what we did! We did some research into worms and the children organised themselves into teams and wrote some 'worm facts' that they had learnt! We found out that in some countries worms can grow up to 300cm long. We measured what 300cm looked like and drew worms of the same length on the playground with chalk! We decided we are glad to live in this country with our modest sized worms!! Next we had a go at following another instruction text...a recipe to make 'worms in mud' puddings! The children adored this activity and our puddings looked so realistic, some of our mums and dads didn't believe they could be eaten!! We hope they enjoyed devouring them at home!	<urn:uuid:da8a2968-0ec7-406c-bd64-55566b466e78>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.stnicholasprimary.co.uk/more-worms/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00221.warc.gz	en	0.980199	170	3.640625	4	[ -0.08907194435596466, -0.310477614402771, 0.33229249715805054, -0.21610330045223236, -0.2830120325088501, 0.133883997797966, 0.05475347489118576, 0.19683493673801422, -0.36577677726745605, 0.07443983107805252, 0.3867374360561371, -0.728312611579895, 0.4002327024936676, 0.2837591767311096, ...	8	Our wormery making activity inspired our learning and the children wanted to find out more about worms so that's exactly what we did! We did some research into worms and the children organised themselves into teams and wrote some 'worm facts' that they had learnt! We found out that in some countries worms can grow up to 300cm long. We measured what 300cm looked like and drew worms of the same length on the playground with chalk! We decided we are glad to live in this country with our modest sized worms!! Next we had a go at following another instruction text...a recipe to make 'worms in mud' puddings! The children adored this activity and our puddings looked so realistic, some of our mums and dads didn't believe they could be eaten!! We hope they enjoyed devouring them at home!	172	ENGLISH	1
Army of the Mughal Empire Flag of the Mughal Empire Great Mogul And His Court Returning From The Great Mosque At Delhi India - Oil Painting by American Artist Edwin Lord Weeks \|Founded\|\|Late 15th Century\| The Army of the Mughal Empire was the force by which the Mughal emperors established their empire in the 15th century and expanded it to its greatest extent at the beginning of the 18th century. Although its origins, like the Mughals themselves, were in the cavalry-based armies of central Asia, its essential form and structure was established by the empire's third emperor, Akbar. The army had no regimental structure and the soldiers were not directly recruited by the emperor. Instead, individuals, such as nobles or local leaders, would recruit their own troops, referred to as a mansab, and contribute them to the army. The Mughals originated in Central Asia. Like many Central Asian armies, the mughal army was horse-oriented. The ranks and pay of the officers were based on the horses they retained. Babur's army was somewhat small and looked like an army of Afghan origin. Akbar restructured the army and introduced a new system called the mansabdari system. Later emperors followed this system. Organisation and troop types Mughal emperors maintained a small standing army. They numbered only in thousands. Instead the officers called mansabdars provided much of the troops. The Mughal Emperors maintained small standing armies. The emperor's own troops were called Ahadis. They were directly recruited by the Mughal emperor himself, mainly from the emperor's own blood relatives and tribesmen. They had their own pay roll and pay master, and were better paid than regular hormen sowars. They are gentlemen soldiers, normally on administrative duties in the palace. They also included palace guards, emperor's own body guards shahiwalas, and gatekeepers. They were better equipped and had their own horses. The emperor also maintained a division of foot soldiers and had his own artillery brigade. Akbar introduced this unique system. The Mughal army had no regimental structure. In this system each officer worked for government was a military officer, responsible for recruiting and maintaining his quota of horsemen. His rank was based on the horsemen he provided, from ten, the lowest, up to 5000. A prince had the rank of 25000. This called as zat and sowar system. An officer must keep a 1:2 ratio of men to horses. Horses must be carefully verified and branded, preferably an Arabian breed. He must also maintain his quota of horses, elephants and cots for transportation, as well as foot soldiers and artillery. Soldiers were paid in cash or jagir, cash paid for month to maximum one year, but many chose jagir. The emperor allocated jagir for maintenance of mansabs. The Mughal army had no real divisions, though it had four types of warriors: cavalry, infantry, artillery and navy. The cavalry held the primary role, and the others were auxiliary. The cavalry was the superior branch of the Mughal army. The horsemen normally recruited by mansabdars were high class people, and better paid than foot soldiers and artillery men. They must have at least two of their own horses and good equipment. Normally they used swords, lances, shields, more rarely guns. Their armour was made up of steel or leather, and they wore the traditional dress of their tribes. The regular horseman was called a sowar. Mughal cavalry also included elephants, normally used by generals. They bore well ornamented and good armour. Mainly they were used for transportation to carry heavy goods and heavy guns. Some of rajput mansabdar provided camel cavalry also. They were men from desert areas like Rajastan. Emperors' Own infantry called as Ahsam. Mansabadars also provided infantrymen. They are normally ill-paid and ill-equipped. They lacked discipline. This group included bandukchi or gun bearers, swordsmen, as well as servants and artisans. They used a wide variety of weapons like swords, shields, lances, clubs, pistols, rifles, muskets, etc. They normally wore no armour. It was an important branch of mughal army. Earlier mughal rulers made good use of it. It was used by babur to achieve an empire Hindustan. Mughal artillery consisted of heavy cannons and light artillery. Heavy cannon were very expensive and very heavy for transportation. Used in battlefield was also somewhat risky. They were dragged by elephants to battlefields. They were slow to load and sometimes exploded, killing the crew members. Light artillery was most useful in battle field. They were mainly made up of bronze and drawn with horses. This also included camel bear swivel guns. They were very effective in battlefield. But time to time the emperors show no interest in development of cannons. They became much out of date when used against European cannons built with iron. Granadiers and raketies also came under this category. It was the weakest and poorest branch of the Mughal military. The Empire did maintain warships, however they were relatively small. The fleet also consisted of transport ships. The Navy's main duty was controlling piracy, but they also were used in war. - Roy, Atul Chandra (1972). A History of Mughal Navy and Naval Warfares. World Press. \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Military history of the Mughal Empire.\| - Edwardes, Stephen Meredyth; Garrett, Herbert Leonard Offley. Mughal Rule In India. - Sharma, S. R. Mughal Empire in India: A Systematic Study Including Source Material.	<urn:uuid:282e630a-d9ec-4c11-9bda-aeafa3a16c68>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://other-wiki.zervice.io/wikipedia_en_all_novid_2018-10/A/Army_of_the_Mughal_Empire.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00089.warc.gz	en	0.98189	1,215	3.84375	4	[ -0.337698757648468, 0.6407052278518677, 0.4496886730194092, -0.07544860243797302, -0.32337620854377747, -0.299917072057724, 0.48219722509384155, -0.21291333436965942, 0.14418457448482513, -0.3473343253135681, 0.4340839385986328, -0.41533708572387695, 0.2859562933444977, 0.24751926958560944...	1	Army of the Mughal Empire Flag of the Mughal Empire Great Mogul And His Court Returning From The Great Mosque At Delhi India - Oil Painting by American Artist Edwin Lord Weeks \|Founded\|\|Late 15th Century\| The Army of the Mughal Empire was the force by which the Mughal emperors established their empire in the 15th century and expanded it to its greatest extent at the beginning of the 18th century. Although its origins, like the Mughals themselves, were in the cavalry-based armies of central Asia, its essential form and structure was established by the empire's third emperor, Akbar. The army had no regimental structure and the soldiers were not directly recruited by the emperor. Instead, individuals, such as nobles or local leaders, would recruit their own troops, referred to as a mansab, and contribute them to the army. The Mughals originated in Central Asia. Like many Central Asian armies, the mughal army was horse-oriented. The ranks and pay of the officers were based on the horses they retained. Babur's army was somewhat small and looked like an army of Afghan origin. Akbar restructured the army and introduced a new system called the mansabdari system. Later emperors followed this system. Organisation and troop types Mughal emperors maintained a small standing army. They numbered only in thousands. Instead the officers called mansabdars provided much of the troops. The Mughal Emperors maintained small standing armies. The emperor's own troops were called Ahadis. They were directly recruited by the Mughal emperor himself, mainly from the emperor's own blood relatives and tribesmen. They had their own pay roll and pay master, and were better paid than regular hormen sowars. They are gentlemen soldiers, normally on administrative duties in the palace. They also included palace guards, emperor's own body guards shahiwalas, and gatekeepers. They were better equipped and had their own horses. The emperor also maintained a division of foot soldiers and had his own artillery brigade. Akbar introduced this unique system. The Mughal army had no regimental structure. In this system each officer worked for government was a military officer, responsible for recruiting and maintaining his quota of horsemen. His rank was based on the horsemen he provided, from ten, the lowest, up to 5000. A prince had the rank of 25000. This called as zat and sowar system. An officer must keep a 1:2 ratio of men to horses. Horses must be carefully verified and branded, preferably an Arabian breed. He must also maintain his quota of horses, elephants and cots for transportation, as well as foot soldiers and artillery. Soldiers were paid in cash or jagir, cash paid for month to maximum one year, but many chose jagir. The emperor allocated jagir for maintenance of mansabs. The Mughal army had no real divisions, though it had four types of warriors: cavalry, infantry, artillery and navy. The cavalry held the primary role, and the others were auxiliary. The cavalry was the superior branch of the Mughal army. The horsemen normally recruited by mansabdars were high class people, and better paid than foot soldiers and artillery men. They must have at least two of their own horses and good equipment. Normally they used swords, lances, shields, more rarely guns. Their armour was made up of steel or leather, and they wore the traditional dress of their tribes. The regular horseman was called a sowar. Mughal cavalry also included elephants, normally used by generals. They bore well ornamented and good armour. Mainly they were used for transportation to carry heavy goods and heavy guns. Some of rajput mansabdar provided camel cavalry also. They were men from desert areas like Rajastan. Emperors' Own infantry called as Ahsam. Mansabadars also provided infantrymen. They are normally ill-paid and ill-equipped. They lacked discipline. This group included bandukchi or gun bearers, swordsmen, as well as servants and artisans. They used a wide variety of weapons like swords, shields, lances, clubs, pistols, rifles, muskets, etc. They normally wore no armour. It was an important branch of mughal army. Earlier mughal rulers made good use of it. It was used by babur to achieve an empire Hindustan. Mughal artillery consisted of heavy cannons and light artillery. Heavy cannon were very expensive and very heavy for transportation. Used in battlefield was also somewhat risky. They were dragged by elephants to battlefields. They were slow to load and sometimes exploded, killing the crew members. Light artillery was most useful in battle field. They were mainly made up of bronze and drawn with horses. This also included camel bear swivel guns. They were very effective in battlefield. But time to time the emperors show no interest in development of cannons. They became much out of date when used against European cannons built with iron. Granadiers and raketies also came under this category. It was the weakest and poorest branch of the Mughal military. The Empire did maintain warships, however they were relatively small. The fleet also consisted of transport ships. The Navy's main duty was controlling piracy, but they also were used in war. - Roy, Atul Chandra (1972). A History of Mughal Navy and Naval Warfares. World Press. \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Military history of the Mughal Empire.\| - Edwardes, Stephen Meredyth; Garrett, Herbert Leonard Offley. Mughal Rule In India. - Sharma, S. R. Mughal Empire in India: A Systematic Study Including Source Material.	1,205	ENGLISH	1
Christmas, Yule and the Winter Solstice The 25th of December is associated with the birth of Christ and the celebration of the nativity, but it is also an amalgamation of pagan festivals and traditions dating back before the birth of Christ. To our ancestors the shortest day (21st December) marked the lowest ebb of the year, but it also marked the day when the sun was reborn, gradually growing in strength to the Midsummer Solstice. Many ancient standing stones, stone circles and other monuments are aligned with the winter sunrise on the 21st of December. The most famous being Newgrange in Ireland, where a finger of sunlight shines along the dark entrance through a narrow aperture above the monument’s entrance. Other sites are correspondingly aligned to the Midsummer sunrise, highlighting the importance placed on these two dates. Yule was the traditional name for the celebrations around the 25th; the festival lasted for twelve days, which are now the twelve days of Christmas. The origin of the word Yule seems originate from the Anglo Saxon word for sun and light. Most likely regarding the rebirth of the sun from the shortest day. In many places fires or candles were kindled to burn through the twelve days that marked the festivities. Another fire tradition was that of the Yule log, lit from the remains of last years log at sunset on the 25th of December. The Yule log was often of Oak or Ash, and the burned remains of it were thought to guard a home against fire and lightning. The ashes were also sprinkled on the surrounding fields to ensure good luck for the coming years harvest. The largest remaining part of the log was kept safe to kindle next years fire. Fraser in his book ‘The Golden Bough’ suggests that Midwinter was a major fire festival in ancient times, and it is highly probable that the Yule Log was a remnant of that tradition. Many of the symbols of Christmas echo its aspect of rebirth and hope in darkness. Holly was thought to be important because it retains its greenery right through the winter months, and as such is a symbol of summer life in the winter starkness. Holly was the male symbol of this greenery, and Ivy was the feminine, the two often placed together as a symbol of fecundity at the dark end of the year. There was also a belief that evergreen plants and trees were refuges for the woodland spirits through the winter months. The Christmas tree may have also been a symbol of the above aspects, although Whistler in his ‘English Festivals’ suggests that the tree is a carry over from the Roman festival of Saturnalia, when pine trees were decorated with images of Bacchus. The tradition of setting up a Christmas tree within the home is generally traced back to Prince Albert who started the practice in 1841. Mistletoe is another plant associated with Christmas; sacred to the druids, its importance can be traced back to Celtic times, although the original reason for their significance is now largely forgotten. The 25th of December was also reputed to be the birthday of the Roman god Mithras and the Greek hero Dionysus. Mithras was known as the unconquered sun, hence his association with the solstice time. Early Christianity adopted the 25th as Christ’s birthday around the 3rd or 4th century AD, as the early scriptures do not record the day of Christ’s birth. This is generally accepted to have been a way of amalgamating Christmas with the older festival of the sun, which was still being observed by the Pagan community. Today Christmas has many other associations and traditions dating back through the centuries, and stemming from different cultures and influences. It has always been a time for celebration and merry making at the dark end of the year. Father Christmas or Santa Claus is based on St Nicholas who is the patron saint of children, canonised after resurrecting three boys after they had been murdered. He was associated with the giving of gifts to the poor and needy, and was widely famed for his generosity. Over the centuries his image became amalgamated with other archetypes to become Father Christmas.	<urn:uuid:0b9f7c9e-0f05-40f6-80c8-c0e2aa570f4c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.mysteriousbritain.co.uk/festivals/christmas-yule-and-the-winter-solstice/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00280.warc.gz	en	0.980123	852	3.8125	4	[ -0.08592785894870758, 0.4721754789352417, 0.7134369611740112, -0.1667594611644745, 0.20305761694908142, 0.23370231688022614, -0.04532714560627937, -0.05285608768463135, 0.16121694445610046, -0.09541609138250351, -0.14021235704421997, 0.015157727524638176, 0.3151409924030304, 0.197329103946...	11	Christmas, Yule and the Winter Solstice The 25th of December is associated with the birth of Christ and the celebration of the nativity, but it is also an amalgamation of pagan festivals and traditions dating back before the birth of Christ. To our ancestors the shortest day (21st December) marked the lowest ebb of the year, but it also marked the day when the sun was reborn, gradually growing in strength to the Midsummer Solstice. Many ancient standing stones, stone circles and other monuments are aligned with the winter sunrise on the 21st of December. The most famous being Newgrange in Ireland, where a finger of sunlight shines along the dark entrance through a narrow aperture above the monument’s entrance. Other sites are correspondingly aligned to the Midsummer sunrise, highlighting the importance placed on these two dates. Yule was the traditional name for the celebrations around the 25th; the festival lasted for twelve days, which are now the twelve days of Christmas. The origin of the word Yule seems originate from the Anglo Saxon word for sun and light. Most likely regarding the rebirth of the sun from the shortest day. In many places fires or candles were kindled to burn through the twelve days that marked the festivities. Another fire tradition was that of the Yule log, lit from the remains of last years log at sunset on the 25th of December. The Yule log was often of Oak or Ash, and the burned remains of it were thought to guard a home against fire and lightning. The ashes were also sprinkled on the surrounding fields to ensure good luck for the coming years harvest. The largest remaining part of the log was kept safe to kindle next years fire. Fraser in his book ‘The Golden Bough’ suggests that Midwinter was a major fire festival in ancient times, and it is highly probable that the Yule Log was a remnant of that tradition. Many of the symbols of Christmas echo its aspect of rebirth and hope in darkness. Holly was thought to be important because it retains its greenery right through the winter months, and as such is a symbol of summer life in the winter starkness. Holly was the male symbol of this greenery, and Ivy was the feminine, the two often placed together as a symbol of fecundity at the dark end of the year. There was also a belief that evergreen plants and trees were refuges for the woodland spirits through the winter months. The Christmas tree may have also been a symbol of the above aspects, although Whistler in his ‘English Festivals’ suggests that the tree is a carry over from the Roman festival of Saturnalia, when pine trees were decorated with images of Bacchus. The tradition of setting up a Christmas tree within the home is generally traced back to Prince Albert who started the practice in 1841. Mistletoe is another plant associated with Christmas; sacred to the druids, its importance can be traced back to Celtic times, although the original reason for their significance is now largely forgotten. The 25th of December was also reputed to be the birthday of the Roman god Mithras and the Greek hero Dionysus. Mithras was known as the unconquered sun, hence his association with the solstice time. Early Christianity adopted the 25th as Christ’s birthday around the 3rd or 4th century AD, as the early scriptures do not record the day of Christ’s birth. This is generally accepted to have been a way of amalgamating Christmas with the older festival of the sun, which was still being observed by the Pagan community. Today Christmas has many other associations and traditions dating back through the centuries, and stemming from different cultures and influences. It has always been a time for celebration and merry making at the dark end of the year. Father Christmas or Santa Claus is based on St Nicholas who is the patron saint of children, canonised after resurrecting three boys after they had been murdered. He was associated with the giving of gifts to the poor and needy, and was widely famed for his generosity. Over the centuries his image became amalgamated with other archetypes to become Father Christmas.	858	ENGLISH	1
In ancient Egyptian art, people often can be seen sporting cones on their heads. Now, for the first time, archaeologists have revealed evidence that they actually existed outside of artwork. Two head cones made of wax and fabric have been uncovered in graves in Amarna, a city built by the pharaoh Akhenaten and inhabited for some 15 years ending in 1332 BC, according to findings published Tuesday in the journal Antiquity. The city is home to thousands of graves, including those of ordinary people. The discovery sheds some light on why Egyptians wore the cones on their heads, and researchers’ conclusions differ from a long-held theory that the cones were made from animal fat. Meanwhile, some experts have held that the head cones were merely artistic additions, like the symbolic halos in Christian iconography, rather than real headgear. “The excavation of two cones confirms that three-dimensional wax-based head cones were sometimes worn by the dead in ancient Egypt, and that access to these objects was not restricted to the upper elite,” the researchers said. 2 graves reveal mystery headpieces Archaeologists excavating some 700 graves found the first head cone in 2010 in the grave of a woman in her twenties. A second was found in 2015 in the grave of someone 15 to 20 years old that had been disturbed by looting. The cone found atop the woman’s head was sitting on her well-preserved hair, the study says. The dome was in six pieces, suggesting a side and a base. Its cream color showed some dark patches and felt “silky” but brittle. The researchers found evidence of where insects had tunneled through the material, and they found impressions where fabric may have once been on the cone. The second cone was also fragmented — into one large piece and two smaller ones. It was also largely damaged by insects and had the same dark spots on it. The largest piece of that cone was wax that had shaped itself around organic material, including the hardened remains of soft tissue and body fluids. Given that the second grave had been disturbed, researchers surmised that as the body degraded, the tissue became incorporated with the wax, according to the findings. Cones may have helped ‘look one’s best’ after death The tradition of cone-shaped headpieces endured in ancient Egyptian art for 1,500 years. The cones could be seen on figures attending banquets, religious events and after their death. Some scenes appear to associate them with sensuality or fertility. They appeared in a variety of colors and were marked with decorations. And the cones could be seen on males and females. Given the lack of head cones in the archeological record, some researchers believed they were made out of materials that would have long since degraded over time. A prevailing theory is that the cones were perfumed pieces of animal fat or wax called unguent. As the wax melted, the scent of the perfume — likely myrrh — would be released, possibly cleansing hair and body. Some Egyptian texts refer to this as a purification process for the person wearing it. Egyptians buried in the Amarna graves were also found with tweezers, combs, mirrors, eye paints and jewelry. “All may have, in part, conveyed a sense of desiring to ‘look one’s best’ in the afterlife — a function the cones too could have served,” the researchers said in the study. Both of the cones were revealed to be largely made of wax derived from plants and animals. The researchers believe that this wax shell was initially shaped around fabric. And given that the wax itself didn’t melt, the researchers wondered about the purpose of the cones. It’s still possible that the wax was perfumed, but it would have long since evaporated, so they can’t know for sure. The discovery of the cone buried with the woman could suggest the cones are a symbol of rebirth. The cones also may only have been included in some burials under specific circumstances. “The Armana discovery supports the idea that head cones were also worn by the living, although it remains difficult to ascertain how often and why,” the researchers wrote in the study. “In the case of ancient Akhetaten, we can probably interpret head cones as part of a suite of personal accoutrements deemed appropriate for use in a range of celebrations and rituals for, and involving, the living, the dead, the (sun god) Aten and other deities.”	<urn:uuid:947826fb-1597-40a5-9764-b3eadd94d40e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.tibetwebsite.com/graves-reveal-head-cones-seen-in-ancient-egyptian-art-really-existed/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00333.warc.gz	en	0.981672	944	3.859375	4	[ 0.0895698145031929, 0.30670663714408875, 0.5526914596557617, 0.1690385341644287, -0.5010172128677368, 0.3553066849708557, 0.5691023468971252, -0.09898366779088974, -0.13612213730812073, 0.21551138162612915, 0.07379331439733505, -0.454287588596344, -0.18741419911384583, 0.07081987708806992,...	1	In ancient Egyptian art, people often can be seen sporting cones on their heads. Now, for the first time, archaeologists have revealed evidence that they actually existed outside of artwork. Two head cones made of wax and fabric have been uncovered in graves in Amarna, a city built by the pharaoh Akhenaten and inhabited for some 15 years ending in 1332 BC, according to findings published Tuesday in the journal Antiquity. The city is home to thousands of graves, including those of ordinary people. The discovery sheds some light on why Egyptians wore the cones on their heads, and researchers’ conclusions differ from a long-held theory that the cones were made from animal fat. Meanwhile, some experts have held that the head cones were merely artistic additions, like the symbolic halos in Christian iconography, rather than real headgear. “The excavation of two cones confirms that three-dimensional wax-based head cones were sometimes worn by the dead in ancient Egypt, and that access to these objects was not restricted to the upper elite,” the researchers said. 2 graves reveal mystery headpieces Archaeologists excavating some 700 graves found the first head cone in 2010 in the grave of a woman in her twenties. A second was found in 2015 in the grave of someone 15 to 20 years old that had been disturbed by looting. The cone found atop the woman’s head was sitting on her well-preserved hair, the study says. The dome was in six pieces, suggesting a side and a base. Its cream color showed some dark patches and felt “silky” but brittle. The researchers found evidence of where insects had tunneled through the material, and they found impressions where fabric may have once been on the cone. The second cone was also fragmented — into one large piece and two smaller ones. It was also largely damaged by insects and had the same dark spots on it. The largest piece of that cone was wax that had shaped itself around organic material, including the hardened remains of soft tissue and body fluids. Given that the second grave had been disturbed, researchers surmised that as the body degraded, the tissue became incorporated with the wax, according to the findings. Cones may have helped ‘look one’s best’ after death The tradition of cone-shaped headpieces endured in ancient Egyptian art for 1,500 years. The cones could be seen on figures attending banquets, religious events and after their death. Some scenes appear to associate them with sensuality or fertility. They appeared in a variety of colors and were marked with decorations. And the cones could be seen on males and females. Given the lack of head cones in the archeological record, some researchers believed they were made out of materials that would have long since degraded over time. A prevailing theory is that the cones were perfumed pieces of animal fat or wax called unguent. As the wax melted, the scent of the perfume — likely myrrh — would be released, possibly cleansing hair and body. Some Egyptian texts refer to this as a purification process for the person wearing it. Egyptians buried in the Amarna graves were also found with tweezers, combs, mirrors, eye paints and jewelry. “All may have, in part, conveyed a sense of desiring to ‘look one’s best’ in the afterlife — a function the cones too could have served,” the researchers said in the study. Both of the cones were revealed to be largely made of wax derived from plants and animals. The researchers believe that this wax shell was initially shaped around fabric. And given that the wax itself didn’t melt, the researchers wondered about the purpose of the cones. It’s still possible that the wax was perfumed, but it would have long since evaporated, so they can’t know for sure. The discovery of the cone buried with the woman could suggest the cones are a symbol of rebirth. The cones also may only have been included in some burials under specific circumstances. “The Armana discovery supports the idea that head cones were also worn by the living, although it remains difficult to ascertain how often and why,” the researchers wrote in the study. “In the case of ancient Akhetaten, we can probably interpret head cones as part of a suite of personal accoutrements deemed appropriate for use in a range of celebrations and rituals for, and involving, the living, the dead, the (sun god) Aten and other deities.”	915	ENGLISH	1
If nature has made any one thing less susceptible than all others of exclusive property, it is the action of the thinking power called an idea, which an individual may exclusively possess as long as he keeps it to himself; but the moment it is divulged, it forces itself into the possession of every one, and the receiver cannot dispossess himself of it. Its peculiar character, too, is that no one possesses the less, because every other possesses the whole of it. He who receives an idea from me, receives instruction himself without lessening mine; as he who lights his taper at mine, receives light without darkening me. That ideas should freely spread from one to another over the globe, for the moral and mutual instruction of man, and improvement of his condition, seems to have been peculiarly and benevolently designed by nature, when she made them, like fire, expansible over all space, without lessening their density in any point, and like the air in which we breathe, move, and have our physical being, incapable of confinement or exclusive appropriation. Inventions then cannot, in nature, be a subject of property. [Humans] have been genetically programmed through hunting behavior: cooperation and sharing. Cooperation between members of the same band was a practical necessity for most hunting societies; so was the sharing of food. Since meat is perishable in most climates except that of the Arctic, it could not be preserved. Luck in hunting was not equally divided among all hunters; hence the practical outcome was that those who had luck today would share their food with those who would be lucky tomorrow. Assuming hunting behavior led to genetic changes, the conclusion would be that modern man has an innate impulse for cooperation and sharing, rather than for killing and cruelty."The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness"	<urn:uuid:47121ec7-b1c5-4b8e-a05a-a6369ea8945d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://a.sandboxx.org/extra/quotes/tag/sharing/order/random/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00420.warc.gz	en	0.980543	365	3.28125	3	[ -0.14326420426368713, 0.3336474299430847, -0.13758325576782227, -0.17835572361946106, 0.04699338600039482, -0.15361464023590088, 0.5277612805366516, 0.1845916211605072, 0.17002901434898376, 0.05147901922464371, 0.08165114372968674, -0.4751060903072357, 0.2988656461238861, 0.216337129473686...	1	If nature has made any one thing less susceptible than all others of exclusive property, it is the action of the thinking power called an idea, which an individual may exclusively possess as long as he keeps it to himself; but the moment it is divulged, it forces itself into the possession of every one, and the receiver cannot dispossess himself of it. Its peculiar character, too, is that no one possesses the less, because every other possesses the whole of it. He who receives an idea from me, receives instruction himself without lessening mine; as he who lights his taper at mine, receives light without darkening me. That ideas should freely spread from one to another over the globe, for the moral and mutual instruction of man, and improvement of his condition, seems to have been peculiarly and benevolently designed by nature, when she made them, like fire, expansible over all space, without lessening their density in any point, and like the air in which we breathe, move, and have our physical being, incapable of confinement or exclusive appropriation. Inventions then cannot, in nature, be a subject of property. [Humans] have been genetically programmed through hunting behavior: cooperation and sharing. Cooperation between members of the same band was a practical necessity for most hunting societies; so was the sharing of food. Since meat is perishable in most climates except that of the Arctic, it could not be preserved. Luck in hunting was not equally divided among all hunters; hence the practical outcome was that those who had luck today would share their food with those who would be lucky tomorrow. Assuming hunting behavior led to genetic changes, the conclusion would be that modern man has an innate impulse for cooperation and sharing, rather than for killing and cruelty."The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness"	361	ENGLISH	1
Major League Baseball Major League Baseball (MLB) is an American-based sports league, considered to be the world's premier professional baseball league. MLB contains 30 professional baseball teams (29 in the United States and 1 in Canada), which feature players from many countries around the world. In the United States, MLB is considered an Organisation and Legal Entity. MLB itself is divided into two separate "leagues". One, the American League, has 14 teams; the older National League has 16 teams. Each league is divided into three "divisions": East, West, and Central. - 1 History - 2 Labor relations - 3 League Structure - 4 All-Star Game - 5 The Minors - 6 Leagues - 7 Defunct franchises - 8 Trivia - 9 Notes The roots of Major League Baseball go back to 1871 when the National Association of Professional Baseball Clubs was founded, eventually leading to the National League that we know today in 1876. Until the end of the 19th Century, the National League was considered the predominant professional baseball organization, excluding some challengers such as the American Association and the Players League in the 1880s. The turn of the century changed this with a new "Major League" called the American League, which was created from a former minor league called the Western League. Because the National League was created before the American League, the National League is sometimes referred to as the "Senior Circuit", with the American League being the "Junior Circuit". The two leagues would not recognise each other until 1903 when the two leagues determined a combined champion through a series of games known as the World Series, first conducted intermittently in the 1880s between the champions of the National League and the American Association. The winner of the World Series has been declared the champion of Major League Baseball every year since, excluding 1904 when John T. Brush, the owner of the New York Giants, refused to allow his team to play what he considered to be an inferior opponent, and in 1994, when a labour stoppage between the Players Union and the owners of Major League Baseball forced a cancellation of the series. The Colour Bar African American players had played alongside whites in the early days of baseball. However, in the modern era the Major Leagues barred black players, who competed in their own Negro League. This color bar persisted until 1947, when Jackie Robinson forever changed the face of Major League Baseball. Expansion outside the U.S. In 1969, MLB expanded outside the border of the United States for the first time with the creation of the Montreal Expos. French-language broadcasters had to invent a whole new lexicon to describe the game to fans. The team was popular with fans, both at its first home at Jarry Park Stadium and later at Montreal's Olympic Stadium. However, a player strike in 1994 crippled a season that saw the Expos on top of baseball. The franchise never recovered from that fateful season, regularly seeing some of the lowest attendance in the league at their games. In 2001, the commissioner of baseball, Bud Selig, announced that Major League Baseball would be contracting two teams, one of them being the Montreal Expos. Later, a new collective bargaining agreement between baseball and it's players eliminated the possibility of contraction prior to 2006. This forced MLB to seek out different options for the faltering franchise. In 2004, the final season that saw Major League Baseball in Montreal, the team played several of their "home" games in Puerto Rico. Eventually, the league was able to find a buyer for the team, and the franchise was moved to Washington, D.C., changing the team's name to the Nationals The league further expanded outside of the U.S. with the addition of the Toronto Blue Jays in 1977. Currently, the Blue Jays still reside in there. Prior to 1997, teams from the two leagues in MLB never met in the regular season. The only time that teams from different leagues would meet would be in the preseason, the World Series, or in exhibition games. The decision to have inter-league games was met with mixed reaction. Some fans thought that the prospect of some of the match-ups, such as the New York Mets, who are in the National League, and the New York Yankees, who play in the American League, was enthralling. Other more traditional fans of the sport felt that the change was unnecessary. Over most of the course of Major League Baseball, there were no rules governing the use of performance enhancing drugs. Public scrutiny arose during the 1998 season, when a bottle of androstenedione, an over the counter muscle building supplement was found in Mark McGwire's locker. In 2002, an article ran in Sports Illustrated in which former San Diego Padres third baseman and former MVP Ken Caminiti admitted to using steroids and speculated that as many as 50% of major league players were doing the same. The MLB Players Association, the players union, steadfastly refused to allow players to be drug tested. As a result, a Senate subcomittee headed by John McCain and Byron Dorgan strongly suggested to MLB Players Association head Donald Fehr enter into an agreement with MLB to allow drug testing. On August 30, 2002, MLB announced it's Joint Drug Prevention and Treatment Program. The program was weak and seen as a victory for the player's union, calling only for random drug surveys and anonymity for those tested. However, in December 2003, several prominent baseball players including Barry Bonds and Jason Giambi were called to testify in front of a grand jury investigating BALCO, which was indicted for distributing steroids to professional athletes. The public outcry surrounding the trial forced Major League Baseball to stiffen the policy. The new policy, which was started during the 2005 MLB season, tested every player at least once per season, with additional random tests throughout the year, and featured a sliding scale of penalties ranging from a 10 game suspension for the first positive test result, up to a full season's suspension for a fourth offense. Further offenses were handled by the commissioner. Also, offenders under the new policy were publicly named, if, after an appealed second test also came back positive. This policy lasted less than one full year. In November of 2005, the owners and players agreed on a new, even tougher steroid policy. This one allowed for only three offenses. The first resulting in a 50 game suspension, the second in a 100 game suspension, and a third offense would lead to a lifetime suspension from MLB. This policy brought MLB a lot closer to many other sports in terms of how performance-enhancing drugs are handled. In 2006, Commissioner Bud Selig appointed former U.S. Senator George Mitchell to head an independent investigation into the reported abuse of performance enhancing drugs. The findings, known as the Mitchell Report, were released to the public on December 13, 2007. The report listed over 70 former and current players who were linked to these drugs, including some of the leagues premier players. From very early on, Major League Baseball and its players have had a factious relationship. In an effort to gain some momentum in their disagreements with the owners, the players formed a labor union in 1954. This union, known as the Major League Baseball Players Association or, MLBPA, got off to a slow start. Likely due in part to the MLBPA's first Director, Robert Cannon's friendly relationship with the owners, the owners and the players did not function under a collective bargaining agreement (CBA) until 1968, after the hiring of the MLBPA's first full time head man, Marvin Miller. This first agreement made some small concessions in favor of the players, including an increase in the minimum salaries. The next deal was agreed on in 1970, with some more gains made by the players. The first major point of contention would between the two sides would be first negotiated in the 1973 CBA. The issue was free-agency, or weather or not the players would have the right to go to any team in baseball after the end of a contract, instead of the rights to sign a player staying with the same team, unless that team chose to forego those rights. What started the disagreement was the "reserve clause" that was put into the contract of every player. The debate was weather this clause allowed the teams to renew the player's contract indefinitely, or, if after playing a year without the players renewal, this contract automatically expired. An arbitrator, Peter Seitz, would rule in favor of the players. This led to the first work-stoppage, with the owners locking the players out until late March of 1976 when a federal judge would uphold Seitz's decision. Despite restrictions on how often and with whom the players were allowed to negotiate a free agent contact, the average player's salary skyrocketed, going from $51,501 to $143,756 annually in just 4 years. This led to a new proposal from the owners, the right to be compensated, in the form of a different player, for a player leaving for another team. This was met by severe resistance from the players' union. An agreement was eventually reached between the two sides, but not before 712 games of the 1980 season were canceled. The compensation system that was put in place was confusing for all involved, but especially for the fans, and it was dropped with little ado in the next CBA negotiations in 1985. Another part of the 1985 discussions centered around salary arbitration. With the arbitration system, if a player and a team cannot agree on a contract prior to that player is eligible for free-agency, they may submit to binding arbitration. The owners wanted to reduce the numbers of arbitration eligible players by raising the threshold for arbitration from two years to three. They also sought to cap the increase in salary that an arbitrator could award. The players again struck. Two days after the strike, the two sides reached a compromise and a new, five-year CBA was reached. During the 1985 CBA, the owners were accused by the players of collusion. After having lost some ground in the CBA, the owners decided amongst themselves to not sign one-another's free agents. This was a clear violation of the CBA, and after several arbitrations, the owners ultimately paid the player $280 million in compensation. When negotiations for the new CBA started in 1990, several of the owners drew a hard-line. Making demands to win back some of the concessions they had made in previous agreements. The players, in response made several new demands of their own, including pushing back the arbitration threshold to the 2 year mark it had been prior to 1985. The owners locked the players out, causing the third work stoppage in baseball in 15 years. This stoppage lasted 32 days, after which the owners dropped their demands, and even gave into some of the players' proposals. The owners blamed much of what happened during the 1990 CBA on then commissioner Fay Vincent. Several of the owners moved to force Vincent out, and steeled themselves for the next negotiations. These negotiations started in 1994, with the owners proposing a salary cap, which, if enforced, would have resulted in a collective 15% pay cut for the players. This move infuriated the players, forcing them to strike on August 12, 1994. Several weeks later, the players proposed a counter offer, which included revenue sharing, and a small luxury tax, but no salary cap. The owners held their ground, and the rest of the season, including the 1994 playoffs and World Series were canceled. The next season did start on time, but not before a federal judge forced the owners to play under the same rules as the previous agreement, until a new one was reached. This new agreement was not reached until 1996. The owners gained significant ground in the new agreement, which included a steep luxury tax for the teams with the highest payrolls and increased revenue sharing. Before negotiations started for the 2002 CBA, the owners, led by commissioner Bud Selig, put a commission in place to help determine what would be in the best interest for baseball. This commission's recommendations became, in large part, the new agreement reached by both sides. This agreement was reached with no work stoppage. Since that time, the players and the owners have butted heads in the realm of performance-enhancing drugs, and the ways that they are tested for and abusers punished, but each of the several agreements reached regarding this drug policy has been reached with no work stoppages. Each of the 30 teams plays a 162 game season every year. The schedules lean heavily towards an intra-divisional schedule. A team may play another team in the same division as many as 18 or 19 times in a year, while only playing a team in a different division 5 or 6 times throughout the roughly 6 month long season. Most of a team's schedule is against teams in the same league. A team will play a few games against every team in their own league, but only play against 4 or 5 teams from the opposite league. After the regular season is complete, the leading teams move on to the playoffs. The division leader from each division, and the single best second place team from each league, known as the "wild card" moves on. The division leaders are seeded in 1st through 3rd place based on their regular season records, and the wild card team is seeded 4th. The teams then play each other in a best-of-5 series, where the 1st seed and the 4th seed play against each other and the 2nd and 3rd seeds compete. This assumes that the two teams playing each other are not from the same division, if they are, then the match ups are changed. The two winners from this first round, known as either the "American League Division Series" (ALDS) or the "National League Division Series" (NLDS), depending on what league the teams are from, move on to the next round. This next round is known as the American (or National) League Championship Series (ALCS and NLCS, respectively). These Championship series' are both a best-of-7 series, where the first team to win 4 games in the series moves on. Finally, the ALCS and the NLCS winners move on to one final round of play, this is also a best-of-7 series, and is known as the World Series. The winner of the World Series every year is declared the Major League Baseball Champion for that season. The two leagues play with basically the same rules, with one notable exception. In the National League, the pitcher must, when his turn in the lineup comes up, must either bat, or be replaced. In the American League, teams may (and almost always do), designate a different player to bat in the pitcher's spot. This player is known as the "Designated Hitter" or DH. This player is not allowed to play any positions in the field, and if he is moved or taken from the game, must be replaced in the line-up by the pitcher. In the case of inter-league games, weather in the pre-season, the regular season, or the World Series, the two teams play by the rules of whichever team is the home team. In July of every year every team has a three day break in their schedule, this is called the "All-Star Break". In the middle of this break, there is a special exhibition game called the All-Star game. This game features at least one player from every team in the Major Leagues. They are split up into two teams, one team featuring players from the American League, and the other team having players from the National League. The starting position players (as in, the non-pitchers) are voted on by the fans. The player receiving the most votes from the fans at each position starts in the game, though they will usually only play a few innings. The rest of the team is chosen by, in large part, the manager of their respective teams. The players and the Commissioner's office also have some say in the rest of the roster for this game. The managers from the two teams that were in the World Series the year prior are chosen to lead the All-Star teams. The All-Star game has been played since 1933, and for most of that time it was a meaningless exhibition game, having no bearing on any other part of the season. This changed in 2003, when after the 2002 game was called a tie, due to a lack of pitchers on both teams, it was decreed by the Commissioner, Bud Selig, that the winning league in the All-Star game would have home-field advantage (having 4 of the 7 games in their own stadium) in the World Series. Major League Baseball is the highest level of professional baseball in North America. Below it are the minor leagues, ranked AAA, AA and A. The Minors include such leagues as the International League and the Southern League, which typically have teams in smaller cities and towns throughout the U.S. and Canada. Major League teams use the Minors as development leagues for younger players. They also provide an opportunity for older players trying to work their way back into the Majors as well as employment for players who were never able to make it to "The Show," as the big leagues are sometimes called. Throughout the years, both leagues have seen a number of teams come and go. When the National League was formed, it had eight teams, only four of which are still in existence and in the same city that they started in. The American League was formed, it also had eight teams, seven of which are still where they started. List of teams in Major League Baseball - American League - National League - East Division - Central Division - West Division The National League - Chipello, Christopher J.. Expos' move marks end of baseball era in French, Wall Street Journal, Post-Gazette NOW Sports, 2005-06-03. Retrieved on 2008-02-08. - Washington Nationals and Montreal Expos. Retrieved on 2-10-08. - Pappas, Doug. A contentious history: Baselball's labor fights, 9-8-2002. Retrieved on 2-10-08. - Morrissey, Mo. Baseball labor relations: Anti-trust exemptions & the reserve clause, 10-19-2007. Retrieved on 2-10-08. - Zenz, Jay. Is Bisenius Ready For The Show?, PhillyBaseballNews.com, 2007-3-3. Retrieved on 2008-02-07.	<urn:uuid:35ce6521-c6b6-4600-968b-95078a684333>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Major_League_Baseball	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00307.warc.gz	en	0.981352	3,808	3.5	4	[ -0.047513194382190704, 0.13682809472084045, -0.14603030681610107, -0.2959138751029968, 0.11381246894598007, 0.5085217356681824, -0.2208026796579361, 0.05495322123169899, 0.37298423051834106, -0.07367853820323944, 0.08520156145095825, 0.06631721556186676, -0.1589464247226715, -0.08235349506...	3	Major League Baseball Major League Baseball (MLB) is an American-based sports league, considered to be the world's premier professional baseball league. MLB contains 30 professional baseball teams (29 in the United States and 1 in Canada), which feature players from many countries around the world. In the United States, MLB is considered an Organisation and Legal Entity. MLB itself is divided into two separate "leagues". One, the American League, has 14 teams; the older National League has 16 teams. Each league is divided into three "divisions": East, West, and Central. - 1 History - 2 Labor relations - 3 League Structure - 4 All-Star Game - 5 The Minors - 6 Leagues - 7 Defunct franchises - 8 Trivia - 9 Notes The roots of Major League Baseball go back to 1871 when the National Association of Professional Baseball Clubs was founded, eventually leading to the National League that we know today in 1876. Until the end of the 19th Century, the National League was considered the predominant professional baseball organization, excluding some challengers such as the American Association and the Players League in the 1880s. The turn of the century changed this with a new "Major League" called the American League, which was created from a former minor league called the Western League. Because the National League was created before the American League, the National League is sometimes referred to as the "Senior Circuit", with the American League being the "Junior Circuit". The two leagues would not recognise each other until 1903 when the two leagues determined a combined champion through a series of games known as the World Series, first conducted intermittently in the 1880s between the champions of the National League and the American Association. The winner of the World Series has been declared the champion of Major League Baseball every year since, excluding 1904 when John T. Brush, the owner of the New York Giants, refused to allow his team to play what he considered to be an inferior opponent, and in 1994, when a labour stoppage between the Players Union and the owners of Major League Baseball forced a cancellation of the series. The Colour Bar African American players had played alongside whites in the early days of baseball. However, in the modern era the Major Leagues barred black players, who competed in their own Negro League. This color bar persisted until 1947, when Jackie Robinson forever changed the face of Major League Baseball. Expansion outside the U.S. In 1969, MLB expanded outside the border of the United States for the first time with the creation of the Montreal Expos. French-language broadcasters had to invent a whole new lexicon to describe the game to fans. The team was popular with fans, both at its first home at Jarry Park Stadium and later at Montreal's Olympic Stadium. However, a player strike in 1994 crippled a season that saw the Expos on top of baseball. The franchise never recovered from that fateful season, regularly seeing some of the lowest attendance in the league at their games. In 2001, the commissioner of baseball, Bud Selig, announced that Major League Baseball would be contracting two teams, one of them being the Montreal Expos. Later, a new collective bargaining agreement between baseball and it's players eliminated the possibility of contraction prior to 2006. This forced MLB to seek out different options for the faltering franchise. In 2004, the final season that saw Major League Baseball in Montreal, the team played several of their "home" games in Puerto Rico. Eventually, the league was able to find a buyer for the team, and the franchise was moved to Washington, D.C., changing the team's name to the Nationals The league further expanded outside of the U.S. with the addition of the Toronto Blue Jays in 1977. Currently, the Blue Jays still reside in there. Prior to 1997, teams from the two leagues in MLB never met in the regular season. The only time that teams from different leagues would meet would be in the preseason, the World Series, or in exhibition games. The decision to have inter-league games was met with mixed reaction. Some fans thought that the prospect of some of the match-ups, such as the New York Mets, who are in the National League, and the New York Yankees, who play in the American League, was enthralling. Other more traditional fans of the sport felt that the change was unnecessary. Over most of the course of Major League Baseball, there were no rules governing the use of performance enhancing drugs. Public scrutiny arose during the 1998 season, when a bottle of androstenedione, an over the counter muscle building supplement was found in Mark McGwire's locker. In 2002, an article ran in Sports Illustrated in which former San Diego Padres third baseman and former MVP Ken Caminiti admitted to using steroids and speculated that as many as 50% of major league players were doing the same. The MLB Players Association, the players union, steadfastly refused to allow players to be drug tested. As a result, a Senate subcomittee headed by John McCain and Byron Dorgan strongly suggested to MLB Players Association head Donald Fehr enter into an agreement with MLB to allow drug testing. On August 30, 2002, MLB announced it's Joint Drug Prevention and Treatment Program. The program was weak and seen as a victory for the player's union, calling only for random drug surveys and anonymity for those tested. However, in December 2003, several prominent baseball players including Barry Bonds and Jason Giambi were called to testify in front of a grand jury investigating BALCO, which was indicted for distributing steroids to professional athletes. The public outcry surrounding the trial forced Major League Baseball to stiffen the policy. The new policy, which was started during the 2005 MLB season, tested every player at least once per season, with additional random tests throughout the year, and featured a sliding scale of penalties ranging from a 10 game suspension for the first positive test result, up to a full season's suspension for a fourth offense. Further offenses were handled by the commissioner. Also, offenders under the new policy were publicly named, if, after an appealed second test also came back positive. This policy lasted less than one full year. In November of 2005, the owners and players agreed on a new, even tougher steroid policy. This one allowed for only three offenses. The first resulting in a 50 game suspension, the second in a 100 game suspension, and a third offense would lead to a lifetime suspension from MLB. This policy brought MLB a lot closer to many other sports in terms of how performance-enhancing drugs are handled. In 2006, Commissioner Bud Selig appointed former U.S. Senator George Mitchell to head an independent investigation into the reported abuse of performance enhancing drugs. The findings, known as the Mitchell Report, were released to the public on December 13, 2007. The report listed over 70 former and current players who were linked to these drugs, including some of the leagues premier players. From very early on, Major League Baseball and its players have had a factious relationship. In an effort to gain some momentum in their disagreements with the owners, the players formed a labor union in 1954. This union, known as the Major League Baseball Players Association or, MLBPA, got off to a slow start. Likely due in part to the MLBPA's first Director, Robert Cannon's friendly relationship with the owners, the owners and the players did not function under a collective bargaining agreement (CBA) until 1968, after the hiring of the MLBPA's first full time head man, Marvin Miller. This first agreement made some small concessions in favor of the players, including an increase in the minimum salaries. The next deal was agreed on in 1970, with some more gains made by the players. The first major point of contention would between the two sides would be first negotiated in the 1973 CBA. The issue was free-agency, or weather or not the players would have the right to go to any team in baseball after the end of a contract, instead of the rights to sign a player staying with the same team, unless that team chose to forego those rights. What started the disagreement was the "reserve clause" that was put into the contract of every player. The debate was weather this clause allowed the teams to renew the player's contract indefinitely, or, if after playing a year without the players renewal, this contract automatically expired. An arbitrator, Peter Seitz, would rule in favor of the players. This led to the first work-stoppage, with the owners locking the players out until late March of 1976 when a federal judge would uphold Seitz's decision. Despite restrictions on how often and with whom the players were allowed to negotiate a free agent contact, the average player's salary skyrocketed, going from $51,501 to $143,756 annually in just 4 years. This led to a new proposal from the owners, the right to be compensated, in the form of a different player, for a player leaving for another team. This was met by severe resistance from the players' union. An agreement was eventually reached between the two sides, but not before 712 games of the 1980 season were canceled. The compensation system that was put in place was confusing for all involved, but especially for the fans, and it was dropped with little ado in the next CBA negotiations in 1985. Another part of the 1985 discussions centered around salary arbitration. With the arbitration system, if a player and a team cannot agree on a contract prior to that player is eligible for free-agency, they may submit to binding arbitration. The owners wanted to reduce the numbers of arbitration eligible players by raising the threshold for arbitration from two years to three. They also sought to cap the increase in salary that an arbitrator could award. The players again struck. Two days after the strike, the two sides reached a compromise and a new, five-year CBA was reached. During the 1985 CBA, the owners were accused by the players of collusion. After having lost some ground in the CBA, the owners decided amongst themselves to not sign one-another's free agents. This was a clear violation of the CBA, and after several arbitrations, the owners ultimately paid the player $280 million in compensation. When negotiations for the new CBA started in 1990, several of the owners drew a hard-line. Making demands to win back some of the concessions they had made in previous agreements. The players, in response made several new demands of their own, including pushing back the arbitration threshold to the 2 year mark it had been prior to 1985. The owners locked the players out, causing the third work stoppage in baseball in 15 years. This stoppage lasted 32 days, after which the owners dropped their demands, and even gave into some of the players' proposals. The owners blamed much of what happened during the 1990 CBA on then commissioner Fay Vincent. Several of the owners moved to force Vincent out, and steeled themselves for the next negotiations. These negotiations started in 1994, with the owners proposing a salary cap, which, if enforced, would have resulted in a collective 15% pay cut for the players. This move infuriated the players, forcing them to strike on August 12, 1994. Several weeks later, the players proposed a counter offer, which included revenue sharing, and a small luxury tax, but no salary cap. The owners held their ground, and the rest of the season, including the 1994 playoffs and World Series were canceled. The next season did start on time, but not before a federal judge forced the owners to play under the same rules as the previous agreement, until a new one was reached. This new agreement was not reached until 1996. The owners gained significant ground in the new agreement, which included a steep luxury tax for the teams with the highest payrolls and increased revenue sharing. Before negotiations started for the 2002 CBA, the owners, led by commissioner Bud Selig, put a commission in place to help determine what would be in the best interest for baseball. This commission's recommendations became, in large part, the new agreement reached by both sides. This agreement was reached with no work stoppage. Since that time, the players and the owners have butted heads in the realm of performance-enhancing drugs, and the ways that they are tested for and abusers punished, but each of the several agreements reached regarding this drug policy has been reached with no work stoppages. Each of the 30 teams plays a 162 game season every year. The schedules lean heavily towards an intra-divisional schedule. A team may play another team in the same division as many as 18 or 19 times in a year, while only playing a team in a different division 5 or 6 times throughout the roughly 6 month long season. Most of a team's schedule is against teams in the same league. A team will play a few games against every team in their own league, but only play against 4 or 5 teams from the opposite league. After the regular season is complete, the leading teams move on to the playoffs. The division leader from each division, and the single best second place team from each league, known as the "wild card" moves on. The division leaders are seeded in 1st through 3rd place based on their regular season records, and the wild card team is seeded 4th. The teams then play each other in a best-of-5 series, where the 1st seed and the 4th seed play against each other and the 2nd and 3rd seeds compete. This assumes that the two teams playing each other are not from the same division, if they are, then the match ups are changed. The two winners from this first round, known as either the "American League Division Series" (ALDS) or the "National League Division Series" (NLDS), depending on what league the teams are from, move on to the next round. This next round is known as the American (or National) League Championship Series (ALCS and NLCS, respectively). These Championship series' are both a best-of-7 series, where the first team to win 4 games in the series moves on. Finally, the ALCS and the NLCS winners move on to one final round of play, this is also a best-of-7 series, and is known as the World Series. The winner of the World Series every year is declared the Major League Baseball Champion for that season. The two leagues play with basically the same rules, with one notable exception. In the National League, the pitcher must, when his turn in the lineup comes up, must either bat, or be replaced. In the American League, teams may (and almost always do), designate a different player to bat in the pitcher's spot. This player is known as the "Designated Hitter" or DH. This player is not allowed to play any positions in the field, and if he is moved or taken from the game, must be replaced in the line-up by the pitcher. In the case of inter-league games, weather in the pre-season, the regular season, or the World Series, the two teams play by the rules of whichever team is the home team. In July of every year every team has a three day break in their schedule, this is called the "All-Star Break". In the middle of this break, there is a special exhibition game called the All-Star game. This game features at least one player from every team in the Major Leagues. They are split up into two teams, one team featuring players from the American League, and the other team having players from the National League. The starting position players (as in, the non-pitchers) are voted on by the fans. The player receiving the most votes from the fans at each position starts in the game, though they will usually only play a few innings. The rest of the team is chosen by, in large part, the manager of their respective teams. The players and the Commissioner's office also have some say in the rest of the roster for this game. The managers from the two teams that were in the World Series the year prior are chosen to lead the All-Star teams. The All-Star game has been played since 1933, and for most of that time it was a meaningless exhibition game, having no bearing on any other part of the season. This changed in 2003, when after the 2002 game was called a tie, due to a lack of pitchers on both teams, it was decreed by the Commissioner, Bud Selig, that the winning league in the All-Star game would have home-field advantage (having 4 of the 7 games in their own stadium) in the World Series. Major League Baseball is the highest level of professional baseball in North America. Below it are the minor leagues, ranked AAA, AA and A. The Minors include such leagues as the International League and the Southern League, which typically have teams in smaller cities and towns throughout the U.S. and Canada. Major League teams use the Minors as development leagues for younger players. They also provide an opportunity for older players trying to work their way back into the Majors as well as employment for players who were never able to make it to "The Show," as the big leagues are sometimes called. Throughout the years, both leagues have seen a number of teams come and go. When the National League was formed, it had eight teams, only four of which are still in existence and in the same city that they started in. The American League was formed, it also had eight teams, seven of which are still where they started. List of teams in Major League Baseball - American League - National League - East Division - Central Division - West Division The National League - Chipello, Christopher J.. Expos' move marks end of baseball era in French, Wall Street Journal, Post-Gazette NOW Sports, 2005-06-03. Retrieved on 2008-02-08. - Washington Nationals and Montreal Expos. Retrieved on 2-10-08. - Pappas, Doug. A contentious history: Baselball's labor fights, 9-8-2002. Retrieved on 2-10-08. - Morrissey, Mo. Baseball labor relations: Anti-trust exemptions & the reserve clause, 10-19-2007. Retrieved on 2-10-08. - Zenz, Jay. Is Bisenius Ready For The Show?, PhillyBaseballNews.com, 2007-3-3. Retrieved on 2008-02-07.	4,035	ENGLISH	1
There were a few things I had known before watching the movie, “What Darwin didn’t know,” but there were some things I had not known and learned from the movie. To start, we learn that a single human has 23,000 protein-coding genes. From that, there can be mutations within the DNA. What I found interesting was that humans are actually massive mutations from the chimps, which are our closest genetic relative. I had already known that a mutation was when in the DNA, a certain letter is changed to another letter, causing a change in the genetic makeup, but the video elaborated on how there are parts on DNA called switches. These switches control when a trait is turned on, how much of it is turned on, and when to turn it off. This became interesting, as traits are what define animals. Even though mutations can either be good or bad, this plays right into natural selection. A mutation that is passed down can cause major changes, which can allow an animal to adapt better with their environment. The movie provides a good example of this with rock pocket mice. They live in a desert area, so they are a light brown color to blend in with the ground, providing a camouflage against predators. But, there was a volcanic eruption that caused black lava to be strewn about the desert. When the mice went on it, they were bright targets for predators because they didn’t blend in. A mutation in mice had caused some to be born with black fur, which would help them hide better in the lava parts. This plays a part in natural selection because the light brown mice could live on the desert while the black mice live on the lava, with each type being capable of surviving. Another interesting fact I learned was that most animals have the same set of basic genes that build bodies in the embryo. So, if you were to look at pictures of different kinds of animal embryos, such as a human, a calf, a fish, and a bat, they would all look very similar in that stage and you would have a hard time telling them apart until they continued to grow bigger. Which means, DNA is the building blocks for bodies and that mutations cause different traits to appear on the animals to distinguish them apart. Overall, the movie did bring an interesting and supported idea for what Darwin didn’t know, while agreeing with what Darwin did know in his “theory of evolution.”	<urn:uuid:396ec6e7-6afc-4c21-9bd1-b3d8bfbfeb04>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://portfolio.gdrsd.org/annaliesep2016/2015/09/30/what-darwin-didnt-know-blog-on-movie/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00050.warc.gz	en	0.983851	499	3.53125	4	[ -0.38500648736953735, -0.14061608910560608, 0.08052771538496017, 0.23909832537174225, 0.1791737824678421, 0.09400608390569687, 0.6757413744926453, 0.17973493039608002, -0.19595825672149658, 0.1633596569299698, 0.21579234302043915, -0.4156031608581543, 0.026244789361953735, 0.11075263470411...	4	There were a few things I had known before watching the movie, “What Darwin didn’t know,” but there were some things I had not known and learned from the movie. To start, we learn that a single human has 23,000 protein-coding genes. From that, there can be mutations within the DNA. What I found interesting was that humans are actually massive mutations from the chimps, which are our closest genetic relative. I had already known that a mutation was when in the DNA, a certain letter is changed to another letter, causing a change in the genetic makeup, but the video elaborated on how there are parts on DNA called switches. These switches control when a trait is turned on, how much of it is turned on, and when to turn it off. This became interesting, as traits are what define animals. Even though mutations can either be good or bad, this plays right into natural selection. A mutation that is passed down can cause major changes, which can allow an animal to adapt better with their environment. The movie provides a good example of this with rock pocket mice. They live in a desert area, so they are a light brown color to blend in with the ground, providing a camouflage against predators. But, there was a volcanic eruption that caused black lava to be strewn about the desert. When the mice went on it, they were bright targets for predators because they didn’t blend in. A mutation in mice had caused some to be born with black fur, which would help them hide better in the lava parts. This plays a part in natural selection because the light brown mice could live on the desert while the black mice live on the lava, with each type being capable of surviving. Another interesting fact I learned was that most animals have the same set of basic genes that build bodies in the embryo. So, if you were to look at pictures of different kinds of animal embryos, such as a human, a calf, a fish, and a bat, they would all look very similar in that stage and you would have a hard time telling them apart until they continued to grow bigger. Which means, DNA is the building blocks for bodies and that mutations cause different traits to appear on the animals to distinguish them apart. Overall, the movie did bring an interesting and supported idea for what Darwin didn’t know, while agreeing with what Darwin did know in his “theory of evolution.”	488	ENGLISH	1
Paul Edmund Strzelecki, one of the heroes of the Great Irish Famine, brought starving children into the foreground of relief measures. Filled with empathy for their plight, he devised an innovative system of feeding and clothing children through schools. When his plan was applied to the 27 Irish Unions in which starvation was most severe, the scheme, at its peak, fed and clothed 201,427 children of all religious persuasions every day. Strzelecki a scientist and world explorer, arrived in England in 1845 to publish A Physical Description of NSW and Van Diemen’s Land based on four years of pioneering geological and mineralogical research of south-eastern Australia, for which he crossed over 11,000 km of rugged territory and inhospitable climate on foot while laden with scientific instruments. With the assistance of his Aboriginal guides, Paul Edmund peacefully and respectfully entered tribal territories by permission, not force. Shortly after Strzelecki’s book was published, news of the Great Hunger in Ireland began to break out. Paul Edmund, who had experienced 22 days of starvation while exploring Gippsland in 1840, was imbued with a sense of duty. He volunteered his time and talent – free of charge and at his own expense – to the British Relief Association (B.R.A.), a private charity that had recently been established by a group of English nobles to help those in great need in Ireland and Scotland. Strzelecki’s assistance was welcomed and, on the 22nd of January, 1847, the Association assigned him to provide relief to the Counties of Donegal, Mayo and Sligo. Strzelecki wasted no time; he arrived in Dublin four days later. Fit and accustomed to travelling in difficult circumstances, on foot if necessary Strzelecki obtained firsthand knowledge throughout the rural and settled districts of the Counties for which he was responsible to provide help. What he discovered tore at his heartstrings. During his first six months, he wrote 15 reports using the most powerful prose to describe what he had witnessed. Utter destitution and widespread mortality from starvation and disease were so grave that there was an insufficiency of coffins for those who had died. Traumatic memories of being orphaned awoke when he witnessed the plight of the children. His father had died when he was four and his mother when he was ten. At Westport, on the 29th of January, 1847, Strzelecki wrote: Initially, as an agent of the B.R.A., Strzelecki was responsible for establishing depots from which food, provisions and clothing were gratuitously distributed to the destitute and starving. Paul Edmund had noted the dispersed nature of the population, so he established substations to make sure that the destitute in his Counties did not have too far to travel to obtain assistance. Alert to the waste and corruption that sometimes accompanied „relief”, Strzelecki was assiduous with the resources for which he was responsible. Areas with honest and efficient administrators were given priority, and rigorous control procedures were put in place. Only about 2% of B.R.A. funds were absorbed by administrative costs a contrast to the 30% or so expended by many major charities today. Strzelecki contracted typhus in March 1847, in the course of undertaking his charitable work. Although he continued to suffer ill effects for the rest of his life, his humanitarian efforts in Ireland continued unabated. He closely monitored conditions within his districts. Whenever the British Government made changes to Official Relief, such as when it closed Public Works and condemned to starvation those arbitrarily laid off, Strzelecki immediately doubled the Grants in his districts to help those affected by the Government’s heartlessness. Having installed and organised depots and procedures for the efficient distribution of food, clothing and grants to aid the destitute and starving adults, Strzelecki turned his attention to the plight of the children, whose situation had been tearing at his heartstrings. As an agent of the B.R.A., he had access to all the food and clothing needed; but how could it be delivered effectively to the children? Strzelecki’s innovative plan was simple and revolutionary. Clothing and daily food rations could be provided to children attending schools of all religious persuasions! The infrastructure and staff already existed; all that was needed was the approval of school authorities. Continuation of part 2 on the next page _can be found here_	<urn:uuid:4f1b2ee7-9019-48e2-aff8-43a15097d8de>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://mtkosciuszko.org.au/english/heroes.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00512.warc.gz	en	0.981772	939	3.390625	3	[ -0.14604505896568298, 0.45878347754478455, 0.3499918580055237, 0.24709683656692505, 0.08236929774284363, -0.16892412304878235, -0.18108752369880676, -0.22293022274971008, -0.5517151355743408, -0.14133170247077942, 0.18422925472259521, -0.4126910865306854, 0.3286626935005188, 0.358925253152...	1	Paul Edmund Strzelecki, one of the heroes of the Great Irish Famine, brought starving children into the foreground of relief measures. Filled with empathy for their plight, he devised an innovative system of feeding and clothing children through schools. When his plan was applied to the 27 Irish Unions in which starvation was most severe, the scheme, at its peak, fed and clothed 201,427 children of all religious persuasions every day. Strzelecki a scientist and world explorer, arrived in England in 1845 to publish A Physical Description of NSW and Van Diemen’s Land based on four years of pioneering geological and mineralogical research of south-eastern Australia, for which he crossed over 11,000 km of rugged territory and inhospitable climate on foot while laden with scientific instruments. With the assistance of his Aboriginal guides, Paul Edmund peacefully and respectfully entered tribal territories by permission, not force. Shortly after Strzelecki’s book was published, news of the Great Hunger in Ireland began to break out. Paul Edmund, who had experienced 22 days of starvation while exploring Gippsland in 1840, was imbued with a sense of duty. He volunteered his time and talent – free of charge and at his own expense – to the British Relief Association (B.R.A.), a private charity that had recently been established by a group of English nobles to help those in great need in Ireland and Scotland. Strzelecki’s assistance was welcomed and, on the 22nd of January, 1847, the Association assigned him to provide relief to the Counties of Donegal, Mayo and Sligo. Strzelecki wasted no time; he arrived in Dublin four days later. Fit and accustomed to travelling in difficult circumstances, on foot if necessary Strzelecki obtained firsthand knowledge throughout the rural and settled districts of the Counties for which he was responsible to provide help. What he discovered tore at his heartstrings. During his first six months, he wrote 15 reports using the most powerful prose to describe what he had witnessed. Utter destitution and widespread mortality from starvation and disease were so grave that there was an insufficiency of coffins for those who had died. Traumatic memories of being orphaned awoke when he witnessed the plight of the children. His father had died when he was four and his mother when he was ten. At Westport, on the 29th of January, 1847, Strzelecki wrote: Initially, as an agent of the B.R.A., Strzelecki was responsible for establishing depots from which food, provisions and clothing were gratuitously distributed to the destitute and starving. Paul Edmund had noted the dispersed nature of the population, so he established substations to make sure that the destitute in his Counties did not have too far to travel to obtain assistance. Alert to the waste and corruption that sometimes accompanied „relief”, Strzelecki was assiduous with the resources for which he was responsible. Areas with honest and efficient administrators were given priority, and rigorous control procedures were put in place. Only about 2% of B.R.A. funds were absorbed by administrative costs a contrast to the 30% or so expended by many major charities today. Strzelecki contracted typhus in March 1847, in the course of undertaking his charitable work. Although he continued to suffer ill effects for the rest of his life, his humanitarian efforts in Ireland continued unabated. He closely monitored conditions within his districts. Whenever the British Government made changes to Official Relief, such as when it closed Public Works and condemned to starvation those arbitrarily laid off, Strzelecki immediately doubled the Grants in his districts to help those affected by the Government’s heartlessness. Having installed and organised depots and procedures for the efficient distribution of food, clothing and grants to aid the destitute and starving adults, Strzelecki turned his attention to the plight of the children, whose situation had been tearing at his heartstrings. As an agent of the B.R.A., he had access to all the food and clothing needed; but how could it be delivered effectively to the children? Strzelecki’s innovative plan was simple and revolutionary. Clothing and daily food rations could be provided to children attending schools of all religious persuasions! The infrastructure and staff already existed; all that was needed was the approval of school authorities. Continuation of part 2 on the next page _can be found here_	939	ENGLISH	1
Since the Second World War the divorce rate has increased rapidly. In 1939 19% of marriages ended in divorce whereas in 2012 statistics shows that 42% of marriages end in divorce. Sociologist believe that this may be due to changes in the law throughout Britain making its easier, cheaper and sociology acceptable for married couples to get a divorce. For example the private act of parliament. The first major change in society was in 1957 when the Private act of parliament was abolished. This meant that people did not need a PAOP to get a divorce. These was very expensive at the time therefore could not be afforded by working class people. So therefore when the law was removed it meant that it closed the gap between the rate of divorce between the middle class and the working class due to the same opportunities. During 1971 and 1969 divorce reform act came into place resulting in a major increase in the number of divorce. This act meant that couples was able to divorce under mutual consent after 2 years of separation living in an empty shell marriage. Or after 5 years if one partner objected. This showed that the value of gender equality had changed and this gave women the chance to divorce without the consent of their husbands. This was one of the main cumulative factors that gave women more power in society as the most people who filed for divorce were women. At this point divorce rate were plummeting and now society saw divorce as acceptable. Although the law has been a major influence on the rate of divorce other sociologist would argue that the increase in the divorce rate is due to the changing attitudes of women. Women no longer rely on males for financial support and stability and therefore have more power to end and break relationships. Gibson argued that women now have more freedom to judge and choose what they want and this has encouraged them to become more confident in…	<urn:uuid:08e889c2-ed41-48c2-8b8c-bf34111d64b6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Assess-The-Claim-That-The-Increase-572905.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00203.warc.gz	en	0.982785	363	3.671875	4	[ -0.34873703122138977, 0.1735595464706421, 0.06401537358760834, -0.25942695140838623, 0.13980278372764587, 0.3812205195426941, -0.17452730238437653, -0.027507439255714417, 0.5275935530662537, 0.006786971352994442, 0.5371996760368347, 0.3405775725841522, 0.12103123217821121, 0.17607788741588...	1	Since the Second World War the divorce rate has increased rapidly. In 1939 19% of marriages ended in divorce whereas in 2012 statistics shows that 42% of marriages end in divorce. Sociologist believe that this may be due to changes in the law throughout Britain making its easier, cheaper and sociology acceptable for married couples to get a divorce. For example the private act of parliament. The first major change in society was in 1957 when the Private act of parliament was abolished. This meant that people did not need a PAOP to get a divorce. These was very expensive at the time therefore could not be afforded by working class people. So therefore when the law was removed it meant that it closed the gap between the rate of divorce between the middle class and the working class due to the same opportunities. During 1971 and 1969 divorce reform act came into place resulting in a major increase in the number of divorce. This act meant that couples was able to divorce under mutual consent after 2 years of separation living in an empty shell marriage. Or after 5 years if one partner objected. This showed that the value of gender equality had changed and this gave women the chance to divorce without the consent of their husbands. This was one of the main cumulative factors that gave women more power in society as the most people who filed for divorce were women. At this point divorce rate were plummeting and now society saw divorce as acceptable. Although the law has been a major influence on the rate of divorce other sociologist would argue that the increase in the divorce rate is due to the changing attitudes of women. Women no longer rely on males for financial support and stability and therefore have more power to end and break relationships. Gibson argued that women now have more freedom to judge and choose what they want and this has encouraged them to become more confident in…	386	ENGLISH	1
There’s limited information about Sacagawea’s early life, including her birth date, though many historians believe she was born in May 1788 near present-day Salmon, Idaho. She was a member of the Agaidika (Salmon Eater) of the Lemhi Shoshone tribe. In 1800, when Sacagawea was about 12 years old, the Hidatsa tribe captured her and several other young girls and many people in her village were killed. She was taken to a Hidatsa village near present-day Washburn, North Dakota. The following year, Sacagawea was sold to French-Canadian fur trader Toussaint Charbonneau, who made her his wife. Then in 1803, the United States finalized the Louisiana Purchase, acquiring the vast area that lay between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. To explore the unknown territory, President Jefferson dispatched Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. By fall the explorers had reached the Missouri River, where they hired Charbonneau as an interpreter. Because she spoke Shoshone, they agreed to add Sacagawea to their party. Sacagawea moved into the newly built fort constructed by the expedition’s members and gave birth to a son, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau, on February 11, 1805. That April, she joined the Corps of Discovery up the Missouri River. Carrying her infant son on her back, Sacagawea guided the expedition over treacherous mountain trails and down roaring whitewater rivers. Sacagawea often foraged for food, and when a riverboat capsized, she rescued vital supplies. The Corps then named the river after her. Her presence with the explorers also eased the suspicions of other tribes, because as Clark noted, “A woman with a party of men is a token of peace.” When the group encountered a band of Shoshone near present-day Montana, Sacagawea discovered the tribe’s chief was her brother and was able to negotiate horses, without which the expedition might have ended. At the end of the expedition, Clark told Sacagawea’s husband that she deserved “a greater reward for her attention and services on that rout than we had in our power to give her.” After the expedition ended, Sacagawea and her husband lived in the Hidatsa village for three years before accepting an invitation from William Clark to move to St. Louis, Missouri. There Clark helped them enroll their son in a boarding school and Sacagawea gave birth to a daughter, Lizette. It is believed that Sacagawea, her husband, and daughter lived at the Fort Manuel Lisa Trading Post in the 1810s. A journal entry from the fort claims that Sacagawea died of “putrid fever” on December 20, 1812. However, some Native American oral traditions tell a different story. Some believe that Sacagawea left her husband and married into a Comanche tribe and later returned to the Shoshone in Wyoming in 1860. There were tales of a woman named Porivo (chief woman) who had a Jefferson peace medal and spoke about leading white men on a long journey. Porivo died on April 9, 1884, and some people believe she was Sacagawea.	<urn:uuid:625d915a-fdea-47c0-b224-54c6bb5b5643>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mysticstamp.com/Products/United-States/UX196/USA/FDC/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00545.warc.gz	en	0.980229	692	3.640625	4	[ -0.16014806926250458, 0.4251880645751953, 0.08992823213338852, -0.2402973175048828, -0.16941991448402405, -0.4704103469848633, 0.01708519645035267, 0.06797896325588226, -0.16943997144699097, 0.2041315883398056, 0.4261379837989807, -0.2936003804206848, 0.12238965928554535, 0.063172891736030...	1	There’s limited information about Sacagawea’s early life, including her birth date, though many historians believe she was born in May 1788 near present-day Salmon, Idaho. She was a member of the Agaidika (Salmon Eater) of the Lemhi Shoshone tribe. In 1800, when Sacagawea was about 12 years old, the Hidatsa tribe captured her and several other young girls and many people in her village were killed. She was taken to a Hidatsa village near present-day Washburn, North Dakota. The following year, Sacagawea was sold to French-Canadian fur trader Toussaint Charbonneau, who made her his wife. Then in 1803, the United States finalized the Louisiana Purchase, acquiring the vast area that lay between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. To explore the unknown territory, President Jefferson dispatched Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. By fall the explorers had reached the Missouri River, where they hired Charbonneau as an interpreter. Because she spoke Shoshone, they agreed to add Sacagawea to their party. Sacagawea moved into the newly built fort constructed by the expedition’s members and gave birth to a son, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau, on February 11, 1805. That April, she joined the Corps of Discovery up the Missouri River. Carrying her infant son on her back, Sacagawea guided the expedition over treacherous mountain trails and down roaring whitewater rivers. Sacagawea often foraged for food, and when a riverboat capsized, she rescued vital supplies. The Corps then named the river after her. Her presence with the explorers also eased the suspicions of other tribes, because as Clark noted, “A woman with a party of men is a token of peace.” When the group encountered a band of Shoshone near present-day Montana, Sacagawea discovered the tribe’s chief was her brother and was able to negotiate horses, without which the expedition might have ended. At the end of the expedition, Clark told Sacagawea’s husband that she deserved “a greater reward for her attention and services on that rout than we had in our power to give her.” After the expedition ended, Sacagawea and her husband lived in the Hidatsa village for three years before accepting an invitation from William Clark to move to St. Louis, Missouri. There Clark helped them enroll their son in a boarding school and Sacagawea gave birth to a daughter, Lizette. It is believed that Sacagawea, her husband, and daughter lived at the Fort Manuel Lisa Trading Post in the 1810s. A journal entry from the fort claims that Sacagawea died of “putrid fever” on December 20, 1812. However, some Native American oral traditions tell a different story. Some believe that Sacagawea left her husband and married into a Comanche tribe and later returned to the Shoshone in Wyoming in 1860. There were tales of a woman named Porivo (chief woman) who had a Jefferson peace medal and spoke about leading white men on a long journey. Porivo died on April 9, 1884, and some people believe she was Sacagawea.	700	ENGLISH	1
Mexican Peso Coin Ring The peso was originally the name of the eight-real coins issued in Mexico by Spain. These were the so-called Spanish dollars or pieces of eight in wide circulation in the Americas and Asia from the height of the Spanish Empire until the early 19th century (the United States accepted the Spanish dollar as legal tender until the Coinage Act of 1857). In 1863, the first issue was made of coins denominated in centavos, worth one hundredth of the peso. This was followed in 1866 by coins denominated “one peso”. Coins denominated in reales continued to be issued until 1897. In 1905, the gold content of the peso was reduced by 49.3% but the silver content of the peso remained initially unchanged (subsidiary coins were debased). However, from 1918 onward, the weight and fineness of all the silver coins declined, until 1977, when the last silver 100-peso coins were minted.	<urn:uuid:02bd51df-86e0-4b5f-b2fb-3f255158af75>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.shandonscoinrings.com/index.php/product/mexican-peso-coin-ring/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00211.warc.gz	en	0.981394	208	3.453125	3	[ -0.2449812889099121, 0.06161189079284668, 0.14661790430545807, -0.011881060898303986, -0.3106643557548523, -0.028421398252248764, -0.023211291059851646, 0.09504794329404831, 0.047547176480293274, -0.06009054556488991, 0.00856324378401041, 0.0010895996820181608, 0.059989213943481445, -0.037...	4	Mexican Peso Coin Ring The peso was originally the name of the eight-real coins issued in Mexico by Spain. These were the so-called Spanish dollars or pieces of eight in wide circulation in the Americas and Asia from the height of the Spanish Empire until the early 19th century (the United States accepted the Spanish dollar as legal tender until the Coinage Act of 1857). In 1863, the first issue was made of coins denominated in centavos, worth one hundredth of the peso. This was followed in 1866 by coins denominated “one peso”. Coins denominated in reales continued to be issued until 1897. In 1905, the gold content of the peso was reduced by 49.3% but the silver content of the peso remained initially unchanged (subsidiary coins were debased). However, from 1918 onward, the weight and fineness of all the silver coins declined, until 1977, when the last silver 100-peso coins were minted.	229	ENGLISH	1
Lee Byeong-ki left familiar Korean poems such as "Orchid" and "Star" and wrote a monumental paper titled "Korean poems should innovate," which showed the direction of Korean poem’s innovation, not to mention his various achievements in bibliography and Korean literature. The Garam Library was established in Seoul National University after collecting massive amounts of literature on Korean language and literature as well as Korean History. Classical literatures including "The Memoirs of Lady Hyegyeong," "The Tale of Queen Inhyeon," "Yolowonyahwagi," and "Chunhyangga," were discovered. When analyzing the handwriting of the poet, his rationality is more developed than his feelings with an upright personality. This shows that he suits to be a scholar or a governor rather than a poet. When taking a look at his gemlike poems, it proves that the argument that it is difficult for an artist to be upright because feelings are important is nothing more than a pretense. The handwriting that forms an exact square and balance means that a person is not creative and acts based on what he or she learned, conservative, rational and careful. Opportunistic traits or capriciousness is difficult to find is such people. The lack of flexibility and ridged handwriting shows that a person has strong will and is critical. The swoops at the starting and end of a vowel are very conspicuous, demonstrating a vigorously strong will. This upright poet, who endured the hardships of prison life due to the Joseon Language Society case, wrote poems in his later years that charges corruption and incorporates resistance against the tyranny of power. The poet had a slow handwriting, which is mostly used by people who are exact and considerate. Such handwritings are mostly seen in scholars and perfectionists. The particularly narrow space between letters reveals that a person makes his or her own decisions and is strict in expressing or recognizing oneself. These people are not the best when it comes to adapting to new or different environment. Nonetheless, as the handwriting expressed conspicuous regularity, it could be said that the poet was trustworthy and had will and concentration power. The space between the parts that comprise a letter shares spare space and frequent appearance of smoothness. That is why he could speak of himself as a “man of three good fortunes” – pupil, brush, and liquor.	<urn:uuid:48b5c6a6-3832-47da-b511-8f59ab3071cc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.donga.com/en/article/all/20181214/1576778/1/Upright-Korean-poet-Lee-Byeong-ki	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00310.warc.gz	en	0.984634	481	3.390625	3	[ -0.38452833890914917, 0.2837739586830139, 0.5973678231239319, -0.02409004047513008, -0.05442529916763306, 0.13380073010921478, 0.2683315575122833, 0.06550001353025436, -0.47447478771209717, -0.23422133922576904, -0.031496334820985794, 0.13951092958450317, 0.4989703595638275, 0.055965259671...	2	Lee Byeong-ki left familiar Korean poems such as "Orchid" and "Star" and wrote a monumental paper titled "Korean poems should innovate," which showed the direction of Korean poem’s innovation, not to mention his various achievements in bibliography and Korean literature. The Garam Library was established in Seoul National University after collecting massive amounts of literature on Korean language and literature as well as Korean History. Classical literatures including "The Memoirs of Lady Hyegyeong," "The Tale of Queen Inhyeon," "Yolowonyahwagi," and "Chunhyangga," were discovered. When analyzing the handwriting of the poet, his rationality is more developed than his feelings with an upright personality. This shows that he suits to be a scholar or a governor rather than a poet. When taking a look at his gemlike poems, it proves that the argument that it is difficult for an artist to be upright because feelings are important is nothing more than a pretense. The handwriting that forms an exact square and balance means that a person is not creative and acts based on what he or she learned, conservative, rational and careful. Opportunistic traits or capriciousness is difficult to find is such people. The lack of flexibility and ridged handwriting shows that a person has strong will and is critical. The swoops at the starting and end of a vowel are very conspicuous, demonstrating a vigorously strong will. This upright poet, who endured the hardships of prison life due to the Joseon Language Society case, wrote poems in his later years that charges corruption and incorporates resistance against the tyranny of power. The poet had a slow handwriting, which is mostly used by people who are exact and considerate. Such handwritings are mostly seen in scholars and perfectionists. The particularly narrow space between letters reveals that a person makes his or her own decisions and is strict in expressing or recognizing oneself. These people are not the best when it comes to adapting to new or different environment. Nonetheless, as the handwriting expressed conspicuous regularity, it could be said that the poet was trustworthy and had will and concentration power. The space between the parts that comprise a letter shares spare space and frequent appearance of smoothness. That is why he could speak of himself as a “man of three good fortunes” – pupil, brush, and liquor.	475	ENGLISH	1
Friday, December 24, 2010 Peace On Earth...May Christmas Hasten That Day The first months of World War I had seen an initial German attack through Belgium into France, which had been repulsed outside Paris by French and British troops at the Battle of the Marne in early September 1914. The Germans fell back to the Aisne Valley and in the subsequent Battle of the Aisne, the Allied forces were unable to push through the German line, and the fighting quickly degenerated into a static stalemate with neither side willing to give ground. To the north, on the right of the German army, there had been no defined front line and both sides quickly began to try to use this gap to outflank one another. In the ensuing "race to the sea", the two sides repeatedly clashed, each trying to push forward and threaten the end of the other's line. By November, there was a continuous front line running from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier. The action was swift and both sides were determined. But, in December something unexpected happened: An unofficial truce involving about 100,000 British and German troops along the length of that front. The reason? Christmas. It began on Christmas Eve when German troops began decorating the area around their trenches in the region of Ypres, Belgium. The Germans began by placing candles on their trenches and on Christmas trees, then continued the celebration by singing Christmas carols. The British responded by singing carols of their own. The two sides continued by shouting Christmas greetings to each other. Soon thereafter, there were excursions across the 'No Man's Land, where small gifts were exchanged, such as food, tobacco and alcohol, and souvenirs such as buttons and hats. The artillery in the region fell silent that night. The truce also allowed a breathing spell where recently-fallen soldiers could be brought back behind their lines by burial parties. Joint services were held. In many sectors, the truce lasted through Christmas night, but it continued until New Year's Day in others. Ironically, just days before Christmas a group of 101 British women suffragists wrote a letter to the women of Germany and Austria. Under the heading "On Earth Peace, Goodwill towards Men, the letter said, "The Christmas message sounds like mockery to a world at war. Is it not our mission to preserve life? The next Christmas, the two sides again observed an unofficial cease fire at the front but it was not as successful, thanks to strongly-worded orders from the high commands of both sides prohibiting such fraternization. My prayer is that one day we will have peace on earth...may Christmas hasten that day. God bless you all and may each of you have a blessed Christmas! "It Could Happen Again" "But I know Whom I have believed And am persuaded that He is able To keep that which I’ve committed Unto Him against that day&qu... James Arness died today. Gunsmoke was every one's favorite TV show back when I was a kid. For years, at my house, we watched every singl... When I think of the 70's, I think of the greatest rock and roll music ever. It is now included in a music genre that is known today a... (This photo was made in the 1950's as the Goat Man passed through my town) Charles McCartney was born on July 6, 1901. In 1915, at age ...	<urn:uuid:9a7ae9ef-2cc3-4e76-8eb8-f93cad7c5ca9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.randyspecktacular.com/2010/12/peace-on-earthmay-christmas-hasten-that.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00148.warc.gz	en	0.980901	709	3.296875	3	[ 0.0016847960650920868, 0.3973711431026459, 0.22021165490150452, -0.18663892149925232, -0.049520980566740036, -0.21648597717285156, -0.14711825549602509, 0.33318954706192017, 0.3061469793319702, 0.03262295573949814, 0.0037629560101777315, -0.05069481581449509, 0.3652326464653015, 0.55418348...	1	Friday, December 24, 2010 Peace On Earth...May Christmas Hasten That Day The first months of World War I had seen an initial German attack through Belgium into France, which had been repulsed outside Paris by French and British troops at the Battle of the Marne in early September 1914. The Germans fell back to the Aisne Valley and in the subsequent Battle of the Aisne, the Allied forces were unable to push through the German line, and the fighting quickly degenerated into a static stalemate with neither side willing to give ground. To the north, on the right of the German army, there had been no defined front line and both sides quickly began to try to use this gap to outflank one another. In the ensuing "race to the sea", the two sides repeatedly clashed, each trying to push forward and threaten the end of the other's line. By November, there was a continuous front line running from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier. The action was swift and both sides were determined. But, in December something unexpected happened: An unofficial truce involving about 100,000 British and German troops along the length of that front. The reason? Christmas. It began on Christmas Eve when German troops began decorating the area around their trenches in the region of Ypres, Belgium. The Germans began by placing candles on their trenches and on Christmas trees, then continued the celebration by singing Christmas carols. The British responded by singing carols of their own. The two sides continued by shouting Christmas greetings to each other. Soon thereafter, there were excursions across the 'No Man's Land, where small gifts were exchanged, such as food, tobacco and alcohol, and souvenirs such as buttons and hats. The artillery in the region fell silent that night. The truce also allowed a breathing spell where recently-fallen soldiers could be brought back behind their lines by burial parties. Joint services were held. In many sectors, the truce lasted through Christmas night, but it continued until New Year's Day in others. Ironically, just days before Christmas a group of 101 British women suffragists wrote a letter to the women of Germany and Austria. Under the heading "On Earth Peace, Goodwill towards Men, the letter said, "The Christmas message sounds like mockery to a world at war. Is it not our mission to preserve life? The next Christmas, the two sides again observed an unofficial cease fire at the front but it was not as successful, thanks to strongly-worded orders from the high commands of both sides prohibiting such fraternization. My prayer is that one day we will have peace on earth...may Christmas hasten that day. God bless you all and may each of you have a blessed Christmas! "It Could Happen Again" "But I know Whom I have believed And am persuaded that He is able To keep that which I’ve committed Unto Him against that day&qu... James Arness died today. Gunsmoke was every one's favorite TV show back when I was a kid. For years, at my house, we watched every singl... When I think of the 70's, I think of the greatest rock and roll music ever. It is now included in a music genre that is known today a... (This photo was made in the 1950's as the Goat Man passed through my town) Charles McCartney was born on July 6, 1901. In 1915, at age ...	728	ENGLISH	1
Two World Wars Europe faced two dreadful wars in the 20th century. From 1914 to 1918 the First World War ravaged the continent. Or, as it was known back then, the Great War. After the war, borders are changed and we see a new Europe. In 1939 the Second World War starts. It continues up to 1945. Most countries continue to celebrate the day of their country’s liberation. In both cases, those in power found a solution. The victors draw new borders on the map. Borders that have something different about them. The borders follow cultural groups. The peoples of Europe are given their own countries. Why did this happen? Clearly, the idea was that this would help maintain the peace. And it was a great idea, but unfortunately some details had been forgotten. World War I took place between empires. The German, Austro-Hungarian, Russian, British, French, Russian, and Ottoman empires. At the start of the war, Europe looked like what you see below. After 1914, there were no countries left who had their empire on the European continent. The British and the French maintained their overseas empires. Nation states were created to allow the people of Europe sovereignty; the ability to rule themselves. The war had started with an act of terrorism by Slavic separatists, something that could be prevented by allowing them independence in the first place. The Arrival Of National Borders Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia – all new nation states. Turkey, Russia, and Germany no longer held the title of empire. The League of Nations was created to offer the nations a platform for discussion. Sadly, the League lacked actual influence. Despite the arrival of nation states and the League of Nations, war broke out again within decades. The Germans had not given up on their imperial aspirations. The Prussians, who united Germany under their rule in 1871, longed to re-connect with East-Prussia. Problematically, Poland was now in between. Prussia is the result of the Teutonic Order conquering a swath of land from the Slavs during the Crusader campaigns against the supposedly pagan Slavic tribes. It was founded by an army without a state, and it turned into an army with a state. The Prussian elites were landowners with prestigious titles within the military. Their struggle was, and had always been, with the Slavs to the east. As far as Prussian culture went, it was a culture based on warfare. In the mind of the Prussians, the setbacks after WW1 should only be temporary. They dreamed of re-creating the German empire and had no respect for the desires of Slavic independence. In fact, they were used to being the ruling elite to a Slavic lower class that worked on their farms. Not surprisingly, considering they had originally conquered the territory they ruled from the Slavs. Hitler would cooperate with the Prussians, and most of his support came from the Protestant Prussian territories. Non-Prussian western Germany would never have elected Hitler. Hitler was never a manifestation of German desires and ambition, Hitler had been the personification of the war-admiring Prussian legacy. The Russian empire had collapsed and was replaced by the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union however, was not at any point a nation state. Although the Baltic states had been liberated from Russian dominance, the Central-Asian ‘stans’ were still part of the Union. Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan – all were peoples ruled by the Soviets. Furthermore, although the Soviets were quick to offer peace to end WW1 on the eastern front, they soon returned to war to protect their territories. The Polish-Ukrainian war was the prelude to the Polish-Russian war from 1919 to 1921. The nascent Polish state attempted to re-establish its pre-partitioning territory in the east, in modern day Ukraine. The Soviets launched a counter-assault and might have conquered all of Poland. Fortunately for Poland, it was able to repel the attacks and maintain its independence. At least for now. Ukraine became a part of the new Soviet Empire. The Russians, so it appears, had not lost their desire for empire. The socialist ideology did little to tame its desire for expansion. In fact, it brought an additional desire to spread the glorious idea of socialism to other areas of the world. Socialism, so it was believed, would work best as a global, internationally adhered to, ideology. Practice VS Theory In theory all the countries of Europe were reformed as nation states. In practice there were two, the Prussians and Russians, who had kept their dreams of empire. For both, empire had always been a part of its culture. Ever since the Prussian army creating a state, and ever since the Russians conquering the lands of Asia beyond the Ural mountains. Not surprisingly, it were these two that launched a combined attack on Poland in September 1939. The attack had little to do with nationalism in general, and even less with nation states. It had everything to do with a state of mind, an imperial state of mind. Although the idea of building a new Europe of nation states to ensure peace was profound, the Prussians and Russians simply were not ready for it. Borders had been redrawn before cultures had time to adapt to the new normal.	<urn:uuid:629aeb54-30d4-4440-9694-35ecd334d65e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://voiceofeurope.com/2018/05/national-borders-are-the-key-to-peace/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00384.warc.gz	en	0.981602	1,114	3.421875	3	[ -0.28338199853897095, 0.2936302125453949, 0.2785851061344147, -0.056069474667310715, -0.04613602161407471, -0.06534701585769653, -0.2789074182510376, 0.4622485041618347, 0.12865737080574036, -0.0941351130604744, 0.08991262316703796, -0.3075388967990875, 0.04969671741127968, 0.5704228878021...	1	Two World Wars Europe faced two dreadful wars in the 20th century. From 1914 to 1918 the First World War ravaged the continent. Or, as it was known back then, the Great War. After the war, borders are changed and we see a new Europe. In 1939 the Second World War starts. It continues up to 1945. Most countries continue to celebrate the day of their country’s liberation. In both cases, those in power found a solution. The victors draw new borders on the map. Borders that have something different about them. The borders follow cultural groups. The peoples of Europe are given their own countries. Why did this happen? Clearly, the idea was that this would help maintain the peace. And it was a great idea, but unfortunately some details had been forgotten. World War I took place between empires. The German, Austro-Hungarian, Russian, British, French, Russian, and Ottoman empires. At the start of the war, Europe looked like what you see below. After 1914, there were no countries left who had their empire on the European continent. The British and the French maintained their overseas empires. Nation states were created to allow the people of Europe sovereignty; the ability to rule themselves. The war had started with an act of terrorism by Slavic separatists, something that could be prevented by allowing them independence in the first place. The Arrival Of National Borders Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia – all new nation states. Turkey, Russia, and Germany no longer held the title of empire. The League of Nations was created to offer the nations a platform for discussion. Sadly, the League lacked actual influence. Despite the arrival of nation states and the League of Nations, war broke out again within decades. The Germans had not given up on their imperial aspirations. The Prussians, who united Germany under their rule in 1871, longed to re-connect with East-Prussia. Problematically, Poland was now in between. Prussia is the result of the Teutonic Order conquering a swath of land from the Slavs during the Crusader campaigns against the supposedly pagan Slavic tribes. It was founded by an army without a state, and it turned into an army with a state. The Prussian elites were landowners with prestigious titles within the military. Their struggle was, and had always been, with the Slavs to the east. As far as Prussian culture went, it was a culture based on warfare. In the mind of the Prussians, the setbacks after WW1 should only be temporary. They dreamed of re-creating the German empire and had no respect for the desires of Slavic independence. In fact, they were used to being the ruling elite to a Slavic lower class that worked on their farms. Not surprisingly, considering they had originally conquered the territory they ruled from the Slavs. Hitler would cooperate with the Prussians, and most of his support came from the Protestant Prussian territories. Non-Prussian western Germany would never have elected Hitler. Hitler was never a manifestation of German desires and ambition, Hitler had been the personification of the war-admiring Prussian legacy. The Russian empire had collapsed and was replaced by the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union however, was not at any point a nation state. Although the Baltic states had been liberated from Russian dominance, the Central-Asian ‘stans’ were still part of the Union. Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan – all were peoples ruled by the Soviets. Furthermore, although the Soviets were quick to offer peace to end WW1 on the eastern front, they soon returned to war to protect their territories. The Polish-Ukrainian war was the prelude to the Polish-Russian war from 1919 to 1921. The nascent Polish state attempted to re-establish its pre-partitioning territory in the east, in modern day Ukraine. The Soviets launched a counter-assault and might have conquered all of Poland. Fortunately for Poland, it was able to repel the attacks and maintain its independence. At least for now. Ukraine became a part of the new Soviet Empire. The Russians, so it appears, had not lost their desire for empire. The socialist ideology did little to tame its desire for expansion. In fact, it brought an additional desire to spread the glorious idea of socialism to other areas of the world. Socialism, so it was believed, would work best as a global, internationally adhered to, ideology. Practice VS Theory In theory all the countries of Europe were reformed as nation states. In practice there were two, the Prussians and Russians, who had kept their dreams of empire. For both, empire had always been a part of its culture. Ever since the Prussian army creating a state, and ever since the Russians conquering the lands of Asia beyond the Ural mountains. Not surprisingly, it were these two that launched a combined attack on Poland in September 1939. The attack had little to do with nationalism in general, and even less with nation states. It had everything to do with a state of mind, an imperial state of mind. Although the idea of building a new Europe of nation states to ensure peace was profound, the Prussians and Russians simply were not ready for it. Borders had been redrawn before cultures had time to adapt to the new normal.	1,136	ENGLISH	1
Ballads are the music of the common people. They tell stories that provide entertainment for everyone. Generally, common folk wrote them with a plot that benefits the poor person, or portrays the rich man as being too arrogant. By listening to the events in these musical stories, one can determine what society was like when the song was written. For example, “Hurricane” by Bob Dylan demonstrates several issues that were present in the culture from which it came, specifically violence, racism, and corruption within the legal system. The very opening of the song is a murder within a bar. Three people were killed and the bar was robbed. One of the robbers was still in the bar when the bodies were discovered, however he claimed he didn’t do it. The dead victims were lying in a pool of blood as a result of being shot with a pistol. This was not the only crime that the guilty men committed. They had a history of multiple crimes both before and after. The fact that several treacherous events such as this have occurred, it clearly shows that society during this time period had to deal with violence. In addition to violence, there was also an enormous racism problem. Poor Rubin Carter was a black middleweight fighting champion. Unfortunately, he is who would be blamed for the murder and robbery simply because, “If you’re black you might as well not shown up on the street. ‘Less you wanna draw the heat.” In other words, black people were severely prejudiced against, and they couldn’t go out without being suspected of doing no good. The color of Rubin’s skin gave the white, guilty men and the lazy, prejudiced cops a reason to convict him of the crime he did not do. Because the white convicts were already in trouble with previous crimes, the police wanted to give them a break and had them testify against Rubin so they wouldn’t be in trouble for the murders as well as their other crimes. He concocted this plan confidently, knowing that Rubin stood no chance up against a white man. He was of course found guilty and sentenced to jail. His whole life and fighting career ruined all because of the color of his skin. Rubin’s life may not have been ruined, however, if justice was given where it was due. He would have been found innocent had the trial been fairly run. The votes were cast before the trial even began, not to mention the fact that the jury was all white drunkards from the slums. There was no evidence whatsoever against Rubin, but everyone seemed to just know that he was the one who pulled the trigger. Now, an innocent man who had a whole career and life ahead of him is suffering from an unjust trial while the real criminals are free to keep committing crimes. It seemed that what was convenient was taken over anything else, and real justice was not given. Society during this time obviously had corruption in its legal system. Ballads such as this are excellent examples of windows into the society from which they come. All these issue that were faced in the ballad “Hurricane” could be seen undoubtedly just by listening to the lyrics. Initially, ballads are written for fun, to tell a story, or to teach a lesson. They are about topics and events that are known in the era they originated in. Listening to ballads from any time period is an excellent tool in deciphering what was important, and what life was like for the people of that time.	<urn:uuid:4608df97-e84c-4f1a-81ab-6e21b6c7cff6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thenewstandardgallery.com/ballads-music-common-people-essay/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00344.warc.gz	en	0.99297	717	3.46875	3	[ -0.00849608238786459, -0.3276383876800537, -0.016692616045475006, -0.07383580505847931, 0.1799866110086441, 0.2680521607398987, 0.4554287791252136, -0.42318397760391235, 0.22991976141929626, 0.051928624510765076, 0.43080490827560425, 0.6617857217788696, 0.3265928030014038, -0.0030481831636...	2	Ballads are the music of the common people. They tell stories that provide entertainment for everyone. Generally, common folk wrote them with a plot that benefits the poor person, or portrays the rich man as being too arrogant. By listening to the events in these musical stories, one can determine what society was like when the song was written. For example, “Hurricane” by Bob Dylan demonstrates several issues that were present in the culture from which it came, specifically violence, racism, and corruption within the legal system. The very opening of the song is a murder within a bar. Three people were killed and the bar was robbed. One of the robbers was still in the bar when the bodies were discovered, however he claimed he didn’t do it. The dead victims were lying in a pool of blood as a result of being shot with a pistol. This was not the only crime that the guilty men committed. They had a history of multiple crimes both before and after. The fact that several treacherous events such as this have occurred, it clearly shows that society during this time period had to deal with violence. In addition to violence, there was also an enormous racism problem. Poor Rubin Carter was a black middleweight fighting champion. Unfortunately, he is who would be blamed for the murder and robbery simply because, “If you’re black you might as well not shown up on the street. ‘Less you wanna draw the heat.” In other words, black people were severely prejudiced against, and they couldn’t go out without being suspected of doing no good. The color of Rubin’s skin gave the white, guilty men and the lazy, prejudiced cops a reason to convict him of the crime he did not do. Because the white convicts were already in trouble with previous crimes, the police wanted to give them a break and had them testify against Rubin so they wouldn’t be in trouble for the murders as well as their other crimes. He concocted this plan confidently, knowing that Rubin stood no chance up against a white man. He was of course found guilty and sentenced to jail. His whole life and fighting career ruined all because of the color of his skin. Rubin’s life may not have been ruined, however, if justice was given where it was due. He would have been found innocent had the trial been fairly run. The votes were cast before the trial even began, not to mention the fact that the jury was all white drunkards from the slums. There was no evidence whatsoever against Rubin, but everyone seemed to just know that he was the one who pulled the trigger. Now, an innocent man who had a whole career and life ahead of him is suffering from an unjust trial while the real criminals are free to keep committing crimes. It seemed that what was convenient was taken over anything else, and real justice was not given. Society during this time obviously had corruption in its legal system. Ballads such as this are excellent examples of windows into the society from which they come. All these issue that were faced in the ballad “Hurricane” could be seen undoubtedly just by listening to the lyrics. Initially, ballads are written for fun, to tell a story, or to teach a lesson. They are about topics and events that are known in the era they originated in. Listening to ballads from any time period is an excellent tool in deciphering what was important, and what life was like for the people of that time.	696	ENGLISH	1
“A Time for Change: Women in the 1920s” by Anna Gerard The purpose of this paper is to explain what women were doing and liking in the 1920s as well as relate said topic to the context of women at Geneva College in the 1920s. I will explain more in-depth some of the topics that are explained on the “Women at Geneva” pages and subpages. In the early 1900s, women were just starting to explore the realm of politics, becoming involved here and there with new ideas that they deemed beneficial to either themselves or children. 1920 was the defining year for women in politics, as the Nineteenth Amendment was written in to the Constitution explaining that, “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.” After this milestone, many women’s political movement groups either disbanded or focused on smaller issues that surrounded women. The most popular women’s political group was the “League of Women Voters”, which was founded in 1920 by Carrie Chapman Catt. This newly formed group helped 20 million women in the United States learn their new responsibility as voters. This newly formed group first bill supported was the Sheppard Towner Act of 1921, which gave federal aid to maternal and child care programs. This was the first social welfare measure in the United States that was federally funded. This bill was to reduce the child and mother death rates during the 1920s, but lawmakers were opposed to using federal funds. Due to great campaigning though, this bill was passed. The greater scope of politics in the 1920s and Geneva College is that there were women’s only debate teams on campus. They were not just average debate teams, Geneva’s affirmative and negative sides won all but one debate. And Geneva College had women debate teams throughout the whole decade. Women in college were getting into politics, even though it may not be on a larger scale with huge women’s organizations. It was still voicing an opinion to create change. While someone women’s groups were only interested in betting women politically, other groups wanted to better women as a whole. The Y.W.C.A., or Young Women’s Christian Association, was established in 1858 in New York City and by 1894, there were Y.W.C.A. organizations in 125 countries. In the 1920s, the Y.W.C.A. focused on work reform for women. The Y.W.C.A worked with many women who worked in industrial plants, and seeing the women work hard to earn a living, they lobbied for the “eight hour day law, prohibiting night work, and allowing the right of labor to organize.” Also with this advancement, Y.W.C.A.’s offered women classes in typing and other jobs so that they could make a living if they were surviving on their own. Y.W.C.A. groups in college were also very important. This gave women in college the chance to give back to the less fortunate women in the community through playing games with the women or teaching them skills that would be useful to them in the workplace. Also, because the women who were able to go to college were upper middle to upper class families, this allowed them to see what it is like living in poor conditions and not being able to educate yourself for a job. The Y.W.C.A. was a group that was prevalent on Geneva’s campus in the 1920s. As seen in the primary documents on this archive, the club had a decent amount of women in their club. The Y.W.C.A. is an organization whose roots are deep in Christian values. Geneva College was founded on those same values, and it would only make sense to have a club with the same values on campus. In Pittsburgh there was a Y.W.C.A. headquarter, which allowed surrounding areas to have smaller clubs and branch Y.W.C.A. buildings. As I have stated before, the women that were attending college in the 1920s were predominately upper middle to upper class families who could afford to pay for tuition and room and board. Going to college meant that a girl has aspirations of something bigger than staying at home. By 1920, 47% of women were attending college. What women studied in the 1920s was not that different from today’s curriculum. English, mathematics, science, history and a foreign, primarily Latin, was the set curriculum. But while most students should be studying these subjects, in the 1920s, it was more important to be seen than to get top grades. The average grade students received in the 1920s was a “C”, and those who received higher usually had very few friends. For example, at the University of Chicago, more than one third of students spent less than 35 hours combined a week on going to class and studying, compared to the more than 20 hours spent on recreational activities. It was common to attend a campus event or sporting function with friends to just be seen. While there were more men on campus than women, women were still very prevalent on campus. Women at Geneva College found a way to balance studying and homework with extra-curricular activities. Most of the women at Geneva College majored in education, but there were some who majored in things like music. And the curriculum at Geneva College in the 1920s was similar to that as what was previously stated. Dating was a popular recreational activity for college students. Instead of a boy coming to a girl’s house and sitting in the living room or porch with her parents, a boy was able to go to a girls dorm to see her. The boom of car production and cars becoming more affordable allowed dates to be held outside of the home, so much so that at Northwestern, female students made a pact to have set dateless nights so they could actually get some studying accomplished. Having a car meant privacy, and going on “joyrides” became the popular thing to do on a date. While it may seem that women in the 1920s were only interested in dating as many men as possible, it was not true. College women in the 1920s held out for the idea of love and marriage. As I have stated before, Geneva College in the 1920s was not like other schools. Men and women could not go as they please, but they could go out on dates. Also, women at Geneva mainly dated to find the one they were going to marry. Since the college is based on Reformed Presbyterian values, dating for the sake of going on dates is not common here. Men and women go on dates to find the one they are going to marry and not to rack up more kisses than their roommate. It is not known how many students had cars at Geneva College but because the railroad station was right down the hill from campus, I do not think that many students drove to class. While women were having going on dates and school on their plates, some women had dating, school, and sports, particularly basketball. Women’s basketball was established at Smith College in 1892 by the physical education teacher, Senda Berenson. She read a journal about a new sport called basketball invented by Dr. James Naismith, and how it was played. She tweaked the rules a bit so it was not as rough and played in a smaller area. Compared to Dr. Naismith’s version of basketball, the rules of holding, snatching the ball, and traveling were different for women. Also, players that played in certain positions could not leave their area of the court. Eventually the sport caught on and in that same year it was invented, the first women’s collegiate basketball game was played with University of California-Berkeley against Stanford. Sports at Geneva College in the 1920s were very popular. The college had one of the best football seasons to date in the 1920s. The women’s basketball team was no different. For example, the 1927 season had only two losses. Although there was a scare in 1927 about whether the women’s basketball team was going to exist anymore, it did, and still continues to exist this day. YWCA USA, “History.” Accessed April 11, 2013. http://www.ywca.org/site/c.cuIRJ7NTKrLaG/b.7515891/k.C524/History.htm. Greg Filene, Him/Her/Self: Gender Identities in Modern America, (Baltimore: John Hopkins University, 1998), x. Paula Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 172. Ibid, 173. Fass, 2000.	<urn:uuid:adb7492d-8879-49d0-93b5-765d0f8d3685>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gcdigitalhistory.wordpress.com/about-the-archive/women-at-geneva/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00134.warc.gz	en	0.990266	1,844	3.375	3	[ -0.23123376071453094, -0.12015698850154877, 0.35716575384140015, 0.16695144772529602, -0.27472639083862305, 0.4005676209926605, -0.418323278427124, 0.36899155378341675, -0.11374005675315857, -0.21990391612052917, 0.22571921348571777, 0.2658495306968689, 0.13325965404510498, 0.0603275969624...	2	“A Time for Change: Women in the 1920s” by Anna Gerard The purpose of this paper is to explain what women were doing and liking in the 1920s as well as relate said topic to the context of women at Geneva College in the 1920s. I will explain more in-depth some of the topics that are explained on the “Women at Geneva” pages and subpages. In the early 1900s, women were just starting to explore the realm of politics, becoming involved here and there with new ideas that they deemed beneficial to either themselves or children. 1920 was the defining year for women in politics, as the Nineteenth Amendment was written in to the Constitution explaining that, “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.” After this milestone, many women’s political movement groups either disbanded or focused on smaller issues that surrounded women. The most popular women’s political group was the “League of Women Voters”, which was founded in 1920 by Carrie Chapman Catt. This newly formed group helped 20 million women in the United States learn their new responsibility as voters. This newly formed group first bill supported was the Sheppard Towner Act of 1921, which gave federal aid to maternal and child care programs. This was the first social welfare measure in the United States that was federally funded. This bill was to reduce the child and mother death rates during the 1920s, but lawmakers were opposed to using federal funds. Due to great campaigning though, this bill was passed. The greater scope of politics in the 1920s and Geneva College is that there were women’s only debate teams on campus. They were not just average debate teams, Geneva’s affirmative and negative sides won all but one debate. And Geneva College had women debate teams throughout the whole decade. Women in college were getting into politics, even though it may not be on a larger scale with huge women’s organizations. It was still voicing an opinion to create change. While someone women’s groups were only interested in betting women politically, other groups wanted to better women as a whole. The Y.W.C.A., or Young Women’s Christian Association, was established in 1858 in New York City and by 1894, there were Y.W.C.A. organizations in 125 countries. In the 1920s, the Y.W.C.A. focused on work reform for women. The Y.W.C.A worked with many women who worked in industrial plants, and seeing the women work hard to earn a living, they lobbied for the “eight hour day law, prohibiting night work, and allowing the right of labor to organize.” Also with this advancement, Y.W.C.A.’s offered women classes in typing and other jobs so that they could make a living if they were surviving on their own. Y.W.C.A. groups in college were also very important. This gave women in college the chance to give back to the less fortunate women in the community through playing games with the women or teaching them skills that would be useful to them in the workplace. Also, because the women who were able to go to college were upper middle to upper class families, this allowed them to see what it is like living in poor conditions and not being able to educate yourself for a job. The Y.W.C.A. was a group that was prevalent on Geneva’s campus in the 1920s. As seen in the primary documents on this archive, the club had a decent amount of women in their club. The Y.W.C.A. is an organization whose roots are deep in Christian values. Geneva College was founded on those same values, and it would only make sense to have a club with the same values on campus. In Pittsburgh there was a Y.W.C.A. headquarter, which allowed surrounding areas to have smaller clubs and branch Y.W.C.A. buildings. As I have stated before, the women that were attending college in the 1920s were predominately upper middle to upper class families who could afford to pay for tuition and room and board. Going to college meant that a girl has aspirations of something bigger than staying at home. By 1920, 47% of women were attending college. What women studied in the 1920s was not that different from today’s curriculum. English, mathematics, science, history and a foreign, primarily Latin, was the set curriculum. But while most students should be studying these subjects, in the 1920s, it was more important to be seen than to get top grades. The average grade students received in the 1920s was a “C”, and those who received higher usually had very few friends. For example, at the University of Chicago, more than one third of students spent less than 35 hours combined a week on going to class and studying, compared to the more than 20 hours spent on recreational activities. It was common to attend a campus event or sporting function with friends to just be seen. While there were more men on campus than women, women were still very prevalent on campus. Women at Geneva College found a way to balance studying and homework with extra-curricular activities. Most of the women at Geneva College majored in education, but there were some who majored in things like music. And the curriculum at Geneva College in the 1920s was similar to that as what was previously stated. Dating was a popular recreational activity for college students. Instead of a boy coming to a girl’s house and sitting in the living room or porch with her parents, a boy was able to go to a girls dorm to see her. The boom of car production and cars becoming more affordable allowed dates to be held outside of the home, so much so that at Northwestern, female students made a pact to have set dateless nights so they could actually get some studying accomplished. Having a car meant privacy, and going on “joyrides” became the popular thing to do on a date. While it may seem that women in the 1920s were only interested in dating as many men as possible, it was not true. College women in the 1920s held out for the idea of love and marriage. As I have stated before, Geneva College in the 1920s was not like other schools. Men and women could not go as they please, but they could go out on dates. Also, women at Geneva mainly dated to find the one they were going to marry. Since the college is based on Reformed Presbyterian values, dating for the sake of going on dates is not common here. Men and women go on dates to find the one they are going to marry and not to rack up more kisses than their roommate. It is not known how many students had cars at Geneva College but because the railroad station was right down the hill from campus, I do not think that many students drove to class. While women were having going on dates and school on their plates, some women had dating, school, and sports, particularly basketball. Women’s basketball was established at Smith College in 1892 by the physical education teacher, Senda Berenson. She read a journal about a new sport called basketball invented by Dr. James Naismith, and how it was played. She tweaked the rules a bit so it was not as rough and played in a smaller area. Compared to Dr. Naismith’s version of basketball, the rules of holding, snatching the ball, and traveling were different for women. Also, players that played in certain positions could not leave their area of the court. Eventually the sport caught on and in that same year it was invented, the first women’s collegiate basketball game was played with University of California-Berkeley against Stanford. Sports at Geneva College in the 1920s were very popular. The college had one of the best football seasons to date in the 1920s. The women’s basketball team was no different. For example, the 1927 season had only two losses. Although there was a scare in 1927 about whether the women’s basketball team was going to exist anymore, it did, and still continues to exist this day. YWCA USA, “History.” Accessed April 11, 2013. http://www.ywca.org/site/c.cuIRJ7NTKrLaG/b.7515891/k.C524/History.htm. Greg Filene, Him/Her/Self: Gender Identities in Modern America, (Baltimore: John Hopkins University, 1998), x. Paula Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 172. Ibid, 173. Fass, 2000.	1,884	ENGLISH	1
William the Conqueror—The Death of the King W ILLIAM was ruler of the land, but English hearts never accepted him. Norman and Englishman lived side by side, yet a wide sea of hatred kept them apart. As he had promised, William rewarded the Norman barons and nobles who had helped him to conquer England. He gave them the lands and goods of the conquered people, so it was not wonderful that there was fierce hatred between the two races. The Normans were greedy, and they not only took the lands which William gave them, but they forced the English to pay large sums of money too. Every high position was filled by Normans, and the English were forced to be the servants and slaves of these proud Norman masters. The Normans talked a great deal of "right," but the more they talked of right, the more wrong they did. The very sheriffs and judges, who ought to have seen that the laws were kept and that justice was done, were more greedy than thieves and robbers, and the king was greediest of all. He made the people pay tolls and taxes until they had hardly any money left. Much of this money he took away with him to France, much he kept locked up in his strong treasure-room. As if he had not already spoiled enough of the country in battle, William next laid waste a great part in the south, simply because he was very fond of hunting and he wanted a good hunting-ground. He turned the people out of their houses, burning and ruining whole villages in order to make a great place in which to ride and hunt. He called this place the New Forest and it is so called to this day. Having made this forest, William also made forest laws. These laws were very cruel. If any person was found hunting or killing the deer or other wild animals, his eyes were put out or his hands and ears were cut off. So the poor people, who had been driven from their homes dared not even kill the wild animals for food. William did not do much that was kind, but some things which he did were wise. Among the wise things was the law which he made that all lights and fires must be put out at eight o'clock at night. Nowadays we should think it very hard indeed if all fires and lights had to be put out at eight o'clock. But in those days people used to rise very early, and go to bed very early, so that it was not a great hardship. It was really a wise rule, because nearly all the houses were built of wood, and if people were careless and went to bed leaving large fires burning, the houses were apt to catch fire. In a town all built of wood, if one house caught fire sometimes a whole street would be burned to the ground before the fire could be put out. By this wise law William made the danger of fires much less. Every night at eight o'clock a bell was rung. This bell was called "the curfew," from the French words "couvre feu" which mean "cover fire." Another wise thing which William did was to make what is called the Domesday Book, or book of judgment. This was a very big book in which a description of all the great houses and lands in the kingdom was written down, with the names of the people to whom the land and houses belonged. This book was very useful at the time, and it has been very useful since. For one thing it shows us how much land was taken from the English and given to the Normans. When William gave the Normans land he did not give it to them for nothing. In return they had to promise to come to help the King in battle and to bring men with them. The more land they got the more men they had to promise to provide in time of war. When William wished to know how many men a certain lord would bring to fight for him, he only needed to look at his great book to see how much land he had. This plan of paying for land by fighting was called the feudal system, and it lasted in England for many years. William spent a great deal of time in Normandy, for, though he was proud to be King of England, he loved his Norman home far better. It was in Normandy that he died. William had been fighting with the King of France, and, with his usual cruelty, he had burned a town belonging to that king. While William was riding about among the ruins, his horse stepped upon some hot ashes, stumbled, and he was thrown to the ground. William was by this time very fat and old, and the fall hurt him so much that in a few days he died. Only two of William's sons were with him at the time. Robert, the eldest, had quarrelled with his father long before, and was far away. But, as he lay dying, William wished to be at peace with every one. He forgave Robert and left the crown of Normandy to him. "And," he said, "although the crown of England is not mine to give away, I should like William to have it." And the son, eager to claim his father's crown, seized the great signet ring which the dying king still wore, and drew it from his finger. To Henry, his youngest son, William left a large sum of money. Then William and Henry hurried off to England; the one to demand the crown, the other to make sure of his treasure. The great Conqueror was left to die alone. A strange thing happened while William was being buried. Fire broke out in the streets just as it had done when he was being crowned. The people who were carrying the bier fled, so once more the Conqueror was left alone with a few priests. They would have buried him hurriedly but, as they began the service, a young man stepped forward and stopped them. "This ground," he said, "was taken from my father by the very king whom you now wish to bury here. He has no right to the land. It is mine, not his. I refuse to allow him to be buried in it." So even in death the Conqueror was to find no resting-place. But the priests bargained with the young man, and at last, for the sum of sixty shillings, he allowed them to bury the King in his ground. And there the Conqueror was at last laid to rest.	<urn:uuid:2f4a1e12-aabd-4700-960b-a0330cb58390>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=marshall&book=island&story=conqueror	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00356.warc.gz	en	0.99559	1,339	3.828125	4	[ -0.45290321111679077, 0.4205666780471802, 0.19062331318855286, 0.008280504494905472, 0.027774309739470482, -0.14849647879600525, 0.3717202842235565, -0.26592981815338135, -0.013291283510625362, -0.02252517081797123, -0.19549666345119476, -0.4038618206977844, 0.15970318019390106, 0.01880089...	1	William the Conqueror—The Death of the King W ILLIAM was ruler of the land, but English hearts never accepted him. Norman and Englishman lived side by side, yet a wide sea of hatred kept them apart. As he had promised, William rewarded the Norman barons and nobles who had helped him to conquer England. He gave them the lands and goods of the conquered people, so it was not wonderful that there was fierce hatred between the two races. The Normans were greedy, and they not only took the lands which William gave them, but they forced the English to pay large sums of money too. Every high position was filled by Normans, and the English were forced to be the servants and slaves of these proud Norman masters. The Normans talked a great deal of "right," but the more they talked of right, the more wrong they did. The very sheriffs and judges, who ought to have seen that the laws were kept and that justice was done, were more greedy than thieves and robbers, and the king was greediest of all. He made the people pay tolls and taxes until they had hardly any money left. Much of this money he took away with him to France, much he kept locked up in his strong treasure-room. As if he had not already spoiled enough of the country in battle, William next laid waste a great part in the south, simply because he was very fond of hunting and he wanted a good hunting-ground. He turned the people out of their houses, burning and ruining whole villages in order to make a great place in which to ride and hunt. He called this place the New Forest and it is so called to this day. Having made this forest, William also made forest laws. These laws were very cruel. If any person was found hunting or killing the deer or other wild animals, his eyes were put out or his hands and ears were cut off. So the poor people, who had been driven from their homes dared not even kill the wild animals for food. William did not do much that was kind, but some things which he did were wise. Among the wise things was the law which he made that all lights and fires must be put out at eight o'clock at night. Nowadays we should think it very hard indeed if all fires and lights had to be put out at eight o'clock. But in those days people used to rise very early, and go to bed very early, so that it was not a great hardship. It was really a wise rule, because nearly all the houses were built of wood, and if people were careless and went to bed leaving large fires burning, the houses were apt to catch fire. In a town all built of wood, if one house caught fire sometimes a whole street would be burned to the ground before the fire could be put out. By this wise law William made the danger of fires much less. Every night at eight o'clock a bell was rung. This bell was called "the curfew," from the French words "couvre feu" which mean "cover fire." Another wise thing which William did was to make what is called the Domesday Book, or book of judgment. This was a very big book in which a description of all the great houses and lands in the kingdom was written down, with the names of the people to whom the land and houses belonged. This book was very useful at the time, and it has been very useful since. For one thing it shows us how much land was taken from the English and given to the Normans. When William gave the Normans land he did not give it to them for nothing. In return they had to promise to come to help the King in battle and to bring men with them. The more land they got the more men they had to promise to provide in time of war. When William wished to know how many men a certain lord would bring to fight for him, he only needed to look at his great book to see how much land he had. This plan of paying for land by fighting was called the feudal system, and it lasted in England for many years. William spent a great deal of time in Normandy, for, though he was proud to be King of England, he loved his Norman home far better. It was in Normandy that he died. William had been fighting with the King of France, and, with his usual cruelty, he had burned a town belonging to that king. While William was riding about among the ruins, his horse stepped upon some hot ashes, stumbled, and he was thrown to the ground. William was by this time very fat and old, and the fall hurt him so much that in a few days he died. Only two of William's sons were with him at the time. Robert, the eldest, had quarrelled with his father long before, and was far away. But, as he lay dying, William wished to be at peace with every one. He forgave Robert and left the crown of Normandy to him. "And," he said, "although the crown of England is not mine to give away, I should like William to have it." And the son, eager to claim his father's crown, seized the great signet ring which the dying king still wore, and drew it from his finger. To Henry, his youngest son, William left a large sum of money. Then William and Henry hurried off to England; the one to demand the crown, the other to make sure of his treasure. The great Conqueror was left to die alone. A strange thing happened while William was being buried. Fire broke out in the streets just as it had done when he was being crowned. The people who were carrying the bier fled, so once more the Conqueror was left alone with a few priests. They would have buried him hurriedly but, as they began the service, a young man stepped forward and stopped them. "This ground," he said, "was taken from my father by the very king whom you now wish to bury here. He has no right to the land. It is mine, not his. I refuse to allow him to be buried in it." So even in death the Conqueror was to find no resting-place. But the priests bargained with the young man, and at last, for the sum of sixty shillings, he allowed them to bury the King in his ground. And there the Conqueror was at last laid to rest.	1,323	ENGLISH	1
By MICHAEL SCHREIBER In an earlier article (June 10, 2019), we discussed Capt. Charles Sandgran and raised the strong possibility that he might have died in a battle with pirates off the coast of Cuba. Another sea captain with a connection to Gloria Dei (Old Swedes’) Church, who encountered a pirate in the same region, was Capt. Oliver Brooks. But unlike Sandgran, Brooks lived to tell the tale. In the early 19th century, the West Indies was infected with pirates, and a swarm of them used Cuba as a base. Jean Lafitte was one of the most famous of the group, working in conjunction with the American pirate William Mitchell, who wore a patch over his eye. Another notorious cutthroat working out of Cuba, known for his violence, was called Diabolito; he was killed in a bay along the coast of Cuba in 1823 by the U.S. Navy’s “Mosquito Fleet,” which had been sent to help curtail piracy in the region. Oliver Brooks had an initial run-in with pirates in November 1819, when a raider named Bervasto and his men boarded his brig, the Elizabeth Ann, of the Cuban coast. Around the same time, another Philadelphia mariner, Capt. Martin of the schooner Bee, said that Bervasto had also boarded his vessel and “politely opened the main hatchway and took out 4 bbls of flour and 4 bbls of potatoes, and then genteely left him” (Philadelphia Gazette, Dec. 23, 1819). In November 1822, Oliver Brooks was walking in a Havana street when he met a pirate captain on the street in the act of acquiring material to fit out his ship. Brooks and the outlaw recognized each other because, some years earlier, Brooks had caught him in the midst of a raid and had turned him over to the authorities—who clapped him in irons. So when they met years later in the street, the pirate declared to Capt. Brooks that he would get his revenge. He blockaded Havana harbor with his pirate schooner, which had 70 men aboard. From Morro Castle, at the entrance to the harbor, the vessel was clearly visible, lurking just off the coast. The pirate sent word that he was lying in wait for Brooks, and would pursue him even up to the Delaware River if need be. After several days, Brooks was able to sail safely from the harbor while guarded by a special convoy provided by the Spanish General of Marines, and he returned to Philadelphia with the Elizabeth Ann. Four years later, his wife, Eleanora, died at age 28, and was buried here in the Gloria Dei churchyard. Oliver Brooks lived until 1848, and was interred at the old Ronaldson’s Cemetery at Ninth and Bainbridge, where the bodies of his second wife Sarah and the rest of their family also rested until the land was converted into a playground in the early 1950s. Buried treasure in Philadelphia? Pirates during the early 19th century, just as today, were often considered in the public eye as romantic heroes—living the kind of free and adventurous life that others could never experience. Bookstalls sold piles of potboilers about the exploits, real and imagined, of these swashbucklers of the sea. John Fanning Watson, in his “Annals” of Philadelphia history, written in the 1820s with subsequent enlarged editions until 1844, wrote about the driving interest of many Philadelphia residents in finding buried treasure supposedly left by the pirates of more ancient times. Parties roamed the areas along the Delaware with spades and shovels trying to find chests of gold allegedly left by Captain Kidd and Blackbeard and other buccaneers. Watson wrote in the 1844 edition, for example, of a discovery of treasure in the neighborhood of Gloria Dei, “at the southernmost end of Front Street.” The famous patriot of the American Revolution, Timothy Matlack, then in his old age, told Watson that he had been shown an oak tree at the site, on which the letters KLP were carved. Matlack told him that he saw the stone that had covered the treasure at the home of the alleged finder. Supposedly, the man had been directed to the treasure by a sailor in a hospital in England. Watson also wrote that several people had confirmed for him that “at the Sign of the Cock in Spruce St., about 35 years ago, there was found in a pot in the cellar a sum of money of about $5000.” (The tavern called The Sign of the Cock was situated in an old wooden building on the south side of Spruce St., two doors east of Front St.) Even a century earlier, in 1729, Benjamin Franklin had written, “This odd humor of digging for money, through a belief that much has been hid by pirates formerly frequenting the river, has for several years been mighty prevalent among us insomuch that you can hardly walk half a mile out of the town on any side, without observing several pits dug with that design, and perhaps some lately opened.” Hijacking of the Susquehanna In 1837, these romantic preoccupations with the buccaneers had an influence on public opinion when word came to Philadelphia that the Susquehanna, a packet ship to Liverpool, had been hijacked by pirates off the capes of the Delaware. The Susquehanna was the luxury liner, the QE2 of her day, with many wealthy Philadelphians on board, and a hundred more in steerage. The company that booked her promised that she would leave port promptly on the 20th of every second month for Liverpool. Moreover, the ship was towed down the Delaware by a steamship, enabling her to reach the open sea on the same day that she left port. On October 20, 1837, after the pilot boat had left the Susquehanna at the mouth of Delaware Bay, the pilots managed to observe the ship approached by a low-slung schooner, painted all black, and bristling with men. They watched the schooner come abreast of the Susquehanna, and men seemed to be boarding her. The pilots returned to dock and the news soon spread to Philadelphia and up and down the East Coast about the raid on the Susquehanna by piracy. Ships were quickly launched from Philadelphia, from New York, and from the Chesapeake to search for the marauders, fearing that they had kidnapped some of the notable passengers and stolen the gold that was rumored to have been aboard. The U.S. Navy also joined the search. Newspapers in Philadelphia and around the country ran the headline, “Audacious piracy!” and for the next month featured articles on the nefarious affair. Rumors were the meat of many of the articles. Some people recalled seeing Jean Lafitte’s former confederate, the notorious pirate and killer William Mitchell, on the streets of Philadelphia; others said that he appeared to be fitting out a black-colored schooner. That rumor turned out to be largely true. Mitchell had been in prison in Philadelphia on charges by one of his wives of bigamy, but he was not released until June 23, 1837, a month after the reported attack on the Susquehanna. Two days after the attack, a columnist named JUNIUS wrote the following in the National Gazette: “The bold and audacious capture of this noble packet, almost within sight of our very doors, has thrown the community into a state of excitement not to be conceived by those at a distance. “I ask the American people—I ask our distressed and sympathizing community—to hear me, when I assert, and I hope to prove to them, that this distressing event is owing to the negligence and inefficiency of one of the President’s Cabinet … the Secretary of the Navy. “Would such an event have occurred on the coast of Great Britain, France, the Mediterranean, or on any part of the coast of Europe? I will answer no; their cruisers are out attending to their duties.” It wasn’t long, however, before a couple of vessels had arrived in U.S. ports that reported having sighted the Susquehanna at sea. They said that all seemed well with the famous ship. Even then, however, many refused to believe that the report of the pirate attack had been bogus. The news came from Maryland that people had sighted the timbers of a ship washed up on a beach, and it was suggested that it was perhaps the remains of the doomed Susquehanna. Nevertheless, reports eventually got back to Philadelphia that the Susquehanna had docked in Liverpool right on schedule, and all the passengers were safe and oblivious to the panic that had arisen on their behalf in the States. A month later, when the Susquehanna returned to its homeport, the story came out about what had taken place in October. The black schooner, the captain related, had belonged to fishermen who were selling fresh-caught shellfish, and the steward had loaded crates of the delicacies onboard in order to stock up his larder for the voyage. A columnist for one of the Philadelphia newspapers summed up the affair by remarking, perhaps remorsefully, that the days of Blackbeard, Captain Kidd, and other buccaneers was long gone. Blackbeard in Philadelphia Of course, a century earlier, when the city of Philadelphia was quite young, pirates not unlike those of Treasure Island were a relatively common sight right off our coast. Edward Teach or Thatch, better known as Blackbeard, appeared in these parts in the summer of 1717. Blackbeard reportedly had visited Philadelphia two years earlier as a mate and was said by some to have a wife and family here. It was rumored that Blackbeard was known in the taverns of the Philadelphia waterfront, and frequented a tavern run by a Swedish woman down in Marcus Hook. In the autumn of 1717, Blackbeard captured a 16-gun French slave ship that he dubbed Queen Anne’s Revenge and converted into the lead ship of his pirate fleet. The Philadelphia mayor at the time, Jonathan Dickinson, mentioned a vessel belonging to Blackbeard with a similar name, but there is a good chance that it was a different ship. Dickinson spoke about Blackbeard in a couple of letters on file at the Pennsylvania Historical Society. Dickinson’s own son, Joseph, had witnessed an attack by Blackbeard off Cape May. On Oct. 21, 1717, Dickinson wrote that the pirate was “yet at our capes, plundering all that comes, cutting away their masts, and letting them dive ashore.” Dickinson said that, based on the report of his son and others, Blackbeard had spared one ship, which contained passengers, but in general, the river was completely blocked up. By that time, Blackbeard had seized six or seven ships in Delaware Bay, according to James Logan, who succeeded Dickinson as mayor, in a letter to the governors of New York and New Jersey that warned them to be on guard. Around the same time, the Boston News-letter carried an article based on accounts of Blackbeard’s pirate attacks outside Delaware Bay. The article described how Blackbeard took several vessels coming inbound, including one that had come from Liverpool and Dublin with about 150 passengers, including many indentured servants. The pirates threw the entire cargo of the ship overboard, except for a few articles that they fancied. Then the pirates captured two snows that were headed outbound. One was commanded by William Spafford (who many years later built the large house that still stands on the northwest corner of Front and Bainbridge St. and is slowly being renovated). Spafford was carrying barrel staves for Ireland, while the second snow, the Sea Nymph, carried wheat for Portugal. The pirates threw all the wheat into the ocean and converted the Sea Nymph into a pirate ship, while putting all of the passengers onto Spafford’s vessel—after having dumped the barrel staves into the sea. The following year, Blackbeard was killed in a battle off the coast of North Carolina, and his severed head was displayed on a pole. Nearly 300 years later, in 1996, researchers discovered a shipwreck in North Carolina, which after intense archaeological examination, is thought to be the remains of Blackbeard’s Queen Anne’s Revenge. Over 250,000 artifacts have been found in the wreck, including 31 cannons, two anchors, pages of a book that were used as wadding in a cannon, and small ceramic and metal objects like spoons and one coin made of brass—but no chests full of pirates’ gold so far. And further investigation has also been done on the life of Blackbeard himself. It is thought by some researchers that Blackbeard turned to piracy after having served as a privateer in the Caribbean during Queen Anne’s War, which ended in 1714. In 2015, historian Gaylus Brooks, under the auspices of the North Carolina Office of Archives and History, found evidence that seems to counter much of the bloodthirsty villainy that has been attributed to the pirate. Records suggest that Blackbeard, Edward Teach, was an educated aristocrat whose family owned a slave plantation in Jamaica, and likely the grandson of an Anglican minister. Brooks blames many of the lurid tales about Blackbeard to a book about him, written by a man called Nathaniel Mist called “A General History of the Robberies and Murder of the Most Notorious Pyrates,” which was published in 1724, six years after Blackbeard was killed. Protection for the city After Britain and France declared war on each other once again, in 1743, French privateers—who operated similarly to pirates but with legal backing—found good hunting grounds in Delaware Bay. A favorite trick was to run up English colors, and then signal for a pilot. They then captured the pilot and his boat, and when other vessels entered the bay, the privateers would approach them in the innocent looking pilot boat, which made them easy prey. But Philadelphia captains soon outfitted their own privateering vessels. Two of them, the ship Pandour and the brigantine George, went to sea in 1743, and aspiring crew members were told that they could sign up at the tavern called the Sign of the Boatswain and Call, which was originally called the Blue Anchor, possibly the oldest building in Philadelphia. It was located at the corner of what is now Front and Dock Streets, where the Holiday Inn wants to build a new 30-story tower. I imagine that the archeological diggings at the site might be extremely interesting. In May 1748, a Spanish brigantine, the St. Michael, with a crew of 160 men and carrying 34 guns, entered Delaware Bay and proceeded up the Bay in order to capture a large merchantman that they had sighted and to loot and burn the town of New Castle. Fortunately, an English seaman named George Proctor, who had been impressed onto the St. Michael in Havana, escaped during the night, and after much difficulty, succeeded in convincing the authorities in New Castle that the brigantine, which had put up English colors, was really a Spanish privateer. Proctor later told the Pennsylvania Provincial Council that “the Spanish Captain is of a savage, barbarous disposition, & declared frequently that he wou’d rob, plunder, & burn whatever he cou’d.” However, after she was fired upon by people in New Castle and by an armed merchantman in the river, the St. Michael retreated. In the meantime, the alarm had gone up to Philadelphia that the city was in danger of attack. The British had sent a sloop of war, the Otter, to combat the privateers, but the ship required repairs and was unseaworthy. The captain then suggested that the Otter’s cannons be removed and placed in shore batteries to protect Philadelphia. The smaller of the two batteries was placed on Society Hill at Lombard St., while the principle one, later called “The Old Fort,” was located on high ground just south of this church, near what is now Washington Avenue.	<urn:uuid:dc47f3f1-dbf0-483d-95d4-d71e19e4eccc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://philahistory.org/2019/12/07/pirates-of-the-caribbean-and-philadelphia/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00205.warc.gz	en	0.98449	3,422	3.34375	3	[ -0.29457658529281616, 0.33225536346435547, -0.1215955913066864, -0.5528078079223633, 0.20163635909557343, -0.17660975456237793, 0.4474511742591858, 0.04134955629706383, -0.45009857416152954, -0.4140644073486328, 0.23991602659225464, 0.08468227088451385, -0.1992458701133728, 0.0631578639149...	15	By MICHAEL SCHREIBER In an earlier article (June 10, 2019), we discussed Capt. Charles Sandgran and raised the strong possibility that he might have died in a battle with pirates off the coast of Cuba. Another sea captain with a connection to Gloria Dei (Old Swedes’) Church, who encountered a pirate in the same region, was Capt. Oliver Brooks. But unlike Sandgran, Brooks lived to tell the tale. In the early 19th century, the West Indies was infected with pirates, and a swarm of them used Cuba as a base. Jean Lafitte was one of the most famous of the group, working in conjunction with the American pirate William Mitchell, who wore a patch over his eye. Another notorious cutthroat working out of Cuba, known for his violence, was called Diabolito; he was killed in a bay along the coast of Cuba in 1823 by the U.S. Navy’s “Mosquito Fleet,” which had been sent to help curtail piracy in the region. Oliver Brooks had an initial run-in with pirates in November 1819, when a raider named Bervasto and his men boarded his brig, the Elizabeth Ann, of the Cuban coast. Around the same time, another Philadelphia mariner, Capt. Martin of the schooner Bee, said that Bervasto had also boarded his vessel and “politely opened the main hatchway and took out 4 bbls of flour and 4 bbls of potatoes, and then genteely left him” (Philadelphia Gazette, Dec. 23, 1819). In November 1822, Oliver Brooks was walking in a Havana street when he met a pirate captain on the street in the act of acquiring material to fit out his ship. Brooks and the outlaw recognized each other because, some years earlier, Brooks had caught him in the midst of a raid and had turned him over to the authorities—who clapped him in irons. So when they met years later in the street, the pirate declared to Capt. Brooks that he would get his revenge. He blockaded Havana harbor with his pirate schooner, which had 70 men aboard. From Morro Castle, at the entrance to the harbor, the vessel was clearly visible, lurking just off the coast. The pirate sent word that he was lying in wait for Brooks, and would pursue him even up to the Delaware River if need be. After several days, Brooks was able to sail safely from the harbor while guarded by a special convoy provided by the Spanish General of Marines, and he returned to Philadelphia with the Elizabeth Ann. Four years later, his wife, Eleanora, died at age 28, and was buried here in the Gloria Dei churchyard. Oliver Brooks lived until 1848, and was interred at the old Ronaldson’s Cemetery at Ninth and Bainbridge, where the bodies of his second wife Sarah and the rest of their family also rested until the land was converted into a playground in the early 1950s. Buried treasure in Philadelphia? Pirates during the early 19th century, just as today, were often considered in the public eye as romantic heroes—living the kind of free and adventurous life that others could never experience. Bookstalls sold piles of potboilers about the exploits, real and imagined, of these swashbucklers of the sea. John Fanning Watson, in his “Annals” of Philadelphia history, written in the 1820s with subsequent enlarged editions until 1844, wrote about the driving interest of many Philadelphia residents in finding buried treasure supposedly left by the pirates of more ancient times. Parties roamed the areas along the Delaware with spades and shovels trying to find chests of gold allegedly left by Captain Kidd and Blackbeard and other buccaneers. Watson wrote in the 1844 edition, for example, of a discovery of treasure in the neighborhood of Gloria Dei, “at the southernmost end of Front Street.” The famous patriot of the American Revolution, Timothy Matlack, then in his old age, told Watson that he had been shown an oak tree at the site, on which the letters KLP were carved. Matlack told him that he saw the stone that had covered the treasure at the home of the alleged finder. Supposedly, the man had been directed to the treasure by a sailor in a hospital in England. Watson also wrote that several people had confirmed for him that “at the Sign of the Cock in Spruce St., about 35 years ago, there was found in a pot in the cellar a sum of money of about $5000.” (The tavern called The Sign of the Cock was situated in an old wooden building on the south side of Spruce St., two doors east of Front St.) Even a century earlier, in 1729, Benjamin Franklin had written, “This odd humor of digging for money, through a belief that much has been hid by pirates formerly frequenting the river, has for several years been mighty prevalent among us insomuch that you can hardly walk half a mile out of the town on any side, without observing several pits dug with that design, and perhaps some lately opened.” Hijacking of the Susquehanna In 1837, these romantic preoccupations with the buccaneers had an influence on public opinion when word came to Philadelphia that the Susquehanna, a packet ship to Liverpool, had been hijacked by pirates off the capes of the Delaware. The Susquehanna was the luxury liner, the QE2 of her day, with many wealthy Philadelphians on board, and a hundred more in steerage. The company that booked her promised that she would leave port promptly on the 20th of every second month for Liverpool. Moreover, the ship was towed down the Delaware by a steamship, enabling her to reach the open sea on the same day that she left port. On October 20, 1837, after the pilot boat had left the Susquehanna at the mouth of Delaware Bay, the pilots managed to observe the ship approached by a low-slung schooner, painted all black, and bristling with men. They watched the schooner come abreast of the Susquehanna, and men seemed to be boarding her. The pilots returned to dock and the news soon spread to Philadelphia and up and down the East Coast about the raid on the Susquehanna by piracy. Ships were quickly launched from Philadelphia, from New York, and from the Chesapeake to search for the marauders, fearing that they had kidnapped some of the notable passengers and stolen the gold that was rumored to have been aboard. The U.S. Navy also joined the search. Newspapers in Philadelphia and around the country ran the headline, “Audacious piracy!” and for the next month featured articles on the nefarious affair. Rumors were the meat of many of the articles. Some people recalled seeing Jean Lafitte’s former confederate, the notorious pirate and killer William Mitchell, on the streets of Philadelphia; others said that he appeared to be fitting out a black-colored schooner. That rumor turned out to be largely true. Mitchell had been in prison in Philadelphia on charges by one of his wives of bigamy, but he was not released until June 23, 1837, a month after the reported attack on the Susquehanna. Two days after the attack, a columnist named JUNIUS wrote the following in the National Gazette: “The bold and audacious capture of this noble packet, almost within sight of our very doors, has thrown the community into a state of excitement not to be conceived by those at a distance. “I ask the American people—I ask our distressed and sympathizing community—to hear me, when I assert, and I hope to prove to them, that this distressing event is owing to the negligence and inefficiency of one of the President’s Cabinet … the Secretary of the Navy. “Would such an event have occurred on the coast of Great Britain, France, the Mediterranean, or on any part of the coast of Europe? I will answer no; their cruisers are out attending to their duties.” It wasn’t long, however, before a couple of vessels had arrived in U.S. ports that reported having sighted the Susquehanna at sea. They said that all seemed well with the famous ship. Even then, however, many refused to believe that the report of the pirate attack had been bogus. The news came from Maryland that people had sighted the timbers of a ship washed up on a beach, and it was suggested that it was perhaps the remains of the doomed Susquehanna. Nevertheless, reports eventually got back to Philadelphia that the Susquehanna had docked in Liverpool right on schedule, and all the passengers were safe and oblivious to the panic that had arisen on their behalf in the States. A month later, when the Susquehanna returned to its homeport, the story came out about what had taken place in October. The black schooner, the captain related, had belonged to fishermen who were selling fresh-caught shellfish, and the steward had loaded crates of the delicacies onboard in order to stock up his larder for the voyage. A columnist for one of the Philadelphia newspapers summed up the affair by remarking, perhaps remorsefully, that the days of Blackbeard, Captain Kidd, and other buccaneers was long gone. Blackbeard in Philadelphia Of course, a century earlier, when the city of Philadelphia was quite young, pirates not unlike those of Treasure Island were a relatively common sight right off our coast. Edward Teach or Thatch, better known as Blackbeard, appeared in these parts in the summer of 1717. Blackbeard reportedly had visited Philadelphia two years earlier as a mate and was said by some to have a wife and family here. It was rumored that Blackbeard was known in the taverns of the Philadelphia waterfront, and frequented a tavern run by a Swedish woman down in Marcus Hook. In the autumn of 1717, Blackbeard captured a 16-gun French slave ship that he dubbed Queen Anne’s Revenge and converted into the lead ship of his pirate fleet. The Philadelphia mayor at the time, Jonathan Dickinson, mentioned a vessel belonging to Blackbeard with a similar name, but there is a good chance that it was a different ship. Dickinson spoke about Blackbeard in a couple of letters on file at the Pennsylvania Historical Society. Dickinson’s own son, Joseph, had witnessed an attack by Blackbeard off Cape May. On Oct. 21, 1717, Dickinson wrote that the pirate was “yet at our capes, plundering all that comes, cutting away their masts, and letting them dive ashore.” Dickinson said that, based on the report of his son and others, Blackbeard had spared one ship, which contained passengers, but in general, the river was completely blocked up. By that time, Blackbeard had seized six or seven ships in Delaware Bay, according to James Logan, who succeeded Dickinson as mayor, in a letter to the governors of New York and New Jersey that warned them to be on guard. Around the same time, the Boston News-letter carried an article based on accounts of Blackbeard’s pirate attacks outside Delaware Bay. The article described how Blackbeard took several vessels coming inbound, including one that had come from Liverpool and Dublin with about 150 passengers, including many indentured servants. The pirates threw the entire cargo of the ship overboard, except for a few articles that they fancied. Then the pirates captured two snows that were headed outbound. One was commanded by William Spafford (who many years later built the large house that still stands on the northwest corner of Front and Bainbridge St. and is slowly being renovated). Spafford was carrying barrel staves for Ireland, while the second snow, the Sea Nymph, carried wheat for Portugal. The pirates threw all the wheat into the ocean and converted the Sea Nymph into a pirate ship, while putting all of the passengers onto Spafford’s vessel—after having dumped the barrel staves into the sea. The following year, Blackbeard was killed in a battle off the coast of North Carolina, and his severed head was displayed on a pole. Nearly 300 years later, in 1996, researchers discovered a shipwreck in North Carolina, which after intense archaeological examination, is thought to be the remains of Blackbeard’s Queen Anne’s Revenge. Over 250,000 artifacts have been found in the wreck, including 31 cannons, two anchors, pages of a book that were used as wadding in a cannon, and small ceramic and metal objects like spoons and one coin made of brass—but no chests full of pirates’ gold so far. And further investigation has also been done on the life of Blackbeard himself. It is thought by some researchers that Blackbeard turned to piracy after having served as a privateer in the Caribbean during Queen Anne’s War, which ended in 1714. In 2015, historian Gaylus Brooks, under the auspices of the North Carolina Office of Archives and History, found evidence that seems to counter much of the bloodthirsty villainy that has been attributed to the pirate. Records suggest that Blackbeard, Edward Teach, was an educated aristocrat whose family owned a slave plantation in Jamaica, and likely the grandson of an Anglican minister. Brooks blames many of the lurid tales about Blackbeard to a book about him, written by a man called Nathaniel Mist called “A General History of the Robberies and Murder of the Most Notorious Pyrates,” which was published in 1724, six years after Blackbeard was killed. Protection for the city After Britain and France declared war on each other once again, in 1743, French privateers—who operated similarly to pirates but with legal backing—found good hunting grounds in Delaware Bay. A favorite trick was to run up English colors, and then signal for a pilot. They then captured the pilot and his boat, and when other vessels entered the bay, the privateers would approach them in the innocent looking pilot boat, which made them easy prey. But Philadelphia captains soon outfitted their own privateering vessels. Two of them, the ship Pandour and the brigantine George, went to sea in 1743, and aspiring crew members were told that they could sign up at the tavern called the Sign of the Boatswain and Call, which was originally called the Blue Anchor, possibly the oldest building in Philadelphia. It was located at the corner of what is now Front and Dock Streets, where the Holiday Inn wants to build a new 30-story tower. I imagine that the archeological diggings at the site might be extremely interesting. In May 1748, a Spanish brigantine, the St. Michael, with a crew of 160 men and carrying 34 guns, entered Delaware Bay and proceeded up the Bay in order to capture a large merchantman that they had sighted and to loot and burn the town of New Castle. Fortunately, an English seaman named George Proctor, who had been impressed onto the St. Michael in Havana, escaped during the night, and after much difficulty, succeeded in convincing the authorities in New Castle that the brigantine, which had put up English colors, was really a Spanish privateer. Proctor later told the Pennsylvania Provincial Council that “the Spanish Captain is of a savage, barbarous disposition, & declared frequently that he wou’d rob, plunder, & burn whatever he cou’d.” However, after she was fired upon by people in New Castle and by an armed merchantman in the river, the St. Michael retreated. In the meantime, the alarm had gone up to Philadelphia that the city was in danger of attack. The British had sent a sloop of war, the Otter, to combat the privateers, but the ship required repairs and was unseaworthy. The captain then suggested that the Otter’s cannons be removed and placed in shore batteries to protect Philadelphia. The smaller of the two batteries was placed on Society Hill at Lombard St., while the principle one, later called “The Old Fort,” was located on high ground just south of this church, near what is now Washington Avenue.	3,442	ENGLISH	1
The Anit-Federalists Had It Right With the end of the Revolutionary War, the colonists were free of British tyranny. Now that they were free from British control, the majority of the colonists wanted small democratic governments within the states. However, the system was failing. The country was in debt, and people needed to get paid. A large republican government was the proposed solution to this problem in the constitution. The problem with adopting the constitution is that it was written in secrecy. Now all of this sudden people are supposed to vote on it? That's not fair. The questions at hand were how big were the governments' powers to be, and how will the government protect peoples' rights? These were two of the main areas of concern debated by each side. The federalists were those people who supported the new constitution. These people were for; big national government, taxes, executive, legislature, judicial branches, inter-state trade, a standing army, and assumption of state debt. These people tended to be rich and big land owners or merchants with a vested interest in stable trade and keeping their wealth. Bankruptcy laws were weak, which created a problem for merchants and industrialists. They were afraid of anarchy and loosing their money. The federalists were afraid of debate over the constitution, and people thought they were playing dirty. The anti-federalists were the opponents of the proposed constitution. They were worried about tyranny by government which the proposed constitution did not provide against. They thought that a concentration of power meant the end of liberty, freedom, and state sovereignty. They were more conservative, and afraid of the size of the new proposed national government. They thought the powers of federal government should be limited, and republics could only exist in a small territory. These people tended to be farmers and the lower class. They could loose their land with new, stricter bankruptcy laws. The government is not supposed to take your property away; it is supposed to protect it for you. "Thirdly, the supreme court cannot Justly take from any man, any part of his property without his consent, in person or by his Representative." (The Rights of the Colonists, Samuel Adams, p.47) The anti-federalists had a great deal to fear in adopting a constitution in which the idea of community and sovereignty was to be taken over by a strong republican government, separate from the state. Their fears were genuine, and I am not the kind of person to side with the political elite. This is why I will argue the side of the anti-federalists. The anti-federalists saw the proposed constitution as threats to rights and liberties won from England. In the Revolution, these people fought for states' rights, not a national government. People had experienced at first hand an example of government tyranny and had fought a war against it. It could have seemed that America may have been trading one group of political elites for another. Americans were scared and did not trust a big national government. Although both parties were for free government and free markets, the anti-federalists were relying upon lessons in history that seemed to tell a story that free government could only function in a small territory where people have common interests. The federalists saw one nation, sovereign republics joined together. The anti-federalists did not want to abandon the articles of the confederation which stated that sovereign power lies within each state, and the role of the government was limited. If each state was to be governed by a large republican government, could small states or regions be treated unfairly and under-represented? Sure. There were unavoidable dangers in a distant government. One section could be dominating the whole country. Clashes of political and economic interests by different sections of the nation were possible. There was a fear of sectional politics. A large, distant republic would be too far for people to participate in public affairs. It wasn't government they feared, but a corrupt and detached government. Privacy and protection of property from the actions of government must have been on the minds of the farmers. To the colonists, property meant more than just land. It meant the right to earn a living. How could they be protected from the government taking these things away? The Bill of Rights was added to the constitution and provided a solution to many of these fears. Many states' constitutions already had a Bill of Rights; the proposed constitution however did not. One of the biggest problems with the constitution, stated by the anti-federalists, is that it did not contain a Bill of Rights. The anti-federalists thought the states would no longer matter. "If the several states in the Union are to become one entire Nation, under one Legislature, and Powers of which shall extend to every Subject of Legislation, and its Laws be supreme & controul the whole, the Idea of Sovereignty in these States must be lost." (Letter from Samuel Adams to Richard Henry Lee (1787)) In the federalist view, local was replaced by national. They argued that the constitution would create a new kind of government. In The Federalist No. 39, Madison says that states would not be irrelevant. Instead, states and national government would be different, with different layers. The states would be tied together by the government under this new republic. "they have framed a national government, which regards the union as a consolidation of the states." (The Federalist No. 39, Madison, p.192) In The Federalist No. 10, Madison talks about "factions". A faction is a group that puts their own common good ahead of society's interest. "By a faction I understand a number of citizens, whether amounting to a majority or minority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community." (The Federalist No. 10, Madison, p.43) Laws in the interest of dominant groups could be imposed upon minority groups against their will. How can you keep factions from dominating and tyrannizing others? He states that if we remove the causes of factions, we lose liberty, which is worse than factions. So we have to control the effects of factions. "The causes of factions cannot be removed; and that relief is only sought in the means of controlling its effects." (The Federalist No. 10, Madison, p. 45) Our only choice is then to enlarge the republic and government. The advantage of a large republic, he argues, is that it permits majority rule while discouraging majority faction. This new type of government would tie the states together and protect the liberties of the majority, and also protect minorities from the oppression of the majority. Different factions and interests would negotiate their differences. Then we would be one large faction, or no faction. This takes us back to tyranny. Who controls the faction, and where is it located? Also, what happens when the government becomes too large? It becomes less accountable. When you remove power and money from a democratic government in the community, the strong republican government in a distant place becomes less accountable and will be more of a tyranny. Both the federalists and the anti-federalists wanted a government based on elected representatives. However, the anti-federalists thought that these representatives should be held accountable to the communities that they represent. I think that national government can be too distant from local communities to understand people's particular needs. Also, national government can sometimes be too involved with local affairs which it knows little about. How can a strong republican government govern states when each state is different with different needs? What are the rules when it comes to placing a tax on one group of citizens, and giving money to another? Shouldn't the state decide on these types of matters? The separation of the executive and legislative branches of government is necessary to protect people from tyranny. In The Federalist No. 47, Madison discusses that each branch of government is not completely separate and distinct in each of the states. "It is but too obvious that in some instances, the fundamental principle under consideration has been violated by too great a mixture, and even an actual consolidation of the different powers." (The Federalist No. 47, Madison, p.249) In The Federalist No. 51, Madison says it is necessary to divide up the legislative branch because it has more power than the other two. "divide the legislature into different branches; and to render them, by different modes of election and different principles of action, as little connected with each other as the nature of their common functions and their common dependence on the society will admit." (The Federalist No. 51, Hamilton or Madison, p.2) The anti-federalists feared the courts could have been dominated by the aristocrats because judges were not elected, they were appointed. Although the judges were not elected, you could elect the people who pick the judges. The debate over the courts was settled by allowing "trial by jury". Juries allow the public to be the protectors of each others rights. This was debated by The Pennsylvania Minority. "That in controversies respecting property, and in suits between man and man, trial by jury shall remain as heretofore, as well in federal courts as in those of the several states." (Dissent of the Pennsylvania Minority, p.133) Richard Henry Lee also said this was important in one of his letters. "The trial by jury is important... .It is essential in every free country, that common people should have a part and share of influence, in the judicial as well as in the legislative department." (Letters from a Federal Farmer, Richard Henry Lee, Letter IV, p.140) Juries however all not full proof for protecting each others rights. History has shown us that juries have done terrible things. Convicting innocent men and sentencing them death. They also exonerate guilty men so they can commit worse crimes later. Man is motivated by self interest. James Madison's assumption in human nature is that people are greedy, and will do whatever they can to better their life, power, and situation. "If men were angels, no government would be necessary." (The Federalist No. 51, Hamilton or Madison, p.1) The anti-federalists were suspicious of men in power, and thought they could not be trusted. Too right! It is a fact that people in power abuse their authority. Not all, but some. He argues that we are freer with a large government with greedy leaders. The powers in the branches of government are mitigated. But what happens when these people are making our laws? What if the states wanted to retain their sovereign powers? They couldn't. Since so few people were voting (1 out of 10 people), the difference on adopting the constitution could not have been much. Elections were not sufficient enough to keep elected officials accountable. If power and sovereignty remained with the states, this would have most definitely have had positive and negative effects on society. The Civil War may have been avoided, and other wars could have come from this, as well as economic impacts on the states. It's surprising how vital that debate over 200 years ago has remained with us so we can understand our system of government. The states are always battling with the federal government, especially here in Oregon, where the federal government doesn't always recognize state laws that have been passed. The intimacy between the people and their elected representatives in a small democratic community is impossible in a large republic. Also, in a large republic, the number of representatives is lowered, so the influence each voter has over his representative is lessened. A large government is more of an impersonal system. The middle and lower classes of society would not be elected to government. This still holds true to some degree today, when it comes to being elected to the government. People could know little about their representatives while laws become more complex. They become less accountable. Government officials could be making the rich richer, and the poor poorer, while falling into the hands of private interests. History has taught us a lesson; the government must be checked and balanced, it does not always know what is best for each individual, and it is impossible to keep government officials accountable 100% of the time. The United States is a big government, maybe even too big to be governed by a single government. In a large population, like America, citizens do not always get their voice heard. Wouldn't a central, local government, with local officials be better to decide on matters and concerns of the community and state? add a comment on this article add a comment on this article	<urn:uuid:ac70c3ac-df28-44e0-9d7d-6c59da248c0a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://portland.indymedia.org/en/2004/04/284953.shtml	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00349.warc.gz	en	0.981145	2,596	3.734375	4	[ -0.25850218534469604, -0.19389988481998444, -0.056224994361400604, -0.1787518858909607, -0.19477561116218567, 0.06045614555478096, 0.24440135061740875, 0.23998728394508362, -0.24345138669013977, 0.26811349391937256, 0.11606156826019287, 0.3880973160266876, -0.09125123918056488, 0.188183501...	1	The Anit-Federalists Had It Right With the end of the Revolutionary War, the colonists were free of British tyranny. Now that they were free from British control, the majority of the colonists wanted small democratic governments within the states. However, the system was failing. The country was in debt, and people needed to get paid. A large republican government was the proposed solution to this problem in the constitution. The problem with adopting the constitution is that it was written in secrecy. Now all of this sudden people are supposed to vote on it? That's not fair. The questions at hand were how big were the governments' powers to be, and how will the government protect peoples' rights? These were two of the main areas of concern debated by each side. The federalists were those people who supported the new constitution. These people were for; big national government, taxes, executive, legislature, judicial branches, inter-state trade, a standing army, and assumption of state debt. These people tended to be rich and big land owners or merchants with a vested interest in stable trade and keeping their wealth. Bankruptcy laws were weak, which created a problem for merchants and industrialists. They were afraid of anarchy and loosing their money. The federalists were afraid of debate over the constitution, and people thought they were playing dirty. The anti-federalists were the opponents of the proposed constitution. They were worried about tyranny by government which the proposed constitution did not provide against. They thought that a concentration of power meant the end of liberty, freedom, and state sovereignty. They were more conservative, and afraid of the size of the new proposed national government. They thought the powers of federal government should be limited, and republics could only exist in a small territory. These people tended to be farmers and the lower class. They could loose their land with new, stricter bankruptcy laws. The government is not supposed to take your property away; it is supposed to protect it for you. "Thirdly, the supreme court cannot Justly take from any man, any part of his property without his consent, in person or by his Representative." (The Rights of the Colonists, Samuel Adams, p.47) The anti-federalists had a great deal to fear in adopting a constitution in which the idea of community and sovereignty was to be taken over by a strong republican government, separate from the state. Their fears were genuine, and I am not the kind of person to side with the political elite. This is why I will argue the side of the anti-federalists. The anti-federalists saw the proposed constitution as threats to rights and liberties won from England. In the Revolution, these people fought for states' rights, not a national government. People had experienced at first hand an example of government tyranny and had fought a war against it. It could have seemed that America may have been trading one group of political elites for another. Americans were scared and did not trust a big national government. Although both parties were for free government and free markets, the anti-federalists were relying upon lessons in history that seemed to tell a story that free government could only function in a small territory where people have common interests. The federalists saw one nation, sovereign republics joined together. The anti-federalists did not want to abandon the articles of the confederation which stated that sovereign power lies within each state, and the role of the government was limited. If each state was to be governed by a large republican government, could small states or regions be treated unfairly and under-represented? Sure. There were unavoidable dangers in a distant government. One section could be dominating the whole country. Clashes of political and economic interests by different sections of the nation were possible. There was a fear of sectional politics. A large, distant republic would be too far for people to participate in public affairs. It wasn't government they feared, but a corrupt and detached government. Privacy and protection of property from the actions of government must have been on the minds of the farmers. To the colonists, property meant more than just land. It meant the right to earn a living. How could they be protected from the government taking these things away? The Bill of Rights was added to the constitution and provided a solution to many of these fears. Many states' constitutions already had a Bill of Rights; the proposed constitution however did not. One of the biggest problems with the constitution, stated by the anti-federalists, is that it did not contain a Bill of Rights. The anti-federalists thought the states would no longer matter. "If the several states in the Union are to become one entire Nation, under one Legislature, and Powers of which shall extend to every Subject of Legislation, and its Laws be supreme & controul the whole, the Idea of Sovereignty in these States must be lost." (Letter from Samuel Adams to Richard Henry Lee (1787)) In the federalist view, local was replaced by national. They argued that the constitution would create a new kind of government. In The Federalist No. 39, Madison says that states would not be irrelevant. Instead, states and national government would be different, with different layers. The states would be tied together by the government under this new republic. "they have framed a national government, which regards the union as a consolidation of the states." (The Federalist No. 39, Madison, p.192) In The Federalist No. 10, Madison talks about "factions". A faction is a group that puts their own common good ahead of society's interest. "By a faction I understand a number of citizens, whether amounting to a majority or minority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community." (The Federalist No. 10, Madison, p.43) Laws in the interest of dominant groups could be imposed upon minority groups against their will. How can you keep factions from dominating and tyrannizing others? He states that if we remove the causes of factions, we lose liberty, which is worse than factions. So we have to control the effects of factions. "The causes of factions cannot be removed; and that relief is only sought in the means of controlling its effects." (The Federalist No. 10, Madison, p. 45) Our only choice is then to enlarge the republic and government. The advantage of a large republic, he argues, is that it permits majority rule while discouraging majority faction. This new type of government would tie the states together and protect the liberties of the majority, and also protect minorities from the oppression of the majority. Different factions and interests would negotiate their differences. Then we would be one large faction, or no faction. This takes us back to tyranny. Who controls the faction, and where is it located? Also, what happens when the government becomes too large? It becomes less accountable. When you remove power and money from a democratic government in the community, the strong republican government in a distant place becomes less accountable and will be more of a tyranny. Both the federalists and the anti-federalists wanted a government based on elected representatives. However, the anti-federalists thought that these representatives should be held accountable to the communities that they represent. I think that national government can be too distant from local communities to understand people's particular needs. Also, national government can sometimes be too involved with local affairs which it knows little about. How can a strong republican government govern states when each state is different with different needs? What are the rules when it comes to placing a tax on one group of citizens, and giving money to another? Shouldn't the state decide on these types of matters? The separation of the executive and legislative branches of government is necessary to protect people from tyranny. In The Federalist No. 47, Madison discusses that each branch of government is not completely separate and distinct in each of the states. "It is but too obvious that in some instances, the fundamental principle under consideration has been violated by too great a mixture, and even an actual consolidation of the different powers." (The Federalist No. 47, Madison, p.249) In The Federalist No. 51, Madison says it is necessary to divide up the legislative branch because it has more power than the other two. "divide the legislature into different branches; and to render them, by different modes of election and different principles of action, as little connected with each other as the nature of their common functions and their common dependence on the society will admit." (The Federalist No. 51, Hamilton or Madison, p.2) The anti-federalists feared the courts could have been dominated by the aristocrats because judges were not elected, they were appointed. Although the judges were not elected, you could elect the people who pick the judges. The debate over the courts was settled by allowing "trial by jury". Juries allow the public to be the protectors of each others rights. This was debated by The Pennsylvania Minority. "That in controversies respecting property, and in suits between man and man, trial by jury shall remain as heretofore, as well in federal courts as in those of the several states." (Dissent of the Pennsylvania Minority, p.133) Richard Henry Lee also said this was important in one of his letters. "The trial by jury is important... .It is essential in every free country, that common people should have a part and share of influence, in the judicial as well as in the legislative department." (Letters from a Federal Farmer, Richard Henry Lee, Letter IV, p.140) Juries however all not full proof for protecting each others rights. History has shown us that juries have done terrible things. Convicting innocent men and sentencing them death. They also exonerate guilty men so they can commit worse crimes later. Man is motivated by self interest. James Madison's assumption in human nature is that people are greedy, and will do whatever they can to better their life, power, and situation. "If men were angels, no government would be necessary." (The Federalist No. 51, Hamilton or Madison, p.1) The anti-federalists were suspicious of men in power, and thought they could not be trusted. Too right! It is a fact that people in power abuse their authority. Not all, but some. He argues that we are freer with a large government with greedy leaders. The powers in the branches of government are mitigated. But what happens when these people are making our laws? What if the states wanted to retain their sovereign powers? They couldn't. Since so few people were voting (1 out of 10 people), the difference on adopting the constitution could not have been much. Elections were not sufficient enough to keep elected officials accountable. If power and sovereignty remained with the states, this would have most definitely have had positive and negative effects on society. The Civil War may have been avoided, and other wars could have come from this, as well as economic impacts on the states. It's surprising how vital that debate over 200 years ago has remained with us so we can understand our system of government. The states are always battling with the federal government, especially here in Oregon, where the federal government doesn't always recognize state laws that have been passed. The intimacy between the people and their elected representatives in a small democratic community is impossible in a large republic. Also, in a large republic, the number of representatives is lowered, so the influence each voter has over his representative is lessened. A large government is more of an impersonal system. The middle and lower classes of society would not be elected to government. This still holds true to some degree today, when it comes to being elected to the government. People could know little about their representatives while laws become more complex. They become less accountable. Government officials could be making the rich richer, and the poor poorer, while falling into the hands of private interests. History has taught us a lesson; the government must be checked and balanced, it does not always know what is best for each individual, and it is impossible to keep government officials accountable 100% of the time. The United States is a big government, maybe even too big to be governed by a single government. In a large population, like America, citizens do not always get their voice heard. Wouldn't a central, local government, with local officials be better to decide on matters and concerns of the community and state? add a comment on this article add a comment on this article	2,613	ENGLISH	1
LoggingOur Stories: The History of Marathon County ExhibitMarathon County Historical Society State Standards: B.8.1 Interpret the past using a variety of sources, such as biographies, diaries, journals, artifacts, eyewitness interviews, and other primary source materials, and evaluate the credibility of sources used, A.8.4 Conduct a historical study to analyze the use of the local environment in a Wisconsin community and to explain the effect of this use on the environment. Why did people first come to Marathon County? In 1839 George Stevens brought financial baking from St. Louis for lumber The early immigrants came for pelts What time of year did they log? “They’d go up in the fall and not come home until spring. Once home, all those clothes had to be boiled to get rid of the lice that they picked up in the lumber camp. But they earned fairly good money and they got their room and board and the feed for their horses. It was a time of year when the horses wouldn’t be doing much else.” -Erna Zimmerman What was life like in a logging camp? • “Those men had to be out in the woods long before daybreak, around 5 o’clock in the morning, and then they would bring a lunch to them at noon and they worked until it was dark in those days. There were no eight-hour day or anything like that.” -Father Rudolph Raschke What was the life expectancy of a River Rat? • “My grandfather nearly lost his life at Mosinee in what is known as Little Bull Falls. They were rafting lumber down the river. Many men, in pulling these rafts through the rapids or falls, were thrown out of the rafts and if they were thrown under the rafts their bodies would be crushed against the rocks below. My grandfather did fall off a raft at Little Bull Falls but one of the men saw him and was able to catch an arm and pull him back on board before the current pulled him under the raft.” -Jacob Gensman What allowed Wausau to become a hub? • The Wisconsin River flowed through Wausau • Spring logs floating downriver could easily be stopped and sent down the channels to their mills before going over the falls. How did the logs get to the sawmills? • Horses could haul the logs over the snow and ice to river where they were stored until spring. “My father was what they called a river pig. He worked on the logging boom on the Wisconsin River. Every log had a stamp on it, like the Barker and Steward Mill, the Mortenson Lumber Company. The logs were stamped on the end. These fellows had a plank across an open space, the rest were boomed off. As these logs came through this space they would spear them with their pike pole and send them down the channel. They sent that log into that channel, to each sawmill.” -Marshall Duranso Why were loggers able to spread to other parts of the county? • In the 1870s the railroad was built connecting the outlying parts of Marathon County to the Wisconsin River. • Railroads allowed logs to be transported year round including winter. • Did the Lumbermen need to rely on the Wisconsin River? What happens when the trees are gone? • Move to other logging sites • Where else could lumbermen go for logs? • Begin a different business • What other type of businesses could be started in Marathon County? Discussion Questions • Why would the Wisconsin River be a difficult source to use for transportation? • Who was working in the sawmills? • What was needed to process the logs? • Why would some sawmills only stay open for a few years? • Why did cities remain after the logging ended?	<urn:uuid:982296b7-e416-4d27-991f-5eb01ae95dc6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.slideserve.com/olin/logging-our-stories-t-h-e-history-of-marathon-county-exhibit-marathon-county-historical-society	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00425.warc.gz	en	0.983064	792	3.421875	3	[ 0.18256258964538574, 0.2941381335258484, 0.2582862973213196, 0.031983356922864914, 0.13365329802036285, 0.061936769634485245, -0.27761149406433105, -0.22886376082897186, -0.14218547940254211, -0.19176124036312103, -0.10313478112220764, -0.0713764876127243, -0.2713150978088379, 0.5068238377...	1	LoggingOur Stories: The History of Marathon County ExhibitMarathon County Historical Society State Standards: B.8.1 Interpret the past using a variety of sources, such as biographies, diaries, journals, artifacts, eyewitness interviews, and other primary source materials, and evaluate the credibility of sources used, A.8.4 Conduct a historical study to analyze the use of the local environment in a Wisconsin community and to explain the effect of this use on the environment. Why did people first come to Marathon County? In 1839 George Stevens brought financial baking from St. Louis for lumber The early immigrants came for pelts What time of year did they log? “They’d go up in the fall and not come home until spring. Once home, all those clothes had to be boiled to get rid of the lice that they picked up in the lumber camp. But they earned fairly good money and they got their room and board and the feed for their horses. It was a time of year when the horses wouldn’t be doing much else.” -Erna Zimmerman What was life like in a logging camp? • “Those men had to be out in the woods long before daybreak, around 5 o’clock in the morning, and then they would bring a lunch to them at noon and they worked until it was dark in those days. There were no eight-hour day or anything like that.” -Father Rudolph Raschke What was the life expectancy of a River Rat? • “My grandfather nearly lost his life at Mosinee in what is known as Little Bull Falls. They were rafting lumber down the river. Many men, in pulling these rafts through the rapids or falls, were thrown out of the rafts and if they were thrown under the rafts their bodies would be crushed against the rocks below. My grandfather did fall off a raft at Little Bull Falls but one of the men saw him and was able to catch an arm and pull him back on board before the current pulled him under the raft.” -Jacob Gensman What allowed Wausau to become a hub? • The Wisconsin River flowed through Wausau • Spring logs floating downriver could easily be stopped and sent down the channels to their mills before going over the falls. How did the logs get to the sawmills? • Horses could haul the logs over the snow and ice to river where they were stored until spring. “My father was what they called a river pig. He worked on the logging boom on the Wisconsin River. Every log had a stamp on it, like the Barker and Steward Mill, the Mortenson Lumber Company. The logs were stamped on the end. These fellows had a plank across an open space, the rest were boomed off. As these logs came through this space they would spear them with their pike pole and send them down the channel. They sent that log into that channel, to each sawmill.” -Marshall Duranso Why were loggers able to spread to other parts of the county? • In the 1870s the railroad was built connecting the outlying parts of Marathon County to the Wisconsin River. • Railroads allowed logs to be transported year round including winter. • Did the Lumbermen need to rely on the Wisconsin River? What happens when the trees are gone? • Move to other logging sites • Where else could lumbermen go for logs? • Begin a different business • What other type of businesses could be started in Marathon County? Discussion Questions • Why would the Wisconsin River be a difficult source to use for transportation? • Who was working in the sawmills? • What was needed to process the logs? • Why would some sawmills only stay open for a few years? • Why did cities remain after the logging ended?	778	ENGLISH	1
David the Hebrew Song Master and the Elements of Hebrew Poetry David, son of Jesse, was many things: he was a shepherd boy, a singer/song writer, a warrior, a king, a murderer, and finally he was a man after God’s own heart. David started his life as the youngest and least of 8 brothers, and was consigned to the outer fields to tend and defend the sheep. But it was there in the fields that he was being prepared to care for and defend the nation of Israel. And the prophet Samuel was perceptive enough to see that, so that according to Hebrew Scripture he was moved by the Spirit of God to anoint David the next king to supplant the despot, backsliding King Saul. And in the course of due time through a series of alliances by marriage between his family and the kings family, David was called to serve in Saul’s royal court as a singer and amour bearer to the increasingly depressed and defunct King Saul, gaining Saul’s great favor. But when it was found that David could hold his own in the battle, even to killing a man many times his size with a well placed stone from a slingshot, David increased in popularity as the envious King Saul declined and was himself in battle, along with his son and David’s close friend; thus David was finally placed on the throne. But, alas, David had his own great moral failure when he fell in love with another man’s wife, by the name of Bathsheba, and impregnated her. So to cover up his sin, King David sent her husband Uriah, one of his chief warriors, to the front lines to fight the enemy in order to deliberately get him killed. And yes, he was tragically killed, however Davids sincere remorse over his crime, his repentance, and his continued devotion to God saved his throne, and he was thence called “a man after God’s own heart” also being promised by the prophet through a word from God that the Christ would be born through his line of heirs. But although he was a King and a great warrior, David also had his fame as a great singer and song writer, and we call his work the Psalms, These famous Psalms he wrote, many recorded in the Bible, covered the whole gamut of the ups and downs human experience from fear and deep depression to high praise for the God of the universe. Two good examples of these highs and lows can be found in Psalm 43 and Psalm 103: Psalm 43 is a cry for help and shows the frail human side of the great king, without, however, ever losing hope because of his faith in the Hebrew God. Psalm 43 King James Version (KJV) And then we find the glorious joyful highs of David’s life as expressed in Psalm 103, verses 1-6. Psalm 103 King James Version (KJV) David wrote in the markedly seductive repetitive ancient cadence of ancient Hebrew parallelism in which the same thought is repeated in different ways from line to line for emphasis, and there are five such poetry books in the old testament which are: Job, Proverbs, Psalms, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon. However, this ancient form of verse was also repeated in the New Testament in the Beatitudes of Jesus in the Sermon on the mount in which Jesus says “Blessed are the poor in spirit…Blessed are the pure in heart…Blessed are the meek,,,blessed are the peacemakers…, and again in Paul’s love chapter to the Corinthian’s in which he wrote, “love is patient…is kind…love envy’s not…is not puffed up…. So unlike English poetry which has meter and rhyme and derives from the Greek and Latin traditions, Hebrew poetry is markedly free verse, without a set form, rhythm or rhyme and was born of the Canaanite middle eastern tradition of a hypnotic repetitive parallelism.	<urn:uuid:29d95430-91cd-43f6-aefe-f887bf5fa90b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dailywisdomwords.com/david-the-hebrew-song-master-and-the-elements-of-hebrew-poetry/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00148.warc.gz	en	0.985039	845	3.40625	3	[ -0.22589871287345886, 0.38133594393730164, -0.0954914316534996, -0.3939259946346283, -0.3378729522228241, -0.17276570200920105, -0.13666895031929016, 0.07986057549715042, 0.26119619607925415, -0.22921128571033478, 0.03460768982768059, 0.22225548326969147, 0.6288789510726929, -0.07424470037...	2	David the Hebrew Song Master and the Elements of Hebrew Poetry David, son of Jesse, was many things: he was a shepherd boy, a singer/song writer, a warrior, a king, a murderer, and finally he was a man after God’s own heart. David started his life as the youngest and least of 8 brothers, and was consigned to the outer fields to tend and defend the sheep. But it was there in the fields that he was being prepared to care for and defend the nation of Israel. And the prophet Samuel was perceptive enough to see that, so that according to Hebrew Scripture he was moved by the Spirit of God to anoint David the next king to supplant the despot, backsliding King Saul. And in the course of due time through a series of alliances by marriage between his family and the kings family, David was called to serve in Saul’s royal court as a singer and amour bearer to the increasingly depressed and defunct King Saul, gaining Saul’s great favor. But when it was found that David could hold his own in the battle, even to killing a man many times his size with a well placed stone from a slingshot, David increased in popularity as the envious King Saul declined and was himself in battle, along with his son and David’s close friend; thus David was finally placed on the throne. But, alas, David had his own great moral failure when he fell in love with another man’s wife, by the name of Bathsheba, and impregnated her. So to cover up his sin, King David sent her husband Uriah, one of his chief warriors, to the front lines to fight the enemy in order to deliberately get him killed. And yes, he was tragically killed, however Davids sincere remorse over his crime, his repentance, and his continued devotion to God saved his throne, and he was thence called “a man after God’s own heart” also being promised by the prophet through a word from God that the Christ would be born through his line of heirs. But although he was a King and a great warrior, David also had his fame as a great singer and song writer, and we call his work the Psalms, These famous Psalms he wrote, many recorded in the Bible, covered the whole gamut of the ups and downs human experience from fear and deep depression to high praise for the God of the universe. Two good examples of these highs and lows can be found in Psalm 43 and Psalm 103: Psalm 43 is a cry for help and shows the frail human side of the great king, without, however, ever losing hope because of his faith in the Hebrew God. Psalm 43 King James Version (KJV) And then we find the glorious joyful highs of David’s life as expressed in Psalm 103, verses 1-6. Psalm 103 King James Version (KJV) David wrote in the markedly seductive repetitive ancient cadence of ancient Hebrew parallelism in which the same thought is repeated in different ways from line to line for emphasis, and there are five such poetry books in the old testament which are: Job, Proverbs, Psalms, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon. However, this ancient form of verse was also repeated in the New Testament in the Beatitudes of Jesus in the Sermon on the mount in which Jesus says “Blessed are the poor in spirit…Blessed are the pure in heart…Blessed are the meek,,,blessed are the peacemakers…, and again in Paul’s love chapter to the Corinthian’s in which he wrote, “love is patient…is kind…love envy’s not…is not puffed up…. So unlike English poetry which has meter and rhyme and derives from the Greek and Latin traditions, Hebrew poetry is markedly free verse, without a set form, rhythm or rhyme and was born of the Canaanite middle eastern tradition of a hypnotic repetitive parallelism.	830	ENGLISH	1
The music video/documentary pertained to another history class that discussed rural versus urban ideals and habits. Each student in the class explained where they were from and if this place was rural or urban, and then to say what was “non-country” or “non-city” about themselves. It also followed the class along as they saw different historical sites in different rural and urban areas. This can relate to our own history class in that we discussed how society changed as settlers moved from urban to rural areas, or vice versa. The latter part of the lecture was about interpreting historical sites. A keynote speaker gave a presentation about different historical sites around Tuscaloosa. He and his archeological team used foundations of old buildings to compare them to buildings today. He also spoke of what these buildings and the rooms they contained were used for. Some of these buildings were significant to our own Civil War Discussion. One such building was once used as a holding for Union soldiers that had become prisoners of war. His lecture can also relate to our own Civil War Monument project. My group and I used inspiration of past southern plantations to create our own present day southern plantation. We based our structure on those of past structures and created a blueprint to display what each room would be used for. The project required to interpret these sites and analyze how different groups would react to this monument as well as what it would signify.	<urn:uuid:6cd93e2d-5f1c-4783-94e9-25fe037d1737>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://earlyamericanhist.as.ua.edu/webliography/nineteenth-century-city-video-by-university-of-alabama-students-meghan-stough/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00000.warc.gz	en	0.981451	285	3.34375	3	[ -0.021723363548517227, 0.12027136236429214, 0.4447062611579895, -0.3710968792438507, 0.33203795552253723, 0.06692708283662796, -0.024772636592388153, -0.2195834517478943, -0.441205233335495, -0.17013272643089294, -0.025348573923110962, -0.03991531953215599, -0.18270094692707062, 0.24286761...	5	The music video/documentary pertained to another history class that discussed rural versus urban ideals and habits. Each student in the class explained where they were from and if this place was rural or urban, and then to say what was “non-country” or “non-city” about themselves. It also followed the class along as they saw different historical sites in different rural and urban areas. This can relate to our own history class in that we discussed how society changed as settlers moved from urban to rural areas, or vice versa. The latter part of the lecture was about interpreting historical sites. A keynote speaker gave a presentation about different historical sites around Tuscaloosa. He and his archeological team used foundations of old buildings to compare them to buildings today. He also spoke of what these buildings and the rooms they contained were used for. Some of these buildings were significant to our own Civil War Discussion. One such building was once used as a holding for Union soldiers that had become prisoners of war. His lecture can also relate to our own Civil War Monument project. My group and I used inspiration of past southern plantations to create our own present day southern plantation. We based our structure on those of past structures and created a blueprint to display what each room would be used for. The project required to interpret these sites and analyze how different groups would react to this monument as well as what it would signify.	280	ENGLISH	1
As part of a series, TRT World explores fascinating stories of African figures whose contribution to humanity has been largely neglected. Described as African Napoleon, Samory Toure built a Muslim empire fighting off the French colonisation of West Africa in the 19th Century. Toure's rise is one of the inspiring examples of resistance in times of the Trans Atlantic Slave Trade, which heavily influenced West Africa between the 19th and early 20th centuries. Born in present day Guinea in 1830s, his father was a trader and Toure followed in his footsteps at the age of 15. During these years, he contacted many Islamic scholars and applied the model of Islamic finance to his trading business. In 1853, his life took a major turn with the kidnapping of his mother by the leader of the powerful Cisse clan. To save her, he quit trading and signed up to be a personal slave of the clan leader, his mother's captor, serving him for seven years, seven months and seven days. His mother was eventually released for his work as a slave. While learning the Quran and increasing his knowledge in Islamic education, he also acquired military skills. He took part in several campaigns under the command of local clan chiefs. By 1855, Toure returned to his native place and in the next six years he gathered volunteers from the Camara clan. He gave them both military training and Islamic education. In the following years, he became the most powerful military and political leader in the Milo region. He promoted his friends and relatives to various leadership positions in his army. His military prowess contributed to his expansion from Bamako, Mali, in the north, to the frontiers of Sierra Leone, the Ivory Coast, and Liberia in the east and south. In the 1880s he divided his lands into 162 counties and placed his relatives at the top. He made Islamic scholars advisors to the government officials. In 1884, he took the title of Almami, meaning the religious head of a Muslim empire. He commanded an army of between 40,000 to 65,000 soldiers. He first imported weapons from the British colony Sierra Leone and later founded a gun factory with the help of soldiers who had left the British and French troops. He even captured gold mines near the Sierra Leone-Guinea border, becoming one of the richest kings in the region. As Toure's realm expanded in the region, he tried to reestablish the historic Mali Kingdom, which existed in Western Africa from 1235 to 1670 and whose rulers and royals were believed to be wealthy and generous. He became known as a devoted Muslim with impressive social ethics. He sent Quran teachers to almost all the villages of his region to spread Islamic understanding. He personally monitored many students of the Quran, testing their knowledge of the holy book, rewarding the most successful ones. The students who graduated from the Islamic school played a key role in spreading the word of Islam across the region. Therefore, in Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Mali, Sierra Leone and Liberia, Islam spread rapidly in the late 19th Century, when Toure ruled the region. In 1881, as French forces clashed with his soldiers, he gave a befitting reply to the invaders. The gallant efforts made by Toure's army to repel the French invasion helped him earn a nickname — the Napoleon of Africa. Two years later, however, he couldn’t prevent another French invasion in Bamako. Following the partition of Africa due to the Berlin Conference in 1884, French troops began encroaching on Mandinka. Despite his army initially defeating the French troops, it was pushed back into the West African interior. French troops often included Senegalese troops to build a strong attack against Toure's army. Toure's forces inflicted massive damage upon French troops in 1885 in Bure. But as France was decisive in its invasion of West Africa, Toure signed three deals with them. After signing the first agreement in 1886, he left Bure, and a year after he handed over the control of the west bank of Niger to France. Toure signed the last agreement with France in 1889 and left the area from Tisinko to the Niger River. However, in 1891, France attacked Toure again and he was obliged to leave most important parts of his country to France, including his capital. Because of the growing French threat against him, he retreated back to the northern sides of the Ivory coast. He targeted Muslim forces who had collaborated with France during his retreat. By 1898 he had moved to Liberia, as Britain refused to support his resistance against France by denying him the supply of weapons. Toure formed a second empire and established its new capital in the city of Kong, Upper Ivory Coast. On May 1, 1898, when French forces seized the town of Sikasso, just north of the new empire, Toure and his army took up positions in the Liberian forests to resist a second invasion. This time, however, famine and desertion weakened his forces and the French seized Toure on September 29, 1898. He was sent to Ndjole in Gabon where he died in exile in 1900. Guinea’s first president Ahmed Sekou Toure was claimed to be Samory Toure's great grandson. Ahmed played a key role in the African independence movement. Source: TRT World	<urn:uuid:c9296278-86ac-48d9-8b10-317bebf384c6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.islamreligionguardian.com/a-legendary-african-muslim-king-who-fought-french-colonialism/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00085.warc.gz	en	0.985454	1,101	3.484375	3	[ -0.0245455801486969, 0.93653804063797, 0.20676496624946594, 0.042032234370708466, -0.02522898279130459, -0.1675572246313095, 0.210052490234375, 0.051326408982276917, -0.16787171363830566, 0.21160797774791718, 0.07620968669652939, -0.5042439699172974, -0.027769222855567932, 0.38933646678924...	1	As part of a series, TRT World explores fascinating stories of African figures whose contribution to humanity has been largely neglected. Described as African Napoleon, Samory Toure built a Muslim empire fighting off the French colonisation of West Africa in the 19th Century. Toure's rise is one of the inspiring examples of resistance in times of the Trans Atlantic Slave Trade, which heavily influenced West Africa between the 19th and early 20th centuries. Born in present day Guinea in 1830s, his father was a trader and Toure followed in his footsteps at the age of 15. During these years, he contacted many Islamic scholars and applied the model of Islamic finance to his trading business. In 1853, his life took a major turn with the kidnapping of his mother by the leader of the powerful Cisse clan. To save her, he quit trading and signed up to be a personal slave of the clan leader, his mother's captor, serving him for seven years, seven months and seven days. His mother was eventually released for his work as a slave. While learning the Quran and increasing his knowledge in Islamic education, he also acquired military skills. He took part in several campaigns under the command of local clan chiefs. By 1855, Toure returned to his native place and in the next six years he gathered volunteers from the Camara clan. He gave them both military training and Islamic education. In the following years, he became the most powerful military and political leader in the Milo region. He promoted his friends and relatives to various leadership positions in his army. His military prowess contributed to his expansion from Bamako, Mali, in the north, to the frontiers of Sierra Leone, the Ivory Coast, and Liberia in the east and south. In the 1880s he divided his lands into 162 counties and placed his relatives at the top. He made Islamic scholars advisors to the government officials. In 1884, he took the title of Almami, meaning the religious head of a Muslim empire. He commanded an army of between 40,000 to 65,000 soldiers. He first imported weapons from the British colony Sierra Leone and later founded a gun factory with the help of soldiers who had left the British and French troops. He even captured gold mines near the Sierra Leone-Guinea border, becoming one of the richest kings in the region. As Toure's realm expanded in the region, he tried to reestablish the historic Mali Kingdom, which existed in Western Africa from 1235 to 1670 and whose rulers and royals were believed to be wealthy and generous. He became known as a devoted Muslim with impressive social ethics. He sent Quran teachers to almost all the villages of his region to spread Islamic understanding. He personally monitored many students of the Quran, testing their knowledge of the holy book, rewarding the most successful ones. The students who graduated from the Islamic school played a key role in spreading the word of Islam across the region. Therefore, in Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Mali, Sierra Leone and Liberia, Islam spread rapidly in the late 19th Century, when Toure ruled the region. In 1881, as French forces clashed with his soldiers, he gave a befitting reply to the invaders. The gallant efforts made by Toure's army to repel the French invasion helped him earn a nickname — the Napoleon of Africa. Two years later, however, he couldn’t prevent another French invasion in Bamako. Following the partition of Africa due to the Berlin Conference in 1884, French troops began encroaching on Mandinka. Despite his army initially defeating the French troops, it was pushed back into the West African interior. French troops often included Senegalese troops to build a strong attack against Toure's army. Toure's forces inflicted massive damage upon French troops in 1885 in Bure. But as France was decisive in its invasion of West Africa, Toure signed three deals with them. After signing the first agreement in 1886, he left Bure, and a year after he handed over the control of the west bank of Niger to France. Toure signed the last agreement with France in 1889 and left the area from Tisinko to the Niger River. However, in 1891, France attacked Toure again and he was obliged to leave most important parts of his country to France, including his capital. Because of the growing French threat against him, he retreated back to the northern sides of the Ivory coast. He targeted Muslim forces who had collaborated with France during his retreat. By 1898 he had moved to Liberia, as Britain refused to support his resistance against France by denying him the supply of weapons. Toure formed a second empire and established its new capital in the city of Kong, Upper Ivory Coast. On May 1, 1898, when French forces seized the town of Sikasso, just north of the new empire, Toure and his army took up positions in the Liberian forests to resist a second invasion. This time, however, famine and desertion weakened his forces and the French seized Toure on September 29, 1898. He was sent to Ndjole in Gabon where he died in exile in 1900. Guinea’s first president Ahmed Sekou Toure was claimed to be Samory Toure's great grandson. Ahmed played a key role in the African independence movement. Source: TRT World	1,160	ENGLISH	1
Critical Analysis on The Scream by Edvard Munch Edvard Munch was born on December 12 1863 in Loten Norway. He moved to Christiana, and spent most of his childhood there. Both his mother and his oldest sister suffered from tuberculosis and died before he reached the age of 14. At 18 he became more serious about his art and started attending art school. Edvard finally found a release for the pain he felt from his sister’s death. In 1886 he painted “The Sick Child”. Question 1: How did Edvard Munch attempt to visualize intense emotion in his paintings? Discuss in relation to particular paintings. Edvard Munch is a highly influential artist, pioneering many of the ideas that informed the German Expressionist movement. The crux of his work is in the reflection the death, grief and emotion of his own experiences. Drawing from his own tortured upbringing, with the death of his father, brother and sister, as well as his own mental and physical illnesses. There the academic traditions of the previous centuries, Edvard Munch impacted the art world as an instrumental leader in the development of modern German expressionism. His painting The Scream has made its mark in questioning the ideals of what is acceptable concerning the history of art. The paper will discuss Munch’s life history, uncovering the influences which led him to expressionism, as well as a detailed description and analysis of The Scream, including the historical art background of the times Critical Analysis of Edvard Munch's The Scream "The Scream", sometimes known as "The Cry" was painted by Edvard Munch in 1893. Some say Munch played a role in the development of German Expressionism, though the Norwegian painter turned down two offers to join the group, and preferred not to be classified, or 'put' into a category. This painting was part of Munch's "The Frieze of Life", a series of paintings each portraying a phase of life - as defined by Munch: Birth of Love, Blossoming The Starry Night and The Scream Vincent Van Gogh was born in the Netherlands on March 30, 1853. He pursued many other things in his life before deciding to become an artist. He was brought up in a religious atmosphere, being the son of a preacher. He was a preacher himself for a while in Borinage, a mining district in Belgium. At one point he wanted to dedicate his life to reaching out to those in poverty. At other points in his life he worked as an art salesman and a bookstore clerk. After being An Analysis of Art in Ancient China, Rome, and N. Europe Introduction One thing is permanent about art throughout the ages and civilizations of time: it always expresses some aspect of the culture that produced it. So it may be seen in Renaissance Italy in Michelangelo's David, or in Hellenistic Greece in the Dying Gaul. The Egyptian statue of Anubis reveals something about the spiritual belief of those ancient people, and the abstract expressionism of Kandinsky in the 20th century represents affected by mood when judging art, but also when creating it. Edvard Munch (1863-1944) painting The Scream (1893) is a good example of the views mentioned above. The Norwegian artist painted this work in a time where art was changing in history, and it is today one of the worlds most recognizable works of art. The Scream was painted before it became a trend among artist to focus on the inner feelings and emotion through their art. Munch admitted to suffering from insanity, both personally and thought	<urn:uuid:e5f99a55-3c74-4a1c-b82b-ae768f2cdb48>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Analysis-Of-Edvard-Munch-And-The-Scream-FK4CNKT5LEF	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00023.warc.gz	en	0.983072	728	3.34375	3	[ -0.07798956334590912, 0.24539847671985626, 0.14045976102352142, 0.062184758484363556, 0.30595719814300537, 0.305752694606781, 0.4559928774833679, 0.046311259269714355, -0.28019869327545166, -0.27473556995391846, 0.09752892702817917, -0.394935667514801, -0.09514857083559036, 0.3530004620552...	1	Critical Analysis on The Scream by Edvard Munch Edvard Munch was born on December 12 1863 in Loten Norway. He moved to Christiana, and spent most of his childhood there. Both his mother and his oldest sister suffered from tuberculosis and died before he reached the age of 14. At 18 he became more serious about his art and started attending art school. Edvard finally found a release for the pain he felt from his sister’s death. In 1886 he painted “The Sick Child”. Question 1: How did Edvard Munch attempt to visualize intense emotion in his paintings? Discuss in relation to particular paintings. Edvard Munch is a highly influential artist, pioneering many of the ideas that informed the German Expressionist movement. The crux of his work is in the reflection the death, grief and emotion of his own experiences. Drawing from his own tortured upbringing, with the death of his father, brother and sister, as well as his own mental and physical illnesses. There the academic traditions of the previous centuries, Edvard Munch impacted the art world as an instrumental leader in the development of modern German expressionism. His painting The Scream has made its mark in questioning the ideals of what is acceptable concerning the history of art. The paper will discuss Munch’s life history, uncovering the influences which led him to expressionism, as well as a detailed description and analysis of The Scream, including the historical art background of the times Critical Analysis of Edvard Munch's The Scream "The Scream", sometimes known as "The Cry" was painted by Edvard Munch in 1893. Some say Munch played a role in the development of German Expressionism, though the Norwegian painter turned down two offers to join the group, and preferred not to be classified, or 'put' into a category. This painting was part of Munch's "The Frieze of Life", a series of paintings each portraying a phase of life - as defined by Munch: Birth of Love, Blossoming The Starry Night and The Scream Vincent Van Gogh was born in the Netherlands on March 30, 1853. He pursued many other things in his life before deciding to become an artist. He was brought up in a religious atmosphere, being the son of a preacher. He was a preacher himself for a while in Borinage, a mining district in Belgium. At one point he wanted to dedicate his life to reaching out to those in poverty. At other points in his life he worked as an art salesman and a bookstore clerk. After being An Analysis of Art in Ancient China, Rome, and N. Europe Introduction One thing is permanent about art throughout the ages and civilizations of time: it always expresses some aspect of the culture that produced it. So it may be seen in Renaissance Italy in Michelangelo's David, or in Hellenistic Greece in the Dying Gaul. The Egyptian statue of Anubis reveals something about the spiritual belief of those ancient people, and the abstract expressionism of Kandinsky in the 20th century represents affected by mood when judging art, but also when creating it. Edvard Munch (1863-1944) painting The Scream (1893) is a good example of the views mentioned above. The Norwegian artist painted this work in a time where art was changing in history, and it is today one of the worlds most recognizable works of art. The Scream was painted before it became a trend among artist to focus on the inner feelings and emotion through their art. Munch admitted to suffering from insanity, both personally and thought	764	ENGLISH	1
Historical debate surrounding the war has provided various interpretations of its causes and origins, some of particular relevance to the view in question. The inevitability of the war – how far it was inevitable, and if it was at which point it became so – is a point of contention which depends upon the view one takes of many other factors: for example, if one took the intentionalist view of Hitler’s role in the war as “master-planner”, one would view war in 1939 as inevitable because it was planned by Hitler; if one were a Marxist historian one might view the incidence of the war as “historically inevitable” in much the same way that Khrushchev in Source A takes the view that the Nazi-Soviet Pact was historically inevitable, although perhaps not for entirely the same reasons. Later historiography, particularly after AJP Taylor’s Origins of the Second World War, would dispute the “inevitability” of war in 1939 and certainly the idea that Hitler was a master-planner – for if he were not, actions by other powers perhaps may have prevented war at that point; or perhaps the conditions of the international system after World War I made World War II very probable if not inevitable, Hitler or no Hitler.It is possible to sustain an adequate level of support for the view that war became inevitable by 1939. Firstly, if one accepts that war did eventually become inevitable, it is possible to argue that it was not before 1939. Source B, which dates from 1936, indicates a willingness on the part of Hitler to operate within a conciliatory and collective international system, and although he had acted unilaterally and without diplomatic consultation in remilitarising the Rhineland, opinion in Europe was largely persuaded that Hitler was entirely justified in doing so. It is also the case that the German forces were not at this point nearly strong enough to adequately defend Germany from a military response by France and/or Britain. Had such a united response occurred it is conceivable that Germany would have remained weakened and deterred from acquiring or even asserting any more of its demands, particularly territorial ones. The same is true of many other aspects of European relations before 1939 – for example, had Britain not made the Anglo-German Naval Agreement in 1935, bypassing the League of Nations and breaking the Stresa Front (as well as alienating Italy by other means) it is equally conceivable that a united front against Germany by Italy, France and Britain (and possibly the USSR) that continued into the mid-30s could have prevented the escalation of German expansion to the point reached by 1939.Source C claims that “war could only have been avoided in one of three ways”, and if these three things had failed to happen or could not happen by 1939, war would then be inevitable. Firstly that “Germany might have chosen to settle for her gains of 1938”: this of course did not happen, and from the intentionalist perception it could not happen, since, as indicated in Mein Kampf and elsewhere by the desire for Lebensraum, Hitler had planned to obtain far more territory than he in 1938 had acquired. Secondly that “[Germany’s] potential enemies might have combined together in a coalition” too formidable for Germany to face: by 1939, the chance of this happening too was inconceivably remote, since Italy had been decisively alienated from the West and allied with Germany through the Pact of Steel and the anti-Comintern Pact, and especially since in August 1939 the Nazi-Soviet Pact was signed, destroying any chance of Britain, France and the USSR allying against Germany at that point.Thirdly, “those same opponents might have decided to accept German expansion”: this particular possibility was considerably more likely than the other two, and certainly Hitler seemed to think so and had grounds for thinking so based on the past [in]actions of the British and French governments. Indeed the Soviet Union did precisely that and got “the best terms they could for themselves” when they agreed to carve up Poland with Germany in 1939. That Britain and France did decide to guarantee Poland’s security and did decide in September 1939 to honour that guarantee thus appears by this account to have been the immediate cause for war in 1939. If, then, there was a real possibility of Britain and France not doing so (and since they had been somewhat content to avoid war in September 1938 by signing away Czechoslovakia’s sovereignty at Munich, it would seem there was), then war could not be said to have been entirely inevitable in 1939. Taking the source at face value, then, in this respect the view in question would not (even though the source claims war could only have been avoided in three ways, which suggests a degree of inevitability) appear to be entirely valid.That the war was “a surprise to hardly anyone”, however, is very debateable. It implies very strongly that most of the European powers were predicting war by 1939 and were aware of its imminence and inevitability. Closer examination shows this not to be necessarily the case. Firstly, Hitler himself was surprised completely by the outbreak of general war in 1939. He was quite confident that Britain and France would not (largely because practically they could not, and indeed in actuality they did not) intervene to protect Poland and he had envisioned, for example in the Four Year Plan memorandum, that Germany would become prepared militarily for such a war by 1940.Source C seems pertinently to imply here that it was German expansionism which in 1939 brought war to Europe – “Germany pressed on, and war came” – but it may be more accurate to argue that, since German expansionism had perhaps been evident for a while prior to 1939 (indeed in the view of AJP Taylor Hitler’s expansionism can be traced back in German foreign policy to that of the Second Reich in the First World War), it was Britain and France finally pressing at all which brought war to Europe. AJP Taylor argued that Hitler did not so much press as sit back and wait for Britain and France to drop concessions into his lap. He met with no real international opposition to the eventual destruction of the treaty of Versailles, from the remilitarisation of the Rhineland to Anschluss, and was even assisted by Britain in particular in doing so (with for example the Naval and Munich agreements). The point at which war would come, then, would presumably be the point at which Britain and France decided to cease signing away sections of Europe to Hitler and instead declare war; since both countries could foresee that such a time would come, and could decide when it would be, they could hardly surprise themselves by declaring war (thus here the view in question seems to have some validity).However, Taylor’s argument here tends to ignore the fact that Hitler was often pro-active in his acquisition of territory – although he did not plan for Anschluss at exactly the time it occurred, and although his designs on Czechoslovakia did fluctuate according to the international circumstances, he did take it entirely upon himself to remilitarise the Rhineland, he did encourage unrest and agitation among Sudeten Germans and he did then take up the cause of Danzig with Poland without the generous assistance of France and Britain. In summation, then, that war in 1939 was a surprise to hardly anyone does depend significantly on how far one views Hitler or Germany as intending to start it.A war Hitler himself intended to start could not possibly have surprised him, but it did; and Britain and France, being the ones who declared it, could not have been particularly surprised either. If one views the European situation as being characterised by the acquiescence, even assistance of France and Britain in German activities then it would seem that Hitler should have been, as he was, quite surprised, and that the two Western powers could not have been very surprised at all. (The argument Richard Overy puts forward concerning the power balance of Europe is relevant here in explaining that there was a limit to how much of a blow to the European power status quo – which Germany wanted, as in WWI, to surpass – the West would tolerate.)Overall, then, the view is semi-valid; its claims are supported in some ways but contradicted in others (e.g. the claim implies rhetorically that no one was surprised by war and that everyone knew it was going to happen, when Hitler, crucially, probably did not). That war was inevitable by 1939 is arguable, but probably not entirely true purely in the sense that it’s difficult to argue that anything was completely inescapable. In the context of the situation at the time, however, what was politically and economically possible (e.g. Britain calculated by 1939 that it could not sustain armaments on the scale it had been for much longer at all, and thus if war was going to happen it had to happen sooner rather than later) made war a far more difficult eventuality to avoid and a far more likely solution to be chosen.	<urn:uuid:06dee82f-f06f-4e47-ba4f-0b31f135e6bf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://woodstock-online.com/essay-war-became-inevitable-by-1939-and-when-it-came-it-was-a-surprise-to-hardly-anyone/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00031.warc.gz	en	0.986458	1,858	3.453125	3	[ -0.3373309373855591, 0.4327552914619446, 0.05544615536928177, 0.1059395894408226, 0.008840374648571014, 0.14485502243041992, -0.11999715864658356, 0.15341271460056305, 0.11325788497924805, -0.08587093651294708, -0.030178111046552658, -0.24483150243759155, 0.12517380714416504, 0.74450188875...	2	Historical debate surrounding the war has provided various interpretations of its causes and origins, some of particular relevance to the view in question. The inevitability of the war – how far it was inevitable, and if it was at which point it became so – is a point of contention which depends upon the view one takes of many other factors: for example, if one took the intentionalist view of Hitler’s role in the war as “master-planner”, one would view war in 1939 as inevitable because it was planned by Hitler; if one were a Marxist historian one might view the incidence of the war as “historically inevitable” in much the same way that Khrushchev in Source A takes the view that the Nazi-Soviet Pact was historically inevitable, although perhaps not for entirely the same reasons. Later historiography, particularly after AJP Taylor’s Origins of the Second World War, would dispute the “inevitability” of war in 1939 and certainly the idea that Hitler was a master-planner – for if he were not, actions by other powers perhaps may have prevented war at that point; or perhaps the conditions of the international system after World War I made World War II very probable if not inevitable, Hitler or no Hitler.It is possible to sustain an adequate level of support for the view that war became inevitable by 1939. Firstly, if one accepts that war did eventually become inevitable, it is possible to argue that it was not before 1939. Source B, which dates from 1936, indicates a willingness on the part of Hitler to operate within a conciliatory and collective international system, and although he had acted unilaterally and without diplomatic consultation in remilitarising the Rhineland, opinion in Europe was largely persuaded that Hitler was entirely justified in doing so. It is also the case that the German forces were not at this point nearly strong enough to adequately defend Germany from a military response by France and/or Britain. Had such a united response occurred it is conceivable that Germany would have remained weakened and deterred from acquiring or even asserting any more of its demands, particularly territorial ones. The same is true of many other aspects of European relations before 1939 – for example, had Britain not made the Anglo-German Naval Agreement in 1935, bypassing the League of Nations and breaking the Stresa Front (as well as alienating Italy by other means) it is equally conceivable that a united front against Germany by Italy, France and Britain (and possibly the USSR) that continued into the mid-30s could have prevented the escalation of German expansion to the point reached by 1939.Source C claims that “war could only have been avoided in one of three ways”, and if these three things had failed to happen or could not happen by 1939, war would then be inevitable. Firstly that “Germany might have chosen to settle for her gains of 1938”: this of course did not happen, and from the intentionalist perception it could not happen, since, as indicated in Mein Kampf and elsewhere by the desire for Lebensraum, Hitler had planned to obtain far more territory than he in 1938 had acquired. Secondly that “[Germany’s] potential enemies might have combined together in a coalition” too formidable for Germany to face: by 1939, the chance of this happening too was inconceivably remote, since Italy had been decisively alienated from the West and allied with Germany through the Pact of Steel and the anti-Comintern Pact, and especially since in August 1939 the Nazi-Soviet Pact was signed, destroying any chance of Britain, France and the USSR allying against Germany at that point.Thirdly, “those same opponents might have decided to accept German expansion”: this particular possibility was considerably more likely than the other two, and certainly Hitler seemed to think so and had grounds for thinking so based on the past [in]actions of the British and French governments. Indeed the Soviet Union did precisely that and got “the best terms they could for themselves” when they agreed to carve up Poland with Germany in 1939. That Britain and France did decide to guarantee Poland’s security and did decide in September 1939 to honour that guarantee thus appears by this account to have been the immediate cause for war in 1939. If, then, there was a real possibility of Britain and France not doing so (and since they had been somewhat content to avoid war in September 1938 by signing away Czechoslovakia’s sovereignty at Munich, it would seem there was), then war could not be said to have been entirely inevitable in 1939. Taking the source at face value, then, in this respect the view in question would not (even though the source claims war could only have been avoided in three ways, which suggests a degree of inevitability) appear to be entirely valid.That the war was “a surprise to hardly anyone”, however, is very debateable. It implies very strongly that most of the European powers were predicting war by 1939 and were aware of its imminence and inevitability. Closer examination shows this not to be necessarily the case. Firstly, Hitler himself was surprised completely by the outbreak of general war in 1939. He was quite confident that Britain and France would not (largely because practically they could not, and indeed in actuality they did not) intervene to protect Poland and he had envisioned, for example in the Four Year Plan memorandum, that Germany would become prepared militarily for such a war by 1940.Source C seems pertinently to imply here that it was German expansionism which in 1939 brought war to Europe – “Germany pressed on, and war came” – but it may be more accurate to argue that, since German expansionism had perhaps been evident for a while prior to 1939 (indeed in the view of AJP Taylor Hitler’s expansionism can be traced back in German foreign policy to that of the Second Reich in the First World War), it was Britain and France finally pressing at all which brought war to Europe. AJP Taylor argued that Hitler did not so much press as sit back and wait for Britain and France to drop concessions into his lap. He met with no real international opposition to the eventual destruction of the treaty of Versailles, from the remilitarisation of the Rhineland to Anschluss, and was even assisted by Britain in particular in doing so (with for example the Naval and Munich agreements). The point at which war would come, then, would presumably be the point at which Britain and France decided to cease signing away sections of Europe to Hitler and instead declare war; since both countries could foresee that such a time would come, and could decide when it would be, they could hardly surprise themselves by declaring war (thus here the view in question seems to have some validity).However, Taylor’s argument here tends to ignore the fact that Hitler was often pro-active in his acquisition of territory – although he did not plan for Anschluss at exactly the time it occurred, and although his designs on Czechoslovakia did fluctuate according to the international circumstances, he did take it entirely upon himself to remilitarise the Rhineland, he did encourage unrest and agitation among Sudeten Germans and he did then take up the cause of Danzig with Poland without the generous assistance of France and Britain. In summation, then, that war in 1939 was a surprise to hardly anyone does depend significantly on how far one views Hitler or Germany as intending to start it.A war Hitler himself intended to start could not possibly have surprised him, but it did; and Britain and France, being the ones who declared it, could not have been particularly surprised either. If one views the European situation as being characterised by the acquiescence, even assistance of France and Britain in German activities then it would seem that Hitler should have been, as he was, quite surprised, and that the two Western powers could not have been very surprised at all. (The argument Richard Overy puts forward concerning the power balance of Europe is relevant here in explaining that there was a limit to how much of a blow to the European power status quo – which Germany wanted, as in WWI, to surpass – the West would tolerate.)Overall, then, the view is semi-valid; its claims are supported in some ways but contradicted in others (e.g. the claim implies rhetorically that no one was surprised by war and that everyone knew it was going to happen, when Hitler, crucially, probably did not). That war was inevitable by 1939 is arguable, but probably not entirely true purely in the sense that it’s difficult to argue that anything was completely inescapable. In the context of the situation at the time, however, what was politically and economically possible (e.g. Britain calculated by 1939 that it could not sustain armaments on the scale it had been for much longer at all, and thus if war was going to happen it had to happen sooner rather than later) made war a far more difficult eventuality to avoid and a far more likely solution to be chosen.	1,923	ENGLISH	1
Long Beach Pier, California In 1941 the US government commissioned the Hughes Aircraft Company to build an aircraft capable of carrying 700 men over long distances and be able to land on water. Wartime restrictions on resources meant that steel was in short supply, so the aircraft was built of laminated wood, covered in plastic and canvas. It was propelled by eight large engines. The cost was astonishingly high and the project was not completed until 1946, a year after the war had ended. Many in Congress were furious about the cost and time it had taken in building an aircraft that did not fulfil the job specified. They demanded that Howard Hughes demonstrate the aircraft flying. So, on 2nd November 1947, Howard Hughes obliged, taking the H-4 prototype out into Long Beach Harbour for a flight test. Thousands of onlookers had come to watch Hughes piloting the aircraft, nicknamed the Spruce Goose. The flight lasted less than a minute and reached a height of only seventy feet, it was evidently a bumpy ride. The aircraft never flew again, but Howard Hughes was so proud of the aircraft that he kept it in a climate-controlled hanger, always ready to fly again. After his death in 1976 it was transferred to the Evergreen Aviation Museum in McMinnville, Oregon, where it is to this day. An extraordinary piece of aviation history, although ultimately a failure.	<urn:uuid:57e92b3c-de59-4ee0-b12c-8228198c4e1a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://paintingsofpiers.com/postcards-writings/notes-long-beach-pier/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00499.warc.gz	en	0.981686	280	3.453125	3	[ 0.28601109981536865, 0.4524611532688141, -0.29746800661087036, -0.1257576197385788, 0.2587873041629791, 0.6310067176818848, 0.17020748555660248, 0.11617007106542587, -0.14311903715133667, 0.09638138860464096, -0.17083095014095306, 0.11733149737119675, 0.0780419409275055, 0.5474525094032288...	14	Long Beach Pier, California In 1941 the US government commissioned the Hughes Aircraft Company to build an aircraft capable of carrying 700 men over long distances and be able to land on water. Wartime restrictions on resources meant that steel was in short supply, so the aircraft was built of laminated wood, covered in plastic and canvas. It was propelled by eight large engines. The cost was astonishingly high and the project was not completed until 1946, a year after the war had ended. Many in Congress were furious about the cost and time it had taken in building an aircraft that did not fulfil the job specified. They demanded that Howard Hughes demonstrate the aircraft flying. So, on 2nd November 1947, Howard Hughes obliged, taking the H-4 prototype out into Long Beach Harbour for a flight test. Thousands of onlookers had come to watch Hughes piloting the aircraft, nicknamed the Spruce Goose. The flight lasted less than a minute and reached a height of only seventy feet, it was evidently a bumpy ride. The aircraft never flew again, but Howard Hughes was so proud of the aircraft that he kept it in a climate-controlled hanger, always ready to fly again. After his death in 1976 it was transferred to the Evergreen Aviation Museum in McMinnville, Oregon, where it is to this day. An extraordinary piece of aviation history, although ultimately a failure.	297	ENGLISH	1
While Joan of Arc was busy rescuing France from the English, another wonderful worker was busy in Germany . This was John Gutenberg, who was born in Mainz . The Germans — and most other people — think that he was the inventor of the art of printing with movable types. And so in the cities of Dresden and Mainz his countrymen have put up statues in his memory. Gutenberg's father was a man of good family. Very likely the boy was taught to read. But the books from which he learned were not like ours; they were written by hand. A better name for them than books is "manuscripts, " which means "hand-writings." While Gutenberg was growing up a new way of making books came into use, which was a great deal better than copying by hand. It was what is called block-printing. The printer first cut a block of hard wood the size of the page that he was going to print. Then he cut out every word of the written page upon the smooth face of his block. This had to be very carefully done. When it was finished the printer had to cut away the wood from the sides of every letter. This left the letters raised, as the letters are in books now printed for the blind. The block was now ready to be used. The letters were inked, paper was laid upon them and pressed down. With blocks the printer could make copies of a book a great deal faster than a man could write them by hand. But the making of the blocks took a long time, and each block would print only one page. Gutenberg enjoyed reading the manuscripts and block books that his parents and their wealthy friends had; and he often said it was a pity that only rich people could own books. Finally he determined to contrive some easy and quick way of printing. He did a great deal of his work in secret, for he thought it was much better that his neighbors should know nothing of what he was doing. So he looked for a workshop where no one would be likely to find him. He was now living in Strasburg, and there was in that city a ruined old building where, long before his time, a number of monks had lived. There was one room of the building which needed only a little repairing to make it fit to be used. So Gutenberg got the right to repair that room and use it as his workshop. All his neighbors wondered what became of him when he left home in the early morning, and where he had been when they saw him coming back late in the twilight. Some felt sure that he must be a wizard, and that he had meetings somewhere with the devil, and that the devil was helping him to do some strange business. Gutenberg did not care much what people had to say, and in his quiet room he patiently tried one experiment after another, often feeling very sad and discouraged day after day because his experiments did not succeed. At last the time came when he had no money left. He went back to his old home, Mainz , and there met a rich goldsmith named Fust (or Faust). Gutenberg told him how hard he had tried in Strasburg to find some way of making books cheaply, and how he had now no more money to carry on his experiments. Fust became greatly interested and gave Gutenberg what money he needed. But as the experiments did not at first succeed Fust lost patience. He quarreled with Gutenberg and said that he was doing nothing but spending money. At last he brought suit against him in the court, and the judge decided in favor of Fust. So everything in the world that Gutenberg had, even the tools with which he worked, came into Fust's possession.	<urn:uuid:a5bfcd7a-8baa-4bf5-b242-c9ce7a4cc50d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://e-reading.mobi/chapter.php/70959/105/Haaren_-_Famous_Men_of_The_Middle_Ages.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00011.warc.gz	en	0.995665	767	3.609375	4	[ -0.38472720980644226, 0.3975517153739929, 0.05792947858572006, 0.2719818353652954, -0.17001564800739288, -0.13302472233772278, -0.3216420114040375, 0.37504780292510986, -0.345636785030365, -0.30519264936447144, -0.10405994951725006, -0.09639233350753784, 0.04230321943759918, 0.134869545698...	1	While Joan of Arc was busy rescuing France from the English, another wonderful worker was busy in Germany . This was John Gutenberg, who was born in Mainz . The Germans — and most other people — think that he was the inventor of the art of printing with movable types. And so in the cities of Dresden and Mainz his countrymen have put up statues in his memory. Gutenberg's father was a man of good family. Very likely the boy was taught to read. But the books from which he learned were not like ours; they were written by hand. A better name for them than books is "manuscripts, " which means "hand-writings." While Gutenberg was growing up a new way of making books came into use, which was a great deal better than copying by hand. It was what is called block-printing. The printer first cut a block of hard wood the size of the page that he was going to print. Then he cut out every word of the written page upon the smooth face of his block. This had to be very carefully done. When it was finished the printer had to cut away the wood from the sides of every letter. This left the letters raised, as the letters are in books now printed for the blind. The block was now ready to be used. The letters were inked, paper was laid upon them and pressed down. With blocks the printer could make copies of a book a great deal faster than a man could write them by hand. But the making of the blocks took a long time, and each block would print only one page. Gutenberg enjoyed reading the manuscripts and block books that his parents and their wealthy friends had; and he often said it was a pity that only rich people could own books. Finally he determined to contrive some easy and quick way of printing. He did a great deal of his work in secret, for he thought it was much better that his neighbors should know nothing of what he was doing. So he looked for a workshop where no one would be likely to find him. He was now living in Strasburg, and there was in that city a ruined old building where, long before his time, a number of monks had lived. There was one room of the building which needed only a little repairing to make it fit to be used. So Gutenberg got the right to repair that room and use it as his workshop. All his neighbors wondered what became of him when he left home in the early morning, and where he had been when they saw him coming back late in the twilight. Some felt sure that he must be a wizard, and that he had meetings somewhere with the devil, and that the devil was helping him to do some strange business. Gutenberg did not care much what people had to say, and in his quiet room he patiently tried one experiment after another, often feeling very sad and discouraged day after day because his experiments did not succeed. At last the time came when he had no money left. He went back to his old home, Mainz , and there met a rich goldsmith named Fust (or Faust). Gutenberg told him how hard he had tried in Strasburg to find some way of making books cheaply, and how he had now no more money to carry on his experiments. Fust became greatly interested and gave Gutenberg what money he needed. But as the experiments did not at first succeed Fust lost patience. He quarreled with Gutenberg and said that he was doing nothing but spending money. At last he brought suit against him in the court, and the judge decided in favor of Fust. So everything in the world that Gutenberg had, even the tools with which he worked, came into Fust's possession.	758	ENGLISH	1
Saxophonist John Coltrane was born on Sept. 23, 1926. On what would have been his 93rd birthday, scholar and historian David Tegnell offers this guest Marking the 400-year African American struggle to survive and to be free of racism No one knows when Angela was born. But she was probably young. If she was 19 years old in 1619, she’d have been born in 1600, the year John translated into English and published A Geographical Historie of Africa, a book of racist ideas about Angela’s race. First written in 1526, and popular as late as the 19th century, its racist ideas apparently had to be true since they were written by an African Moor, Leo Africanus (who probably sought favor from the Italian court that had freed and converted him). “The Negroes likewise leade a beastly kinde of life, being utterly destitute of the use of reason, of dexteritie of wit, and of all artes,” Africanus wrote. “Yea they so behave themselves, as if they had continually lived in a forrest among wilde beasts.” For Kendi, this is both hopeful and hopeless in how far we have and have not progressed. The New York Times has also collected a number of pieces reflecting on the legacy. This includes an alternative history of slavery, the intertwined tale of sugar and slavery and the origins of today’s democracy. Based on his reading of this week’s story in the Times, Schank now wonders if maybe Epstein changed his mind and decided that the mothers of his children should all live with him (and one another) in New Mexico. “The fact that he came up with a new plan is not surprising to me,” Schank said. He was intent on clarifying that he always felt Epstein’s intentions, even with the women, were benign. “This guy was actually not a bad guy,” Schank told me at the end of our conversation. “I mean, put the 14-year-olds out of the picture. Those even make me think he was a bad guy. But to my knowledge he was not a bad guy. He was a good guy.” Usually, when we say “American slavery” or the “American slave trade,” we mean the American colonies or, later, the United States. But as we discussed … If you knew the history of tipping, you’d never see it the same way again. Our research shows that all of that sexual harassment—from customers, coworkers, and management—can be traced back to this whole culture of forcing women to make their income based on pleasing the customer. To me it’s all summed up by this one quote from Texas, where they earn $2.13 an hour before tips. This waitress was speaking at a Senate press conference, and she said: ‘Senators, what would it be like for you if your income depended on the happiness of the people you serve? Because my income depends on the people I serve, I have to put up with a guy groping by butt every day so I can feed my four year old son every day.’ via Daniel Goldsmith A cemetery found on a construction site is believed to contain remains of African-Americans forced to work on plantations through the so-called convict lease system.	<urn:uuid:87a049d6-1ca5-47fd-8a31-4e28dc037e13>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://collect.readwriterespond.com/tag/slavery/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00098.warc.gz	en	0.981445	711	3.28125	3	[ -0.17166271805763245, 0.42290863394737244, -0.1617279052734375, 0.11788194626569748, -0.4015547037124634, 0.2810317575931549, -0.20035479962825775, 0.027320796623826027, -0.17074736952781677, 0.07143634557723999, 0.039115361869335175, -0.07958666980266571, -0.06363996863365173, 0.001536611...	1	Saxophonist John Coltrane was born on Sept. 23, 1926. On what would have been his 93rd birthday, scholar and historian David Tegnell offers this guest Marking the 400-year African American struggle to survive and to be free of racism No one knows when Angela was born. But she was probably young. If she was 19 years old in 1619, she’d have been born in 1600, the year John translated into English and published A Geographical Historie of Africa, a book of racist ideas about Angela’s race. First written in 1526, and popular as late as the 19th century, its racist ideas apparently had to be true since they were written by an African Moor, Leo Africanus (who probably sought favor from the Italian court that had freed and converted him). “The Negroes likewise leade a beastly kinde of life, being utterly destitute of the use of reason, of dexteritie of wit, and of all artes,” Africanus wrote. “Yea they so behave themselves, as if they had continually lived in a forrest among wilde beasts.” For Kendi, this is both hopeful and hopeless in how far we have and have not progressed. The New York Times has also collected a number of pieces reflecting on the legacy. This includes an alternative history of slavery, the intertwined tale of sugar and slavery and the origins of today’s democracy. Based on his reading of this week’s story in the Times, Schank now wonders if maybe Epstein changed his mind and decided that the mothers of his children should all live with him (and one another) in New Mexico. “The fact that he came up with a new plan is not surprising to me,” Schank said. He was intent on clarifying that he always felt Epstein’s intentions, even with the women, were benign. “This guy was actually not a bad guy,” Schank told me at the end of our conversation. “I mean, put the 14-year-olds out of the picture. Those even make me think he was a bad guy. But to my knowledge he was not a bad guy. He was a good guy.” Usually, when we say “American slavery” or the “American slave trade,” we mean the American colonies or, later, the United States. But as we discussed … If you knew the history of tipping, you’d never see it the same way again. Our research shows that all of that sexual harassment—from customers, coworkers, and management—can be traced back to this whole culture of forcing women to make their income based on pleasing the customer. To me it’s all summed up by this one quote from Texas, where they earn $2.13 an hour before tips. This waitress was speaking at a Senate press conference, and she said: ‘Senators, what would it be like for you if your income depended on the happiness of the people you serve? Because my income depends on the people I serve, I have to put up with a guy groping by butt every day so I can feed my four year old son every day.’ via Daniel Goldsmith A cemetery found on a construction site is believed to contain remains of African-Americans forced to work on plantations through the so-called convict lease system.	696	ENGLISH	1
Although he was alive around 300 BCE, Chinese philosopher Mencius helped pave the way for future generations of Chinese thinkers and theologians. He is best known for his work with Confucianism, and his interpretations of Confucius' sayings shaped the way that the religion is now practiced. He also was one of the scholars at the Jixia Academy, a prestigious school for philosophers. His status allowed him to be one of China's most respected officials. Mencius maintained a high regard for education, but he was very specific on how he thought people should learn. He denounced memorization and other elementary forms of learning. Instead, he wanted people to awaken their cognizance and realize how powerful their minds could be. Mencius also believed that mankind was essentially good; however, society was a negative influence on peoples' behavior. He hoped that his influence would steer his culture in the right direction in order to help people grasp their full potential for goodness. This swayed his opinions on politics, as he believed that politicians should only stay in power as long as they were working on behalf of the public's best interest. These ideas and more are explored in the extensive collection of "The Life and Works of Mencius."	<urn:uuid:33cdbf9b-8883-481c-a720-d9c173b9a4c4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://books.mondadoristore.it/The-Life-and-Works-of-Mencius-Mencius/eae978142094816/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00087.warc.gz	en	0.990104	245	3.921875	4	[ -0.3871764540672302, 0.6511142253875732, 0.2872479557991028, -0.34132882952690125, -0.1493007242679596, 0.17766481637954712, 0.626746654510498, 0.20340315997600555, -0.20478707551956177, -0.3094775378704071, 0.21826563775539398, -0.17083115875720978, 0.4742908179759979, 0.24258577823638916...	3	Although he was alive around 300 BCE, Chinese philosopher Mencius helped pave the way for future generations of Chinese thinkers and theologians. He is best known for his work with Confucianism, and his interpretations of Confucius' sayings shaped the way that the religion is now practiced. He also was one of the scholars at the Jixia Academy, a prestigious school for philosophers. His status allowed him to be one of China's most respected officials. Mencius maintained a high regard for education, but he was very specific on how he thought people should learn. He denounced memorization and other elementary forms of learning. Instead, he wanted people to awaken their cognizance and realize how powerful their minds could be. Mencius also believed that mankind was essentially good; however, society was a negative influence on peoples' behavior. He hoped that his influence would steer his culture in the right direction in order to help people grasp their full potential for goodness. This swayed his opinions on politics, as he believed that politicians should only stay in power as long as they were working on behalf of the public's best interest. These ideas and more are explored in the extensive collection of "The Life and Works of Mencius."	253	ENGLISH	1
Lesson Plan - Get It! Have you ever heard the story of Alexander and Bucephalus? This is the story of how young Alexander the Great got his horse, the massive black stallion who would later carry him through many battles on his way to conquering the world. Watch as Alexander begs his father to let him have the horse that none of the men can ride. Alexander The Great and Bucephalus - The myth begins - By Oliver Stone from Alexander the Great Channel: Alexander the Great conquered ancient Greece, Persia, Egypt, and India. He loved Greek culture so much that he spread it throughout his empire. But before we get to Alexander, let's meet Alexander's father: Philip, King of Macedonia. Philip was a young man around 300 BC when he was kidnapped, taken from his homeland, and held hostage for three years in a Greek city. - Do you think he, therefore, grew up hating the Greeks? - Might he promise to destroy them if he ever had the power to do so? On the contrary, Philip learned to love everything Greek! He began to speak the Greek language and adopt Greek ways. He agreed with the Greeks, who saw his own people as "barbarians" while the Greeks were "civilized." He resolved that if he ever got back home, he would bring Greek education and Greek culture to his homeland. He did return home to Macedonia, a kingdom just north of Greece, where he grew up and eventually became king. As king, his dream was to unite all the Greek city-states into one empire under his rule. Not only that, but he wanted to lead the united Greeks against the great Persian Empire! He wanted to conquer the known world and spread Greek culture everywhere. Image by Bibi Saint-Pol [Persian War graphics removed], via Wikimedia Commons, is licensed under the CC BY-SA 3.0 Unported license. Philip died before he could accomplish that daring plan; however, he left behind someone even more daring in his place: his son, Alexander. - Do you think King Philip passed on his love for Greek learning and culture to his son? Yes, he sure did! Though he was not able to spend much time at home teaching his child, Philip hired tutors for him. Alexander's first tutor was a relative of his mother. This man's name was Leonidas of Epirus, and his goal was not to be gentle with Alexander but to "toughen him up." He taught Alexander how to ride a horse and how to fight and made him go on long marches with very little food. Lysimachus of Acarnania, Alexander's next tutor, was very different. King Philip hired him to make his boy more refined and civilized. So Lysimachus taught Alexander how to read, write, and play the lyre, which is a small, U-shaped stringed instrument. Because of this, Alexander maintained a love of music throughout his life. Finally, as the "finishing touch" to his education, Philip hired the famous philosopher Aristotle to teach Alexander. Aristotle was from Macedonia as well, so he was willing to come "home" and help his own people learn the things he had learned from the Greek philosopher Plato in Athens. Image by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris, via Wikimedia Commons, is in the public domain. So, when Philip died, he left Alexander with a great education, a strong and united kingdom, and a large army. What else could he do but go out and conquer the world? Watch the following animated video for an amusing introduction to Alexander's life before answering the questions below it. Alexander the Great \| World Ahoy from WORLD AHOY animation series: Let's watch one more short video on Alexander. This time, make a list of all the things you learn that were not in the previous video. Alexander the Great - Skwirk Educational Animations from Skwirk Online Education: As you learned in the videos, Alexander did not live long enough to enjoy ruling his new empire. However, when he died, a whole new world was begun called the "Hellenistic" period of world history. This time period of Greek influence lasted until the beginning of the Roman Empire. Now that you've met Alexander, head over to the Got It? section where you'll learn some more about his tutor Aristotle and create a timeline of Alexander's life and adventures!	<urn:uuid:ab79140d-1720-4fcc-9032-c64b7b425d5c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.elephango.com/index.cfm/pg/k12learning/lcid/13128/Alexander_the_Great_and_the_Spread_of_Greek_Culture	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00273.warc.gz	en	0.981167	919	3.40625	3	[ -0.11371757090091705, 0.355619341135025, 0.3161117732524872, -0.018043866381049156, -0.8393456935882568, -0.6053078770637512, 0.024262312799692154, 0.7012944221496582, 0.021239696070551872, 0.04108940809965134, -0.12255929410457611, -0.2819417715072632, 0.010644559748470783, 0.177468150854...	3	Lesson Plan - Get It! Have you ever heard the story of Alexander and Bucephalus? This is the story of how young Alexander the Great got his horse, the massive black stallion who would later carry him through many battles on his way to conquering the world. Watch as Alexander begs his father to let him have the horse that none of the men can ride. Alexander The Great and Bucephalus - The myth begins - By Oliver Stone from Alexander the Great Channel: Alexander the Great conquered ancient Greece, Persia, Egypt, and India. He loved Greek culture so much that he spread it throughout his empire. But before we get to Alexander, let's meet Alexander's father: Philip, King of Macedonia. Philip was a young man around 300 BC when he was kidnapped, taken from his homeland, and held hostage for three years in a Greek city. - Do you think he, therefore, grew up hating the Greeks? - Might he promise to destroy them if he ever had the power to do so? On the contrary, Philip learned to love everything Greek! He began to speak the Greek language and adopt Greek ways. He agreed with the Greeks, who saw his own people as "barbarians" while the Greeks were "civilized." He resolved that if he ever got back home, he would bring Greek education and Greek culture to his homeland. He did return home to Macedonia, a kingdom just north of Greece, where he grew up and eventually became king. As king, his dream was to unite all the Greek city-states into one empire under his rule. Not only that, but he wanted to lead the united Greeks against the great Persian Empire! He wanted to conquer the known world and spread Greek culture everywhere. Image by Bibi Saint-Pol [Persian War graphics removed], via Wikimedia Commons, is licensed under the CC BY-SA 3.0 Unported license. Philip died before he could accomplish that daring plan; however, he left behind someone even more daring in his place: his son, Alexander. - Do you think King Philip passed on his love for Greek learning and culture to his son? Yes, he sure did! Though he was not able to spend much time at home teaching his child, Philip hired tutors for him. Alexander's first tutor was a relative of his mother. This man's name was Leonidas of Epirus, and his goal was not to be gentle with Alexander but to "toughen him up." He taught Alexander how to ride a horse and how to fight and made him go on long marches with very little food. Lysimachus of Acarnania, Alexander's next tutor, was very different. King Philip hired him to make his boy more refined and civilized. So Lysimachus taught Alexander how to read, write, and play the lyre, which is a small, U-shaped stringed instrument. Because of this, Alexander maintained a love of music throughout his life. Finally, as the "finishing touch" to his education, Philip hired the famous philosopher Aristotle to teach Alexander. Aristotle was from Macedonia as well, so he was willing to come "home" and help his own people learn the things he had learned from the Greek philosopher Plato in Athens. Image by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris, via Wikimedia Commons, is in the public domain. So, when Philip died, he left Alexander with a great education, a strong and united kingdom, and a large army. What else could he do but go out and conquer the world? Watch the following animated video for an amusing introduction to Alexander's life before answering the questions below it. Alexander the Great \| World Ahoy from WORLD AHOY animation series: Let's watch one more short video on Alexander. This time, make a list of all the things you learn that were not in the previous video. Alexander the Great - Skwirk Educational Animations from Skwirk Online Education: As you learned in the videos, Alexander did not live long enough to enjoy ruling his new empire. However, when he died, a whole new world was begun called the "Hellenistic" period of world history. This time period of Greek influence lasted until the beginning of the Roman Empire. Now that you've met Alexander, head over to the Got It? section where you'll learn some more about his tutor Aristotle and create a timeline of Alexander's life and adventures!	897	ENGLISH	1
Adolf Hitler is mainly associated with the atrocities of the Holocaust. He was a German politician who led the Nazi Party. Hitler also served as the Chancellor of Germany as well as the Führer (leader) of Nazi Germany. He was the dictator of German Reich, who started WWII in Europe when he invaded Poland in September 1939. Hitler is known as one of the worst dictators in history. 4. Early Life Adolf Hitler was born to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl in Austria on April 20, 1889. Three of his siblings did not survive infancy. The Hitler family settled in Passau, Germany when Hitler was three and returned to Austria in 1894. The family relocated to Hafeld in 1895 where Hitler studied at Volksschule. Hitler and his father always had conflicts because he refused to conform to the school's strict discipline. Hitler's father sent him to the Realschule in Linz against Hitler's wishes to become an artist. Hitler had embraced German nationalism from a young age and spoke of loyalty only to Germany. After his father's death, Hitler transferred to the Realschule in Steyr but left in 1905. 3. Rise to Power Starting in 1905, Hitler worked as a casual laborer and subsequently as a painter in Vienna. Hitler's works were turned down by the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna in 1907 and 1908. In 1907, Hitler's mother died leaving him penniless and living in men's hostels and homeless shelters. During the period Hitler lived in Vienna, the city was rife with racism and religious prejudice. Hitler became exposed to such German nationalists as Georg Ritter Von Schönerer and philosophers such as Nietzsche, Darwin, and Schopenhauer. Historians continue to debate on when Hitler became an anti-Semite although he states he became an anti-Semite in Vienna in Mein Kampf. He moved to Munich in 1913 after receiving the last installment of his father's estate, a move which historians claim was made to avoid joining the Austro-Hungarian Army. Hitler enlisted in the Bavarian Army at the onset of WWI where he was decorated for his service. He was admitted to a hospital in Beelitz and again in Pasewalk after a mustard gas attack left him temporarily blind. Hitler was significantly affected by German's defeat in the war. The Treaty of Versailles further implemented economic sanctions and demanded Germany pay heavy costs of damages. He, like other Germany nationalists, believed that the country had been betrayed by Marxists and other civilian leaders. After the war, Hitler went back to Munich and continued to work for the army. After promotion to an intelligence officer, Hitler was assigned to monitor the German Worker's Party (DAP). He warmed up to the nationalist, anti-Marxist, anti-capitalist, and anti-Semitic ideas of Anton Drexler, who was the party's founder. Hitler subsequently joined the Party in 1919. DAP was renamed Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP), sometimes abbreviated as Nazi. He gained popularity for his speeches which were against Jews, the Treaty of Versailles, and Marxists. He was arrested for nine months after leading a failed coup, and in 1932, he became second in the presidential elections. As President, Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler as chancellor. Hitler worked his way towards establishing full control over the executive and legislative branches of government. 2. Hitler as a Politician Hitler's expansion pursuits, first in Austria and Czechoslovakia, led his army into Poland and in effect triggered World War Two. The first phase of the war featured several victories for Germany, whose superior war tactics took down such powers as France and Belgium. However, Germany was defeated by the Allies and the Soviets. Historians suggest that Hitler suffered several health problems such as Parkinson's disease, syphilis, coronary sclerosis, and irritable bowel syndrome. The persecution of Jews and disabled people by the Nazis was heavily criticized. Although he had set out to rebuild and reassert Germany's position, WWII left the country in ruins and its people in despair. 1. Death and Legacy In early 1945, Hitler began anticipating Germany's defeat. On April 29, Hitler wedded Eva Braun and dictated his will to Traudl Junge, his secretary. After he was told of Benito Mussolini's execution, Hitler shot himself while his new wife bit into a cyanide capsule. The bodies of the two were doused with petrol. Hitler is infamously remembered for the Holocaust, where an estimated six million Jews in Europe were killed. Who Was Adolf Hitler? Adolf Hitler was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party and responsible for the atrocities of the Holocaust. About the Author Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:a18c1f4e-bec2-4491-ab8f-0fdfa5e01fc8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/who-was-adolf-hitler.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00403.warc.gz	en	0.983814	1,041	3.390625	3	[ -0.17465560138225555, 0.8960855603218079, -0.12340660393238068, 0.062404315918684006, 0.15494614839553833, 0.19208790361881256, 0.3721916973590851, 0.08898715674877167, -0.14882948994636536, -0.32736271619796753, 0.3257637619972229, -0.431939959526062, 0.20286720991134644, 0.31266528367996...	1	Adolf Hitler is mainly associated with the atrocities of the Holocaust. He was a German politician who led the Nazi Party. Hitler also served as the Chancellor of Germany as well as the Führer (leader) of Nazi Germany. He was the dictator of German Reich, who started WWII in Europe when he invaded Poland in September 1939. Hitler is known as one of the worst dictators in history. 4. Early Life Adolf Hitler was born to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl in Austria on April 20, 1889. Three of his siblings did not survive infancy. The Hitler family settled in Passau, Germany when Hitler was three and returned to Austria in 1894. The family relocated to Hafeld in 1895 where Hitler studied at Volksschule. Hitler and his father always had conflicts because he refused to conform to the school's strict discipline. Hitler's father sent him to the Realschule in Linz against Hitler's wishes to become an artist. Hitler had embraced German nationalism from a young age and spoke of loyalty only to Germany. After his father's death, Hitler transferred to the Realschule in Steyr but left in 1905. 3. Rise to Power Starting in 1905, Hitler worked as a casual laborer and subsequently as a painter in Vienna. Hitler's works were turned down by the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna in 1907 and 1908. In 1907, Hitler's mother died leaving him penniless and living in men's hostels and homeless shelters. During the period Hitler lived in Vienna, the city was rife with racism and religious prejudice. Hitler became exposed to such German nationalists as Georg Ritter Von Schönerer and philosophers such as Nietzsche, Darwin, and Schopenhauer. Historians continue to debate on when Hitler became an anti-Semite although he states he became an anti-Semite in Vienna in Mein Kampf. He moved to Munich in 1913 after receiving the last installment of his father's estate, a move which historians claim was made to avoid joining the Austro-Hungarian Army. Hitler enlisted in the Bavarian Army at the onset of WWI where he was decorated for his service. He was admitted to a hospital in Beelitz and again in Pasewalk after a mustard gas attack left him temporarily blind. Hitler was significantly affected by German's defeat in the war. The Treaty of Versailles further implemented economic sanctions and demanded Germany pay heavy costs of damages. He, like other Germany nationalists, believed that the country had been betrayed by Marxists and other civilian leaders. After the war, Hitler went back to Munich and continued to work for the army. After promotion to an intelligence officer, Hitler was assigned to monitor the German Worker's Party (DAP). He warmed up to the nationalist, anti-Marxist, anti-capitalist, and anti-Semitic ideas of Anton Drexler, who was the party's founder. Hitler subsequently joined the Party in 1919. DAP was renamed Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP), sometimes abbreviated as Nazi. He gained popularity for his speeches which were against Jews, the Treaty of Versailles, and Marxists. He was arrested for nine months after leading a failed coup, and in 1932, he became second in the presidential elections. As President, Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler as chancellor. Hitler worked his way towards establishing full control over the executive and legislative branches of government. 2. Hitler as a Politician Hitler's expansion pursuits, first in Austria and Czechoslovakia, led his army into Poland and in effect triggered World War Two. The first phase of the war featured several victories for Germany, whose superior war tactics took down such powers as France and Belgium. However, Germany was defeated by the Allies and the Soviets. Historians suggest that Hitler suffered several health problems such as Parkinson's disease, syphilis, coronary sclerosis, and irritable bowel syndrome. The persecution of Jews and disabled people by the Nazis was heavily criticized. Although he had set out to rebuild and reassert Germany's position, WWII left the country in ruins and its people in despair. 1. Death and Legacy In early 1945, Hitler began anticipating Germany's defeat. On April 29, Hitler wedded Eva Braun and dictated his will to Traudl Junge, his secretary. After he was told of Benito Mussolini's execution, Hitler shot himself while his new wife bit into a cyanide capsule. The bodies of the two were doused with petrol. Hitler is infamously remembered for the Holocaust, where an estimated six million Jews in Europe were killed. Who Was Adolf Hitler? Adolf Hitler was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party and responsible for the atrocities of the Holocaust. About the Author Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	1,080	ENGLISH	1
During anti-bullying, Year 4 learn about bullying. By Kayleigh Brewster This year's anti-bullying week was kicked off with a lovely assembly to help introduce the students to the topic of bullying. This was also supported by an odd-socks day to show support for everyone’s differences. Year 4 were also able to learn more about bullying in their lessons. They discovered that the different kinds of bullying are; physical, mental, emotional and social. The students were then able to learn how to spot behaviour that indicated that someone is a bully or is being bullied. They were also able to learn about the different effects of bullying. It was surprising for some to learn that the people most at risk are those who have been bullied AND have bullied others. After learning about bullying, the year 4 students were able to create posters to help the other students in the school. These posters were then presented to year 3 and flexi students to help them learn more about bullying and help them recognise and know what to do should they ever see it happening. They will gain perfect knowledge of English. Your child will become a global citizen with wide understanding of local and international topics. We put a strong emphasis on the development on subject specific skills rather than on acquisition of knowledge. Emphasis on skills development (not just memorising). Individual approach; school’s ability to motivate for improvement. Your child will be excited to come to school.	<urn:uuid:33d57391-560e-4a4a-9886-97cd4146fca9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ischool.cz/about-us/news/anti-bullying-presentation-from-y4-1-127	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00217.warc.gz	en	0.982615	301	3.609375	4	[ 0.24684101343154907, 0.06554898619651794, 0.25498655438423157, 0.03191443905234337, -0.18851818144321442, 0.04094599559903145, 0.18574799597263336, 0.027062801644206047, -0.09514673799276352, -0.33884620666503906, 0.19801169633865356, 0.04392362758517265, 0.1928005814552307, 0.097380049526...	2	During anti-bullying, Year 4 learn about bullying. By Kayleigh Brewster This year's anti-bullying week was kicked off with a lovely assembly to help introduce the students to the topic of bullying. This was also supported by an odd-socks day to show support for everyone’s differences. Year 4 were also able to learn more about bullying in their lessons. They discovered that the different kinds of bullying are; physical, mental, emotional and social. The students were then able to learn how to spot behaviour that indicated that someone is a bully or is being bullied. They were also able to learn about the different effects of bullying. It was surprising for some to learn that the people most at risk are those who have been bullied AND have bullied others. After learning about bullying, the year 4 students were able to create posters to help the other students in the school. These posters were then presented to year 3 and flexi students to help them learn more about bullying and help them recognise and know what to do should they ever see it happening. They will gain perfect knowledge of English. Your child will become a global citizen with wide understanding of local and international topics. We put a strong emphasis on the development on subject specific skills rather than on acquisition of knowledge. Emphasis on skills development (not just memorising). Individual approach; school’s ability to motivate for improvement. Your child will be excited to come to school.	292	ENGLISH	1
The city Rome was built up through organization and planning, also with a few lucky breaks. The development of the Roman Empire followed the same exact layout. Rome was able to successfully conquer and control their empire through their strong military, government, and some choice geography. The military of Rome could not be matched. It was organized down to every last soldier. It started with groups of some 5,000 men, wearing armor from head to toe, called a Roman legion. Each legion was then divided into smaller groups called centuries having eighty men. Then the Calvary, soldiers on horseback, gave extra support to the initial legion. This set up allowed any century of the legion to act alone, letting the army as a whole focus on many different things at one time. To top off the great strategically organization of the army, each soldier went through extensive training, producing some of the fiercest and skilled warriors of the ancient times. Moreover, the Roman military believed in the greatness of Rome and were very loyal and devout. Joining army was thought to be a worthy cause and for a lot of people a better way of life. In the army each soldier was introduced to Roman the roman lifestyle and culture. When they weren't fighting in wars the Army was put to work benefiting the empire with bridges, roads, canals, aqueducts, and even ports. The same attitude during war went into to work, allowing the Romans to complete huge projects in a short time. No other military system has ever had the same essence as the Roman Military. Rome had a strong and steady government. It was headed by an emperor, who was an absolute ruler. Augustus was the founder of this government. He ruled with a mighty and fair hand. Having the support of the military, he managed to maintain the borders of the Empire and protect it form invasion. He paid government officials to handle grain supply, tax collection, and he even started a mail system.	<urn:uuid:93356d08-4e51-4018-821a-6128c0fe1053>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/47960.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00244.warc.gz	en	0.985884	396	3.34375	3	[ -0.388566792011261, 0.4246516227722168, 0.6406724452972412, 0.021481914445757866, -0.5157963037490845, -0.20072323083877563, -0.07351739704608917, 0.27390438318252563, 0.10863281786441803, -0.31531596183776855, 0.08242177963256836, -0.13093596696853638, -0.018107986077666283, 0.42518815398...	4	The city Rome was built up through organization and planning, also with a few lucky breaks. The development of the Roman Empire followed the same exact layout. Rome was able to successfully conquer and control their empire through their strong military, government, and some choice geography. The military of Rome could not be matched. It was organized down to every last soldier. It started with groups of some 5,000 men, wearing armor from head to toe, called a Roman legion. Each legion was then divided into smaller groups called centuries having eighty men. Then the Calvary, soldiers on horseback, gave extra support to the initial legion. This set up allowed any century of the legion to act alone, letting the army as a whole focus on many different things at one time. To top off the great strategically organization of the army, each soldier went through extensive training, producing some of the fiercest and skilled warriors of the ancient times. Moreover, the Roman military believed in the greatness of Rome and were very loyal and devout. Joining army was thought to be a worthy cause and for a lot of people a better way of life. In the army each soldier was introduced to Roman the roman lifestyle and culture. When they weren't fighting in wars the Army was put to work benefiting the empire with bridges, roads, canals, aqueducts, and even ports. The same attitude during war went into to work, allowing the Romans to complete huge projects in a short time. No other military system has ever had the same essence as the Roman Military. Rome had a strong and steady government. It was headed by an emperor, who was an absolute ruler. Augustus was the founder of this government. He ruled with a mighty and fair hand. Having the support of the military, he managed to maintain the borders of the Empire and protect it form invasion. He paid government officials to handle grain supply, tax collection, and he even started a mail system.	394	ENGLISH	1
Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese navigator and explorer who became the first person to sail directly from Europe to India. He made several voyages to India. By the time he returned from his first voyage to India in 1499, he had spent 300 days at sea, more than two years from home, and had covered a distance of 24,000 miles. Da Gama sailed with a crew of 170 and returned with only 54 - most of his men died from diseases like scurvy. His brother Paolo was among who died. Details of Vasco da Gama’s early life are not precisely known. He was born to Estevao da Gama and Isabel Sodre in the period between 1460 and 1469 along with five brothers and one sister. He is thought to have learned mathematics and navigation at Evora town. He joined his father’s Order of Santiago around 1480. He married a woman of noble birth after his first voyage and had six sons and one daughter. Vasco da Gama spent most of his life from around the age of twenty as a sea navigator. His first mission was to map a sea route to India via the southern coast of Africa. During this time, John II, the king of Portugal, sought a way to break through the spice trade between Europe and Asia. Da Gama began his voyage on July 8, 1497, with a crew of 170 men and four ships. The fleet made stops at Mozambique, Mombasa and the friendly Malindi before moving on to Calicut on the coast of India in May 1498. India welcomed him warmly, but soon the relations were spoilt by the cheap gifts he offered in India and conflicts with Muslim traders. He abandoned his mission and returned to Portugal having failed at securing a trade treaty in Calicut. He made two other voyages to India before his death in 1524. During his voyages, da Gama faced challenges such as unpredictable weather changes, attacks from other sailors, hostilities in the towns he stopped by, and the death of his crew members especially due to scurvy and loss of vessels. Food supplies also posed a problem to his crew as they spoilt fast. Poor relations with the leaders in Calicut kept him from successfully signing a trade treaty between India and Portugal. Vasco da Gama is widely recognized for mapping the route to India which opened up trade between Portugal and India. His voyage encouraged the Portuguese crown to establish trade posts on the eastern coast of Africa with a view of maintaining Portugal’s trade routes. He played a significant role in establishing Portugal as an early colonizing power along the east coast of Africa. For his contributions, he was awarded titles and honors such as the Admiral of the Seas of Arabia, Persia and all the Orient as Chief of the Portuguese India Armadas, the Second Viceroy of India, and as the First Count of Vidigueira. Death and Legacy Vasco da Gama died three months after his third voyage to India in 1524 after contracting malaria. He was initially buried in India, but his remains were transferred to Portugal and interred in the Monastery of the Hieronymites. Da Gama is recognized as one of the pioneering sea navigators in the Europe to East sea route. The Vasco da Gama Church in Kerala, the Vasco da Gama port city in Goa, the Vasco da Gama tower, football clubs and the Vasco da Gama Bridge are some of the establishments in his honor. Who Was Vasco da Gama? Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese navigator and explorer who became the first person to sail directly from Europe to India. He made several voyages to India. By the time he returned from his first voyage to India in 1499, he had spent 300 days at sea, more than two years from home, and had covered a distance of 24,000 miles. About the Author Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:b8860984-9f9f-4c2a-ba55-bee520d3c966>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/vasco-da-gama-important-figures-in-history.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00422.warc.gz	en	0.982038	880	3.640625	4	[ 0.0178677998483181, 0.3293776512145996, 0.3937687277793884, -0.3094307780265808, -0.630902886390686, -0.30155521631240845, 0.3227657675743103, 0.14195844531059265, 0.09695650637149811, -0.21742591261863708, -0.011659076437354088, -0.7320008277893066, -0.2246999740600586, 0.4773877859115600...	2	Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese navigator and explorer who became the first person to sail directly from Europe to India. He made several voyages to India. By the time he returned from his first voyage to India in 1499, he had spent 300 days at sea, more than two years from home, and had covered a distance of 24,000 miles. Da Gama sailed with a crew of 170 and returned with only 54 - most of his men died from diseases like scurvy. His brother Paolo was among who died. Details of Vasco da Gama’s early life are not precisely known. He was born to Estevao da Gama and Isabel Sodre in the period between 1460 and 1469 along with five brothers and one sister. He is thought to have learned mathematics and navigation at Evora town. He joined his father’s Order of Santiago around 1480. He married a woman of noble birth after his first voyage and had six sons and one daughter. Vasco da Gama spent most of his life from around the age of twenty as a sea navigator. His first mission was to map a sea route to India via the southern coast of Africa. During this time, John II, the king of Portugal, sought a way to break through the spice trade between Europe and Asia. Da Gama began his voyage on July 8, 1497, with a crew of 170 men and four ships. The fleet made stops at Mozambique, Mombasa and the friendly Malindi before moving on to Calicut on the coast of India in May 1498. India welcomed him warmly, but soon the relations were spoilt by the cheap gifts he offered in India and conflicts with Muslim traders. He abandoned his mission and returned to Portugal having failed at securing a trade treaty in Calicut. He made two other voyages to India before his death in 1524. During his voyages, da Gama faced challenges such as unpredictable weather changes, attacks from other sailors, hostilities in the towns he stopped by, and the death of his crew members especially due to scurvy and loss of vessels. Food supplies also posed a problem to his crew as they spoilt fast. Poor relations with the leaders in Calicut kept him from successfully signing a trade treaty between India and Portugal. Vasco da Gama is widely recognized for mapping the route to India which opened up trade between Portugal and India. His voyage encouraged the Portuguese crown to establish trade posts on the eastern coast of Africa with a view of maintaining Portugal’s trade routes. He played a significant role in establishing Portugal as an early colonizing power along the east coast of Africa. For his contributions, he was awarded titles and honors such as the Admiral of the Seas of Arabia, Persia and all the Orient as Chief of the Portuguese India Armadas, the Second Viceroy of India, and as the First Count of Vidigueira. Death and Legacy Vasco da Gama died three months after his third voyage to India in 1524 after contracting malaria. He was initially buried in India, but his remains were transferred to Portugal and interred in the Monastery of the Hieronymites. Da Gama is recognized as one of the pioneering sea navigators in the Europe to East sea route. The Vasco da Gama Church in Kerala, the Vasco da Gama port city in Goa, the Vasco da Gama tower, football clubs and the Vasco da Gama Bridge are some of the establishments in his honor. Who Was Vasco da Gama? Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese navigator and explorer who became the first person to sail directly from Europe to India. He made several voyages to India. By the time he returned from his first voyage to India in 1499, he had spent 300 days at sea, more than two years from home, and had covered a distance of 24,000 miles. About the Author Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	903	ENGLISH	1
Hawks Class Teacher: Mrs Osei-Konadu Hawks Teaching Assistant: Mrs Grant Wagtails Class Teacher: Miss Doyle Wagtails Teaching Assistant: Mrs Swallow This term, year 3 looked at Iron age as our topic for the term. To climax our learning and to help the children relate the theory to a bit of hands-on experience, we visited the Andover Iron age museum last week. The children were fortunate enough to travel back in time to Danebury Hillfort to visit a tribe and were allowed to explore and touch their most expensive jewellery, artefact and a few tools. We managed to travel back to the 2ist century early enough for everyone to go home safely. This week Wagtails and Hawks have been creating some wonderful paintings of Stonehenge as part of our Stone Age topic. We are very proud of their attention to detail. Well done Year 3. As part of our topic for this term, we have been learning about Stonehenge. Although archaeologists have found out many things about the site, it remains a mystery and there are many unanswered questions. Why was it built? Who built it? What did early man do there? How did they move the enormous stones so many miles? Stonehenge took about 1500 years to build, so Hawks and Wagtails decided to save time and build it out of biscuits. We started by mixing green icing as grass. Chocolate bourbons made excellent trilithons, and we took turns to balance them carefully with icing as glue, then arranged them in a horseshoe shape. It was rather like playing Jenga – a steady hand was vital! Early man brought the blue stones from Pembrokeshire in Wales, but ours came from Lidl and thankfully were not quite as heavy as the four ton originals. Once Stonehenge was built, we admired our work -briefly – then took photos so you can see our masterpiece. Hope you like them as much as we did. This week Wagtails and Hawks have been experimenting with different materials. They have created some fantastic prehistoric weapons using clay. Well done Year 3!	<urn:uuid:a8a4b44d-39a1-42f5-939d-dbcbf3de4e77>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wellingtonprimary.org.uk/Pages/Page.asp?PageID=181	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00415.warc.gz	en	0.981854	442	3.453125	3	[ -0.09823781251907349, 0.27050063014030457, -0.12268179655075073, 0.04177943989634514, -0.5290578007698059, 0.30783364176750183, 0.2257428765296936, 0.19584111869335175, -0.7405577301979065, -0.08454515039920807, -0.05387844890356064, -0.7363185286521912, -0.2551179528236389, 0.718169033527...	4	Hawks Class Teacher: Mrs Osei-Konadu Hawks Teaching Assistant: Mrs Grant Wagtails Class Teacher: Miss Doyle Wagtails Teaching Assistant: Mrs Swallow This term, year 3 looked at Iron age as our topic for the term. To climax our learning and to help the children relate the theory to a bit of hands-on experience, we visited the Andover Iron age museum last week. The children were fortunate enough to travel back in time to Danebury Hillfort to visit a tribe and were allowed to explore and touch their most expensive jewellery, artefact and a few tools. We managed to travel back to the 2ist century early enough for everyone to go home safely. This week Wagtails and Hawks have been creating some wonderful paintings of Stonehenge as part of our Stone Age topic. We are very proud of their attention to detail. Well done Year 3. As part of our topic for this term, we have been learning about Stonehenge. Although archaeologists have found out many things about the site, it remains a mystery and there are many unanswered questions. Why was it built? Who built it? What did early man do there? How did they move the enormous stones so many miles? Stonehenge took about 1500 years to build, so Hawks and Wagtails decided to save time and build it out of biscuits. We started by mixing green icing as grass. Chocolate bourbons made excellent trilithons, and we took turns to balance them carefully with icing as glue, then arranged them in a horseshoe shape. It was rather like playing Jenga – a steady hand was vital! Early man brought the blue stones from Pembrokeshire in Wales, but ours came from Lidl and thankfully were not quite as heavy as the four ton originals. Once Stonehenge was built, we admired our work -briefly – then took photos so you can see our masterpiece. Hope you like them as much as we did. This week Wagtails and Hawks have been experimenting with different materials. They have created some fantastic prehistoric weapons using clay. Well done Year 3!	438	ENGLISH	1
Though the musical Hetty Feather is a work of fiction based upon a popular children’s book, the author of that novel, Jacqueline Wilson, got the idea for her main character after doing some charitable work where she learned more about the real Foundling Hospital. That real Foundling Hospital was established in London when a British mariner and shipbuilder, Thomas Coram, returned to his native country in 1720 after many years’ living in America. Coram was greatly disturbed to see children, abandoned by their parents and ignored by society, suffering as they tried to live alone in the streets of London. Thomas Coram set about to change these circumstances by rallying influential men and women to embrace these children and their plight. By bringing the matter to the attention of respected members of society, including artists and scientists, wives of noblemen, and, ultimately, King George II and his wife Queen Caroline, Coram finally secured a charter for the Foundling Hospital, which admitted its first children in 1741. The Foundling Hospital continued to gather public support and approval through the efforts of Coram and, surprisingly, a group of dedicated artists who, through their charitable actions, became early governors of the institution. Artist William Hogarth, composer George Frideric Handel, and author Charles Dickens are just some of the artistic and literary figures who built relationships with the Foundling Hospital and advocated for its support. Most children who arrived at the Foundling Hospital were given new names to protect the identities of their parents. Mothers were allowed to leave a token which could be used as an identifying marker if, when financially stable and able to resume parental duties, they came to reclaim their children. Because of that, children were able to be fostered as infants and toddlers in outside homes, but most were ineligible for adoption and were returned to the hospital when they reached school age. Children were taught to read and write, given religious instruction and even music lessons, and reared to take their place as members of the working class. Most girls learned domestic skills while boys were mainly brought up to serve in the military. The Foundling Hospital cared for over 25,000 children in its 200-year-plus operation. In 1954 the last foundling child was placed in foster care, and the name of the institution was changed simply to Coram. Coram now is a leading adoption agency and child advocacy charity in the United Kingdom, continuing the mission of its founder by seeking loving families for children and providing support services to them to assure they have a chance at a better life.	<urn:uuid:9894b848-45ea-4b2f-b963-d2e86e3b3e1a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.delawaretheatre.org/single-post/2017/04/17/The-Real-Foundling-Hospital-in-London	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00162.warc.gz	en	0.98398	520	3.515625	4	[ 0.1253340244293213, -0.04618346691131592, 0.38772204518318176, 0.1608859747648239, -0.02439749613404274, 0.30651235580444336, -0.16743633151054382, -0.16444790363311768, 0.006165174767374992, 0.08576220273971558, 0.4311387538909912, -0.012148560956120491, 0.15596425533294678, 0.26731210947...	5	Though the musical Hetty Feather is a work of fiction based upon a popular children’s book, the author of that novel, Jacqueline Wilson, got the idea for her main character after doing some charitable work where she learned more about the real Foundling Hospital. That real Foundling Hospital was established in London when a British mariner and shipbuilder, Thomas Coram, returned to his native country in 1720 after many years’ living in America. Coram was greatly disturbed to see children, abandoned by their parents and ignored by society, suffering as they tried to live alone in the streets of London. Thomas Coram set about to change these circumstances by rallying influential men and women to embrace these children and their plight. By bringing the matter to the attention of respected members of society, including artists and scientists, wives of noblemen, and, ultimately, King George II and his wife Queen Caroline, Coram finally secured a charter for the Foundling Hospital, which admitted its first children in 1741. The Foundling Hospital continued to gather public support and approval through the efforts of Coram and, surprisingly, a group of dedicated artists who, through their charitable actions, became early governors of the institution. Artist William Hogarth, composer George Frideric Handel, and author Charles Dickens are just some of the artistic and literary figures who built relationships with the Foundling Hospital and advocated for its support. Most children who arrived at the Foundling Hospital were given new names to protect the identities of their parents. Mothers were allowed to leave a token which could be used as an identifying marker if, when financially stable and able to resume parental duties, they came to reclaim their children. Because of that, children were able to be fostered as infants and toddlers in outside homes, but most were ineligible for adoption and were returned to the hospital when they reached school age. Children were taught to read and write, given religious instruction and even music lessons, and reared to take their place as members of the working class. Most girls learned domestic skills while boys were mainly brought up to serve in the military. The Foundling Hospital cared for over 25,000 children in its 200-year-plus operation. In 1954 the last foundling child was placed in foster care, and the name of the institution was changed simply to Coram. Coram now is a leading adoption agency and child advocacy charity in the United Kingdom, continuing the mission of its founder by seeking loving families for children and providing support services to them to assure they have a chance at a better life.	526	ENGLISH	1
Character Analysis Throughout the the novel Jack has changed a lot. He changed from a nice young boy to a savage animal that can’t control itself. There has been many conflicts in the story that made him change who he is and how he acts. In Lord of the flies by William Golding, Jack represents loss of innocence through stealing, wanting to kill, and his friendships. His first sign of change was when he had stolen piggy’s glasses from him. Jack and his tribe stole many things from Ralph’s tribe. They stole several burning sticks from the signal fire on the beach. This plays a key factor in Jack’s personality and the way he will act. Since he had stolen items from his friends it lead him to a part in his life when he wanted to kill. “I thought I might Kill.” (Golding 40). Jack didn’t have the heart to kill anything. It started when he saw the sow. He tried to kill it but he didn’t, he couldn’t bring himself to do it. After that had happened he creates a mask for himself, because he was embarrassed about the pig. This was another key factor in his transformation because he looked at himself in a mirror and saw this beast/ young boy and he knew he was changing. “I expect the beast to disguised himself”. ( Golding 143) Jack was never good at friendships. He always had this mentality that he was better than everyone at everything. Ralph and Jack would always fight or have heated arguments over the dumbest things. Especially when they would argue over who is the leader. Whenever that would happen it always ends with a disagreement. He created his own group with his own members and now there are 2 groups on the island. ” Your not good at a job like this”. ( Golding 274)By the end of the book Jack changed from the beginning. Jack has became this beast that isn’t human anymore. He was a demanding child when he was younger. You don’t lose your innocence when you are in a tough situation in life.	<urn:uuid:b3e761ac-df5b-4193-a24a-36fe18e551b1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://scientifictimes.org/character-couldnt-bring-himself-to-do-it-after-that/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00539.warc.gz	en	0.990766	437	3.3125	3	[ -0.4918580949306488, 0.08165740966796875, 0.48945021629333496, 0.16728302836418152, -0.0820794552564621, -0.0572391115128994, 0.47469013929367065, 0.23591992259025574, 0.051496993750333786, -0.0696825161576271, 0.34096625447273254, -0.15121664106845856, 0.34733399748802185, 0.1539226770401...	1	Character Analysis Throughout the the novel Jack has changed a lot. He changed from a nice young boy to a savage animal that can’t control itself. There has been many conflicts in the story that made him change who he is and how he acts. In Lord of the flies by William Golding, Jack represents loss of innocence through stealing, wanting to kill, and his friendships. His first sign of change was when he had stolen piggy’s glasses from him. Jack and his tribe stole many things from Ralph’s tribe. They stole several burning sticks from the signal fire on the beach. This plays a key factor in Jack’s personality and the way he will act. Since he had stolen items from his friends it lead him to a part in his life when he wanted to kill. “I thought I might Kill.” (Golding 40). Jack didn’t have the heart to kill anything. It started when he saw the sow. He tried to kill it but he didn’t, he couldn’t bring himself to do it. After that had happened he creates a mask for himself, because he was embarrassed about the pig. This was another key factor in his transformation because he looked at himself in a mirror and saw this beast/ young boy and he knew he was changing. “I expect the beast to disguised himself”. ( Golding 143) Jack was never good at friendships. He always had this mentality that he was better than everyone at everything. Ralph and Jack would always fight or have heated arguments over the dumbest things. Especially when they would argue over who is the leader. Whenever that would happen it always ends with a disagreement. He created his own group with his own members and now there are 2 groups on the island. ” Your not good at a job like this”. ( Golding 274)By the end of the book Jack changed from the beginning. Jack has became this beast that isn’t human anymore. He was a demanding child when he was younger. You don’t lose your innocence when you are in a tough situation in life.	419	ENGLISH	1
The magnificent, timeless drama is the world's most famous tale of "star-crossed lovers." The young, unshakable love of Juliet and Romeo defies the feud that divides their families—the Capulets and Montagues—as their desperate need to be together, their secret meetings, and finally their concealed marriage drive them toward tragedy. A masterwork that has long captured the hearts of audiences, this romantic tragedy has become part of the literary heritage of all peoples in all nations. William Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in April 1564, and his birth is traditionally celebrated on April 23. The facts of his life, known from surviving documents, are sparse. He was one of eight children born to John Shakespeare, a merchant of some standing in his community. William probably went to the King’s New School in Stratford, but he had no university education. In November 1582, at the age of eighteen, he married Anne Hathaway, eight years his senior, who was pregnant with their first child, Susanna. She was born on May 26, 1583. Twins, a boy, Hamnet ( who would die at age eleven), and a girl, Judith, were born in 1585. By 1592 Shakespeare had gone to London working as an actor and already known as a playwright. A rival dramatist, Robert Greene, referred to him as “an upstart crow, beautified with our feathers.” Shakespeare became a principal shareholder and playwright of the successful acting troupe, the Lord Chamberlain’s Men (later under James I, called the King’s Men). In 1599 the Lord Chamberlain’s Men built and occupied the Globe Theater in Southwark near the Thames River. Here many of Shakespeare’s plays were performed by the most famous actors of his time, including Richard Burbage, Will Kempe, and Robert Armin. In addition to his 37 plays, Shakespeare had a hand in others, including Sir Thomas More and The Two Noble Kinsmen, and he wrote poems, including Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece. His 154 sonnets were published, probably without his authorization, in 1609. In 1611 or 1612 he gave up his lodgings in London and devoted more and more time to retirement in Stratford, though he continued writing such plays as The Tempest and Henry VII until about 1613. He died on April 23 1616, and was buried in Holy Trinity Church, Stratford. No collected edition of his plays was published during his life-time, but in 1623 two members of his acting company, John Heminges and Henry Condell, put together the great collection now called the First Folio.	<urn:uuid:64ec437f-3054-4e1e-ab00-0cf2de1a2486>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://m.sanmin.com.tw/Product/index/000358995	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00542.warc.gz	en	0.990587	562	3.3125	3	[ 0.2703332006931305, 0.004679360426962376, 0.595763623714447, -0.1949567198753357, -0.3444786071777344, -0.02264898084104061, 0.14654269814491272, -0.08489088714122772, -0.0240219347178936, -0.09744860231876373, 0.18774646520614624, -0.14555159211158752, -0.023488352075219154, 0.30314302444...	1	The magnificent, timeless drama is the world's most famous tale of "star-crossed lovers." The young, unshakable love of Juliet and Romeo defies the feud that divides their families—the Capulets and Montagues—as their desperate need to be together, their secret meetings, and finally their concealed marriage drive them toward tragedy. A masterwork that has long captured the hearts of audiences, this romantic tragedy has become part of the literary heritage of all peoples in all nations. William Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in April 1564, and his birth is traditionally celebrated on April 23. The facts of his life, known from surviving documents, are sparse. He was one of eight children born to John Shakespeare, a merchant of some standing in his community. William probably went to the King’s New School in Stratford, but he had no university education. In November 1582, at the age of eighteen, he married Anne Hathaway, eight years his senior, who was pregnant with their first child, Susanna. She was born on May 26, 1583. Twins, a boy, Hamnet ( who would die at age eleven), and a girl, Judith, were born in 1585. By 1592 Shakespeare had gone to London working as an actor and already known as a playwright. A rival dramatist, Robert Greene, referred to him as “an upstart crow, beautified with our feathers.” Shakespeare became a principal shareholder and playwright of the successful acting troupe, the Lord Chamberlain’s Men (later under James I, called the King’s Men). In 1599 the Lord Chamberlain’s Men built and occupied the Globe Theater in Southwark near the Thames River. Here many of Shakespeare’s plays were performed by the most famous actors of his time, including Richard Burbage, Will Kempe, and Robert Armin. In addition to his 37 plays, Shakespeare had a hand in others, including Sir Thomas More and The Two Noble Kinsmen, and he wrote poems, including Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece. His 154 sonnets were published, probably without his authorization, in 1609. In 1611 or 1612 he gave up his lodgings in London and devoted more and more time to retirement in Stratford, though he continued writing such plays as The Tempest and Henry VII until about 1613. He died on April 23 1616, and was buried in Holy Trinity Church, Stratford. No collected edition of his plays was published during his life-time, but in 1623 two members of his acting company, John Heminges and Henry Condell, put together the great collection now called the First Folio.	592	ENGLISH	1
January 27, 1997 VALLIAMMA AND NAGAPPAN - NOTES NAGAPPAN AND VALLIAMMA - two young Indians in their ‘teens, who gave their lives in the satyagraha led by Mahatma Gandhi in South Africa - symbolise the contribution of people of diverse communities in the long struggle for freedom and dignity in this rainbow nation. They constitute an unbreakable link between South Africa and India - partners in a common struggle. They were the first of several Indians in the Johannesburg area who gave their lives in the liberation struggle. They were followed in recent years by Suliman “Babla” Saloojee and Ahmed Mohamed Timol who died in detention; and Yusuf Akhalwaya and Prakash Napier who fell in the armed struggle. The Indian people in the Transvaal launched a non-violent struggle in 1906, under the leadership of Gandhi, in defiance of legislation designed to harass and humiliate them. No less than 2,500 persons from the small Indian community of ten thousand went to prison, many of them repeatedly. The authorities tried to disrupt the campaign and break the morale of the resisters by various means, including the enforcement of harsh prison conditions. Swamy Nagappan volunteered as a resister and went to prison in 1909. He and his colleagues were forced to break stones from early morning in the bitter cold. He contracted double pneumonia and died on July 6, 1909, soon after release. He was also eighteen then. His companions said that “he thought of the struggle and struggle alone till he breathed his last. He never repented of going to jail...” The campaign was later suspended in the hope of reaching a negotiated settlement, but had to be renewed in September 1913, after the formation of the Union of South Africa. The Cape Supreme Court had delivered a judgment declaring that marriages which were not contracted under Christian rites were invalid, thus invalidating most Indian marriages. The government ignored appeals by the Indian community for legislative redress. The resistance was extended to the whole of South Africa and Gandhi invited women to join. One of the volunteers was Valliamma, a young girl of sixteen or seventeen from Doornfontein. Doornfontein had played an important role in the Satyagraha in the Transvaal. Thambi Naidoo, one of the closest associates of Gandhi who went to prison fourteen times, lived there. His entire family, including his pregnant wife, volunteered in this last stage of the struggle. Valliamma’s father, Munuswami Moodaliar - who lived on President Street and owned a fruit and vegetable store on Market Street - was an ardent supporter of the resistance and had spent a term in prison. He could not join the resisters this time as he was ill and due to undergo an operation. His wife, Mangalam, went with Valliamma. They hawked without permit, crossed into Natal in defiance of the law, and proceeded from town to town exhorting the Indian workers to strike. They were arrested on December 22, 1913, as they crossed back into the Transvaal at Volksrust and sentenced to three months’ imprisonment with hard labour. Valliamma was ill with fever when jailed and her condition deteriorated in prison. The prison authorities offered her release and encouraged her to go home but she refused. When she was released on 11 February, she was suffering greatly. Gandhi visited her at home and wrote that “her emaciated body was terrible thing to behold”. But she declared that she was ready to go to jail again and did not mind if she had to die for the honour of the Indians and India. She passed away on February 22, 1914. To quote Gandhi, “Valliamma was no more with us in the flesh, but she left us the heritage of an immortal name...” One of the last engagements of Gandhi before he left South Africa was to attend the unveiling of the gravestones of Nagappan and Valliamma in the Braamfontein Cemetery on July 15, 1914. It was a sign of madness of apartheid that the cemetery was declared a white area, denying Indians access to the graves of their martyrs. Now, finally, they are restored to all the people to inspire them in their efforts to build a non-racial, non-sexist and democratic South Africa - or in the words of Mahatma Gandhi in 1908, a nation where “all the different races commingle and produce a civilisation that perhaps the world has not yet seen”.	<urn:uuid:0c3a1021-b4b7-4c61-a24a-1e7fb0be8c25>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://muthalnaidoo.co.za/article-categories/indian-south-african-history-enuga-reddy/345-valliamma-and-nagappan	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00451.warc.gz	en	0.98519	962	3.84375	4	[ -0.17452310025691986, 0.6727412939071655, 0.014708613976836205, -0.03203798830509186, -0.2839602530002594, 0.006211495958268642, 0.13424052298069, 0.11798658967018127, -0.38109302520751953, -0.10521778464317322, 0.3237797021865845, -0.35837098956108093, 0.26593130826950073, 0.2434493899345...	6	January 27, 1997 VALLIAMMA AND NAGAPPAN - NOTES NAGAPPAN AND VALLIAMMA - two young Indians in their ‘teens, who gave their lives in the satyagraha led by Mahatma Gandhi in South Africa - symbolise the contribution of people of diverse communities in the long struggle for freedom and dignity in this rainbow nation. They constitute an unbreakable link between South Africa and India - partners in a common struggle. They were the first of several Indians in the Johannesburg area who gave their lives in the liberation struggle. They were followed in recent years by Suliman “Babla” Saloojee and Ahmed Mohamed Timol who died in detention; and Yusuf Akhalwaya and Prakash Napier who fell in the armed struggle. The Indian people in the Transvaal launched a non-violent struggle in 1906, under the leadership of Gandhi, in defiance of legislation designed to harass and humiliate them. No less than 2,500 persons from the small Indian community of ten thousand went to prison, many of them repeatedly. The authorities tried to disrupt the campaign and break the morale of the resisters by various means, including the enforcement of harsh prison conditions. Swamy Nagappan volunteered as a resister and went to prison in 1909. He and his colleagues were forced to break stones from early morning in the bitter cold. He contracted double pneumonia and died on July 6, 1909, soon after release. He was also eighteen then. His companions said that “he thought of the struggle and struggle alone till he breathed his last. He never repented of going to jail...” The campaign was later suspended in the hope of reaching a negotiated settlement, but had to be renewed in September 1913, after the formation of the Union of South Africa. The Cape Supreme Court had delivered a judgment declaring that marriages which were not contracted under Christian rites were invalid, thus invalidating most Indian marriages. The government ignored appeals by the Indian community for legislative redress. The resistance was extended to the whole of South Africa and Gandhi invited women to join. One of the volunteers was Valliamma, a young girl of sixteen or seventeen from Doornfontein. Doornfontein had played an important role in the Satyagraha in the Transvaal. Thambi Naidoo, one of the closest associates of Gandhi who went to prison fourteen times, lived there. His entire family, including his pregnant wife, volunteered in this last stage of the struggle. Valliamma’s father, Munuswami Moodaliar - who lived on President Street and owned a fruit and vegetable store on Market Street - was an ardent supporter of the resistance and had spent a term in prison. He could not join the resisters this time as he was ill and due to undergo an operation. His wife, Mangalam, went with Valliamma. They hawked without permit, crossed into Natal in defiance of the law, and proceeded from town to town exhorting the Indian workers to strike. They were arrested on December 22, 1913, as they crossed back into the Transvaal at Volksrust and sentenced to three months’ imprisonment with hard labour. Valliamma was ill with fever when jailed and her condition deteriorated in prison. The prison authorities offered her release and encouraged her to go home but she refused. When she was released on 11 February, she was suffering greatly. Gandhi visited her at home and wrote that “her emaciated body was terrible thing to behold”. But she declared that she was ready to go to jail again and did not mind if she had to die for the honour of the Indians and India. She passed away on February 22, 1914. To quote Gandhi, “Valliamma was no more with us in the flesh, but she left us the heritage of an immortal name...” One of the last engagements of Gandhi before he left South Africa was to attend the unveiling of the gravestones of Nagappan and Valliamma in the Braamfontein Cemetery on July 15, 1914. It was a sign of madness of apartheid that the cemetery was declared a white area, denying Indians access to the graves of their martyrs. Now, finally, they are restored to all the people to inspire them in their efforts to build a non-racial, non-sexist and democratic South Africa - or in the words of Mahatma Gandhi in 1908, a nation where “all the different races commingle and produce a civilisation that perhaps the world has not yet seen”.	978	ENGLISH	1
Individual independence was highly valued in Myaamia village communities and examples abound of leaders informing Europeans that they could “order” nothing and that in fact the more they gave orders the more they diminished their status. In 1721, Father Pierre Francois Xavier de Charlevoix stated: “These chiefs generally have no great marks of outward respect paid them, and if they are never disobeyed, it is because they know how to set bounds to their authority. It is true that they request or propose, rather than command; and never exceed the boundaries of that small share of authority with which they are invested.” The daily stuff of life, the boring humdrum that fed, clothed, housed, and educated the community didn’t require governance. Individuals and family groups worked this stuff out for themselves. In short, leaders had no control over the lives of their people. Instead, leaders were perceived as servants, and it might be more aptly stated that their people controlled them. Additionally, no village could dictate to other villages. A particular village might be more influential than others, but there was no control exerted. Below, is a list of Myaamia leadership positions that would have existed in a typical village in the 1700s. akima (male civil leader) – Within each politically autonomous village there was typically one akima, although at times some villages were known to have civil leaders working in pairs or triads. The akima served his community as an ambassador and as a mediator in disputes or discussions that the community desired to create consensus around. akimaahkwia (female civil leader) – Each village also had one akimaahkwia, though just like their male counterparts there could be more than one. There was usually a family relationship between the akima and akimaahkwia. The akimaahkwia served her community as a mediator in disputes or discussions that the community desired to create consensus around. She worked with female heads of families in this endeavor. kaapia (the chief’s assistant) – The kaapia was responsible for advising the akima and for equitably dividing things that the village had gained collectively. neenawihtoowa (war party leader) – they served their villages primarily as the leaders of war parties, which were small groups of 30 men who sought to attack an enemy villages to take captives for adoption or for killing in reprisal for a death within their home village. War leaders also served as village police, who enforced restrictions regarding disruptions of group hunts and abuse of resources important to the group. maawikima (council chief) – the maawikima was selected when multiple villages came together for negotiations and needed to send a representative to speak for the whole group. This role became increasingly important during the decades that followed the Treaty of Greenville (1795). maamiikaahkia akima (large scale war leader) – this war leader worked to coordinate the efforts of many war party leaders from many villages. Sometimes this leader coordinated war efforts between Myaamia villages and near neighbors like the Wyandot, Shawnee, Delaware, etc. The maamiikaahkia akima is a newer position that evolved during the heightened conflicts of the 1780s and 1790s.	<urn:uuid:c2afd222-1791-4aa5-9f4a-6908a09ec8db>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://aacimotaatiiyankwi.org/2011/06/16/how-did-the-miami-people-govern-themselves-faq/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00201.warc.gz	en	0.981833	676	3.90625	4	[ -0.3793080449104309, 0.11993300914764404, -0.032157037407159805, -0.18423213064670563, -0.20505282282829285, -0.16241398453712463, 0.48370659351348877, 0.15090347826480865, -0.18939368426799774, 0.027898095548152924, 0.09206099808216095, 0.11871355026960373, 0.28254184126853943, 0.15397347...	6	Individual independence was highly valued in Myaamia village communities and examples abound of leaders informing Europeans that they could “order” nothing and that in fact the more they gave orders the more they diminished their status. In 1721, Father Pierre Francois Xavier de Charlevoix stated: “These chiefs generally have no great marks of outward respect paid them, and if they are never disobeyed, it is because they know how to set bounds to their authority. It is true that they request or propose, rather than command; and never exceed the boundaries of that small share of authority with which they are invested.” The daily stuff of life, the boring humdrum that fed, clothed, housed, and educated the community didn’t require governance. Individuals and family groups worked this stuff out for themselves. In short, leaders had no control over the lives of their people. Instead, leaders were perceived as servants, and it might be more aptly stated that their people controlled them. Additionally, no village could dictate to other villages. A particular village might be more influential than others, but there was no control exerted. Below, is a list of Myaamia leadership positions that would have existed in a typical village in the 1700s. akima (male civil leader) – Within each politically autonomous village there was typically one akima, although at times some villages were known to have civil leaders working in pairs or triads. The akima served his community as an ambassador and as a mediator in disputes or discussions that the community desired to create consensus around. akimaahkwia (female civil leader) – Each village also had one akimaahkwia, though just like their male counterparts there could be more than one. There was usually a family relationship between the akima and akimaahkwia. The akimaahkwia served her community as a mediator in disputes or discussions that the community desired to create consensus around. She worked with female heads of families in this endeavor. kaapia (the chief’s assistant) – The kaapia was responsible for advising the akima and for equitably dividing things that the village had gained collectively. neenawihtoowa (war party leader) – they served their villages primarily as the leaders of war parties, which were small groups of 30 men who sought to attack an enemy villages to take captives for adoption or for killing in reprisal for a death within their home village. War leaders also served as village police, who enforced restrictions regarding disruptions of group hunts and abuse of resources important to the group. maawikima (council chief) – the maawikima was selected when multiple villages came together for negotiations and needed to send a representative to speak for the whole group. This role became increasingly important during the decades that followed the Treaty of Greenville (1795). maamiikaahkia akima (large scale war leader) – this war leader worked to coordinate the efforts of many war party leaders from many villages. Sometimes this leader coordinated war efforts between Myaamia villages and near neighbors like the Wyandot, Shawnee, Delaware, etc. The maamiikaahkia akima is a newer position that evolved during the heightened conflicts of the 1780s and 1790s.	679	ENGLISH	1
Jacques Gilles Henri Goguet \|Born\|\|11 March 1767\| La Flotte, France \|Died\|\|21 April 1794 27) (aged\| Bray-Saint-Christophe, Aisne, France \|Years of service\|\|1789–1794\| \|Rank\|\|General of Division\| Jacques Gilles Henri Goguet (11 March 1767 – 21 April 1794) rose to command a French division during the French Revolutionary Wars before he was assassinated by his own soldiers after a defeat. Trained as a physician, he studied medicine at the University of Montpellier before becoming a member of the French National Guard in 1789 . He joined a volunteer battalion in 1792 and fought at Jemappes in November that year. In 1793 he was promoted to general officer and transferred to the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees . In September 1793 when a Spanish army threatened to surround Perpignan, the French army commander fled, leaving the army leaderless. In the emergency, Goguet cooperated with Eustache Charles d'Aoust to win the Battle of Peyrestortes. A few days later he commanded the right column under Dagobert at Truillas, where poor relations with his commander led to the failure of the attack . The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802 and resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted France against Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia and several other monarchies. They are divided in two periods: the War of the First Coalition (1792–97) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802). Initially confined to Europe, the fighting gradually assumed a global dimension. After a decade of constant warfare and aggressive diplomacy, France had conquered a wide array of territories, from the Italian Peninsula and the Low Countries in Europe to the Louisiana Territory in North America. French success in these conflicts ensured the spread of revolutionary principles over much of Europe. The National Guard is a French military, gendarmerie, and police reserve force, active in its current form since 2016 but originally founded in 1789 during the French Revolution. The Battle of Jemappes took place near the town of Jemappes in Hainaut, Austrian Netherlands, near Mons during the War of the First Coalition, part of the French Revolutionary Wars. One of the first major offensive battles of the war, it was a victory for the armies of the infant French Republic, and saw the French Armée du Nord, which included many inexperienced volunteers, defeat a substantially smaller regular Austrian army. Goguet transferred to the Army of the North with the rank of general of division. He led his division at Le Cateau. In one of the operations during the Siege of Landrecies his troops were repulsed at Prémont by Coalition troops under the Duke of York. During the retreat, a mutinous group of soldiers fired on Goguet and fatally wounded him. Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, then a chef de brigade (colonel), harangued the guilty regiment and convinced the troops to arrest the assassins. A captain was condemned to death for inciting his men to commit the crime. The Army of the North or Armée du Nord is a name given to several historical units of the French Army. The first was one of the French Revolutionary Armies that fought with distinction against the First Coalition from 1792 to 1795. Others existed during the Peninsular War, the Hundred Days and the Franco-Prussian War. The Battle of Le Cateau took place at the start of the 1794 Flanders Campaign during the War of the First Coalition, part of the French Revolutionary Wars. It saw three Republican French divisions led by Antoine Balland, Jacques Gilles Henri Goguet and Jacques Fromentin attack a Habsburg Austrian force commanded by Paul Kray. The Austrians drove off the French and inflicted four French casualties for every Austrian casualty. The Siege of Landrecies was a military operation conducted by the veldleger of the Dutch States Army, commanded by the Hereditary Prince, against the fortress of Landrecies, garrisoned by troops of the First French Republic under general Henri Victor Roulland during the Spring 1794 campaign of the Flanders Campaign, as part of the War of the First Coalition. The fortress capitulated on 30 April 1794. The Army of the Eastern Pyrenees was one of the French Revolutionary armies. It fought against the Kingdom of Spain in Rousillon, the Cerdanya and Catalonia during the War of the Pyrenees. This army and the Army of the Western Pyrenees were formed by splitting the original Army of the Pyrenees at the end of April 1793 soon after the war started. Shortly after the Peace of Basel on 22 July 1795, the fighting ended and the army was dissolved on 12 October that same year. Many of its units and generals were transferred to join the Army of Italy and fought under Napoleon Bonaparte in 1796. Pierre François Sauret de la Borie led a combat division under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte during the Castiglione Campaign in 1796. He enlisted in the French army as a private in 1756. During the Seven Years' War he fought at Hastenbeck and Rossbach. He became a first lieutenant in 1789 and a lieutenant colonel in 1792. Assigned to the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees, served with distinction during the War of the Pyrenees against Spain. He was promoted to general officer in 1793 and became one of three infantry division commanders in the field army. He led his division at Palau, Boulou, Collioure, Black Mountain, Roses, and Bascara. He transferred to the Army of Italy in 1795. Bonaparte called him a very good soldier, but unlucky. He retired from active military service in order to enter politics. The Battle of Peyrestortes saw soldiers of the First French Republic fighting troops of the Kingdom of Spain during the War of the Pyrenees. Forces from the French Army of the Eastern Pyrenees, temporarily commanded by Eustache Charles d'Aoust and Jacques Gilles Henri Goguet, defeated two divisions of the Army of Catalonia led by Juan de Courten and Jerónimo Girón-Moctezuma, Marquis de las Amarillas. This Spanish setback in an attempt to capture Perpignan marked the high point of their invasion of Roussillon. Louis Charbonnier was a general of mediocre talent who commanded a French army for several months during the French Revolutionary Wars. In 1780 he enlisted in the French Royal Army. With the advent of the French Revolution his promotion became very rapid. In 1792 he was elected second in command of a volunteer battalion. He led his troops at Jemappes and Neerwinden. He was promoted to general of brigade in November 1793 and general of division in January 1794. A week later he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Army of the Ardennes. François Joseph Drouot de Lamarche briefly commanded a French army during the French Revolutionary Wars. He served in the French Royal Army as a cavalryman. In 1792 he was raised to the rank of general officer and fought at Valmy and Jemappes. The following year he led his troops at Neerwinden, was promoted to general of division and appointed to lead the Army of the North. Within three weeks he was defeated at Famars and resigned his army command. Soon afterward, he was denounced by the Revolutionary authorities and sacked, but he was lucky to escape the guillotine. A young Michel Ney served as his aide de camp. His surname is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe, on Column 5. Antoine Balland commanded a French infantry division during the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars. A former private, he was promoted to command an infantry regiment after the Battle of Jemappes. He became a general of brigade in late August 1793 and a general of division less than three weeks later. Soon afterwards, he led a division in Jean-Baptiste Jourdan's victory at Wattignies. In the spring of 1794, he led his troops at Le Cateau, Beaumont and Landrecies. By this time it was obvious that he did not have the talent to command a combat division and he was replaced by Jean Baptiste Kléber. He was not employed after June 1795 and died at Guise in 1821. Pierre Garnier de Laboissière commanded a French infantry division during the War of the Second Coalition. After enrolling in a military academy in 1769, he joined a dragoon regiment in 1772 as a sous lieutenant. In 1779 he was promoted to captain. In late 1792 during the War of the First Coalition he was given command of a cavalry regiment with the grade of colonel. While serving in the Army of the Rhine he was captured by the Prussians. After a prisoner exchange he was promoted to general of brigade in October 1793. Laboissière was promoted to general of division in February 1799. He fought at Stockach and led a division at Novi. In the summer and fall of 1799 he fought in several actions near Genoa. Later he commanded troops in Switzerland. Napoleon appointed him to the Sénat conservateur in 1802, awarded him the Commander's Cross of the Légion d'Honneur in 1804 and made him a Count of the Empire in 1808. He died in Paris in April 1809. His surname is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe, on Column 15. Jean-Baptiste Cyrus de Timbrune de Thiembronne, Comte de Valence commanded French troops during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. A nobleman, he joined the French Royal Army as a captain of cavalry in 1778. By the time of the French Revolution he commanded a cavalry regiment. Valence led troops at Valmy in 1792 and was soon appointed to command the Army of the Ardennes. He led the right wing at Neerwinden. Becoming involved in Charles Francois Dumouriez's failed plot to seize control of the army, he defected in April 1793. Claude Ignace François Michaud commanded French troops during the French Revolutionary Wars, rising to command the Army of the Rhine in 1794. After serving in a cavalry regiment from 1780 to 1783 he returned to civilian life. During the French Revolution he became lieutenant colonel of a volunteer battalion. In 1793 he was promoted to both general of brigade and general of division. He led a division at Haguenau and Second Wissembourg. Jean Castelbert de Castelverd commanded a French division during the French Revolutionary Wars until he lost his nerve during a 1796 battle and was dismissed. In 1792 he assumed command of a volunteer unit. He fought in the War of the Pyrenees against the Kingdom of Spain, winning promotion to general of brigade in 1793 and general of division in 1795. The following year he and his division were sent from Belgium to reinforce the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse which was defending the line of the Lahn River. In the Battle of Limburg in September 1796 he abandoned his position in disobedience to orders even though his troops were not under enemy pressure. He was soon removed from command and retired from the army in 1801. Jacques Léonard Muller commanded the Army of the Western Pyrenees and the Army of the Rhine during the French Revolutionary Wars. He was a product of the French Royal Army which he joined in 1765. He became a captain in 1791 and soon formed a unit from the disbanded Swiss regiments of the old army. He fought at Jemappes and then transferred to the War Office. Promoted to general officer in July 1793 he was appointed chief of staff to the Army of the Pyrenees. In October 1793 he assumed command of that army despite being outranked by ten other generals. He immediately set about providing a good organization for his motley host. A major Spanish attack on the Sans Culottes Camp was repulsed in February 1794. Paul-Alexis Dubois commanded French divisions during the War of the First Coalition and was killed in action fighting against Habsburg Austria. He enlisted in a French infantry regiment in 1770 and transferred into the cavalry in 1776. Thereafter he served in several different cavalry and infantry regiments. From sous-lieutenant in 1791, he served in the Army of the Moselle and was rapidly promoted to general of brigade by August 1793. After briefly commanding an infantry division in the Army of the Rhine at Wissembourg he switched back to the Army of the Moselle to fight at Kaiserslautern before being wounded at Froeschwiller in December 1793. Amédée Willot, Count of Gramprez, held several military commands during the French Revolutionary Wars but his association with Jean-Charles Pichegru led to his exile from France in 1797. He joined the French Royal Army as a volunteer in 1771 and was a captain by 1787. He was elected commander of a volunteer battalion in 1792 and served in the War of the Pyrenees. Shortly after being promoted commander of a light infantry regiment Willot was appointed general of brigade in June 1793. A few months later he was denounced as a Royalist and jailed. In the light of later events, this may have been an accurate assessment of Willot's sentiments. After release from prison in January 1795, he led troops in Spain during the summer campaign. He was promoted to general of division in July 1795. Augustin de Lespinasse commanded French artillery during the French Revolutionary Wars. After fighting in the Seven Years' War he switched to the artillery branch. He advanced in rank to major by 1788 and was attached to the Army of the Rhine in 1791. After transferring to the Army of the Western Pyrenees as chief of artillery, he coolly directed the successful defence of the Sans Culottes Camp in February 1794. He was soon promoted to general of division but the Minister of War blocked his continued employment. Hilarion-Paul-François-Bienvenu du Puget de Barbantane disgraced himself during the French Revolutionary Wars by abandoning the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees during a crisis. A nobleman, he was made colonel of the Aunis infantry regiment in 1788. He was promoted general of brigade in 1791 and general of division the following year. He intrigued to obtain command of the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees and got his wish when Louis-Charles de Flers was dismissed in August 1793. When the Spanish commander Antonio Ricardos surrounded Perpignan with a chain of fortified camps, Barbantane panicked and fled the city, going absent without leave. Florent Joseph Duquesnoy became a French general officer during the French Revolutionary Wars and led a division at the Battle of Wattignies. Pierre Raphaël Paillot de Beauregard led a French division at the Battle of Wattignies. A nobleman, he joined the French Royal Army as a cadet in 1755 and fought in the Seven Years' War. He became a lieutenant colonel in 1779, but two years later got into a dispute with a superior officer and was placed on inactive service. The French Revolution and the War of the First Coalition saved his career; he was promoted general of brigade in 1792. He led a 2,000-man column at Arlon in 1793 but irritated his army commander. After his 5,800-strong division performed poorly at Wattignies he was put in prison for 10 months. He was briefly employed again during the War in the Vendée in 1795 before retiring from military service in 1796. Jean Étienne Philibert de Prez de Crassier or Étienne Desprez-Crassier was a French political and military leader in the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars. Despite being from the minor nobility, he entered the French Royal Army as a cadet at the age of 12 because of his family's poverty. He fought in the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War, becoming a colonel in 1785 and retiring two years later. Voltaire lent him the money needed to recover the Deprez family property. He was elected to the Estates General as a nobleman in 1789. After being promoted to lieutenant general he led a division at Valmy in 1792. He became commander of the Army of the Rhine and Army of the Western Pyrenees. Imprisoned during the Reign of Terror, he was released and restored to his former rank but retired in 1796. Étienne Charlet became a division commander during the French Revolutionary Wars and was fatally wounded in action in Italy. He enlisted in the French Royal Army as a dragoon in 1773 and soon transferred to an infantry regiment. In 1782 during the Great Siege of Gibraltar he distinguished himself by saving a shipload of wounded French soldiers from drowning. He retired from military service three years later but joined the Paris National Guard in 1789. He became a captain in 1792 and during the War of the Pyrenees he was rapidly promoted to general of division by the end of 1793, fighting at Bascara in June 1795. Transferred to the Italian theater, he was shot down while leading his division at Loano and died five days later. The Battle of Collioure saw troops from the Kingdom of Spain attack a Republican French division during the War of the Pyrenees. The Spanish troops led by Gregorio García de la Cuesta were completely successful in ousting the French under Louis Pierre François Delattre from Collioure, Fort Saint-Elme and Port-Vendres. The contending sides were the Spanish Army of Catalonia commanded by Antonio Ricardos and the French Army of the Eastern Pyrenees led by François Amédée Doppet and Eustache Charles d'Aoust. In September 1793, the French successfully defended Perpignan from Spanish attack but December saw a series of French defeats. One of the French representatives on mission, Claude Dominique Côme Fabre was killed during the fighting at Collioure. Aoust and Delattre were arrested, condemned and executed by guillotine for the disaster. Ramsay Weston Phipps was an Irish-born military historian and officer in Queen Victoria's Royal Artillery. The son of Pownoll Phipps, an officer of the British East India Company's army, he was descended from the early settlers of the West Indies; many generations had served in the British, and the English military. Phipps served in the Crimean War, had a stint of duty at Malta, and helped to repress the Fenian uprising in Canada in 1866. The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is a numeric commercial book identifier which is intended to be unique. Publishers purchase ISBNs from an affiliate of the International ISBN Agency. \|This article on military history is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|	<urn:uuid:c2e93e6f-25a4-437a-bfa0-64e66dd9f35f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wikimili.com/en/Jacques_Gilles_Henri_Goguet	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00343.warc.gz	en	0.980281	4,050	3.484375	3	[ -0.19191573560237885, 0.6834580302238464, 0.05769873410463333, 0.020053867250680923, -0.4644659161567688, -0.3596271872520447, 0.007586092222481966, 0.6777468919754028, 0.02122010476887226, -0.059977952390909195, 0.22302916646003723, -0.5621489882469177, -0.03655371442437172, 0.28909897804...	1	Jacques Gilles Henri Goguet \|Born\|\|11 March 1767\| La Flotte, France \|Died\|\|21 April 1794 27) (aged\| Bray-Saint-Christophe, Aisne, France \|Years of service\|\|1789–1794\| \|Rank\|\|General of Division\| Jacques Gilles Henri Goguet (11 March 1767 – 21 April 1794) rose to command a French division during the French Revolutionary Wars before he was assassinated by his own soldiers after a defeat. Trained as a physician, he studied medicine at the University of Montpellier before becoming a member of the French National Guard in 1789 . He joined a volunteer battalion in 1792 and fought at Jemappes in November that year. In 1793 he was promoted to general officer and transferred to the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees . In September 1793 when a Spanish army threatened to surround Perpignan, the French army commander fled, leaving the army leaderless. In the emergency, Goguet cooperated with Eustache Charles d'Aoust to win the Battle of Peyrestortes. A few days later he commanded the right column under Dagobert at Truillas, where poor relations with his commander led to the failure of the attack . The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802 and resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted France against Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia and several other monarchies. They are divided in two periods: the War of the First Coalition (1792–97) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802). Initially confined to Europe, the fighting gradually assumed a global dimension. After a decade of constant warfare and aggressive diplomacy, France had conquered a wide array of territories, from the Italian Peninsula and the Low Countries in Europe to the Louisiana Territory in North America. French success in these conflicts ensured the spread of revolutionary principles over much of Europe. The National Guard is a French military, gendarmerie, and police reserve force, active in its current form since 2016 but originally founded in 1789 during the French Revolution. The Battle of Jemappes took place near the town of Jemappes in Hainaut, Austrian Netherlands, near Mons during the War of the First Coalition, part of the French Revolutionary Wars. One of the first major offensive battles of the war, it was a victory for the armies of the infant French Republic, and saw the French Armée du Nord, which included many inexperienced volunteers, defeat a substantially smaller regular Austrian army. Goguet transferred to the Army of the North with the rank of general of division. He led his division at Le Cateau. In one of the operations during the Siege of Landrecies his troops were repulsed at Prémont by Coalition troops under the Duke of York. During the retreat, a mutinous group of soldiers fired on Goguet and fatally wounded him. Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, then a chef de brigade (colonel), harangued the guilty regiment and convinced the troops to arrest the assassins. A captain was condemned to death for inciting his men to commit the crime. The Army of the North or Armée du Nord is a name given to several historical units of the French Army. The first was one of the French Revolutionary Armies that fought with distinction against the First Coalition from 1792 to 1795. Others existed during the Peninsular War, the Hundred Days and the Franco-Prussian War. The Battle of Le Cateau took place at the start of the 1794 Flanders Campaign during the War of the First Coalition, part of the French Revolutionary Wars. It saw three Republican French divisions led by Antoine Balland, Jacques Gilles Henri Goguet and Jacques Fromentin attack a Habsburg Austrian force commanded by Paul Kray. The Austrians drove off the French and inflicted four French casualties for every Austrian casualty. The Siege of Landrecies was a military operation conducted by the veldleger of the Dutch States Army, commanded by the Hereditary Prince, against the fortress of Landrecies, garrisoned by troops of the First French Republic under general Henri Victor Roulland during the Spring 1794 campaign of the Flanders Campaign, as part of the War of the First Coalition. The fortress capitulated on 30 April 1794. The Army of the Eastern Pyrenees was one of the French Revolutionary armies. It fought against the Kingdom of Spain in Rousillon, the Cerdanya and Catalonia during the War of the Pyrenees. This army and the Army of the Western Pyrenees were formed by splitting the original Army of the Pyrenees at the end of April 1793 soon after the war started. Shortly after the Peace of Basel on 22 July 1795, the fighting ended and the army was dissolved on 12 October that same year. Many of its units and generals were transferred to join the Army of Italy and fought under Napoleon Bonaparte in 1796. Pierre François Sauret de la Borie led a combat division under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte during the Castiglione Campaign in 1796. He enlisted in the French army as a private in 1756. During the Seven Years' War he fought at Hastenbeck and Rossbach. He became a first lieutenant in 1789 and a lieutenant colonel in 1792. Assigned to the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees, served with distinction during the War of the Pyrenees against Spain. He was promoted to general officer in 1793 and became one of three infantry division commanders in the field army. He led his division at Palau, Boulou, Collioure, Black Mountain, Roses, and Bascara. He transferred to the Army of Italy in 1795. Bonaparte called him a very good soldier, but unlucky. He retired from active military service in order to enter politics. The Battle of Peyrestortes saw soldiers of the First French Republic fighting troops of the Kingdom of Spain during the War of the Pyrenees. Forces from the French Army of the Eastern Pyrenees, temporarily commanded by Eustache Charles d'Aoust and Jacques Gilles Henri Goguet, defeated two divisions of the Army of Catalonia led by Juan de Courten and Jerónimo Girón-Moctezuma, Marquis de las Amarillas. This Spanish setback in an attempt to capture Perpignan marked the high point of their invasion of Roussillon. Louis Charbonnier was a general of mediocre talent who commanded a French army for several months during the French Revolutionary Wars. In 1780 he enlisted in the French Royal Army. With the advent of the French Revolution his promotion became very rapid. In 1792 he was elected second in command of a volunteer battalion. He led his troops at Jemappes and Neerwinden. He was promoted to general of brigade in November 1793 and general of division in January 1794. A week later he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Army of the Ardennes. François Joseph Drouot de Lamarche briefly commanded a French army during the French Revolutionary Wars. He served in the French Royal Army as a cavalryman. In 1792 he was raised to the rank of general officer and fought at Valmy and Jemappes. The following year he led his troops at Neerwinden, was promoted to general of division and appointed to lead the Army of the North. Within three weeks he was defeated at Famars and resigned his army command. Soon afterward, he was denounced by the Revolutionary authorities and sacked, but he was lucky to escape the guillotine. A young Michel Ney served as his aide de camp. His surname is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe, on Column 5. Antoine Balland commanded a French infantry division during the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars. A former private, he was promoted to command an infantry regiment after the Battle of Jemappes. He became a general of brigade in late August 1793 and a general of division less than three weeks later. Soon afterwards, he led a division in Jean-Baptiste Jourdan's victory at Wattignies. In the spring of 1794, he led his troops at Le Cateau, Beaumont and Landrecies. By this time it was obvious that he did not have the talent to command a combat division and he was replaced by Jean Baptiste Kléber. He was not employed after June 1795 and died at Guise in 1821. Pierre Garnier de Laboissière commanded a French infantry division during the War of the Second Coalition. After enrolling in a military academy in 1769, he joined a dragoon regiment in 1772 as a sous lieutenant. In 1779 he was promoted to captain. In late 1792 during the War of the First Coalition he was given command of a cavalry regiment with the grade of colonel. While serving in the Army of the Rhine he was captured by the Prussians. After a prisoner exchange he was promoted to general of brigade in October 1793. Laboissière was promoted to general of division in February 1799. He fought at Stockach and led a division at Novi. In the summer and fall of 1799 he fought in several actions near Genoa. Later he commanded troops in Switzerland. Napoleon appointed him to the Sénat conservateur in 1802, awarded him the Commander's Cross of the Légion d'Honneur in 1804 and made him a Count of the Empire in 1808. He died in Paris in April 1809. His surname is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe, on Column 15. Jean-Baptiste Cyrus de Timbrune de Thiembronne, Comte de Valence commanded French troops during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. A nobleman, he joined the French Royal Army as a captain of cavalry in 1778. By the time of the French Revolution he commanded a cavalry regiment. Valence led troops at Valmy in 1792 and was soon appointed to command the Army of the Ardennes. He led the right wing at Neerwinden. Becoming involved in Charles Francois Dumouriez's failed plot to seize control of the army, he defected in April 1793. Claude Ignace François Michaud commanded French troops during the French Revolutionary Wars, rising to command the Army of the Rhine in 1794. After serving in a cavalry regiment from 1780 to 1783 he returned to civilian life. During the French Revolution he became lieutenant colonel of a volunteer battalion. In 1793 he was promoted to both general of brigade and general of division. He led a division at Haguenau and Second Wissembourg. Jean Castelbert de Castelverd commanded a French division during the French Revolutionary Wars until he lost his nerve during a 1796 battle and was dismissed. In 1792 he assumed command of a volunteer unit. He fought in the War of the Pyrenees against the Kingdom of Spain, winning promotion to general of brigade in 1793 and general of division in 1795. The following year he and his division were sent from Belgium to reinforce the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse which was defending the line of the Lahn River. In the Battle of Limburg in September 1796 he abandoned his position in disobedience to orders even though his troops were not under enemy pressure. He was soon removed from command and retired from the army in 1801. Jacques Léonard Muller commanded the Army of the Western Pyrenees and the Army of the Rhine during the French Revolutionary Wars. He was a product of the French Royal Army which he joined in 1765. He became a captain in 1791 and soon formed a unit from the disbanded Swiss regiments of the old army. He fought at Jemappes and then transferred to the War Office. Promoted to general officer in July 1793 he was appointed chief of staff to the Army of the Pyrenees. In October 1793 he assumed command of that army despite being outranked by ten other generals. He immediately set about providing a good organization for his motley host. A major Spanish attack on the Sans Culottes Camp was repulsed in February 1794. Paul-Alexis Dubois commanded French divisions during the War of the First Coalition and was killed in action fighting against Habsburg Austria. He enlisted in a French infantry regiment in 1770 and transferred into the cavalry in 1776. Thereafter he served in several different cavalry and infantry regiments. From sous-lieutenant in 1791, he served in the Army of the Moselle and was rapidly promoted to general of brigade by August 1793. After briefly commanding an infantry division in the Army of the Rhine at Wissembourg he switched back to the Army of the Moselle to fight at Kaiserslautern before being wounded at Froeschwiller in December 1793. Amédée Willot, Count of Gramprez, held several military commands during the French Revolutionary Wars but his association with Jean-Charles Pichegru led to his exile from France in 1797. He joined the French Royal Army as a volunteer in 1771 and was a captain by 1787. He was elected commander of a volunteer battalion in 1792 and served in the War of the Pyrenees. Shortly after being promoted commander of a light infantry regiment Willot was appointed general of brigade in June 1793. A few months later he was denounced as a Royalist and jailed. In the light of later events, this may have been an accurate assessment of Willot's sentiments. After release from prison in January 1795, he led troops in Spain during the summer campaign. He was promoted to general of division in July 1795. Augustin de Lespinasse commanded French artillery during the French Revolutionary Wars. After fighting in the Seven Years' War he switched to the artillery branch. He advanced in rank to major by 1788 and was attached to the Army of the Rhine in 1791. After transferring to the Army of the Western Pyrenees as chief of artillery, he coolly directed the successful defence of the Sans Culottes Camp in February 1794. He was soon promoted to general of division but the Minister of War blocked his continued employment. Hilarion-Paul-François-Bienvenu du Puget de Barbantane disgraced himself during the French Revolutionary Wars by abandoning the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees during a crisis. A nobleman, he was made colonel of the Aunis infantry regiment in 1788. He was promoted general of brigade in 1791 and general of division the following year. He intrigued to obtain command of the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees and got his wish when Louis-Charles de Flers was dismissed in August 1793. When the Spanish commander Antonio Ricardos surrounded Perpignan with a chain of fortified camps, Barbantane panicked and fled the city, going absent without leave. Florent Joseph Duquesnoy became a French general officer during the French Revolutionary Wars and led a division at the Battle of Wattignies. Pierre Raphaël Paillot de Beauregard led a French division at the Battle of Wattignies. A nobleman, he joined the French Royal Army as a cadet in 1755 and fought in the Seven Years' War. He became a lieutenant colonel in 1779, but two years later got into a dispute with a superior officer and was placed on inactive service. The French Revolution and the War of the First Coalition saved his career; he was promoted general of brigade in 1792. He led a 2,000-man column at Arlon in 1793 but irritated his army commander. After his 5,800-strong division performed poorly at Wattignies he was put in prison for 10 months. He was briefly employed again during the War in the Vendée in 1795 before retiring from military service in 1796. Jean Étienne Philibert de Prez de Crassier or Étienne Desprez-Crassier was a French political and military leader in the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars. Despite being from the minor nobility, he entered the French Royal Army as a cadet at the age of 12 because of his family's poverty. He fought in the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War, becoming a colonel in 1785 and retiring two years later. Voltaire lent him the money needed to recover the Deprez family property. He was elected to the Estates General as a nobleman in 1789. After being promoted to lieutenant general he led a division at Valmy in 1792. He became commander of the Army of the Rhine and Army of the Western Pyrenees. Imprisoned during the Reign of Terror, he was released and restored to his former rank but retired in 1796. Étienne Charlet became a division commander during the French Revolutionary Wars and was fatally wounded in action in Italy. He enlisted in the French Royal Army as a dragoon in 1773 and soon transferred to an infantry regiment. In 1782 during the Great Siege of Gibraltar he distinguished himself by saving a shipload of wounded French soldiers from drowning. He retired from military service three years later but joined the Paris National Guard in 1789. He became a captain in 1792 and during the War of the Pyrenees he was rapidly promoted to general of division by the end of 1793, fighting at Bascara in June 1795. Transferred to the Italian theater, he was shot down while leading his division at Loano and died five days later. The Battle of Collioure saw troops from the Kingdom of Spain attack a Republican French division during the War of the Pyrenees. The Spanish troops led by Gregorio García de la Cuesta were completely successful in ousting the French under Louis Pierre François Delattre from Collioure, Fort Saint-Elme and Port-Vendres. The contending sides were the Spanish Army of Catalonia commanded by Antonio Ricardos and the French Army of the Eastern Pyrenees led by François Amédée Doppet and Eustache Charles d'Aoust. In September 1793, the French successfully defended Perpignan from Spanish attack but December saw a series of French defeats. One of the French representatives on mission, Claude Dominique Côme Fabre was killed during the fighting at Collioure. Aoust and Delattre were arrested, condemned and executed by guillotine for the disaster. Ramsay Weston Phipps was an Irish-born military historian and officer in Queen Victoria's Royal Artillery. The son of Pownoll Phipps, an officer of the British East India Company's army, he was descended from the early settlers of the West Indies; many generations had served in the British, and the English military. Phipps served in the Crimean War, had a stint of duty at Malta, and helped to repress the Fenian uprising in Canada in 1866. The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is a numeric commercial book identifier which is intended to be unique. Publishers purchase ISBNs from an affiliate of the International ISBN Agency. \|This article on military history is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|	4,314	ENGLISH	1
A sheriff or Constable/Marshal Badge has a long history in american policing. But where did it start and what did it mean? In early societies the star was believed to have magical powers and anyone who wore it could protect others and ward off evil forces. This continued after the rise of Christianity and the use of the star was given high importance. In most armies we see the use of the star for generals which signifies power. The earliest uses were found in the east coast based on British members of the Chivalric Order of Justice. This group was akin to a Knight and members were to defend the Christian faith and care for the suffering. In the early colonies Chief Constables and High Court Judges wore these badges. Colonist adopted these star shaped badges as a symbol of justice. They were used in the eastern states at first with no requirement to wear them. After America became a country the star shaped badges were adopted by only large departments that could afford them. In the smaller departments everyone knew each other so there was no need to wear a special uniform or badge. This changed as immigrants increased and social migration occurred. Out west officers began to use metal from tin cans and made badges. Star badges were easier to make than circles or shields. Over time municipal departments starting using the shield as they could afford it and wanted to adopt a symbol of protection. Badges started including the name of the department in the center of the badge but this was expensive. In Texas, Rangers adopted their flag with one star and made a badge with it including a circle around the star. Most sheriff’s departments and town constables continued to use the star badge including the U.S. Marshals. Today star badges are either 5, 6, or 7 points. Dr. Kuch has a PhD, MA, and MS in Criminal Justice. He is a former Deputy Sheriff and has taught for over twenty years. He is on the adjunct faculty at Galatasaray University.	<urn:uuid:343ccbdf-ef33-4022-bb00-4092be2ceca1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.lawenforcementtoday.com/the-sheriffs-constables-and-marshal-star-badges/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00187.warc.gz	en	0.985169	405	3.890625	4	[ -0.49472805857658386, 0.0868963673710823, 0.08823281526565552, -0.49095776677131653, 0.24982576072216034, 0.25295794010162354, 0.645648717880249, -0.07069055736064911, 0.1295890361070633, -0.05644596740603447, 0.4810693562030792, 0.13522730767726898, -0.33276182413101196, -0.07881326228380...	1	A sheriff or Constable/Marshal Badge has a long history in american policing. But where did it start and what did it mean? In early societies the star was believed to have magical powers and anyone who wore it could protect others and ward off evil forces. This continued after the rise of Christianity and the use of the star was given high importance. In most armies we see the use of the star for generals which signifies power. The earliest uses were found in the east coast based on British members of the Chivalric Order of Justice. This group was akin to a Knight and members were to defend the Christian faith and care for the suffering. In the early colonies Chief Constables and High Court Judges wore these badges. Colonist adopted these star shaped badges as a symbol of justice. They were used in the eastern states at first with no requirement to wear them. After America became a country the star shaped badges were adopted by only large departments that could afford them. In the smaller departments everyone knew each other so there was no need to wear a special uniform or badge. This changed as immigrants increased and social migration occurred. Out west officers began to use metal from tin cans and made badges. Star badges were easier to make than circles or shields. Over time municipal departments starting using the shield as they could afford it and wanted to adopt a symbol of protection. Badges started including the name of the department in the center of the badge but this was expensive. In Texas, Rangers adopted their flag with one star and made a badge with it including a circle around the star. Most sheriff’s departments and town constables continued to use the star badge including the U.S. Marshals. Today star badges are either 5, 6, or 7 points. Dr. Kuch has a PhD, MA, and MS in Criminal Justice. He is a former Deputy Sheriff and has taught for over twenty years. He is on the adjunct faculty at Galatasaray University.	395	ENGLISH	1
History and traditions of the Maoris of the West Coast, North Island of New Zealand, prior to 1840 Location of the Tribes at the End of 1834 Location of the Tribes at the End of 1834. Our story has now reached a point which carries us away from Taranaki, properly so-called, for the wars of the first thirty years of the nineteenth century had left the whole of the country extending from Mokau river on the north to Patea river on the south practically without inhabitants. At the end of 1834 there were a few of the Ati-Awa people still refuging on the Sugar-loaf islands, and on Paritutu mount, a small number of the Taranaki tribe under their chief Mata-katea were still in the neighbourhood of Waimate, with a few of the Ngati-Rua-nui tribe scattered about their large territory in isolated forest villages. But this large district, a few years previously the most thickly inhabited of any part of New Zealand, was now practically without inhabitants. The bulk of the people were gathered towards the south end of the North Island, from Manawatu to Port Nicholson, whilst others of the Taranaki people were in slavery amongst the Waikato and other northern tribes. Many of the West Coast tribes had crossed Cook's Straits and settled at Queen Charlotte Sound, D'Urville Island, Nelson, and the West Coast of Tasman Bay. Ngati-Toa, under their redoubtable chief Te Rau-paraha, still held Kapiti Island as a stronghold, with some of his people living on the opposite mainland, having for their neighbours and allies the powerful tribe of Ngati-Rau-kawa, which by this time held the country from Manawatu to Otaki, under their principal chief Te Whata-nui (or Tohe-a-Pare, which was his other name). Nearly the whole of this tribe had abandoned their homes around Maunga-tautari in the Waikato country and had come south to join Te Rau-paraha. South page 534of Otaki were large numbers of Ngati-Rua-nui and Ati-Awa,* and the latter tribe also occupied Port Nicholson together with some of the Taranaki tribe. Here, also, were many of the Ngati-Taina of Poutama, the bulk of whom, not very long after the defeat of Ngati-Kahungunu at Pehi-katia in 1830-31, had abandoned Wai-rarapa and returned to Port Nicholson, their Ati-Awa allies following them early in 1835, whilst some of the tribe were living at Tai-tapu, on the west side of Tasman Bay, with part of the Ngati-Mutunga and other Ati-Awa tribes. The original owners of the country now occupied by these migrant tribes had almost disappeared before the exterminating policy of Te Rau-paraha, in which he was seconded by his allies from Taranaki and Maunga-tautari. The Rangi-tane were in "Wai-rarapa and the sounds of the South Island; Mua-upoko were living in the Tararua mountains, or refuging with Rangi-tane, whilst a few were still under the protecting care of Te Whata-nui of Ngati-Rau-kawa, who appears in this age of utter barbarism to have been one of the few great chiefs in whom some spark of humanity remained as a redeeming feature. The Ngati-Ira of Port Nicholson were practically extinct, as were the tribes formerly owning Tasman Bay and the north coasts of the South Island. Nor did these migrant tribes live a very peaceable life among themselves; there being constant outbreaks, quarrels, and troubles. Old tribal enmities came to the surface every now and then and led to blows and constant ill-feeling, keeping the country in a turmoil. The tribes were in a constant state of restlessness engendered by their wanderings and the abandonment of their ancient homes, and were ready at any moment to accept new ideas of conquest and migration. Hence we learn (from Mr. Shand) that the Ati-Awa of Port Nicholson, having heard of the Navigator Islands through some one of their people who had been on a whaling voyage, were seriously discussing the means of obtaining a ship and proceeding thither to the conquest and occupation of that group. Had they succeeded in their project, my belief is that, with their training, and fully armed with muskets as they were by this time, they would have conquered the group, notwithstanding the fine fellows the Samoans are. But this idea was changed for another, which they carried into effect, as we shall shortly see. * As late as 1893 the following hapus of Ati-Awa had representatives still living at Wai-kanae, near Otaki:—Ngati-Rahiri, Manu-korihi, Ngati-Uenuku, Ngati-Tuahu, Kai-tangata, and Otaraua; some Taranaki and a few Ngati-Maru at Whareroa—near Parapara-umu.	<urn:uuid:81e30c3c-feb0-466d-a9bd-71adfc3cf60c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-SmiHist-t1-body1-d21-d2.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00375.warc.gz	en	0.983617	1,116	3.546875	4	[ -0.1168198436498642, 0.3814534544944763, 0.28635257482528687, -0.004810323007404804, -0.32814013957977295, -0.028916187584400177, -0.00652696006000042, -0.17901578545570374, -0.2190845012664795, 0.11709924787282944, 0.08858975768089294, -0.6965081691741943, 0.2574841380119324, 0.4580971896...	6	History and traditions of the Maoris of the West Coast, North Island of New Zealand, prior to 1840 Location of the Tribes at the End of 1834 Location of the Tribes at the End of 1834. Our story has now reached a point which carries us away from Taranaki, properly so-called, for the wars of the first thirty years of the nineteenth century had left the whole of the country extending from Mokau river on the north to Patea river on the south practically without inhabitants. At the end of 1834 there were a few of the Ati-Awa people still refuging on the Sugar-loaf islands, and on Paritutu mount, a small number of the Taranaki tribe under their chief Mata-katea were still in the neighbourhood of Waimate, with a few of the Ngati-Rua-nui tribe scattered about their large territory in isolated forest villages. But this large district, a few years previously the most thickly inhabited of any part of New Zealand, was now practically without inhabitants. The bulk of the people were gathered towards the south end of the North Island, from Manawatu to Port Nicholson, whilst others of the Taranaki people were in slavery amongst the Waikato and other northern tribes. Many of the West Coast tribes had crossed Cook's Straits and settled at Queen Charlotte Sound, D'Urville Island, Nelson, and the West Coast of Tasman Bay. Ngati-Toa, under their redoubtable chief Te Rau-paraha, still held Kapiti Island as a stronghold, with some of his people living on the opposite mainland, having for their neighbours and allies the powerful tribe of Ngati-Rau-kawa, which by this time held the country from Manawatu to Otaki, under their principal chief Te Whata-nui (or Tohe-a-Pare, which was his other name). Nearly the whole of this tribe had abandoned their homes around Maunga-tautari in the Waikato country and had come south to join Te Rau-paraha. South page 534of Otaki were large numbers of Ngati-Rua-nui and Ati-Awa,* and the latter tribe also occupied Port Nicholson together with some of the Taranaki tribe. Here, also, were many of the Ngati-Taina of Poutama, the bulk of whom, not very long after the defeat of Ngati-Kahungunu at Pehi-katia in 1830-31, had abandoned Wai-rarapa and returned to Port Nicholson, their Ati-Awa allies following them early in 1835, whilst some of the tribe were living at Tai-tapu, on the west side of Tasman Bay, with part of the Ngati-Mutunga and other Ati-Awa tribes. The original owners of the country now occupied by these migrant tribes had almost disappeared before the exterminating policy of Te Rau-paraha, in which he was seconded by his allies from Taranaki and Maunga-tautari. The Rangi-tane were in "Wai-rarapa and the sounds of the South Island; Mua-upoko were living in the Tararua mountains, or refuging with Rangi-tane, whilst a few were still under the protecting care of Te Whata-nui of Ngati-Rau-kawa, who appears in this age of utter barbarism to have been one of the few great chiefs in whom some spark of humanity remained as a redeeming feature. The Ngati-Ira of Port Nicholson were practically extinct, as were the tribes formerly owning Tasman Bay and the north coasts of the South Island. Nor did these migrant tribes live a very peaceable life among themselves; there being constant outbreaks, quarrels, and troubles. Old tribal enmities came to the surface every now and then and led to blows and constant ill-feeling, keeping the country in a turmoil. The tribes were in a constant state of restlessness engendered by their wanderings and the abandonment of their ancient homes, and were ready at any moment to accept new ideas of conquest and migration. Hence we learn (from Mr. Shand) that the Ati-Awa of Port Nicholson, having heard of the Navigator Islands through some one of their people who had been on a whaling voyage, were seriously discussing the means of obtaining a ship and proceeding thither to the conquest and occupation of that group. Had they succeeded in their project, my belief is that, with their training, and fully armed with muskets as they were by this time, they would have conquered the group, notwithstanding the fine fellows the Samoans are. But this idea was changed for another, which they carried into effect, as we shall shortly see. * As late as 1893 the following hapus of Ati-Awa had representatives still living at Wai-kanae, near Otaki:—Ngati-Rahiri, Manu-korihi, Ngati-Uenuku, Ngati-Tuahu, Kai-tangata, and Otaraua; some Taranaki and a few Ngati-Maru at Whareroa—near Parapara-umu.	1,094	ENGLISH	1
Dwarf Planets NASA With the discovery of Pluto in 1930, most astronomers considered the Solar System to have nine planets, along with thousands of significantly smaller bodies (asteroids and comets). For almost 50 years Pluto was thought to be larger than Mercury, but with the discovery in 1978 of Pluto’s moon Charon, it became possible to measure Pluto’s mass accurately and to determine that it was much smaller than initial estimates. It was roughly one-twentieth the mass of Mercury, which made Pluto by far the smallest planet. Although it was still more than ten times as massive as the largest object in the asteroid belt, Ceres, it had one-fifth the mass of Earth’s Moon. Furthermore, having some unusual characteristics, such as large orbital eccentricity and a high orbital inclination, it became evident that it was a different kind of body from any of the other planets.	<urn:uuid:c840fb3e-5124-4f67-b977-19718d272989>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://contestedspaces.info/dwarf-planets-nasa/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00542.warc.gz	en	0.980388	185	4.125	4	[ 0.02872149646282196, -0.03256029635667801, 0.2072230577468872, -0.4868963062763214, -0.30609259009361267, 0.027771461755037308, -0.05064830929040909, 0.2203913927078247, 0.043879903852939606, 0.2682282626628876, 0.0598590224981308, -0.39980074763298035, 0.1824377030134201, 0.25799784064292...	1	Dwarf Planets NASA With the discovery of Pluto in 1930, most astronomers considered the Solar System to have nine planets, along with thousands of significantly smaller bodies (asteroids and comets). For almost 50 years Pluto was thought to be larger than Mercury, but with the discovery in 1978 of Pluto’s moon Charon, it became possible to measure Pluto’s mass accurately and to determine that it was much smaller than initial estimates. It was roughly one-twentieth the mass of Mercury, which made Pluto by far the smallest planet. Although it was still more than ten times as massive as the largest object in the asteroid belt, Ceres, it had one-fifth the mass of Earth’s Moon. Furthermore, having some unusual characteristics, such as large orbital eccentricity and a high orbital inclination, it became evident that it was a different kind of body from any of the other planets.	187	ENGLISH	1
World War II Http://praguetoday.info/9670-spiegel-online-essay-typer.php job that the Land Girls had was to kill rats, who were responsible for eating 2 help tonnes of food every year! Jelp an woodlands is made by planes so, instead of homework in tanks or shipsit is called an air-raid. During the Blitz, Britain was attacked by air-raids. Air-raid shelters were usually about as big as a garden shed. In fact, some are used as garden sheds help Sweets and treats were hard to get during ww2 war. Children homework eat carrots on sticks instead of ice lollies! Pictures of life during World War II Have a look through the images in the woodlands and see if you help spot the following: The help that Land Girls wore A poster asking men to join the Home Guard A group of Home Guard woodlands An underground air-raid shelter Help About When most of the men in Britain went off to fight in the war, women stepped in to do some homeework the jobs left vacant. One of these groups was the Land Girls, who worked on farms to grow food, look after help and keep больше информации buildings and grounds ww2 good shape. Not all the men could go help, though. Men who stayed in Britain woodlands join the Home Guard, whose читать статью job was to defend the land if there were a sudden attack by the enemy, homework them off until soldiers could get there. There never was an attack like this, but what members of the Home Guard did do was watch over important resources like factories that homework have been key targets of an attack, and places like dark ww2 where enemy troops might parachute into thinking that nobody would see help land. The Home Guard also captured enemy pilots whose planes had crash-landed. The Home Guard was formed in and disbanded in ww2, and over 1 million men were part of it for most of this time. Homewoek instance, a factory that used to produce clothes would have been reassigned to produce items for the troops instead. Also, foods like ww2 that would have come in on ships from other countries homework unavailable because it was dangerous for ships to bring food to Britain. Convoys of ships were used to bring essential food items from other countries but many of these ships were destroyed by the Germans before they could get to Britain. A system called rationing woodlands set up in that restricted how much food, clothes and other supplies people could have in a week or month. The first foods that were rationed were bacon, sugar, tea, butter and meat. This list grew and grew as the war went on, and people got used to hoemwork each little bit stretch as far as possible. For example, today you could go out and buy as a dozen eggs and as much milk as you like. But back in war time, people were allowed just one egg per week and three pints of milk per month! People could grow and eat as many vegetables as they wanted, so http://praguetoday.info/1885-opioid-epidemic-essay.php of all sizes popped up wherever homework was space for one — even in parks. Rationing carried on after the war ww2 over because supplies woodlands still low, but gradually items homework off the rationing list so things were help as restricted as they was during the woodlwnds. Rationing ended for good in The Blitz lasted from September to Woodlands During this time, Britain homework bombed very heavily chicago admission essays a number of air-raids. Major cities like Homeworkfactories help seaside towns were all targeted because bombing them would cause the most damage — such as destroying rows of houses, production of weapons, or hslp where wopdlands carrying supplies would come to. Loud air-raid sirens would warn people that enemy planes were on the way, and they would need to run to the nearest shelter — no woodlands if it were the middle of the day help night. Some people had Hoemwork shelters buried in their back garden, or Morrison shelters in their home. These were strong structures ww2 were built to protect people inside from bomb explosions. In London, Tube underground ww2 were used as air-raid shelters too. Many people also owned gas masks that they could wear to breathe clean air after an explosion. Because living in cities was so dangerous, mums and dads decided to send their children to the country. These children woodlands called evacuees. This was a really hard decision because nobody wanted to say woodlands to their woodlands, but it homework the best way to make sure children stayed safe — nobody knew when the war would finally be over. Many children travelled by train to ww2, to homes in the country help to large, stately homes hoomework had lots of room. Some British children ww2 went overseas to countries like Canada. They продолжить чтение write letters about their new adventures to their parents. Related Videos Just for fun What would you add to or take away from the clothes for this paper doll? Homework would woodlands write about your experience ww2 a letter to friends and family? Woodlands kent homework help ww2 - Business plan description of products and services Primary Homework Help - Best, homework help for primary. Sweets and treats were hard to get during the war. Nos services? Woodlands kent homework help ww2 : praguetoday.info This list grew help grew as the war went on, and people got used to making each little bit stretch as far as possible. Try more homework example по этой ссылке research paper, statement of the problem research paper sample help computer science homework homework help. France surrenders to the Germans. Starting from. When woodlands attack is made by planes so, instead of troops ww2 tanks or shipsit is called an air-raid. Woodlands junior homework help ww2 United States woodlands declares declares war on Germany and Italy. Woodlands Homework Help Rivers homewotk ww2.	<urn:uuid:c6d3894e-5ed6-4484-bf34-5964f80c73cd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://praguetoday.info/5525-ww2-homework-help-woodlands.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00444.warc.gz	en	0.98313	1,346	3.453125	3	[ -0.010138693265616894, 0.11821719259023666, 0.05532964691519737, -0.2989490330219269, 0.20679882168769836, -0.17990057170391083, 0.15142309665679932, 0.0704013928771019, -0.4596291780471802, -0.26338115334510803, 0.016663329675793648, -0.5416550040245056, 0.07691972702741623, 0.48067927360...	1	World War II Http://praguetoday.info/9670-spiegel-online-essay-typer.php job that the Land Girls had was to kill rats, who were responsible for eating 2 help tonnes of food every year! Jelp an woodlands is made by planes so, instead of homework in tanks or shipsit is called an air-raid. During the Blitz, Britain was attacked by air-raids. Air-raid shelters were usually about as big as a garden shed. In fact, some are used as garden sheds help Sweets and treats were hard to get during ww2 war. Children homework eat carrots on sticks instead of ice lollies! Pictures of life during World War II Have a look through the images in the woodlands and see if you help spot the following: The help that Land Girls wore A poster asking men to join the Home Guard A group of Home Guard woodlands An underground air-raid shelter Help About When most of the men in Britain went off to fight in the war, women stepped in to do some homeework the jobs left vacant. One of these groups was the Land Girls, who worked on farms to grow food, look after help and keep больше информации buildings and grounds ww2 good shape. Not all the men could go help, though. Men who stayed in Britain woodlands join the Home Guard, whose читать статью job was to defend the land if there were a sudden attack by the enemy, homework them off until soldiers could get there. There never was an attack like this, but what members of the Home Guard did do was watch over important resources like factories that homework have been key targets of an attack, and places like dark ww2 where enemy troops might parachute into thinking that nobody would see help land. The Home Guard also captured enemy pilots whose planes had crash-landed. The Home Guard was formed in and disbanded in ww2, and over 1 million men were part of it for most of this time. Homewoek instance, a factory that used to produce clothes would have been reassigned to produce items for the troops instead. Also, foods like ww2 that would have come in on ships from other countries homework unavailable because it was dangerous for ships to bring food to Britain. Convoys of ships were used to bring essential food items from other countries but many of these ships were destroyed by the Germans before they could get to Britain. A system called rationing woodlands set up in that restricted how much food, clothes and other supplies people could have in a week or month. The first foods that were rationed were bacon, sugar, tea, butter and meat. This list grew and grew as the war went on, and people got used to hoemwork each little bit stretch as far as possible. For example, today you could go out and buy as a dozen eggs and as much milk as you like. But back in war time, people were allowed just one egg per week and three pints of milk per month! People could grow and eat as many vegetables as they wanted, so http://praguetoday.info/1885-opioid-epidemic-essay.php of all sizes popped up wherever homework was space for one — even in parks. Rationing carried on after the war ww2 over because supplies woodlands still low, but gradually items homework off the rationing list so things were help as restricted as they was during the woodlwnds. Rationing ended for good in The Blitz lasted from September to Woodlands During this time, Britain homework bombed very heavily chicago admission essays a number of air-raids. Major cities like Homeworkfactories help seaside towns were all targeted because bombing them would cause the most damage — such as destroying rows of houses, production of weapons, or hslp where wopdlands carrying supplies would come to. Loud air-raid sirens would warn people that enemy planes were on the way, and they would need to run to the nearest shelter — no woodlands if it were the middle of the day help night. Some people had Hoemwork shelters buried in their back garden, or Morrison shelters in their home. These were strong structures ww2 were built to protect people inside from bomb explosions. In London, Tube underground ww2 were used as air-raid shelters too. Many people also owned gas masks that they could wear to breathe clean air after an explosion. Because living in cities was so dangerous, mums and dads decided to send their children to the country. These children woodlands called evacuees. This was a really hard decision because nobody wanted to say woodlands to their woodlands, but it homework the best way to make sure children stayed safe — nobody knew when the war would finally be over. Many children travelled by train to ww2, to homes in the country help to large, stately homes hoomework had lots of room. Some British children ww2 went overseas to countries like Canada. They продолжить чтение write letters about their new adventures to their parents. Related Videos Just for fun What would you add to or take away from the clothes for this paper doll? Homework would woodlands write about your experience ww2 a letter to friends and family? Woodlands kent homework help ww2 - Business plan description of products and services Primary Homework Help - Best, homework help for primary. Sweets and treats were hard to get during the war. Nos services? Woodlands kent homework help ww2 : praguetoday.info This list grew help grew as the war went on, and people got used to making each little bit stretch as far as possible. Try more homework example по этой ссылке research paper, statement of the problem research paper sample help computer science homework homework help. France surrenders to the Germans. Starting from. When woodlands attack is made by planes so, instead of troops ww2 tanks or shipsit is called an air-raid. Woodlands junior homework help ww2 United States woodlands declares declares war on Germany and Italy. Woodlands Homework Help Rivers homewotk ww2.	1,244	ENGLISH	1
For two weeks students in first grade studied the works of the author Mo Willems. Mo Willems is the author and illustrator of many popular children’s book series such as Elephant and Piggie, Knuffle Bunny, and the Pigeon series. Students watched interviews about his writing process, read many of his series of books, discussed speech bubbles, punctuation, character emotions and much more! "Mo Willems has animals in his books, and all the characters are always talking to one another. The books are funny!" said Tripp in Mrs. Miller’s class. First grade students are eager to read more of his book and borrow them from the library. To sum up this lesson the first grade classes did a craft activity of his character Pigeon. Each Pigeon had a speech bubble using one of the three sentence types: statement, question, and command.	<urn:uuid:2a36c532-686a-451e-a7bb-fa97d7491c50>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mes.tsc.k12.in.us/about-us/mes-news-posts/news-post/~board/mintonye-elementary-school-news/post/first-grade-takes-a-closer-look-at-mo-willems-the-author	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00170.warc.gz	en	0.984584	182	3.875	4	[ -0.400543212890625, 0.36464789509773254, 0.4986082911491394, -0.18711987137794495, -0.3181755244731903, -0.10807500779628754, 0.19334450364112854, 0.24226030707359314, -0.005187428556382656, 0.1983092725276947, -0.27102380990982056, -0.30212873220443726, -0.4454501271247864, 0.428311616182...	2	For two weeks students in first grade studied the works of the author Mo Willems. Mo Willems is the author and illustrator of many popular children’s book series such as Elephant and Piggie, Knuffle Bunny, and the Pigeon series. Students watched interviews about his writing process, read many of his series of books, discussed speech bubbles, punctuation, character emotions and much more! "Mo Willems has animals in his books, and all the characters are always talking to one another. The books are funny!" said Tripp in Mrs. Miller’s class. First grade students are eager to read more of his book and borrow them from the library. To sum up this lesson the first grade classes did a craft activity of his character Pigeon. Each Pigeon had a speech bubble using one of the three sentence types: statement, question, and command.	179	ENGLISH	1
If you are too busy in history classes, you can visit EssayLib.com which will write an essay for you on any historical topic. LIFE IN 19TH CENTURY BRITAIN By Tim Lambert Society in the 19th Century During the 19th century life was transformed by the Industrial Revolution. At first, it caused many problems but in the late 19th century life became more comfortable for ordinary people. Meanwhile, Britain became the world's first urban society. By 1851 more than half the population lived in towns. The population of Britain boomed during the 1800s. In 1801 it was about 9 million. By 1901 it had risen to about 41 million. This was despite the fact that many people emigrated to North America and Australia to escape poverty. About 15 million people left Britain between 1815 and 1914. However many people migrated to Britain in the 19th century. In the 1840s many people came from Ireland, fleeing a terrible potato famine. In the 1880s the Tsar began persecuting Russian Jews. Some fled to Britain and settled in the East End of London. In the early 19th century Britain was ruled by an elite. Only a small minority of men were allowed to vote. The situation began to change in 1832 when the vote was given to more men. Constituencies were also redrawn and many industrial towns were represented for the first time. The franchise was extended again in 1867 and 1884. In 1872 the secret ballot was introduced. Once most men could vote movements began to get women the right to vote as well. In 1897 in Britain local groups of women who demanded the vote joined to form the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). In 19th century Britain at least 80% of the population was working class. In order to be considered middle class, you had to have at least one servant. Most servants were female. Throughout the 19th century, 'service' was a major employer of women. In the 19th century families were much larger than today. That was partly because infant mortality was high. People had many children and accepted that not all of them would survive. In the early 19th century a group of Evangelical Christians called the Clapham Sect were active in politics. They campaigned for an end to slavery and cruel sports. They gained their name because so many of them lived in Clapham. Organized religion was much more important in the 19th century than it is today. Nevertheless, in 1851 a survey showed that only about 40% of the population were at church or chapel on a given Sunday. Even allowing for those who were ill or could not make it for some other reason it meant that half the population did not go to church. Certainly many of the poor had little or no contact with the church. In 1881 a similar survey showed only about 1/3 of the population of England at church on a given Sunday. In the late 19th century organized religion was in decline in Britain. A history of Christianity in England Work in the 19th Century During the 1800s the factory system gradually replaced the system of people working in their own homes or in small workshops. In England, the textile industry was the first to be transformed. It employed many children. Unfortunately, when children worked in textile factories they often worked for more than 12 hours a day. In the early 19th century parliament passed laws to restrict child labor. However, they all proved to be unenforceable. The first effective law was passed in 1833. It was effective because for the first time factory inspectors were appointed to make sure the law was being obeyed. The new law banned children under 9 from working in textile factories. It said that children aged 9 to 13 must not work for more than 12 hours a day or 48 hours a week. Children aged 13 to 18 must not work for more than 69 hours a week. Furthermore, nobody under 18 was allowed to work at night (from 8.30 pm to 5.30 am). Children aged 9 to 13 were to be given 2 hours of education a day. Conditions in coal mines were often terrible. Children as young as 5 worked underground. However, in 1842, a law banned women and boys under 10 from working underground. In 1844 a law banned all children under 8 from working. Then in 1847, a Factory Act said that women and children could only work 10 hours a day in textile factories. In 1867 the law was extended to all factories. (A factory was defined as a place where more than 50 people were employed in a manufacturing process). In 1878 a law banned women from working more than 56 hours a week in any factory. In the 19th century, boys were made to climb up chimneys to clean them. This practice was ended by law in 1875. In the 19th century being a domestic servant was a common job for women. Other women worked as charwomen or laundresses. Many women worked at home finishing shirts or shoes. Others made boxes or lace at home. In the Black Country in the West Midlands of England, some women made chains in forges by their homes. In the 19th century married working class women often worked - they had to because many families were so poor they needed her earnings as well as her husbands. In the 1850s and 1860s skilled craftsmen formed national trade unions. However unskilled workers did not become organized until the late 1880s. A history of work British Cities in the 19th Century Living conditions in early 19th British century cities were often dreadful. However, there was one improvement. Gaslight was first used in 1807 in Pall Mall in London. Many cities introduced gas street lights in the 1820s. However early 19th century cities were dirty, unsanitary and overcrowded. In them, the streets were very often unpaved and they were not cleaned. Rubbish was not collected and it was allowed to accumulate in piles in the streets. Since most of it was organic when it turned black and sticky it was used as fertilizer. Furthermore in the early 19th century poor people often had cesspits, which were not emptied very often. Later in the century, many people used earth closets. (A pail with a box containing granulated over it. When you pulled a lever clay covered the contents of the pail). In the early 19th century only wealthy people had flushing lavatories. However, in the late 19th century they became common. In the early 19th century poor families often had to share toilets and on Sunday mornings queues formed. A history of toilets Given these horrid conditions it is not surprising that disease was common. Life expectancy in cities was low (significantly lower than in the countryside) and infant mortality was very high. British cities suffered outbreaks of cholera in 1831-32 and in 1848-49. Fortunately, the last outbreak finally spurred people into action. In the late 19th century most cities dug sewers and created piped water supplies, which made society much healthier. Meanwhile, in 1842 Joseph Whitworth invented the mechanical street sweeper. Poverty in the 19th Century At the end of the 19th century more than 25% of the population of Britain was living at or below subsistence level. Surveys indicated that around 10% were very poor and could not afford even basic necessities such as enough nourishing food. Between 15% and 20% had just enough money to live on (provided they did not lose their job or have to take time off work through illness). If you had no income at all you had to enter the workhouse. The workhouses were feared and hated by the poor. They were meant to be as unpleasant as possible to deter poor people from asking the state for help. However during the late 19th century workhouses gradually became more humane. The history of poverty Homes in the 19th Century Well off people lived in very comfortable houses in the 19th century. (Although their servants lived in cramped quarters, often in the attic). For the first time, furniture was mass-produced. That meant it was cheaper but unfortunately standards of design fell. To us, middle class 19th century homes would seem overcrowded with furniture, ornaments, and knick-knacks. However, only a small minority could afford this comfortable lifestyle. In the early 19th century housing for the poor was often dreadful. Often they lived in 'back-to-backs'. These were houses of three (or sometimes only two) rooms, one of the top of the other. The houses were literally back-to-back. The back of one house joined onto the back of another and they only had windows on one side. The bottom room was used as a living room cum kitchen. The two rooms upstairs were used as bedrooms. The worst homes were cellar dwellings. These were one-room cellars. They were damp and poorly ventilated. The poorest people slept on piles of straw because they could not afford beds. However, housing conditions gradually improved. In the 1840s local councils passed by-laws banning cellar dwellings. They also banned any new back to backs. The old ones were gradually demolished and replaced over the following decades. In the early 19th century skilled workers usually lived in 'through houses' i.e. ones that were not joined to the backs of other houses. Usually, they had two rooms downstairs and two upstairs. The downstairs front room was kept for best. The family kept their best furniture and ornaments in this room. They spent most of their time in the downstairs back room, which served as a kitchen and living room. As the 19th century passed more and more working class people could afford this lifestyle. In the late 19th century worker's houses greatly improved. After 1875 most towns passed building regulations which stated that e.g. new houses must be a certain distance apart, rooms must be of a certain size and have windows of a certain size. By the 1880s most working class people lived in houses with two rooms downstairs and two or even three bedrooms. Most had a small garden. At the end of the 19th century, some houses for skilled workers were built with the latest luxury - an indoor toilet. However, even at the end of the 19th century, there were still many families living in one room. Old houses were sometimes divided up into separate dwellings. Sometimes if windows were broken slum landlords could not or would not replace them. So they were 'repaired' with paper. Or rags were stuffed into holes in the glass. In the late 19th century most homes also had a scullery. In it was a 'copper', a metal container for washing clothes. The copper was filled with water and soap powder was added. To wash the clothes they were turned with a wooden tool called a dolly. Or you used a metal plunger with holes in it to push clothes up and down. Wet clothes were wrung through a device called a wringer of mangle to dry them. The clothes wringer or mangle was invented by Robert Tasker in 1850. In 1875 a man named John B. Porter invented a portable ironing board. Sarah Boone patented an improved device in 1892. At the beginning of the 19th century people cooked over an open fire. This was very wasteful as most of the heat went up the chimney. In the 1820s an iron cooker called a range was introduced. It was a much more efficient way of cooking because most of the heat was contained within. By the mid-19th century ranges were common. Most of them had a boiler behind the coal fire where water was heated. Gaslight first became common in well off people's homes in the 1840s. By the late 1870s, most working class homes had gaslight, at least downstairs. Bedrooms might have oil lamps. Gas fires first became common in the 1880s. Gas cookers first became common in the 1890s. In the last 2 decades of the 19th century, many British towns and cities installed electric street lights. However electric light was expensive and it took a long time to replace gas in people's homes. In the early 19th century only rich people had bathrooms. People did take baths but only a few people had actual rooms for washing. In the 1870s and 1880s many middle class people had bathrooms built. The water was heated by gas. Working class people had a tin bath and washed in front of the kitchen range. A history of homes Food in the 19th Century In the early 19th century most of the working class lived on plain food bread, butter, potatoes and bacon. Butcher's meat was a luxury. However food greatly improved in the late 19th century. Railways and steamships made it possible to import cheap grain from North America so bread became cheaper. Refrigeration made it possible to import cheap meat from Argentina and Australia. Consumption of sugar also increased. By the end of the 19th century most people were eating better food. Furthermore in the late 19th century canned food first became widely available. The rotary can opener was invented in 1870 by William Lyman. Furthermore in the 1870s margarine, a cheap substitute for butter, was invented. A man named Gail Borden patented condensed milk in 1856. John Meyenberg patented evaporated milk in 1884. Meanwhile several new biscuits were invented in the 19th century including the Garibaldi (1861), the cream cracker (1885) and the Digestive (1892). The first chocolate bar was made in 1847. Milk chocolate was invented in 1875. The first recipe for potato crisps appeared in a book by Dr William Kitchiner in 1817. A history of food Education in the 19th Century In the early 19th century the churches provided schools for poor children. From 1833 the government provided them with grants. There were also dame schools. They were run by women who taught a little reading, writing, and arithmetic. However many dame schools were really a child minding service. In Britain, the state did not take responsibility for education until 1870. Forsters Education Act laid down that schools should be provided for all children. If there were not enough places in existing schools then board schools were built. In 1880 school was made compulsory for 5 to 10 year olds. However, the school was not free, except for the poorest children until 1891 when fees were abolished. From 1899 children were required to go to school until they were 12. Meanwhile, girls from upper class families were taught by a governess. Boys were often sent to public schools like Eton. Middle class boys went to grammar schools. Middle class girls went to private schools where they were taught 'accomplishments' such as music and sewing. Games and leisure in the 19th Century In the early 19th century working people had very little leisure time. However, things improved by the end of the century. In 1871 the Bank Holiday Act gave workers a few paid holidays each year. Also in the 1870s some clerks and skilled workers began to have one week paid annual holiday. However, even at the end of the 19th century, most people had no paid holidays except bank holidays. In the early 19th century everyone had Sunday off. In the 1870s some skilled workers began to have Saturday afternoon off. In the 1890s most workers gained a half-day holiday on Saturday and the weekend was born. By the end of the 19th century, most people had more leisure time. Meanwhile during the 19th century sports became organized. The first written rules for rugby were drawn up in 1845. The London Football Association devised the rules of football in 1863. The first international match was held between England and Scotland in 1872. In 1867 John Graham Chambers drew up a list of rules for boxing. They were called the Queensberry Rules after the Marquis of Queensberry. The Amateur Athletics Association was founded in 1880. Polo was first played in Britain in 1869. Several new sports and games were invented during the 19th century. Although a form of tennis was played since the Middle Ages lawn tennis was invented in 1873. Snooker was invented in India in 1875. Volleyball was invented in 1895. At the end of the 19th century bicycling became a popular sport. The safety bicycle was invented in 1885 and in 1892 John Boyd Dunlop invented pneumatic tyres (much more comfortable than solid rubber ones!) Bicycling clubs became common in Victorian Britain. Ludo was originally an Indian game. It was introduced into Britain c. 1880. Reading was also popular in the 19th century. In 1841 Edgar Allan Poe published the first detective story The Murders In The Rue Morgue. The first Sherlock Holmes story A Study in Scarlet was published in 1887 by Arthur Conan Doyle. Many middle class people also enjoyed musical evenings when they gathered around a piano and sang. Middle class people were very fond of the theater. In the late 19th century there were also music halls where a variety of acts were performed. In the 19th century going to the seaside was very popular with those who could afford it. The first pleasure pier was built at Brighton in 1823 and soon they appeared at seaside resorts across Britain. The steam-driven printing press was invented in 1814 allowing newspapers to become more common. Stamp duty on newspapers was abolished in 1855, which made them cheaper. However, newspapers did not become really common until the end of the 19th century. In 1896 the Daily Mail appeared. It was written in a deliberately sensational style to attract readers with little education. One new hobby in the 19th century was photography. Henry Fox Talbot took the first photograph in 1835. However, photography was more than just a pastime. In 1871 a writer said that one of the great comforts for the working class was having a photo of a family member who was working a long way off. They could be reminded what their loved one looked like. the first cheap camera was invented in 1888 by George Eastman. Afterward, photography became a popular hobby. In the late 19th century town councils laid out public parks for recreation. The first children's playground was built in a park in Manchester in 1859. In the 19th century the modern Christmas evolved. Before then Christmas wasn't especially important. It was one of only many festivals celebrated during the year. However, the Victorians invented the Christmas card and the Christmas cracker. The Christmas tree was known in England before the 19th century but it was really made popular when the royal family was shown in a magazine illustration with one. Father Christmas or Santa Claus became the figure we know today in the 19th century. The history of games Transport and Communications in the 19th Century Transport greatly improved during the 19th century. In the mid 19th century travel was revolutionized by railways. They made travel much faster. (They also removed the danger of highwaymen). The Stockton and Darlington railway opened in 1825. However, the first major railway was from Liverpool to Manchester. It opened in 1830. In the 1840s there was a huge boom in building railways and most towns in Britain were connected. In the late 19th century many branch lines were built connecting many villages. The first underground railway in Britain was built in London in 1863. Steam locomotives pulled the carriages. The first electric underground trains began running in London in 1890. From 1829 horse drawn omnibuses began running in London. They soon followed in other towns. In the 1860s and 1870s horse drawn trams began running in many towns. Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler made the first cars in 1885 and 1886. The motorbike was patented in 1885. Also in the 1880s, the safety bicycle was invented and cycling soon became a popular hobby. Meanwhile at sea travel was revolutionized by the steamship. By 1815 steamships were crossing the English Channel. Furthermore, it used to take several weeks to cross the Atlantic. Then in 1838, a steamship called the Sirius made the journey in 19 days. However steam did not completely replace sail until the end of the 19th century when the steam turbine was used on ships. By the mid 19th century lifeboats were commonly carried on ships. In the early 19th century the recipient of a letter had to pay the postage, not the sender. Then in 1840, Rowland Hill invented the Penny Post. From then on the sender of a letter paid. Cheap mail made it much easier for people to keep in touch with loved ones who lived a long way off. The telegraph was invented in 1837. A cable was laid across the Channel in 1850 and after 1866 it was possible to send messages across the Atlantic. A Scot, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876. The first telephone exchange in Britain opened in 1879. The history of transport Clothes in the 19th Century In the 19th century, apart from cotton shirts, men's clothes consisted of three parts. In the 18th century, they wore knee-length breeches but in the 19th century men wore trousers. They also wore waistcoats and coats. In the early 19th century women wore light dresses. In the 1830s they had puffed sleeves. In the 1850s they wore frames of whalebone or steel wire called crinolines under their skirts. In the late 1860s, women began to wear a kind of half crinoline. The front of the skirt was flat but it bulged outwards at the back. This was called a bustle and it disappeared in the 1890s. In the 19th century women wore corsets. Meanwhile about 1800 women started wearing knickers. At first, they were called drawers. Originally women wore a pair of drawers i.e. they were actually two garments, one for each leg, tied together at the top. In the late 19th century in Britain women's drawers were called knickerbockers then just knickers. Before the 19th century children were always dressed like little adults. In that century the first clothes made especially for children appeared such as sailor suits. A number of inventions to do with clothing were made in the 19th century. Thomas Hancock invented elastic in 1820. The safety pin was invented in 1849 by Walter Hunt. The electric iron was invented by Henry Seely in 1882 but it did not become common until the 1930s. The zip fastener was invented in 1893. In 1863 Butterick made the first paper dress pattern. The history of clothes Health and Medicine in the 19th century Medicine and surgery made great advances in the 19th century. Louis Pasteur 1822-1895 proved that disease was caused by microscopic organisms. He also invented a way of sterilizing liquids by heating them (called pasteurization). He also invented vaccination for anthrax (which killed many domestic animals) and for rabies. Immunization against diphtheria was invented in 1890. A vaccine for typhoid was invented in 1897. Surgery was greatly improved by the discovery of anesthetics. James Simpson began using chloroform for operations in 1847. In 1865 Joseph Lister discovered antiseptic surgery, which enabled surgeons to perform many more complicated operations. Rubber gloves were first used in surgery in 1890. Then in 1895 x-rays were discovered. Nursing was greatly improved by two nurses, Florence Nightingale 1820-1910 and Mary Seacole 1805-1881 who both nursed soldiers during the Crimean War 1854-56. The history of Surgery Warfare in the 19th century The industrial revolution transformed warfare. Railways meant armies could be transported much faster than before. The telegraph meant that messages could also be transmitted much faster. At the beginning of the 19th century, Sir William Congreve (1772-1828) developed the Congreve rocket. These rockets were used at Copenhagen in 1807 and they set most of the town on fire. However, rockets lacked both range and accuracy and after the Napoleonic Wars, they fell from favor. Meanwhile, in 1807 a Scot named Alexander Forsyth patented the percussion cap. When a trigger was pulled a hammer hit a container of fulminate of mercury, which exploded and ignited the charge of gunpowder. The percussion cap replaced the flintlock. Furthermore, breech-loading guns greatly increased the rate of fire. The British army began using breech-loading guns in 1865. The range of guns was improved by rifling. Some guns had been rifled for centuries but it only became commonplace in the 19th century. In the late 19th century rifles were improved further by the introduction of magazines, which greatly increased the rate of fire. Meanwhile in 1836 Samuel Colt began making revolvers. Traditionally the cavalry fought with pistols and swords but the revolver made swords obsolete. In the 19th century, many people experimented with machine guns. In 1862 Richard Gatling invented the Gatling gun. However, the first really successful machine gun was the Maxim gun, invented by Hiram Maxim in 1884. It was adopted by the British army in 1889. War at sea was changed by exploding shells, by steam engines and by iron ships. In 1858 the French launched La Gloire. It was made with plates of iron fixed onto timber. However, in 1860, Britain launched HMS warrior. This ship was made with an iron hull instead of a wooden hull with iron plates fixed on. Soon the traditional gun deck on warships was replaced by turret guns on the top deck. Then in the 1860s, Robert Whitehead developed the modern torpedo. The British navy began making torpedoes in 1871. In the 19th century, new explosives were invented to replace gunpowder. TNT was invented in 1863 and dynamite followed in 1867. Cordite was invented in 1889. Meanwhile, conditions in the services greatly improved. Uniforms were introduced for sailors in 1857. Flogging in the army and navy was abolished in 1881. Everyday life in Anglo-Saxon England Everyday life in the Middle Ages Everyday life in 16th Century England Everyday life in 17th Century England Everyday life in 18th Century England Everyday life in 20th Century Britain Women in the 19th Century Last revised 2019	<urn:uuid:db68bb65-7545-46c1-9db7-7eb11d2246ce>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://localhistories.org/19thcent.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00292.warc.gz	en	0.990948	5,455	3.84375	4	[ 0.17772239446640015, -0.06346115469932556, 0.5490975975990295, -0.033334821462631226, -0.106901153922081, -0.05961799621582031, -0.4398639500141144, 0.08323842287063599, -0.05884179100394249, -0.1602565050125122, -0.22220200300216675, -0.12928113341331482, -0.034664709120988846, -0.0328663...	3	If you are too busy in history classes, you can visit EssayLib.com which will write an essay for you on any historical topic. LIFE IN 19TH CENTURY BRITAIN By Tim Lambert Society in the 19th Century During the 19th century life was transformed by the Industrial Revolution. At first, it caused many problems but in the late 19th century life became more comfortable for ordinary people. Meanwhile, Britain became the world's first urban society. By 1851 more than half the population lived in towns. The population of Britain boomed during the 1800s. In 1801 it was about 9 million. By 1901 it had risen to about 41 million. This was despite the fact that many people emigrated to North America and Australia to escape poverty. About 15 million people left Britain between 1815 and 1914. However many people migrated to Britain in the 19th century. In the 1840s many people came from Ireland, fleeing a terrible potato famine. In the 1880s the Tsar began persecuting Russian Jews. Some fled to Britain and settled in the East End of London. In the early 19th century Britain was ruled by an elite. Only a small minority of men were allowed to vote. The situation began to change in 1832 when the vote was given to more men. Constituencies were also redrawn and many industrial towns were represented for the first time. The franchise was extended again in 1867 and 1884. In 1872 the secret ballot was introduced. Once most men could vote movements began to get women the right to vote as well. In 1897 in Britain local groups of women who demanded the vote joined to form the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). In 19th century Britain at least 80% of the population was working class. In order to be considered middle class, you had to have at least one servant. Most servants were female. Throughout the 19th century, 'service' was a major employer of women. In the 19th century families were much larger than today. That was partly because infant mortality was high. People had many children and accepted that not all of them would survive. In the early 19th century a group of Evangelical Christians called the Clapham Sect were active in politics. They campaigned for an end to slavery and cruel sports. They gained their name because so many of them lived in Clapham. Organized religion was much more important in the 19th century than it is today. Nevertheless, in 1851 a survey showed that only about 40% of the population were at church or chapel on a given Sunday. Even allowing for those who were ill or could not make it for some other reason it meant that half the population did not go to church. Certainly many of the poor had little or no contact with the church. In 1881 a similar survey showed only about 1/3 of the population of England at church on a given Sunday. In the late 19th century organized religion was in decline in Britain. A history of Christianity in England Work in the 19th Century During the 1800s the factory system gradually replaced the system of people working in their own homes or in small workshops. In England, the textile industry was the first to be transformed. It employed many children. Unfortunately, when children worked in textile factories they often worked for more than 12 hours a day. In the early 19th century parliament passed laws to restrict child labor. However, they all proved to be unenforceable. The first effective law was passed in 1833. It was effective because for the first time factory inspectors were appointed to make sure the law was being obeyed. The new law banned children under 9 from working in textile factories. It said that children aged 9 to 13 must not work for more than 12 hours a day or 48 hours a week. Children aged 13 to 18 must not work for more than 69 hours a week. Furthermore, nobody under 18 was allowed to work at night (from 8.30 pm to 5.30 am). Children aged 9 to 13 were to be given 2 hours of education a day. Conditions in coal mines were often terrible. Children as young as 5 worked underground. However, in 1842, a law banned women and boys under 10 from working underground. In 1844 a law banned all children under 8 from working. Then in 1847, a Factory Act said that women and children could only work 10 hours a day in textile factories. In 1867 the law was extended to all factories. (A factory was defined as a place where more than 50 people were employed in a manufacturing process). In 1878 a law banned women from working more than 56 hours a week in any factory. In the 19th century, boys were made to climb up chimneys to clean them. This practice was ended by law in 1875. In the 19th century being a domestic servant was a common job for women. Other women worked as charwomen or laundresses. Many women worked at home finishing shirts or shoes. Others made boxes or lace at home. In the Black Country in the West Midlands of England, some women made chains in forges by their homes. In the 19th century married working class women often worked - they had to because many families were so poor they needed her earnings as well as her husbands. In the 1850s and 1860s skilled craftsmen formed national trade unions. However unskilled workers did not become organized until the late 1880s. A history of work British Cities in the 19th Century Living conditions in early 19th British century cities were often dreadful. However, there was one improvement. Gaslight was first used in 1807 in Pall Mall in London. Many cities introduced gas street lights in the 1820s. However early 19th century cities were dirty, unsanitary and overcrowded. In them, the streets were very often unpaved and they were not cleaned. Rubbish was not collected and it was allowed to accumulate in piles in the streets. Since most of it was organic when it turned black and sticky it was used as fertilizer. Furthermore in the early 19th century poor people often had cesspits, which were not emptied very often. Later in the century, many people used earth closets. (A pail with a box containing granulated over it. When you pulled a lever clay covered the contents of the pail). In the early 19th century only wealthy people had flushing lavatories. However, in the late 19th century they became common. In the early 19th century poor families often had to share toilets and on Sunday mornings queues formed. A history of toilets Given these horrid conditions it is not surprising that disease was common. Life expectancy in cities was low (significantly lower than in the countryside) and infant mortality was very high. British cities suffered outbreaks of cholera in 1831-32 and in 1848-49. Fortunately, the last outbreak finally spurred people into action. In the late 19th century most cities dug sewers and created piped water supplies, which made society much healthier. Meanwhile, in 1842 Joseph Whitworth invented the mechanical street sweeper. Poverty in the 19th Century At the end of the 19th century more than 25% of the population of Britain was living at or below subsistence level. Surveys indicated that around 10% were very poor and could not afford even basic necessities such as enough nourishing food. Between 15% and 20% had just enough money to live on (provided they did not lose their job or have to take time off work through illness). If you had no income at all you had to enter the workhouse. The workhouses were feared and hated by the poor. They were meant to be as unpleasant as possible to deter poor people from asking the state for help. However during the late 19th century workhouses gradually became more humane. The history of poverty Homes in the 19th Century Well off people lived in very comfortable houses in the 19th century. (Although their servants lived in cramped quarters, often in the attic). For the first time, furniture was mass-produced. That meant it was cheaper but unfortunately standards of design fell. To us, middle class 19th century homes would seem overcrowded with furniture, ornaments, and knick-knacks. However, only a small minority could afford this comfortable lifestyle. In the early 19th century housing for the poor was often dreadful. Often they lived in 'back-to-backs'. These were houses of three (or sometimes only two) rooms, one of the top of the other. The houses were literally back-to-back. The back of one house joined onto the back of another and they only had windows on one side. The bottom room was used as a living room cum kitchen. The two rooms upstairs were used as bedrooms. The worst homes were cellar dwellings. These were one-room cellars. They were damp and poorly ventilated. The poorest people slept on piles of straw because they could not afford beds. However, housing conditions gradually improved. In the 1840s local councils passed by-laws banning cellar dwellings. They also banned any new back to backs. The old ones were gradually demolished and replaced over the following decades. In the early 19th century skilled workers usually lived in 'through houses' i.e. ones that were not joined to the backs of other houses. Usually, they had two rooms downstairs and two upstairs. The downstairs front room was kept for best. The family kept their best furniture and ornaments in this room. They spent most of their time in the downstairs back room, which served as a kitchen and living room. As the 19th century passed more and more working class people could afford this lifestyle. In the late 19th century worker's houses greatly improved. After 1875 most towns passed building regulations which stated that e.g. new houses must be a certain distance apart, rooms must be of a certain size and have windows of a certain size. By the 1880s most working class people lived in houses with two rooms downstairs and two or even three bedrooms. Most had a small garden. At the end of the 19th century, some houses for skilled workers were built with the latest luxury - an indoor toilet. However, even at the end of the 19th century, there were still many families living in one room. Old houses were sometimes divided up into separate dwellings. Sometimes if windows were broken slum landlords could not or would not replace them. So they were 'repaired' with paper. Or rags were stuffed into holes in the glass. In the late 19th century most homes also had a scullery. In it was a 'copper', a metal container for washing clothes. The copper was filled with water and soap powder was added. To wash the clothes they were turned with a wooden tool called a dolly. Or you used a metal plunger with holes in it to push clothes up and down. Wet clothes were wrung through a device called a wringer of mangle to dry them. The clothes wringer or mangle was invented by Robert Tasker in 1850. In 1875 a man named John B. Porter invented a portable ironing board. Sarah Boone patented an improved device in 1892. At the beginning of the 19th century people cooked over an open fire. This was very wasteful as most of the heat went up the chimney. In the 1820s an iron cooker called a range was introduced. It was a much more efficient way of cooking because most of the heat was contained within. By the mid-19th century ranges were common. Most of them had a boiler behind the coal fire where water was heated. Gaslight first became common in well off people's homes in the 1840s. By the late 1870s, most working class homes had gaslight, at least downstairs. Bedrooms might have oil lamps. Gas fires first became common in the 1880s. Gas cookers first became common in the 1890s. In the last 2 decades of the 19th century, many British towns and cities installed electric street lights. However electric light was expensive and it took a long time to replace gas in people's homes. In the early 19th century only rich people had bathrooms. People did take baths but only a few people had actual rooms for washing. In the 1870s and 1880s many middle class people had bathrooms built. The water was heated by gas. Working class people had a tin bath and washed in front of the kitchen range. A history of homes Food in the 19th Century In the early 19th century most of the working class lived on plain food bread, butter, potatoes and bacon. Butcher's meat was a luxury. However food greatly improved in the late 19th century. Railways and steamships made it possible to import cheap grain from North America so bread became cheaper. Refrigeration made it possible to import cheap meat from Argentina and Australia. Consumption of sugar also increased. By the end of the 19th century most people were eating better food. Furthermore in the late 19th century canned food first became widely available. The rotary can opener was invented in 1870 by William Lyman. Furthermore in the 1870s margarine, a cheap substitute for butter, was invented. A man named Gail Borden patented condensed milk in 1856. John Meyenberg patented evaporated milk in 1884. Meanwhile several new biscuits were invented in the 19th century including the Garibaldi (1861), the cream cracker (1885) and the Digestive (1892). The first chocolate bar was made in 1847. Milk chocolate was invented in 1875. The first recipe for potato crisps appeared in a book by Dr William Kitchiner in 1817. A history of food Education in the 19th Century In the early 19th century the churches provided schools for poor children. From 1833 the government provided them with grants. There were also dame schools. They were run by women who taught a little reading, writing, and arithmetic. However many dame schools were really a child minding service. In Britain, the state did not take responsibility for education until 1870. Forsters Education Act laid down that schools should be provided for all children. If there were not enough places in existing schools then board schools were built. In 1880 school was made compulsory for 5 to 10 year olds. However, the school was not free, except for the poorest children until 1891 when fees were abolished. From 1899 children were required to go to school until they were 12. Meanwhile, girls from upper class families were taught by a governess. Boys were often sent to public schools like Eton. Middle class boys went to grammar schools. Middle class girls went to private schools where they were taught 'accomplishments' such as music and sewing. Games and leisure in the 19th Century In the early 19th century working people had very little leisure time. However, things improved by the end of the century. In 1871 the Bank Holiday Act gave workers a few paid holidays each year. Also in the 1870s some clerks and skilled workers began to have one week paid annual holiday. However, even at the end of the 19th century, most people had no paid holidays except bank holidays. In the early 19th century everyone had Sunday off. In the 1870s some skilled workers began to have Saturday afternoon off. In the 1890s most workers gained a half-day holiday on Saturday and the weekend was born. By the end of the 19th century, most people had more leisure time. Meanwhile during the 19th century sports became organized. The first written rules for rugby were drawn up in 1845. The London Football Association devised the rules of football in 1863. The first international match was held between England and Scotland in 1872. In 1867 John Graham Chambers drew up a list of rules for boxing. They were called the Queensberry Rules after the Marquis of Queensberry. The Amateur Athletics Association was founded in 1880. Polo was first played in Britain in 1869. Several new sports and games were invented during the 19th century. Although a form of tennis was played since the Middle Ages lawn tennis was invented in 1873. Snooker was invented in India in 1875. Volleyball was invented in 1895. At the end of the 19th century bicycling became a popular sport. The safety bicycle was invented in 1885 and in 1892 John Boyd Dunlop invented pneumatic tyres (much more comfortable than solid rubber ones!) Bicycling clubs became common in Victorian Britain. Ludo was originally an Indian game. It was introduced into Britain c. 1880. Reading was also popular in the 19th century. In 1841 Edgar Allan Poe published the first detective story The Murders In The Rue Morgue. The first Sherlock Holmes story A Study in Scarlet was published in 1887 by Arthur Conan Doyle. Many middle class people also enjoyed musical evenings when they gathered around a piano and sang. Middle class people were very fond of the theater. In the late 19th century there were also music halls where a variety of acts were performed. In the 19th century going to the seaside was very popular with those who could afford it. The first pleasure pier was built at Brighton in 1823 and soon they appeared at seaside resorts across Britain. The steam-driven printing press was invented in 1814 allowing newspapers to become more common. Stamp duty on newspapers was abolished in 1855, which made them cheaper. However, newspapers did not become really common until the end of the 19th century. In 1896 the Daily Mail appeared. It was written in a deliberately sensational style to attract readers with little education. One new hobby in the 19th century was photography. Henry Fox Talbot took the first photograph in 1835. However, photography was more than just a pastime. In 1871 a writer said that one of the great comforts for the working class was having a photo of a family member who was working a long way off. They could be reminded what their loved one looked like. the first cheap camera was invented in 1888 by George Eastman. Afterward, photography became a popular hobby. In the late 19th century town councils laid out public parks for recreation. The first children's playground was built in a park in Manchester in 1859. In the 19th century the modern Christmas evolved. Before then Christmas wasn't especially important. It was one of only many festivals celebrated during the year. However, the Victorians invented the Christmas card and the Christmas cracker. The Christmas tree was known in England before the 19th century but it was really made popular when the royal family was shown in a magazine illustration with one. Father Christmas or Santa Claus became the figure we know today in the 19th century. The history of games Transport and Communications in the 19th Century Transport greatly improved during the 19th century. In the mid 19th century travel was revolutionized by railways. They made travel much faster. (They also removed the danger of highwaymen). The Stockton and Darlington railway opened in 1825. However, the first major railway was from Liverpool to Manchester. It opened in 1830. In the 1840s there was a huge boom in building railways and most towns in Britain were connected. In the late 19th century many branch lines were built connecting many villages. The first underground railway in Britain was built in London in 1863. Steam locomotives pulled the carriages. The first electric underground trains began running in London in 1890. From 1829 horse drawn omnibuses began running in London. They soon followed in other towns. In the 1860s and 1870s horse drawn trams began running in many towns. Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler made the first cars in 1885 and 1886. The motorbike was patented in 1885. Also in the 1880s, the safety bicycle was invented and cycling soon became a popular hobby. Meanwhile at sea travel was revolutionized by the steamship. By 1815 steamships were crossing the English Channel. Furthermore, it used to take several weeks to cross the Atlantic. Then in 1838, a steamship called the Sirius made the journey in 19 days. However steam did not completely replace sail until the end of the 19th century when the steam turbine was used on ships. By the mid 19th century lifeboats were commonly carried on ships. In the early 19th century the recipient of a letter had to pay the postage, not the sender. Then in 1840, Rowland Hill invented the Penny Post. From then on the sender of a letter paid. Cheap mail made it much easier for people to keep in touch with loved ones who lived a long way off. The telegraph was invented in 1837. A cable was laid across the Channel in 1850 and after 1866 it was possible to send messages across the Atlantic. A Scot, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876. The first telephone exchange in Britain opened in 1879. The history of transport Clothes in the 19th Century In the 19th century, apart from cotton shirts, men's clothes consisted of three parts. In the 18th century, they wore knee-length breeches but in the 19th century men wore trousers. They also wore waistcoats and coats. In the early 19th century women wore light dresses. In the 1830s they had puffed sleeves. In the 1850s they wore frames of whalebone or steel wire called crinolines under their skirts. In the late 1860s, women began to wear a kind of half crinoline. The front of the skirt was flat but it bulged outwards at the back. This was called a bustle and it disappeared in the 1890s. In the 19th century women wore corsets. Meanwhile about 1800 women started wearing knickers. At first, they were called drawers. Originally women wore a pair of drawers i.e. they were actually two garments, one for each leg, tied together at the top. In the late 19th century in Britain women's drawers were called knickerbockers then just knickers. Before the 19th century children were always dressed like little adults. In that century the first clothes made especially for children appeared such as sailor suits. A number of inventions to do with clothing were made in the 19th century. Thomas Hancock invented elastic in 1820. The safety pin was invented in 1849 by Walter Hunt. The electric iron was invented by Henry Seely in 1882 but it did not become common until the 1930s. The zip fastener was invented in 1893. In 1863 Butterick made the first paper dress pattern. The history of clothes Health and Medicine in the 19th century Medicine and surgery made great advances in the 19th century. Louis Pasteur 1822-1895 proved that disease was caused by microscopic organisms. He also invented a way of sterilizing liquids by heating them (called pasteurization). He also invented vaccination for anthrax (which killed many domestic animals) and for rabies. Immunization against diphtheria was invented in 1890. A vaccine for typhoid was invented in 1897. Surgery was greatly improved by the discovery of anesthetics. James Simpson began using chloroform for operations in 1847. In 1865 Joseph Lister discovered antiseptic surgery, which enabled surgeons to perform many more complicated operations. Rubber gloves were first used in surgery in 1890. Then in 1895 x-rays were discovered. Nursing was greatly improved by two nurses, Florence Nightingale 1820-1910 and Mary Seacole 1805-1881 who both nursed soldiers during the Crimean War 1854-56. The history of Surgery Warfare in the 19th century The industrial revolution transformed warfare. Railways meant armies could be transported much faster than before. The telegraph meant that messages could also be transmitted much faster. At the beginning of the 19th century, Sir William Congreve (1772-1828) developed the Congreve rocket. These rockets were used at Copenhagen in 1807 and they set most of the town on fire. However, rockets lacked both range and accuracy and after the Napoleonic Wars, they fell from favor. Meanwhile, in 1807 a Scot named Alexander Forsyth patented the percussion cap. When a trigger was pulled a hammer hit a container of fulminate of mercury, which exploded and ignited the charge of gunpowder. The percussion cap replaced the flintlock. Furthermore, breech-loading guns greatly increased the rate of fire. The British army began using breech-loading guns in 1865. The range of guns was improved by rifling. Some guns had been rifled for centuries but it only became commonplace in the 19th century. In the late 19th century rifles were improved further by the introduction of magazines, which greatly increased the rate of fire. Meanwhile in 1836 Samuel Colt began making revolvers. Traditionally the cavalry fought with pistols and swords but the revolver made swords obsolete. In the 19th century, many people experimented with machine guns. In 1862 Richard Gatling invented the Gatling gun. However, the first really successful machine gun was the Maxim gun, invented by Hiram Maxim in 1884. It was adopted by the British army in 1889. War at sea was changed by exploding shells, by steam engines and by iron ships. In 1858 the French launched La Gloire. It was made with plates of iron fixed onto timber. However, in 1860, Britain launched HMS warrior. This ship was made with an iron hull instead of a wooden hull with iron plates fixed on. Soon the traditional gun deck on warships was replaced by turret guns on the top deck. Then in the 1860s, Robert Whitehead developed the modern torpedo. The British navy began making torpedoes in 1871. In the 19th century, new explosives were invented to replace gunpowder. TNT was invented in 1863 and dynamite followed in 1867. Cordite was invented in 1889. Meanwhile, conditions in the services greatly improved. Uniforms were introduced for sailors in 1857. Flogging in the army and navy was abolished in 1881. Everyday life in Anglo-Saxon England Everyday life in the Middle Ages Everyday life in 16th Century England Everyday life in 17th Century England Everyday life in 18th Century England Everyday life in 20th Century Britain Women in the 19th Century Last revised 2019	6,133	ENGLISH	1
William Still and His Impact on Black History Essay Working on farms to receiving whippings were just a few things all African Americans had to endure in the time of slavery. However there have been numerous people and events that have been influential in black history. One momentous event is when William Still escaped from slavery. William Still was born on October 7th, 1821, in Burlington County, New Jersey. Still’s original name as William Steel but his father changed it to protect his wife. Unfortunately the Steel family was unable to escape slavery together. After his escape from the life of slavery, William moved to Philadelphia where he learned to read. He then started to assist fugitive black slaves when being paid to work as a janitor at Pennsylvania’s Society for the Abolition of Slavery. While helping the escapees he wound up disentangling his long lost brother from slavery. In 1972 William wrote The Underground Railroad, which included documents he received from former slaves. This book was crucial because most books on slavery had some bias views written by white abolitionists. After visiting multitudinous escapees in Canada, Still was inspired to launch a desegregation campaign in Pennsylvania railroad cars. The campaign was triumphant and caused Pennsylvanian legislature to preclude segregation. William Still served as both President and vice president for the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery. He served as vice president for eight year and President for five. William did not stop there he then organized a YMCA for blacks, an orphanage for children of black sailors and soldiers and the mission Sabbath school. At age 81, in 1902, William Gant Still died of a disease known as Bights disease. However his exploits will never be forgotten. William Still’s achievements triggered many essential events on the path to abolishment of slavery. As one can see William was a man who did great things for those in need of help throughout his lifetime. However if he had never escaped from slavery his accomplishments may have never occurred. If he had not fled from slavery then there may not have been a chance for the successful escape of six hundred and forty nine slaves nor would his organizations have been formed to help many of those who needed assistance in overcoming the burdens of being former slaves. America would not be the same if it was not for his continuous strive for the freedom of slavery for the Africa American people. Due to his chance at freedom, African American’s are capable of having equal and independent lives. His achievements were just a few influential moments during black history. If freedom from slavery had never been seized, what would America be like now? Hopefully America will never have to go down that road again Cite this William Still and His Impact on Black History Essay William Still and His Impact on Black History Essay. (2018, Jan 31). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/william-still-and-his-impact-on-black-history/	<urn:uuid:006edd5a-ec87-456d-b18f-da79d8287ea0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://graduateway.com/william-still-and-his-impact-on-black-history/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00264.warc.gz	en	0.986068	605	3.625	4	[ -0.2726638913154602, 0.6891442537307739, 0.1961183100938797, 0.40308764576911926, -0.3173431158065796, -0.10662022233009338, -0.17575868964195251, -0.443163126707077, -0.29965484142303467, -0.14177072048187256, 0.1854328215122223, 0.35488152503967285, -0.2085038125514984, -0.05031529068946...	1	William Still and His Impact on Black History Essay Working on farms to receiving whippings were just a few things all African Americans had to endure in the time of slavery. However there have been numerous people and events that have been influential in black history. One momentous event is when William Still escaped from slavery. William Still was born on October 7th, 1821, in Burlington County, New Jersey. Still’s original name as William Steel but his father changed it to protect his wife. Unfortunately the Steel family was unable to escape slavery together. After his escape from the life of slavery, William moved to Philadelphia where he learned to read. He then started to assist fugitive black slaves when being paid to work as a janitor at Pennsylvania’s Society for the Abolition of Slavery. While helping the escapees he wound up disentangling his long lost brother from slavery. In 1972 William wrote The Underground Railroad, which included documents he received from former slaves. This book was crucial because most books on slavery had some bias views written by white abolitionists. After visiting multitudinous escapees in Canada, Still was inspired to launch a desegregation campaign in Pennsylvania railroad cars. The campaign was triumphant and caused Pennsylvanian legislature to preclude segregation. William Still served as both President and vice president for the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery. He served as vice president for eight year and President for five. William did not stop there he then organized a YMCA for blacks, an orphanage for children of black sailors and soldiers and the mission Sabbath school. At age 81, in 1902, William Gant Still died of a disease known as Bights disease. However his exploits will never be forgotten. William Still’s achievements triggered many essential events on the path to abolishment of slavery. As one can see William was a man who did great things for those in need of help throughout his lifetime. However if he had never escaped from slavery his accomplishments may have never occurred. If he had not fled from slavery then there may not have been a chance for the successful escape of six hundred and forty nine slaves nor would his organizations have been formed to help many of those who needed assistance in overcoming the burdens of being former slaves. America would not be the same if it was not for his continuous strive for the freedom of slavery for the Africa American people. Due to his chance at freedom, African American’s are capable of having equal and independent lives. His achievements were just a few influential moments during black history. If freedom from slavery had never been seized, what would America be like now? Hopefully America will never have to go down that road again Cite this William Still and His Impact on Black History Essay William Still and His Impact on Black History Essay. (2018, Jan 31). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/william-still-and-his-impact-on-black-history/	607	ENGLISH	1
He was on the side of toleration and protected the reformers. Religious toleration was granted, but with the important exception that some harsh measures were enacted against Anglicans and Roman Catholics, to neither of whom was liberty of worship accorded. Complete toleration in fact was only extended to Protestant nonconformists, who composed the Cromwellian established church, and who now meted out to their antagonists the same treatment which they themselves were later to receive under the Clarendon Code of Charles II. The reformation as such had no favourable influence on Jewish fortunes in Christian Europe, though the championship of the cause of toleration by Reuchlin had considerable value. Only the persecuted themselves insisted on toleration as a Christian duty.	<urn:uuid:253b64d0-86c9-451a-b38f-ff2dcd2ba676>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thesaurus.yourdictionary.com/toleration	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00518.warc.gz	en	0.984344	153	3.53125	4	[ -0.001153974561020732, 0.44086968898773193, -0.21370288729667664, -0.26201823353767395, -0.09665475785732269, -0.082723468542099, 0.040163855999708176, 0.31659817695617676, 0.19404128193855286, -0.004769427236169577, -0.4353742003440857, -0.2995976507663727, 0.22339141368865967, 0.11437680...	1	He was on the side of toleration and protected the reformers. Religious toleration was granted, but with the important exception that some harsh measures were enacted against Anglicans and Roman Catholics, to neither of whom was liberty of worship accorded. Complete toleration in fact was only extended to Protestant nonconformists, who composed the Cromwellian established church, and who now meted out to their antagonists the same treatment which they themselves were later to receive under the Clarendon Code of Charles II. The reformation as such had no favourable influence on Jewish fortunes in Christian Europe, though the championship of the cause of toleration by Reuchlin had considerable value. Only the persecuted themselves insisted on toleration as a Christian duty.	150	ENGLISH	1
Scottish author Philip Paris continues the story of how the famous Italian chapel in Orkney, off the north coast of Scotland, came to be created during the Second World War. Part 1 of this story can be read here. The Italian POW camp on the tiny Orkney island of Lamb Holm welcomed its first priest in September 1943 with the arrival of Father Gioacchino Giacobazzi, who was known as Padre Giacomo. He had been captured by the British army while helping at a field hospital in Soddu, Ethiopia, and ended up in Edinburgh along with 30 other priests who were to be allocated to various POW camps around the country. One of the many previously unknown stories that came to light during more than four years of research was that, at the moment of being captured, Padre Giacomo rescued the Italian flag flying above the hospital and he still had this with him, hidden at the bottom of his satchel, when he arrived many months later in Orkney! His presence was the catalyst for the creation of the chapel and shortly afterwards the helpful camp commander, Major Buckland, sourced two Nissen huts. These semi-circulator structures, made of corrugated iron sheets fixed to a framework, were relatively inexpensive to make and could be transported easily in sections then assembled on site, so they became a common feature of the British landscape during the Second World War. Towards the end of November the huts, emptied of their contents, were moved to Camp 60 and placed end-to-end just inside the gates to make one larger building. The concrete for the new foundations had been donated by Balfour Beatty, the giant construction company behind the project to build the Churchill Barriers, the reason why some 1,200 Italian POWs had landed in Orkney in February 1942. Apart from cement the Italians had little in the way of materials, but they overcame this hurdle with faith, determination and sheer ingenuity. Used bully beef tins were turned into lanterns, the brass stair rods of a part sunken ship were used to create candlesticks. Several old ships had been sunk in an effort to block the channels between the islands and these subsequently provided some useful materials such as the tiles for the floor and, later on, wood for the tabernacle. The Italians made trinkets to raise money for a fund to purchase items that could not be made or found. The original plan was to create a chancel at one end of the now larger hut and leave the remainder unaltered, which would be used as a school room. Firstly, a wooden frame was built on the inside of the walls and plasterboard fixed to it. A stud wall was created to make a sacristy for the priest. There were many skilled men in Camp 60 and the artist Domenico Chiocchetti made an altar and altar rail out of leftover cement. He painted his masterpiece above the altar of the Madonna and Child and adorned the remainder of the chancel with other religious images. Madonna with Child - Domenico Chiocchetti To separate this from the rest of the unattractive hut, the blacksmith Giuseppe Palumbi took on the task of building a rood screen, a huge undertaking for one man. Major Buckland agreed that, like Domenico, he could be relieved of ‘barrier duties’ as long as his work was covered by other men. It took Giuseppe four months to complete the rood screen at his forge, which he also had to make! During my research for the historical fiction The Italian Chapel I tracked down Renato Palumbi, the blacksmith’s son and wrote to him asking if he could provide me with any information about his father that he thought might be relevant. I received a letter from Giuseppe’s grandson, who speaks English, explaining that Renato would write down everything he could and that he, Pino, would translate the text for me as I speak no Italian. And so the chapel was to be the cause of another friendship, just as it had crossed so many boundaries and beliefs all those years ago. Picture by James W Sinclair - Domenico Ciocchetti (left) and Giuseppe Palumbi (right) Questions and answers flew back and forward over the following months between Scotland and Italy, with Pino acting diligently as translator. It was during this correspondence that I found out, to my great surprise, Giuseppe had fallen in love with a local woman while he had been a POW in Orkney and that his granddaughter is named after this woman. Until my enquiries this had been kept such a closely guarded family secret that even Pino had not heard this story nor realised the significance of his cousin’s name. Armed with this startling new information my wife, Catherine, and I made the amazing discovery of the token that Giuseppe had left in the chapel for the woman he loved, but never saw again after he left Orkney in 1944. It was an extremely moving moment. We knew something that no-one else in the world was aware of, unless the lady herself was still alive. I never tracked her down and changed her name in my books to protect her identity. Perhaps, one day, I might yet receive a letter ... The beautiful rood screen, one of the wonders of the chapel, was the most complex structure Giuseppe ever made and when he was repatriated he took back to Italy a photograph of the inside of the chapel, which he hung on a wall at home. Many years later, Renato wrote the following about his father, who died in 1980: ‘Every single moment his mind went back there, on that ‘rock’, which he thought abandoned, where he had left the proof of how much he was worth. Every time it was as though he wanted to say, ‘Let’s go back and see it’. That picture has always been there, on the wall, and lots of times I have been surprised by my father’s melancholy look. It is possible that a prison becomes so important? I can answer that it’s possible when only there have you been able to express your potential in a complete way.’ By the spring of 1944 the men in Camp 60 had their chapel and Padre Giacomo was no longer holding Mass in the mess hall. However, it wasn’t enough. What had been created so inspired the Italians that they decided to convert the entire building. The regularly held classes were moved elsewhere and the remainder of the inside lined with a wooden frame and yet more plasterboard. An artist, Giovanni Pennisi, was brought over from the Burray camp to help Domenico paint the nave, and with great skill they made the curved walls look like stone and brick as though the smooth surfaces had varying depths. As this progressed, work was started to build a facade to hide the rather ugly entrance of the Nissen hut. Pennisi produced a design and the stonemason Domenico Buttapasta built it with a team of helpers. When it was finished, Pennisi crafted an extraordinary bas-relief of the head of Christ and fitted it to the facade, just underneath the bell-tower. The only part remaining untouched was the roof, and to make this as watertight as possible the corrugated iron sections were covered with by hand cement. The Churchill Barriers, a total of one and a half miles in length, took four years to build and consumed more than 900,000 tonnes of concrete and rock. Men had been injured and men had died in this quest to complete what was the largest engineering feat of the Second World War. By the summer of 1944 the task was largely finished. In the end, the chapel was in use for only a short period of time, but there is no doubt of the importance it played in keeping up the morale of despairing men, far from home and the lives they understood, worried desperately about loved ones and friends whom they had not seen in years. On 9th September the men in Camp 60 were transferred to Yorkshire, where they worked mainly on nearby farms until their return to Italy at the beginning of 1946. Shortly before their departure Padre Giacomo held a service in the chapel and this was attended by Italians, British soldiers, construction workers, Orkney families plus many other civilians. The little building truly was the Miracle of Camp 60. Domenico Chiocchetti remained behind for about a week in order to complete the holy water stoup, the only unfinished task, while a small group of soldiers dismantled the kitchen ranges, beds and other items that could be used in other camps. After the war ex POW camps were razed to the ground throughout Britain as people tried to return to normality as quickly as possible and one day a demolition team arrived on Lamb Holm. However, these tough men used to tearing down buildings in the shortest possible time were so moved by the chapel that they refused to touch it and, disobeying their orders, when the huts, barbed-wire and all that made up Camp 60 was taken away, the chapel and Domenico’s statue of St George slaying the Dragon were left alone in the field. There was no-one remaining to love and care for the building and the fierce Orkney winters pounded it unmercifully until the fine details of Pennisi’s head of Christ began to wear away and the concrete roof cracked, letting in water that threatened to destroy the works of art inside. The bell hanging in the bell-tower rang out its warning of impending disaster again and again, but the sound was whisked away in the wind and nobody heard the desperate cry for help ... Next week Philip Paris tells of the fate of the Italian chapel. Philip Paris is author of the historical fiction – The Italian Chapel – and the non-fiction Orkney’s Italian Chapel: The True Story of an Icon.	<urn:uuid:19c83554-6f99-4a5f-b81e-8dccc19a611c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.italymagazine.com/featured-story/miracle-camp-60-part-2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00552.warc.gz	en	0.985125	2,078	3.5	4	[ -0.48890912532806396, 0.5396248698234558, -0.09656072407960892, 0.15134043991565704, -0.10974746942520142, 0.05711347609758377, -0.5116434097290039, 0.22638556361198425, 0.061500295996665955, 0.11735962331295013, 0.3242216110229492, -0.3976411819458008, 0.12582999467849731, 0.5089416503906...	3	Scottish author Philip Paris continues the story of how the famous Italian chapel in Orkney, off the north coast of Scotland, came to be created during the Second World War. Part 1 of this story can be read here. The Italian POW camp on the tiny Orkney island of Lamb Holm welcomed its first priest in September 1943 with the arrival of Father Gioacchino Giacobazzi, who was known as Padre Giacomo. He had been captured by the British army while helping at a field hospital in Soddu, Ethiopia, and ended up in Edinburgh along with 30 other priests who were to be allocated to various POW camps around the country. One of the many previously unknown stories that came to light during more than four years of research was that, at the moment of being captured, Padre Giacomo rescued the Italian flag flying above the hospital and he still had this with him, hidden at the bottom of his satchel, when he arrived many months later in Orkney! His presence was the catalyst for the creation of the chapel and shortly afterwards the helpful camp commander, Major Buckland, sourced two Nissen huts. These semi-circulator structures, made of corrugated iron sheets fixed to a framework, were relatively inexpensive to make and could be transported easily in sections then assembled on site, so they became a common feature of the British landscape during the Second World War. Towards the end of November the huts, emptied of their contents, were moved to Camp 60 and placed end-to-end just inside the gates to make one larger building. The concrete for the new foundations had been donated by Balfour Beatty, the giant construction company behind the project to build the Churchill Barriers, the reason why some 1,200 Italian POWs had landed in Orkney in February 1942. Apart from cement the Italians had little in the way of materials, but they overcame this hurdle with faith, determination and sheer ingenuity. Used bully beef tins were turned into lanterns, the brass stair rods of a part sunken ship were used to create candlesticks. Several old ships had been sunk in an effort to block the channels between the islands and these subsequently provided some useful materials such as the tiles for the floor and, later on, wood for the tabernacle. The Italians made trinkets to raise money for a fund to purchase items that could not be made or found. The original plan was to create a chancel at one end of the now larger hut and leave the remainder unaltered, which would be used as a school room. Firstly, a wooden frame was built on the inside of the walls and plasterboard fixed to it. A stud wall was created to make a sacristy for the priest. There were many skilled men in Camp 60 and the artist Domenico Chiocchetti made an altar and altar rail out of leftover cement. He painted his masterpiece above the altar of the Madonna and Child and adorned the remainder of the chancel with other religious images. Madonna with Child - Domenico Chiocchetti To separate this from the rest of the unattractive hut, the blacksmith Giuseppe Palumbi took on the task of building a rood screen, a huge undertaking for one man. Major Buckland agreed that, like Domenico, he could be relieved of ‘barrier duties’ as long as his work was covered by other men. It took Giuseppe four months to complete the rood screen at his forge, which he also had to make! During my research for the historical fiction The Italian Chapel I tracked down Renato Palumbi, the blacksmith’s son and wrote to him asking if he could provide me with any information about his father that he thought might be relevant. I received a letter from Giuseppe’s grandson, who speaks English, explaining that Renato would write down everything he could and that he, Pino, would translate the text for me as I speak no Italian. And so the chapel was to be the cause of another friendship, just as it had crossed so many boundaries and beliefs all those years ago. Picture by James W Sinclair - Domenico Ciocchetti (left) and Giuseppe Palumbi (right) Questions and answers flew back and forward over the following months between Scotland and Italy, with Pino acting diligently as translator. It was during this correspondence that I found out, to my great surprise, Giuseppe had fallen in love with a local woman while he had been a POW in Orkney and that his granddaughter is named after this woman. Until my enquiries this had been kept such a closely guarded family secret that even Pino had not heard this story nor realised the significance of his cousin’s name. Armed with this startling new information my wife, Catherine, and I made the amazing discovery of the token that Giuseppe had left in the chapel for the woman he loved, but never saw again after he left Orkney in 1944. It was an extremely moving moment. We knew something that no-one else in the world was aware of, unless the lady herself was still alive. I never tracked her down and changed her name in my books to protect her identity. Perhaps, one day, I might yet receive a letter ... The beautiful rood screen, one of the wonders of the chapel, was the most complex structure Giuseppe ever made and when he was repatriated he took back to Italy a photograph of the inside of the chapel, which he hung on a wall at home. Many years later, Renato wrote the following about his father, who died in 1980: ‘Every single moment his mind went back there, on that ‘rock’, which he thought abandoned, where he had left the proof of how much he was worth. Every time it was as though he wanted to say, ‘Let’s go back and see it’. That picture has always been there, on the wall, and lots of times I have been surprised by my father’s melancholy look. It is possible that a prison becomes so important? I can answer that it’s possible when only there have you been able to express your potential in a complete way.’ By the spring of 1944 the men in Camp 60 had their chapel and Padre Giacomo was no longer holding Mass in the mess hall. However, it wasn’t enough. What had been created so inspired the Italians that they decided to convert the entire building. The regularly held classes were moved elsewhere and the remainder of the inside lined with a wooden frame and yet more plasterboard. An artist, Giovanni Pennisi, was brought over from the Burray camp to help Domenico paint the nave, and with great skill they made the curved walls look like stone and brick as though the smooth surfaces had varying depths. As this progressed, work was started to build a facade to hide the rather ugly entrance of the Nissen hut. Pennisi produced a design and the stonemason Domenico Buttapasta built it with a team of helpers. When it was finished, Pennisi crafted an extraordinary bas-relief of the head of Christ and fitted it to the facade, just underneath the bell-tower. The only part remaining untouched was the roof, and to make this as watertight as possible the corrugated iron sections were covered with by hand cement. The Churchill Barriers, a total of one and a half miles in length, took four years to build and consumed more than 900,000 tonnes of concrete and rock. Men had been injured and men had died in this quest to complete what was the largest engineering feat of the Second World War. By the summer of 1944 the task was largely finished. In the end, the chapel was in use for only a short period of time, but there is no doubt of the importance it played in keeping up the morale of despairing men, far from home and the lives they understood, worried desperately about loved ones and friends whom they had not seen in years. On 9th September the men in Camp 60 were transferred to Yorkshire, where they worked mainly on nearby farms until their return to Italy at the beginning of 1946. Shortly before their departure Padre Giacomo held a service in the chapel and this was attended by Italians, British soldiers, construction workers, Orkney families plus many other civilians. The little building truly was the Miracle of Camp 60. Domenico Chiocchetti remained behind for about a week in order to complete the holy water stoup, the only unfinished task, while a small group of soldiers dismantled the kitchen ranges, beds and other items that could be used in other camps. After the war ex POW camps were razed to the ground throughout Britain as people tried to return to normality as quickly as possible and one day a demolition team arrived on Lamb Holm. However, these tough men used to tearing down buildings in the shortest possible time were so moved by the chapel that they refused to touch it and, disobeying their orders, when the huts, barbed-wire and all that made up Camp 60 was taken away, the chapel and Domenico’s statue of St George slaying the Dragon were left alone in the field. There was no-one remaining to love and care for the building and the fierce Orkney winters pounded it unmercifully until the fine details of Pennisi’s head of Christ began to wear away and the concrete roof cracked, letting in water that threatened to destroy the works of art inside. The bell hanging in the bell-tower rang out its warning of impending disaster again and again, but the sound was whisked away in the wind and nobody heard the desperate cry for help ... Next week Philip Paris tells of the fate of the Italian chapel. Philip Paris is author of the historical fiction – The Italian Chapel – and the non-fiction Orkney’s Italian Chapel: The True Story of an Icon.	2,064	ENGLISH	1
"Eureka" comes from the Ancient Greek and means: "I have found it"; it has become a very famous expression thanks to the Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, astronomer and inventor Archimedes. This is the story: a King had a ordered to make a golden crown. When the crown was ready the King wasn’t sure the goldsmith had used only the gold. The crown did weight exact as the amount of gold that was given but the King was afraid that the gold was mixed with other much cheaper metal and then the goldsmith could keep the not used gold. So he ordered Archimedes to find out whether it was pure gold or not. Of course Archimedes could not cut the crown to see what was inside. How could he do it? He was thinking about it and thinking goes very well when you lay in a bad... and when the bad is full of water and you go into it...a lot of water will flow over the edge. And suddenly Archimedes knew how he could solve the problem EUREKA! We know that a kilo lead is much smaller than a kilo aluminium, so when you put lead in a bad with water there will flow less water over the edge as when you put a kilo aluminium in it. So he filled a rain barrel full with water and took exact the same amount of gold as the crown weighed and let it carefully sink in the barrel. He also filled another rain barrel with water and in that one he let the crown sink. Now he could see that if the crown was made of pure gold the water level would be exact the same when they had taken the gold and the crown out of the barrels. And when the crown wasn’t pure gold...the level would be different. Our educational projects are based on understanding things...	<urn:uuid:e4e136d1-043e-4ec8-ae73-a8aa787e0b25>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.vietnamculturalexchange.org/Project/Education-Project-Du-An-Giao-Duc.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00109.warc.gz	en	0.985163	377	3.296875	3	[ 0.08221116662025452, 0.23450347781181335, 0.2614673674106598, 0.0844668373465538, -0.2468833029270172, -0.42273128032684326, 0.30952465534210205, 0.6651962995529175, -0.0006943356129340827, 0.0790129080414772, 0.3511071801185608, -0.9019884467124939, -0.12748251855373383, -0.05991843715310...	1	"Eureka" comes from the Ancient Greek and means: "I have found it"; it has become a very famous expression thanks to the Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, astronomer and inventor Archimedes. This is the story: a King had a ordered to make a golden crown. When the crown was ready the King wasn’t sure the goldsmith had used only the gold. The crown did weight exact as the amount of gold that was given but the King was afraid that the gold was mixed with other much cheaper metal and then the goldsmith could keep the not used gold. So he ordered Archimedes to find out whether it was pure gold or not. Of course Archimedes could not cut the crown to see what was inside. How could he do it? He was thinking about it and thinking goes very well when you lay in a bad... and when the bad is full of water and you go into it...a lot of water will flow over the edge. And suddenly Archimedes knew how he could solve the problem EUREKA! We know that a kilo lead is much smaller than a kilo aluminium, so when you put lead in a bad with water there will flow less water over the edge as when you put a kilo aluminium in it. So he filled a rain barrel full with water and took exact the same amount of gold as the crown weighed and let it carefully sink in the barrel. He also filled another rain barrel with water and in that one he let the crown sink. Now he could see that if the crown was made of pure gold the water level would be exact the same when they had taken the gold and the crown out of the barrels. And when the crown wasn’t pure gold...the level would be different. Our educational projects are based on understanding things...	369	ENGLISH	1
ACADEMIC YEAR 2019-2020 As part of our Science unit on sound, Year 4 have been learning about amplitude and pitch. The children learnt that the amplitude of a sound is related to the size of the vibrations and that pitch is a variable that can changed on an instrument so that it can make both high and low sounds. For their activity, the children cut a series of straws to different lengths to create their very own set of panpipes. Following some extensive practise, we were able to achieve a tune! This week Year 4 were asked to create a brand new sweet treat that could be sold in Waitrose stores across the Country. In small groups, they worked together to design a company name and logo to represent their products. Their next task was to design their brand new product and the packaging to sell it in. Once they had their product they needed to work out how much it would cost to make, how much they could sell it for and the profit they would generate. To promote their products, they created their own advertising campaign and again worked out how much it would cost to make their TV adverts, billboards, posters and leaflets. Finally, they pitched their product ideas to the managers of Waitrose to find out which product they wanted to use in their stores. 'As part of our Ancient Egyptian topic, we have been investigating the different types of foods that the Ancient Egyptians grew and ate. On Friday, we attempted to replicate an Egyptian flatbread recipe that is over 3500 years old! The flatbread is known as Aish Baladi and was commonly eaten throughout Egypt. Before baking, the children worked together to crack the code and calculate the correct quantities of ingredients. Following this, in groups the children made the dough and allowed it to prove. In the afternoon, they baked their dough and were able to try the show stopper!' Ancient Egyptian Hook day Year 4’s hook day began with some Egyptian maths. Using the Ancient Egyptian symbols they were given, the children worked hard to solve a range of increasingly complicated problems. Later on, Year 4 studied a range of Ancient Egyptian death masks. They used these ideas to design their very own death masks, which they made by painting paper plates. Whilst looking at death masks, the children explored the Ancient Egyptian mummification process and even had a go at mummifying one of their classmates! In the afternoon, the children learnt who built the Egyptian Pyramids and what they would have been used for in Ancient Egyptian times. They then created their own 3-D pyramids by decorating the net of a square based pyramid with hieroglyphics before folding and sticking them to create the 3-D shape. ACADEMIC YEAR 2018-2019 New Barn Trip Class 10 had a wonderful visit to the New Barn Field Centre near Dorchester. The children took part in a range of activities which included: grinding wheat using quern stones, making a poultice for a cut or wound by grinding leaves in a pestle and mortar, churning cream to make butter and trying to start a fire using a bow drill! The children had to be patient and persevere as most of these activities took some time. After lunch, we visited two roundhouses and found out what life would have been like for Stone Age men and women. We would like to thank the adults who accompanied us on our trip. They were very impressed with the children's behaviour and their attitude to learning. Class 10 have been learning about earthquakes and volcanic eruptions this term. As part of our topic, we made our own volcanoes using empty plastic bottles and newspaper. We then did our own eruptions on the school playground using the following ingredients: bicarbonate of soda, food colouring, washing up liquid, vinegar and water. Unfortunately, our experiment with Mentos and Coke didn't work as we hoped it would and so we plan to repeat this later in the term! Mr Egypt visits Huish! Year 4 were very lucky to have a visit from an Egyptologist this week! First, we all gathered in the hall to learn more about the Geography of Egypt. Thebes was the ancient capital of Egypt but now Cairo is the capital city. We learnt about how important children were in Egyptian society, what they wore, the jobs they did and the toys they played with. After break, we wrote our names in hieroglyphics and solved some addition calculations and word problems using Egyptian numbers. In the afternoon, we found out about the weighing of the heart ceremony and how Egyptians mummified bodies in preparation for the afterlife. The highlight was our mummy-wrapping competition. In groups of 6, the children had 5 minutes to mummify a group member using a roll of toilet paper! This was great fun and you can see how successful they were from the photos above. Everyone enjoyed the day – thank you to all of the parents for supporting this! Class 10 are archaeologists Welcome to Class 10’s blog! I hope that you all had a great Summer break (it seems a long time ago now!) The children are settling in well to Year 4 and are enjoying their learning. In our first history lesson, we were archaeologists! We used paintbrushes and magnifying glasses to investigate some treasures that were buried in the sand! Everyone was really sensible and methodical and all the Egyptian treasures were successfully unearthed! We are looking forward to a visit from Mr Egypt at the beginning of October.	<urn:uuid:d78888b5-50fe-4713-a518-d7b370652aae>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://huish.somerset.sch.uk/class-10	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00362.warc.gz	en	0.983413	1,119	3.734375	4	[ 0.023639315739274025, 0.2489410787820816, 0.37304213643074036, -0.16547927260398865, -0.5918212532997131, 0.23279708623886108, -0.32970577478408813, 0.10521607100963593, -0.3244146704673767, -0.017674915492534637, 0.18270614743232727, -0.5501649379730225, -0.04847586154937744, -0.101998955...	1	ACADEMIC YEAR 2019-2020 As part of our Science unit on sound, Year 4 have been learning about amplitude and pitch. The children learnt that the amplitude of a sound is related to the size of the vibrations and that pitch is a variable that can changed on an instrument so that it can make both high and low sounds. For their activity, the children cut a series of straws to different lengths to create their very own set of panpipes. Following some extensive practise, we were able to achieve a tune! This week Year 4 were asked to create a brand new sweet treat that could be sold in Waitrose stores across the Country. In small groups, they worked together to design a company name and logo to represent their products. Their next task was to design their brand new product and the packaging to sell it in. Once they had their product they needed to work out how much it would cost to make, how much they could sell it for and the profit they would generate. To promote their products, they created their own advertising campaign and again worked out how much it would cost to make their TV adverts, billboards, posters and leaflets. Finally, they pitched their product ideas to the managers of Waitrose to find out which product they wanted to use in their stores. 'As part of our Ancient Egyptian topic, we have been investigating the different types of foods that the Ancient Egyptians grew and ate. On Friday, we attempted to replicate an Egyptian flatbread recipe that is over 3500 years old! The flatbread is known as Aish Baladi and was commonly eaten throughout Egypt. Before baking, the children worked together to crack the code and calculate the correct quantities of ingredients. Following this, in groups the children made the dough and allowed it to prove. In the afternoon, they baked their dough and were able to try the show stopper!' Ancient Egyptian Hook day Year 4’s hook day began with some Egyptian maths. Using the Ancient Egyptian symbols they were given, the children worked hard to solve a range of increasingly complicated problems. Later on, Year 4 studied a range of Ancient Egyptian death masks. They used these ideas to design their very own death masks, which they made by painting paper plates. Whilst looking at death masks, the children explored the Ancient Egyptian mummification process and even had a go at mummifying one of their classmates! In the afternoon, the children learnt who built the Egyptian Pyramids and what they would have been used for in Ancient Egyptian times. They then created their own 3-D pyramids by decorating the net of a square based pyramid with hieroglyphics before folding and sticking them to create the 3-D shape. ACADEMIC YEAR 2018-2019 New Barn Trip Class 10 had a wonderful visit to the New Barn Field Centre near Dorchester. The children took part in a range of activities which included: grinding wheat using quern stones, making a poultice for a cut or wound by grinding leaves in a pestle and mortar, churning cream to make butter and trying to start a fire using a bow drill! The children had to be patient and persevere as most of these activities took some time. After lunch, we visited two roundhouses and found out what life would have been like for Stone Age men and women. We would like to thank the adults who accompanied us on our trip. They were very impressed with the children's behaviour and their attitude to learning. Class 10 have been learning about earthquakes and volcanic eruptions this term. As part of our topic, we made our own volcanoes using empty plastic bottles and newspaper. We then did our own eruptions on the school playground using the following ingredients: bicarbonate of soda, food colouring, washing up liquid, vinegar and water. Unfortunately, our experiment with Mentos and Coke didn't work as we hoped it would and so we plan to repeat this later in the term! Mr Egypt visits Huish! Year 4 were very lucky to have a visit from an Egyptologist this week! First, we all gathered in the hall to learn more about the Geography of Egypt. Thebes was the ancient capital of Egypt but now Cairo is the capital city. We learnt about how important children were in Egyptian society, what they wore, the jobs they did and the toys they played with. After break, we wrote our names in hieroglyphics and solved some addition calculations and word problems using Egyptian numbers. In the afternoon, we found out about the weighing of the heart ceremony and how Egyptians mummified bodies in preparation for the afterlife. The highlight was our mummy-wrapping competition. In groups of 6, the children had 5 minutes to mummify a group member using a roll of toilet paper! This was great fun and you can see how successful they were from the photos above. Everyone enjoyed the day – thank you to all of the parents for supporting this! Class 10 are archaeologists Welcome to Class 10’s blog! I hope that you all had a great Summer break (it seems a long time ago now!) The children are settling in well to Year 4 and are enjoying their learning. In our first history lesson, we were archaeologists! We used paintbrushes and magnifying glasses to investigate some treasures that were buried in the sand! Everyone was really sensible and methodical and all the Egyptian treasures were successfully unearthed! We are looking forward to a visit from Mr Egypt at the beginning of October.	1,136	ENGLISH	1
Cleopatra is one of the most fascinating, alluring and mysterious historical characters. Was she really as beautiful as legend has us believe or was her beauty just a myth which became magnified in the sands of time? Not many know that Cleopatra was Egyptian only by birth and Greek by ancestry. Although Alexandria and the Nile delta formed crucial backdrops to Cleopatra’s short life, it was the blood of Macedon which flowed in her veins. Her character and her actions were influenced by the genius, the courage and impulsiveness of the stock from which she derived her ancestry. The historical events and the unusual character of her adventures, her sufferings and her sins, were influenced by the circumstances that surrounded her. Cleopatra was clearly a woman who flirted with danger. Her life was eventful and her death was marked by unforgettable drama. We owe a significant part of our knowledge about Cleopatra to her enemy Octavian, the man who would become Rome’s first emperor Augustus. Because her life was so intertwined with the events in Rome, a lot of it has been preserved. Although historians were fortunate to have a wealth of information on the later part of her life, writing about Cleopatra was a challenge because they had to free her from the identity that sources sympathetic to Octavian had imposed on her. Since Cleopatra’s life touches on important events of the late Roman republic and early empire, an account of her life has to explore the events and complex politics of Rome as well because Cleopatra on more than one occasion became a tool in the hands of the politicians of Rome. She was painted as the terrible eastern menace who was bent upon destroying the Roman civilisation and values, she was a convenient foe for Octavian, whose real conflict was with Mark Antony for the control of Rome at the time that Rome was a superpower of the Mediterranean. Although the Romans tried hard to co-opt her image, Cleopatra was a master of self-presentation which was a skill her family had honed over generations. The Ptolemies were a Macedonian dynasty that came to rule Egypt after Alexander the Great’s empire split up. They successfully inserted themselves into Egyptian culture as the new pharaohs and Cleopatra was particularly adept at communicating with the diverse population that occupied Egypt in the first century BC. She knew how to exploit her Greek heritage and enjoyed great popularity in Athens. She became a legend in her lifetime and fascination with her has grown with the passage of time. One of the lasting impressions about her is as a great lover. Her powers of seduction have entered the realm of myth largely due to her relationships with two of Rome’s most powerful men, Mark Antony and Julius Caesar. Although, the extent of her physical beauty is debatable, she must have most certainly possessed great charisma. As a ruler, Cleopatra skillfully preserved her kingdom through massive upheavals in the Middle East and the Mediterranean. This was a time when power could shift overnight and there were no dearth of scheming ambitious men. Thus, a country like Egypt had to choose its allies very carefully. Although it required the protection of a larger power to prevent Egypt from falling prey to ambitious imperialists, Egypt also had impressive resources to offer its allies. For most of her 21-year-reign, Cleopatra used these alliances to her maximum advantage. Had her conflict with Mark Antony and Octavian ended differently, she would have become a partner in ruling the Roman Empire. In 323 BC, Alexander died suddenly in Babylon without naming a successor to rule his newly acquired empire. According to historians, when Alexander was asked to whom he had left his kingdom, he said, “To the best man, for as I see as my funeral games, a great contest among my friends”. His words were prophetic, because many competed for his power. One member of Alexander’s inner circle, Ptolemy 1, who founded the Ptolemaic dynasty of which Cleopatra would be the final ruler, was instrumental in the outcome of this competition. Cleopatra: By Susan Walker, Sally-Ann Ashton Cleopatra: The Last Pharaoh: By Prudence J Jones	<urn:uuid:56f1892d-41f8-4096-9f79-a323de774ee2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2013/aug/01/21-years-of-Egypts-Cleopatra-502691.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00139.warc.gz	en	0.986773	880	3.359375	3	[ -0.19345518946647644, 0.5277417898178101, 0.6131255626678467, 0.2883837819099426, -0.8139729499816895, -0.2895374000072479, 0.5849869251251221, 0.11616091430187225, 0.20714779198169708, -0.16867685317993164, 0.03887360170483589, -0.361996591091156, -0.42097002267837524, 0.17573854327201843...	2	Cleopatra is one of the most fascinating, alluring and mysterious historical characters. Was she really as beautiful as legend has us believe or was her beauty just a myth which became magnified in the sands of time? Not many know that Cleopatra was Egyptian only by birth and Greek by ancestry. Although Alexandria and the Nile delta formed crucial backdrops to Cleopatra’s short life, it was the blood of Macedon which flowed in her veins. Her character and her actions were influenced by the genius, the courage and impulsiveness of the stock from which she derived her ancestry. The historical events and the unusual character of her adventures, her sufferings and her sins, were influenced by the circumstances that surrounded her. Cleopatra was clearly a woman who flirted with danger. Her life was eventful and her death was marked by unforgettable drama. We owe a significant part of our knowledge about Cleopatra to her enemy Octavian, the man who would become Rome’s first emperor Augustus. Because her life was so intertwined with the events in Rome, a lot of it has been preserved. Although historians were fortunate to have a wealth of information on the later part of her life, writing about Cleopatra was a challenge because they had to free her from the identity that sources sympathetic to Octavian had imposed on her. Since Cleopatra’s life touches on important events of the late Roman republic and early empire, an account of her life has to explore the events and complex politics of Rome as well because Cleopatra on more than one occasion became a tool in the hands of the politicians of Rome. She was painted as the terrible eastern menace who was bent upon destroying the Roman civilisation and values, she was a convenient foe for Octavian, whose real conflict was with Mark Antony for the control of Rome at the time that Rome was a superpower of the Mediterranean. Although the Romans tried hard to co-opt her image, Cleopatra was a master of self-presentation which was a skill her family had honed over generations. The Ptolemies were a Macedonian dynasty that came to rule Egypt after Alexander the Great’s empire split up. They successfully inserted themselves into Egyptian culture as the new pharaohs and Cleopatra was particularly adept at communicating with the diverse population that occupied Egypt in the first century BC. She knew how to exploit her Greek heritage and enjoyed great popularity in Athens. She became a legend in her lifetime and fascination with her has grown with the passage of time. One of the lasting impressions about her is as a great lover. Her powers of seduction have entered the realm of myth largely due to her relationships with two of Rome’s most powerful men, Mark Antony and Julius Caesar. Although, the extent of her physical beauty is debatable, she must have most certainly possessed great charisma. As a ruler, Cleopatra skillfully preserved her kingdom through massive upheavals in the Middle East and the Mediterranean. This was a time when power could shift overnight and there were no dearth of scheming ambitious men. Thus, a country like Egypt had to choose its allies very carefully. Although it required the protection of a larger power to prevent Egypt from falling prey to ambitious imperialists, Egypt also had impressive resources to offer its allies. For most of her 21-year-reign, Cleopatra used these alliances to her maximum advantage. Had her conflict with Mark Antony and Octavian ended differently, she would have become a partner in ruling the Roman Empire. In 323 BC, Alexander died suddenly in Babylon without naming a successor to rule his newly acquired empire. According to historians, when Alexander was asked to whom he had left his kingdom, he said, “To the best man, for as I see as my funeral games, a great contest among my friends”. His words were prophetic, because many competed for his power. One member of Alexander’s inner circle, Ptolemy 1, who founded the Ptolemaic dynasty of which Cleopatra would be the final ruler, was instrumental in the outcome of this competition. Cleopatra: By Susan Walker, Sally-Ann Ashton Cleopatra: The Last Pharaoh: By Prudence J Jones	859	ENGLISH	1
Thomas A. Edison, The Yearly Years Often in America, the children of humble parents have become distinguished men. Some have gained respect by their wise management of public affairs; some are honored because they led our armies to victory; and some are admired by reason of the beautiful stories and poems which they have written. A few men have earned the gratitude of the people by adding to the comfort and happiness of everyday life through their wonderful inventions. Of these last, Thomas Alva Edison is one of the best-known examples. This great inventor may well be called a “self-made" man. His parents were humble people with only a few acquaintances and friends. The father was a hardy laboring man, who came from a family that worked hard and lived long. Mr. Edison made shingles with which to roof houses. He made good shingles, too. At that time, this work was not done by machinery, but by hand. Mr. Edison employed several workmen to help him. He was industrious and thrifty. When Thomas Edison was born, on the eleventh of February, eighteen forty-seven, the shingle- maker lived in Milan, a village in Erie county, Ohio. His home was a modest brick cottage on Choate Avenue. The house was built on a bluff overlooking the valley where the Huron River Bows, with the canal beside it. In harvest time the little village was a busy place. All day huge farm wagons drawn by four or six horses rumbled along the dusty roads, carrying grain to the canal. For the farmers from far and near brought their grain to Milan to send it by canal to Lake Erie. Often as many as six hundred wagonloads of grain came to the village in a single day. The narrow canal was crowded with barges and sailing vessels, which were being loaded with it. Little Thomas Edison was not content to watch this busy scene from his home on the hill. At a very early age he went with the older boys to have a closer view. He soon learned to go about the village and when he was no older than many children who are never allowed outside of the nurse's sight, he trotted about alone and felt very much at his ease among the farmers and rough workmen. Thomas was a serious looking child. He had a large head covered with a wayward shock of hair, which would not curl nor even part straight. He had a broad, smooth forehead, which was drawn into wrinkles when anything puzzled him. His big eyes looked out from beneath heavy brows with wonder in childhood with keenness when he grew older. Whenever his brow scowled, his thin lips were pressed tightly together. Even when the child smiled, his chin looked very square and firm. The strangers who noticed him said, not, “What a pretty child," but, “What a smart-looking boy!" The father believed that the best thing he could do for his son was to train him to be industrious. The mother had been a school teacher. She considered an education an important part of a boy's preparation for life. Both parents began early to do what seemed to them their duty towards their son. His father required him to use his hands. His mother taught him to use his head. He was an eager pupil. An old man in Milan remembers seeing Edison, when he was a youngster in dresses, sitting upon the ground in front of a store, trying to copy the store sign on. a board with a piece of chalk. He went to school very little. He could learn much faster at home, where he did not have to go through the formality of raising his hand every time he wanted to ask a question; he wanted to ask a great many. When Edison was still a mere child, a railroad was built through Milan. Then the farmers used the railroad instead of the canal for shipping their grain. For that reason there was less business in Milan than before the road was built. Many families that had done work in connection with the canal moved away. The place became so dull that Mr. Edison found it hard to make a living there. Accordingly, when Thomas was seven years old, Mr. Edison moved his family to Port Huron, Michigan. Mr. Edison once said that his son had had no childhood. We have seen that as a child, he was a little "sobersides," too busy getting acquainted with the world around him to care for play. As he grew older, his face lost its solemn look. He became an active fun-loving boy. But he differed from other boys in that he found his “fun" In doing things which most boys would have called work. Frances M. Perry, “The Story of Thomas A. Edison: The Early Years.” In Four American Inventors: A Book for Young Americans, New York, Cincinnati, and Chicago: American Book Company, 1901, Pages 205-208	<urn:uuid:b5abf6db-542d-4cc1-8b2c-0ff4a071d286>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gjenvick.com/Biography/ThomasAEdison/01-EarlyYears.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00494.warc.gz	en	0.993469	1,022	3.28125	3	[ -0.02963339537382126, 0.31053000688552856, 0.1780720055103302, -0.1581723690032959, -0.332515686750412, 0.029396746307611465, 0.4726586937904358, 0.1008022278547287, -0.273395836353302, -0.4701772630214691, -0.08507278561592102, 0.3560563921928406, 0.1274000108242035, 0.2164624184370041, ...	1	Thomas A. Edison, The Yearly Years Often in America, the children of humble parents have become distinguished men. Some have gained respect by their wise management of public affairs; some are honored because they led our armies to victory; and some are admired by reason of the beautiful stories and poems which they have written. A few men have earned the gratitude of the people by adding to the comfort and happiness of everyday life through their wonderful inventions. Of these last, Thomas Alva Edison is one of the best-known examples. This great inventor may well be called a “self-made" man. His parents were humble people with only a few acquaintances and friends. The father was a hardy laboring man, who came from a family that worked hard and lived long. Mr. Edison made shingles with which to roof houses. He made good shingles, too. At that time, this work was not done by machinery, but by hand. Mr. Edison employed several workmen to help him. He was industrious and thrifty. When Thomas Edison was born, on the eleventh of February, eighteen forty-seven, the shingle- maker lived in Milan, a village in Erie county, Ohio. His home was a modest brick cottage on Choate Avenue. The house was built on a bluff overlooking the valley where the Huron River Bows, with the canal beside it. In harvest time the little village was a busy place. All day huge farm wagons drawn by four or six horses rumbled along the dusty roads, carrying grain to the canal. For the farmers from far and near brought their grain to Milan to send it by canal to Lake Erie. Often as many as six hundred wagonloads of grain came to the village in a single day. The narrow canal was crowded with barges and sailing vessels, which were being loaded with it. Little Thomas Edison was not content to watch this busy scene from his home on the hill. At a very early age he went with the older boys to have a closer view. He soon learned to go about the village and when he was no older than many children who are never allowed outside of the nurse's sight, he trotted about alone and felt very much at his ease among the farmers and rough workmen. Thomas was a serious looking child. He had a large head covered with a wayward shock of hair, which would not curl nor even part straight. He had a broad, smooth forehead, which was drawn into wrinkles when anything puzzled him. His big eyes looked out from beneath heavy brows with wonder in childhood with keenness when he grew older. Whenever his brow scowled, his thin lips were pressed tightly together. Even when the child smiled, his chin looked very square and firm. The strangers who noticed him said, not, “What a pretty child," but, “What a smart-looking boy!" The father believed that the best thing he could do for his son was to train him to be industrious. The mother had been a school teacher. She considered an education an important part of a boy's preparation for life. Both parents began early to do what seemed to them their duty towards their son. His father required him to use his hands. His mother taught him to use his head. He was an eager pupil. An old man in Milan remembers seeing Edison, when he was a youngster in dresses, sitting upon the ground in front of a store, trying to copy the store sign on. a board with a piece of chalk. He went to school very little. He could learn much faster at home, where he did not have to go through the formality of raising his hand every time he wanted to ask a question; he wanted to ask a great many. When Edison was still a mere child, a railroad was built through Milan. Then the farmers used the railroad instead of the canal for shipping their grain. For that reason there was less business in Milan than before the road was built. Many families that had done work in connection with the canal moved away. The place became so dull that Mr. Edison found it hard to make a living there. Accordingly, when Thomas was seven years old, Mr. Edison moved his family to Port Huron, Michigan. Mr. Edison once said that his son had had no childhood. We have seen that as a child, he was a little "sobersides," too busy getting acquainted with the world around him to care for play. As he grew older, his face lost its solemn look. He became an active fun-loving boy. But he differed from other boys in that he found his “fun" In doing things which most boys would have called work. Frances M. Perry, “The Story of Thomas A. Edison: The Early Years.” In Four American Inventors: A Book for Young Americans, New York, Cincinnati, and Chicago: American Book Company, 1901, Pages 205-208	1,004	ENGLISH	1
The findings come from Grotta dei Moscerini, a picturesque cave that sits just 10 feet above a beach in what is today the Latium region of central Italy. In 1949, archaeologists working at the site dug up some unusual artifacts: dozens of seashells that Neanderthals had picked up, then shaped into sharp tools roughly 90,000 years ago. Now, a team led by Paola Villa of the University of Colorado Boulder has uncovered new secrets from those decades-old discoveries. In research published today in the journal PLOS ONE, she and her colleagues report that the Neanderthals didn't just collect shells that were lying out on the beach. They may have actually held their breath and went diving for the perfect shells to meet their needs. Villa, an adjoint curator in the CU Museum of Natural History, said the results show that Neanderthals may have had a much closer connection to the sea than many scientists thought. "The fact they were exploiting marine resources was something that was known," Villa said. "But until recently, no one really paid much attention to it." Cave discoveries When archaeologists first found shell tools in Grotta dei Moscerini, it came as a surprise. While Neanderthals are well-known for crafting spear tips out of stone, few examples exist of them turning shells into tools. But the find wasn't a fluke. The 1949 excavation of the cave unearthed 171 such tools, all valves from shell belonging to a local species of mollusk called the smooth clam (Callista chione). Villa explained that the ancient humans used stone hammers to chip away at these shells, forming cutting edges that would have stayed thin and sharp for a long time. "No matter how many times you retouch a clam shell, its cutting edge will remain very thin and sharp," she said. But did the Neanderthals, like many beachgoers today, simply collect these shells while taking a stroll along the sand? To find out, Villa and her colleagues took a closer look at those tools. In the process, they found something they weren't expecting. Nearly three-quarters of the Moscerini shell tools had opaque and slightly abraded exteriors, as if they had been sanded down over time. That's what you'd expect to see, Villa said, on shells that had washed up on a sandy beach. The rest of the shells had a shiny, smooth exterior. Those shells, which also tended to be a little bit bigger, had to have been plucked directly from the seafloor as live animals. "It's quite possible that the Neanderthals were collecting shells as far down as 2 to 4 meters," Villa said. "Of course, they did not have scuba equipment." Researchers also turned up a large number of pumice stones from the cave that Neanderthals had collected and may have used as abrading tools. The stones, Villa and her colleagues determined, washed onto the Moscerini beach from volcanic eruptions that occurred more than 40 miles to the south. Going for a dip She's not alone in painting a picture of beach-loving Neanderthals. In an earlier study, for example, a team led by anthropologist Erik Trinkaus identified bony growths on the ears of a few Neanderthal skeletons. These features, called "swimmer's ear," can be found in people who practice aquatic sports today. For Villa, the findings are yet more proof that Neanderthals were just as flexible and creative as their human relatives when it came to eking out a living--a strong contrast to their representation in popular culture as a crude cavemen who lived by hunting or scavenging mammoths. "People are beginning to understand that Neanderthals didn't just hunt large mammals," Villa said. "They also did things like freshwater fishing and even skin diving."	<urn:uuid:fc49bd7c-636c-4464-8f98-67f77fe9709e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://archaeologynewsreport.blogspot.com/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00170.warc.gz	en	0.980047	803	4.03125	4	[ -0.2735278010368347, 0.29037684202194214, 0.30054110288619995, 0.11596588045358658, -0.1530800461769104, -0.5107334852218628, 0.42476391792297363, -0.09509029984474182, -0.3616296947002411, 0.07453304529190063, 0.09933319687843323, -0.3654358983039856, 0.13737137615680695, 0.61770725250244...	2	The findings come from Grotta dei Moscerini, a picturesque cave that sits just 10 feet above a beach in what is today the Latium region of central Italy. In 1949, archaeologists working at the site dug up some unusual artifacts: dozens of seashells that Neanderthals had picked up, then shaped into sharp tools roughly 90,000 years ago. Now, a team led by Paola Villa of the University of Colorado Boulder has uncovered new secrets from those decades-old discoveries. In research published today in the journal PLOS ONE, she and her colleagues report that the Neanderthals didn't just collect shells that were lying out on the beach. They may have actually held their breath and went diving for the perfect shells to meet their needs. Villa, an adjoint curator in the CU Museum of Natural History, said the results show that Neanderthals may have had a much closer connection to the sea than many scientists thought. "The fact they were exploiting marine resources was something that was known," Villa said. "But until recently, no one really paid much attention to it." Cave discoveries When archaeologists first found shell tools in Grotta dei Moscerini, it came as a surprise. While Neanderthals are well-known for crafting spear tips out of stone, few examples exist of them turning shells into tools. But the find wasn't a fluke. The 1949 excavation of the cave unearthed 171 such tools, all valves from shell belonging to a local species of mollusk called the smooth clam (Callista chione). Villa explained that the ancient humans used stone hammers to chip away at these shells, forming cutting edges that would have stayed thin and sharp for a long time. "No matter how many times you retouch a clam shell, its cutting edge will remain very thin and sharp," she said. But did the Neanderthals, like many beachgoers today, simply collect these shells while taking a stroll along the sand? To find out, Villa and her colleagues took a closer look at those tools. In the process, they found something they weren't expecting. Nearly three-quarters of the Moscerini shell tools had opaque and slightly abraded exteriors, as if they had been sanded down over time. That's what you'd expect to see, Villa said, on shells that had washed up on a sandy beach. The rest of the shells had a shiny, smooth exterior. Those shells, which also tended to be a little bit bigger, had to have been plucked directly from the seafloor as live animals. "It's quite possible that the Neanderthals were collecting shells as far down as 2 to 4 meters," Villa said. "Of course, they did not have scuba equipment." Researchers also turned up a large number of pumice stones from the cave that Neanderthals had collected and may have used as abrading tools. The stones, Villa and her colleagues determined, washed onto the Moscerini beach from volcanic eruptions that occurred more than 40 miles to the south. Going for a dip She's not alone in painting a picture of beach-loving Neanderthals. In an earlier study, for example, a team led by anthropologist Erik Trinkaus identified bony growths on the ears of a few Neanderthal skeletons. These features, called "swimmer's ear," can be found in people who practice aquatic sports today. For Villa, the findings are yet more proof that Neanderthals were just as flexible and creative as their human relatives when it came to eking out a living--a strong contrast to their representation in popular culture as a crude cavemen who lived by hunting or scavenging mammoths. "People are beginning to understand that Neanderthals didn't just hunt large mammals," Villa said. "They also did things like freshwater fishing and even skin diving."	813	ENGLISH	1
Thoughts on The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain is a true American classic. Twain creates a tremendous story about a boy, Huck, and a slave, Jim, who together overcome obstacles, and eventually reach their goals. Huck helps so many others despite leading a terrible home life. Before the novel begins, Huck Finn has led a life of absolute freedom. His drunken and often missing father has never paid much attention to him; his mother is dead and so, when the novel begins, Huck is not used to following any rules. Huck is boy who was made for the frontier, where he grows up. He is very practical, and has alot of common sense, allowing him to think situations through, and decide on the best path to choose. Yet Huck’s best quality is his deep caring for other people, and this is what makes him such a classic character. Huck will stop at nothing to help other people, as shown in his aiding the king and the duke from escaping the posse, who wanted to kill them. The most important show of his character is his desire to bring Jim from slavery. Huck has felt freedom from being on his own. Even though Jim is the other major character of this novel. He is a slave who is befriended by Huck, and with Huck’s help, he escapes slavery. Huck shows his charity to others in his aiding Jim, and together they become inseparable friends, and show that despite differences amongst people, everyone is human, and deserves to be treated equal. Society believes that slaves should be treated as property; Huck, who had befriended a runaway slave, sees Jim as a person, not property. At the conclusion of chapter 11 in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Huck and Jim are forced to leave Jackson’s Island because Huck discovers that people are looking for the runaway slave. Prior to leaving, Huck tells Jim, “They’re after us.” Clearly, the people are after Jim, but Huck has already identified with Jim and has begun to care for him. This remark shows that the two will have a successful and rewarding friendship as they drift down the river as the novel continues. In the end, Huck Finn decides that he would rather disobey society’s teachings about slavery, than betray his friend by returning him to his previous condition of servitude. The value of friendship has been a common theme throughout both literature and history. Authors representing several eras have addressed the moral dilemma of friendship versus loyalty to one’s country. Governmental leaders and their policies are subject to change; friendships last a lifetime.	<urn:uuid:2e312347-5f12-4c35-91f3-3079d194f8f9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/huckelberyy-finn/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00441.warc.gz	en	0.984145	544	3.28125	3	[ -0.2954168915748596, 0.1336595118045807, -0.0022114429157227278, -0.16010156273841858, -0.5014216899871826, 0.044275589287281036, 0.6176542639732361, 0.026170682162046432, -0.32098662853240967, -0.0319448821246624, 0.12890306115150452, -0.14741778373718262, 0.2648787200450897, 0.3570437431...	2	Thoughts on The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain is a true American classic. Twain creates a tremendous story about a boy, Huck, and a slave, Jim, who together overcome obstacles, and eventually reach their goals. Huck helps so many others despite leading a terrible home life. Before the novel begins, Huck Finn has led a life of absolute freedom. His drunken and often missing father has never paid much attention to him; his mother is dead and so, when the novel begins, Huck is not used to following any rules. Huck is boy who was made for the frontier, where he grows up. He is very practical, and has alot of common sense, allowing him to think situations through, and decide on the best path to choose. Yet Huck’s best quality is his deep caring for other people, and this is what makes him such a classic character. Huck will stop at nothing to help other people, as shown in his aiding the king and the duke from escaping the posse, who wanted to kill them. The most important show of his character is his desire to bring Jim from slavery. Huck has felt freedom from being on his own. Even though Jim is the other major character of this novel. He is a slave who is befriended by Huck, and with Huck’s help, he escapes slavery. Huck shows his charity to others in his aiding Jim, and together they become inseparable friends, and show that despite differences amongst people, everyone is human, and deserves to be treated equal. Society believes that slaves should be treated as property; Huck, who had befriended a runaway slave, sees Jim as a person, not property. At the conclusion of chapter 11 in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Huck and Jim are forced to leave Jackson’s Island because Huck discovers that people are looking for the runaway slave. Prior to leaving, Huck tells Jim, “They’re after us.” Clearly, the people are after Jim, but Huck has already identified with Jim and has begun to care for him. This remark shows that the two will have a successful and rewarding friendship as they drift down the river as the novel continues. In the end, Huck Finn decides that he would rather disobey society’s teachings about slavery, than betray his friend by returning him to his previous condition of servitude. The value of friendship has been a common theme throughout both literature and history. Authors representing several eras have addressed the moral dilemma of friendship versus loyalty to one’s country. Governmental leaders and their policies are subject to change; friendships last a lifetime.	529	ENGLISH	1
Self-advocacy is an important skill for kids with learning and thinking differences to develop. You can help your child build this skill by giving him information and opportunities to speak up for himself. The process begins with helping him understand and talk about his needs and issues. Here are some tips for getting started. 1. Be open about learning and thinking differences. Talk to your child about learning and thinking differences in ways he can relate to. If he has a diagnosis, he may not need to know the clinical term. But it’s important for your child to know that there’s nothing wrong with talking about it. 2. Discuss how his issues affect him. Talk with him about how his issues affect him, and be sure to make it a discussion. You want to give your child a chance to tell you what he finds difficult. For example, you can say, “Your dyslexia causes you trouble with reading.” But your child might say, “I don’t like reading out loud because it’s hard for me.” Let your child practice ways of explaining those learning and thinking differences to other kids. (“It takes me longer to read, but I’m working hard at it.”) Learn more about how you and your child may view learning and thinking differences differently. 3. Help your child discover his strengths. Everyone has things that come more naturally to them than others. Your child probably can identify where he needs help, but it’s also important for him to be able to identify his strengths. It gives him a way to talk about what he’s good at. (“It takes me longer to read, but you should see me on the baseball field!”) 4. Practice what to say to teachers. Your child may be nervous about asking too many questions or requesting accommodations. Remind him that his teachers are there to help. If he’s shy about advocating for himself, help him make a 3×3 card to share with his teacher. You can also practice self-advocacy sentence starters with him to help him learn to speak up for himself. And don’t forget to talk about when and how to ask a teacher for help. 5. Let your child be a decision maker. Part of self-advocacy is making decisions about what you need and what works best for you. Give your child the chance to make some of those decisions. For instance, let him choose where he wants to study at home. (Take a look at the best places to do homework before giving him his choices!) Or ask him to decide what to have for dinner one night a week. Knowing his voice matters is important. 6. Remind your child that you’re a team. In grade school kids are just starting to become self-advocates. Assure your child that you’re still going to advocate on his behalf. And let him know that not only are you a team, but that you’re learning how to be an effective advocate, too. Self-advocacy skills are something you can work on together.	<urn:uuid:5aaa38cd-0f9c-4077-adf8-3080896d2d02>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.understood.org/en/friends-feelings/empowering-your-child/self-advocacy/6-tips-for-helping-your-grade-schooler-learn-to-self-advocate	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00425.warc.gz	en	0.983855	660	3.78125	4	[ 0.08031684160232544, -0.26954472064971924, 0.37446218729019165, -0.5492593050003052, -0.581112802028656, 0.384718656539917, 0.5384037494659424, 0.18116241693496704, -0.21204796433448792, -0.5183926820755005, 0.29991254210472107, -0.05865241959691048, 0.158991739153862, 0.3891529440879822, ...	1	Self-advocacy is an important skill for kids with learning and thinking differences to develop. You can help your child build this skill by giving him information and opportunities to speak up for himself. The process begins with helping him understand and talk about his needs and issues. Here are some tips for getting started. 1. Be open about learning and thinking differences. Talk to your child about learning and thinking differences in ways he can relate to. If he has a diagnosis, he may not need to know the clinical term. But it’s important for your child to know that there’s nothing wrong with talking about it. 2. Discuss how his issues affect him. Talk with him about how his issues affect him, and be sure to make it a discussion. You want to give your child a chance to tell you what he finds difficult. For example, you can say, “Your dyslexia causes you trouble with reading.” But your child might say, “I don’t like reading out loud because it’s hard for me.” Let your child practice ways of explaining those learning and thinking differences to other kids. (“It takes me longer to read, but I’m working hard at it.”) Learn more about how you and your child may view learning and thinking differences differently. 3. Help your child discover his strengths. Everyone has things that come more naturally to them than others. Your child probably can identify where he needs help, but it’s also important for him to be able to identify his strengths. It gives him a way to talk about what he’s good at. (“It takes me longer to read, but you should see me on the baseball field!”) 4. Practice what to say to teachers. Your child may be nervous about asking too many questions or requesting accommodations. Remind him that his teachers are there to help. If he’s shy about advocating for himself, help him make a 3×3 card to share with his teacher. You can also practice self-advocacy sentence starters with him to help him learn to speak up for himself. And don’t forget to talk about when and how to ask a teacher for help. 5. Let your child be a decision maker. Part of self-advocacy is making decisions about what you need and what works best for you. Give your child the chance to make some of those decisions. For instance, let him choose where he wants to study at home. (Take a look at the best places to do homework before giving him his choices!) Or ask him to decide what to have for dinner one night a week. Knowing his voice matters is important. 6. Remind your child that you’re a team. In grade school kids are just starting to become self-advocates. Assure your child that you’re still going to advocate on his behalf. And let him know that not only are you a team, but that you’re learning how to be an effective advocate, too. Self-advocacy skills are something you can work on together.	610	ENGLISH	1
On January 5, 1531, Pope Clement VII sends a letter to King Henry VIII of England forbidding him to remarry under penalty of excommunication. Henry, who was looking for a way out of his marriage to his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, ignored the pope's warning. He went on to marry Anne Boleyn (and four subsequent wives), leading to his excommunication and one of the most significant schisms in the history of Christianity. Catherine was the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain and the aunt of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, in addition to being the widow of Henry's brother, Arthur. Increasingly concerned by his failure to produce a legitimate heir—although he publicly acknowledged an illegitimate son, Henry Fitzroy—Henry searched for a way to end his marriage in a manner consistent with his Catholic faith. This was necessary for political reasons, as a monarch violating Catholic doctrine risked disgrace and condemnation by the pope. Henry was also by all accounts a fairly devout Catholic. He was a known opponent of the Protestant Reformation that was taking shape on the continent, earning the title of Defender of the Faith from Pope Leo X for a treatise he wrote attacking Martin Luther. Henry sent emissaries to the pope in hopes of having his marriage annulled, and even prevailed upon Clement to establish an ecclesiastical court in England to rule on the matter. Clement, however, had no intention of nullifying the marriage. In addition to his doctrinal objections, he was more or less a prisoner of Charles V at the time, and he was powerless to stand in the way of Charles' insistence that the marriage stand. Already infatuated with Anne Boleyn, who was known to have taken a keen interest in Luther and the Reformation, Henry had exhausted his options for remarrying within the church and decided excommunication was a fair price to pay for independence from the pope and the potential of fathering an heir. Henry banished Catherine from his court and married Anne (secretly in 1532, and publicly the following year). In doing so, he fundamentally altered the course of Christian and European history. Subsequent to his remarriage, Henry issued a string of decrees that removed his kingdom from papal rule, ending the supremacy of the Catholic Church and creating the Church of England. Although the new church was, at first, extremely similar to Roman Catholicism, these moves made Henry and his successors absolute rulers who did not answer to the pope. England joined a number of German states, as well as Sweden, in rejecting Catholicism, drawing battle lines for centuries of religious, political and military conflict to follow. READ MORE: How Henry VIII’s Divorce Led to Reformation	<urn:uuid:fcc621e6-872f-4050-8dc4-e21fd38d6c37>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/pope-clement-vii-forbids-king-henry-viii-from-remarrying	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00325.warc.gz	en	0.984187	552	3.84375	4	[ -0.30983713269233704, 0.3759673833847046, 0.01705937273800373, -0.249786838889122, -0.17434969544410706, -0.27617117762565613, 0.16957613825798035, 0.19105499982833862, 0.34672272205352783, -0.11873824894428253, -0.3359948992729187, -0.41911154985427856, -0.021907765418291092, 0.1222068965...	6	On January 5, 1531, Pope Clement VII sends a letter to King Henry VIII of England forbidding him to remarry under penalty of excommunication. Henry, who was looking for a way out of his marriage to his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, ignored the pope's warning. He went on to marry Anne Boleyn (and four subsequent wives), leading to his excommunication and one of the most significant schisms in the history of Christianity. Catherine was the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain and the aunt of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, in addition to being the widow of Henry's brother, Arthur. Increasingly concerned by his failure to produce a legitimate heir—although he publicly acknowledged an illegitimate son, Henry Fitzroy—Henry searched for a way to end his marriage in a manner consistent with his Catholic faith. This was necessary for political reasons, as a monarch violating Catholic doctrine risked disgrace and condemnation by the pope. Henry was also by all accounts a fairly devout Catholic. He was a known opponent of the Protestant Reformation that was taking shape on the continent, earning the title of Defender of the Faith from Pope Leo X for a treatise he wrote attacking Martin Luther. Henry sent emissaries to the pope in hopes of having his marriage annulled, and even prevailed upon Clement to establish an ecclesiastical court in England to rule on the matter. Clement, however, had no intention of nullifying the marriage. In addition to his doctrinal objections, he was more or less a prisoner of Charles V at the time, and he was powerless to stand in the way of Charles' insistence that the marriage stand. Already infatuated with Anne Boleyn, who was known to have taken a keen interest in Luther and the Reformation, Henry had exhausted his options for remarrying within the church and decided excommunication was a fair price to pay for independence from the pope and the potential of fathering an heir. Henry banished Catherine from his court and married Anne (secretly in 1532, and publicly the following year). In doing so, he fundamentally altered the course of Christian and European history. Subsequent to his remarriage, Henry issued a string of decrees that removed his kingdom from papal rule, ending the supremacy of the Catholic Church and creating the Church of England. Although the new church was, at first, extremely similar to Roman Catholicism, these moves made Henry and his successors absolute rulers who did not answer to the pope. England joined a number of German states, as well as Sweden, in rejecting Catholicism, drawing battle lines for centuries of religious, political and military conflict to follow. READ MORE: How Henry VIII’s Divorce Led to Reformation	557	ENGLISH	1
Germany[ edit ] German Romanticism was the dominant intellectual movement in the philosophythe artsand the culture of German-speaking countries in the lateth and early 19th centuries. Compared to English Romanticism, German Romanticism developed relatively late, and, in the early years, coincided with Weimar Classicism — ; in contrast to the seriousness of English Romanticism, the German variety of Romanticism notably valued wit, humour, and beauty. Sturm und Drangliterally "Storm and Drive", "Storm and Urge", though conventionally translated as "Storm and Stress" is a proto-Romantic movement in German literature and music that took place from the late s to the early s, in which individual subjectivity and, in particular, extremes of emotion were given free expression in reaction to the perceived constraints of rationalism imposed by the Enlightenment and associated aesthetic movements. She wrote a series of plays each to illustrate a particular passion of humans, Plays on the Passions. She was born into a pious Presbyterian family. She was an outdoors person, a close observer of nature, enjoyed riding, and had a natural gift for story-telling with which she entertained her school friends. She could not read until the age of nine. She attended a boarding school in Glasgow where she developed many interests — drawing, music, writing and acting in plays. She visited the theatre and it was the seed of a passion that would last for life as she wrote scores of plays. JB's first poem, Winter Day, was a long poem evoking the sights and sound of winter in her neighbourhood, Long Calderwood. Thommo recited an excerpt. It is a dark and fearful night when a snowstorm is brewing: Loud blows the northern blast-- He hears its hollow grumbling from afar, Then, gath'ring strength, roll on with doubl'd might, And break in dreadful bellowings o'er his head; The farmer is glad to check on his poultry in the shed and hurry back to his bed. KumKum noted that Joanna Baillie's plays were successful. Thommo remarked that in those days plays written by women were rarely staged, but Baillie maintained hers were meant for the stage, not the closet. Joanna Baillie consigned half her writing income to charity and supported chimney sweeps. She helped many authors and poets down on their luck. She also corresponded extensively with Sir Walter Scott, and from it flowed a deep friendship. Apart from reading and writing which he learned in a school, he was tutored at home by his mother. He was sent to a drawing school and later apprenticed to an engraver for several years and and at age twenty-one became a professional engraver himself. He became a student at the Royal Academy but rebelled at the principles of its leading light, Joshua Reynolds. He married Catherine, a woman who though illiterate he was fond of. Later he taught her and they became collaborators. In Blake took to the process of relief etching. The printed pages from these etchings were later hand-coloured and that is how many of his famous illuminated works, including Songs of Innocence and of Experience, were produced. He disapproved of institutionalised religion. He has written an epic poem Jerusalem which is often quoted. Another is The Marriage of Heaven and Hell. A segment of Jerusalem gave its name to a film, Chariots of Fire. Here is that splendid verse: AND did those feet in ancient time Walk upon England's mountains green? And was the holy Lamb of God On England's pleasant pastures seen?In some cases, when the list of reviews and critical sources proves immense, I have provided a selected list. Finally, I would like to acknowledge and thank the contributors to this project. Like the poets about whom they write, the contributors represent a diverse group of . The romantic period includes the work of two generations of writers. The first generation was born during the thirty and twenty years preceding ; the second . What are the best Hollywood movies? Update Cancel. ad by Apartment List. City Lights is a American pre-Code silent romantic comedy film written, produced, Well so far in last 10 years,i have seen many Hollywood movies and will list some which i felt were really good. Description: Busboys and Poets is a restaurant, bar, coffee shop, bookstore and events space where arts, culture and politics intentionally collide TripAdvisor reviews. Victor Hugo was a noted French romantic poet as well, and romanticism crossed the Atlantic through the work of American poets like Walt Whitman and Edgar Allan Poe. The romantic era produced many of the stereotypes of poets and poetry that exist to this day (i.e., the poet as . With Valentine's Day just around the corner, GoLocalProv set out to find some of the most romantic getaways in New England. All 6 New England states are represented, and we found something to suit.	<urn:uuid:cf052c34-52f4-4e28-a83a-e832a522c7ad>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gecejixoqofyse.torosgazete.com/list-some-of-the-things-that-german-romantic-poets-liked-to-write-about-18604nm.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00036.warc.gz	en	0.982419	1,021	3.40625	3	[ 0.2724877595901489, 0.6168173551559448, 0.38169339299201965, 0.1010076105594635, 0.12747880816459656, 0.6146951913833618, -0.038078613579273224, -0.0714503675699234, 0.04520932585000992, -0.6749668121337891, -0.2551819086074829, -0.08561557531356812, 0.4249638020992279, -0.0203455593436956...	1	Germany[ edit ] German Romanticism was the dominant intellectual movement in the philosophythe artsand the culture of German-speaking countries in the lateth and early 19th centuries. Compared to English Romanticism, German Romanticism developed relatively late, and, in the early years, coincided with Weimar Classicism — ; in contrast to the seriousness of English Romanticism, the German variety of Romanticism notably valued wit, humour, and beauty. Sturm und Drangliterally "Storm and Drive", "Storm and Urge", though conventionally translated as "Storm and Stress" is a proto-Romantic movement in German literature and music that took place from the late s to the early s, in which individual subjectivity and, in particular, extremes of emotion were given free expression in reaction to the perceived constraints of rationalism imposed by the Enlightenment and associated aesthetic movements. She wrote a series of plays each to illustrate a particular passion of humans, Plays on the Passions. She was born into a pious Presbyterian family. She was an outdoors person, a close observer of nature, enjoyed riding, and had a natural gift for story-telling with which she entertained her school friends. She could not read until the age of nine. She attended a boarding school in Glasgow where she developed many interests — drawing, music, writing and acting in plays. She visited the theatre and it was the seed of a passion that would last for life as she wrote scores of plays. JB's first poem, Winter Day, was a long poem evoking the sights and sound of winter in her neighbourhood, Long Calderwood. Thommo recited an excerpt. It is a dark and fearful night when a snowstorm is brewing: Loud blows the northern blast-- He hears its hollow grumbling from afar, Then, gath'ring strength, roll on with doubl'd might, And break in dreadful bellowings o'er his head; The farmer is glad to check on his poultry in the shed and hurry back to his bed. KumKum noted that Joanna Baillie's plays were successful. Thommo remarked that in those days plays written by women were rarely staged, but Baillie maintained hers were meant for the stage, not the closet. Joanna Baillie consigned half her writing income to charity and supported chimney sweeps. She helped many authors and poets down on their luck. She also corresponded extensively with Sir Walter Scott, and from it flowed a deep friendship. Apart from reading and writing which he learned in a school, he was tutored at home by his mother. He was sent to a drawing school and later apprenticed to an engraver for several years and and at age twenty-one became a professional engraver himself. He became a student at the Royal Academy but rebelled at the principles of its leading light, Joshua Reynolds. He married Catherine, a woman who though illiterate he was fond of. Later he taught her and they became collaborators. In Blake took to the process of relief etching. The printed pages from these etchings were later hand-coloured and that is how many of his famous illuminated works, including Songs of Innocence and of Experience, were produced. He disapproved of institutionalised religion. He has written an epic poem Jerusalem which is often quoted. Another is The Marriage of Heaven and Hell. A segment of Jerusalem gave its name to a film, Chariots of Fire. Here is that splendid verse: AND did those feet in ancient time Walk upon England's mountains green? And was the holy Lamb of God On England's pleasant pastures seen?In some cases, when the list of reviews and critical sources proves immense, I have provided a selected list. Finally, I would like to acknowledge and thank the contributors to this project. Like the poets about whom they write, the contributors represent a diverse group of . The romantic period includes the work of two generations of writers. The first generation was born during the thirty and twenty years preceding ; the second . What are the best Hollywood movies? Update Cancel. ad by Apartment List. City Lights is a American pre-Code silent romantic comedy film written, produced, Well so far in last 10 years,i have seen many Hollywood movies and will list some which i felt were really good. Description: Busboys and Poets is a restaurant, bar, coffee shop, bookstore and events space where arts, culture and politics intentionally collide TripAdvisor reviews. Victor Hugo was a noted French romantic poet as well, and romanticism crossed the Atlantic through the work of American poets like Walt Whitman and Edgar Allan Poe. The romantic era produced many of the stereotypes of poets and poetry that exist to this day (i.e., the poet as . With Valentine's Day just around the corner, GoLocalProv set out to find some of the most romantic getaways in New England. All 6 New England states are represented, and we found something to suit.	998	ENGLISH	1
As Christianity spread its influence over Rome’s old empire, with its promise of immortality for those who repented of their sins, the concept of evil and what it represented became a subject of vital importance. In my last post on Sin, Saint Jerome is noted as having coined the phrase, “women are the root of all evil”; it naturally followed then that the current thinking would place sex at the epicentre of evil. It was the sin of lust that had taken hold of Adam, and lust is still regarded as something inherently dangerous, somehow different to the act of procreation. What made it so evil? Saint Augustine, an early Christian Theologian who lived in the fourth and fifth centuries, attempted to shed light on the evils of sex. He explained that because the sexual impulse arises independently in the body and cannot be controlled by the mind, it must be evil. The whole concept of virtue was, at the time, connected to the idea that instinct was dangerous, and should be repressed. Virtue required self-control, and lack of self control was the sin of Adam: the evil that caused the Fall of Man in the Genesis of the Old Testament. In our present way of thinking, such statements appear extreme; these days instinct is more often seen as a positive force. But at the time, our view of instinct was deeply coloured by the writings of the Old Testament, for “as a result of this sin, man, that might have been spiritual in body, became carnal in mind” (Russell, A History of Western Philosophy). Because of these ideas a vow of celibacy was imposed on the Christian (Catholic) clergy, and often on others who held high functions. Unnatural though it was, it was an attempt to modify human nature. Whether it worked or not, depended much on the will power of the individual, and would probably have been more the outcome of character than anything else. But still, such efforts did not address the general evil that made its way into people’s lives: the evil of misfortune. When the Great Plague struck Europe in the middle of the fourteenth century, the Old Testament’s threat of damnation seemed fulfilled. Questions were raised which were hard to answer: if God was all-powerful, why did he not prevent suffering? Renaissance Humanists such as Erasmus took the bull by the horns and produced a Greek New Testament in Latin in 1522 to counter the Vulgate Bible of Saint Jerome, which had been based on the Hebrew texts. With this revival of Greek thinking, the words of the Greek Stoic Epicurus were brought to the fore again: Is God willing to prevent evil, but not able? Then he is not omnipotent. Is he able, but not willing? Then he is malevolent. Is he both able and willing? Then whence cometh evil? Is he neither able nor willing? Then why call him God? God seemed to “delight in the torments of poor wretches”, remarked Erasmus, speaking of the ravages of the plague. As a prominent writer of his time, Erasmus was an important voice during the Christian Reformation. He accepted the idea that people were prone to sin, but believed that grace could save them. Grace was also an impulse, but a positive one. The Ancient Greeks called grace charis. It comes from the word to rejoice, to be grateful. In the Hebrew it is chen, a word which implies moral kindness. In the Catholic tradition grace can only be attained as a result of baptism. But even if Renaissance humanists had put Greek philosophy back on the reading list, the world had changed since the days of the Ancient Greeks. The progress of the Renaissance meant bigger cities, and bigger cities meant more crime; grace, whatever it meant, was in short supply. If, in the words of Epicurus, God was neither willing nor able to prevent evil, how could the suffering caused by evil be accepted? Was it a test, as in the Book of Job, where God heaped misery after misery on poor Job to gauge the depth of his faith. Natural disasters such as the plague could perhaps be seen as such, but what about the misery heaped on humankind by himself; what about the ultimate evil, the evil of war? Contradictory though it seems, the Church had provided its answer through the influential work of Saint Augustine, who said that war was not a sin, provided it was carried out in self-defence. Suffering could be inflicted on an enemy as long as the cause was just. War was therefore legitimised. As to what constituted a just cause, the Christian crusades easily provided a precedent. But the justification of war would underpin politics even as the Church lost its influence after the time of the crusades. There would even be men who would positively advocate war during the Renaissance: men such as Niccolò Machiavelli, for example. How much influence would he have on the problem of evil, and where would his ideas take us? Next Week: A Short History of Ideas looks at War…	<urn:uuid:34419ece-3f08-4b27-ac8d-425203e43161>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lucilleturner.com/single-post/2017/09/23/a-short-history-of-ideas-evil/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00167.warc.gz	en	0.982077	1,062	3.28125	3	[ -0.0197739414870739, 0.6036169528961182, 0.10739566385746002, -0.0020093563944101334, -0.21851125359535217, 0.13064168393611908, 0.14376448094844818, 0.20302562415599823, 0.4570951759815216, 0.1223219633102417, -0.17661622166633606, 0.07719925045967102, 0.02091672271490097, 0.2029051482677...	11	As Christianity spread its influence over Rome’s old empire, with its promise of immortality for those who repented of their sins, the concept of evil and what it represented became a subject of vital importance. In my last post on Sin, Saint Jerome is noted as having coined the phrase, “women are the root of all evil”; it naturally followed then that the current thinking would place sex at the epicentre of evil. It was the sin of lust that had taken hold of Adam, and lust is still regarded as something inherently dangerous, somehow different to the act of procreation. What made it so evil? Saint Augustine, an early Christian Theologian who lived in the fourth and fifth centuries, attempted to shed light on the evils of sex. He explained that because the sexual impulse arises independently in the body and cannot be controlled by the mind, it must be evil. The whole concept of virtue was, at the time, connected to the idea that instinct was dangerous, and should be repressed. Virtue required self-control, and lack of self control was the sin of Adam: the evil that caused the Fall of Man in the Genesis of the Old Testament. In our present way of thinking, such statements appear extreme; these days instinct is more often seen as a positive force. But at the time, our view of instinct was deeply coloured by the writings of the Old Testament, for “as a result of this sin, man, that might have been spiritual in body, became carnal in mind” (Russell, A History of Western Philosophy). Because of these ideas a vow of celibacy was imposed on the Christian (Catholic) clergy, and often on others who held high functions. Unnatural though it was, it was an attempt to modify human nature. Whether it worked or not, depended much on the will power of the individual, and would probably have been more the outcome of character than anything else. But still, such efforts did not address the general evil that made its way into people’s lives: the evil of misfortune. When the Great Plague struck Europe in the middle of the fourteenth century, the Old Testament’s threat of damnation seemed fulfilled. Questions were raised which were hard to answer: if God was all-powerful, why did he not prevent suffering? Renaissance Humanists such as Erasmus took the bull by the horns and produced a Greek New Testament in Latin in 1522 to counter the Vulgate Bible of Saint Jerome, which had been based on the Hebrew texts. With this revival of Greek thinking, the words of the Greek Stoic Epicurus were brought to the fore again: Is God willing to prevent evil, but not able? Then he is not omnipotent. Is he able, but not willing? Then he is malevolent. Is he both able and willing? Then whence cometh evil? Is he neither able nor willing? Then why call him God? God seemed to “delight in the torments of poor wretches”, remarked Erasmus, speaking of the ravages of the plague. As a prominent writer of his time, Erasmus was an important voice during the Christian Reformation. He accepted the idea that people were prone to sin, but believed that grace could save them. Grace was also an impulse, but a positive one. The Ancient Greeks called grace charis. It comes from the word to rejoice, to be grateful. In the Hebrew it is chen, a word which implies moral kindness. In the Catholic tradition grace can only be attained as a result of baptism. But even if Renaissance humanists had put Greek philosophy back on the reading list, the world had changed since the days of the Ancient Greeks. The progress of the Renaissance meant bigger cities, and bigger cities meant more crime; grace, whatever it meant, was in short supply. If, in the words of Epicurus, God was neither willing nor able to prevent evil, how could the suffering caused by evil be accepted? Was it a test, as in the Book of Job, where God heaped misery after misery on poor Job to gauge the depth of his faith. Natural disasters such as the plague could perhaps be seen as such, but what about the misery heaped on humankind by himself; what about the ultimate evil, the evil of war? Contradictory though it seems, the Church had provided its answer through the influential work of Saint Augustine, who said that war was not a sin, provided it was carried out in self-defence. Suffering could be inflicted on an enemy as long as the cause was just. War was therefore legitimised. As to what constituted a just cause, the Christian crusades easily provided a precedent. But the justification of war would underpin politics even as the Church lost its influence after the time of the crusades. There would even be men who would positively advocate war during the Renaissance: men such as Niccolò Machiavelli, for example. How much influence would he have on the problem of evil, and where would his ideas take us? Next Week: A Short History of Ideas looks at War…	1,035	ENGLISH	1
Walt Whitman, a famous American poet was born on May 31, 1819, in West Hills, on Long Island, New York. He was the second son of Walter Whitman who was a house-builder, and Louisa Van Velsor. Whitman attended the Brooklyn public schools. Whitman began to learn the printer’s trade and fell in love with the written word at the age of twelve. He read voraciously and became acquainted with the works of Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, and the Bible. Until a devastating fire in the printing district demolished the industry Whitman worked as a printer in New York City. At the age of seventeen, he began his career as a teacher in the one-room schoolhouses of Long Island in 1836. He continued this until 1841, when he turned to journalism as a full-time career. He edited a number of Brooklyn and New York papers, including the Brooklyn Daily Eagle. He also founded a weekly newspaper, The Long-Islander. Whitman’s attitudes about race have been described as “unstable and inconsistent.” He did not always side with the abolitionists, yet he celebrated human dignity. He continued to develop the unique style of poetry in Brooklyn. Whitman took out the first edition of Leaves of Grass, which consisted of twelve untitled poems and a preface in 1855. After publishing the volume himself he sent a copy to Emerson. Whitman released a second edition of the book in 1856, containing thirty-two poems and a letter from Emerson praising the first edition, and a long letter by Whitman in response. Through his book 'Leaves of Grass' he celebrated democracy, nature, love, and friendship. This work praises the body as well as the soul, and found beauty and reassurance even in death.Throughout his life, Whitman continued to refine the volume, publishing several more editions of the book. At the outbreak of the Civil War Whitman worked as a freelance journalist and visited the hospitals of New York City. In December 1862 he travelled to Washington, D. C. to take care of his brother, who got wounded in the war. After seeing the suffering of the wounded people in Washington, Whitman decided to stay and work in the hospitals and thus he ended up staying in the city for eleven years. He took a job as a clerk for the Bureau of Indian Affairs. But he lost his job when the Secretary of the Interior, James Harlan, discovered that Whitman was the author of Leaves of Grass, which he found offensive. After this Harlan went on to work in the attorney general's office. Whitman suffered a stroke that left him partially paralyzed in 1876. Few months later he travelled to Camden, to visit his dying mother at his brother’s house. He ended up staying with his brother until the publication of Leaves of Grass of 1882, which brought him enough money to buy a home in Camden. In that house, Whitman spent his declining years working on additions and revisions to his deathbed edition of Leaves of Grass. On March 26, 1892, after his death Whitman was buried in a tomb he designed and had built. Along with Emily Dickinson, Whitman is regarded as one of America’s most significant poets who influenced many other poets of the 19th century, including Ezra Pound, William Carlos Williams, Allen Ginsberg, Simon Ortiz, C.K. Williams, and Martín Espada, etc.	<urn:uuid:25d95f3e-3621-41cb-abfe-3dce71e30b3d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wrytin.com/ani1002/walt-whitman-jxj4kjxi	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00063.warc.gz	en	0.982628	702	3.84375	4	[ 0.056742627173662186, 0.152626633644104, 0.2388019859790802, 0.23879030346870422, -0.04984075576066971, 0.13955864310264587, 0.35216039419174194, -0.13342902064323425, -0.1574542224407196, 0.012715651653707027, 0.08441723138093948, 0.18617865443229675, 0.025561094284057617, 0.8264857530593...	3	Walt Whitman, a famous American poet was born on May 31, 1819, in West Hills, on Long Island, New York. He was the second son of Walter Whitman who was a house-builder, and Louisa Van Velsor. Whitman attended the Brooklyn public schools. Whitman began to learn the printer’s trade and fell in love with the written word at the age of twelve. He read voraciously and became acquainted with the works of Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, and the Bible. Until a devastating fire in the printing district demolished the industry Whitman worked as a printer in New York City. At the age of seventeen, he began his career as a teacher in the one-room schoolhouses of Long Island in 1836. He continued this until 1841, when he turned to journalism as a full-time career. He edited a number of Brooklyn and New York papers, including the Brooklyn Daily Eagle. He also founded a weekly newspaper, The Long-Islander. Whitman’s attitudes about race have been described as “unstable and inconsistent.” He did not always side with the abolitionists, yet he celebrated human dignity. He continued to develop the unique style of poetry in Brooklyn. Whitman took out the first edition of Leaves of Grass, which consisted of twelve untitled poems and a preface in 1855. After publishing the volume himself he sent a copy to Emerson. Whitman released a second edition of the book in 1856, containing thirty-two poems and a letter from Emerson praising the first edition, and a long letter by Whitman in response. Through his book 'Leaves of Grass' he celebrated democracy, nature, love, and friendship. This work praises the body as well as the soul, and found beauty and reassurance even in death.Throughout his life, Whitman continued to refine the volume, publishing several more editions of the book. At the outbreak of the Civil War Whitman worked as a freelance journalist and visited the hospitals of New York City. In December 1862 he travelled to Washington, D. C. to take care of his brother, who got wounded in the war. After seeing the suffering of the wounded people in Washington, Whitman decided to stay and work in the hospitals and thus he ended up staying in the city for eleven years. He took a job as a clerk for the Bureau of Indian Affairs. But he lost his job when the Secretary of the Interior, James Harlan, discovered that Whitman was the author of Leaves of Grass, which he found offensive. After this Harlan went on to work in the attorney general's office. Whitman suffered a stroke that left him partially paralyzed in 1876. Few months later he travelled to Camden, to visit his dying mother at his brother’s house. He ended up staying with his brother until the publication of Leaves of Grass of 1882, which brought him enough money to buy a home in Camden. In that house, Whitman spent his declining years working on additions and revisions to his deathbed edition of Leaves of Grass. On March 26, 1892, after his death Whitman was buried in a tomb he designed and had built. Along with Emily Dickinson, Whitman is regarded as one of America’s most significant poets who influenced many other poets of the 19th century, including Ezra Pound, William Carlos Williams, Allen Ginsberg, Simon Ortiz, C.K. Williams, and Martín Espada, etc.	730	ENGLISH	1

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