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Although The Merchant of Venice is meant to be a comedy, there are aspects of it which are very serious and are meant to evoke a somewhat, sympathetic response from both Elizabethan and modern day audiences. The 3 characters; Jessica, Shylock and Antonio each had many moral dilemmas. These dilemmas vary from each character. Antonio’s 1st moral dilemma was agreeing to the bond with Shylock. This could have been classed as arrogance, in thinking Shylock would not stick to the bond after all Antonio had said to him in the past about his religion. His second dilemma was being so certain that his ships would come back.
This is partly what made him agree to the bond with Shylock, even though it was benefiting Bassanio and not himself. Antonio had invested a lot of time and effort into his friendship with Bassanio and some modern day directors may portray this behaviour as homosexuality, whereas in Elizabethan times men could have a very close relationships and it could be no more than just good friends. Jessica’s dilemmas mainly relate to the fact that her farther (Shylock) did not show her any affection, whether he felt it or not. Her 1st dilemma was the fact Shylock cared much more about his money than he did for her.
Before Shylock leaves the house in act 2 scene 5 he tells her to lock it up. He does this not out of love, but because he is worried about his money. He also wants to keep the anti-Semitic behaviour of the outside world away from her and his house. Jessica also has the problem of having no motherly figure around to love her, or more to the point to teach her father to love again. Jessica’s last dilemma is knowing whether to leave her father for a Christian (Lorenzo) or not, especially when she already felt bad about being a dutiful daughter to Shylock.
An Elizabethan audience would have thought it was good of her to change her religion on her own accord because they were very anti-Semitic. A modern day audience would have seen her leaving home as good because her father cared more about money than her, but they would not like the fact she changed her religion because in today’s society people are not brought up to be anti-Semitic. Shylock’s 1st dilemma is whether he should be merciful on Antonio in court when he thought he had won his case against him.
An Elizabethan audience would have expected Shylock to be Merciful on Antonio because Christians expect mercy. When the table turns and Shylock is guilty as it were, the Elizabethans would have agreed to the changing of religion. His second dilemma was whether he should change the way he treats people after Jessica leaves. This should have been and eye opener to Shylock that he should learn to love and not have money at the top of his priorities list. Both audiences would have seen Jessica’s departure as a good thing. This is because of the way she was treated.
However the point of Shylock changing his behaviour is a more modern point of view and we would see it as a good thing because Christians are meant to treat each other with respect. Apart from the moral dilemmas above, they each had other problems. Antonio’s first problem is introduced at the beginning of the play. In act 1 scene 1 he says: “in sooth, I know not why I am so sad….. what stuff ’tis made of, whereof it is born I am to learn” This shows he is sad, but he, himself does not know why. This is a common occurrence throughout the play.
His friends all assume it is because his mind is on the fact that him ships are out at ocean, however Antonio soon sets them straight and says to them: “Believe me, no: I thank my fortune for it, My ventures are not in one bottom trusted, Nor to one place; nor is my whole estate Upon the fortune of this present year: Therefore, my merchandise makes me not sad. ” Although he says this, it is a slight contradiction to what he says to Bassaino in lines 177-179 act1 scene 1. Here, he explains that all his fortunes are at sea and he does not have any goods to even secure a loan.
To over come this problem, Antonio says he will go to Shylock the Jew to get a loan because he knows that he will be able to pay the money back when his ships come in. Even though Shylock hates Antonio because Antonio is very anti-Semitic he agrees to give Bassanio the loan of 3000 Ducats, however the bond that Shylock says to Antonio: “If you repay me not on such a day, In such a place, such sum or sums as are Express’d in the condition, let it forfeit Be nominated for an equal pound Of your fair flesh, to be cut off and taken In what part of your body pleaseth me. ”
Shylock is telling Antonio that if the debt is not repaid then he wants a pound of Antonio’s flesh. Antonio agrees to this because he is so certain that his ships will come in before the bond is due to expire. Bassanio however, is not so happy about this and tells Antonio not to agree to such a thing. As and audience we find him agreeing to such a bond an irresponsible thing to do because it could never be certain his ships would come through for him. In act 3 scene 2 it becomes apparent to us, the audience that Antonio’s ventures have failed him indeed. This means that Shylock is entitled to his pound of flesh.
At this point I did feel very sorry for Antonio because for trying to come through for his friend and give him a chance of finding love, it meant that he could lose his life. When Antonio is called to court so the bond can be settled with Shylock, Portia (Bassanio’s wife) turns up at the court disguised as a solicitor. She tells Shylock he is indeed owned a pound of flesh as stated in the bond. However Portia asks him to be merciful and has a long speech which states that mercy is a quality that God himself possesses and he should take this into account before he gets the flesh he is owed.
Shylock does not listen to this, even though he is given countless numbers of chances to back down from taking the flesh he doesn’t this is where I feel the most sympathy for Antonio because he has done nothing wrong apart from trying to help a friend. Even though Antonio is anti-Semitic throughout the play towards Shylock he does not try and kill him at any stage and this is where Shylock has one over on Antonio because this is his chance to get his own back on all the anti-Semitism.
However, Portia then tells Shylock that nowhere in the bond does it state he can have a drop of blood and if one drop of blood is spilt then the bond will be void! It was now Antonio’s turn to show mercy upon Shylock. An Elizabethan audience would think this was fantastic because as a society they were very anti-Semitic. Antonio does not wish for Shylock to be killed, however he asks that he give his land to Lorenzo and Jessica when he dies and to convert to Christianity straight away.
I think this shows that Antonio has a vicious streak because although, Shylock showed no remorse making somebody like Shylock change their religion is in some cases worse than death. I do feel very sorry for Antonio in one respect because he is very lonely. I think Shylock and Antonio have something in common which is they are both lonely and have money to satisfy themselves. Even though people may argue that Antonio has a lot of friends so he cannot be lonely at the end of the day he has nobody to love and take care of, where as Shylock did have this chance once Jessica leaves him they are both on their own.
Jessica is 1st introduced in act 2 scene 3 saying goodbye to Launcelot, who worked for Shylock, but is now leaving. Even before Jessica comes onto stage the Elizabethan audience would sympathise with her because her father is a Jew and she has to put up with the anti-Semitic behaviour as a result of this. To me this also evokes a sympathetic response, but not because I am anti-Semitic, but because through no fault of her own she is hated by the society, that surrounds her. I also feel sorry for her because her father cares so much more for his money than he does for her.
In this scene Jessica is planning to run away from home, however she feels as if she has committed a sin and says to Launcelot: “Alack, what heinous sin is it in me To be asham’d to be my father’s child! But though I am a daughter to his blood, I am not to his manners. ” Jessica obviously does not agree with her way her father acts because she is ashamed of the way he behaves. She says that although she is blood related to him she would not be related to his manners. Throughout the play Shylock does not illustrate his feelings for Jessica and so it comes across that their father daughter relationship is not very strong if existent at all.
The fact that Shylock cares more for his money than Jessica, would defiantly evoke a sympathetic response from modern day audience, especially since Jessica has no motherly figure around to care for her either. It became apparent that she has obviously had to look after herself from a relatively young age. Jessica has fallen in love with a Christian called Lorenzo whom she is planning on running away with and marrying. I think this is because her father has pushed her away so much she has completed gone against his wishes and is converting.
This kind of behaviour would please an Elizabethan audience because of their feelings towards the Jews. Before she leaves her home she makes sure she has enough Ducats. She takes nearly all the money that her father has left in the house and a ring which she knows has a lot of sentimental value to her father and not nearly as much monetary value. With this money she buys a monkey, this goes to show that when she has money it is very trivial to her and she can just spend it on what she likes because she has it! when Shylock hears about this he shows emotion for the first time in the play when he says: Thou torturest me, Tubal: it was my turquoise; I had it of Leah when I was a bachelor: I would not have given it for a wilderness of monkeys” This shows that he has once loved and since his wife dies he had suppressed those feelings. If he had shown those feelings to Jessica then maybe she wouldn’t have left him for a Christian. I think before Jessica left Shylock she went through a lot of soul searching because she must have wondered about how she could leave her own flesh and blood even though he does care about his money and business there will always be a part of him that cares for her he just finds it hard to be prevalent.
I think Shylock is the most complex of the 3 characters, as he has a lot of different problems throughout the play. Shylock is a stereotypical Jew for the Elizabethan times who cares for his money more than anything else! Since his wife passed away he has substituted money for love. In some places of the play we look upon Shylock and feel sympathy for him and think well maybe he isn’t as bad as I first anticipated, however, this is later changed. The feeling of sympathy for Shylock is very erratic. I first felt sympathy for Shylock when he said: “I am a Jew.
Hath not a Jew eyes? hath not a Jew hands, organs, Dimensions, senses, affections, passions? Fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to the same diseases, healed by the same means, warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer, as a Christian is? If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? if you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? ” I think this speech also shows that Shylock does have emotion and it goes to show that he does have feelings and no matter what people may think about him.
He still is a human with feelings like the rest of us and just because he has a different belief he should not be excluded from society for that. However, there is a complete contradiction to this behaviour when he later says: “I would my daughter were dead at my foot, and the jewels in her ear! ” This goes to show hoe evil he really can be to be able to say something like that about your own daughter! It also goes to show how he cares more for his money than he does for her! I thin both an Elizabethan and modern day audience would be disgusted by this.
In court Shylock is given many chances to be merciful and Elizabethan audiences would expect him to be because God is merciful, however he does not do this and by doing this it gave Antonio the excuse not to be merciful upon him. When Shylock is made to change his religion It means we will not be spat upon in society any longer. Even though Antonio knows making Shylock do this will hurt him the most it will also benefit him because he will not be singled out in the society that they lived in.
An Elizabethan audience would have see the change of religion as good, whereas a modern day audience don’t because they are not anti Semitists so they would see that this is part of Antonio’s vicious streak. After studying the 3 characters I would say that I think Shylock deserves the most sympathy out of the three of them. I think this because in his day and age he was automatically hated because of his beliefs, so when he showed hatred against anybody it became accentuated because he was a Jew and he showed hatred.
I think that Shylock found it very hard to portray his real feelings towards his daughter because he was scared of loving again in case the person he loved got taken away from him again. Even though that is not an excuse he may have thought that if in his heart he knew he loved her it was enough. I know that an Elizabethan audience would completely disagree with me because they were anti Semitic, so to agree with anything a Jew did or said would have been wrong. I thin if they would show sympathy it would have been for Jessica because her father never showed any love towards her and she was hated because of what her father believed.
I do not feel sympathy for Antonio because throughout much of the play he feels sorry for himself, but he does not have a reason for this behaviour. The only place in the play where I felt sorry for him was when all his ships crashed and he lost all of his income. I don’t think Jessica was the most deserving of sympathy because she found love in the end found her happiness, whereas her father was left with practically nothing all because he believed in something other people didn’t! | <urn:uuid:b281acdf-9db3-499b-ba91-6c20a79ab4e5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://yorkepeninsulaaccommodation.com/although-the-merchant-of-venice-is-a-comedy-there-are-some-very-serious-issues-that-evoke-a-sympathetic-response-in-the-audience/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00099.warc.gz | en | 0.990783 | 3,177 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.19914992153644... | 5 | Although The Merchant of Venice is meant to be a comedy, there are aspects of it which are very serious and are meant to evoke a somewhat, sympathetic response from both Elizabethan and modern day audiences. The 3 characters; Jessica, Shylock and Antonio each had many moral dilemmas. These dilemmas vary from each character. Antonio’s 1st moral dilemma was agreeing to the bond with Shylock. This could have been classed as arrogance, in thinking Shylock would not stick to the bond after all Antonio had said to him in the past about his religion. His second dilemma was being so certain that his ships would come back.
This is partly what made him agree to the bond with Shylock, even though it was benefiting Bassanio and not himself. Antonio had invested a lot of time and effort into his friendship with Bassanio and some modern day directors may portray this behaviour as homosexuality, whereas in Elizabethan times men could have a very close relationships and it could be no more than just good friends. Jessica’s dilemmas mainly relate to the fact that her farther (Shylock) did not show her any affection, whether he felt it or not. Her 1st dilemma was the fact Shylock cared much more about his money than he did for her.
Before Shylock leaves the house in act 2 scene 5 he tells her to lock it up. He does this not out of love, but because he is worried about his money. He also wants to keep the anti-Semitic behaviour of the outside world away from her and his house. Jessica also has the problem of having no motherly figure around to love her, or more to the point to teach her father to love again. Jessica’s last dilemma is knowing whether to leave her father for a Christian (Lorenzo) or not, especially when she already felt bad about being a dutiful daughter to Shylock.
An Elizabethan audience would have thought it was good of her to change her religion on her own accord because they were very anti-Semitic. A modern day audience would have seen her leaving home as good because her father cared more about money than her, but they would not like the fact she changed her religion because in today’s society people are not brought up to be anti-Semitic. Shylock’s 1st dilemma is whether he should be merciful on Antonio in court when he thought he had won his case against him.
An Elizabethan audience would have expected Shylock to be Merciful on Antonio because Christians expect mercy. When the table turns and Shylock is guilty as it were, the Elizabethans would have agreed to the changing of religion. His second dilemma was whether he should change the way he treats people after Jessica leaves. This should have been and eye opener to Shylock that he should learn to love and not have money at the top of his priorities list. Both audiences would have seen Jessica’s departure as a good thing. This is because of the way she was treated.
However the point of Shylock changing his behaviour is a more modern point of view and we would see it as a good thing because Christians are meant to treat each other with respect. Apart from the moral dilemmas above, they each had other problems. Antonio’s first problem is introduced at the beginning of the play. In act 1 scene 1 he says: “in sooth, I know not why I am so sad….. what stuff ’tis made of, whereof it is born I am to learn” This shows he is sad, but he, himself does not know why. This is a common occurrence throughout the play.
His friends all assume it is because his mind is on the fact that him ships are out at ocean, however Antonio soon sets them straight and says to them: “Believe me, no: I thank my fortune for it, My ventures are not in one bottom trusted, Nor to one place; nor is my whole estate Upon the fortune of this present year: Therefore, my merchandise makes me not sad. ” Although he says this, it is a slight contradiction to what he says to Bassaino in lines 177-179 act1 scene 1. Here, he explains that all his fortunes are at sea and he does not have any goods to even secure a loan.
To over come this problem, Antonio says he will go to Shylock the Jew to get a loan because he knows that he will be able to pay the money back when his ships come in. Even though Shylock hates Antonio because Antonio is very anti-Semitic he agrees to give Bassanio the loan of 3000 Ducats, however the bond that Shylock says to Antonio: “If you repay me not on such a day, In such a place, such sum or sums as are Express’d in the condition, let it forfeit Be nominated for an equal pound Of your fair flesh, to be cut off and taken In what part of your body pleaseth me. ”
Shylock is telling Antonio that if the debt is not repaid then he wants a pound of Antonio’s flesh. Antonio agrees to this because he is so certain that his ships will come in before the bond is due to expire. Bassanio however, is not so happy about this and tells Antonio not to agree to such a thing. As and audience we find him agreeing to such a bond an irresponsible thing to do because it could never be certain his ships would come through for him. In act 3 scene 2 it becomes apparent to us, the audience that Antonio’s ventures have failed him indeed. This means that Shylock is entitled to his pound of flesh.
At this point I did feel very sorry for Antonio because for trying to come through for his friend and give him a chance of finding love, it meant that he could lose his life. When Antonio is called to court so the bond can be settled with Shylock, Portia (Bassanio’s wife) turns up at the court disguised as a solicitor. She tells Shylock he is indeed owned a pound of flesh as stated in the bond. However Portia asks him to be merciful and has a long speech which states that mercy is a quality that God himself possesses and he should take this into account before he gets the flesh he is owed.
Shylock does not listen to this, even though he is given countless numbers of chances to back down from taking the flesh he doesn’t this is where I feel the most sympathy for Antonio because he has done nothing wrong apart from trying to help a friend. Even though Antonio is anti-Semitic throughout the play towards Shylock he does not try and kill him at any stage and this is where Shylock has one over on Antonio because this is his chance to get his own back on all the anti-Semitism.
However, Portia then tells Shylock that nowhere in the bond does it state he can have a drop of blood and if one drop of blood is spilt then the bond will be void! It was now Antonio’s turn to show mercy upon Shylock. An Elizabethan audience would think this was fantastic because as a society they were very anti-Semitic. Antonio does not wish for Shylock to be killed, however he asks that he give his land to Lorenzo and Jessica when he dies and to convert to Christianity straight away.
I think this shows that Antonio has a vicious streak because although, Shylock showed no remorse making somebody like Shylock change their religion is in some cases worse than death. I do feel very sorry for Antonio in one respect because he is very lonely. I think Shylock and Antonio have something in common which is they are both lonely and have money to satisfy themselves. Even though people may argue that Antonio has a lot of friends so he cannot be lonely at the end of the day he has nobody to love and take care of, where as Shylock did have this chance once Jessica leaves him they are both on their own.
Jessica is 1st introduced in act 2 scene 3 saying goodbye to Launcelot, who worked for Shylock, but is now leaving. Even before Jessica comes onto stage the Elizabethan audience would sympathise with her because her father is a Jew and she has to put up with the anti-Semitic behaviour as a result of this. To me this also evokes a sympathetic response, but not because I am anti-Semitic, but because through no fault of her own she is hated by the society, that surrounds her. I also feel sorry for her because her father cares so much more for his money than he does for her.
In this scene Jessica is planning to run away from home, however she feels as if she has committed a sin and says to Launcelot: “Alack, what heinous sin is it in me To be asham’d to be my father’s child! But though I am a daughter to his blood, I am not to his manners. ” Jessica obviously does not agree with her way her father acts because she is ashamed of the way he behaves. She says that although she is blood related to him she would not be related to his manners. Throughout the play Shylock does not illustrate his feelings for Jessica and so it comes across that their father daughter relationship is not very strong if existent at all.
The fact that Shylock cares more for his money than Jessica, would defiantly evoke a sympathetic response from modern day audience, especially since Jessica has no motherly figure around to care for her either. It became apparent that she has obviously had to look after herself from a relatively young age. Jessica has fallen in love with a Christian called Lorenzo whom she is planning on running away with and marrying. I think this is because her father has pushed her away so much she has completed gone against his wishes and is converting.
This kind of behaviour would please an Elizabethan audience because of their feelings towards the Jews. Before she leaves her home she makes sure she has enough Ducats. She takes nearly all the money that her father has left in the house and a ring which she knows has a lot of sentimental value to her father and not nearly as much monetary value. With this money she buys a monkey, this goes to show that when she has money it is very trivial to her and she can just spend it on what she likes because she has it! when Shylock hears about this he shows emotion for the first time in the play when he says: Thou torturest me, Tubal: it was my turquoise; I had it of Leah when I was a bachelor: I would not have given it for a wilderness of monkeys” This shows that he has once loved and since his wife dies he had suppressed those feelings. If he had shown those feelings to Jessica then maybe she wouldn’t have left him for a Christian. I think before Jessica left Shylock she went through a lot of soul searching because she must have wondered about how she could leave her own flesh and blood even though he does care about his money and business there will always be a part of him that cares for her he just finds it hard to be prevalent.
I think Shylock is the most complex of the 3 characters, as he has a lot of different problems throughout the play. Shylock is a stereotypical Jew for the Elizabethan times who cares for his money more than anything else! Since his wife passed away he has substituted money for love. In some places of the play we look upon Shylock and feel sympathy for him and think well maybe he isn’t as bad as I first anticipated, however, this is later changed. The feeling of sympathy for Shylock is very erratic. I first felt sympathy for Shylock when he said: “I am a Jew.
Hath not a Jew eyes? hath not a Jew hands, organs, Dimensions, senses, affections, passions? Fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to the same diseases, healed by the same means, warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer, as a Christian is? If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? if you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? ” I think this speech also shows that Shylock does have emotion and it goes to show that he does have feelings and no matter what people may think about him.
He still is a human with feelings like the rest of us and just because he has a different belief he should not be excluded from society for that. However, there is a complete contradiction to this behaviour when he later says: “I would my daughter were dead at my foot, and the jewels in her ear! ” This goes to show hoe evil he really can be to be able to say something like that about your own daughter! It also goes to show how he cares more for his money than he does for her! I thin both an Elizabethan and modern day audience would be disgusted by this.
In court Shylock is given many chances to be merciful and Elizabethan audiences would expect him to be because God is merciful, however he does not do this and by doing this it gave Antonio the excuse not to be merciful upon him. When Shylock is made to change his religion It means we will not be spat upon in society any longer. Even though Antonio knows making Shylock do this will hurt him the most it will also benefit him because he will not be singled out in the society that they lived in.
An Elizabethan audience would have see the change of religion as good, whereas a modern day audience don’t because they are not anti Semitists so they would see that this is part of Antonio’s vicious streak. After studying the 3 characters I would say that I think Shylock deserves the most sympathy out of the three of them. I think this because in his day and age he was automatically hated because of his beliefs, so when he showed hatred against anybody it became accentuated because he was a Jew and he showed hatred.
I think that Shylock found it very hard to portray his real feelings towards his daughter because he was scared of loving again in case the person he loved got taken away from him again. Even though that is not an excuse he may have thought that if in his heart he knew he loved her it was enough. I know that an Elizabethan audience would completely disagree with me because they were anti Semitic, so to agree with anything a Jew did or said would have been wrong. I thin if they would show sympathy it would have been for Jessica because her father never showed any love towards her and she was hated because of what her father believed.
I do not feel sympathy for Antonio because throughout much of the play he feels sorry for himself, but he does not have a reason for this behaviour. The only place in the play where I felt sorry for him was when all his ships crashed and he lost all of his income. I don’t think Jessica was the most deserving of sympathy because she found love in the end found her happiness, whereas her father was left with practically nothing all because he believed in something other people didn’t! | 3,110 | ENGLISH | 1 |
February 27, 1942 — The USS Langley was sailing off the Indonesian coast with her escort anti-submarine vessels in tow. A Japanese reconnaissance plane spotted them and reported back to their command. By mid-day, the U.S. ships were being bombarded by Japanese bombers — Mitsubishi Navy Type 1 attack bombers, to be precise, known to the sailors below as “Betty” or “Betties.” The USS Langley performed evasive maneuvers, dodging Japanese bombs for quite some time. However, on their third pass, the Japanese struck with five devastating blows and 16 of Langley’s crew were killed. The engine rooms began to flood as the ship was stranded, dead in the water. The call to “abandon ship” was made, and once the crew were safely away, allied forces scuttled the ship to prevent it from getting into enemy hands. No further casualties were sustained.
The USS Langley was the United Sates’ first aircraft carrier, but it was not initially built as such. Known before as the USS Jupiter, it was also the Navy’s first ship to utilize a turbo-electric transmission — it’s job was to transport coal, classified as a naval collier. After the Jupiter’s decommission, it would be revived and transformed into a prototype for what would become the Navy’s first aircraft carrier, and was subsequently renamed to the USS Langley. By 1922, she was back in on the seas. The ship’s namesake was Samuel Pierpoint Langley, a pioneer in many fields, including the field of aviation and particularly in heavier-than-air flight.
The USS Langley was generally crewed by 468 officers and enlisted personnel, and it was 542 feet in length. It could carry 36 aircraft and could move at approximately 15.5 knots (17.8mph). To put that in perspective: the United States’ Gerald R. Ford class aircraft carrier holds over 500 officers and approximately 3,789 enlisted personnel. It is 1,106 feet in length, can hold more than 75 aircraft and can move faster than 30 knots (35mph).
The USS Langley is not to be confused with the Independence-class aircraft carrier of the same name, that would be renamed to the La Fayette when it was transferred to the French.
The following video may provide some insight into the development struggles the Navy undoubtedly came across when developing its first aircraft carrier. The margin for error is very small here — one mistake and you could lose precious aircraft in the water. You can note the difficulties as well with the effects of the wind right after landing, and the perils of extremely limited runway.
Video courtesy of Airboyd YouTube channel. Featured image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. | <urn:uuid:1fff4eb6-1861-4703-b389-4a6ebbb475e9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sofrep.com/news/on-this-day-in-history-us-navys-first-aircraft-carrier-is-scuttled-in-wwii/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00343.warc.gz | en | 0.982107 | 577 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.517523646354... | 6 | February 27, 1942 — The USS Langley was sailing off the Indonesian coast with her escort anti-submarine vessels in tow. A Japanese reconnaissance plane spotted them and reported back to their command. By mid-day, the U.S. ships were being bombarded by Japanese bombers — Mitsubishi Navy Type 1 attack bombers, to be precise, known to the sailors below as “Betty” or “Betties.” The USS Langley performed evasive maneuvers, dodging Japanese bombs for quite some time. However, on their third pass, the Japanese struck with five devastating blows and 16 of Langley’s crew were killed. The engine rooms began to flood as the ship was stranded, dead in the water. The call to “abandon ship” was made, and once the crew were safely away, allied forces scuttled the ship to prevent it from getting into enemy hands. No further casualties were sustained.
The USS Langley was the United Sates’ first aircraft carrier, but it was not initially built as such. Known before as the USS Jupiter, it was also the Navy’s first ship to utilize a turbo-electric transmission — it’s job was to transport coal, classified as a naval collier. After the Jupiter’s decommission, it would be revived and transformed into a prototype for what would become the Navy’s first aircraft carrier, and was subsequently renamed to the USS Langley. By 1922, she was back in on the seas. The ship’s namesake was Samuel Pierpoint Langley, a pioneer in many fields, including the field of aviation and particularly in heavier-than-air flight.
The USS Langley was generally crewed by 468 officers and enlisted personnel, and it was 542 feet in length. It could carry 36 aircraft and could move at approximately 15.5 knots (17.8mph). To put that in perspective: the United States’ Gerald R. Ford class aircraft carrier holds over 500 officers and approximately 3,789 enlisted personnel. It is 1,106 feet in length, can hold more than 75 aircraft and can move faster than 30 knots (35mph).
The USS Langley is not to be confused with the Independence-class aircraft carrier of the same name, that would be renamed to the La Fayette when it was transferred to the French.
The following video may provide some insight into the development struggles the Navy undoubtedly came across when developing its first aircraft carrier. The margin for error is very small here — one mistake and you could lose precious aircraft in the water. You can note the difficulties as well with the effects of the wind right after landing, and the perils of extremely limited runway.
Video courtesy of Airboyd YouTube channel. Featured image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. | 580 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On this day: The origins of January 26
ON 25 JANUARY 1788 Captain Arthur Phillip and the crew of the Supply first anchored off Sydney Cove, a small bay inside Port Jackson that is today’s ferry hub at Circular Quay. The rest of the First Fleet remained bobbing in Botany Bay having arrived there on 18 January, a week before, and would follow the Supply into the cove the next day.
The Supply had set out after the officers of Fleet had agreed that Botany Bay was less than ideal for a large settlement: it had a limited supply of fresh water and little protection from the winds for anchored ships.
In contrast Sydney Cove seemed luxurious. An officer on board later wrote that it was considered “a port superior, in extent and excellency, to all we had seen before”.
26 January origins
It was an uncommonly fine evening on 26 January 1788 when the crew of the Supply gathered to toast the King, the Royal Family and the success of the colony, hoisting a banner up a newly planted flag pole.
Rob Mundle, author of Cook: from Sailor to Legend, suggests this flag would actually have been the old Union Jack or Queen Anne flag rather than the darker, newer Union Jack commonly depicted in paintings and historical accounts of the day.
Australia thus celebrates the arrival of the British on the 26 January with a public holiday. It’s a day that raises debate over its interpretation from a number or angles, and has been dubbed Invasion Day by some.
Australia Day – is it the right date?
In addition the date of Australia Day sometimes raises brows. Indeed, in the History of New South Wales from the Records it’s noted that Arthur Phillip makes no mention in his report to England of the ceremony on 26 January 1788. And, it wasn’t until 7 February that the whole colony was formally assembled in Port Jackson, and Arthur Phillip was appointed Governor.
The next significant record of the 26 January was three years later, when a flag was raised in recognition of the first ceremony. The day later became an occasion for anniversary dinners, held by those arrivals who had thrived in the new land after either serving their sentences or being pardoned.
It was made a public holiday in 1818 by Governor Macquarie, and thirty guns were fired over the harbour to represent each year since the colony was established. | <urn:uuid:680c1a14-919b-44d0-8a9c-30ac50fe0bc7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/blogs/on-this-day/2014/01/on-this-day-origins-of-january-26/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00418.warc.gz | en | 0.983821 | 496 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.5000326037... | 5 | On this day: The origins of January 26
ON 25 JANUARY 1788 Captain Arthur Phillip and the crew of the Supply first anchored off Sydney Cove, a small bay inside Port Jackson that is today’s ferry hub at Circular Quay. The rest of the First Fleet remained bobbing in Botany Bay having arrived there on 18 January, a week before, and would follow the Supply into the cove the next day.
The Supply had set out after the officers of Fleet had agreed that Botany Bay was less than ideal for a large settlement: it had a limited supply of fresh water and little protection from the winds for anchored ships.
In contrast Sydney Cove seemed luxurious. An officer on board later wrote that it was considered “a port superior, in extent and excellency, to all we had seen before”.
26 January origins
It was an uncommonly fine evening on 26 January 1788 when the crew of the Supply gathered to toast the King, the Royal Family and the success of the colony, hoisting a banner up a newly planted flag pole.
Rob Mundle, author of Cook: from Sailor to Legend, suggests this flag would actually have been the old Union Jack or Queen Anne flag rather than the darker, newer Union Jack commonly depicted in paintings and historical accounts of the day.
Australia thus celebrates the arrival of the British on the 26 January with a public holiday. It’s a day that raises debate over its interpretation from a number or angles, and has been dubbed Invasion Day by some.
Australia Day – is it the right date?
In addition the date of Australia Day sometimes raises brows. Indeed, in the History of New South Wales from the Records it’s noted that Arthur Phillip makes no mention in his report to England of the ceremony on 26 January 1788. And, it wasn’t until 7 February that the whole colony was formally assembled in Port Jackson, and Arthur Phillip was appointed Governor.
The next significant record of the 26 January was three years later, when a flag was raised in recognition of the first ceremony. The day later became an occasion for anniversary dinners, held by those arrivals who had thrived in the new land after either serving their sentences or being pardoned.
It was made a public holiday in 1818 by Governor Macquarie, and thirty guns were fired over the harbour to represent each year since the colony was established. | 502 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thomas Hardy Drama Analysis
It is not really surprising that Thomas Hardy should have turned his talents to the production of dramatic poetry. There are many indications of an early and lifelong interest in the drama—both folk and professional. Hardy enjoyed plays both in the study and on the stage, and he read widely among the classical Greek, Elizabethan, modern Continental, and modern English playwrights. He was a frequent playgoer in London and knew many theatrical people, among them Harley Granville-Barker, Sir James Barrie, George Bernard Shaw, and John Galsworthy. In fact, at one point in his life Hardy had thought of becoming a playwright himself, and as early as 1867, he was considering writing plays in blank verse but postponed this project after being discouraged by the realities of a stage production.
Hardy’s interest in playwriting lay dormant for many years, but, having abandoned the writing of fiction, disgusted by the adverse critical reaction to his later novels, he turned to poetry and drama—his interest in the latter whetted by stage adaptations of Far from the Madding Crowd and Tess of the D’Urbervilles. Thus, near the end of the 1890’s, Hardy plunged into the writing of a verse drama; “nothing could interfere with it,” as he said, for it was intended for a “mental performance.”
Hardy’s The Dynasts is, along with John Milton’s Samson Agonistes (1671) and Percy Bysshe Shelley’s Prometheus Unbound (1820), one of the longest closet dramas in English literature. This vast epic drama, consisting of nineteen acts and 130 scenes, traces the Napoleonic Wars from 1805 to 1815. On publication, The Dynasts was hailed as a major achievement, but subsequent generations have found the massive work more problematic. Indeed, while Hardy’s novels continue to be read and are available in numerous editions in any bookstore, only Victorian scholars are likely to plough their way through the 10,553 lines of The Dynasts. As Hardy’s importance as a novelist increases, his importance as a dramatic poet seems to be fading, despite pleading by some critics to justify The Dynasts categorically either as an epic or as a drama.
The Dynasts, which was published in three separate parts in 1903, 1906, and 1908, was initially untitled and was referred to simply as “A Drama of Kings.” When all three parts of the completed work were published together in 1910, Hardy labeled it an epic drama and gave it the title by which it is now known. Hardy’s title comes from a line on the last page of the final act: “. . . who hurlest Dynasts from their thrones?” As to his choice of this title, Hardy wrote, “it was the best and shortest inclusive one I could think of to express the rulers of Europe in their desperate struggle to maintain their dynasties rather than to benefit their people.”
The Dynasts required all of Hardy’s skills as a writer. Written in a variety of verse forms, the drama tells an epic story with a cast of thousands. Hardy’s forte as a novelist was his ability to tell a story with interest and suspense, and his talent with plot did not desert him here. The Dynasts relates a well-known story—the rise and fall of Napoleon—with vivid and fresh appeal. There are scenes of battle, of political intrigue, and of the ordinary life of the people that provide spectacle on the scale of the films of the late Cecil B. De Mille. Unlike previous closet dramas, such as Lord Byron’s Manfred (pb. 1817), Shelley’s The Cenci (pb. 1819), or Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s Harold (pb. 1876), Hardy selected a recent historical event as his subject, as he did in his novels, in which the setting is generally only a few decades removed from the telling. In The Dynasts , the time of the action is 1805-1815. Whereas in his fiction Hardy was concerned with the fate of common people in the grips of an indifferent destiny, in the epic drama his concern was to show how princes and powerful men, who often seem to control the fate of the masses, are in turn moved and...
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0.08375440537... | 2 | Thomas Hardy Drama Analysis
It is not really surprising that Thomas Hardy should have turned his talents to the production of dramatic poetry. There are many indications of an early and lifelong interest in the drama—both folk and professional. Hardy enjoyed plays both in the study and on the stage, and he read widely among the classical Greek, Elizabethan, modern Continental, and modern English playwrights. He was a frequent playgoer in London and knew many theatrical people, among them Harley Granville-Barker, Sir James Barrie, George Bernard Shaw, and John Galsworthy. In fact, at one point in his life Hardy had thought of becoming a playwright himself, and as early as 1867, he was considering writing plays in blank verse but postponed this project after being discouraged by the realities of a stage production.
Hardy’s interest in playwriting lay dormant for many years, but, having abandoned the writing of fiction, disgusted by the adverse critical reaction to his later novels, he turned to poetry and drama—his interest in the latter whetted by stage adaptations of Far from the Madding Crowd and Tess of the D’Urbervilles. Thus, near the end of the 1890’s, Hardy plunged into the writing of a verse drama; “nothing could interfere with it,” as he said, for it was intended for a “mental performance.”
Hardy’s The Dynasts is, along with John Milton’s Samson Agonistes (1671) and Percy Bysshe Shelley’s Prometheus Unbound (1820), one of the longest closet dramas in English literature. This vast epic drama, consisting of nineteen acts and 130 scenes, traces the Napoleonic Wars from 1805 to 1815. On publication, The Dynasts was hailed as a major achievement, but subsequent generations have found the massive work more problematic. Indeed, while Hardy’s novels continue to be read and are available in numerous editions in any bookstore, only Victorian scholars are likely to plough their way through the 10,553 lines of The Dynasts. As Hardy’s importance as a novelist increases, his importance as a dramatic poet seems to be fading, despite pleading by some critics to justify The Dynasts categorically either as an epic or as a drama.
The Dynasts, which was published in three separate parts in 1903, 1906, and 1908, was initially untitled and was referred to simply as “A Drama of Kings.” When all three parts of the completed work were published together in 1910, Hardy labeled it an epic drama and gave it the title by which it is now known. Hardy’s title comes from a line on the last page of the final act: “. . . who hurlest Dynasts from their thrones?” As to his choice of this title, Hardy wrote, “it was the best and shortest inclusive one I could think of to express the rulers of Europe in their desperate struggle to maintain their dynasties rather than to benefit their people.”
The Dynasts required all of Hardy’s skills as a writer. Written in a variety of verse forms, the drama tells an epic story with a cast of thousands. Hardy’s forte as a novelist was his ability to tell a story with interest and suspense, and his talent with plot did not desert him here. The Dynasts relates a well-known story—the rise and fall of Napoleon—with vivid and fresh appeal. There are scenes of battle, of political intrigue, and of the ordinary life of the people that provide spectacle on the scale of the films of the late Cecil B. De Mille. Unlike previous closet dramas, such as Lord Byron’s Manfred (pb. 1817), Shelley’s The Cenci (pb. 1819), or Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s Harold (pb. 1876), Hardy selected a recent historical event as his subject, as he did in his novels, in which the setting is generally only a few decades removed from the telling. In The Dynasts , the time of the action is 1805-1815. Whereas in his fiction Hardy was concerned with the fate of common people in the grips of an indifferent destiny, in the epic drama his concern was to show how princes and powerful men, who often seem to control the fate of the masses, are in turn moved and...
(The entire section is 2,661 words.) | 926 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Occasionally, in my reviews of early cinema, I’ve made comments like “this was before the star system was in place.” But what do we mean when we talk about a “star system?” When did it start and why? And how did it become so dominant that movie stars made gigantic salaries, and for a time, at least in the 1930s and 40s, seemed to transcend royalty and become truly gods and goddesses? By studying film from the Age of Attractions through the dawn of the Silent Classical Era, we have an opportunity to observe the birth of the movie star, and consider its trajectory.
In the earliest days of cinema, established celebrities like Annie Oakley and Eugen Sandow both exploited and were exploited by film in order to preserve the record of their accomplishments and lend moving pictures an aura of “respectability,” through its documentation of educational and popular subjects. Dancing stars like Annabelle Moore made good subjects, because their art involved movement, and could be shown without synchronized sound, or any sound. Audiences in remote locations could see people made famous in New York or Boston, and get a chance to get “close” to figures they had only read about before. William McKinley seems to have been the first Presidential hopeful to exploit the movies before election, another example of the growing power of the medium.
Of course, there was an already extant star system in live theater. Theater stars weren’t (and aren’t) the same thing as movie stars, but they were trained actors, and when the demand for narrative film boomed during the Nickelodeon Era, they were of course drawn on as experienced actors with potential box office draw. However, there was a perception (true or not) that this could “hurt” a serious theater actor’s reputation – the movies were still associated with low-class entertainment and not accepted as an art form – so there was resistance within the industry. By the same token, the more “progressive” film studios wanted theater stars to help legitimate the moving pictures and draw a higher class of audience, so they were willing to pay enough to lure at least a few for what was, after all, relatively easy work compared to touring around giving the same performances night after night.
Meanwhile, about halfway through the Nickelodeon Era (say, 1909-1911), there was an odd innovation in American filmmaking: cameramen started moving the camera a little closer to the action. Remember that the zoom lens, although invented in 1902, was not yet in wide use in movie making. In fact, I don’t think I’ve seen a zoom since I started this project, although I’d be happy to be corrected if somebody’s memory is sharper than mine. Anyway, the point is that generally if you wanted to see more detail on something, you had to physically move the camera closer to it. This had the effect, which we hardly notice today, of cutting up the actors so you can’t see their whole bodies – feet are cut off or legs up to the knees or further. But, it also meant that you could see the faces of actors much more clearly.
This change, so subtle that it’s hard for modern audiences even to notice it, had considerable impact at the time. The critics hated it. The established standard was to frame the picture to show a “stage” as in a theater on which the actors would enter, perform, and exit. Closing in meant that you weren’t seeing the “whole stage,” and several complained about not seeing the stage floor. Apart from that, you were dissecting people’s bodies when you didn’t show them head to toe. This was considered “unnatural” by sophisticated movie-goers. Luckily for us, apparently the unsophisticated masses paying their nickels to see the flickers didn’t mind so much.
The other side of this, again, was seeing faces more clearly, being able to distinguish features and expressions. This meant that the tradition of pantomime began to be replaced with more subtle use of the actor’s faces to show emotion. Actors could stop flailing their arms and using exaggerated body language, and perform in a more natural manner. More than that, it meant that audiences began to recognize their favorite actors, even without the benefit of credits to give them names, and started to ask exhibitors when they would get another film showing “The Biograph Girl,” for example.
One of the first to benefit from this was a comedian named Ben Turpin. He had crossed eyes as a result of an accident in childhood, and was very good at making silly faces. Once movies started being made where you could see how funny he looked, he rapidly became a sought-after property and made a much better living than most movie actors at the time. He went so far as to take out an insurance policy against his eyes ever becoming uncrossed.
It’s important to note here that the close up had been used before this, as in the case of “The Great Train Robbery” (1903) and that Méliès had replicated a zoom by moving the camera closer to his disembodied head as early as “The Man with the Rubber Head” (1901) and probably before that. Seeing actors’ faces wasn’t “invented” in 1909 or any such nonsense, but it gradually became more of a standard, as did inter-cutting close ups to the point where they become major narrative elements, as in the case of “The Golden Chance,” by the end of 1915. As audiences acclimated to a more intimate standard of photography, they increasingly became fascinated by the faces of the people on the screen.
You can track this change in the pages of “Moving Picture World,” one of the first important industry periodicals, which published from 1907 to 1927. In the early issues, there are few illustrations, and very few actors’ names. Even the ads, meant to promote pictures to exhibitors would emphasize the humor, educational value, or novelty of the movie, and rarely include names or pictures of people in it. Over time, this shifts, with more ads showing stills, and increasing numbers of faces, in particular, shown. By 1915, you will start seeing familiar names and faces, with the fact that Charlie Chaplin stars in a film being given precedence over the reputation of the studio or the quality of its innovations. Meanwhile, other publications had begun to spring up that were intended for movie fans, and these heavily emphasized beautiful head shots of famous stars. The star system, while not as powerful as it would become in later decades, was firmly established at this time. | <urn:uuid:bc6a0a6d-61dd-4f3e-9d2e-1ab3662cb1b2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://centuryfilmproject.org/tag/ben-turpin/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00364.warc.gz | en | 0.982053 | 1,423 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.184688478708267... | 12 | Occasionally, in my reviews of early cinema, I’ve made comments like “this was before the star system was in place.” But what do we mean when we talk about a “star system?” When did it start and why? And how did it become so dominant that movie stars made gigantic salaries, and for a time, at least in the 1930s and 40s, seemed to transcend royalty and become truly gods and goddesses? By studying film from the Age of Attractions through the dawn of the Silent Classical Era, we have an opportunity to observe the birth of the movie star, and consider its trajectory.
In the earliest days of cinema, established celebrities like Annie Oakley and Eugen Sandow both exploited and were exploited by film in order to preserve the record of their accomplishments and lend moving pictures an aura of “respectability,” through its documentation of educational and popular subjects. Dancing stars like Annabelle Moore made good subjects, because their art involved movement, and could be shown without synchronized sound, or any sound. Audiences in remote locations could see people made famous in New York or Boston, and get a chance to get “close” to figures they had only read about before. William McKinley seems to have been the first Presidential hopeful to exploit the movies before election, another example of the growing power of the medium.
Of course, there was an already extant star system in live theater. Theater stars weren’t (and aren’t) the same thing as movie stars, but they were trained actors, and when the demand for narrative film boomed during the Nickelodeon Era, they were of course drawn on as experienced actors with potential box office draw. However, there was a perception (true or not) that this could “hurt” a serious theater actor’s reputation – the movies were still associated with low-class entertainment and not accepted as an art form – so there was resistance within the industry. By the same token, the more “progressive” film studios wanted theater stars to help legitimate the moving pictures and draw a higher class of audience, so they were willing to pay enough to lure at least a few for what was, after all, relatively easy work compared to touring around giving the same performances night after night.
Meanwhile, about halfway through the Nickelodeon Era (say, 1909-1911), there was an odd innovation in American filmmaking: cameramen started moving the camera a little closer to the action. Remember that the zoom lens, although invented in 1902, was not yet in wide use in movie making. In fact, I don’t think I’ve seen a zoom since I started this project, although I’d be happy to be corrected if somebody’s memory is sharper than mine. Anyway, the point is that generally if you wanted to see more detail on something, you had to physically move the camera closer to it. This had the effect, which we hardly notice today, of cutting up the actors so you can’t see their whole bodies – feet are cut off or legs up to the knees or further. But, it also meant that you could see the faces of actors much more clearly.
This change, so subtle that it’s hard for modern audiences even to notice it, had considerable impact at the time. The critics hated it. The established standard was to frame the picture to show a “stage” as in a theater on which the actors would enter, perform, and exit. Closing in meant that you weren’t seeing the “whole stage,” and several complained about not seeing the stage floor. Apart from that, you were dissecting people’s bodies when you didn’t show them head to toe. This was considered “unnatural” by sophisticated movie-goers. Luckily for us, apparently the unsophisticated masses paying their nickels to see the flickers didn’t mind so much.
The other side of this, again, was seeing faces more clearly, being able to distinguish features and expressions. This meant that the tradition of pantomime began to be replaced with more subtle use of the actor’s faces to show emotion. Actors could stop flailing their arms and using exaggerated body language, and perform in a more natural manner. More than that, it meant that audiences began to recognize their favorite actors, even without the benefit of credits to give them names, and started to ask exhibitors when they would get another film showing “The Biograph Girl,” for example.
One of the first to benefit from this was a comedian named Ben Turpin. He had crossed eyes as a result of an accident in childhood, and was very good at making silly faces. Once movies started being made where you could see how funny he looked, he rapidly became a sought-after property and made a much better living than most movie actors at the time. He went so far as to take out an insurance policy against his eyes ever becoming uncrossed.
It’s important to note here that the close up had been used before this, as in the case of “The Great Train Robbery” (1903) and that Méliès had replicated a zoom by moving the camera closer to his disembodied head as early as “The Man with the Rubber Head” (1901) and probably before that. Seeing actors’ faces wasn’t “invented” in 1909 or any such nonsense, but it gradually became more of a standard, as did inter-cutting close ups to the point where they become major narrative elements, as in the case of “The Golden Chance,” by the end of 1915. As audiences acclimated to a more intimate standard of photography, they increasingly became fascinated by the faces of the people on the screen.
You can track this change in the pages of “Moving Picture World,” one of the first important industry periodicals, which published from 1907 to 1927. In the early issues, there are few illustrations, and very few actors’ names. Even the ads, meant to promote pictures to exhibitors would emphasize the humor, educational value, or novelty of the movie, and rarely include names or pictures of people in it. Over time, this shifts, with more ads showing stills, and increasing numbers of faces, in particular, shown. By 1915, you will start seeing familiar names and faces, with the fact that Charlie Chaplin stars in a film being given precedence over the reputation of the studio or the quality of its innovations. Meanwhile, other publications had begun to spring up that were intended for movie fans, and these heavily emphasized beautiful head shots of famous stars. The star system, while not as powerful as it would become in later decades, was firmly established at this time. | 1,376 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Prophet first came to the attention of the United States administration when he was involved in the burning of some proclaimed witches. The Delaware Indians, originally from the region now known as New Jersey and the state bearing their name, had become refugees through the grabbing of their lands. In consequence they had been driven westwards, into Ohio. They were not happy. Hearing about how the Prophet had condemned both the Americans and also other religious leaders, they invited him to come and help them purify themselves. Sure enough the Prophet identified several of their number as witches responsible for the ills that had befallen them and ordered their torture. One unfortunate woman was roasted for four days over a slow fire. The Indians accused of witchcraft tended to have one thing in common: they had taken up with at least some of the ways of the whites (for example wearing hats or drinking liquor). Christian converts among the tribes were a particular target. Tenskwatawa was weeding out those who would oppose his brother's campaign for a return of the Indians to their olden ways. He moved on to other villages, and other tribes, stirring up revolt as he did so.
This unrest in the Midwest was viewed askance from Washington. Thomas Jefferson opined that the Prophet was "more rogue than fool, if to be a rogue is not the greatest of all follies." Although Tenskwatawa was trying to persuade or force his fellow Indians to give up the ways of the white man, Jefferson did not view him as being a major threat: "I thought there was little danger of his making many proselytes from the habits and comfort they had learned from the whites, to the hardships and privations of savagism, and no great harm if he did. We let him go on, therefore, unmolested."
The governor of the Indiana Territory was William Henry Harrison, who in 1841 became the ninth President of the United States. He had a high opinion of Tecumseh, once writing to the Secretary of War that the Indian leader was a "bold, active, sensible man, daring in the extreme and capable of any undertaking." Now, though, Harrison was faced with Indian roguery that was reaching a fever pitch, under the guise of divine influence. It became obvious that something would need to be done.
Early in 1806 Harrison wrote an explicit, challenging letter to the Delawares, inviting that they demand the Prophet prove his exalted status. Using phrases from the Bible, Harrison suggested to them that they should "ask of him to cause the Sun to stand still, the Moon to alter its course, the rivers to cease to flow or the dead to rise from their graves. If he does these things, you may then believe he was sent from God." This turned out to be a most unfortunate challenge, from Harrison's perspective. News of it soon spread. When a copy reached Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa, they retired to a tent to consider their response. Emerging shortly thereafter, the Prophet proudly stated that he was pleased to cause the Sun to stand still, and he would do so 50 days hence: on June 16, 1806. Further, he said that the Sun would be darkened in a cloudless sky, and the stars would come out in daytime. So dark would it be that the birds would return to their nests, while nocturnal animals would emerge from their lairs.
It seems obvious what had happened. Perhaps Tecumseh had seen one of the almanacs of the Shakers. Maybe a British agent, eager to take any chance to provoke foment and disrupt the progress of the fledgling United States, had armed the Indian leader with this piece of astronomical intelligence. Another possibility is that a party of astronomers, looking for a prime place from which to observe the eclipse, had informed Tecumseh what was to happen. The previous year, on June 26, a partial eclipse had been visible from North America, with half of the Sun being covered; maybe Tecumseh had noticed that and realized the possibilities. Whatever the background involved, to the average Indian a darkening of the Sun was to occur at the behest of the Prophet, who would thus be proven to be the agent of the Great Spirit.
At the time of this prognostication, Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa appear to have been in the region of the Sandusky River, close to the southern bank of Lake Erie. That is significant, as we will see, because by June 16 they had moved south again, to the village the Shawnee had established on the site of the defunct Fort Greenville.
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Tap into your inner power today. Discover The Untold Secrets Used By Experts To Tap Into The Power Of Your Inner Personality Help You Unleash Your Full Potential. Finally You Can Fully Equip Yourself With These “Must Have” Personality Finding Tools For Creating Your Ideal Lifestyle. | <urn:uuid:9f0b5bd8-ae3e-4d67-81ad-7e537e2e8e13> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.astronomyclub.xyz/solar-eclipse-2/the-eclipse-predicted.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00491.warc.gz | en | 0.985234 | 1,008 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.2875409126281738... | 2 | The Prophet first came to the attention of the United States administration when he was involved in the burning of some proclaimed witches. The Delaware Indians, originally from the region now known as New Jersey and the state bearing their name, had become refugees through the grabbing of their lands. In consequence they had been driven westwards, into Ohio. They were not happy. Hearing about how the Prophet had condemned both the Americans and also other religious leaders, they invited him to come and help them purify themselves. Sure enough the Prophet identified several of their number as witches responsible for the ills that had befallen them and ordered their torture. One unfortunate woman was roasted for four days over a slow fire. The Indians accused of witchcraft tended to have one thing in common: they had taken up with at least some of the ways of the whites (for example wearing hats or drinking liquor). Christian converts among the tribes were a particular target. Tenskwatawa was weeding out those who would oppose his brother's campaign for a return of the Indians to their olden ways. He moved on to other villages, and other tribes, stirring up revolt as he did so.
This unrest in the Midwest was viewed askance from Washington. Thomas Jefferson opined that the Prophet was "more rogue than fool, if to be a rogue is not the greatest of all follies." Although Tenskwatawa was trying to persuade or force his fellow Indians to give up the ways of the white man, Jefferson did not view him as being a major threat: "I thought there was little danger of his making many proselytes from the habits and comfort they had learned from the whites, to the hardships and privations of savagism, and no great harm if he did. We let him go on, therefore, unmolested."
The governor of the Indiana Territory was William Henry Harrison, who in 1841 became the ninth President of the United States. He had a high opinion of Tecumseh, once writing to the Secretary of War that the Indian leader was a "bold, active, sensible man, daring in the extreme and capable of any undertaking." Now, though, Harrison was faced with Indian roguery that was reaching a fever pitch, under the guise of divine influence. It became obvious that something would need to be done.
Early in 1806 Harrison wrote an explicit, challenging letter to the Delawares, inviting that they demand the Prophet prove his exalted status. Using phrases from the Bible, Harrison suggested to them that they should "ask of him to cause the Sun to stand still, the Moon to alter its course, the rivers to cease to flow or the dead to rise from their graves. If he does these things, you may then believe he was sent from God." This turned out to be a most unfortunate challenge, from Harrison's perspective. News of it soon spread. When a copy reached Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa, they retired to a tent to consider their response. Emerging shortly thereafter, the Prophet proudly stated that he was pleased to cause the Sun to stand still, and he would do so 50 days hence: on June 16, 1806. Further, he said that the Sun would be darkened in a cloudless sky, and the stars would come out in daytime. So dark would it be that the birds would return to their nests, while nocturnal animals would emerge from their lairs.
It seems obvious what had happened. Perhaps Tecumseh had seen one of the almanacs of the Shakers. Maybe a British agent, eager to take any chance to provoke foment and disrupt the progress of the fledgling United States, had armed the Indian leader with this piece of astronomical intelligence. Another possibility is that a party of astronomers, looking for a prime place from which to observe the eclipse, had informed Tecumseh what was to happen. The previous year, on June 26, a partial eclipse had been visible from North America, with half of the Sun being covered; maybe Tecumseh had noticed that and realized the possibilities. Whatever the background involved, to the average Indian a darkening of the Sun was to occur at the behest of the Prophet, who would thus be proven to be the agent of the Great Spirit.
At the time of this prognostication, Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa appear to have been in the region of the Sandusky River, close to the southern bank of Lake Erie. That is significant, as we will see, because by June 16 they had moved south again, to the village the Shawnee had established on the site of the defunct Fort Greenville.
Was this article helpful?
Tap into your inner power today. Discover The Untold Secrets Used By Experts To Tap Into The Power Of Your Inner Personality Help You Unleash Your Full Potential. Finally You Can Fully Equip Yourself With These “Must Have” Personality Finding Tools For Creating Your Ideal Lifestyle. | 1,024 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Biography of Cleopatra
of reading - words
- Cleopatra is one of the most recognized pharaohs of Ancient Egypt. Lover of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, he is considered one of the famous characters of our History.
One of the best-known Egyptian queens was undoubtedly Cleopatra.
Lover of Julius Caesar, she had a tragic ending that would mark the fate of Egypt. She was the last queen of Ancient Egypt belonging to the Ptolemaic dynasty, founded by Ptolemy I, one of Alexander the Great's generals, and the last queen belonging to the Hellenistic period of Egypt.
Her full name was Cleopatra Filopator Nea Thea, although she is known as Cleopatra VII or simply Cleopatra. She was born in 69 B.C. Her parents were Ptolemy XII and Cleopatra V. She was an educated woman who had knowledge of different sciences such as astronomy or medicine. She inherited the throne at the age of 17, a responsibility she had to share with her brother Ptolemy XIV, with whom she had to marry.
Their reign together lasted only a short time, between 51 and 49 BC. There were continuous clashes between the two, which led to the loss of the throne by Cleopatra. She, eager for power, decided to plan her brother's death in order to have a free path to politics. When the court learned of her wiles, she was forced to flee.
However, there came a stroke of luck. The civil struggles of Rome reached the country of the Nile and with them the emperor Julius Caesar, who persecuted his enemy Pompey. Seeing the conflict between Cleopatra and her brother, she decides to support her but the latter would die in the so-called Alexandrian War, like Pompey. This made Cleopatra accede to the throne immediately. Furthermore, during this war the famous Alexandria library was burned down and lost forever.
Cleopatra and Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar became the queen's lover, and from this union was born a son who would bear the name of Caesarion. However, at the end of time, Caesar abandons her and makes her marry her brother Ptolemy XIV, who was still a child. When Caesar died, Cleopatra got rid of her own husband when Caesar's successor, Mark Antony, who would be her great love, arrived in Egypt. Three sons were born from her union, Ptolemy and the twins Alexander and Cleopatra.
Shortly after, the Ptolemaic War broke out. In it, Augustus fought against Mark Antony for the power of Rome. During the naval battle of Accio, Mark Antony is defeated by Octavian, but manages to flee to Alexandria where he takes refuge along with Cleopatra. However, Augustus' troops manage to take the city, so Mark Antony commits suicide.
Octavian had specific plans for Cleopatra. He intended to take her prisoner and show her in Rome at the Triumph celebrations, now that Egypt had become a Roman province. Thus he would achieve popular fervor and his political aspirations would be widely supported.
The death of Cleopatra
Cleopatra saw clearly the intentions of her enemy and fearing that she would end up a slave decided to die, just as her beloved had done. Cleopatra took her own life thanks to the bite of an asp, one of the most poisonous snakes, in 30 BC. The most romantic opinions say that he took his life because of the death of his beloved Mark Antony. Before committing suicide, he asked Octavian by means of a letter to bury her with Mark Antony, a wish he granted her, although the whereabouts of the burial of both lovers are still unknown. | <urn:uuid:9f4aed54-69c8-461f-939d-fad6190a1ca8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://famouspharaohs.com/blogs/egyptian-mythology/biography-of-cleopatra | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00467.warc.gz | en | 0.987005 | 789 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.161050483584404... | 1 | Biography of Cleopatra
of reading - words
- Cleopatra is one of the most recognized pharaohs of Ancient Egypt. Lover of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, he is considered one of the famous characters of our History.
One of the best-known Egyptian queens was undoubtedly Cleopatra.
Lover of Julius Caesar, she had a tragic ending that would mark the fate of Egypt. She was the last queen of Ancient Egypt belonging to the Ptolemaic dynasty, founded by Ptolemy I, one of Alexander the Great's generals, and the last queen belonging to the Hellenistic period of Egypt.
Her full name was Cleopatra Filopator Nea Thea, although she is known as Cleopatra VII or simply Cleopatra. She was born in 69 B.C. Her parents were Ptolemy XII and Cleopatra V. She was an educated woman who had knowledge of different sciences such as astronomy or medicine. She inherited the throne at the age of 17, a responsibility she had to share with her brother Ptolemy XIV, with whom she had to marry.
Their reign together lasted only a short time, between 51 and 49 BC. There were continuous clashes between the two, which led to the loss of the throne by Cleopatra. She, eager for power, decided to plan her brother's death in order to have a free path to politics. When the court learned of her wiles, she was forced to flee.
However, there came a stroke of luck. The civil struggles of Rome reached the country of the Nile and with them the emperor Julius Caesar, who persecuted his enemy Pompey. Seeing the conflict between Cleopatra and her brother, she decides to support her but the latter would die in the so-called Alexandrian War, like Pompey. This made Cleopatra accede to the throne immediately. Furthermore, during this war the famous Alexandria library was burned down and lost forever.
Cleopatra and Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar became the queen's lover, and from this union was born a son who would bear the name of Caesarion. However, at the end of time, Caesar abandons her and makes her marry her brother Ptolemy XIV, who was still a child. When Caesar died, Cleopatra got rid of her own husband when Caesar's successor, Mark Antony, who would be her great love, arrived in Egypt. Three sons were born from her union, Ptolemy and the twins Alexander and Cleopatra.
Shortly after, the Ptolemaic War broke out. In it, Augustus fought against Mark Antony for the power of Rome. During the naval battle of Accio, Mark Antony is defeated by Octavian, but manages to flee to Alexandria where he takes refuge along with Cleopatra. However, Augustus' troops manage to take the city, so Mark Antony commits suicide.
Octavian had specific plans for Cleopatra. He intended to take her prisoner and show her in Rome at the Triumph celebrations, now that Egypt had become a Roman province. Thus he would achieve popular fervor and his political aspirations would be widely supported.
The death of Cleopatra
Cleopatra saw clearly the intentions of her enemy and fearing that she would end up a slave decided to die, just as her beloved had done. Cleopatra took her own life thanks to the bite of an asp, one of the most poisonous snakes, in 30 BC. The most romantic opinions say that he took his life because of the death of his beloved Mark Antony. Before committing suicide, he asked Octavian by means of a letter to bury her with Mark Antony, a wish he granted her, although the whereabouts of the burial of both lovers are still unknown. | 781 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Question about Andrew Jackson, please help!!?
How did Andrew Jackson's early struggles and military career affect his political beliefs? Please help with this question, it would be greatly appreciated!
Or at least give some websites that answer this question (preferably .org/.edu)
thanks so much!
- 6 years agoFavorite Answer
the extract is from the web page (below) whiich provides:Andrew Jackson
Andrew Jackson's Early Life
Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767, in the Waxhaws region on the border of North and South Carolina. The exact location of his birth is uncertain, and both states have claimed him as a native son; Jackson himself maintained he was from South Carolina. The son of Irish immigrants, Jackson received little formal schooling. The British invaded the Carolinas in 1780-1781, and Jackson's mother and two brothers died during the conflict, leaving him with a lifelong hostility toward Great Britain.
Jackson read law in his late teens and earned admission to the North Carolina bar in 1787. He soon moved west of the Appalachians to the region that would soon become the state of Tennessee, and began working as a prosecuting attorney in the settlement that became Nashville. He later set up his own private practice and met and married Rachel (Donelson) Robards, the daughter of a local colonel. Jackson grew prosperous enough to build a mansion, the Hermitage, near Nashville, and to buy slaves. In 1796, Jackson joined a convention charged with drafting the new Tennessee state constitution and became the first man to be elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from Tennessee. Though he declined to seek reelection and returned home in March 1797, he was almost immediately elected to the U.S. Senate. Jackson resigned a year later and was elected judge of Tennessee's superior court. He was later chosen to head the state militia, a position he held when war broke out with Great Britain in 1812.
Andrew Jackson's Military Career
Andrew Jackson, who served as a major general in the War of 1812, commanded U.S. forces in a five-month campaign against the Creek Indians, allies of the British. After that campaign ended in a decisive American victory in the Battle of Tohopeka (or Horseshoe Bend) in Alabama in mid-1814, Jackson led American forces to victory over the British in the Battle of New Orleans (January 1815). The win, which occurred after the War of 1812 officially ended but before news of the Treaty of Ghent had reached Washington, elevated Jackson to the status of national war hero. In 1817, acting as commander of the army's southern district, Jackson ordered an invasion of Florida. After his forces captured Spanish posts at St. Mark's and Pensacola, he claimed the surrounding land for the United States. The Spanish government vehemently protested, and Jackson's actions sparked a heated debate in Washington. Though many argued for Jackson's censure, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams defended the general's actions, and in the end they helped speed the American acquisition of Florida in 1821.
Jackson's popularity led to suggestions that he run for president. At first he professed no interest in the office, but by 1824 his boosters had rallied enough support to get him a nomination as well as a seat in the U.S. Senate. In a five-way race, Jackson won the popular vote, but for the first time in history no candidate received a majority of electoral votes. The House of Representatives was charged with deciding between the three leading candidates: Jackson, Adams and Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford. Critically ill after a stroke, Crawford was essentially out, and Speaker of the House Henry Clay (who had finished fourth) threw his support behind Adams, who later made Clay his secretary of state. Jackson's supporters raged against what they called the "corrupt bargain" between Clay and Adams, and Jackson himself resigned from the Senate.
Andrew Jackson In the White House
Andrew Jackson won redemption four years later in an election that was characterized to an unusual degree by negative personal attacks. Jackson and his wife were accused of adultery on the basis that Rachel had not been legally divorced from her first husband when she married Jackson. Shortly after his victory in 1828, the shy and pious Rachel died at the Hermitage; Jackson apparently believed the negative attacks had hastened her death. The Jacksons did not have any children but were close to their nephews and nieces, and one niece, Emily Donelson, would serve as Jackson's hostess in the White House.
see web page for more too much to copy/pasteSource(s): http://www.history.com/topics/andrew-jackson | <urn:uuid:2c706d28-0702-401d-a273-7ec4393de15e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20130930072144AAnYXeD | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00222.warc.gz | en | 0.983759 | 974 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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-0.03082576766610145... | 1 | Question about Andrew Jackson, please help!!?
How did Andrew Jackson's early struggles and military career affect his political beliefs? Please help with this question, it would be greatly appreciated!
Or at least give some websites that answer this question (preferably .org/.edu)
thanks so much!
- 6 years agoFavorite Answer
the extract is from the web page (below) whiich provides:Andrew Jackson
Andrew Jackson's Early Life
Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767, in the Waxhaws region on the border of North and South Carolina. The exact location of his birth is uncertain, and both states have claimed him as a native son; Jackson himself maintained he was from South Carolina. The son of Irish immigrants, Jackson received little formal schooling. The British invaded the Carolinas in 1780-1781, and Jackson's mother and two brothers died during the conflict, leaving him with a lifelong hostility toward Great Britain.
Jackson read law in his late teens and earned admission to the North Carolina bar in 1787. He soon moved west of the Appalachians to the region that would soon become the state of Tennessee, and began working as a prosecuting attorney in the settlement that became Nashville. He later set up his own private practice and met and married Rachel (Donelson) Robards, the daughter of a local colonel. Jackson grew prosperous enough to build a mansion, the Hermitage, near Nashville, and to buy slaves. In 1796, Jackson joined a convention charged with drafting the new Tennessee state constitution and became the first man to be elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from Tennessee. Though he declined to seek reelection and returned home in March 1797, he was almost immediately elected to the U.S. Senate. Jackson resigned a year later and was elected judge of Tennessee's superior court. He was later chosen to head the state militia, a position he held when war broke out with Great Britain in 1812.
Andrew Jackson's Military Career
Andrew Jackson, who served as a major general in the War of 1812, commanded U.S. forces in a five-month campaign against the Creek Indians, allies of the British. After that campaign ended in a decisive American victory in the Battle of Tohopeka (or Horseshoe Bend) in Alabama in mid-1814, Jackson led American forces to victory over the British in the Battle of New Orleans (January 1815). The win, which occurred after the War of 1812 officially ended but before news of the Treaty of Ghent had reached Washington, elevated Jackson to the status of national war hero. In 1817, acting as commander of the army's southern district, Jackson ordered an invasion of Florida. After his forces captured Spanish posts at St. Mark's and Pensacola, he claimed the surrounding land for the United States. The Spanish government vehemently protested, and Jackson's actions sparked a heated debate in Washington. Though many argued for Jackson's censure, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams defended the general's actions, and in the end they helped speed the American acquisition of Florida in 1821.
Jackson's popularity led to suggestions that he run for president. At first he professed no interest in the office, but by 1824 his boosters had rallied enough support to get him a nomination as well as a seat in the U.S. Senate. In a five-way race, Jackson won the popular vote, but for the first time in history no candidate received a majority of electoral votes. The House of Representatives was charged with deciding between the three leading candidates: Jackson, Adams and Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford. Critically ill after a stroke, Crawford was essentially out, and Speaker of the House Henry Clay (who had finished fourth) threw his support behind Adams, who later made Clay his secretary of state. Jackson's supporters raged against what they called the "corrupt bargain" between Clay and Adams, and Jackson himself resigned from the Senate.
Andrew Jackson In the White House
Andrew Jackson won redemption four years later in an election that was characterized to an unusual degree by negative personal attacks. Jackson and his wife were accused of adultery on the basis that Rachel had not been legally divorced from her first husband when she married Jackson. Shortly after his victory in 1828, the shy and pious Rachel died at the Hermitage; Jackson apparently believed the negative attacks had hastened her death. The Jacksons did not have any children but were close to their nephews and nieces, and one niece, Emily Donelson, would serve as Jackson's hostess in the White House.
see web page for more too much to copy/pasteSource(s): http://www.history.com/topics/andrew-jackson | 1,000 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The one thing that every parent wishes for is to have a healthy and typical child. However, unfortunately, that is not always going to happen. That means there is always a chance that parents will end up bringing a child into this world that may have special needs of some sort.
And the signs of a child having a disability are quite usually quite apparent in babyhood. For instance, a baby has a condition such as blindness that will show the signs very early on by not noticing objects, your face, or anything else. If a baby has an auditory deficiency or deafness, then the baby will not respond to what he or she is supposed to hear. This oftentimes makes parents wonder because of the fact that the babies are not responding to what they hear in their environment, they may worry their babies could have autism.
And autism is, unfortunately, a very prevalent disability that is only increasing. A child with autism has no problems with usually with hearing, but are oftentimes unresponsive to anyone and anything in their environments. Other signs of autism to look out for are:
- No smiling at people by the age of 6 months.
- Eye contact is very poor.
- Not showing an interest or curiosity in anything or anyone as typically developing babies (or babies that have special needs that don’t include autism) are quite exploratory and curious.
- No pointing, gestures that are meaningful, or babbling by 12 months.
- Attachments to items that seem to be unusual but are not attached to caregivers.
- No single-word phrases by 18 months.
- No two-word phrases by 24 months.
- An intense fascination in spinning or flashy objects to the point of staring at them for more than 5 minutes at a time.
- Spinning and stacking objects.
- If your baby has acquired skills as a typical infant would and loses those skills during toddlerhood, that can be a sign of autism as well.
If a child is not responsive to his or her environment, then it is always best to take your child to a hearing testing center to rule out deafness. And if deafness is ruled out, then autism may be likely. And once it is suspected your child has autism based on the criteria listed above, the immediate thing parents should do is get their child into early intervention therapies. This can increase the chances of the child being successful later on in life, which can mean they may be able to go on and live a typical life.
Unfortunately, however, that is not always the case as it depends on the situation.
Another thing to look for in autism is physical milestones such as crawling and walking. Sometimes that is delayed as well as some kids with autism don’t always begin to walk until they are 18 to 24 months.
However, if your child does not have signs of autism and is not hitting physical milestones in a timely manner, then there is another special need causing a physical disability that will need to be checked on.
Regardless of what type of disability your child may be showing signs of, it means for the parents that they will need to take their children to doctors, specialists, and therapists often. And for parents that have children with any type of special need must be sure they are getting the right type of supports – both physical and emotional as caring for a child with special needs requires a lot more energy, work, and patience.
If you know of a parent who has a child with any type of special need, be sure to show them kindness and offer to help them in ways that you realistically can. They need help and support from others, and your sincere offer will be very appreciated. | <urn:uuid:1f7b622b-d932-454f-882e-dfcdd2691540> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://technokickweb.com/common-signs-that-your-child-may-have-a-disability/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00179.warc.gz | en | 0.980341 | 749 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.4191741943359375... | 6 | The one thing that every parent wishes for is to have a healthy and typical child. However, unfortunately, that is not always going to happen. That means there is always a chance that parents will end up bringing a child into this world that may have special needs of some sort.
And the signs of a child having a disability are quite usually quite apparent in babyhood. For instance, a baby has a condition such as blindness that will show the signs very early on by not noticing objects, your face, or anything else. If a baby has an auditory deficiency or deafness, then the baby will not respond to what he or she is supposed to hear. This oftentimes makes parents wonder because of the fact that the babies are not responding to what they hear in their environment, they may worry their babies could have autism.
And autism is, unfortunately, a very prevalent disability that is only increasing. A child with autism has no problems with usually with hearing, but are oftentimes unresponsive to anyone and anything in their environments. Other signs of autism to look out for are:
- No smiling at people by the age of 6 months.
- Eye contact is very poor.
- Not showing an interest or curiosity in anything or anyone as typically developing babies (or babies that have special needs that don’t include autism) are quite exploratory and curious.
- No pointing, gestures that are meaningful, or babbling by 12 months.
- Attachments to items that seem to be unusual but are not attached to caregivers.
- No single-word phrases by 18 months.
- No two-word phrases by 24 months.
- An intense fascination in spinning or flashy objects to the point of staring at them for more than 5 minutes at a time.
- Spinning and stacking objects.
- If your baby has acquired skills as a typical infant would and loses those skills during toddlerhood, that can be a sign of autism as well.
If a child is not responsive to his or her environment, then it is always best to take your child to a hearing testing center to rule out deafness. And if deafness is ruled out, then autism may be likely. And once it is suspected your child has autism based on the criteria listed above, the immediate thing parents should do is get their child into early intervention therapies. This can increase the chances of the child being successful later on in life, which can mean they may be able to go on and live a typical life.
Unfortunately, however, that is not always the case as it depends on the situation.
Another thing to look for in autism is physical milestones such as crawling and walking. Sometimes that is delayed as well as some kids with autism don’t always begin to walk until they are 18 to 24 months.
However, if your child does not have signs of autism and is not hitting physical milestones in a timely manner, then there is another special need causing a physical disability that will need to be checked on.
Regardless of what type of disability your child may be showing signs of, it means for the parents that they will need to take their children to doctors, specialists, and therapists often. And for parents that have children with any type of special need must be sure they are getting the right type of supports – both physical and emotional as caring for a child with special needs requires a lot more energy, work, and patience.
If you know of a parent who has a child with any type of special need, be sure to show them kindness and offer to help them in ways that you realistically can. They need help and support from others, and your sincere offer will be very appreciated. | 736 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What do the mole, the mortal human being, Tantalus, Sisyphus, and the black poet share in this poem? What are they given as examples of?
The poem begins with a premise and then offers evidence to illustrate it. In the first line, the speaker articulates the premise that God is good and kind. Then the mole, the mortal human being, Tantalus, Sisyphus, and finally the black poet are given as examples of things that God has made which are difficult to square with his goodness. Why, for example, create a pitiful animal like the mole, who lives most of its life underground and is mostly blind? Or why devise such elaborate and cruel forms of torture, such as was given to the mythological figures Tantalus and Sisyphus? The speaker insists that God must have his reasons. What's more, even if these reasons were to be explained to us, we would be unlikely to comprehend them with our mere mortal brains. This raises the question, what does the final example, the black poet, share with the others? The poem ends by suggesting that the most strange or "curious" thing of all God's incomprehensible decisions, was to create black poets. In other words, to be both black and a poet is a form of punishment.
Inferring from the poem and from what you know about Cullen's other poetry and the context he lived in, why is being a black poet described as "marvel" or a "curious thing," and perhaps even a kind of torture?
After listing a number of seemingly inexplicable actions by God, such as making human beings (who were created in God's own image, according to the Bible) subject to decay and death, the speaker states that the strangest or most "curious thing" is that He made "a poet black, and bid him sing!" Racism is a common theme in many of Cullen's other poems, such as "Incident." He was also a prominent voice in the Harlem Renaissance, a flowering of literature and art by African Americans that occurred in 1920s New York even while harsh segregation continued in the southern United States. Reading between the lines, we can say that that it is a "marvel" for an African American to become a poet when they have to overcome so many difficulties, such as accessing education in the face of barriers or being accepted by a literary and publishing scene that was overwhelmingly white. Coming after the example of Sisyphus being forced to roll a boulder up a hill for eternity, the appearance of the black poet in "Yet Do I Marvel" suggests that being black and being a poet could almost be like a form of torture. At the same time that black poets seek to express themselves, society is indifferent to their work—or at most sees them as curiosities.
Identify the form of this poem and its meter. What kinds of references and allusions are present? How might these elements all be speaking to the plight of the black poet?
"Yet Do I Marvel" is a sonnet, a poetic form most strongly associated with Shakespeare. It has fourteen lines written in iambic pentameter. The poem discusses an important theological problem: why a good God allows bad things to happen. To make its argument, it uses allusions to Sisyphus and Tantalus, two figures from Greek mythology. Because this is a poem fundamentally about racism and art, these formal elements are important for its meaning. The famous final lines of the poem suggest that, in a racist society, being black is incompatible with being a poet. Yet the form and references of this masterfully executed poem show in fact that even in explicitly talking about race, a black poet can write himself or herself into the literary tradition, both being true to themselves and their experiences while taking full advantage of the resources of the poets that came before. It is in this more positive sense, too, that the black poet is a "marvel." | <urn:uuid:bc422d66-ce61-4387-8f4d-ae607725a421> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gradesaver.com/yet-do-i-marvel/study-guide/essay-questions | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00256.warc.gz | en | 0.980381 | 812 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.246239870... | 1 | What do the mole, the mortal human being, Tantalus, Sisyphus, and the black poet share in this poem? What are they given as examples of?
The poem begins with a premise and then offers evidence to illustrate it. In the first line, the speaker articulates the premise that God is good and kind. Then the mole, the mortal human being, Tantalus, Sisyphus, and finally the black poet are given as examples of things that God has made which are difficult to square with his goodness. Why, for example, create a pitiful animal like the mole, who lives most of its life underground and is mostly blind? Or why devise such elaborate and cruel forms of torture, such as was given to the mythological figures Tantalus and Sisyphus? The speaker insists that God must have his reasons. What's more, even if these reasons were to be explained to us, we would be unlikely to comprehend them with our mere mortal brains. This raises the question, what does the final example, the black poet, share with the others? The poem ends by suggesting that the most strange or "curious" thing of all God's incomprehensible decisions, was to create black poets. In other words, to be both black and a poet is a form of punishment.
Inferring from the poem and from what you know about Cullen's other poetry and the context he lived in, why is being a black poet described as "marvel" or a "curious thing," and perhaps even a kind of torture?
After listing a number of seemingly inexplicable actions by God, such as making human beings (who were created in God's own image, according to the Bible) subject to decay and death, the speaker states that the strangest or most "curious thing" is that He made "a poet black, and bid him sing!" Racism is a common theme in many of Cullen's other poems, such as "Incident." He was also a prominent voice in the Harlem Renaissance, a flowering of literature and art by African Americans that occurred in 1920s New York even while harsh segregation continued in the southern United States. Reading between the lines, we can say that that it is a "marvel" for an African American to become a poet when they have to overcome so many difficulties, such as accessing education in the face of barriers or being accepted by a literary and publishing scene that was overwhelmingly white. Coming after the example of Sisyphus being forced to roll a boulder up a hill for eternity, the appearance of the black poet in "Yet Do I Marvel" suggests that being black and being a poet could almost be like a form of torture. At the same time that black poets seek to express themselves, society is indifferent to their work—or at most sees them as curiosities.
Identify the form of this poem and its meter. What kinds of references and allusions are present? How might these elements all be speaking to the plight of the black poet?
"Yet Do I Marvel" is a sonnet, a poetic form most strongly associated with Shakespeare. It has fourteen lines written in iambic pentameter. The poem discusses an important theological problem: why a good God allows bad things to happen. To make its argument, it uses allusions to Sisyphus and Tantalus, two figures from Greek mythology. Because this is a poem fundamentally about racism and art, these formal elements are important for its meaning. The famous final lines of the poem suggest that, in a racist society, being black is incompatible with being a poet. Yet the form and references of this masterfully executed poem show in fact that even in explicitly talking about race, a black poet can write himself or herself into the literary tradition, both being true to themselves and their experiences while taking full advantage of the resources of the poets that came before. It is in this more positive sense, too, that the black poet is a "marvel." | 819 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Neith (Neit/Nit/Net) was an early Egyptian deity. Her insignia is present in artwork relationship from the first dynasty (c. 3100 B.C.E.), and her title seems as a component in private and royal names of the interval. Although she had no common partner, Neith was typically paired with the ram god, Khnum.
Like many different Egyptian goddesses, Neith had a variety of complicated and seemingly unrelated features. She was related to the annual inundation of the Nile and served as patron goddess of Lower Egypt. Like the Greek goddess Athena, Neith was concurrently the goddess of weaving and the goddess of the violent arts of warfare and looking. Neith additionally served as one of many 4 goddesses who guarded the throne and the inner organs of the deceased.
The earliest data present considered one of Neith’s cult indicators as two bows certain collectively. Another signal was an oval form crossed by a pair of arrows, which has usually been interpreted as a protect. Recent research present, nevertheless, that pharaonic shields have been by no means this form and that these drawings truly depict a pair of click on beetles. The click on beetle is understood for its skill to proper itself when turned the wrong way up and to soar forward of rising floodwaters. This insect often seems as a protecting amulet.
Later, Neith was seen because the mom of each the crocodile god, Sobek, and the solar god, Re. The latter position meant that she was additionally mom of the world. In the first century of the widespread period, Neith was thought of a mysterious and unknowable creator goddess. She was one-third feminine and two-thirds male and embodied all that’s, has been, and might be. At this time, nevertheless, her cult heart was largely confined to the town of Sais. Earlier, she had been an necessary goddess all through Egypt.
When Horus and Seth vied for the throne of Horus’s father, Osiris, the gods prevailed upon Neith for judgment. She sided with Horus however advocated for particular compensation for Seth. | <urn:uuid:672b26a4-35fe-450a-aee7-7a3d9f3b0bd8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ebuzz.com.ng/neith-egyptian-mythology/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00067.warc.gz | en | 0.983513 | 448 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.16145847737789154... | 1 | Neith (Neit/Nit/Net) was an early Egyptian deity. Her insignia is present in artwork relationship from the first dynasty (c. 3100 B.C.E.), and her title seems as a component in private and royal names of the interval. Although she had no common partner, Neith was typically paired with the ram god, Khnum.
Like many different Egyptian goddesses, Neith had a variety of complicated and seemingly unrelated features. She was related to the annual inundation of the Nile and served as patron goddess of Lower Egypt. Like the Greek goddess Athena, Neith was concurrently the goddess of weaving and the goddess of the violent arts of warfare and looking. Neith additionally served as one of many 4 goddesses who guarded the throne and the inner organs of the deceased.
The earliest data present considered one of Neith’s cult indicators as two bows certain collectively. Another signal was an oval form crossed by a pair of arrows, which has usually been interpreted as a protect. Recent research present, nevertheless, that pharaonic shields have been by no means this form and that these drawings truly depict a pair of click on beetles. The click on beetle is understood for its skill to proper itself when turned the wrong way up and to soar forward of rising floodwaters. This insect often seems as a protecting amulet.
Later, Neith was seen because the mom of each the crocodile god, Sobek, and the solar god, Re. The latter position meant that she was additionally mom of the world. In the first century of the widespread period, Neith was thought of a mysterious and unknowable creator goddess. She was one-third feminine and two-thirds male and embodied all that’s, has been, and might be. At this time, nevertheless, her cult heart was largely confined to the town of Sais. Earlier, she had been an necessary goddess all through Egypt.
When Horus and Seth vied for the throne of Horus’s father, Osiris, the gods prevailed upon Neith for judgment. She sided with Horus however advocated for particular compensation for Seth. | 438 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Battle of Tenmokuzan
The 1582 Battle of Tenmokuzan (天目山の戦い, Tenmokuzan no Tatakai) in Japan, also known as the Battle of Toriibata, is regarded as the last stand of the Takeda clan. This was the final attempt by Takeda Katsuyori to resist the combined forces of Tokugawa Ieyasu and Oda Nobunaga, who had been campaigning against him for some time.
In his bid to hide from his pursuers, Katsuyori burned his castle at Shinpu Castle and fled into the mountains, to another Takeda stronghold, called Iwadono, held by Oyamada Nobushige, an old Takeda retainer. Katsuyori was denied entry by Oyamada, and committed suicide with his wife, while the last remnant of his army held off their pursuers.
|This article about a historical Japanese battle is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.| | <urn:uuid:1e45388a-6cb0-4b24-ae1b-c8e26f819d3c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tenmokuzan | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00262.warc.gz | en | 0.981768 | 216 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.6872183084487... | 1 | Battle of Tenmokuzan
The 1582 Battle of Tenmokuzan (天目山の戦い, Tenmokuzan no Tatakai) in Japan, also known as the Battle of Toriibata, is regarded as the last stand of the Takeda clan. This was the final attempt by Takeda Katsuyori to resist the combined forces of Tokugawa Ieyasu and Oda Nobunaga, who had been campaigning against him for some time.
In his bid to hide from his pursuers, Katsuyori burned his castle at Shinpu Castle and fled into the mountains, to another Takeda stronghold, called Iwadono, held by Oyamada Nobushige, an old Takeda retainer. Katsuyori was denied entry by Oyamada, and committed suicide with his wife, while the last remnant of his army held off their pursuers.
|This article about a historical Japanese battle is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.| | 221 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Even before the fall of the Soviet Union, Ukraine and Belarus (which were then officially part of the Soviet Union) had independent seats at the United Nations. Why didn't the US or the UK get the same privilege?
The Soviet Union had three seats in the UN. In addition to the Soviet Union itself, two of the Soviet republics had seats: Ukraine and Belarus. This obviously didn't make much sense given that neither of them was an independent state at the time. So it can only be viewed as a way for the Soviet Union to increase its weight in the UN.
This was one of the results of the Yalta Conference in 1945. In fact, originally the Soviet Union wanted all the then 16 republics to be represented, in the end they settled on two. Why did Roosevelt agree to these concessions? I can see the following reasons:
- The USA needed Soviet Union's support in the war against Japan. The Soviet Union agreed to enter the war three months after they defeated Germany but not without some concessions.
- One of the main reasons for the failure of the League of Nations was the fact that some countries weren't represented, especially the Soviet Union. Having the Soviet Union join the United Nations was important if it were to do any better.
- At that time only three communist countries existed: Soviet Union, Yugoslavia and Mongolia. Even with five voices (out of fifty) they wouldn't have much weight. Of course the situation changed very soon but Roosevelt probably didn't foresee that at the Yalta Conference.
Wikipedia claims that the USA also had the option to get two US states represented in the UN but this didn't happen for political reasons (difficult to choose). It's a very weak article not listing any sources so one would need to find better evidence.
As to the UK, in a way they got even more than three seats with Canada, Australia and India present. Note that India wasn't even an independent country at that point.
Question: Why did the Soviet Union get 3 seats in the UN?
It should also be mentioned that it really didn't matter how many seats the Soviet Union was given in the general assembly. The General Assembly of the United Nations can't make binding decisions without the placid agreement from the Security Council. Also the Security council doesn't work by consensus either, but only works through unanimous agreements or abstentions. One security council veto is enough to stop any security council or general assembly action dead in it's tracks. Thus it was felt effectively giving the Soviet Union 3 general assembly seats/votes was a small price to pay to ensure Soviet participation in the Assemble.
It didn't stack the assembly as some newspaper editorials at the time suggested. I didn't really give the Soviet Union more power than they already had with their Security Council seat, nor did it reduce America's, Britain's or France's security council authority.
The United States and the Founding of the United Nations, August 1941 - October 1945
Churchill and Roosevelt also made an important concession to Soviet leader Josef Stalin’s request that the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic be seated in the United Nations General Assembly, thus increasing the Soviet Union’s seats in that body to three. Stalin had originally requested seats for all sixteen Soviet Socialist Republics, but at Yalta this request was turned down, and the compromise was to allow Ukraine and Byelorussia into the United Nations. The United States originally had countered Stalin’s proposal with the request to allow all fifty American states into the United Nations, a suggestion that encouraged Stalin to agree to the compromise. At Yalta, the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom also drafted invitations to a conference beginning in April 1945 in San Francisco that would formally establish the United Nations. | <urn:uuid:a50356f8-fb9b-4cdf-af6d-5f4aa1cb52fb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/506/why-did-the-soviet-union-get-3-seats-in-the-un/507 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00493.warc.gz | en | 0.980223 | 780 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.2686483860015... | 13 | Even before the fall of the Soviet Union, Ukraine and Belarus (which were then officially part of the Soviet Union) had independent seats at the United Nations. Why didn't the US or the UK get the same privilege?
The Soviet Union had three seats in the UN. In addition to the Soviet Union itself, two of the Soviet republics had seats: Ukraine and Belarus. This obviously didn't make much sense given that neither of them was an independent state at the time. So it can only be viewed as a way for the Soviet Union to increase its weight in the UN.
This was one of the results of the Yalta Conference in 1945. In fact, originally the Soviet Union wanted all the then 16 republics to be represented, in the end they settled on two. Why did Roosevelt agree to these concessions? I can see the following reasons:
- The USA needed Soviet Union's support in the war against Japan. The Soviet Union agreed to enter the war three months after they defeated Germany but not without some concessions.
- One of the main reasons for the failure of the League of Nations was the fact that some countries weren't represented, especially the Soviet Union. Having the Soviet Union join the United Nations was important if it were to do any better.
- At that time only three communist countries existed: Soviet Union, Yugoslavia and Mongolia. Even with five voices (out of fifty) they wouldn't have much weight. Of course the situation changed very soon but Roosevelt probably didn't foresee that at the Yalta Conference.
Wikipedia claims that the USA also had the option to get two US states represented in the UN but this didn't happen for political reasons (difficult to choose). It's a very weak article not listing any sources so one would need to find better evidence.
As to the UK, in a way they got even more than three seats with Canada, Australia and India present. Note that India wasn't even an independent country at that point.
Question: Why did the Soviet Union get 3 seats in the UN?
It should also be mentioned that it really didn't matter how many seats the Soviet Union was given in the general assembly. The General Assembly of the United Nations can't make binding decisions without the placid agreement from the Security Council. Also the Security council doesn't work by consensus either, but only works through unanimous agreements or abstentions. One security council veto is enough to stop any security council or general assembly action dead in it's tracks. Thus it was felt effectively giving the Soviet Union 3 general assembly seats/votes was a small price to pay to ensure Soviet participation in the Assemble.
It didn't stack the assembly as some newspaper editorials at the time suggested. I didn't really give the Soviet Union more power than they already had with their Security Council seat, nor did it reduce America's, Britain's or France's security council authority.
The United States and the Founding of the United Nations, August 1941 - October 1945
Churchill and Roosevelt also made an important concession to Soviet leader Josef Stalin’s request that the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic be seated in the United Nations General Assembly, thus increasing the Soviet Union’s seats in that body to three. Stalin had originally requested seats for all sixteen Soviet Socialist Republics, but at Yalta this request was turned down, and the compromise was to allow Ukraine and Byelorussia into the United Nations. The United States originally had countered Stalin’s proposal with the request to allow all fifty American states into the United Nations, a suggestion that encouraged Stalin to agree to the compromise. At Yalta, the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom also drafted invitations to a conference beginning in April 1945 in San Francisco that would formally establish the United Nations. | 777 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|The American West and Plains Indians
At the end of the Civil War in 1865, much of the land west of the Mississippi was still not settled by white Americans. Americans tended to have a very romantic view of the West. They saw the West as a huge, wide open, and unsettled place of adventure and where someone could move and become rich through hard work. The West was viewed in short, as a frontier that anyone could move to in order to become freer.
The problem with the way that white Americans viewed the West was that it was not an unsettled frontier without civilization. In fact, many complex civilizations existed in the West, including the various nations of Indians. In addition, the states of New Mexico, California, and Arizona all had populations of Mexicans who had lived there before the U.S. took over the lands from Mexico.
One of the most powerful civilizations in the West was made up of different tribes of Indians known as the Plains Indians. There were many nations of Indians living in the Plains, including the Cheyenne and Pawnee, but the Sioux were the largest and most powerful of the Plains Indian tribes. The Plains Indians used to be farmers, but when Spanish explorers brought the horse to North America, the Indians quickly used the horse to travel and to hunt buffalo. Plains Indians quickly became incredibly skilled horse riders. The Plains Indians eventually abandoned farming and moved around the plains following the herds of buffalo. The buffalos were used for everything from food, to clothing, weapons, tools, and housing (tepees).
White Americans believed that they would bring civilization, progress, and technology (such as the railroads) with them as they conquered the uncivilized West, which meant that the Indian nations still living there were an obstacle that had to be removed. By the late 1860s, the U.S. government began trying to force Native Americans to sign treaties giving up most of their land and moving to large reservations in North and South Dakota and in Oklahoma. Reservations were areas of land set aside for Indians to farm and live on, but the land was often not very good for growing crops. The government agents that worked on reservations were often very corrupt or incompetent, which led to Indians being constantly cheated out of more land or payments that the treaties had promised. For the above reasons, reservations became a place where many Indians suffered and starved to death.
Conflict between white people and Indians was almost unavoidable. Americans believed that land should be divided up and owned by individual people or companies, while the Plains Indians needed large amounts of land to follow the buffalo herds. To Plains Indians, the idea of each person or family owning their own small plot of land was absurd.
When white Americans began moving west, each tribe had to face the question of how to respond to whites. Would they try to be peaceful or friendly to whites? And would they agree to move to the reservation, or would they fight to keep their lands? In the end, no matter how each Indian tribe responded to white Americans, every tribe would be treated the same by the U.S. government.
Answer the following questions in your own words. You will not receive credit for copying. There are more questions on the back.
1. How did white Americans view the West? What was inaccurate or untrue about the way that many Americans viewed the West?
2. How did the Plains Indians live? In other words, how did they get food and shelter?
3. What was the name of the most powerful tribe of Plains Indians?
4. Why did white people view Indians as an obstacle?
5. Why would Indians not want to live on reservations?
6. If you were an Indian, would you choose to fight or go along peacefully with what the U.S. government wanted? Give at least three reasons for your answer.
7. The last sentence mentions that Indian tribes would also go through the same experience with the U.S. government. What do you think is going to happen to the Indians? Why? | <urn:uuid:36a39b11-0f9e-49ae-a02c-d44a4edf0c70> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://essaydocs.org/the-american-west-and-plains-indians.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00396.warc.gz | en | 0.986426 | 823 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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0.1830824911... | 1 | |The American West and Plains Indians
At the end of the Civil War in 1865, much of the land west of the Mississippi was still not settled by white Americans. Americans tended to have a very romantic view of the West. They saw the West as a huge, wide open, and unsettled place of adventure and where someone could move and become rich through hard work. The West was viewed in short, as a frontier that anyone could move to in order to become freer.
The problem with the way that white Americans viewed the West was that it was not an unsettled frontier without civilization. In fact, many complex civilizations existed in the West, including the various nations of Indians. In addition, the states of New Mexico, California, and Arizona all had populations of Mexicans who had lived there before the U.S. took over the lands from Mexico.
One of the most powerful civilizations in the West was made up of different tribes of Indians known as the Plains Indians. There were many nations of Indians living in the Plains, including the Cheyenne and Pawnee, but the Sioux were the largest and most powerful of the Plains Indian tribes. The Plains Indians used to be farmers, but when Spanish explorers brought the horse to North America, the Indians quickly used the horse to travel and to hunt buffalo. Plains Indians quickly became incredibly skilled horse riders. The Plains Indians eventually abandoned farming and moved around the plains following the herds of buffalo. The buffalos were used for everything from food, to clothing, weapons, tools, and housing (tepees).
White Americans believed that they would bring civilization, progress, and technology (such as the railroads) with them as they conquered the uncivilized West, which meant that the Indian nations still living there were an obstacle that had to be removed. By the late 1860s, the U.S. government began trying to force Native Americans to sign treaties giving up most of their land and moving to large reservations in North and South Dakota and in Oklahoma. Reservations were areas of land set aside for Indians to farm and live on, but the land was often not very good for growing crops. The government agents that worked on reservations were often very corrupt or incompetent, which led to Indians being constantly cheated out of more land or payments that the treaties had promised. For the above reasons, reservations became a place where many Indians suffered and starved to death.
Conflict between white people and Indians was almost unavoidable. Americans believed that land should be divided up and owned by individual people or companies, while the Plains Indians needed large amounts of land to follow the buffalo herds. To Plains Indians, the idea of each person or family owning their own small plot of land was absurd.
When white Americans began moving west, each tribe had to face the question of how to respond to whites. Would they try to be peaceful or friendly to whites? And would they agree to move to the reservation, or would they fight to keep their lands? In the end, no matter how each Indian tribe responded to white Americans, every tribe would be treated the same by the U.S. government.
Answer the following questions in your own words. You will not receive credit for copying. There are more questions on the back.
1. How did white Americans view the West? What was inaccurate or untrue about the way that many Americans viewed the West?
2. How did the Plains Indians live? In other words, how did they get food and shelter?
3. What was the name of the most powerful tribe of Plains Indians?
4. Why did white people view Indians as an obstacle?
5. Why would Indians not want to live on reservations?
6. If you were an Indian, would you choose to fight or go along peacefully with what the U.S. government wanted? Give at least three reasons for your answer.
7. The last sentence mentions that Indian tribes would also go through the same experience with the U.S. government. What do you think is going to happen to the Indians? Why? | 816 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Scientists have digitally reconstructed the face of a Scottish woman who was scarred by leprosy more than 500 years ago.
Forensic artists reconstructed 12 faces based on skulls that were discovered in a cemetery at St. Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh, Scotland. One of uncovered skulls was a woman with leprosy.
"We are revisiting a lot of old cases like this one, as we are very keen to put human faces on a lot of the human remains we have in our collections," John Lawson, an archaeologist with the City of Edinburgh Council Archaeology Service, said in a statement, as reported by Live Science. "Some of the remains date back to when Edinburgh became a royal burgh at the start of the 12th century, when St. Giles' was first constructed."
Some of the older skeletons, which were initially excavated in the 1980s and 1990s, were falling apart, so one challenge for the digital artists was to attach certain pieces of bone back together.
According to Karen Fleming, one of two freelance forensic artists who worked on the project, the woman with leprosy was likely between the ages of 35 and 40 when she died in the mid-15th to 16th century.
"She showed signs of lesions under the right eye, which may have led to sight loss in this eye," Fleming explained to Live Science. "It is also important to note that ... this lady being buried within St. Giles next to the altar of St. Anne indicates that she had high status, possibly within the tailors guild."
In order to create the images, the artists took photos of the skulls and uploaded them into Photoshop; next, they looked for markers on the skulls to help them measure tissue depth, which in turn gives them clues about the skull's features, shape and other traits.
More of the digital reconstructions can be seen on Fleming's website. | <urn:uuid:145dc7c2-4d74-4247-9c26-1288a7734456> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.foxnews.com/science/scottish-16th-century-woman-leprosy-digital-reconstruction | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00130.warc.gz | en | 0.985976 | 384 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.03836067020893... | 4 | Scientists have digitally reconstructed the face of a Scottish woman who was scarred by leprosy more than 500 years ago.
Forensic artists reconstructed 12 faces based on skulls that were discovered in a cemetery at St. Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh, Scotland. One of uncovered skulls was a woman with leprosy.
"We are revisiting a lot of old cases like this one, as we are very keen to put human faces on a lot of the human remains we have in our collections," John Lawson, an archaeologist with the City of Edinburgh Council Archaeology Service, said in a statement, as reported by Live Science. "Some of the remains date back to when Edinburgh became a royal burgh at the start of the 12th century, when St. Giles' was first constructed."
Some of the older skeletons, which were initially excavated in the 1980s and 1990s, were falling apart, so one challenge for the digital artists was to attach certain pieces of bone back together.
According to Karen Fleming, one of two freelance forensic artists who worked on the project, the woman with leprosy was likely between the ages of 35 and 40 when she died in the mid-15th to 16th century.
"She showed signs of lesions under the right eye, which may have led to sight loss in this eye," Fleming explained to Live Science. "It is also important to note that ... this lady being buried within St. Giles next to the altar of St. Anne indicates that she had high status, possibly within the tailors guild."
In order to create the images, the artists took photos of the skulls and uploaded them into Photoshop; next, they looked for markers on the skulls to help them measure tissue depth, which in turn gives them clues about the skull's features, shape and other traits.
More of the digital reconstructions can be seen on Fleming's website. | 397 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Topic this week, we have been writing a non-chronological report about the Stone Age. First, we gathered vocabulary and discussed the features of a report. After that, we planned our report, thinking carefully about the language we needed to use. Then, we wrote our reports.
This week, we also went on a school trip to the British Museum, which was fantastic. We traveled there by train and by tube. At the Museum, we looked at exhibits from the Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age and the Roman Era. We were really interested by the body of a man who had been preserved in a bog! We also saw lots of interesting artifacts, including tools, pots and other interesting objects. A huge thank you to all the parents who helped us on the trip!
In Maths this week, we have been continuing our work on division by using the formal (short) method to help us solve division problems. We also drew bar models to represent these problems. | <urn:uuid:3cde183f-407d-4613-9f17-8324f9b5ddb0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://2022.avenueprimary.org/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00149.warc.gz | en | 0.984283 | 200 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.64846968650... | 1 | In Topic this week, we have been writing a non-chronological report about the Stone Age. First, we gathered vocabulary and discussed the features of a report. After that, we planned our report, thinking carefully about the language we needed to use. Then, we wrote our reports.
This week, we also went on a school trip to the British Museum, which was fantastic. We traveled there by train and by tube. At the Museum, we looked at exhibits from the Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age and the Roman Era. We were really interested by the body of a man who had been preserved in a bog! We also saw lots of interesting artifacts, including tools, pots and other interesting objects. A huge thank you to all the parents who helped us on the trip!
In Maths this week, we have been continuing our work on division by using the formal (short) method to help us solve division problems. We also drew bar models to represent these problems. | 197 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is the Red Army?
The Red Army was a Russian army which was formed predominantly by workers and peasants. It was created after the Russian Revolution in 1918 by the Council of People’s Commissars. The color “red” was used to refer to the army since it symbolized the struggle for release from oppression. The Red Army was often referred to as the Reds. During the process of recruitment, citizens volunteered and were admitted if they were 18 years of age and above. Those who were successfully admitted were guaranteed. The formation of the red guards was necessitated by the collapse or near fall of the Imperial Russian Army who had been overpowered by the Germans and was then fleeing for their lives. The Red Army’s name changed to Union of Soviet Socialist Republics after the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution. The Red Army existed from 1918-1946.
The commander cadres received their training from Nicholas General Staff Academy in Russia. On the other hand senior army officials such as the senior and supreme commanders got training at the Advanced Courses for Supreme Command. Red Army’s well structured army training was one of the factors which led to its success. Another strategy which was used for their advantage was their ability to convince some of the White Guards to cross over to their side hence providing excellently trained and experienced officers to their military squads.
Red Army at War
The war which was exclusively fought by the Red Army was the Russian Civil War. This war was between the Bolsheviks and the Old Russian Army Remnants. The two opposing groups became known as the Red Guards and the White Guards (Whites) respectively. Right after their 1919 victory, the Reds set on to drive away the White Guards from Russia. They succeeded in doing this and the Civil War ended in 1920. During the war, 17 million people died from either from famine, disease or the war. Furthermore great atrocities were committed at the time. At some point the Whites had to flee for their lives; about 150,000 of them by sea. The Red Army outnumbered and outsupplied the Whites during the war. As a result of the war, the economy of Russia was greatly damaged. On the other hand, nations such as Lithuania, Finland, Latvia, and Estonia received acceptance as independent states. One notable explanation for the success of the Red army was the presence of military command, unity, and strict obedience to orders. They also took advantage of the overreaching line in battle.
Challenges Faced by the Red Army
The major drawback faced by the Reds was the little support which they received from the neighboring countries and internationally. The Whites were supported by the English, Americans, and Siberia. A major threatening force at the time was the First Calvary which was led by Semyon Budenny. Later on, Budenny became USSR’s Minister of Defense. Then the second challenge was the fact that most of the members of the Red Army were new to war at the time they were called upon to serve.
What is the Red Army?
A paleolake is a lake that has existed in the past. Its origin can be dated back to an era when the climate and hydrological conditions of its area were different than today. These types of lakes may have already dried up or may be in the process of drying up, or have become filled with sediment, and are now significantly smaller in size than they were in the past.
About the Author
Sharon is a Kenyan native with a wide range of interests. An accountant and financial analyst by profession, Sharon enjoys writing about world facts, the environment, society, politics, and more.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | <urn:uuid:f9512ac7-2a68-4b8f-ba17-31384534edc9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-the-red-army.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00516.warc.gz | en | 0.990569 | 772 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.397230029106... | 2 | What is the Red Army?
The Red Army was a Russian army which was formed predominantly by workers and peasants. It was created after the Russian Revolution in 1918 by the Council of People’s Commissars. The color “red” was used to refer to the army since it symbolized the struggle for release from oppression. The Red Army was often referred to as the Reds. During the process of recruitment, citizens volunteered and were admitted if they were 18 years of age and above. Those who were successfully admitted were guaranteed. The formation of the red guards was necessitated by the collapse or near fall of the Imperial Russian Army who had been overpowered by the Germans and was then fleeing for their lives. The Red Army’s name changed to Union of Soviet Socialist Republics after the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution. The Red Army existed from 1918-1946.
The commander cadres received their training from Nicholas General Staff Academy in Russia. On the other hand senior army officials such as the senior and supreme commanders got training at the Advanced Courses for Supreme Command. Red Army’s well structured army training was one of the factors which led to its success. Another strategy which was used for their advantage was their ability to convince some of the White Guards to cross over to their side hence providing excellently trained and experienced officers to their military squads.
Red Army at War
The war which was exclusively fought by the Red Army was the Russian Civil War. This war was between the Bolsheviks and the Old Russian Army Remnants. The two opposing groups became known as the Red Guards and the White Guards (Whites) respectively. Right after their 1919 victory, the Reds set on to drive away the White Guards from Russia. They succeeded in doing this and the Civil War ended in 1920. During the war, 17 million people died from either from famine, disease or the war. Furthermore great atrocities were committed at the time. At some point the Whites had to flee for their lives; about 150,000 of them by sea. The Red Army outnumbered and outsupplied the Whites during the war. As a result of the war, the economy of Russia was greatly damaged. On the other hand, nations such as Lithuania, Finland, Latvia, and Estonia received acceptance as independent states. One notable explanation for the success of the Red army was the presence of military command, unity, and strict obedience to orders. They also took advantage of the overreaching line in battle.
Challenges Faced by the Red Army
The major drawback faced by the Reds was the little support which they received from the neighboring countries and internationally. The Whites were supported by the English, Americans, and Siberia. A major threatening force at the time was the First Calvary which was led by Semyon Budenny. Later on, Budenny became USSR’s Minister of Defense. Then the second challenge was the fact that most of the members of the Red Army were new to war at the time they were called upon to serve.
What is the Red Army?
A paleolake is a lake that has existed in the past. Its origin can be dated back to an era when the climate and hydrological conditions of its area were different than today. These types of lakes may have already dried up or may be in the process of drying up, or have become filled with sediment, and are now significantly smaller in size than they were in the past.
About the Author
Sharon is a Kenyan native with a wide range of interests. An accountant and financial analyst by profession, Sharon enjoys writing about world facts, the environment, society, politics, and more.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 784 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sojourner Truth (about 1797 – November 26, 1883) was one of the first abolitionists and activists for women's rights. She was born as a slave, but escaped from slavery in 1826. She was born Isabella Van Bumfree, but renamed herself to 'Sojourner Truth' when she was 46 and announced she would travel to work against injustice.The name Sojourner Truth translates as itinerant preacher. She is one of the most widely known African American women of the 19th century. Her freedom was linked with the passage of a New York State Law in 1799 that began the process of gradual emancipation.
She lectured widely on the cruelties she had experienced as a slave. She is best known for her "Ain't I a Woman?" speech, given at the Woman's Rights Convention of 1851. She also gave out speeches about abolishing slavery. Also, she became active in the Underground Railroad, helping blacks escape to freedom. She could only speak Dutch and at a young age soon learnt English. Sadly, she was beaten for not understanding the commands of her owners John and Sally Dumont. There is evidence that John beat her and Sally sexually abused her.
Early Life[change | change source]
Isabella Baumfree (Sojourner Truth) was born into slavery around 1797 in Swarterkill, New York. Sojourner was the daughter of James Baumfree and Elizabeth Baumfree. Her family’s slave owner was Colonel Hardenbergh. Sojourner was born a slave and did not know how to read or write because slaves weren’t taught how to. Out of 13 children, she was the youngest. In the first three decades of her life she was the property of five owners.It is In 1815 she dated fellow slave Thomas. Together they had 3 children. Her family was separated in 1806. In 1826 Isabella escaped to freedom with her infant daughter. Sojourner changed her name in 1843 from Isabella Baumfree to Sojourner Truth. She married and bore five children although only four of their names are known. She never learned to read or write and depended on others to take down her words while handling her correspondences.
Sojourner was the first African American to win a trial against a white man. This trial was about getting her son Peter back. This was a great accomplishment for African Americans. During the Civil War Belle told the people about the Woman's Right to vote and became friends with some other people, which one of them threaten that she would not support the issue.She campaigned for Republican Ulysses S. Grant. She was one of the prominent Americans that attempted to vote in the 1872 election but was refused the right to. She went on to support herself by selling copies of her book, “The Narrative of Sojourner Truth “. During that time, she was a Battle Creek resident and property owner. She spent the last few years of her life and died in Battle Creek, Michigan on November 26, 1883.
References[change | change source]
- "Amazing Life page". Sojourner Truth Institute site. Retrieved December 28, 2006. | <urn:uuid:cbeaf3c9-87f6-4f46-9300-502e1ff1cfb3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sojourner_Truth | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00424.warc.gz | en | 0.986328 | 670 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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-0.03680074... | 1 | Sojourner Truth (about 1797 – November 26, 1883) was one of the first abolitionists and activists for women's rights. She was born as a slave, but escaped from slavery in 1826. She was born Isabella Van Bumfree, but renamed herself to 'Sojourner Truth' when she was 46 and announced she would travel to work against injustice.The name Sojourner Truth translates as itinerant preacher. She is one of the most widely known African American women of the 19th century. Her freedom was linked with the passage of a New York State Law in 1799 that began the process of gradual emancipation.
She lectured widely on the cruelties she had experienced as a slave. She is best known for her "Ain't I a Woman?" speech, given at the Woman's Rights Convention of 1851. She also gave out speeches about abolishing slavery. Also, she became active in the Underground Railroad, helping blacks escape to freedom. She could only speak Dutch and at a young age soon learnt English. Sadly, she was beaten for not understanding the commands of her owners John and Sally Dumont. There is evidence that John beat her and Sally sexually abused her.
Early Life[change | change source]
Isabella Baumfree (Sojourner Truth) was born into slavery around 1797 in Swarterkill, New York. Sojourner was the daughter of James Baumfree and Elizabeth Baumfree. Her family’s slave owner was Colonel Hardenbergh. Sojourner was born a slave and did not know how to read or write because slaves weren’t taught how to. Out of 13 children, she was the youngest. In the first three decades of her life she was the property of five owners.It is In 1815 she dated fellow slave Thomas. Together they had 3 children. Her family was separated in 1806. In 1826 Isabella escaped to freedom with her infant daughter. Sojourner changed her name in 1843 from Isabella Baumfree to Sojourner Truth. She married and bore five children although only four of their names are known. She never learned to read or write and depended on others to take down her words while handling her correspondences.
Sojourner was the first African American to win a trial against a white man. This trial was about getting her son Peter back. This was a great accomplishment for African Americans. During the Civil War Belle told the people about the Woman's Right to vote and became friends with some other people, which one of them threaten that she would not support the issue.She campaigned for Republican Ulysses S. Grant. She was one of the prominent Americans that attempted to vote in the 1872 election but was refused the right to. She went on to support herself by selling copies of her book, “The Narrative of Sojourner Truth “. During that time, she was a Battle Creek resident and property owner. She spent the last few years of her life and died in Battle Creek, Michigan on November 26, 1883.
References[change | change source]
- "Amazing Life page". Sojourner Truth Institute site. Retrieved December 28, 2006. | 695 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Click Image to Expand
Used to boil water, located in the Bakehouse at the Museum
Museum Number: Fabric of the building
Former House and Retail Manager, Jane Austen's House Museum
The Copper would have been installed in the Bakehouse, built as part of the outbuildings around 1690. These are part of the main site which was a farm at the time, named ‘Petty Johns’. A fireplace under the Copper was lit using bavins, ‘kindling’ larger logs were added giving more heat to boil water. A wooden lid closed the top, keeping the heat in and for safety.
Most farmhouses had coppers for many purposes including heating water for the washing of household linen. Another for processing hams from the pigs reared on the farm. Boiling water was used to scald and scour the pigskin, to clean and soften it. On a beam nearby there is a roller raised by rope, with a hook to hang the sides of meat on. This made cutting the joints of meat easier before salting or smoking.
For festivals, many people would make large round puddings, both savoury and sweet and tied in cloth. Communal cooking was often done in large coppers, with cottagers bringing their puddings to be cooked together.
The Austens had a maid from the village to do the household washing. Household linen and cotton would be boiled clean in the copper. Before the water became too hot, an oblong washboard would be put into it. Stained cloth placed over the washboard was scrubbed with a bristle brush and lye soap. Hard work especially in the colder weather,
when hands would become cracked and blistered. The Copper provided enough hot water then carried to the kitchen in pails by a manservant, ready for the ladies to take the occasional bath, probably a tin hip bath in front of the range. A large copper could be used to dye cloth when the ladies wanted a change of colour for their clothes.
This copper has served as a working boiler for many generations. It is not used today but on show to all visitors who can see it as part of the Museum’s living history. | <urn:uuid:aa23d9b7-dc84-4706-957a-ac84eae8ac77> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.jane-austens-house-museum.org.uk/bakehouse-copper | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00479.warc.gz | en | 0.980343 | 460 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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Used to boil water, located in the Bakehouse at the Museum
Museum Number: Fabric of the building
Former House and Retail Manager, Jane Austen's House Museum
The Copper would have been installed in the Bakehouse, built as part of the outbuildings around 1690. These are part of the main site which was a farm at the time, named ‘Petty Johns’. A fireplace under the Copper was lit using bavins, ‘kindling’ larger logs were added giving more heat to boil water. A wooden lid closed the top, keeping the heat in and for safety.
Most farmhouses had coppers for many purposes including heating water for the washing of household linen. Another for processing hams from the pigs reared on the farm. Boiling water was used to scald and scour the pigskin, to clean and soften it. On a beam nearby there is a roller raised by rope, with a hook to hang the sides of meat on. This made cutting the joints of meat easier before salting or smoking.
For festivals, many people would make large round puddings, both savoury and sweet and tied in cloth. Communal cooking was often done in large coppers, with cottagers bringing their puddings to be cooked together.
The Austens had a maid from the village to do the household washing. Household linen and cotton would be boiled clean in the copper. Before the water became too hot, an oblong washboard would be put into it. Stained cloth placed over the washboard was scrubbed with a bristle brush and lye soap. Hard work especially in the colder weather,
when hands would become cracked and blistered. The Copper provided enough hot water then carried to the kitchen in pails by a manservant, ready for the ladies to take the occasional bath, probably a tin hip bath in front of the range. A large copper could be used to dye cloth when the ladies wanted a change of colour for their clothes.
This copper has served as a working boiler for many generations. It is not used today but on show to all visitors who can see it as part of the Museum’s living history. | 447 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Reading & Science: Novel Engineering
This week we read several fun holiday themed books. After reading Room on the Broom, our class completed a novel engineering project. We determined that the problem in the story was that the broom was not strong enough to support the weight of all of its passengers. Therefore, our goal was to create a "broom" that could hold the greatest amount of weight. Each pair of students were given straws, a ruler, and tape to create their structure. It had to sit at least two inches off of the ground, and it had to hold candy pumpkins. This was a fun challenge, and I really enjoyed seeing of the students' different ideas come together.
Writing: We focused on descriptive writing, and we used our scarecrow artwork to create a fun writing sample. Each student took a picture of his or her artwork, and then using Seesaw they added adjectives to describe it. The Seesaw posts were then used as a graphic organizer as the students created their descriptive paragraphs. They turned out great!
Math: Place Value Hospital was a fun way to review and wrap up chapter 5! Our class became doctors for the day, and they helped with identifying mixed up x-rays, matching the correct patient numbers to the correct "symptoms," and sorting medicine cards by comparing numbers. The students even performed "surgery." :) They used their scissors to turn expanded form numbers into standard form numbers. | <urn:uuid:357a0640-e779-42e4-bdc0-dc26859324f7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://2nd-grade-smiles.blogspot.com/2019/11/november-3rd.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00472.warc.gz | en | 0.985868 | 294 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.4432603716850... | 1 | Reading & Science: Novel Engineering
This week we read several fun holiday themed books. After reading Room on the Broom, our class completed a novel engineering project. We determined that the problem in the story was that the broom was not strong enough to support the weight of all of its passengers. Therefore, our goal was to create a "broom" that could hold the greatest amount of weight. Each pair of students were given straws, a ruler, and tape to create their structure. It had to sit at least two inches off of the ground, and it had to hold candy pumpkins. This was a fun challenge, and I really enjoyed seeing of the students' different ideas come together.
Writing: We focused on descriptive writing, and we used our scarecrow artwork to create a fun writing sample. Each student took a picture of his or her artwork, and then using Seesaw they added adjectives to describe it. The Seesaw posts were then used as a graphic organizer as the students created their descriptive paragraphs. They turned out great!
Math: Place Value Hospital was a fun way to review and wrap up chapter 5! Our class became doctors for the day, and they helped with identifying mixed up x-rays, matching the correct patient numbers to the correct "symptoms," and sorting medicine cards by comparing numbers. The students even performed "surgery." :) They used their scissors to turn expanded form numbers into standard form numbers. | 293 | ENGLISH | 1 |
02 Jan Two Sides One Way
Two Sides One Way
In 1989, Poland underwent a peaceful transition from communism to democracy, made possible through negotiations and compromise, as well as social mobilisation and engagement.
THE HISTORY OF THE ROUND TABLE IN POLAND
In 1989, Poland underwent a peaceful transition from communism to democracy, made possible through negotiations and compromise, as well as social mobilisation and engagement. For Germany, the fall of the Berlin Wall became the iconic symbol of change. For Poland, it was the Round Table around which the leaders of the Polish government and the opposition met. On the whole, there was no love lost over that table and there was little trust. The talks were riddled with tension.
But today, it is the inspiring symbolism of “round tables” that calls for our attention. Round tables are about building a community, about all the participants being equal (rather than separated between the ones in power and those dominated by them, or the judges and the judged). Round tables are also about allowing different voices to be heard. This is how, in Poland of 1989, enemies were able to become partners in conflict. A famous Polish historian wrote a book about 1989 Poland and called it “The Knights of the Round Table”, thus linking the Polish Round Table with the Arthurian Round Table, which is rooted in European culture.
A year earlier, Poland was in a rather undesirable situation. Its inefficient economy was falling apart, and Poles were living in a climate of apathy and lost hope. The Polish United Workers’ Party (PZPR) – the monopolistic ruling party led by General Wojciech Jaruzelski – was losing its bite and becoming tired. Moreover, it lost its usual support from the USSR, because Mikhail Gorbachev chose to reform his own country rather than try to rescue the satellite regimes. The Polish opposition of 1988 was barely a shadow of the Solidarity movement of the past – it had united millions in 1980–1981.
Lech Walesa, leader of Solidarnosc (on the right), jokes with Czeslaw Kiszczak, Minister of Internal Affairs (on the left), as Father Alojzy Orszulik (on the centre) looks on, before attending the final session of the Round Table Talks in Warsaw
Polish authorities realised that to avoid losing control over the country, they needed to invite the opposition to talks. This was the opposition which had been victimised and oppressed until the mid-1980s, and then, largely ignored. Coming to the table, both parties had to compromise. The PZPR had to give up their motto “Now that we have seized power, we shall never surrender it” (announced in 1945 by the then-leader of the communists, Władysław Gomułka.)
The opposition, on the other hand, had to overcome its reluctance to negotiate with people responsible for the casualties of the martial law period (1981–1983). Their sense of responsibility for the country was stronger. The first meeting between Solidarność (“Solidarity” – an Independent Polish Trade Union) leader Lech Wałęsa and the Minister of Internal Affairs, General Czesław Kiszczak, took place on August 31, 1988. It was agreed that the meeting would be held at the Round Table, but it took Polish authorities until January 1989 to be ready to take such a step.
The Solidarity opposition faction was represented, among others, by Lech Wałęsa, Jacek Kuroń and Bronisław Geremek, and the Polish government and the PZPR were represented by General Kiszczak, who had a history of throwing his opponents in jail. All in all, 55 participants took part in the talks, and three representatives of the Catholic Church were present as observers and mediators.
The Round Table Talks began on February 6 and ended on April 5. There were three main groups which debated over political reforms, the economy, social policy and trade unions. There were also many subgroups working on areas such as ecology, mining, youth or local government. Hundreds of politicians, social activists and experts had to somehow find common ground. Some decisions were taken during unofficial meetings between the government and opposition leaders. The most important of all the decisions concerned the parliamentary elections. It was agreed that 65% of the mandates in Sejm (the Polish parliament) would be guaranteed for the PZPR and its allies, while the remaining mandates would be subject to democratic elections. Voting in the newly formed Senate (the upper house) was to be completely free and democratic.
The Round Table Talks began on February 6 and ended on April 5. There were three main groups which debated over political reforms, the economy, social policy and trade unions.
The Round Table Talks and the respective outcomes were contested by radical opposition groups who rejected the idea of compromise towards communists and called for a coup through mass social pressure. However, in the Spring of 1989, the Polish nation was worn out by the crippling economic crisis and it lacked revolutionary potential. In contrast, local “Solidarity” committees which were running the election campaign created pockets of enthusiasm and involvement.
The June elections became a referendum in support of or against the PZPR, despite being only partly democratic and even though more than one-third of Polish voters did not exercise their right to vote. As it turned out, the referendum was a miserable failure for the party. Solidarność candidates won 99 out of 100 seats in the Senate and all the available mandates in the Sejm. Among the new PZPR MPs were many reformers, some of whom even had Solidarność support.
This was a game changing outcome. Gone were PZPR’s hopes that they would get the opposition to share the responsibility for the terrible state the country was in while having no influence on its affairs. Solidarność, used to living under the reign of Moscow, tried to suppress the climate of triumph and committed to keeping its promises. But on July 3, Adam Michnik, the editor-in-chief of “Gazeta Wyborcza”, the very first daily newspaper free from state control (as was decided at the Round Table) published an article entitled “Your President, our Prime Minister”. He proposed a new division of power: the president of Poland would come from the ranks of the PZPR, while the Prime Minister would be a Solidarność man. It turned out that the prospect of not really sharing power but actually taking over was very real.
Two weeks later, the parliament chose a new president, General Jaruzelski. An attempt at forming a new government by General Kiszczak failed. Instead, there was a new development. Wałęsa and the satellite parties supporting PZPR came to an agreement. The parties decided to become independent of PZPR and get a share in the new deal. Tadeusz Mazowiecki, the long-standing editor of left wing and catholic magazine “Więź”, and later a leading Solidarność activist, became Prime Minister of the new government. Even though there were PZPR ministers in the new government, it was the first non-communist Polish government after the Second World War. In his exposé, the Prime Minister announced that he was drawing a thick line on the past and would only take responsibility for his own actions. A path to major changes in Poland was open. | <urn:uuid:481561b2-6589-409c-941f-9113bb7189aa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://feed.jeronimomartins.com/circle/two-sides-one-way/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00031.warc.gz | en | 0.983732 | 1,576 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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Two Sides One Way
In 1989, Poland underwent a peaceful transition from communism to democracy, made possible through negotiations and compromise, as well as social mobilisation and engagement.
THE HISTORY OF THE ROUND TABLE IN POLAND
In 1989, Poland underwent a peaceful transition from communism to democracy, made possible through negotiations and compromise, as well as social mobilisation and engagement. For Germany, the fall of the Berlin Wall became the iconic symbol of change. For Poland, it was the Round Table around which the leaders of the Polish government and the opposition met. On the whole, there was no love lost over that table and there was little trust. The talks were riddled with tension.
But today, it is the inspiring symbolism of “round tables” that calls for our attention. Round tables are about building a community, about all the participants being equal (rather than separated between the ones in power and those dominated by them, or the judges and the judged). Round tables are also about allowing different voices to be heard. This is how, in Poland of 1989, enemies were able to become partners in conflict. A famous Polish historian wrote a book about 1989 Poland and called it “The Knights of the Round Table”, thus linking the Polish Round Table with the Arthurian Round Table, which is rooted in European culture.
A year earlier, Poland was in a rather undesirable situation. Its inefficient economy was falling apart, and Poles were living in a climate of apathy and lost hope. The Polish United Workers’ Party (PZPR) – the monopolistic ruling party led by General Wojciech Jaruzelski – was losing its bite and becoming tired. Moreover, it lost its usual support from the USSR, because Mikhail Gorbachev chose to reform his own country rather than try to rescue the satellite regimes. The Polish opposition of 1988 was barely a shadow of the Solidarity movement of the past – it had united millions in 1980–1981.
Lech Walesa, leader of Solidarnosc (on the right), jokes with Czeslaw Kiszczak, Minister of Internal Affairs (on the left), as Father Alojzy Orszulik (on the centre) looks on, before attending the final session of the Round Table Talks in Warsaw
Polish authorities realised that to avoid losing control over the country, they needed to invite the opposition to talks. This was the opposition which had been victimised and oppressed until the mid-1980s, and then, largely ignored. Coming to the table, both parties had to compromise. The PZPR had to give up their motto “Now that we have seized power, we shall never surrender it” (announced in 1945 by the then-leader of the communists, Władysław Gomułka.)
The opposition, on the other hand, had to overcome its reluctance to negotiate with people responsible for the casualties of the martial law period (1981–1983). Their sense of responsibility for the country was stronger. The first meeting between Solidarność (“Solidarity” – an Independent Polish Trade Union) leader Lech Wałęsa and the Minister of Internal Affairs, General Czesław Kiszczak, took place on August 31, 1988. It was agreed that the meeting would be held at the Round Table, but it took Polish authorities until January 1989 to be ready to take such a step.
The Solidarity opposition faction was represented, among others, by Lech Wałęsa, Jacek Kuroń and Bronisław Geremek, and the Polish government and the PZPR were represented by General Kiszczak, who had a history of throwing his opponents in jail. All in all, 55 participants took part in the talks, and three representatives of the Catholic Church were present as observers and mediators.
The Round Table Talks began on February 6 and ended on April 5. There were three main groups which debated over political reforms, the economy, social policy and trade unions. There were also many subgroups working on areas such as ecology, mining, youth or local government. Hundreds of politicians, social activists and experts had to somehow find common ground. Some decisions were taken during unofficial meetings between the government and opposition leaders. The most important of all the decisions concerned the parliamentary elections. It was agreed that 65% of the mandates in Sejm (the Polish parliament) would be guaranteed for the PZPR and its allies, while the remaining mandates would be subject to democratic elections. Voting in the newly formed Senate (the upper house) was to be completely free and democratic.
The Round Table Talks began on February 6 and ended on April 5. There were three main groups which debated over political reforms, the economy, social policy and trade unions.
The Round Table Talks and the respective outcomes were contested by radical opposition groups who rejected the idea of compromise towards communists and called for a coup through mass social pressure. However, in the Spring of 1989, the Polish nation was worn out by the crippling economic crisis and it lacked revolutionary potential. In contrast, local “Solidarity” committees which were running the election campaign created pockets of enthusiasm and involvement.
The June elections became a referendum in support of or against the PZPR, despite being only partly democratic and even though more than one-third of Polish voters did not exercise their right to vote. As it turned out, the referendum was a miserable failure for the party. Solidarność candidates won 99 out of 100 seats in the Senate and all the available mandates in the Sejm. Among the new PZPR MPs were many reformers, some of whom even had Solidarność support.
This was a game changing outcome. Gone were PZPR’s hopes that they would get the opposition to share the responsibility for the terrible state the country was in while having no influence on its affairs. Solidarność, used to living under the reign of Moscow, tried to suppress the climate of triumph and committed to keeping its promises. But on July 3, Adam Michnik, the editor-in-chief of “Gazeta Wyborcza”, the very first daily newspaper free from state control (as was decided at the Round Table) published an article entitled “Your President, our Prime Minister”. He proposed a new division of power: the president of Poland would come from the ranks of the PZPR, while the Prime Minister would be a Solidarność man. It turned out that the prospect of not really sharing power but actually taking over was very real.
Two weeks later, the parliament chose a new president, General Jaruzelski. An attempt at forming a new government by General Kiszczak failed. Instead, there was a new development. Wałęsa and the satellite parties supporting PZPR came to an agreement. The parties decided to become independent of PZPR and get a share in the new deal. Tadeusz Mazowiecki, the long-standing editor of left wing and catholic magazine “Więź”, and later a leading Solidarność activist, became Prime Minister of the new government. Even though there were PZPR ministers in the new government, it was the first non-communist Polish government after the Second World War. In his exposé, the Prime Minister announced that he was drawing a thick line on the past and would only take responsibility for his own actions. A path to major changes in Poland was open. | 1,568 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Warsaw Uprising of 1944 -Collapse of German morale on the home front
Despite the Nazis’ ability to defeat the Polish Home Army militarily, intelligent Germans realized that the war was a lost cause. The Red Army had advanced to the Vistula River, and was being reinforced for the push onward to Berlin.
Pictured Above: By the time this July 30, 1944, letter to a German soldier occupying Warsaw from his wife in Vienna could have reached its destination, nearly the whole city was controlled by the Home Army. She wrote, “I am terribly worried about you. . . . I talked to Frau Medred and she thinks that you will never get out of there. To think that by now there is probably street fighting in Warsaw and Lemberg drives me crazy. I always thought that combat units would fall back and take over the fight for you. . . . My darling, try to flee from there as soon as possible. . . . Our luck again: the shoemaker who was to make my boots was drafted, but he can still work nights.” The cover was marked “Return, undeliverable at this time.”
Field post postage free.
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0.3657380342483... | 8 | Warsaw Uprising of 1944 -Collapse of German morale on the home front
Despite the Nazis’ ability to defeat the Polish Home Army militarily, intelligent Germans realized that the war was a lost cause. The Red Army had advanced to the Vistula River, and was being reinforced for the push onward to Berlin.
Pictured Above: By the time this July 30, 1944, letter to a German soldier occupying Warsaw from his wife in Vienna could have reached its destination, nearly the whole city was controlled by the Home Army. She wrote, “I am terribly worried about you. . . . I talked to Frau Medred and she thinks that you will never get out of there. To think that by now there is probably street fighting in Warsaw and Lemberg drives me crazy. I always thought that combat units would fall back and take over the fight for you. . . . My darling, try to flee from there as soon as possible. . . . Our luck again: the shoemaker who was to make my boots was drafted, but he can still work nights.” The cover was marked “Return, undeliverable at this time.”
Field post postage free.
Download Frame 9 – Page 16 as a PDF | 259 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1. King’s birth name was Michael, not Martin.
The civil rights leader was born Michael King Jr. on January 15, 1929. In 1934, however, his father, a pastor at Atlanta’s Ebenezer Baptist Church, traveled to Germany and became inspired by the Protestant Reformation leader Martin Luther. As a result, King Sr. changed his own name as well as that of his 5-year-old son.
2. King entered college at the age of 15.
King was such a gifted student that he skipped grades nine and 12 before enrolling in 1944 at Morehouse College, the alma mater of his father and maternal grandfather. Although he was the son, grandson and great-grandson of Baptist ministers, King did not intend to follow the family vocation until Morehouse president Benjamin E. Mays, a noted theologian, convinced him otherwise. King was ordained before graduating college with a degree in sociology.
3. King received his doctorate in systematic theology.
After earning a divinity degree from Pennsylvania’s Crozer Theological Seminary, King attended graduate school at Boston University, where he received his Ph.D. degree in 1955. The title of his dissertation was “A Comparison of the Conceptions of God in the Thinking of Paul Tillich and Henry Nelson Wieman.”
4. King’s 'I Have a Dream' speech was not his first at the Lincoln Memorial.
Six years before his iconic oration at the March on Washington, King was among the civil rights leaders who spoke in the shadow of the Great Emancipator during the Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom on May 17, 1957. Before a crowd estimated at between 15,000 and 30,000, King delivered his first national address on the topic of voting rights. His speech, in which he urged America to “give us the ballot,” drew strong reviews and positioned him at the forefront of the civil rights leadership.
5. King was imprisoned nearly 30 times.
According to the King Center, the civil rights leader went to jail 29 times. He was arrested for acts of civil disobedience and on trumped-up charges, such as when he was jailed in Montgomery, Alabama, in 1956 for driving 30 miles per hour in a 25-mile-per-hour zone.
6. King narrowly escaped an assassination attempt a decade before his death.
On September 20, 1958, King was in Harlem signing copies of his new book, “Stride Toward Freedom,” in Blumstein’s department store when he was approached by Izola Ware Curry. The woman asked if he was Martin Luther King Jr. After he said yes, Curry said, “I’ve been looking for you for five years,” and she plunged a seven-inch letter opener into his chest. The tip of the blade came to rest alongside his aorta, and King underwent hours of delicate emergency surgery. Surgeons later told King that just one sneeze could have punctured the aorta and killed him. From his hospital bed where he convalesced for weeks, King issued a statement affirming his nonviolent principles and saying he felt no ill will toward his mentally ill attacker.
7. King’s last public speech foretold his death.
King had come to Memphis in April 1968 to support the strike of the city’s black garbage workers, and in a speech on the night before his assassination, he told an audience at Mason Temple Church: “Like anybody, I would like to live a long life. Longevity has its place. But I’m not concerned about that now … I’ve seen the Promised Land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the Promised Land. And I’m happy tonight. I’m not worried about anything. I’m not fearing any man. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord.”
8. Members of King’s family did not believe James Earl Ray acted alone.
Ray, a career criminal, pled guilty to King’s assassination but later recanted. King’s son Dexter met publicly with Ray in 1997 and argued for the case to be reopened. King’s widow, Coretta, believed the Mafia and local, state and federal government agencies were deeply involved in the murder. She praised the result of a 1999 civil trial in which a Memphis jury decided the assassination was the result of a conspiracy and that Ray was set up to take the blame. A U.S. Department of Justice investigation released in 2000 reported no evidence of a conspiracy.
9. King’s mother was also slain by a bullet.
On June 30, 1974, as 69-year-old Alberta Williams King played the organ at a Sunday service inside Ebenezer Baptist Church, Marcus Wayne Chenault Jr. rose from the front pew, drew two pistols and began to fire shots. One of the bullets struck and killed King, who died steps from where her son had preached nonviolence. The deranged gunman said that Christians were his enemy and that although he had received divine instructions to kill King’s father, who was in the congregation, he killed King’s mother instead because she was closer. The shooting also left a church deacon dead. Chenault received a death penalty sentence that was later changed to life imprisonment, in part due to the King family’s opposition to capital punishment.
10. George Washington is the only other American to have had his birthday observed as a national holiday.
In 1983 President Ronald Reagan signed a bill that created a federal holiday to honor King. The holiday, first commemorated in 1986, is celebrated on the third Monday in January, close to the civil rights leader’s January 15 birthday. | <urn:uuid:c2c1e698-f298-42a1-ad17-812328923402> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history.com/news/10-things-you-may-not-know-about-martin-luther-king-jr | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00050.warc.gz | en | 0.985227 | 1,225 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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-0.23981586098670... | 4 | 1. King’s birth name was Michael, not Martin.
The civil rights leader was born Michael King Jr. on January 15, 1929. In 1934, however, his father, a pastor at Atlanta’s Ebenezer Baptist Church, traveled to Germany and became inspired by the Protestant Reformation leader Martin Luther. As a result, King Sr. changed his own name as well as that of his 5-year-old son.
2. King entered college at the age of 15.
King was such a gifted student that he skipped grades nine and 12 before enrolling in 1944 at Morehouse College, the alma mater of his father and maternal grandfather. Although he was the son, grandson and great-grandson of Baptist ministers, King did not intend to follow the family vocation until Morehouse president Benjamin E. Mays, a noted theologian, convinced him otherwise. King was ordained before graduating college with a degree in sociology.
3. King received his doctorate in systematic theology.
After earning a divinity degree from Pennsylvania’s Crozer Theological Seminary, King attended graduate school at Boston University, where he received his Ph.D. degree in 1955. The title of his dissertation was “A Comparison of the Conceptions of God in the Thinking of Paul Tillich and Henry Nelson Wieman.”
4. King’s 'I Have a Dream' speech was not his first at the Lincoln Memorial.
Six years before his iconic oration at the March on Washington, King was among the civil rights leaders who spoke in the shadow of the Great Emancipator during the Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom on May 17, 1957. Before a crowd estimated at between 15,000 and 30,000, King delivered his first national address on the topic of voting rights. His speech, in which he urged America to “give us the ballot,” drew strong reviews and positioned him at the forefront of the civil rights leadership.
5. King was imprisoned nearly 30 times.
According to the King Center, the civil rights leader went to jail 29 times. He was arrested for acts of civil disobedience and on trumped-up charges, such as when he was jailed in Montgomery, Alabama, in 1956 for driving 30 miles per hour in a 25-mile-per-hour zone.
6. King narrowly escaped an assassination attempt a decade before his death.
On September 20, 1958, King was in Harlem signing copies of his new book, “Stride Toward Freedom,” in Blumstein’s department store when he was approached by Izola Ware Curry. The woman asked if he was Martin Luther King Jr. After he said yes, Curry said, “I’ve been looking for you for five years,” and she plunged a seven-inch letter opener into his chest. The tip of the blade came to rest alongside his aorta, and King underwent hours of delicate emergency surgery. Surgeons later told King that just one sneeze could have punctured the aorta and killed him. From his hospital bed where he convalesced for weeks, King issued a statement affirming his nonviolent principles and saying he felt no ill will toward his mentally ill attacker.
7. King’s last public speech foretold his death.
King had come to Memphis in April 1968 to support the strike of the city’s black garbage workers, and in a speech on the night before his assassination, he told an audience at Mason Temple Church: “Like anybody, I would like to live a long life. Longevity has its place. But I’m not concerned about that now … I’ve seen the Promised Land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the Promised Land. And I’m happy tonight. I’m not worried about anything. I’m not fearing any man. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord.”
8. Members of King’s family did not believe James Earl Ray acted alone.
Ray, a career criminal, pled guilty to King’s assassination but later recanted. King’s son Dexter met publicly with Ray in 1997 and argued for the case to be reopened. King’s widow, Coretta, believed the Mafia and local, state and federal government agencies were deeply involved in the murder. She praised the result of a 1999 civil trial in which a Memphis jury decided the assassination was the result of a conspiracy and that Ray was set up to take the blame. A U.S. Department of Justice investigation released in 2000 reported no evidence of a conspiracy.
9. King’s mother was also slain by a bullet.
On June 30, 1974, as 69-year-old Alberta Williams King played the organ at a Sunday service inside Ebenezer Baptist Church, Marcus Wayne Chenault Jr. rose from the front pew, drew two pistols and began to fire shots. One of the bullets struck and killed King, who died steps from where her son had preached nonviolence. The deranged gunman said that Christians were his enemy and that although he had received divine instructions to kill King’s father, who was in the congregation, he killed King’s mother instead because she was closer. The shooting also left a church deacon dead. Chenault received a death penalty sentence that was later changed to life imprisonment, in part due to the King family’s opposition to capital punishment.
10. George Washington is the only other American to have had his birthday observed as a national holiday.
In 1983 President Ronald Reagan signed a bill that created a federal holiday to honor King. The holiday, first commemorated in 1986, is celebrated on the third Monday in January, close to the civil rights leader’s January 15 birthday. | 1,224 | ENGLISH | 1 |
10 marker check please :3 Watch
A researcher wants to conduct an experiment to investigate if there is a difference in the memory ability of primary school pupils in the morning compared to the afternoon. Each pupil will be assessed in both the morning and the afternoon.
Memory ability of primary school students in this test could be measured using a word test. In the word test, each student would be given a list of twenty 5 lettered words and they would need to memorise as many words as possible in 20 minutes. The students would consist of both gender so, there would be 10 male students and 10 female student and they would be placed in an isolated room to avoid any noises which could affect their level of concentration while memorising the words. They would be given a piece of paper with the words on them which would be turned over and facing the blank side and once all students have received the paper, a stopwatch would be started and the students would turn the paper and start memorising the words. After 5 minutes, all the pieces of paper would be requested to turn the paper and these would be collected and be replaced by a blank piece of paper and would have 10 minutes to recall and write any words that have been memorised. This would be during the assessment in the morning. In the afternoon, the procedure would be repeated with the same students however, different twenty 5 lettered words would be used.
The test could cause stress to primary school students because they would not be able to memorise many words and could possibly feel frustrated and this stress could be overcome by not informing them that they are doing it as a form of assessment but rather as a game and this would make them feel more relaxed about the situation. Clearly, not being informed at all would be unethical therefore, after both assessments, the student and their parents could be informed and debriefed. Practice effects have also been reduced because different words have been used in both the assessments and this makes the results more reliable. Furthermore, the use of the same students in both assessments is very good because it reduces participant variables for example if one group which is tested in the morning, is very good at memorising words and therefore, would be able to memorise a higher number of words and this group is compared to another that is capable of memorising fewer words but does the assessment in the evening, a false conclusion could be made. Also, the use of the same group could result in the bored and fatigue effect so, the students may feel unentertained and would no longer put as much effort in memorising the words in the afternoon or after a long day at school, they could be too tired to memorising the words anymore hence resulting in fewer words being memorised and thus, invalid results. | <urn:uuid:ce49e9a1-3cfb-48a5-85d1-238b0dea3937> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/showthread.php?t=2556705 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00138.warc.gz | en | 0.983364 | 555 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.54029166698... | 1 | 10 marker check please :3 Watch
A researcher wants to conduct an experiment to investigate if there is a difference in the memory ability of primary school pupils in the morning compared to the afternoon. Each pupil will be assessed in both the morning and the afternoon.
Memory ability of primary school students in this test could be measured using a word test. In the word test, each student would be given a list of twenty 5 lettered words and they would need to memorise as many words as possible in 20 minutes. The students would consist of both gender so, there would be 10 male students and 10 female student and they would be placed in an isolated room to avoid any noises which could affect their level of concentration while memorising the words. They would be given a piece of paper with the words on them which would be turned over and facing the blank side and once all students have received the paper, a stopwatch would be started and the students would turn the paper and start memorising the words. After 5 minutes, all the pieces of paper would be requested to turn the paper and these would be collected and be replaced by a blank piece of paper and would have 10 minutes to recall and write any words that have been memorised. This would be during the assessment in the morning. In the afternoon, the procedure would be repeated with the same students however, different twenty 5 lettered words would be used.
The test could cause stress to primary school students because they would not be able to memorise many words and could possibly feel frustrated and this stress could be overcome by not informing them that they are doing it as a form of assessment but rather as a game and this would make them feel more relaxed about the situation. Clearly, not being informed at all would be unethical therefore, after both assessments, the student and their parents could be informed and debriefed. Practice effects have also been reduced because different words have been used in both the assessments and this makes the results more reliable. Furthermore, the use of the same students in both assessments is very good because it reduces participant variables for example if one group which is tested in the morning, is very good at memorising words and therefore, would be able to memorise a higher number of words and this group is compared to another that is capable of memorising fewer words but does the assessment in the evening, a false conclusion could be made. Also, the use of the same group could result in the bored and fatigue effect so, the students may feel unentertained and would no longer put as much effort in memorising the words in the afternoon or after a long day at school, they could be too tired to memorising the words anymore hence resulting in fewer words being memorised and thus, invalid results. | 564 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Includes first-hand accounts of political repression in the Soviet Union USSRhit lists, archive materials, and official documents. From Memorial society, an NGO and nonprofit. Ability to browse by name alphabetically using alphabet on top of page. Database includes over 2.
What other reasons might there have been? But by December over a million men out of 14 million had died. The army was in full retreat, the soldiers had one gun between three of them, and many had no boots. In September the Tsar decided to take over as commander in chief, to win the war for Russia, and to gain all the credit.
He was held directly responsible, and the moral of the soldiers and Russian citizens plummeted even lower as they looked for someone to blame. Because so many farmers and factory workers had been called away to war, food production had suffered and factories were closing down.
Neither army or the citizens had enough food, the armies were also lacking munitions and the food being left to rot was greatly needed by people throughout Russia. This started the March Revolution,and so helped add to the collapse of the Tsars government.
The character of the Tsar Nicholas II was an important factor in the collapse of his government. The Tsar was a family man, and cared greatly about his wife and family. He was keen for his son to be cured and his wife to be happy, and so allowed Rasputin to stay and advise him and his wife.
The Tsar was a week willed, indecisive man who was easily influenced by his wife. The head of the Duma told him in that Rasputin advising Alexandra undermined his authority, and the Tsar sent an order to get rid of Rasputin. It was cancelled at the demand of the Tsarina.
The Tsar was an autocrat, the absolute ruler. He had a bureaucracy made up from aristocracy, most of them were corrupt and accepted bribes. Because he was an autocrat, if anything went wrong he got absolute blame.
He left when trouble was brewing, and ordered soldiers to fire at non-violent protesters, who were holding pictures of him as a sign of respect. There were many assassinations attempted on Rasputin, until Prince Yusupov finally murdered him on December 30th Although he allowed the Duma to take place, he did not follow through his other promises and he dissolved it as soon as it demanded changes.
The first Duma lasted from April to July The second began in March and lasted until June For the next Duma, the Tsar changed the voting system.
From now on, one landlord vote was equal to nearly peasants or 60 workers, because the majority of the landlords supported the Tsar. The third Duma lasted untilits full 5 years. They lost total faith in the Tsar. The Tsarina Alexandra and Rasputin affected the Tsars government mostly inwhen the Tsar became commander in chief of the army.
Alexandra was left alone to rule the country, and because Rasputin was a healer had helped Alexis with his haemophilia she turned to him for help and advice.
Rasputin had great influence over Alexandra, and Alexandra had great influence over the Tsar so if Rasputin really wanted something to happen, it would.
Alexandra was a very popular Tsarina until Rasputin came along. Rumours were spread about them having an affair, and to make matters worse Alexandra was German.
The pair sacked good ministers together, hired bad ones, and in December some members of the Duma came to the conclusion that Rasputin had purposefully destroyed the Russian government because he was a Russian agent. Soon after this he was murdered.Dec 27, · Russian revolution march essay >>> next Winning essays college free Author topic: the great gatsby essay nick read 3 times writing conclusion paragraph argumentative essay thailand essays biosynthesis.
Russian Revolution of , two revolutions, the first of which, in February (March, New Style), overthrew the imperial government and the second of which, in October (November), placed the Bolsheviks in power. By the bond between the tsar and most of the Russian .
Russian revolution march essay. 5 stars based on 95 reviews barnweddingvt.com Essay. ausschreibung fenster beispiel essay scarlet ibis pride essay, proper word count for essays on love private public schools compare contrast essays seton hill admission essay critique of the power of judgment analysis essay erikson stage 5 essay paragraph.
Russian revolution essay It removed russia from power during the history. It is the soviet state was born lev davidovich bronstein on 12 march, interesting articles, sixth edition. The Russian Revolution was not merely a culmination of event from , but was the result of political, economic and social conditions from centuries of corrupt tsarist barnweddingvt.com Russian Revolution of involved the collapse of an empire under Tsar Nicholas II and the rise of Marxian socialism under Lenin and his Bolsheviks.
The Russian revolution was not as many people suppose, one well organized even in which Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown. Lenin and the Bolsheviks took power. | <urn:uuid:4d7d7773-a747-4f52-9b6e-5d62659c829e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tekunywogojesagud.barnweddingvt.com/russian-revolution-march-1917-essay-35180ms.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00531.warc.gz | en | 0.985597 | 1,063 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.294936478137969... | 1 | Includes first-hand accounts of political repression in the Soviet Union USSRhit lists, archive materials, and official documents. From Memorial society, an NGO and nonprofit. Ability to browse by name alphabetically using alphabet on top of page. Database includes over 2.
What other reasons might there have been? But by December over a million men out of 14 million had died. The army was in full retreat, the soldiers had one gun between three of them, and many had no boots. In September the Tsar decided to take over as commander in chief, to win the war for Russia, and to gain all the credit.
He was held directly responsible, and the moral of the soldiers and Russian citizens plummeted even lower as they looked for someone to blame. Because so many farmers and factory workers had been called away to war, food production had suffered and factories were closing down.
Neither army or the citizens had enough food, the armies were also lacking munitions and the food being left to rot was greatly needed by people throughout Russia. This started the March Revolution,and so helped add to the collapse of the Tsars government.
The character of the Tsar Nicholas II was an important factor in the collapse of his government. The Tsar was a family man, and cared greatly about his wife and family. He was keen for his son to be cured and his wife to be happy, and so allowed Rasputin to stay and advise him and his wife.
The Tsar was a week willed, indecisive man who was easily influenced by his wife. The head of the Duma told him in that Rasputin advising Alexandra undermined his authority, and the Tsar sent an order to get rid of Rasputin. It was cancelled at the demand of the Tsarina.
The Tsar was an autocrat, the absolute ruler. He had a bureaucracy made up from aristocracy, most of them were corrupt and accepted bribes. Because he was an autocrat, if anything went wrong he got absolute blame.
He left when trouble was brewing, and ordered soldiers to fire at non-violent protesters, who were holding pictures of him as a sign of respect. There were many assassinations attempted on Rasputin, until Prince Yusupov finally murdered him on December 30th Although he allowed the Duma to take place, he did not follow through his other promises and he dissolved it as soon as it demanded changes.
The first Duma lasted from April to July The second began in March and lasted until June For the next Duma, the Tsar changed the voting system.
From now on, one landlord vote was equal to nearly peasants or 60 workers, because the majority of the landlords supported the Tsar. The third Duma lasted untilits full 5 years. They lost total faith in the Tsar. The Tsarina Alexandra and Rasputin affected the Tsars government mostly inwhen the Tsar became commander in chief of the army.
Alexandra was left alone to rule the country, and because Rasputin was a healer had helped Alexis with his haemophilia she turned to him for help and advice.
Rasputin had great influence over Alexandra, and Alexandra had great influence over the Tsar so if Rasputin really wanted something to happen, it would.
Alexandra was a very popular Tsarina until Rasputin came along. Rumours were spread about them having an affair, and to make matters worse Alexandra was German.
The pair sacked good ministers together, hired bad ones, and in December some members of the Duma came to the conclusion that Rasputin had purposefully destroyed the Russian government because he was a Russian agent. Soon after this he was murdered.Dec 27, · Russian revolution march essay >>> next Winning essays college free Author topic: the great gatsby essay nick read 3 times writing conclusion paragraph argumentative essay thailand essays biosynthesis.
Russian Revolution of , two revolutions, the first of which, in February (March, New Style), overthrew the imperial government and the second of which, in October (November), placed the Bolsheviks in power. By the bond between the tsar and most of the Russian .
Russian revolution march essay. 5 stars based on 95 reviews barnweddingvt.com Essay. ausschreibung fenster beispiel essay scarlet ibis pride essay, proper word count for essays on love private public schools compare contrast essays seton hill admission essay critique of the power of judgment analysis essay erikson stage 5 essay paragraph.
Russian revolution essay It removed russia from power during the history. It is the soviet state was born lev davidovich bronstein on 12 march, interesting articles, sixth edition. The Russian Revolution was not merely a culmination of event from , but was the result of political, economic and social conditions from centuries of corrupt tsarist barnweddingvt.com Russian Revolution of involved the collapse of an empire under Tsar Nicholas II and the rise of Marxian socialism under Lenin and his Bolsheviks.
The Russian revolution was not as many people suppose, one well organized even in which Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown. Lenin and the Bolsheviks took power. | 1,056 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As parents, it is sometimes difficult to talk to our children. The situation can become even more complicated when we want to talk to them about something to do with health, such as Ebola. We ourselves may have doubts about Ebola, which, in some countries, has created serious public alarm that has even spread to some schools.
We will deal with the issue in this post and provide some advice and guidelines that may be helpful when sitting down with your children and teenagers to tell them about the disease.1.- Reassure them Perhaps this is the most important piece of advice. Ebola has spread outside Africa for the first time and this can mean that the real risk of contracting the disease is exaggerated in some specific places. So, first of all, when we sit down with our children to talk about the subject, it is important we explain to them that every country, emphasising our own country in particular, is prepared to deal with diseases such as this. We need to clearly explain that there are especially qualified professionals to deal with diseases of this type and that the infrastructure is in place to stop Ebola spreading Read more | <urn:uuid:56c9dca9-d295-4717-beaa-4bddfb0f0479> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bestdoctorsblog.com/tag/ebola-en/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00058.warc.gz | en | 0.982464 | 223 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.2050977796316146... | 1 | As parents, it is sometimes difficult to talk to our children. The situation can become even more complicated when we want to talk to them about something to do with health, such as Ebola. We ourselves may have doubts about Ebola, which, in some countries, has created serious public alarm that has even spread to some schools.
We will deal with the issue in this post and provide some advice and guidelines that may be helpful when sitting down with your children and teenagers to tell them about the disease.1.- Reassure them Perhaps this is the most important piece of advice. Ebola has spread outside Africa for the first time and this can mean that the real risk of contracting the disease is exaggerated in some specific places. So, first of all, when we sit down with our children to talk about the subject, it is important we explain to them that every country, emphasising our own country in particular, is prepared to deal with diseases such as this. We need to clearly explain that there are especially qualified professionals to deal with diseases of this type and that the infrastructure is in place to stop Ebola spreading Read more | 222 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Franklin also made many changes within the American government. Ben Franklin has had a significant impact on America and its society. Franklin traveled out to France towards the beginning of the Revolution as a diplomat of the thirteen colonies. He arrived in Paris with lots of intelligence. No one else had his capabilities or achievements. The years that Ben had spent in Paris were very productive ones for America. Ben’s goal was to help set up the United States for success in the future for years to come. During the 1950’s the United States ended up making ten volumes of the United States Foreign Affairs while the Revolution was still going on. A lot of the work put into the foreign affairs is because of Franklin and his ideas. The colonies needed help to win the war. These long years of battle made it necessary for France and Britain to have a leader such as Ben. He made a great leader. While Franklin was serving he never once was taken advantage of. While Franklin had been in Paris there were many events in which scientists and writers had all joined together and everyone was curious about Franklin. He was everything they wanted to be. A man of courage, whit, and he was a very open man when it came to politics. He had many stories to tell. Franklin was a man who not only changed the America but the entire world. This man was a legend. Once the war had finally ended there were many changes but peace was still a big issue. The people with more power thought that they would benefit from using an alliance with America and Ben. Franklin came up with a separate treaty and made sure to state in it what was best for America. He declared independence of the United States and its government. America finally had boundaries enforced because of Franklin. These examples show that Franklin is driven to try things in his own way. | <urn:uuid:a826d58e-2c19-4010-8006-05c1cc4a1935> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightinvisiblegreen.com/franklin-also-made-many-changes-within-the-american-government/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00411.warc.gz | en | 0.992773 | 366 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.25599226355552673... | 6 | Franklin also made many changes within the American government. Ben Franklin has had a significant impact on America and its society. Franklin traveled out to France towards the beginning of the Revolution as a diplomat of the thirteen colonies. He arrived in Paris with lots of intelligence. No one else had his capabilities or achievements. The years that Ben had spent in Paris were very productive ones for America. Ben’s goal was to help set up the United States for success in the future for years to come. During the 1950’s the United States ended up making ten volumes of the United States Foreign Affairs while the Revolution was still going on. A lot of the work put into the foreign affairs is because of Franklin and his ideas. The colonies needed help to win the war. These long years of battle made it necessary for France and Britain to have a leader such as Ben. He made a great leader. While Franklin was serving he never once was taken advantage of. While Franklin had been in Paris there were many events in which scientists and writers had all joined together and everyone was curious about Franklin. He was everything they wanted to be. A man of courage, whit, and he was a very open man when it came to politics. He had many stories to tell. Franklin was a man who not only changed the America but the entire world. This man was a legend. Once the war had finally ended there were many changes but peace was still a big issue. The people with more power thought that they would benefit from using an alliance with America and Ben. Franklin came up with a separate treaty and made sure to state in it what was best for America. He declared independence of the United States and its government. America finally had boundaries enforced because of Franklin. These examples show that Franklin is driven to try things in his own way. | 366 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 23-01-2014)
Subhas Chandra Bose was most dynamic leader of India's struggle for independence. He is more familiar with his name Netaji. His contribution towards India's Freedom struggle was of a revolutionary.
Early life of Subhas Chandra Bose
Subhas Chandra Bose was born on 23rd Jan, 1897 in Cuttack
, India. From his childhood he was a bright student and was a topper in the matriculation examination from the whole of Kolkata
province. He graduated from the Scottish Church College
in Kolkata with a First Class degree in Philosophy. Influenced by the teachings of Swami Vivekananda
, he was known for his patriotic zeal as a student. He went to England to fulfil his parents' desire to appear in the Indian Civil Services.
He stood fourth in order of merit. But he left civil Service's apprenticeship and joined India's freedom struggle.
During his service with the Indian National Congress, he was greatly influenced by Bal Gangadhar Tilak
and Sri Aurobindo. He did not agree with Gandhiji's methods of achieving Independence through non-violence. He believed that the only way of achieving Independence was by shedding blood. He therefore returned to Kolkata to work under Chittaranjan Das
, the Bengali freedom fighter and co-founder of the Swaraj Party
. He was imprisoned for his revolutionary activities on various occasions. In 1921, Bose organized a boycott of the celebrations to mark the visit of the Prince of Wales to India for which he was imprisoned for the first time.
Bose was elected to the post of Chief Executive Officer of the newly constituted Calcutta Corporation in April 1924. That same year in October, Bose was arrested on suspicion of terrorism. At first, he was kept in Alipur
Jail and later he was exiled to Mandalay in Burma. Bose was once again arrested on January, 1930. After his release from jail on September 25, he was elected as the Mayor of the City of Kolkata.
Netaji was imprisoned eleven times by the British over a span of 20 years either in India or in Rangoon. During the mid 1930s he was exiled by the British from India to Europe where he championed India's cause and aspiration for self-rule before gatherings and conferences. Throughout his stay in Europe from 1933 to 1936, he met several European leaders and thinkers.
He travelled extensively in India and in Europe before stating his political opposition to Gandhi. Subhash Chandra Bose married Emilie Schenkl, an Austrian born national, who was his secretary, in 1937 in German. Bose wrote many letters to Schenkl of which many have been published in the book "Letters to Emilie Schenkl", edited by Sisir Kumar Bose and Sugata Bose.
Subhas Chandra Bose became the president of the Haripura Indian National Congress against the wishes of Gandhiji in 1938. He was elected as the president for two consecutive terms. Expressing his disagreement with Bose, Gandhi commented "Subhas' victory is my defeat". Gandhi's continued opposition led to Netaji's resignation from the Working Committee. He was left with no alternative but to form an independent party, the "All India Forward Bloc
In his call to freedom, Subhas Chandra Bose encouraged full participation of the Indian Masses to strive for independence. Bose initiated the concept of the "National Planning Committee" in 1938. His correspondence reveals that despite his clear dislike for British subjugation, he was deeply impressed by their methodical and systematic approach and their steadfastly disciplinarian outlook towards life.
The contrast between Gandhi and Bose is captured with reasonable measure in a saying attributable to him ""If people slap you once, slap them twice". Having failed to persuade Gandhi for the mass civil disobedience to protest against Viceroy Lord Linlithgow's decision to declare war on India's behalf without consulting the Congress leadership, he organised mass protests in Kolkata. The disobedience was calling for the 'Holwell Monument' commemorating the Black Hole of Kolkata. He was thrown in Jail and was released only after a seven-day hunger strike.
Bose's house in Kolkata was kept under surveillance by the British. With two pending court cases; he felt that the British would not let him leave the country before the end of the war. This set the scene for Bose's escape to Germany, via Afghanistan and the Soviet Union.
In Germany he instituted the Special Bureau for India under Adam von Trott zu Solz, broadcasting on the German-sponsored Azad Hind Radio. Here he founded the "Free India Centre" in Berlin, and created the Indian Legion consisting of some 4500 soldiers who were the Indian prisoners of war. The soldiers had previously fought for the British in North Africa prior to their capture by Axis forces. | <urn:uuid:976cf2a8-82b0-47ac-8bd4-720ec1654657> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/20/subhas_chandra_bose_freedom_struggle.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00116.warc.gz | en | 0.981899 | 1,015 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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Subhas Chandra Bose was most dynamic leader of India's struggle for independence. He is more familiar with his name Netaji. His contribution towards India's Freedom struggle was of a revolutionary.
Early life of Subhas Chandra Bose
Subhas Chandra Bose was born on 23rd Jan, 1897 in Cuttack
, India. From his childhood he was a bright student and was a topper in the matriculation examination from the whole of Kolkata
province. He graduated from the Scottish Church College
in Kolkata with a First Class degree in Philosophy. Influenced by the teachings of Swami Vivekananda
, he was known for his patriotic zeal as a student. He went to England to fulfil his parents' desire to appear in the Indian Civil Services.
He stood fourth in order of merit. But he left civil Service's apprenticeship and joined India's freedom struggle.
During his service with the Indian National Congress, he was greatly influenced by Bal Gangadhar Tilak
and Sri Aurobindo. He did not agree with Gandhiji's methods of achieving Independence through non-violence. He believed that the only way of achieving Independence was by shedding blood. He therefore returned to Kolkata to work under Chittaranjan Das
, the Bengali freedom fighter and co-founder of the Swaraj Party
. He was imprisoned for his revolutionary activities on various occasions. In 1921, Bose organized a boycott of the celebrations to mark the visit of the Prince of Wales to India for which he was imprisoned for the first time.
Bose was elected to the post of Chief Executive Officer of the newly constituted Calcutta Corporation in April 1924. That same year in October, Bose was arrested on suspicion of terrorism. At first, he was kept in Alipur
Jail and later he was exiled to Mandalay in Burma. Bose was once again arrested on January, 1930. After his release from jail on September 25, he was elected as the Mayor of the City of Kolkata.
Netaji was imprisoned eleven times by the British over a span of 20 years either in India or in Rangoon. During the mid 1930s he was exiled by the British from India to Europe where he championed India's cause and aspiration for self-rule before gatherings and conferences. Throughout his stay in Europe from 1933 to 1936, he met several European leaders and thinkers.
He travelled extensively in India and in Europe before stating his political opposition to Gandhi. Subhash Chandra Bose married Emilie Schenkl, an Austrian born national, who was his secretary, in 1937 in German. Bose wrote many letters to Schenkl of which many have been published in the book "Letters to Emilie Schenkl", edited by Sisir Kumar Bose and Sugata Bose.
Subhas Chandra Bose became the president of the Haripura Indian National Congress against the wishes of Gandhiji in 1938. He was elected as the president for two consecutive terms. Expressing his disagreement with Bose, Gandhi commented "Subhas' victory is my defeat". Gandhi's continued opposition led to Netaji's resignation from the Working Committee. He was left with no alternative but to form an independent party, the "All India Forward Bloc
In his call to freedom, Subhas Chandra Bose encouraged full participation of the Indian Masses to strive for independence. Bose initiated the concept of the "National Planning Committee" in 1938. His correspondence reveals that despite his clear dislike for British subjugation, he was deeply impressed by their methodical and systematic approach and their steadfastly disciplinarian outlook towards life.
The contrast between Gandhi and Bose is captured with reasonable measure in a saying attributable to him ""If people slap you once, slap them twice". Having failed to persuade Gandhi for the mass civil disobedience to protest against Viceroy Lord Linlithgow's decision to declare war on India's behalf without consulting the Congress leadership, he organised mass protests in Kolkata. The disobedience was calling for the 'Holwell Monument' commemorating the Black Hole of Kolkata. He was thrown in Jail and was released only after a seven-day hunger strike.
Bose's house in Kolkata was kept under surveillance by the British. With two pending court cases; he felt that the British would not let him leave the country before the end of the war. This set the scene for Bose's escape to Germany, via Afghanistan and the Soviet Union.
In Germany he instituted the Special Bureau for India under Adam von Trott zu Solz, broadcasting on the German-sponsored Azad Hind Radio. Here he founded the "Free India Centre" in Berlin, and created the Indian Legion consisting of some 4500 soldiers who were the Indian prisoners of war. The soldiers had previously fought for the British in North Africa prior to their capture by Axis forces. | 1,032 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Among the many threats the Nazi invasion represented, one was upon the national and international cultural heritage present in french museums and castles. Indeed, Adolf Hitler had a particular history with the world of Fine Arts. Rejected twice from the Academy of Fine Arts of Vienna, his desire to prove Germany’s supremacy and hegemony was, as well as being military, through the establishment of the greatest collection of European Art in the “Linz Gallery”. This Gallery was one of the Führer’s several projects: he wanted to build his own private collection, and so by stealing the most important cultural treasures from the countries he had invaded and would invade.However, the french collections were particularly cared for. Thanks to the intelligence, foresight and courage of several curators, the collections of the Louvre, Versailles or Saint-Germain-en-Laye are today complete.
In the wake of the Second World War, the Nazi expansion was already fierce. The Third Reich had already conquered a great part of Western Europe and was looking to expand East, thus France, that was eventually invaded in 1940.
For the Axis troops not to be able to know the value of the boxes if they were ever found, J. Jaujard made up a system for the works to be classified and for the curators to recognize them. The name of the work was never written on the boxes. A colour code was made up, with red tablets for the most important works as well as painted letters and numbers. The first letter was that of the place of origin (L for Louvre for example), the second letter concerned the nature of the work (S for sculpture, P for painting), and the number corresponded to the number attributed to the work. For example, the Mona Lisa was “LP0” and had three red tabled on its box. However, the curators faced several problematics including how to move works that are not possible to disassemble. For that, the Comédie Française lent to the Louvre some of its trucks designed to move the decors for their plays. Overall, 51 convoys were needed to move everything. Jacques Jaujard chose the castle of Chambord to hide the many works taken away from the Louvre. The castle, according to Jaujard who worked hand in hand with Pierre Schommer, had several advantages. The castle had been empty for several years. It had been bought by the French Republic but never opened to the public, and was located far from the frontiers and was therefore protected from enemy invasion. Its large opening allowed the works to be easily placed in the castle. The biggest boxes, coming from the Louvre but also from the collections of Versailles and Saint-Germain-en-Laye, remained on the ground floor, while the others were spread among the several rooms of the castle. Some of them never changed place throughout the entire duration of the war. However, on June 22nd 1940, France was divided between occupied territory and the Free Zone led by the government of the Marshal Pétain whose capital was in Vichy. Chambord was now in Occupied territory. At first, as to avoid the Nazis realizing the absence of several works, several molds of the sculptures that had been moved were placed in the Louvre. By doing so, the Germans – who could visit the Louvre for free when French people had to pay one symbolic euro, a way to humiliat the oppressed french population – could still visit the Louvre and see its collection. However, it was discovered that Chambord held several boxes containing works of art (the boxes had to be opened in order to prove that they did not contain weapons). Thus, the German army started guarding the castle. But the Germans were not aware that some of the greatest treasures of French collections were hidden in the castle. Thus, began the peregrinations of the most precious treasures of international cultural heritage such as Leonardo’s Mona Lisa. The latter left the castle of Chambord for a hectic journey. At first, it went to the castle of Louvignies. It was then moved to the Abbey of Loc-Dieu, than to Montauban, and finally to Montal. The several curators who were responsible for the security of La Gioconda were so scared of it being stolen, that some of them even hid it under their bed. However, Jacques Jaujard had found an ally amongst his enemies, Franz Wolff-Metternich. He wasleader of the Kunstschutz, a german office dedicated to the Preservation of the Artistic Heritage, who turned a blind eye to the hidings that Jaujard organized. Thanks to this German ally, Jaujard was able to keep hidden, by moving them from castle to castle, the works that Hitler’s men coveted. Simultaneously, the Nazis were beginning to despoil some of the works, or to ask to the French government to send them to the Reich. To block such transactions, French curators tried to delay as much as possible the administrative paperwork, saving several works from being sent to Germany by the end of WWII. | <urn:uuid:552adad6-e860-4638-b515-2c3497fa1fbd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.inmediasartes.com/resistance-for-heritage-how-the-french-cultural-heritage-was-hidden-and-protected-during-ww2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00102.warc.gz | en | 0.98689 | 1,079 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.3722793459892273,... | 1 | Among the many threats the Nazi invasion represented, one was upon the national and international cultural heritage present in french museums and castles. Indeed, Adolf Hitler had a particular history with the world of Fine Arts. Rejected twice from the Academy of Fine Arts of Vienna, his desire to prove Germany’s supremacy and hegemony was, as well as being military, through the establishment of the greatest collection of European Art in the “Linz Gallery”. This Gallery was one of the Führer’s several projects: he wanted to build his own private collection, and so by stealing the most important cultural treasures from the countries he had invaded and would invade.However, the french collections were particularly cared for. Thanks to the intelligence, foresight and courage of several curators, the collections of the Louvre, Versailles or Saint-Germain-en-Laye are today complete.
In the wake of the Second World War, the Nazi expansion was already fierce. The Third Reich had already conquered a great part of Western Europe and was looking to expand East, thus France, that was eventually invaded in 1940.
For the Axis troops not to be able to know the value of the boxes if they were ever found, J. Jaujard made up a system for the works to be classified and for the curators to recognize them. The name of the work was never written on the boxes. A colour code was made up, with red tablets for the most important works as well as painted letters and numbers. The first letter was that of the place of origin (L for Louvre for example), the second letter concerned the nature of the work (S for sculpture, P for painting), and the number corresponded to the number attributed to the work. For example, the Mona Lisa was “LP0” and had three red tabled on its box. However, the curators faced several problematics including how to move works that are not possible to disassemble. For that, the Comédie Française lent to the Louvre some of its trucks designed to move the decors for their plays. Overall, 51 convoys were needed to move everything. Jacques Jaujard chose the castle of Chambord to hide the many works taken away from the Louvre. The castle, according to Jaujard who worked hand in hand with Pierre Schommer, had several advantages. The castle had been empty for several years. It had been bought by the French Republic but never opened to the public, and was located far from the frontiers and was therefore protected from enemy invasion. Its large opening allowed the works to be easily placed in the castle. The biggest boxes, coming from the Louvre but also from the collections of Versailles and Saint-Germain-en-Laye, remained on the ground floor, while the others were spread among the several rooms of the castle. Some of them never changed place throughout the entire duration of the war. However, on June 22nd 1940, France was divided between occupied territory and the Free Zone led by the government of the Marshal Pétain whose capital was in Vichy. Chambord was now in Occupied territory. At first, as to avoid the Nazis realizing the absence of several works, several molds of the sculptures that had been moved were placed in the Louvre. By doing so, the Germans – who could visit the Louvre for free when French people had to pay one symbolic euro, a way to humiliat the oppressed french population – could still visit the Louvre and see its collection. However, it was discovered that Chambord held several boxes containing works of art (the boxes had to be opened in order to prove that they did not contain weapons). Thus, the German army started guarding the castle. But the Germans were not aware that some of the greatest treasures of French collections were hidden in the castle. Thus, began the peregrinations of the most precious treasures of international cultural heritage such as Leonardo’s Mona Lisa. The latter left the castle of Chambord for a hectic journey. At first, it went to the castle of Louvignies. It was then moved to the Abbey of Loc-Dieu, than to Montauban, and finally to Montal. The several curators who were responsible for the security of La Gioconda were so scared of it being stolen, that some of them even hid it under their bed. However, Jacques Jaujard had found an ally amongst his enemies, Franz Wolff-Metternich. He wasleader of the Kunstschutz, a german office dedicated to the Preservation of the Artistic Heritage, who turned a blind eye to the hidings that Jaujard organized. Thanks to this German ally, Jaujard was able to keep hidden, by moving them from castle to castle, the works that Hitler’s men coveted. Simultaneously, the Nazis were beginning to despoil some of the works, or to ask to the French government to send them to the Reich. To block such transactions, French curators tried to delay as much as possible the administrative paperwork, saving several works from being sent to Germany by the end of WWII. | 1,057 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On Sundays, people in Ithaca, New York's African-American community gather to worship at St. James AME Zion Church — the oldest existing church building in the city and a landmark that is instrumental to the Southside neighborhood's black heritage.
The history of the church dates back more than 180 years and includes having served as a stop on the Underground Railroad, and as a host to abolitionists Harriet Tubman and Frederick Douglass.
St. James A.M.E. Zion Church was built in 1836, three years after being chartered in 1833 by a group of African-American Methodists who had previously attended African-American Sunday school at Ithaca’s First Methodist Episcopal Church, according to Historic Ithaca, which preserves historic buildings in the city.
Freedom-seekers worshiped in the church during the 1800's. But that, of course, was not the only reason they were there.
They were slaves who had run away from the South and were seeking a safe location on the Underground Railroad where they could gather their strength and supplies before continuing their journey north or west.
Although the church is a historic location, there is relatively little documentation showing information on St. James AME Zion Church as a stop on the Underground Railroad, because harboring freedom-seekers was illegal and keepers of safe houses were at great risk after the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act in 1850. Despite the lack of records, there are estimates on the number of slave fugitives during the time of the Underground Railroad.
As many as 75,000 to 100,000 slaves fled the South during the early to mid-1800s, and about 100 of them stopped at St. James AME Zion Church in Ithaca during a 30-to-40-year period.
At the church, the congregation and pastors, including Thomas James and Jermain Loguen, were involved with the Underground Railroad for a period of time, according to Tompkins County Historian Carol Kammen. After the Fugitive Slave Act passed in 1850, their level of involvement probably decreased significantly.
"After 1850, I would think there was little activity directly in the church, as it would have been too obvious a target for anyone looking for fugitives or those who helped them," Kammen said. "But certainly, the congregation and the pastor were involved."
As a leader in the underground network, Harriet Tubman may have left four people in Ithaca, Kammen said.
"Most runaway people, or freedom seekers, did not come through Ithaca or Tompkins County," she said.
Many of the fugitives who stopped in Ithaca were en route to Canada.
"Very few of them were in our 1860 census, so they stopped and then went on to places of greater safety," Kammen said. "My opinion is that the route north was uncertain at most stages, that it was plastic, meaning that it went one way one time and another way the next, depending upon who was available, who could help, what dangers were perceived, and it also had to do with luck."
Throughout its history, the community church evolved in many ways and has seen many uses, including as a job placement center for African-Americans and as a location where soldiers enlisted for the Civil War. It was also a location where the oppressed and unemployed congregated at during the civil-rights movement.
St. James AME Zion Church was listed as a local landmark in 1975 and on the National and State Registers of Historic Places in 1982.
"Tubman's heritage and the church is instrumental to the Southside of Ithaca," said Rev. Paris Price, the pastor of St. James AME Zion Church.
Follow Matt Steecker on Twitter @OnTheStecord. | <urn:uuid:2f817c2a-801b-4c56-a945-1d572d955914> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ithacajournal.com/in-depth/news/local/2019/10/29/harriet-tubman-underground-railroad-oldest-church-ithaca-stop-runaway-slaves/3907677002/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00413.warc.gz | en | 0.987559 | 782 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.1651764810... | 1 | On Sundays, people in Ithaca, New York's African-American community gather to worship at St. James AME Zion Church — the oldest existing church building in the city and a landmark that is instrumental to the Southside neighborhood's black heritage.
The history of the church dates back more than 180 years and includes having served as a stop on the Underground Railroad, and as a host to abolitionists Harriet Tubman and Frederick Douglass.
St. James A.M.E. Zion Church was built in 1836, three years after being chartered in 1833 by a group of African-American Methodists who had previously attended African-American Sunday school at Ithaca’s First Methodist Episcopal Church, according to Historic Ithaca, which preserves historic buildings in the city.
Freedom-seekers worshiped in the church during the 1800's. But that, of course, was not the only reason they were there.
They were slaves who had run away from the South and were seeking a safe location on the Underground Railroad where they could gather their strength and supplies before continuing their journey north or west.
Although the church is a historic location, there is relatively little documentation showing information on St. James AME Zion Church as a stop on the Underground Railroad, because harboring freedom-seekers was illegal and keepers of safe houses were at great risk after the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act in 1850. Despite the lack of records, there are estimates on the number of slave fugitives during the time of the Underground Railroad.
As many as 75,000 to 100,000 slaves fled the South during the early to mid-1800s, and about 100 of them stopped at St. James AME Zion Church in Ithaca during a 30-to-40-year period.
At the church, the congregation and pastors, including Thomas James and Jermain Loguen, were involved with the Underground Railroad for a period of time, according to Tompkins County Historian Carol Kammen. After the Fugitive Slave Act passed in 1850, their level of involvement probably decreased significantly.
"After 1850, I would think there was little activity directly in the church, as it would have been too obvious a target for anyone looking for fugitives or those who helped them," Kammen said. "But certainly, the congregation and the pastor were involved."
As a leader in the underground network, Harriet Tubman may have left four people in Ithaca, Kammen said.
"Most runaway people, or freedom seekers, did not come through Ithaca or Tompkins County," she said.
Many of the fugitives who stopped in Ithaca were en route to Canada.
"Very few of them were in our 1860 census, so they stopped and then went on to places of greater safety," Kammen said. "My opinion is that the route north was uncertain at most stages, that it was plastic, meaning that it went one way one time and another way the next, depending upon who was available, who could help, what dangers were perceived, and it also had to do with luck."
Throughout its history, the community church evolved in many ways and has seen many uses, including as a job placement center for African-Americans and as a location where soldiers enlisted for the Civil War. It was also a location where the oppressed and unemployed congregated at during the civil-rights movement.
St. James AME Zion Church was listed as a local landmark in 1975 and on the National and State Registers of Historic Places in 1982.
"Tubman's heritage and the church is instrumental to the Southside of Ithaca," said Rev. Paris Price, the pastor of St. James AME Zion Church.
Follow Matt Steecker on Twitter @OnTheStecord. | 812 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How successfully did Weimar governments deal with Germany’s problems in the years 1920-1924?
The Weimar governments were reasonably successful when it came to dealing with Germany’s problems within those four years. The government being taken over by Gustav Stresemann, in August 1923, made a huge, positive difference to Germany. Because of Stresemann, Germany was able to recover a lot quicker with his help.
One of Germany’s major problems was hyperinflation. Germany having no more goods to trade, resulted in the government printing more money. There ended up being so much money, but not enough goods to buy with it, so prices and wages went up by a tremendous amount. This made the money worthless. The majority of Germany was ‘rich’. Stresemann dealt with this problem in a very helpful way. He immediately called off passive resistance and ordered the workers in the Ruhr to go back to work. He then burned all of the worthless marks and created, then replaced a new currency, known as the ‘Rentenmark’.
The Dawes Plan of 1924 was formulated to take Weimar Germany out of hyperinflation and return Weimar’s economy to some form of stability. The main points of the Dawes Plan were simple in their effort to re-float Weimar Germany’s economy. The first main point of the Dawes plan was to return the Ruhr to Germany so that it was in their full control. Stresemann negotiated to receive American loans under the Dawes Plan, which also renegotiated the reparations bill from the Treaty of Versailles. For example, in 1924, the figure was set as fifty million in British pound sterling, as opposed to two billion of 1922. These were the first issues Stresemann dealt with as Chancellor, and due to his success, it was clear that Germany’s governments were in good hands.
Another one of Germany’s problems was the attempts to overthrow the government. Luckily, for the government, they were unsuccessful. Spartacists week in 1919, the Kapp Putsch, and the Munich Putsch...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | <urn:uuid:8e778d65-bd4c-4b39-b22b-711fc56e0182> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/How-Successfully-Did-Weimar-Governments-Deal-50766221.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00051.warc.gz | en | 0.985776 | 455 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.22411924600601... | 2 | How successfully did Weimar governments deal with Germany’s problems in the years 1920-1924?
The Weimar governments were reasonably successful when it came to dealing with Germany’s problems within those four years. The government being taken over by Gustav Stresemann, in August 1923, made a huge, positive difference to Germany. Because of Stresemann, Germany was able to recover a lot quicker with his help.
One of Germany’s major problems was hyperinflation. Germany having no more goods to trade, resulted in the government printing more money. There ended up being so much money, but not enough goods to buy with it, so prices and wages went up by a tremendous amount. This made the money worthless. The majority of Germany was ‘rich’. Stresemann dealt with this problem in a very helpful way. He immediately called off passive resistance and ordered the workers in the Ruhr to go back to work. He then burned all of the worthless marks and created, then replaced a new currency, known as the ‘Rentenmark’.
The Dawes Plan of 1924 was formulated to take Weimar Germany out of hyperinflation and return Weimar’s economy to some form of stability. The main points of the Dawes Plan were simple in their effort to re-float Weimar Germany’s economy. The first main point of the Dawes plan was to return the Ruhr to Germany so that it was in their full control. Stresemann negotiated to receive American loans under the Dawes Plan, which also renegotiated the reparations bill from the Treaty of Versailles. For example, in 1924, the figure was set as fifty million in British pound sterling, as opposed to two billion of 1922. These were the first issues Stresemann dealt with as Chancellor, and due to his success, it was clear that Germany’s governments were in good hands.
Another one of Germany’s problems was the attempts to overthrow the government. Luckily, for the government, they were unsuccessful. Spartacists week in 1919, the Kapp Putsch, and the Munich Putsch...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | 454 | ENGLISH | 1 |
French Absolutism and the French Revolution Essay
During the period between 1589 through 1783, the French Monarchy had risen to its height of absolute power and then was destroyed by the French Revolution. The reigns
of Henry IV, Louis XIII, Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI each contributed to the
strengthening of the French Monarchy as well as the destruction. Class struggles were a
major problem throughout the reigns of each king. France was broken into three estates
that were; the clergy, the nobility, and the common people. They were each striving for
more power. The enlightenment had also caused problems. Before the enlightenment
people had accepted things as they were, but by the end of the …show more content…
finances and promoted the economic healing of France after years of civil war. Things
such as agriculture, manufacturing, and commerce were encouraged. Taxes on the
peasants were reduced, and taxes on the other groups were raised. He wiped out nobles
that were advising him and made a small cabinet, ensuring an absolute ruler. Sully
replaced royal officers, for those managed by local representative bodies. Henry's
religious principle and political advantage gave him a special place in French history.
Under his rule the king became more powerful. He assured that the position of the king
would be absolute. He cut off the ties with nobles and others that were a threat to the
king. He restored order and prosperity to the kingdom. The economy improved as well.
He supported overseas trade and built a highway system in France to promote commerce.
By evenly distributing the tax burden of the peasants he successfully lessened the class
conflict. According to him if the lower classes aren't happy then the upper classes will be
more unhappy. The religious conflict of Catholics and Protestants was stopped with the
issueing of the Edict of Nantes. Henry IV was a great ruler and did many honorable
things for France.
Louis XIII, the son of Henry IV, ruled France from 1610 to 1643. During this
period France became a strong power | <urn:uuid:edd099ff-fc49-4aab-a20f-4e74384b6d5c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/french-absolutism-and-the-french-revolution/F38Y53KXC | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00516.warc.gz | en | 0.985345 | 435 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.2149769663... | 1 | French Absolutism and the French Revolution Essay
During the period between 1589 through 1783, the French Monarchy had risen to its height of absolute power and then was destroyed by the French Revolution. The reigns
of Henry IV, Louis XIII, Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI each contributed to the
strengthening of the French Monarchy as well as the destruction. Class struggles were a
major problem throughout the reigns of each king. France was broken into three estates
that were; the clergy, the nobility, and the common people. They were each striving for
more power. The enlightenment had also caused problems. Before the enlightenment
people had accepted things as they were, but by the end of the …show more content…
finances and promoted the economic healing of France after years of civil war. Things
such as agriculture, manufacturing, and commerce were encouraged. Taxes on the
peasants were reduced, and taxes on the other groups were raised. He wiped out nobles
that were advising him and made a small cabinet, ensuring an absolute ruler. Sully
replaced royal officers, for those managed by local representative bodies. Henry's
religious principle and political advantage gave him a special place in French history.
Under his rule the king became more powerful. He assured that the position of the king
would be absolute. He cut off the ties with nobles and others that were a threat to the
king. He restored order and prosperity to the kingdom. The economy improved as well.
He supported overseas trade and built a highway system in France to promote commerce.
By evenly distributing the tax burden of the peasants he successfully lessened the class
conflict. According to him if the lower classes aren't happy then the upper classes will be
more unhappy. The religious conflict of Catholics and Protestants was stopped with the
issueing of the Edict of Nantes. Henry IV was a great ruler and did many honorable
things for France.
Louis XIII, the son of Henry IV, ruled France from 1610 to 1643. During this
period France became a strong power | 444 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Heraclius: emperor of the East-Roman (Byzantine) empire (r.610-641).
The inhabitants of Constantinople must have sighed with relief when, in October 610 CE, they saw a fleet approaching. A blonde hero stood on the main ship’s forecastle, to which he had attached an icon of the Mother of God. For more than seven years, the citizens of the capital of the Byzantine Empire had been forced to endure one of the most cruel and incompetent rulers who had ever worn the imperial purple: Phocas, a former officer who had been raised to the throne by the army and had almost brought the empire to ruin. And now, rescue was near.
The newcomer was Heraclius and although his last port of call had been Thessaloniki, his fleet arrived from Africa, where his father was exarch (governor) of Carthage and the driving force behind the revolt. It took his son little effort to enter the city, because hardly any measures had been taken to defend the walls. Besides, the urban elite was only too happy to collaborate. Two guardsman handed over the mutilated body of Phocas to Heraclius. The former emperor’s limbs were cut off, the corpse was beheaded, and the head was carried through the city on a spear.
On the same day, the patriarch of Constantinople crowned Heraclius emperor and married him to Fabia, the daughter of an African landowner, who would from now on be called Eudocia. The new emperor was thirty-five years old. One year later, the couple’s first daughter was born, Epiphania, who suffered from epilepsy and died early. Shortly after, a son was born, Constantine.
The Persian crisis
Heraclius inherited a war against the Sasanian Persians, who had threatened the borders for almost four centuries. Their main commander, Shahrbaraz, took control of Antioch in 612 and Damascus in 613, proceeding to Jerusalem in the next year. In the last city, thousands of monks, priests, and nuns were murdered in three days, while the patriarch Zacharias was imprisoned. No house was spared and the Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre was laid in ashes, as were the graves of Christians. Even worse, the True Cross was seized, together with the lance and sponge used during the crucifixion of Jesus – a disgrace to the Byzantines that had to be avenged anyway.
To make matters even worse, the Persians also seized Alexandria in Egypt and blocked the corn supply to Constantinople. Famine erupted, followed by an epidemic. Heraclius was desperate and even thought about moving the capital to North Africa. A ship, filled with valuables, was already on its way, but it suffered shipwreck in a violent storm.
At this moment, the patriarch of Constantinople, Sergius, intervened. He made the emperor swear that he would never give up the city and offered to melt the church treasures, allowing Heraclius to use the gold and silver as a loan to bring his army back to strength. The emperor took courage and decided to cross into Asia at the head of a new army. It was to be a holy war, meant to get back the True Cross. But first, after the death of Eudocia, he married his cousin Martina: an act of incest that gave him a bad name among the clergy and the populace. She would become the most hated woman of the Byzantine Empire.
The preparations of the war took several years. Years that witnessed a monetary reform, backed up by Sergius’ gold and silver, and an army reform. The troops were reorganized in small, self-sufficient units, which were more useful during the long, faraway campaign Heraclius was contemplating.
War against Persia
Martina accompanied her husband during the Persian campaign, which started in April 622 and went wonderfully successful. Having made a landing in Cilicia, far behind enemy lines, he defeated the Persian general Shahrbaraz. Having spent the winter in Trapezus on the shores of the Black Sea, Heraclius invaded Armenia and proceeded to Ctesiphon in Babylonia. In the next year, he invaded Albania (a kingdom in the Caucasus), and he spent the winter near Lake Van. In 625, he proceeded to Amida on the Upper Tigris, to Samosata on the Upper Euphrates, to Adana in Cilicia. He won a new victory over Shahrbaraz, and spent the winter in Trebizond again. Byzantine control of Anatolia was restored.
His success is partly explained by the military reforms. The self-sufficient units were more mobile than anyone had expected. Another explanation is that in 625, he signed a treaty with the Khazars in the Caucasus. They were a remainder of the Hunnish federation and were also called Tourkoi by the Byzantine writers. Having received precious gifts from Heraclius and a promise that their leader would marry Heraclius’ daughter, they promised to join the fight against the Persians. Heraclius had the advantage of large numbers.
Still, Heraclius’ expedition was under threat because another nomadic group from Central Asia, the Avars, together with Slavs, and Bulgarians arrived from the north to lay siege to Constantinople. At the same time, Shahbaraz’ Persian forces reached Chalcedon, on the Asian bank of the Bosphorus, ready to join the Avar attack on the Byzantine capital. Like Heraclius’ army, the Persians were capable of proceeding behind enemy lines.
However, Heraclius was not distracted. He knew that the walls of Constantinople were impenetrable. Moreover, the patriarch carried the miraculous icon of the Mother of God, painted by the evangelist Luke, along the walls, which inspired the defenders. When the Avars launched their attach, they were defeated and drowned “like the Egyptians in the Red Sea”, as the Byzantines noted. In 626 the Avar army retreated, announcing that they would be back soon.
The king of Persia was Khusrau II “the Victorious”. When he learned of the Avar retreat, he sent a messenger to Shahrbaraz, ordering him to return with his army as soon as possible. However, the Byzantines intercepted the message and forwarded another letter, which had been dictated by Heraclius. It said that the general had to stay where he was. The ruse was successful and for months, the Byzantine field army did not encounter serious resistance. In December 627, Heraclius defeated a large Persian army near the ruins of ancient Nineveh. The battle lasted eleven hours but was decisive. The head of the Persian commander was put on a stake and exposed in the Byzantine camp, while no less than twenty-eight Persian banners were captured. After many years, the archenemy was finally defeated.
Revolution in Persia
The military reverse was the direct cause of a palace coup in Persia. Early in 628, crown prince Sheroe had his father put in jail, where he would die not much later. Sheroe now succeeded to the throne and accepted the name of Kavad II. He immediately sent envoys to Heraclius, whom he called “my brother”. The new Persian king expressed his wish to live in peace and harmony with the Byzantines and promised to release all POWs. The emperor appreciated the overture and demanded that the True Cross were returned. However, the negotiations broke off because the young Persian king died, but his successor, general Shahrbaraz, who briefly ruled in 629, finally accepted a treaty.
Heraclius was at the zenith of his fame. On September 14, 628, he triumphantly returned to Constantinople, entering the city through the Golden Gate, displaying the True Cross in a chariot that was pulled by four elephants. In 630 he returned the relic to Jerusalem and there, in the presence of patriarch Zacharias, began the restoration of the church of the Holy Sepulchre. He was to stay in Asia for seven years: there were many things to put in order.
He divided the Asian part of the Byzantine Empire into four themata, a word that means “army placements”. Each theme was placed under the authority of a strategos or military governor, and many peasants received plots of land on the condition that they and their male descendants would serve as soldiers. This reorganization (which cannot be dated precisely) was to be of great importance: from now on, the emperors had a reliable army and were no longer dependent on mercenaries or barbarians, who were never as loyal as farmers defending their own land. A whole new class of farmer-soldiers came into being, which would serve and strengthen the Byzantine state for centuries to come.
At the same time, Heraclius was running short of cash. The Persian War had taken its toll, and the emperor, despite obtaining large amounts of Persian gold and silver, was forced to dismiss soldiers and reduce their armaments. He still had to pay his debts to the church, which had once melted its silver and gold to pay for the defense of Constantinople.
There was another problem, of a very different kind. For a long time, Christian theologians had been debating the relationship between the divine and human natures of Christ. Too much emphasis on his divine nature would distract from his humanity, but on the other hand, Christ’s divine nature looked imperiled if Christ was seen too much as a human being. Several councils had been devoted to this question, and in the end the Council of Chalcedon (451) had agreed upon a definition: Christ was “perfect both in deity and in humanness” and the two natures were inseparably united. People who did not keep to this doctrine were considered heretical.
Unfortunately, this solution did not satisfy everyone. Especially in Egypt, Syria, and Armenia, the majority of believers remained convinced that the divine nature of Christ had overwhelmed or absorbed his human one, so that only one nature remained, the divine. The adherents of this idea were called “Monophysites”. The provinces were of great economic importance to the Byzantine state and because the Chalcedonian Definition had be recognized by the emperor Marcian, none of his successors could allow these provinces to go their own way – that would amount to accepting a humiliating loss of imperial dignity. However, punitive actions against the supporters of Monophysitism were dangerous because of the strategic and economic importance of the provinces.
That is why Heraclius personally dealt with this issue. Together with Sergius, the patriarch of Constantinople, and Cyrus, the archbishop of Chalcedon, he proposed a compromise. In Christ, they argued, there was not one nature, but one energy (Monoergetism) or active force. With this proposal, the emperor hoped to reunite all Christians. However, Sophronius of Jerusalem (the future patriarch of that city), vigorously opposed this formula and forced Heraclius to retreat.
In 638, the emperor issued an ekthesis (decree) that was hung in the narthex of the church of Divine Wisdom in Constantinople, in which Heraclius declared that from now on, it was forbidden to speak of one or two energies, but that Christ had had one will (thelema). This Monotheletism was almost universally rejected: although the Maronite Christians were Monothelitists for quite some time, the new compromise was unacceptable for both the adherents of the Chalcedonian Definition and the Monophysites, while pope John IV explicitly condemned Monotheletism.
Heraclius was disappointed and gave up all further attempts to solve the problem. On his deathbed, he would mumble that he had agreed only reluctantly to a proposal by Sergius. It had been the patriarch’s initiative and it was not his fault, the emperor claimed, obviously not speaking the truth. The issue has remained unresolved: the Coptic and Armenian churches still reject the Chalcedonian Definition.
The Arab war
In the meantime, a new crisis had started in the east, which would bring about the greatest difficulties for the Byzantine Empire: the Arabs had found a Monotheistic faith, Islam, had overcome their divisions, and were encroaching upon the eastern provinces of Heraclius’ realm. Soon after the death of Muhammad (632) the Arab expansion had begun and the Arabs threatened not just the Byzantine Empire, but Sassanian Persia as well. Worse, both superpowers were still exhausted from their titanic struggle.
The Arabs rapidly advanced and took Damascus in 635. Everywhere, they received support from the local population: the Syrians, who were Monophysites, knew that the conquerors would not impose the heavy taxes that Heraclius needed for the reconstruction of his eastern provinces.
Although the Byzantine Empire was exhausted from the Persian war, the emperor managed to build an army for a counterattack. In 636, he gathered 80,000 men near Antioch. The Arabs retreated from Damascus and Emesa, and camped near the river Yarmouk, a tributary of the Jordan. In May, the imperial army advanced to the south, but for reasons that have remained unclear to us, the final attack was postponed for three months. This had fatal consequences.
The blazing heat undermined the morale of the Byzantine troops and to make matters worse, a violent sandstorm struck from the south, blinding Heraclius’ soldiers. Of course this was the moment the Arab commander, Khalid, had been waiting for. He attacked and defeated Heraclius' army. His victory was decisive: the Byzantines were unable to rebuild an army and the Monophysites accepted the Arabs as liberators.
And so, the Arab armies reoccupied Damascus and Emesa. In the autumn of 637, patriarch Sophronius of Jerusalem surrendered his city to caliph Omar, the second successor of Muhammad. Not much later, the Arabs conquered Egypt (641). The next year, they defeated the Sassanians in the battle of Nahavand, which was the beginning of the end for Persia.
It was disaster and Heraclius collapsed. He had not personally participated in the fight because he suffered from dropsy. His health, already poor, declined and he had mental problems. He was convinced God had abandoned him and had sided with the Arabs, whose new faith looked like some kind of new Christianity, apparently superior to the theological compromises he had attempted.
He left Syria, returning to his capital, tired and exhausted. Reaching the Bosphorus, he suddenly had an inexplicable aversion to the sea. He even hid in a side room of one of the imperial palaces on the Asian shore, unable to proceed to Constantinople, ignoring the urgent pleas of the city’s representatives. He became paranoid, believed rumors about a conspiracy by his nephew and a bastard son, and ordered their noses and hands to be cut off before sending them into exile.
After a few weeks, his wife Martina and members of the court found a solution. Patriarch Nicephorus, who wrote a Breviarium or Short History, reports that a large number of boats was tied together, as if it were a bridge, to which they added a “wall” of tree branches and leaves, so that the emperor would not have to look at the sea. It worked: the emperor passed the sea on horseback as if he were traveling on land.note[Nicephorus, Breviarium 25.]
After Heraclius arrived in the city, his physical condition deteriorated. The emperor’s dropsy was incurable and on February 11, 641, he died. He was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, and for three days his sarcophagus remained open, eunuchs seated around it. The emperor had ordered this odd procedure, because he had been afraid of being buried alive.
His subjects were sure that their ruler had been punished by God because of the incestuous marriage to Martina, his cousin. She had given him eleven children, four of whom had died young and two who had been disabled – another sign of the Lord’s displeasure. After his death, she was publicly condemned. She had arranged for her eldest son to become co-emperor, along with Constantine, Heraclius’ son from his first marriage, with Eudocia.
However, Constantine III and Heraclonas, as the two joint emperors were called, were not to rule for a long time. Constantine suffered from tuberculosis and died in May. In the summer, Martina and Heraclonas were arrested. Her tongue was torn out, her nose cut off, and she was exiled to Rhodes, together with her son. The new emperor, who was unable to recover Syria and had to witness the loss of Africa, was a son of Constantine III named Heraclius, who officially reigned as Constantine but is usually called Constans II Pogonatus ("the bearded one"). | <urn:uuid:582903f4-17da-4331-8508-1bea5fe7d9da> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.livius.org/articles/person/heraclius/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00553.warc.gz | en | 0.988344 | 3,543 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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-0.03981565... | 15 | Heraclius: emperor of the East-Roman (Byzantine) empire (r.610-641).
The inhabitants of Constantinople must have sighed with relief when, in October 610 CE, they saw a fleet approaching. A blonde hero stood on the main ship’s forecastle, to which he had attached an icon of the Mother of God. For more than seven years, the citizens of the capital of the Byzantine Empire had been forced to endure one of the most cruel and incompetent rulers who had ever worn the imperial purple: Phocas, a former officer who had been raised to the throne by the army and had almost brought the empire to ruin. And now, rescue was near.
The newcomer was Heraclius and although his last port of call had been Thessaloniki, his fleet arrived from Africa, where his father was exarch (governor) of Carthage and the driving force behind the revolt. It took his son little effort to enter the city, because hardly any measures had been taken to defend the walls. Besides, the urban elite was only too happy to collaborate. Two guardsman handed over the mutilated body of Phocas to Heraclius. The former emperor’s limbs were cut off, the corpse was beheaded, and the head was carried through the city on a spear.
On the same day, the patriarch of Constantinople crowned Heraclius emperor and married him to Fabia, the daughter of an African landowner, who would from now on be called Eudocia. The new emperor was thirty-five years old. One year later, the couple’s first daughter was born, Epiphania, who suffered from epilepsy and died early. Shortly after, a son was born, Constantine.
The Persian crisis
Heraclius inherited a war against the Sasanian Persians, who had threatened the borders for almost four centuries. Their main commander, Shahrbaraz, took control of Antioch in 612 and Damascus in 613, proceeding to Jerusalem in the next year. In the last city, thousands of monks, priests, and nuns were murdered in three days, while the patriarch Zacharias was imprisoned. No house was spared and the Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre was laid in ashes, as were the graves of Christians. Even worse, the True Cross was seized, together with the lance and sponge used during the crucifixion of Jesus – a disgrace to the Byzantines that had to be avenged anyway.
To make matters even worse, the Persians also seized Alexandria in Egypt and blocked the corn supply to Constantinople. Famine erupted, followed by an epidemic. Heraclius was desperate and even thought about moving the capital to North Africa. A ship, filled with valuables, was already on its way, but it suffered shipwreck in a violent storm.
At this moment, the patriarch of Constantinople, Sergius, intervened. He made the emperor swear that he would never give up the city and offered to melt the church treasures, allowing Heraclius to use the gold and silver as a loan to bring his army back to strength. The emperor took courage and decided to cross into Asia at the head of a new army. It was to be a holy war, meant to get back the True Cross. But first, after the death of Eudocia, he married his cousin Martina: an act of incest that gave him a bad name among the clergy and the populace. She would become the most hated woman of the Byzantine Empire.
The preparations of the war took several years. Years that witnessed a monetary reform, backed up by Sergius’ gold and silver, and an army reform. The troops were reorganized in small, self-sufficient units, which were more useful during the long, faraway campaign Heraclius was contemplating.
War against Persia
Martina accompanied her husband during the Persian campaign, which started in April 622 and went wonderfully successful. Having made a landing in Cilicia, far behind enemy lines, he defeated the Persian general Shahrbaraz. Having spent the winter in Trapezus on the shores of the Black Sea, Heraclius invaded Armenia and proceeded to Ctesiphon in Babylonia. In the next year, he invaded Albania (a kingdom in the Caucasus), and he spent the winter near Lake Van. In 625, he proceeded to Amida on the Upper Tigris, to Samosata on the Upper Euphrates, to Adana in Cilicia. He won a new victory over Shahrbaraz, and spent the winter in Trebizond again. Byzantine control of Anatolia was restored.
His success is partly explained by the military reforms. The self-sufficient units were more mobile than anyone had expected. Another explanation is that in 625, he signed a treaty with the Khazars in the Caucasus. They were a remainder of the Hunnish federation and were also called Tourkoi by the Byzantine writers. Having received precious gifts from Heraclius and a promise that their leader would marry Heraclius’ daughter, they promised to join the fight against the Persians. Heraclius had the advantage of large numbers.
Still, Heraclius’ expedition was under threat because another nomadic group from Central Asia, the Avars, together with Slavs, and Bulgarians arrived from the north to lay siege to Constantinople. At the same time, Shahbaraz’ Persian forces reached Chalcedon, on the Asian bank of the Bosphorus, ready to join the Avar attack on the Byzantine capital. Like Heraclius’ army, the Persians were capable of proceeding behind enemy lines.
However, Heraclius was not distracted. He knew that the walls of Constantinople were impenetrable. Moreover, the patriarch carried the miraculous icon of the Mother of God, painted by the evangelist Luke, along the walls, which inspired the defenders. When the Avars launched their attach, they were defeated and drowned “like the Egyptians in the Red Sea”, as the Byzantines noted. In 626 the Avar army retreated, announcing that they would be back soon.
The king of Persia was Khusrau II “the Victorious”. When he learned of the Avar retreat, he sent a messenger to Shahrbaraz, ordering him to return with his army as soon as possible. However, the Byzantines intercepted the message and forwarded another letter, which had been dictated by Heraclius. It said that the general had to stay where he was. The ruse was successful and for months, the Byzantine field army did not encounter serious resistance. In December 627, Heraclius defeated a large Persian army near the ruins of ancient Nineveh. The battle lasted eleven hours but was decisive. The head of the Persian commander was put on a stake and exposed in the Byzantine camp, while no less than twenty-eight Persian banners were captured. After many years, the archenemy was finally defeated.
Revolution in Persia
The military reverse was the direct cause of a palace coup in Persia. Early in 628, crown prince Sheroe had his father put in jail, where he would die not much later. Sheroe now succeeded to the throne and accepted the name of Kavad II. He immediately sent envoys to Heraclius, whom he called “my brother”. The new Persian king expressed his wish to live in peace and harmony with the Byzantines and promised to release all POWs. The emperor appreciated the overture and demanded that the True Cross were returned. However, the negotiations broke off because the young Persian king died, but his successor, general Shahrbaraz, who briefly ruled in 629, finally accepted a treaty.
Heraclius was at the zenith of his fame. On September 14, 628, he triumphantly returned to Constantinople, entering the city through the Golden Gate, displaying the True Cross in a chariot that was pulled by four elephants. In 630 he returned the relic to Jerusalem and there, in the presence of patriarch Zacharias, began the restoration of the church of the Holy Sepulchre. He was to stay in Asia for seven years: there were many things to put in order.
He divided the Asian part of the Byzantine Empire into four themata, a word that means “army placements”. Each theme was placed under the authority of a strategos or military governor, and many peasants received plots of land on the condition that they and their male descendants would serve as soldiers. This reorganization (which cannot be dated precisely) was to be of great importance: from now on, the emperors had a reliable army and were no longer dependent on mercenaries or barbarians, who were never as loyal as farmers defending their own land. A whole new class of farmer-soldiers came into being, which would serve and strengthen the Byzantine state for centuries to come.
At the same time, Heraclius was running short of cash. The Persian War had taken its toll, and the emperor, despite obtaining large amounts of Persian gold and silver, was forced to dismiss soldiers and reduce their armaments. He still had to pay his debts to the church, which had once melted its silver and gold to pay for the defense of Constantinople.
There was another problem, of a very different kind. For a long time, Christian theologians had been debating the relationship between the divine and human natures of Christ. Too much emphasis on his divine nature would distract from his humanity, but on the other hand, Christ’s divine nature looked imperiled if Christ was seen too much as a human being. Several councils had been devoted to this question, and in the end the Council of Chalcedon (451) had agreed upon a definition: Christ was “perfect both in deity and in humanness” and the two natures were inseparably united. People who did not keep to this doctrine were considered heretical.
Unfortunately, this solution did not satisfy everyone. Especially in Egypt, Syria, and Armenia, the majority of believers remained convinced that the divine nature of Christ had overwhelmed or absorbed his human one, so that only one nature remained, the divine. The adherents of this idea were called “Monophysites”. The provinces were of great economic importance to the Byzantine state and because the Chalcedonian Definition had be recognized by the emperor Marcian, none of his successors could allow these provinces to go their own way – that would amount to accepting a humiliating loss of imperial dignity. However, punitive actions against the supporters of Monophysitism were dangerous because of the strategic and economic importance of the provinces.
That is why Heraclius personally dealt with this issue. Together with Sergius, the patriarch of Constantinople, and Cyrus, the archbishop of Chalcedon, he proposed a compromise. In Christ, they argued, there was not one nature, but one energy (Monoergetism) or active force. With this proposal, the emperor hoped to reunite all Christians. However, Sophronius of Jerusalem (the future patriarch of that city), vigorously opposed this formula and forced Heraclius to retreat.
In 638, the emperor issued an ekthesis (decree) that was hung in the narthex of the church of Divine Wisdom in Constantinople, in which Heraclius declared that from now on, it was forbidden to speak of one or two energies, but that Christ had had one will (thelema). This Monotheletism was almost universally rejected: although the Maronite Christians were Monothelitists for quite some time, the new compromise was unacceptable for both the adherents of the Chalcedonian Definition and the Monophysites, while pope John IV explicitly condemned Monotheletism.
Heraclius was disappointed and gave up all further attempts to solve the problem. On his deathbed, he would mumble that he had agreed only reluctantly to a proposal by Sergius. It had been the patriarch’s initiative and it was not his fault, the emperor claimed, obviously not speaking the truth. The issue has remained unresolved: the Coptic and Armenian churches still reject the Chalcedonian Definition.
The Arab war
In the meantime, a new crisis had started in the east, which would bring about the greatest difficulties for the Byzantine Empire: the Arabs had found a Monotheistic faith, Islam, had overcome their divisions, and were encroaching upon the eastern provinces of Heraclius’ realm. Soon after the death of Muhammad (632) the Arab expansion had begun and the Arabs threatened not just the Byzantine Empire, but Sassanian Persia as well. Worse, both superpowers were still exhausted from their titanic struggle.
The Arabs rapidly advanced and took Damascus in 635. Everywhere, they received support from the local population: the Syrians, who were Monophysites, knew that the conquerors would not impose the heavy taxes that Heraclius needed for the reconstruction of his eastern provinces.
Although the Byzantine Empire was exhausted from the Persian war, the emperor managed to build an army for a counterattack. In 636, he gathered 80,000 men near Antioch. The Arabs retreated from Damascus and Emesa, and camped near the river Yarmouk, a tributary of the Jordan. In May, the imperial army advanced to the south, but for reasons that have remained unclear to us, the final attack was postponed for three months. This had fatal consequences.
The blazing heat undermined the morale of the Byzantine troops and to make matters worse, a violent sandstorm struck from the south, blinding Heraclius’ soldiers. Of course this was the moment the Arab commander, Khalid, had been waiting for. He attacked and defeated Heraclius' army. His victory was decisive: the Byzantines were unable to rebuild an army and the Monophysites accepted the Arabs as liberators.
And so, the Arab armies reoccupied Damascus and Emesa. In the autumn of 637, patriarch Sophronius of Jerusalem surrendered his city to caliph Omar, the second successor of Muhammad. Not much later, the Arabs conquered Egypt (641). The next year, they defeated the Sassanians in the battle of Nahavand, which was the beginning of the end for Persia.
It was disaster and Heraclius collapsed. He had not personally participated in the fight because he suffered from dropsy. His health, already poor, declined and he had mental problems. He was convinced God had abandoned him and had sided with the Arabs, whose new faith looked like some kind of new Christianity, apparently superior to the theological compromises he had attempted.
He left Syria, returning to his capital, tired and exhausted. Reaching the Bosphorus, he suddenly had an inexplicable aversion to the sea. He even hid in a side room of one of the imperial palaces on the Asian shore, unable to proceed to Constantinople, ignoring the urgent pleas of the city’s representatives. He became paranoid, believed rumors about a conspiracy by his nephew and a bastard son, and ordered their noses and hands to be cut off before sending them into exile.
After a few weeks, his wife Martina and members of the court found a solution. Patriarch Nicephorus, who wrote a Breviarium or Short History, reports that a large number of boats was tied together, as if it were a bridge, to which they added a “wall” of tree branches and leaves, so that the emperor would not have to look at the sea. It worked: the emperor passed the sea on horseback as if he were traveling on land.note[Nicephorus, Breviarium 25.]
After Heraclius arrived in the city, his physical condition deteriorated. The emperor’s dropsy was incurable and on February 11, 641, he died. He was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, and for three days his sarcophagus remained open, eunuchs seated around it. The emperor had ordered this odd procedure, because he had been afraid of being buried alive.
His subjects were sure that their ruler had been punished by God because of the incestuous marriage to Martina, his cousin. She had given him eleven children, four of whom had died young and two who had been disabled – another sign of the Lord’s displeasure. After his death, she was publicly condemned. She had arranged for her eldest son to become co-emperor, along with Constantine, Heraclius’ son from his first marriage, with Eudocia.
However, Constantine III and Heraclonas, as the two joint emperors were called, were not to rule for a long time. Constantine suffered from tuberculosis and died in May. In the summer, Martina and Heraclonas were arrested. Her tongue was torn out, her nose cut off, and she was exiled to Rhodes, together with her son. The new emperor, who was unable to recover Syria and had to witness the loss of Africa, was a son of Constantine III named Heraclius, who officially reigned as Constantine but is usually called Constans II Pogonatus ("the bearded one"). | 3,594 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Fighting for the right to read books
The struggle for civil rights in 1960's America included the right to read books as many public libraries in the South barred African Americans, even though it was illegal.
November 28th, 2019
In response, African Americans began creating “Freedom Libraries” and over 80 appeared in the deep south as documented by B.C. librarian and author, Mike Selby.
Freedom Libraries: The Untold Story of Libraries for African Americans in the South (Rowman & Littlefield $36)
Librarians not only help readers find books, some also write them. Cranbrook Public Library’s community development librarian is the latter. He has written Freedom Libraries: The Untold Story of Libraries for African Americans in the South about the period in the mid-20th century when public libraries were not immune to racial segregation practices in the U.S., even though it was illegal.
Many libraries were desegregated on paper only: there would be no cards given to African Americans, no books for African Americans to read, and no furniture for them to use. Under these conditions, ‘Freedom Libraries’ began to evolve, installed by civil rights movement people who also called for book donations, which came from all over the country.
These parallel libraries appeared in the deep South, staffed by civil rights voter registration workers. They varied in size and quality but all of them created the first encounter many African-Americans had with a library. Terror, bombings, and eventually murder would be visited on freedom libraries – with people giving up their lives so others could read a library book. -Ed.
When he was ten, Mike Selby’s father took him to see Star Wars at his hometown’s local cinema. He remembers so many townspeople turned out that the police had to barricade traffic from the street. But everyone got in to see the movie and, with his father, Selby felt safe and warm and that he belonged. He also recalls feeling an “absolute sense of wonder” that night.
He wouldn’t feel that way again until 35 years later when he stood outside the University of Alabama’s Foster Auditorium on his first day of library school. As fortunate as he was, Selby was all too aware of the completely different experience another student had fifty years before. He recounts that episode and how it changed him in his preface to Freedom Libraries, reprinted below with permission of the author.
“My feet were on sacred ground, as fifty years earlier before me another student stood here on her first day of library school. Her name was Autherine Lucy, and – due to a variance of pigmentation in her skin – her presence ignited one of the worst race riots in the history of the state. The same scenario played out seven years later, when two more students – Vivian Malone and James Hood – were refused entry by Alabama’s governor at the time and a wall of state troopers. Standing there in the oppressive August heat (the massive willow oak trees gave no shade), I took in the names of all three, now etched in the memorial that bears their name. For the second time in my life, the profound sense of sheer wonder rushed through me. Reaching out for Lucy’s name reproduced the feelings I had so exactly when I was ten that I almost turned looking for my father’s hand.
The night he took me to Star Wars, there was simply no chance of either of us being turned away at the ticket booth. There were no back entrances, special seating, or separate washrooms to degrade us. No one would beat my father with a bat or chain, and no policeman would use a cattle-prod on me. My sisters would not be tormented at their school. My mother would not lose her job. No one would shoot at our cars, dynamite our home, or run us out of town. In fact, no one in the community had any fear of being beaten within an inch of their life, or branded, or lynched, or castrated.
This was not the reality for millions of African Americans. Change the theater to anything – grocery store, diner, school, playground, beach, or even a library – and the complete lack of human empathy is as staggering as the unimaginable levels of courage displayed by those who sought to change it.
Autherine Lucy never became a librarian, but a New York Post reporter who saw her try wrote, ‘What is this extraordinary resource of this otherwise unhappy country that it breeds such dignity in its victims.’ He ‘watched in awe’ as she barely left the campus alive that day. I felt that same awe decades later, standing where she stood.
This book is dedicated to Autherine Lucy, who was denied her life’s promise. At great personal cost, she opened the doors for so many others. I think of her often in my career and try to honor her as I practice librarianship.”
B.C.-born and raised Selby is also a newspaper columnist in addition to being a librarian and author. He received his MLIS from the University of Alabama, which is where he first unearthed the story of the Freedom Libraries. | <urn:uuid:308f11f2-2c33-4dd0-90b6-a89fc8cd92d4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bcbooklook.com/2019/11/28/fighting-for-the-right-to-read-books/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00438.warc.gz | en | 0.983332 | 1,087 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.18859308958053... | 9 | Fighting for the right to read books
The struggle for civil rights in 1960's America included the right to read books as many public libraries in the South barred African Americans, even though it was illegal.
November 28th, 2019
In response, African Americans began creating “Freedom Libraries” and over 80 appeared in the deep south as documented by B.C. librarian and author, Mike Selby.
Freedom Libraries: The Untold Story of Libraries for African Americans in the South (Rowman & Littlefield $36)
Librarians not only help readers find books, some also write them. Cranbrook Public Library’s community development librarian is the latter. He has written Freedom Libraries: The Untold Story of Libraries for African Americans in the South about the period in the mid-20th century when public libraries were not immune to racial segregation practices in the U.S., even though it was illegal.
Many libraries were desegregated on paper only: there would be no cards given to African Americans, no books for African Americans to read, and no furniture for them to use. Under these conditions, ‘Freedom Libraries’ began to evolve, installed by civil rights movement people who also called for book donations, which came from all over the country.
These parallel libraries appeared in the deep South, staffed by civil rights voter registration workers. They varied in size and quality but all of them created the first encounter many African-Americans had with a library. Terror, bombings, and eventually murder would be visited on freedom libraries – with people giving up their lives so others could read a library book. -Ed.
When he was ten, Mike Selby’s father took him to see Star Wars at his hometown’s local cinema. He remembers so many townspeople turned out that the police had to barricade traffic from the street. But everyone got in to see the movie and, with his father, Selby felt safe and warm and that he belonged. He also recalls feeling an “absolute sense of wonder” that night.
He wouldn’t feel that way again until 35 years later when he stood outside the University of Alabama’s Foster Auditorium on his first day of library school. As fortunate as he was, Selby was all too aware of the completely different experience another student had fifty years before. He recounts that episode and how it changed him in his preface to Freedom Libraries, reprinted below with permission of the author.
“My feet were on sacred ground, as fifty years earlier before me another student stood here on her first day of library school. Her name was Autherine Lucy, and – due to a variance of pigmentation in her skin – her presence ignited one of the worst race riots in the history of the state. The same scenario played out seven years later, when two more students – Vivian Malone and James Hood – were refused entry by Alabama’s governor at the time and a wall of state troopers. Standing there in the oppressive August heat (the massive willow oak trees gave no shade), I took in the names of all three, now etched in the memorial that bears their name. For the second time in my life, the profound sense of sheer wonder rushed through me. Reaching out for Lucy’s name reproduced the feelings I had so exactly when I was ten that I almost turned looking for my father’s hand.
The night he took me to Star Wars, there was simply no chance of either of us being turned away at the ticket booth. There were no back entrances, special seating, or separate washrooms to degrade us. No one would beat my father with a bat or chain, and no policeman would use a cattle-prod on me. My sisters would not be tormented at their school. My mother would not lose her job. No one would shoot at our cars, dynamite our home, or run us out of town. In fact, no one in the community had any fear of being beaten within an inch of their life, or branded, or lynched, or castrated.
This was not the reality for millions of African Americans. Change the theater to anything – grocery store, diner, school, playground, beach, or even a library – and the complete lack of human empathy is as staggering as the unimaginable levels of courage displayed by those who sought to change it.
Autherine Lucy never became a librarian, but a New York Post reporter who saw her try wrote, ‘What is this extraordinary resource of this otherwise unhappy country that it breeds such dignity in its victims.’ He ‘watched in awe’ as she barely left the campus alive that day. I felt that same awe decades later, standing where she stood.
This book is dedicated to Autherine Lucy, who was denied her life’s promise. At great personal cost, she opened the doors for so many others. I think of her often in my career and try to honor her as I practice librarianship.”
B.C.-born and raised Selby is also a newspaper columnist in addition to being a librarian and author. He received his MLIS from the University of Alabama, which is where he first unearthed the story of the Freedom Libraries. | 1,054 | ENGLISH | 1 |
He will regard knowledge as one and universal. To him it knows no bounds of colour, race and religion. Therefore, the realist teacher would not like to call French or German mathematics. The realist teacher tries to present the knowledge of the subject- matter before the pupil in such a way as to make himself one with it.
He himself becomes the voice of chemistry and mathematics and speaks in the class-room to ears which are eager to receive it. He stands for truth. He has great reverence for facts. Therefore, while presenting the voice of a subject he keeps his personality away from it, that is, he does not express his personal likings or disliking for particular points. The realist teacher desires to make discoveries in his chosen field and tries to communicate the same to his pupils in an impersonal way.
But the realist teacher realizes that it is not his business to be engrossed in making discoveries, because if he communicates what he has discovered, he becomes partly personal, and he cannot let facts speak for themselves.
The realist teacher realizes that information cannot be given to students with the expectation that it will be equally intelligible to all.
So he must study child psychology and adolescent psychology and must be able to adapt the material according to the living interests of his pupils, so in order to be a successful teacher, even on realist lines, he must humanize his science; otherwise, if the subject is left to itself, it may mean one thing to one student and another to another.
Thus the realist teacher has to go against his own realism. He must understand how much and what aspect of a material would be intelligible to the pupils according to their natural subjective bias.
Hence he must make the necessary adaptations in order to make the material intelligible to the pupils. No doubt, the material to be presented has to be objective, but it must be presented in a subjective manner, otherwise there would be some pupils in the class to whom the whole process might appear as boring and useless; whereas some may misunderstand the whole thing presented.
Thus as a realist, the realist teacher is expected, ‘to sink his personality in objectivity’ while making scientific discoveries in his chosen field; and as a teacher he is called upon to devote his attention in catering to the subjective aspects of his pupils.
The realist teacher must be able to help his pupils in making coteries, because it is by making their own discoveries that they can learn to stand on their own feet and proceed further on the path by themselves.
Thus die realist teacher appears to be in a paradoxical position. At first, he is expected to make his own discoveries it means he has to sacrifice his personal research. The realist teacher is in a real difficult and there appears to be no easy way out. | <urn:uuid:c46f8fa9-cb31-4ba5-8da2-6831f9a826d4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://taxteaparty.com/what-are-the-essential-qualities-of-a-realistic-teacher/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00484.warc.gz | en | 0.983998 | 579 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.47751295566... | 3 | He will regard knowledge as one and universal. To him it knows no bounds of colour, race and religion. Therefore, the realist teacher would not like to call French or German mathematics. The realist teacher tries to present the knowledge of the subject- matter before the pupil in such a way as to make himself one with it.
He himself becomes the voice of chemistry and mathematics and speaks in the class-room to ears which are eager to receive it. He stands for truth. He has great reverence for facts. Therefore, while presenting the voice of a subject he keeps his personality away from it, that is, he does not express his personal likings or disliking for particular points. The realist teacher desires to make discoveries in his chosen field and tries to communicate the same to his pupils in an impersonal way.
But the realist teacher realizes that it is not his business to be engrossed in making discoveries, because if he communicates what he has discovered, he becomes partly personal, and he cannot let facts speak for themselves.
The realist teacher realizes that information cannot be given to students with the expectation that it will be equally intelligible to all.
So he must study child psychology and adolescent psychology and must be able to adapt the material according to the living interests of his pupils, so in order to be a successful teacher, even on realist lines, he must humanize his science; otherwise, if the subject is left to itself, it may mean one thing to one student and another to another.
Thus the realist teacher has to go against his own realism. He must understand how much and what aspect of a material would be intelligible to the pupils according to their natural subjective bias.
Hence he must make the necessary adaptations in order to make the material intelligible to the pupils. No doubt, the material to be presented has to be objective, but it must be presented in a subjective manner, otherwise there would be some pupils in the class to whom the whole process might appear as boring and useless; whereas some may misunderstand the whole thing presented.
Thus as a realist, the realist teacher is expected, ‘to sink his personality in objectivity’ while making scientific discoveries in his chosen field; and as a teacher he is called upon to devote his attention in catering to the subjective aspects of his pupils.
The realist teacher must be able to help his pupils in making coteries, because it is by making their own discoveries that they can learn to stand on their own feet and proceed further on the path by themselves.
Thus die realist teacher appears to be in a paradoxical position. At first, he is expected to make his own discoveries it means he has to sacrifice his personal research. The realist teacher is in a real difficult and there appears to be no easy way out. | 567 | ENGLISH | 1 |
So does 8 plus 1, and 7 plus 2, and 5 plus 4.
There are many different ways to get 9.
In life there are many different ways to do things. Often we have a set idea of how to achieve something but others have their own ideas. That does not make your idea wrong and it does not make the idea of others wrong.
Similarly, you have your own opinions on things, and others have theirs. That does not make your opinion wrong, or the opinion of others.
In life there is a lot of diversity.
There is also diversity in abilities and in the way our brains work. You may have heard the terms neurotypical and neurodiversity being used. In a world where an increasing number of people are being diagnosed with autism those terms are becoming more common. Neurotypical is used to describe people whose brains are considered to work in a ‘normal’ way. That would be the majority of people. But it is becoming increasingly clear there are different ways for people’s brains to work and this is what the term neurodiversity refers to.
There are not really that many more people with autism than in previous generations. There are just more being diagnosed. Early autism research was first published in the 1940s. This research studied groups of people who had been well known for generations. There were two research papers. One by Leo Kanner in America was research on people who were non verbal and had limited functioning. The other research paper was by Hans Asperger and was published in Austria during World War II. This paper was in German and was only known in the rest of the world in the 1980s. Asperger studied those people who functioned in society very well but had different ways of thinking and behaving. These are the people described as having Aspergers. Nowadays they would be referred to as people with Autism but who have a high level of functioning.
Because of the difficulty with communication of those who were non verbal, and the difficulty coping with academic assessments based on neurotypical people, many people with Autism were diagnosed as learning impaired and considered to be less intelligent than others. What is now known is that many on the Autism Spectrum are actually more intelligent than others and with support can achieve academically.
Children with Autism require support to help them achieve in a neurotypical world. There are those who argue that those children are a drain on the economy because of the amount of money it is perceived is spent on them, but it is important to remember that many other children need support as well. And they receive it. It is increasingly difficult for children to manage in this world. As a society we should be alert to the needs of all children and seek to meet them.
We should always remember that there is more than one way to get 9 as an answer and there is more than one way for a person to be a contributing member of society.
I have a lot of experience with autism and last year conducted research into the experience of parents whose adult children were diagnosed with autism in adulthood. I have a personal interest in this, my own daughter was diagnosed at age 25 with autism. So I have experienced some of the ups and downs described by other parents. I have found that I work with a lot of parents who have a child with autism. One thing my research participants and the other parents I see all say is that other people “don’t get it”. For this reason I am diversifying my practice to include support for parents in that situation because there is a great need for that level of support.
I will be writing blogs on the subject of autism in the coming months.
In the meantime, if you are a parent of a child, or other person you are close to, with autism and you want support, please ring me to make an appointment on 0409396608. | <urn:uuid:5c537ec6-caf8-47b9-a669-e0038fc75b7f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://plentifullifecounselling.com.au/wp/6-plus-3-equals-9/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00247.warc.gz | en | 0.989583 | 793 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.0341397... | 2 | So does 8 plus 1, and 7 plus 2, and 5 plus 4.
There are many different ways to get 9.
In life there are many different ways to do things. Often we have a set idea of how to achieve something but others have their own ideas. That does not make your idea wrong and it does not make the idea of others wrong.
Similarly, you have your own opinions on things, and others have theirs. That does not make your opinion wrong, or the opinion of others.
In life there is a lot of diversity.
There is also diversity in abilities and in the way our brains work. You may have heard the terms neurotypical and neurodiversity being used. In a world where an increasing number of people are being diagnosed with autism those terms are becoming more common. Neurotypical is used to describe people whose brains are considered to work in a ‘normal’ way. That would be the majority of people. But it is becoming increasingly clear there are different ways for people’s brains to work and this is what the term neurodiversity refers to.
There are not really that many more people with autism than in previous generations. There are just more being diagnosed. Early autism research was first published in the 1940s. This research studied groups of people who had been well known for generations. There were two research papers. One by Leo Kanner in America was research on people who were non verbal and had limited functioning. The other research paper was by Hans Asperger and was published in Austria during World War II. This paper was in German and was only known in the rest of the world in the 1980s. Asperger studied those people who functioned in society very well but had different ways of thinking and behaving. These are the people described as having Aspergers. Nowadays they would be referred to as people with Autism but who have a high level of functioning.
Because of the difficulty with communication of those who were non verbal, and the difficulty coping with academic assessments based on neurotypical people, many people with Autism were diagnosed as learning impaired and considered to be less intelligent than others. What is now known is that many on the Autism Spectrum are actually more intelligent than others and with support can achieve academically.
Children with Autism require support to help them achieve in a neurotypical world. There are those who argue that those children are a drain on the economy because of the amount of money it is perceived is spent on them, but it is important to remember that many other children need support as well. And they receive it. It is increasingly difficult for children to manage in this world. As a society we should be alert to the needs of all children and seek to meet them.
We should always remember that there is more than one way to get 9 as an answer and there is more than one way for a person to be a contributing member of society.
I have a lot of experience with autism and last year conducted research into the experience of parents whose adult children were diagnosed with autism in adulthood. I have a personal interest in this, my own daughter was diagnosed at age 25 with autism. So I have experienced some of the ups and downs described by other parents. I have found that I work with a lot of parents who have a child with autism. One thing my research participants and the other parents I see all say is that other people “don’t get it”. For this reason I am diversifying my practice to include support for parents in that situation because there is a great need for that level of support.
I will be writing blogs on the subject of autism in the coming months.
In the meantime, if you are a parent of a child, or other person you are close to, with autism and you want support, please ring me to make an appointment on 0409396608. | 799 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Soon after Macquarie’s visit the site of the township was surveyed and blocks allocated. In January 1813, the year the Blue Mountains were finally crossed, William Cox began work on a two storey brick parsonage and outbuildings which took about a year and a half to build. This was almost three times as long as it took him to build the road over the Blue Mountains to Bathurst. He commenced building the mountain road in November the following year.
After the parsonage was completed, the plan was then to build a school house, mostly funded by the settlers. This building would also serve as a temporary church until one could be built. Macquarie saw the establishment of schools and churches as vital to the wellbeing of these new communities. He believed that they “greatly contribute to the Reformation of the Morals of the lower orders of people, and to the implementing religious Principles in the Minds of the rising Generation.” For many of the early settlers, the building of churches and the establishment of cemeteries also subtly offered some continuity and meaning to their very existence. Church dogma and ritual would have given some people a sense of the familiar in this strange country. For others, the sanctity and refuge provided by a church would have been a great comfort against the harsh day-to-day realities of life. A church also provided a meeting place where a sense of community could be fostered.
Macquarie appointed the Irish born Reverend Henry Fulton to the position of parson at Castlereagh and Richmond in July 1814. Fulton was university educated, having studied for his Bachelor of Arts at Trinity College, Dublin. He was an ordained minister with a wife and two children when he was arrested for sedition after the Irish uprising of 1788. He was sentenced to transportation for life and sent on board the Minerva to New South Wales, arriving in January 1800. A sympathetic relative paid for his family to accompany him. That same year he was granted a conditional pardon. In 1805 he received a full pardon after ministering to the people on Norfolk Island for five years. On his return to Sydney he became Acting Chaplain while Reverend Samuel Marsden was in England. Fulton, a loyal supporter of Bligh, was dining with the Governor on the night that Major George Johnston, commander of the NSW Corps and lieutenant-governor of the colony, arrested Bligh in 1808. He immediately lost his Acting Chaplain position. When Governor Macquarie arrived in 1810, Fulton was reinstated. He returned to England to give evidence at Johnston’s trial, arriving back in the colony in 1812.
Once appointed to the parsonage at Castlereagh, Fulton set up a school, believed to be the first secondary school in the colony.
In 1826 one of Fulton’s former pupils, Charles Tompson, published a book of poetry entitled “Wild Notes from the Lyre of a Native Minstrel”. Tompson, whose father had been a convict, was born in Sydney in 1806. He dedicated his book to Fulton. In his first poem “Retrospect” he acknowledged with gratitude the debt he owed his former “tutor of (his) early hour”. He reflected on the happy times he had at Castlereagh and shared his feelings for the place, its beauty and “rural stillness”.
“Fair CASTLEREAGH! I trace thy landscape round,
Each well known spot to me is sacred ground…”
In the poem he documented the “sudden Desolation” of the new township when “its tenants fled”. The idea of living on “the tall summit” so as to avoid the flooding of the plains ironically turned out to be impractical, because of a lack of water there.
“Near where the chapel rears its modest top,
And graceful crowns the gently-falling slope,
There is a site where once a hamlet stood.
But now o’ergrown with weeds and underwood…”
Tompson lamented the changes to the landscape that he knew intimately as a youth, especially through the felling of the trees, resulting from “the rude invasions of the spoiling axe”. The area was no longer “circled by a wood”. The “vista’d glade” that he knew was gone.
Reverend Fulton continued his tireless ministry at Castlereagh and throughout the Penrith district until his death on 17 November 1840 at Castlereagh. He was buried with his wife Ann, who died four years earlier, in the Castlereagh cemetery, near the site of his school and parsonage. Their remains are entombed in the family vault built by his daughter for her husband, John MacHenry.
As I walked around the cemetery and read the headstone inscriptions, I quickly realized that I was at the resting place of many of the pioneers who settled and farmed this historic region two hundred years ago. Like many of these early farming communities, Castlereagh was isolated from the main settlement and the lifestyle there was an unimaginable struggle. These families faced the biting cold of the river flats in winter and the sun’s scorching rays in summer. They required great resilience and stoicism towards the devastation wrought by drought and flood on their farming livelihood. There was also the ever present fear, whether real or imagined, from the Aborigines in the district. | <urn:uuid:77da3bfd-745f-4d85-b3a0-5881399b7e8c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://acrossthebluemountains.com.au/article-castlereagh2.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00108.warc.gz | en | 0.985462 | 1,145 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.528412759304... | 1 | Soon after Macquarie’s visit the site of the township was surveyed and blocks allocated. In January 1813, the year the Blue Mountains were finally crossed, William Cox began work on a two storey brick parsonage and outbuildings which took about a year and a half to build. This was almost three times as long as it took him to build the road over the Blue Mountains to Bathurst. He commenced building the mountain road in November the following year.
After the parsonage was completed, the plan was then to build a school house, mostly funded by the settlers. This building would also serve as a temporary church until one could be built. Macquarie saw the establishment of schools and churches as vital to the wellbeing of these new communities. He believed that they “greatly contribute to the Reformation of the Morals of the lower orders of people, and to the implementing religious Principles in the Minds of the rising Generation.” For many of the early settlers, the building of churches and the establishment of cemeteries also subtly offered some continuity and meaning to their very existence. Church dogma and ritual would have given some people a sense of the familiar in this strange country. For others, the sanctity and refuge provided by a church would have been a great comfort against the harsh day-to-day realities of life. A church also provided a meeting place where a sense of community could be fostered.
Macquarie appointed the Irish born Reverend Henry Fulton to the position of parson at Castlereagh and Richmond in July 1814. Fulton was university educated, having studied for his Bachelor of Arts at Trinity College, Dublin. He was an ordained minister with a wife and two children when he was arrested for sedition after the Irish uprising of 1788. He was sentenced to transportation for life and sent on board the Minerva to New South Wales, arriving in January 1800. A sympathetic relative paid for his family to accompany him. That same year he was granted a conditional pardon. In 1805 he received a full pardon after ministering to the people on Norfolk Island for five years. On his return to Sydney he became Acting Chaplain while Reverend Samuel Marsden was in England. Fulton, a loyal supporter of Bligh, was dining with the Governor on the night that Major George Johnston, commander of the NSW Corps and lieutenant-governor of the colony, arrested Bligh in 1808. He immediately lost his Acting Chaplain position. When Governor Macquarie arrived in 1810, Fulton was reinstated. He returned to England to give evidence at Johnston’s trial, arriving back in the colony in 1812.
Once appointed to the parsonage at Castlereagh, Fulton set up a school, believed to be the first secondary school in the colony.
In 1826 one of Fulton’s former pupils, Charles Tompson, published a book of poetry entitled “Wild Notes from the Lyre of a Native Minstrel”. Tompson, whose father had been a convict, was born in Sydney in 1806. He dedicated his book to Fulton. In his first poem “Retrospect” he acknowledged with gratitude the debt he owed his former “tutor of (his) early hour”. He reflected on the happy times he had at Castlereagh and shared his feelings for the place, its beauty and “rural stillness”.
“Fair CASTLEREAGH! I trace thy landscape round,
Each well known spot to me is sacred ground…”
In the poem he documented the “sudden Desolation” of the new township when “its tenants fled”. The idea of living on “the tall summit” so as to avoid the flooding of the plains ironically turned out to be impractical, because of a lack of water there.
“Near where the chapel rears its modest top,
And graceful crowns the gently-falling slope,
There is a site where once a hamlet stood.
But now o’ergrown with weeds and underwood…”
Tompson lamented the changes to the landscape that he knew intimately as a youth, especially through the felling of the trees, resulting from “the rude invasions of the spoiling axe”. The area was no longer “circled by a wood”. The “vista’d glade” that he knew was gone.
Reverend Fulton continued his tireless ministry at Castlereagh and throughout the Penrith district until his death on 17 November 1840 at Castlereagh. He was buried with his wife Ann, who died four years earlier, in the Castlereagh cemetery, near the site of his school and parsonage. Their remains are entombed in the family vault built by his daughter for her husband, John MacHenry.
As I walked around the cemetery and read the headstone inscriptions, I quickly realized that I was at the resting place of many of the pioneers who settled and farmed this historic region two hundred years ago. Like many of these early farming communities, Castlereagh was isolated from the main settlement and the lifestyle there was an unimaginable struggle. These families faced the biting cold of the river flats in winter and the sun’s scorching rays in summer. They required great resilience and stoicism towards the devastation wrought by drought and flood on their farming livelihood. There was also the ever present fear, whether real or imagined, from the Aborigines in the district. | 1,136 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During WWII, thousands of German scientists, engineers, technicians, and other experts, participated in atrocities that could have resulted in prison or death sentences had they been prosecuted. However, many of them had knowledge and expertise deemed valuable by the war’s victors, who prioritized national interest above justice, and so put them to work instead of punishing them for their crimes. The main part of America’s share of that scramble for Nazi experts was Operation Paperclip, which recruited about 1600 of them. Many were saved from prosecutions for atrocities, and instead relocated to the US, where they became respectable citizens and went to work on a variety of government projects.
Following are ten Nazi war criminals who got away with it and escaped accountability because they were useful to the US.
Walter Schreiber Experimented On Auschwitz Inmates by Freezing Them, and Infected Other Prisoners With Gangrene
Doctor Walter Schreiber (1893 – 1970) was a prominent epidemiologist and highly regarded biology professor in the interwar years. During the Second World War, he rose to the rank of major general in the Wehrmacht Medical Service. He was also a member of the Reich Research Council, in which capacity he conducted cruel and sadistic medical experiments upon prisoners. After the war, he testified in the Nuremberg Trials against Herman Goering, worked for the CIA and the US military, and was thus shielded from accountability for his medical atrocities.
Schreiber was a medical student when WWI erupted in 1914, at which point he voluntarily enlisted in the German army. He was wounded early in the conflict, and after his recovery resumed his studies, then served as a military doctor until war’s end. After the war, he became a professor of biology and hygiene, and became one of the world’s foremost experts on epidemics.
During the Nazi era, Schreiber introduced the use of lethal phenol injections “as a quick and convenient means of executing troublemakers“. During the war, he conducted experiments on prisoners in Auschwitz by freezing them in order to examine the effects of extreme cold. He conducted other sadistic medical experiments on female prisoners in Ravensbrueck concentration camp, by cutting open their legs and deliberately infecting them with gangrene, then giving them bone transplants. The subjects of his experiments usually suffered slow and agonizing deaths.
At war’s end, he was captured by the Red Army and taken to the USSR, where he was held in the infamous Lubyanka prison in poor conditions. His conditions improved when his captors discovered his true identity, and the Soviets put him to work providing medical care to high ranking German prisoners. He was produced at the Nuremberg Trials to testify against Herman Goering, who had been in charge of Germany’s biological weapons development.
In 1948, he evaded his handlers and made it to the West, where he was hired by the US military and the CIA to work as chief medical doctor in Camp King, a clandestine POW interrogation site in Germany. He was sent to the US in 1951 as part of Operation Paperclip, which recruited German scientists, engineers, and technicians, and sent them to the US to work for the government.
Schreiber began work at the Air Force School of Medicine in Texas, but the publication of newspaper articles soon thereafter about his medical atrocities led to a public outcry. So his intelligence handlers relocated him and his family to Argentina in 1952. There, he worked as an epidemiologist in a research laboratory, until his death from a heart attack in 1970. | <urn:uuid:f0a223a1-d2df-4ec3-9ba8-b7d15849a7cd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historycollection.co/10-nazi-war-criminals-who-escaped-justice-because-they-were-useful-to-the-us/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00047.warc.gz | en | 0.985321 | 733 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.48105800151824... | 7 | During WWII, thousands of German scientists, engineers, technicians, and other experts, participated in atrocities that could have resulted in prison or death sentences had they been prosecuted. However, many of them had knowledge and expertise deemed valuable by the war’s victors, who prioritized national interest above justice, and so put them to work instead of punishing them for their crimes. The main part of America’s share of that scramble for Nazi experts was Operation Paperclip, which recruited about 1600 of them. Many were saved from prosecutions for atrocities, and instead relocated to the US, where they became respectable citizens and went to work on a variety of government projects.
Following are ten Nazi war criminals who got away with it and escaped accountability because they were useful to the US.
Walter Schreiber Experimented On Auschwitz Inmates by Freezing Them, and Infected Other Prisoners With Gangrene
Doctor Walter Schreiber (1893 – 1970) was a prominent epidemiologist and highly regarded biology professor in the interwar years. During the Second World War, he rose to the rank of major general in the Wehrmacht Medical Service. He was also a member of the Reich Research Council, in which capacity he conducted cruel and sadistic medical experiments upon prisoners. After the war, he testified in the Nuremberg Trials against Herman Goering, worked for the CIA and the US military, and was thus shielded from accountability for his medical atrocities.
Schreiber was a medical student when WWI erupted in 1914, at which point he voluntarily enlisted in the German army. He was wounded early in the conflict, and after his recovery resumed his studies, then served as a military doctor until war’s end. After the war, he became a professor of biology and hygiene, and became one of the world’s foremost experts on epidemics.
During the Nazi era, Schreiber introduced the use of lethal phenol injections “as a quick and convenient means of executing troublemakers“. During the war, he conducted experiments on prisoners in Auschwitz by freezing them in order to examine the effects of extreme cold. He conducted other sadistic medical experiments on female prisoners in Ravensbrueck concentration camp, by cutting open their legs and deliberately infecting them with gangrene, then giving them bone transplants. The subjects of his experiments usually suffered slow and agonizing deaths.
At war’s end, he was captured by the Red Army and taken to the USSR, where he was held in the infamous Lubyanka prison in poor conditions. His conditions improved when his captors discovered his true identity, and the Soviets put him to work providing medical care to high ranking German prisoners. He was produced at the Nuremberg Trials to testify against Herman Goering, who had been in charge of Germany’s biological weapons development.
In 1948, he evaded his handlers and made it to the West, where he was hired by the US military and the CIA to work as chief medical doctor in Camp King, a clandestine POW interrogation site in Germany. He was sent to the US in 1951 as part of Operation Paperclip, which recruited German scientists, engineers, and technicians, and sent them to the US to work for the government.
Schreiber began work at the Air Force School of Medicine in Texas, but the publication of newspaper articles soon thereafter about his medical atrocities led to a public outcry. So his intelligence handlers relocated him and his family to Argentina in 1952. There, he worked as an epidemiologist in a research laboratory, until his death from a heart attack in 1970. | 745 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Andrew Jackson: 7th President: Hot Temper & Tough as Old Hickory
Andrew Jackson, nicknamed Old Hickory due to his tough demeanor, was our seventh President. He was well-respected as a man, despite being a slave owner with a hot temper. He treated his slaves very well, so much so that one of them chose to live with Jackson even after he became free and was later buried on the land.
In Jackson's political career, he was a man who had a hard beginning, yet was determined to excel. He was orphaned as a young child and chose to value the family he had. Due to being orphaned, he was not well-educated as a youth, yet sought education as an adult. He was a man who proved that it's not life's circumstances that make you who you are; it is the choices.
Adulltery and Murder
Jackson was born on March 15, 1767, in Waxhaw Settlement on the North Carolina and South Carolina border. He lacked formal education until he reached his teens when he began studying law extensively. His wife, Rachel Donelson Robards, was abandoned by her first husband. Jackson asked her to move in with him and eventually married her in August of 1794 soon after her divorce was final.
During his political career, many would point out this adulterous relationship, since they did live with one another while she was still married. Despite the drama, their marriage was a very loving and devoted one. They had only one child, in which they adopted. He was their nephew, and they adopted him soon after birth, naming him Andrew Jackson Jr. They were a very close-knit family. Jackson Jr and his wife Sarah kept Jackson company in his declining years, along with their children.
His adulterous relationship was not the only personal fault people found. He was known for his hot temper and getting into brawls. During one of these heated fights, Charles Dickenson, an American attorney, spoke disrespectfully about Jackson's wife, Rachel. Feeling that he needed to defend her honor, he became exceedingly angry, fighting with Dickensen. As a result of the fight, Dickenson died.
His hot temper and stubborn personality did not bring out all bad things, for it has helped him excel in his work life. During the Revolutionary War, he started his first job as a courier for the local militia. He was thirteen years old at the time, and his father and oldest brother had already passed away. While working as a courier, the British captured him and his middle brother Robert. While imprisoned, he refused to polish a British man's boots, which resulted in receiving a scar on his hand and forehead. Once he was released, his brother Robert died shortly after that. Less than a year later, his mother also died, leaving him an orphan.
Despite his rocky education in his early youth, he ended up studying law for two years as a teen. His first professional job was as a lawyer. Through his training, he became a very successful, influential lawyer. Since he did not come from a distinguished family as many lawyers from his time did, he needed to become noticed by his own merit.
Shortly after Tennessee became a state, he became the first man to take a spot on the House of Representatives for the state of Tennessee. Later, he became a Senator, then resigned after only a year to serve as a judge on the Tennessee Supreme Court.
Cause of Death
March 15, 1767 - Waxhaw between the Carolinas
Tennessee Militia United States Army (colonel and major)
American Revolutionary War • Battle of Hobkirk's Hill Creek War • Battle of Talladega • Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek • Battle of Horseshoe Bend War of 1812 • Battle of Pensacola • Battle of New Orleans First Seminole War Conquest of Florida • Battle of Fort Negro • Siege of Fort Barrancas
Age at Beginning of Presidency
62 years old
Term of Office
March 4, 1829 - March 3, 1837
How Long President
John C. Calhoun (1829–1832) None (1832–1833) Martin Van Buren (1833–1837)
Age and Year of Death
June 8, 1845 (aged 78)
War of 1812
In 1801, he became a colonel. A year later, he was promoted to be a major general. He continued to be in the military for many years serving as a major general.
During the War of 1812, Andrew Jackson became a national hero when he and his men defeated the British in New Orleans. It was during this time that he received his nickname Old Hickory due to his fierce, stern presence. Although he was popular with his troops, he was hard on them. They often referred to him as "tough as Old Hickory." It may have been this determination that allowed him to have success in the War of 1812.
He continued to serve in the military until he ran in the Election of 1824, which he lost to John Quincy Adams, due to Henry Clay's support of Adams. That did not stop him from trying again.
King Andrew: His Presidency
Andrew Jackson worked hard to become President, losing his first race to John Quincy Adams. His second race was a success; he won by a landslide and ended up being a much more popular President than his predecessor.
One of his most valuable creations to American society was that he created the Democratic Party, which still exists today. Two parties formed as a result of his Presidency: the Republican-Democratic Party or Democratic Party, as well as the Whigs or National Republicans that opposed him.
As President, he had an interesting way of handling Congress. Instead of deferring to Congress, he used his presidential power of veto when making policies, as well as his party leadership to maintain control, which caused critics to dislike him intensely. Some cartoonists portrayed him as King Andrew, to express their strong disapproval of how he led — being referred to as King Andrew was a slap in the face to Jackson since he strongly opposed the British monarchy.
One of his greatest battles was with the Second Bank of America, which acted as a government-sponsored Monopoly. Both Jackson and the Bank threw their power against one another. He was quoted saying, "The bank is trying to kill me, but I will kill it!" He then vetoed a re-charter bill challenging the bank saying they had the undue economic privilege. This act caused a growth in popularity for Jackson, which ultimately allowed him to receive 52 percent of the electoral votes in his next election -- the election of 1832.
He died in the garden that was on his estate on June 8, 1845, in Nashville, Tennessee. He left behind a great legacy of hard work and dedication. Before dying, he spent many years with his son and family.
Andrew Jackson Video
- After his first inaugural address on March 4, 1829, he had to escape through a window, because the crowd became so excited and rowdy, they began crashing china and glassware.
- The first to be in Office, who did not come from money and privilege.
- The first to be born in a log cabin.
- He was orphaned at age 13.
- Had a scar on his forehead from a saber blow he received after being taken as a prisoner and refusing to clean a British officer's boots.
- Charles Dickenson (not to be confused with the author by the same name) died as a result of a brawl with Andrew Jackson.
- His wife Rachel died right before he began as president.
List of American Presidents
1. George Washington
16. Abraham Lincoln
31. Herbert Hoover
2. John Adams
17. Andrew Johnson
32. Franklin D. Roosevelt
3. Thomas Jefferson
18. Ulysses S. Grant
33. Harry S. Truman
4. James Madison
19. Rutherford B. Hayes
34. Dwight D. Eisenhower
5. James Monroe
20. James Garfield
35. John F. Kennedy
6. John Quincy Adams
21. Chester A. Arthur
36. Lyndon B. Johnson
7. Andrew Jackson
22. Grover Cleveland
37. Richard M. Nixon
8. Martin Van Buren
23. Benjamin Harrison
38. Gerald R. Ford
9. William Henry Harrison
24. Grover Cleveland
39. James Carter
10. John Tyler
25. William McKinley
40. Ronald Reagan
11. James K. Polk
26. Theodore Roosevelt
41. George H. W. Bush
12. Zachary Taylor
27. William Howard Taft
42. William J. Clinton
13. Millard Fillmore
28. Woodrow Wilson
43. George W. Bush
14. Franklin Pierce
29. Warren G. Harding
44. Barack Obama
15. James Buchanan
30. Calvin Coolidge
45. Donald Trump
- American Presidents | Series | C-SPAN.org. (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2016, from http://www.c-span.org/series/?presidents
- Freidel, F., & Sidey, H. (2014). Andrew Jackson. Retrieved April 21, 2016, from http://www.whitehouse.gov/about/presidents/andrewjackson
- JACKSON, Andrew - Biographical Information. (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2016, from http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=j000005
- Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. “Andrew Jackson.” Accessed April 21, 2016. http://millercenter.org/president/jackson.
- Sullivan, George. Mr. President: A Book of U.S. Presidents. New York: Scholastic, 2001. Print.
Questions & Answers
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0.28626954555511... | 2 | Andrew Jackson: 7th President: Hot Temper & Tough as Old Hickory
Andrew Jackson, nicknamed Old Hickory due to his tough demeanor, was our seventh President. He was well-respected as a man, despite being a slave owner with a hot temper. He treated his slaves very well, so much so that one of them chose to live with Jackson even after he became free and was later buried on the land.
In Jackson's political career, he was a man who had a hard beginning, yet was determined to excel. He was orphaned as a young child and chose to value the family he had. Due to being orphaned, he was not well-educated as a youth, yet sought education as an adult. He was a man who proved that it's not life's circumstances that make you who you are; it is the choices.
Adulltery and Murder
Jackson was born on March 15, 1767, in Waxhaw Settlement on the North Carolina and South Carolina border. He lacked formal education until he reached his teens when he began studying law extensively. His wife, Rachel Donelson Robards, was abandoned by her first husband. Jackson asked her to move in with him and eventually married her in August of 1794 soon after her divorce was final.
During his political career, many would point out this adulterous relationship, since they did live with one another while she was still married. Despite the drama, their marriage was a very loving and devoted one. They had only one child, in which they adopted. He was their nephew, and they adopted him soon after birth, naming him Andrew Jackson Jr. They were a very close-knit family. Jackson Jr and his wife Sarah kept Jackson company in his declining years, along with their children.
His adulterous relationship was not the only personal fault people found. He was known for his hot temper and getting into brawls. During one of these heated fights, Charles Dickenson, an American attorney, spoke disrespectfully about Jackson's wife, Rachel. Feeling that he needed to defend her honor, he became exceedingly angry, fighting with Dickensen. As a result of the fight, Dickenson died.
His hot temper and stubborn personality did not bring out all bad things, for it has helped him excel in his work life. During the Revolutionary War, he started his first job as a courier for the local militia. He was thirteen years old at the time, and his father and oldest brother had already passed away. While working as a courier, the British captured him and his middle brother Robert. While imprisoned, he refused to polish a British man's boots, which resulted in receiving a scar on his hand and forehead. Once he was released, his brother Robert died shortly after that. Less than a year later, his mother also died, leaving him an orphan.
Despite his rocky education in his early youth, he ended up studying law for two years as a teen. His first professional job was as a lawyer. Through his training, he became a very successful, influential lawyer. Since he did not come from a distinguished family as many lawyers from his time did, he needed to become noticed by his own merit.
Shortly after Tennessee became a state, he became the first man to take a spot on the House of Representatives for the state of Tennessee. Later, he became a Senator, then resigned after only a year to serve as a judge on the Tennessee Supreme Court.
Cause of Death
March 15, 1767 - Waxhaw between the Carolinas
Tennessee Militia United States Army (colonel and major)
American Revolutionary War • Battle of Hobkirk's Hill Creek War • Battle of Talladega • Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek • Battle of Horseshoe Bend War of 1812 • Battle of Pensacola • Battle of New Orleans First Seminole War Conquest of Florida • Battle of Fort Negro • Siege of Fort Barrancas
Age at Beginning of Presidency
62 years old
Term of Office
March 4, 1829 - March 3, 1837
How Long President
John C. Calhoun (1829–1832) None (1832–1833) Martin Van Buren (1833–1837)
Age and Year of Death
June 8, 1845 (aged 78)
War of 1812
In 1801, he became a colonel. A year later, he was promoted to be a major general. He continued to be in the military for many years serving as a major general.
During the War of 1812, Andrew Jackson became a national hero when he and his men defeated the British in New Orleans. It was during this time that he received his nickname Old Hickory due to his fierce, stern presence. Although he was popular with his troops, he was hard on them. They often referred to him as "tough as Old Hickory." It may have been this determination that allowed him to have success in the War of 1812.
He continued to serve in the military until he ran in the Election of 1824, which he lost to John Quincy Adams, due to Henry Clay's support of Adams. That did not stop him from trying again.
King Andrew: His Presidency
Andrew Jackson worked hard to become President, losing his first race to John Quincy Adams. His second race was a success; he won by a landslide and ended up being a much more popular President than his predecessor.
One of his most valuable creations to American society was that he created the Democratic Party, which still exists today. Two parties formed as a result of his Presidency: the Republican-Democratic Party or Democratic Party, as well as the Whigs or National Republicans that opposed him.
As President, he had an interesting way of handling Congress. Instead of deferring to Congress, he used his presidential power of veto when making policies, as well as his party leadership to maintain control, which caused critics to dislike him intensely. Some cartoonists portrayed him as King Andrew, to express their strong disapproval of how he led — being referred to as King Andrew was a slap in the face to Jackson since he strongly opposed the British monarchy.
One of his greatest battles was with the Second Bank of America, which acted as a government-sponsored Monopoly. Both Jackson and the Bank threw their power against one another. He was quoted saying, "The bank is trying to kill me, but I will kill it!" He then vetoed a re-charter bill challenging the bank saying they had the undue economic privilege. This act caused a growth in popularity for Jackson, which ultimately allowed him to receive 52 percent of the electoral votes in his next election -- the election of 1832.
He died in the garden that was on his estate on June 8, 1845, in Nashville, Tennessee. He left behind a great legacy of hard work and dedication. Before dying, he spent many years with his son and family.
Andrew Jackson Video
- After his first inaugural address on March 4, 1829, he had to escape through a window, because the crowd became so excited and rowdy, they began crashing china and glassware.
- The first to be in Office, who did not come from money and privilege.
- The first to be born in a log cabin.
- He was orphaned at age 13.
- Had a scar on his forehead from a saber blow he received after being taken as a prisoner and refusing to clean a British officer's boots.
- Charles Dickenson (not to be confused with the author by the same name) died as a result of a brawl with Andrew Jackson.
- His wife Rachel died right before he began as president.
List of American Presidents
1. George Washington
16. Abraham Lincoln
31. Herbert Hoover
2. John Adams
17. Andrew Johnson
32. Franklin D. Roosevelt
3. Thomas Jefferson
18. Ulysses S. Grant
33. Harry S. Truman
4. James Madison
19. Rutherford B. Hayes
34. Dwight D. Eisenhower
5. James Monroe
20. James Garfield
35. John F. Kennedy
6. John Quincy Adams
21. Chester A. Arthur
36. Lyndon B. Johnson
7. Andrew Jackson
22. Grover Cleveland
37. Richard M. Nixon
8. Martin Van Buren
23. Benjamin Harrison
38. Gerald R. Ford
9. William Henry Harrison
24. Grover Cleveland
39. James Carter
10. John Tyler
25. William McKinley
40. Ronald Reagan
11. James K. Polk
26. Theodore Roosevelt
41. George H. W. Bush
12. Zachary Taylor
27. William Howard Taft
42. William J. Clinton
13. Millard Fillmore
28. Woodrow Wilson
43. George W. Bush
14. Franklin Pierce
29. Warren G. Harding
44. Barack Obama
15. James Buchanan
30. Calvin Coolidge
45. Donald Trump
- American Presidents | Series | C-SPAN.org. (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2016, from http://www.c-span.org/series/?presidents
- Freidel, F., & Sidey, H. (2014). Andrew Jackson. Retrieved April 21, 2016, from http://www.whitehouse.gov/about/presidents/andrewjackson
- JACKSON, Andrew - Biographical Information. (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2016, from http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=j000005
- Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. “Andrew Jackson.” Accessed April 21, 2016. http://millercenter.org/president/jackson.
- Sullivan, George. Mr. President: A Book of U.S. Presidents. New York: Scholastic, 2001. Print.
Questions & Answers
© 2012 Angela Michelle Schultz | 2,171 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dwight Eisenhower, America’s first civil rights president. Not Lyndon Johnson who was our third, after Jack Kennedy who got involved in it strongly late in his presidency. But President Eisenhower was our first because he took on segregation from the executive level before the 1960s and when the civil rights movement became strong.
By taking on civil rights at the federal and executive level, President Eisenhower immediately gave credibility to the movement. Especially by being in favor of it and against school desegregation, by essentially saying that “African-Americans have the same right to a quality education as Caucasian-Americans. And that government can’t force African-American kids to go to poor schools. When Caucasians are going to good public schools”. | <urn:uuid:89e35f4f-8c86-4dce-b77f-845cb8603bc1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thenewdemocrat1975.com/2014/10/06/franklin-d-roosevelt-video-president-dwight-eisenhower-on-little-rock-integration-plan/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00361.warc.gz | en | 0.985287 | 152 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.341245859861... | 3 | Dwight Eisenhower, America’s first civil rights president. Not Lyndon Johnson who was our third, after Jack Kennedy who got involved in it strongly late in his presidency. But President Eisenhower was our first because he took on segregation from the executive level before the 1960s and when the civil rights movement became strong.
By taking on civil rights at the federal and executive level, President Eisenhower immediately gave credibility to the movement. Especially by being in favor of it and against school desegregation, by essentially saying that “African-Americans have the same right to a quality education as Caucasian-Americans. And that government can’t force African-American kids to go to poor schools. When Caucasians are going to good public schools”. | 147 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Edmund Cartwright was an English inventor from the 18th century that invented the power loom and the wool combing machine. His achievements were essential contributions to the Industrial Revolution and the textile industry. Cartwright’s work was a progression from previous inventions and equipment such as John Kay’s flying shuttle.
His determination to contribute to the world saw him go from a clergyman to one of the most influential personalities from the 18th and early 19th centuries. Even though he was born into a wealthy family, Cartwright’s application and decisiveness to create something useful can be an inspiration to us all. In this article, we will take a look at Edmund Cartwright and the wool combing machine.
Who Was Edmund Cartwright?
If we want to dive deeper into the invention itself, we must first take a look at Edmund Cartwright himself. How did he come into the weaving industry? How and why did he go from being a clergyman to an inventor? Let’s find out.
Born to a Prominent Family
The Cartwright family was an influential family from Nottinghamshire, England. Edmund Cartwright was born on the 24th of April in 1743 to a landowner and a reverend, Edmund Cartwright senior. The parents were keen for their sons to get an education and become influential people. Edmund senior had five sons; three of them became famous.
Like his father, Edmund Cartwright Jr. set out to become a clergyman. He would have been one for the rest of his life, but a flash of enlightenment changed that in 1769. That is when Cartwright learned about some of the inventions in the weaving industry at the time. Edmund’s brothers went on to become influential people, too; John Cartwright, his older brother, was a political personality and a leader of the radicals that demanded changes within the Parliament. George, his other older brother, was a bit of an explorer. Primarily a trader, he became famous for exploring Labrador.
Edmund Cartwright was encouraged by his father to learn from an early age. The father wanted his sons to be ambitious and pursue big goals, and the investment paid off. Edmund received education from a young age. In his early childhood, he was mostly taught at home by his parents to read and write. When Edmund was a boy, his father paid some of the most exceptional tutors around to teach his son various topics – mathematics, engineering, grammar, and religious matters. Edmund entered the Queen Elizabeth Grammar School in Wakefield and was one of its brightest students.
An Aspiring Reverend
When Edmund was old enough, he would enroll in the University College in Oxford, one of the most renowned schools in the country and all over the world. Edmund was always a good learner, which he showed at the university level. As one of “good morals and dispositions” Cartwright Jr. was awarded a demyship. Later, he was enrolled by his father in the MA Magdalen College in Oxford, which he completed in 1766. His career looked to be a promising one, as he achieved top grades within his class.
In 1766, he got his first job as a rector of the Leicestershire Church, which was a relatively high position for someone at such a young age. It was looking like he would have a bright career as a reverend and not an inventor. He stayed at the Leicestershire Church for six years before moving to the church of Brampton to become a curate. From there, he moved to Lincoln in 1786 to be a prebendary.
Interest in Engineering Sparks Within Cartwright
Edmund Cartwright started taking an interest in engineering in his time as a scholar in Oxford, but it was not his primary ambition. He was determined to become a reverend instead. The clergyman became more seriously involved with engineering in his 30s when Edmund worked in Brampton and later in Lincoln. Cartwright had many interests and hobbies, and engineering was only one of them. He was also a part-time poet, and some of his poems were highly-acclaimed.
Cartwright became more involved with engineering in the 1780s. He knew a great deal about the textile industry at this time. He studied the industry in his spare time when he was not performing duties as a reverend. He was very much aware of the concepts of Arkwright’s spinning frame and Kay’s flying shuttle, and he became more interested in the weaving industry as a whole.
Cartwright saw a big opportunity in the textile industry. He thought that there was still space for improvement, especially in the automation of the machines. While the spinning frame of Arkwright contributed significantly towards mechanization of the weaving process, human workers still needed to provide input during the production of cloth. Cartwright knew that the human workforce was holding back the potential of the machines and that the workers were not able to keep up with increasing demand and the need for higher profits.
Since the invention of the spinning frame, Cartwright studied the design and other technologies within the industry. He had little to no knowledge before this and had to begin at the basics. His persistence is a testament to the power determination and what can is achievable even if you lack the knowledge and skills. Though Cartwright was an educated man, he had to learn everything from scratch. This process took him a lot of time and effort, but it eventually paid off.
Cartwright and the Power Loom
Before Edmund invented the Wool combing machine, he was involved in some projects that were significant for his establishment as one of the most famous engineers of his time. One such project was his concept of a power loom.
Cartwright always had the idea that the need for human workers limited the current spinning frames and that once Arkwright’s patent would expire, many small mills would begin pop up. The requirements for production would then increase as these new businesses grew. Cartwright saw the potential to make a profit, and he predicted that the industry would boom. In 1784, he visited one of the mills that used the Arkwright’s Spinning Frame to see it first hand. He was sure that it could be improved and started working on his patent.
Many people and associates of his were not sure that creating a better machine was possible at this time. That was because Cartwright had no applicable knowledge about the technology used and no skills to make it work on his own. Cartwright was smart and very resourceful enough to prove everyone wrong. He hired a carpenter named Zach Dijkhoff to assist him in making his idea a reality.
His first design of the power loom came in 1784 but was mostly unsuccessful. He did obtain a patent for his power loom in 1875, but it needed improving. It was too expensive, inefficient, and unreliable. His power loom required several improvements to be more viable. With Dijkhoff’s help, Cartwright started making improvements to his new machine. Cartwright and Dijkhoff addressed the shortcomings of the loom in the coming years by adding various parts like cranks and eccentric wheels.
The power loom was soon ready to be used in production. Cartwright opened his mill in 1788 in Doncaster to prove his concepts. His power looms were steam-powered, which was quite rare at the time. Even though Cartwright was reluctant at first because his loom would cause many people to lose their jobs, it proved to be a success. The power loom spread like fire, and many manufacturers used his new concepts for their mills. Other manufacturers began to improve on his design in the coming years.
Edmund Cartwright and the Wool Combing Machine
Even though his power looms were capable of producing much more than previous spinning frames, his business started to go downhill fast. That was not because of his looms, but because he was a poor businessman. He lost a lot of money in a short space of time. Also, he was facing unrest from people that were put out of work by his machine. The most significant rebellion came in 1799 when the protestors burned almost 400 of his looms.
The power loom was Cartwright’s creation, but he also made many several subsequent successful inventions. After earning a lot of money from his business in 1788, Cartwright started working on some other designs within the weaving industry. Among them was the wool combing machine.
The invention of the Combing Machine was arguably a more considerable achievement than the Power Loom, which many labeled as an unoriginal idea. Additionally, Dijkhoff and other people helped considerably and meant that the project was not his alone.
The Wool Combing Machine, on the other hand, was exclusively Cartwright’s work from the idea to execution. Wool combing was done entirely by hand before his invention of this new machine. The machine worked by arranging wool fibers in parallel and comb the wool. The patent in 1790 for the Wool Combining Machine was popular with manufacturers, but not with workers who soon found themselves unemployed.
In the years to come, Cartwright would take out further patents for the wool combing machine due to the improvements that he made to it. New licenses came in 1790 and then in 1792. It became popular in many factories and was further improved later by some other inventors and manufacturers.
The Reception of the Wool Combing Machine
It is fair to say that Cartwright had a lot of opposition during his time as an innovator. While the devices were, of course, supported by manufacturers and the government, workers had other opinions.
Cartwright received many threats by people employed as wool combers. They demanded that he not license his patent to factories. Manual labor in the textile industry was the only source of income for many people at that time. Threatened by poverty, these workers started taking action against Cartwright. They petitioned in the late 18th century against the Wool Combing Machine and other modernized manufacturing processes. The government ignored the worker’s pleas and rejected any attempt at slowing down modernizing the economy.
Cartwright tried to negotiate with the workers because he already had problems regarding the Power Loom. He offered to halve the number of Wool Combing Machines produced and promoted the idea that factories should hire more workers.
His patent for the Wool Combing Machine expired in 1804, which meant that anyone could manufacture it. New versions of the machines incorporated into factories quickly. The Wool Combing Machine became the staple of the weaving industry.
Personal Life and Later Years
Edmund married Elizabeth McMac from Doncaster, in 1770. He lived in Doncaster for many years and owned a mill there. Together, they had three children; all of them achieved a degree of success in their lives.
In 1809, he was awarded a fund of 10,000 British pounds by the government for his invention of the Power Loom. With this handsome sum of money, he bought a family farm in Kent. Cartwright died in 1823 in Hastings, Sussex.
Cartwright was one of the giants of the 18th and early 19th centuries in terms of inventing. His inventions of the Power Loom and the Wool Combing Machine changed the textile industry forever. They both contributed significantly towards mechanization and modernization of factories and the economy.
What can we learn from this extraordinary Englishman?
Firstly, we can recognize that Cartwright was a determined man. Even though he wanted to be a reverend, he studied engineering and the textile industry on his own.
Secondly, Cartwright had extensive knowledge about the machinery at the time due to his research. This knowledge allowed him to understand the machines and envision possible improvements. The power of seeking knowledge should be your primary focus when you are looking to invent something new. You must also know the market and competitors’ equipment is crucial for success. | <urn:uuid:ccc01ef0-2c36-417c-ba95-7c542cca3655> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.inventiontherapy.com/edmund-cartwright-and-the-wool-combing-machine/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00440.warc.gz | en | 0.990679 | 2,455 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.27370959520339966... | 6 | Edmund Cartwright was an English inventor from the 18th century that invented the power loom and the wool combing machine. His achievements were essential contributions to the Industrial Revolution and the textile industry. Cartwright’s work was a progression from previous inventions and equipment such as John Kay’s flying shuttle.
His determination to contribute to the world saw him go from a clergyman to one of the most influential personalities from the 18th and early 19th centuries. Even though he was born into a wealthy family, Cartwright’s application and decisiveness to create something useful can be an inspiration to us all. In this article, we will take a look at Edmund Cartwright and the wool combing machine.
Who Was Edmund Cartwright?
If we want to dive deeper into the invention itself, we must first take a look at Edmund Cartwright himself. How did he come into the weaving industry? How and why did he go from being a clergyman to an inventor? Let’s find out.
Born to a Prominent Family
The Cartwright family was an influential family from Nottinghamshire, England. Edmund Cartwright was born on the 24th of April in 1743 to a landowner and a reverend, Edmund Cartwright senior. The parents were keen for their sons to get an education and become influential people. Edmund senior had five sons; three of them became famous.
Like his father, Edmund Cartwright Jr. set out to become a clergyman. He would have been one for the rest of his life, but a flash of enlightenment changed that in 1769. That is when Cartwright learned about some of the inventions in the weaving industry at the time. Edmund’s brothers went on to become influential people, too; John Cartwright, his older brother, was a political personality and a leader of the radicals that demanded changes within the Parliament. George, his other older brother, was a bit of an explorer. Primarily a trader, he became famous for exploring Labrador.
Edmund Cartwright was encouraged by his father to learn from an early age. The father wanted his sons to be ambitious and pursue big goals, and the investment paid off. Edmund received education from a young age. In his early childhood, he was mostly taught at home by his parents to read and write. When Edmund was a boy, his father paid some of the most exceptional tutors around to teach his son various topics – mathematics, engineering, grammar, and religious matters. Edmund entered the Queen Elizabeth Grammar School in Wakefield and was one of its brightest students.
An Aspiring Reverend
When Edmund was old enough, he would enroll in the University College in Oxford, one of the most renowned schools in the country and all over the world. Edmund was always a good learner, which he showed at the university level. As one of “good morals and dispositions” Cartwright Jr. was awarded a demyship. Later, he was enrolled by his father in the MA Magdalen College in Oxford, which he completed in 1766. His career looked to be a promising one, as he achieved top grades within his class.
In 1766, he got his first job as a rector of the Leicestershire Church, which was a relatively high position for someone at such a young age. It was looking like he would have a bright career as a reverend and not an inventor. He stayed at the Leicestershire Church for six years before moving to the church of Brampton to become a curate. From there, he moved to Lincoln in 1786 to be a prebendary.
Interest in Engineering Sparks Within Cartwright
Edmund Cartwright started taking an interest in engineering in his time as a scholar in Oxford, but it was not his primary ambition. He was determined to become a reverend instead. The clergyman became more seriously involved with engineering in his 30s when Edmund worked in Brampton and later in Lincoln. Cartwright had many interests and hobbies, and engineering was only one of them. He was also a part-time poet, and some of his poems were highly-acclaimed.
Cartwright became more involved with engineering in the 1780s. He knew a great deal about the textile industry at this time. He studied the industry in his spare time when he was not performing duties as a reverend. He was very much aware of the concepts of Arkwright’s spinning frame and Kay’s flying shuttle, and he became more interested in the weaving industry as a whole.
Cartwright saw a big opportunity in the textile industry. He thought that there was still space for improvement, especially in the automation of the machines. While the spinning frame of Arkwright contributed significantly towards mechanization of the weaving process, human workers still needed to provide input during the production of cloth. Cartwright knew that the human workforce was holding back the potential of the machines and that the workers were not able to keep up with increasing demand and the need for higher profits.
Since the invention of the spinning frame, Cartwright studied the design and other technologies within the industry. He had little to no knowledge before this and had to begin at the basics. His persistence is a testament to the power determination and what can is achievable even if you lack the knowledge and skills. Though Cartwright was an educated man, he had to learn everything from scratch. This process took him a lot of time and effort, but it eventually paid off.
Cartwright and the Power Loom
Before Edmund invented the Wool combing machine, he was involved in some projects that were significant for his establishment as one of the most famous engineers of his time. One such project was his concept of a power loom.
Cartwright always had the idea that the need for human workers limited the current spinning frames and that once Arkwright’s patent would expire, many small mills would begin pop up. The requirements for production would then increase as these new businesses grew. Cartwright saw the potential to make a profit, and he predicted that the industry would boom. In 1784, he visited one of the mills that used the Arkwright’s Spinning Frame to see it first hand. He was sure that it could be improved and started working on his patent.
Many people and associates of his were not sure that creating a better machine was possible at this time. That was because Cartwright had no applicable knowledge about the technology used and no skills to make it work on his own. Cartwright was smart and very resourceful enough to prove everyone wrong. He hired a carpenter named Zach Dijkhoff to assist him in making his idea a reality.
His first design of the power loom came in 1784 but was mostly unsuccessful. He did obtain a patent for his power loom in 1875, but it needed improving. It was too expensive, inefficient, and unreliable. His power loom required several improvements to be more viable. With Dijkhoff’s help, Cartwright started making improvements to his new machine. Cartwright and Dijkhoff addressed the shortcomings of the loom in the coming years by adding various parts like cranks and eccentric wheels.
The power loom was soon ready to be used in production. Cartwright opened his mill in 1788 in Doncaster to prove his concepts. His power looms were steam-powered, which was quite rare at the time. Even though Cartwright was reluctant at first because his loom would cause many people to lose their jobs, it proved to be a success. The power loom spread like fire, and many manufacturers used his new concepts for their mills. Other manufacturers began to improve on his design in the coming years.
Edmund Cartwright and the Wool Combing Machine
Even though his power looms were capable of producing much more than previous spinning frames, his business started to go downhill fast. That was not because of his looms, but because he was a poor businessman. He lost a lot of money in a short space of time. Also, he was facing unrest from people that were put out of work by his machine. The most significant rebellion came in 1799 when the protestors burned almost 400 of his looms.
The power loom was Cartwright’s creation, but he also made many several subsequent successful inventions. After earning a lot of money from his business in 1788, Cartwright started working on some other designs within the weaving industry. Among them was the wool combing machine.
The invention of the Combing Machine was arguably a more considerable achievement than the Power Loom, which many labeled as an unoriginal idea. Additionally, Dijkhoff and other people helped considerably and meant that the project was not his alone.
The Wool Combing Machine, on the other hand, was exclusively Cartwright’s work from the idea to execution. Wool combing was done entirely by hand before his invention of this new machine. The machine worked by arranging wool fibers in parallel and comb the wool. The patent in 1790 for the Wool Combining Machine was popular with manufacturers, but not with workers who soon found themselves unemployed.
In the years to come, Cartwright would take out further patents for the wool combing machine due to the improvements that he made to it. New licenses came in 1790 and then in 1792. It became popular in many factories and was further improved later by some other inventors and manufacturers.
The Reception of the Wool Combing Machine
It is fair to say that Cartwright had a lot of opposition during his time as an innovator. While the devices were, of course, supported by manufacturers and the government, workers had other opinions.
Cartwright received many threats by people employed as wool combers. They demanded that he not license his patent to factories. Manual labor in the textile industry was the only source of income for many people at that time. Threatened by poverty, these workers started taking action against Cartwright. They petitioned in the late 18th century against the Wool Combing Machine and other modernized manufacturing processes. The government ignored the worker’s pleas and rejected any attempt at slowing down modernizing the economy.
Cartwright tried to negotiate with the workers because he already had problems regarding the Power Loom. He offered to halve the number of Wool Combing Machines produced and promoted the idea that factories should hire more workers.
His patent for the Wool Combing Machine expired in 1804, which meant that anyone could manufacture it. New versions of the machines incorporated into factories quickly. The Wool Combing Machine became the staple of the weaving industry.
Personal Life and Later Years
Edmund married Elizabeth McMac from Doncaster, in 1770. He lived in Doncaster for many years and owned a mill there. Together, they had three children; all of them achieved a degree of success in their lives.
In 1809, he was awarded a fund of 10,000 British pounds by the government for his invention of the Power Loom. With this handsome sum of money, he bought a family farm in Kent. Cartwright died in 1823 in Hastings, Sussex.
Cartwright was one of the giants of the 18th and early 19th centuries in terms of inventing. His inventions of the Power Loom and the Wool Combing Machine changed the textile industry forever. They both contributed significantly towards mechanization and modernization of factories and the economy.
What can we learn from this extraordinary Englishman?
Firstly, we can recognize that Cartwright was a determined man. Even though he wanted to be a reverend, he studied engineering and the textile industry on his own.
Secondly, Cartwright had extensive knowledge about the machinery at the time due to his research. This knowledge allowed him to understand the machines and envision possible improvements. The power of seeking knowledge should be your primary focus when you are looking to invent something new. You must also know the market and competitors’ equipment is crucial for success. | 2,470 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Any student of drama and literature will spend time with Greek and Shakespearean theater. The two types of drama form the foundation of Western theater and continue to influence drama today. The styles were distinct with differences in approach, style, content and staging. They played to different audiences, and the plays reflect the periods and concerns of those who came to see the performances.
Unity versus Variety
Greek drama focused on a single theme and plot. The story was one that its audience would recognize and treated upon that single story without any subplots. Shakespeare, on the other hand, wove a wealth of plot threads through his plays with multiple story lines, themes and goals occurring in each play. Each play had secondary story lines that sometimes were directly related to the main plot and other times simply fleshed out the world of the play.
In Greek drama, the characters had to be considered "great" in order to be the subject of a play. They were military generals, royalty or children of gods. Also, Greek drama tended to have fewer characters with a chorus filling in all of the roles surrounding the three or four main characters. In Shakespeare's plays, characters came from all walks of life. He even used fairy-type creatures and ghosts in several of his works. There was a larger company, and most plays have roles for at least a dozen characters, some many more.
Greek drama was almost always instructive and dealt with great matters. The plays were political or religious. Most of the subject matter came from histories or myths that the audience already knew, removing the need for much exposition. The plays explored the meaning behind these great events and focused on the story's moral and ethics. Shakespeare, on the other hand, borrowed widely from as many sources as he could find. His subject matter included the stories of private individuals and lovers as well as kings and nobles. He produced histories, but he also produced pastoral plays, and the subject could be as personal as a love affair or the paying of a bad debt. Shakespeare mixed comedy and tragedy within a single play, and some of his works defy an easy fit into one genre or another.
Greek theater was performed at religious festivals in large outdoor amphitheaters. The stages were large and the audiences even larger. Greek drama made frequent use of masks, in part to amplify the voices of the actors. Shakespearean plays took place on smaller stages. They were performed in courtyards and eventually in more permanent structures such as the Globe. They also were performed in parlors and traveled during parts of the year. There was very little use of masks, though they did use a great number of costumes and wigs.
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0.279567539... | 2 | Any student of drama and literature will spend time with Greek and Shakespearean theater. The two types of drama form the foundation of Western theater and continue to influence drama today. The styles were distinct with differences in approach, style, content and staging. They played to different audiences, and the plays reflect the periods and concerns of those who came to see the performances.
Unity versus Variety
Greek drama focused on a single theme and plot. The story was one that its audience would recognize and treated upon that single story without any subplots. Shakespeare, on the other hand, wove a wealth of plot threads through his plays with multiple story lines, themes and goals occurring in each play. Each play had secondary story lines that sometimes were directly related to the main plot and other times simply fleshed out the world of the play.
In Greek drama, the characters had to be considered "great" in order to be the subject of a play. They were military generals, royalty or children of gods. Also, Greek drama tended to have fewer characters with a chorus filling in all of the roles surrounding the three or four main characters. In Shakespeare's plays, characters came from all walks of life. He even used fairy-type creatures and ghosts in several of his works. There was a larger company, and most plays have roles for at least a dozen characters, some many more.
Greek drama was almost always instructive and dealt with great matters. The plays were political or religious. Most of the subject matter came from histories or myths that the audience already knew, removing the need for much exposition. The plays explored the meaning behind these great events and focused on the story's moral and ethics. Shakespeare, on the other hand, borrowed widely from as many sources as he could find. His subject matter included the stories of private individuals and lovers as well as kings and nobles. He produced histories, but he also produced pastoral plays, and the subject could be as personal as a love affair or the paying of a bad debt. Shakespeare mixed comedy and tragedy within a single play, and some of his works defy an easy fit into one genre or another.
Greek theater was performed at religious festivals in large outdoor amphitheaters. The stages were large and the audiences even larger. Greek drama made frequent use of masks, in part to amplify the voices of the actors. Shakespearean plays took place on smaller stages. They were performed in courtyards and eventually in more permanent structures such as the Globe. They also were performed in parlors and traveled during parts of the year. There was very little use of masks, though they did use a great number of costumes and wigs.
- Photos.com/Photos.com/Getty Images | 540 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Roanoke: the Lost Colony
Roanoke: The Lost Colony Roanoke was the first attempt at creating an English settlement in the New World.It began in 1587 when Sir Walter Raleigh gathered over 100 people to voyage to Roanoke Island on North Carolina’s coast.Three years later, all of Roanoke’s inhabitants were gone with barely any evidence that they even lived there.
The only clues found were the letter “CRO” carved into the trunk of a tree. On the nearby palisades, John white found the word “CROATOAN” carved into the surface.
I believe the colonists of Roanoke voyaged to the nearby island of Croatoan and were absorbed by the native tribes. White, finding the clues, then began trying to identify the fate of the villagers. Before leaving, he told the villagers to leave clues as to their location should they have to leave the colony. White knew of an island called Croatoan south of Roanoke. A storm forced White and his men back to England before he could search for his family.
Another clue as to where the colonists went is the fact that several of the natives in Croatoan describe their ancestors as white people. Later, there were natives found with gray eyes which were only found among these natives and no others. The natives also claim their ancestors came from “Roanoke in Virginia. ” The Pembrokes, the natives of Croatoan, spoke pure Anglo-Saxon English and bore the last names of many of the lost colonists. The natives even had fair eyes, light hair, and Anglo bone structure.
These clues all point to the colonists voyaging into Croatoan and making a settlement there. Apart from telling the colonists to leave Clues, White also told them to carve a Maltese cross above their destination. Because no cross was found at Roanoke, it leads me to believe the colonists had to leave in a hurry. There could have been a threat of invasion which gave the colonists little time to escape and leave clues to their whereabouts. The lost colony of Roanoke was abandoned and its inhabitants voyaged into the wilderness and joined local native tribes. | <urn:uuid:aec1343b-6e6e-41fe-a90d-ded33b62fb52> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://phdessay.com/roanoke-the-lost-colony/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00193.warc.gz | en | 0.985519 | 459 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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Roanoke: The Lost Colony Roanoke was the first attempt at creating an English settlement in the New World.It began in 1587 when Sir Walter Raleigh gathered over 100 people to voyage to Roanoke Island on North Carolina’s coast.Three years later, all of Roanoke’s inhabitants were gone with barely any evidence that they even lived there.
The only clues found were the letter “CRO” carved into the trunk of a tree. On the nearby palisades, John white found the word “CROATOAN” carved into the surface.
I believe the colonists of Roanoke voyaged to the nearby island of Croatoan and were absorbed by the native tribes. White, finding the clues, then began trying to identify the fate of the villagers. Before leaving, he told the villagers to leave clues as to their location should they have to leave the colony. White knew of an island called Croatoan south of Roanoke. A storm forced White and his men back to England before he could search for his family.
Another clue as to where the colonists went is the fact that several of the natives in Croatoan describe their ancestors as white people. Later, there were natives found with gray eyes which were only found among these natives and no others. The natives also claim their ancestors came from “Roanoke in Virginia. ” The Pembrokes, the natives of Croatoan, spoke pure Anglo-Saxon English and bore the last names of many of the lost colonists. The natives even had fair eyes, light hair, and Anglo bone structure.
These clues all point to the colonists voyaging into Croatoan and making a settlement there. Apart from telling the colonists to leave Clues, White also told them to carve a Maltese cross above their destination. Because no cross was found at Roanoke, it leads me to believe the colonists had to leave in a hurry. There could have been a threat of invasion which gave the colonists little time to escape and leave clues to their whereabouts. The lost colony of Roanoke was abandoned and its inhabitants voyaged into the wilderness and joined local native tribes. | 455 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It’s mid-October and the school year is well underway, with teachers handing out homework to reinforce the skills they teach their students in the classroom. Reading homework is just as important as homework in any other class and is a skill used time and time again throughout a person’s life. Most adults have likely been reading so long that it’s hard to remember what it was like to struggle through a sentence. Carolyn Wilhelm at the website Cult of Pedagogy has some great tips for parents when it comes to reading homework.
Reading homework often requires a parent to listen to a child as he or she reads aloud. For older children, reading homework may consist of reading for a number of set minutes each day or each week. Just like during summer reading programs at the library, parents and students need to keep track of the amount of time their kids are reading. Wilhelm reminds parents that they should be reading with their child, not doing something else. Not only does reading with your child enforce the importance of reading, most children enjoy having their parent’s attention and help when it comes to practicing this all-important skill. Once your child can read independently, it is still vital for parents to model the importance of reading, as it’s a skill that helps exercise all parts of the brain and can help children become lifelong learners and critical thinkers.
One of Wilhelm’s other reminders is not to stop reading aloud to your child once they can read by themselves. Many of us enjoy listening to audiobooks, but do you ever stop to wonder why? I believe that audiobooks remind us of those days when we were children listening to our parents read aloud to us. Reading aloud is a practice that should be continued as long as possible. The high school students that I taught before becoming a librarian loved read-aloud days. Many of these students were below grade level when came to reading (according to their placement tests), but enjoyed hearing books read to them that were technically more sophisticated and would be “too difficult” for them to read on their own. They became more interested in reading stories and practicing the reading skills that they were learning.
Check out more of Wilhelm’s suggestions here: http://www.cultofpedagogy.com/reading-homework-tips-for-parents and remember that reading with your child, no matter their age, is one of the best activities you can do together! | <urn:uuid:51be64d5-5b1c-4a3b-b2e0-87cc661c2889> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mcpl.us/about/blog/take-time-read-your-kids | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00361.warc.gz | en | 0.981356 | 501 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.4774120151996... | 1 | It’s mid-October and the school year is well underway, with teachers handing out homework to reinforce the skills they teach their students in the classroom. Reading homework is just as important as homework in any other class and is a skill used time and time again throughout a person’s life. Most adults have likely been reading so long that it’s hard to remember what it was like to struggle through a sentence. Carolyn Wilhelm at the website Cult of Pedagogy has some great tips for parents when it comes to reading homework.
Reading homework often requires a parent to listen to a child as he or she reads aloud. For older children, reading homework may consist of reading for a number of set minutes each day or each week. Just like during summer reading programs at the library, parents and students need to keep track of the amount of time their kids are reading. Wilhelm reminds parents that they should be reading with their child, not doing something else. Not only does reading with your child enforce the importance of reading, most children enjoy having their parent’s attention and help when it comes to practicing this all-important skill. Once your child can read independently, it is still vital for parents to model the importance of reading, as it’s a skill that helps exercise all parts of the brain and can help children become lifelong learners and critical thinkers.
One of Wilhelm’s other reminders is not to stop reading aloud to your child once they can read by themselves. Many of us enjoy listening to audiobooks, but do you ever stop to wonder why? I believe that audiobooks remind us of those days when we were children listening to our parents read aloud to us. Reading aloud is a practice that should be continued as long as possible. The high school students that I taught before becoming a librarian loved read-aloud days. Many of these students were below grade level when came to reading (according to their placement tests), but enjoyed hearing books read to them that were technically more sophisticated and would be “too difficult” for them to read on their own. They became more interested in reading stories and practicing the reading skills that they were learning.
Check out more of Wilhelm’s suggestions here: http://www.cultofpedagogy.com/reading-homework-tips-for-parents and remember that reading with your child, no matter their age, is one of the best activities you can do together! | 477 | ENGLISH | 1 |
LEDC: Bangladesh Between July-September 1998, Bangladesh suffered one of its worse ever floods. Despite flooding being common in this country, the floods of 1998 were particularly severe resulting in over 1000 deaths and 30 million people being made homeless POSITIVE EFFECTS OF FLOODING It is important to remember that whilst flooding has serious impacts on human life in Bangladesh it is also instrumental in the wellbeing of Bangladesh’s economy and the survival of its people. So what are these positive effects of flooding? . As well as providing water for crops, when flooding occurs, as there is friction between the water and the surface of the land, the water slows down and loses its energy. This loss of energy results in the deposition of rich fertile soil resulting in the providing important nutrients enabling people to grow crops; 2. This deposition of silt also creates land upon which people can live – for example the Ganges delta has been formed in this way as deposition has occured where the river has entered the Bay of Bengal.
EFFECTS OF THE 1998 FLOODS: Then there are the usually bad effects of natural disasters: 1. Over two thirds of the land area was covered by water and the capital, Dhaka, was 2m underwater. 2. 30 million people were made homeless in the floods with many losing all their belongings. 3. 1,070 people died – this death toll resulted from a number of things. As well as people being killed by drowning in the flood waters, health problems increased the number of deaths further.
Contamination of water by waste and dead bodies / animals, and the lack of a clean water supply resulted in the spread of disease such as cholera and typhoid. Further deaths from snake bites and other injuries which led to death through the lack of access to medical care. 4. Food supplies were severely affected as flooding destroyed the rice stocks with a total of 668,529ha of crops being destroyed; 5. The impact on the economy was signifcant with Bangadesh’s export industries seeing a 20% decrease in production with over 400 clothing factories forced to close. . Communications became difficult, with shopping impossible in the main port, as well as roads and railways having been swept away making the distribution of aid and the rescue operation very difficult. MEDC: Lynmouth The small village of Lynmouth, which is located in Devon was struck by one of the worst incidences of flooding in living history on the 15th August 1952. Some newpaper articles of that time suggested that the flood that hit Lynmouth would occur every 100-200 years. Effects: 1.
Debris built up behind bridges resulting in the build up of a flow of water which eventually burst resulting in torrents of water flowing through Lynmouth with 34 people being killed in the disaster. Though this number is considerably lower than the death toll of Bangladesh, it is expected when looking at the defence systems between the MEDC and LEDC, but also population differences.. 2. The West Lyn river took its original course flowing straight through Lynmouth destroying 90 houses and hotels.
This is obviously a big burden on the towns economy ( less money from tourism), but also for the insurance companies which pay up. The people who lost their homes will have to find another place to live as their homes are being rebuilt. The town had the potential at that time to become a ghost town as the inhabitants believed it was not sufficiently protected from nature. 3. Lots of personal property had been lost in the flooding.
A total of 132 cars and 19 boats were swept away- some as far away as the ocean as the river had such a high velocity ( it even carried boulders). 4. Some of the lynmouth crops were damaged and some of the livestock washed away resulting in a great economic lose to the farmers. 5. After the flooding had occurred the government had to increase flood defences to make the chance of another great flood less likely. So new flood management teams where bought in to help protect the village- a positive effect. | <urn:uuid:f2759cc0-02f5-44bb-a326-ad136fed75ad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://indybedbugpros.com/flooding-impact-ledc-and-medc-5129/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00154.warc.gz | en | 0.98495 | 815 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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-0.0883063748... | 1 | LEDC: Bangladesh Between July-September 1998, Bangladesh suffered one of its worse ever floods. Despite flooding being common in this country, the floods of 1998 were particularly severe resulting in over 1000 deaths and 30 million people being made homeless POSITIVE EFFECTS OF FLOODING It is important to remember that whilst flooding has serious impacts on human life in Bangladesh it is also instrumental in the wellbeing of Bangladesh’s economy and the survival of its people. So what are these positive effects of flooding? . As well as providing water for crops, when flooding occurs, as there is friction between the water and the surface of the land, the water slows down and loses its energy. This loss of energy results in the deposition of rich fertile soil resulting in the providing important nutrients enabling people to grow crops; 2. This deposition of silt also creates land upon which people can live – for example the Ganges delta has been formed in this way as deposition has occured where the river has entered the Bay of Bengal.
EFFECTS OF THE 1998 FLOODS: Then there are the usually bad effects of natural disasters: 1. Over two thirds of the land area was covered by water and the capital, Dhaka, was 2m underwater. 2. 30 million people were made homeless in the floods with many losing all their belongings. 3. 1,070 people died – this death toll resulted from a number of things. As well as people being killed by drowning in the flood waters, health problems increased the number of deaths further.
Contamination of water by waste and dead bodies / animals, and the lack of a clean water supply resulted in the spread of disease such as cholera and typhoid. Further deaths from snake bites and other injuries which led to death through the lack of access to medical care. 4. Food supplies were severely affected as flooding destroyed the rice stocks with a total of 668,529ha of crops being destroyed; 5. The impact on the economy was signifcant with Bangadesh’s export industries seeing a 20% decrease in production with over 400 clothing factories forced to close. . Communications became difficult, with shopping impossible in the main port, as well as roads and railways having been swept away making the distribution of aid and the rescue operation very difficult. MEDC: Lynmouth The small village of Lynmouth, which is located in Devon was struck by one of the worst incidences of flooding in living history on the 15th August 1952. Some newpaper articles of that time suggested that the flood that hit Lynmouth would occur every 100-200 years. Effects: 1.
Debris built up behind bridges resulting in the build up of a flow of water which eventually burst resulting in torrents of water flowing through Lynmouth with 34 people being killed in the disaster. Though this number is considerably lower than the death toll of Bangladesh, it is expected when looking at the defence systems between the MEDC and LEDC, but also population differences.. 2. The West Lyn river took its original course flowing straight through Lynmouth destroying 90 houses and hotels.
This is obviously a big burden on the towns economy ( less money from tourism), but also for the insurance companies which pay up. The people who lost their homes will have to find another place to live as their homes are being rebuilt. The town had the potential at that time to become a ghost town as the inhabitants believed it was not sufficiently protected from nature. 3. Lots of personal property had been lost in the flooding.
A total of 132 cars and 19 boats were swept away- some as far away as the ocean as the river had such a high velocity ( it even carried boulders). 4. Some of the lynmouth crops were damaged and some of the livestock washed away resulting in a great economic lose to the farmers. 5. After the flooding had occurred the government had to increase flood defences to make the chance of another great flood less likely. So new flood management teams where bought in to help protect the village- a positive effect. | 867 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"The wheels on the bus go 'round and 'round..." to get the mail to you. The first Highway Post Office bus was inaugurated on February 10, 1941, on a route running from Washington, D.C. to Harrisonburg, Virginia. However, a second route was not established until 1946 due to the outbreak of World War II. Every time a new route was established, there would be a special "first day cover" cancellation created for the philatelic mail carried that day. The first post office bus was designed and built by the White Motor Company of Cleveland, Ohio, and is now a part of the collection at the National Postal Museum.
H.P.O. bus cover
Although intended to replace the Railway Mail Service, these sorting facilities built on bus chassis remained almost identical to those built into railway cars. Windows were screened and barred to provide security for the cargo and postal employees. The postal workers would sort mail by artificial light into letter cases as the bus moved along its route. Storage space was located at the rear of the bus; an average of 640 square feet was set aside, and capacity was approximately 150 mail sacks.
Highway post office bus service was designed as a response to declining railroad traffic in the early 1940s. With its sleek design (for a bus) and stylishly patriotic red, white and blue paint job, a Highway Post Office bus would have been a common sight along the rapidly expanding highways of the 1950s and 1960s. As the United States was growing, use of the highway system was growing as well, meaning fewer passengers for the railways.
Clerks working aboard the first Highway Post Office bus
The changing character of cities and of the mail itself eventually led to the death of the Highway Post Office. Business mail, once a small portion of all correspondence, had grown to 80 percent of the total volume of mail in 1963. Centralization of both business accounts and social centers highlighted mechanization problems in the system that were addressed by the presidentially appointed Advisory Board of the Post Office Department in June 1962. The advice of this board was to adopt a coding system for the mail, requiring a complete reorganization of the postal system already in place. The adoption and expansion of the "Metro system," with its ZIP codes (1963) and sectional centers (1960), spelled the end for the Highway Post Office system. Although the bus in the Postal Museum's collection was decommissioned in the 1960s, the Highway Post Office service ran until June 30, 1974.
FDR puts mail into H.P.O. bus
For further reading
Written by Nancy A. Pope | <urn:uuid:e32ace67-ddfb-48e5-94ff-1d4627daebac> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://postalmuseum.si.edu/collections/object-spotlight/highway-post-office-bus | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00237.warc.gz | en | 0.981148 | 535 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.041310809552669525... | 10 | "The wheels on the bus go 'round and 'round..." to get the mail to you. The first Highway Post Office bus was inaugurated on February 10, 1941, on a route running from Washington, D.C. to Harrisonburg, Virginia. However, a second route was not established until 1946 due to the outbreak of World War II. Every time a new route was established, there would be a special "first day cover" cancellation created for the philatelic mail carried that day. The first post office bus was designed and built by the White Motor Company of Cleveland, Ohio, and is now a part of the collection at the National Postal Museum.
H.P.O. bus cover
Although intended to replace the Railway Mail Service, these sorting facilities built on bus chassis remained almost identical to those built into railway cars. Windows were screened and barred to provide security for the cargo and postal employees. The postal workers would sort mail by artificial light into letter cases as the bus moved along its route. Storage space was located at the rear of the bus; an average of 640 square feet was set aside, and capacity was approximately 150 mail sacks.
Highway post office bus service was designed as a response to declining railroad traffic in the early 1940s. With its sleek design (for a bus) and stylishly patriotic red, white and blue paint job, a Highway Post Office bus would have been a common sight along the rapidly expanding highways of the 1950s and 1960s. As the United States was growing, use of the highway system was growing as well, meaning fewer passengers for the railways.
Clerks working aboard the first Highway Post Office bus
The changing character of cities and of the mail itself eventually led to the death of the Highway Post Office. Business mail, once a small portion of all correspondence, had grown to 80 percent of the total volume of mail in 1963. Centralization of both business accounts and social centers highlighted mechanization problems in the system that were addressed by the presidentially appointed Advisory Board of the Post Office Department in June 1962. The advice of this board was to adopt a coding system for the mail, requiring a complete reorganization of the postal system already in place. The adoption and expansion of the "Metro system," with its ZIP codes (1963) and sectional centers (1960), spelled the end for the Highway Post Office system. Although the bus in the Postal Museum's collection was decommissioned in the 1960s, the Highway Post Office service ran until June 30, 1974.
FDR puts mail into H.P.O. bus
For further reading
Written by Nancy A. Pope | 578 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Music & Entertainment
Lesson time 10:37 min
Hans discusses the important of earning your musicians' respect and how to effectively communicate with them.
Topics include: Respect • Communicating with the Orchestra
Anybody can learn how to use a computer, and how to make sounds. And anybody can learn how to orchestrate. You can go to music school. You can learn how to play. These are all things that are being taught constantly. But I think one of the great things that's missing is how do you have the conversation. How not to be afraid. It actually takes a bit of getting used to-- like you and me right now having this simple conversation while there's a huge crew floating around, behind us. And we're pretending they're not here. But that's not what we're doing. We're actually doing the opposite. We're doing-- everybody is here to support us, doing something great. And that's the same with composing. So when you stand in front of the orchestra, know that they are there to support you, and make it the best. As opposed to being worried about all that. But it takes a bit of time. And you have to sort of earn their respect as well. I remember the first few times having the orchestra, and it was literally like lion taming. You walk out there, and they're just looking at you going, so what do you know? And the only way you can prove it is just by writing a decent tune, or having a decent idea. There are these two percussionists in London, Frank Ricotti and Gary Kettel. They play pretty much on every movie that ever existed. I think from before Star Wars on. So they played on everything. And secretly, my ambition, every time I record a score there, is to just find one thing that they haven't done before. And usually it's like, well, if you were to hit the temps with brushes. And at first you get, that'll never work. And then if you're lucky, they go out there and they do it. And they go, wow, Hans, that sounds really good. We've never done this before. So every time, just push it forward a bit. And if you push it forward a bit, they love you for it. Because the musicians are your biggest allies. They are the ones ultimately-- this is just me playing around on a computer. Ultimately, the real musicians give it something that no machine can do. When you get to the orchestra session, and this is partly why I do these demos, why I do these suites, why we mocked the whole movie up, why we have showed it to an audience. So that by the time we get to the orchestra section, we are on very, very solid ground. Because when I first got to Hollywood, people were just writing on paper. And the first time the director really would hear the thing would be either somebody had played it to him on piano, which is not quite the same as when you have a 120-piece orchestra blasting away at you. Some people can do it brilliantly. Obviously John Williams could do it brilliantly, because he is an amazing pianist. And the relationship he has with Steven Spielberg allows that, where John can play and go, this is where the French h...
Hans Zimmer didn’t see a film until he was 12 years old. Since then, he’s scored over 150 films, including Inception, The Lion King, and The Dark Knight. In his MasterClass, the self-taught Academy Award-winner teaches how he creates sounds from nothing, composes compelling character themes, and scores a movie before ever seeing it. By the end, you’ll have everything you need to start film scoring.
Hans is awesome, this was everything you might expect and more, so many insights, what an inspiration. Thanks you!
This was a truly inspirational course that will assist me in many ways on my journey of creation. To see that a even a master has to overcome their doubts and experiment despite such success gives me the confidence to feel the fear and jump right in.
This masterclass is so great ! Easy to understand and so hard to do a better work after knowing all hans zimmer's teaches. Thks a lot !
I found Hans' MasterClass invaluable. His key message of everything being about the story really resonated with my own sensibilities, and I was very happy that this was a MasterClass that wasn't a "how-to" but was a "why so." | <urn:uuid:00d16cb1-2935-4002-8bf9-8ab08f1eb383> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.masterclass.com/classes/hans-zimmer-teaches-film-scoring/chapters/working-with-musicians-the-orchestra-part-1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00295.warc.gz | en | 0.980389 | 939 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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Lesson time 10:37 min
Hans discusses the important of earning your musicians' respect and how to effectively communicate with them.
Topics include: Respect • Communicating with the Orchestra
Anybody can learn how to use a computer, and how to make sounds. And anybody can learn how to orchestrate. You can go to music school. You can learn how to play. These are all things that are being taught constantly. But I think one of the great things that's missing is how do you have the conversation. How not to be afraid. It actually takes a bit of getting used to-- like you and me right now having this simple conversation while there's a huge crew floating around, behind us. And we're pretending they're not here. But that's not what we're doing. We're actually doing the opposite. We're doing-- everybody is here to support us, doing something great. And that's the same with composing. So when you stand in front of the orchestra, know that they are there to support you, and make it the best. As opposed to being worried about all that. But it takes a bit of time. And you have to sort of earn their respect as well. I remember the first few times having the orchestra, and it was literally like lion taming. You walk out there, and they're just looking at you going, so what do you know? And the only way you can prove it is just by writing a decent tune, or having a decent idea. There are these two percussionists in London, Frank Ricotti and Gary Kettel. They play pretty much on every movie that ever existed. I think from before Star Wars on. So they played on everything. And secretly, my ambition, every time I record a score there, is to just find one thing that they haven't done before. And usually it's like, well, if you were to hit the temps with brushes. And at first you get, that'll never work. And then if you're lucky, they go out there and they do it. And they go, wow, Hans, that sounds really good. We've never done this before. So every time, just push it forward a bit. And if you push it forward a bit, they love you for it. Because the musicians are your biggest allies. They are the ones ultimately-- this is just me playing around on a computer. Ultimately, the real musicians give it something that no machine can do. When you get to the orchestra session, and this is partly why I do these demos, why I do these suites, why we mocked the whole movie up, why we have showed it to an audience. So that by the time we get to the orchestra section, we are on very, very solid ground. Because when I first got to Hollywood, people were just writing on paper. And the first time the director really would hear the thing would be either somebody had played it to him on piano, which is not quite the same as when you have a 120-piece orchestra blasting away at you. Some people can do it brilliantly. Obviously John Williams could do it brilliantly, because he is an amazing pianist. And the relationship he has with Steven Spielberg allows that, where John can play and go, this is where the French h...
Hans Zimmer didn’t see a film until he was 12 years old. Since then, he’s scored over 150 films, including Inception, The Lion King, and The Dark Knight. In his MasterClass, the self-taught Academy Award-winner teaches how he creates sounds from nothing, composes compelling character themes, and scores a movie before ever seeing it. By the end, you’ll have everything you need to start film scoring.
Hans is awesome, this was everything you might expect and more, so many insights, what an inspiration. Thanks you!
This was a truly inspirational course that will assist me in many ways on my journey of creation. To see that a even a master has to overcome their doubts and experiment despite such success gives me the confidence to feel the fear and jump right in.
This masterclass is so great ! Easy to understand and so hard to do a better work after knowing all hans zimmer's teaches. Thks a lot !
I found Hans' MasterClass invaluable. His key message of everything being about the story really resonated with my own sensibilities, and I was very happy that this was a MasterClass that wasn't a "how-to" but was a "why so." | 934 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Question: What means did reformers and radicals use to communicate their messages and how did these means influence their ideologies?
Over the first Century and a half of American History, Reformers and Radicals found many innovative and effective ways to communicate their ideas to the country. Today, sending a message across the country can be as easy as writing an e-mail, and mass communication can be achieved as easily as setting up a website or buying a television advertisement. It is hard for one to imagine a world without a computer, a TV, or even a telephone, but this was the world that made the task of delivering a message to the people such a daunting task in 19th Century America. Reformers and Radicals used methods such as public speech, writings, organizations, and even violence to communicate to the entire nation. Indeed, the method of conveying a particular message or ideology chosen was very important, as it would often play a large part in shaping that ideology in the eyes of the public.
Public speech was one of the most common methods that reformers used to reach the general public. Speeches had many advantages that made them a very appealing way for reformers to convey their message. The main advantage that they held was that they were cost efficient. It only takes one person to make a speech, and there is no other capital required. If someone wanted his or her view heard and had no other way to go about it, a speech was often the best option. Speakers did not even require venues to make their speeches. Although churches or other public buildings were often used, a speech could be made from the back of a horse driven cart. This style of riding from town to town was often seen in New England and upstate New York, where towns were close enough to make traveling from town to town practical. Speeches also appealed to reform groups who did not have a large contingency; a small group of speakers could often reach a large portion of the country easily.
Speeches functioned as great tools for inspiring and motivating people. A passionate and charismatic speaker could often change a group of people’s view of the world with just a short speech. A perfect example of this phenomenon can be seen in the leaders of religious groups such as Matthias and Joseph Smith. These two men both possessed the ability to make people pick up and leave their lives in a heartbeat. Although their views on religion were extreme, people who were not happy with their lives were susceptible to their appeals to build new utopian societies.
Other great public speakers included men like Booker T. Washington, who, in his famous “Atlanta Compromise”, actually made the case that segregation could be a good thing for African Americans. Washington’s masterful use of ambiguity (Walters lecture) allowed him to make appeals to African Americans to better their standing without offending or scaring the white population of the south. The... | <urn:uuid:8e27b50f-c59f-422d-bc3b-9cbd51d00be9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/reformers-and-radicals | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00394.warc.gz | en | 0.986371 | 590 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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-0.16987244784832... | 1 | Question: What means did reformers and radicals use to communicate their messages and how did these means influence their ideologies?
Over the first Century and a half of American History, Reformers and Radicals found many innovative and effective ways to communicate their ideas to the country. Today, sending a message across the country can be as easy as writing an e-mail, and mass communication can be achieved as easily as setting up a website or buying a television advertisement. It is hard for one to imagine a world without a computer, a TV, or even a telephone, but this was the world that made the task of delivering a message to the people such a daunting task in 19th Century America. Reformers and Radicals used methods such as public speech, writings, organizations, and even violence to communicate to the entire nation. Indeed, the method of conveying a particular message or ideology chosen was very important, as it would often play a large part in shaping that ideology in the eyes of the public.
Public speech was one of the most common methods that reformers used to reach the general public. Speeches had many advantages that made them a very appealing way for reformers to convey their message. The main advantage that they held was that they were cost efficient. It only takes one person to make a speech, and there is no other capital required. If someone wanted his or her view heard and had no other way to go about it, a speech was often the best option. Speakers did not even require venues to make their speeches. Although churches or other public buildings were often used, a speech could be made from the back of a horse driven cart. This style of riding from town to town was often seen in New England and upstate New York, where towns were close enough to make traveling from town to town practical. Speeches also appealed to reform groups who did not have a large contingency; a small group of speakers could often reach a large portion of the country easily.
Speeches functioned as great tools for inspiring and motivating people. A passionate and charismatic speaker could often change a group of people’s view of the world with just a short speech. A perfect example of this phenomenon can be seen in the leaders of religious groups such as Matthias and Joseph Smith. These two men both possessed the ability to make people pick up and leave their lives in a heartbeat. Although their views on religion were extreme, people who were not happy with their lives were susceptible to their appeals to build new utopian societies.
Other great public speakers included men like Booker T. Washington, who, in his famous “Atlanta Compromise”, actually made the case that segregation could be a good thing for African Americans. Washington’s masterful use of ambiguity (Walters lecture) allowed him to make appeals to African Americans to better their standing without offending or scaring the white population of the south. The... | 578 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This post has been read 3331 times!
A Brief History of Arab American Political Participation
By: Ivey Noojin/Arab America Contributing Writer
The issue of Arab American political participation is especially important in wake of the midterms yesterday. Arab Americans haven’t always had the opportunity of feeling represented, because of prejudices within the U.S. society. Historically in the past, many Arab Americans were made to feel that they did not belong in America.
The Idea of Temporary Residency
During World War I, many people fled the Ottoman Empire to the United States to escape the violence. However, they anticipated that they would ultimately return to their homeland after the war. These immigrants identified with the land in the Ottoman Empire and not the U.S. Therefore, there was no need to preoccupy themselves with the politics of this country; they thought they would leave in a couple of years anyway.
Since many were new arrivals to the United States, they focused on survival instead of politics. These immigrants cared more about where they were going to get their food, what job they could acquire and focused on ways to understand the English language. They didn’t even try to have a voice in the national sphere because they were so focused on providing for themselves.
However, after World War I, they became isolated and confused about their ties to the Arab World and the U.S., leading to weak Arab American communal solidarity. In response, many wanted to forge a connection to the new land they were inhabiting and joined the military. More than 7% of Arab Americans fought for the U.S. in its upcoming foreign conflicts and their women worked to handle the domestic needs of the U.S. Army.
Maintaining a Connection to Their Homeland
Even though many people were fighting for their new country, the Arab American community still felt very marginalized in the U.S. due to their lack of wealth and lack of power. Many of them focused on their religion and on adhering strictly to their culture. The media was attacking them as outsiders, so many did not want anything to do with national politics.
However, at the start of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, many Arab Americans began to become more involved. They were frustrated that they were not in the Arab world to defend the Palestinians, like so many of their fellow Arabs. Therefore, many Arab Americans established interest groups and organizations to help the Palestinians. Protests were organized to let the U.S. government know the stakes of the war. This beginning of political participation highlights the goal of Arab Americans to strengthen ties to their homeland while also taking advantage of their rights as U.S. citizens.
In response, Arab Americans became more involved with the Middle East issues. Many intellectuals were inspired to study the political and humanitarian crises in the Arab world, which led to widespread academic discourse in the United States about the issues. More Americans became cognizant of the problems many Arabs, especially Palestinians, were facing. This led to efforts of establishing political action and lobby groups (Association of Arab American University Graduates, National Association of Arab Americans, American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee, and Arab American Institute) advocating for Arab and Arab American issues. Such efforts increased knowledge and understanding of Arab American communities by directly corresponding with legislators. These groups emboldened Arab Americans to feel that they had a say in the U.S. policy.
Entering the National Sphere
After World War II, Arab Americans started running for public office. However, many of them were not elected due to lack of funding or moral support from the Arab American constituency. When the first Arab American joined Congress in 1959, George Kasem did not win due to Arab American votes; he won because of local support in general.
Since the 60’s and 70’s, notable Arab Americans, predominately of Lebanese/Syrian heritage, entered the world of politics, among them: George Mitchel, John Sununu, James Abourezk, Mary Rose Okar, Charles Boustany, Nick Rahall, and others.
In 1985, the only organization solely dedicated to Arab Americans in political life was established. The Arab American Institute has supported members of their community in their desires to run for office.
Change Due to 9/11
After 9/11, Arab Americans began to expand their local and national political activism to make sure their voice was heard. A year later, the National Network for Arab American Communities was established, as a branch of ACCESS, to help unify Arab Americans regarding domestic issues such as immigration, health care, and civil rights. Today, Arab American political participation is growing exponentially compared to many of the ethnic groups in the United States.
The voice of Arab Americans in U.S. politics is growing, especially through digital and social media. Arab Americans realize through the voting process, they can impact domestic and foreign policy issues. On election day, they have the ability to make their voice heard and increase their representation in Congress. Now more than ever Arab Americans are participating in the single most important virtue they can exercise as Americans, to vote. | <urn:uuid:6d28805a-4d67-4b2e-9d61-0b2d2e973637> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.futuremediausa.com/2018/11/12/a-brief-history-of-arab-american-political-participation/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00488.warc.gz | en | 0.980392 | 1,047 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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A Brief History of Arab American Political Participation
By: Ivey Noojin/Arab America Contributing Writer
The issue of Arab American political participation is especially important in wake of the midterms yesterday. Arab Americans haven’t always had the opportunity of feeling represented, because of prejudices within the U.S. society. Historically in the past, many Arab Americans were made to feel that they did not belong in America.
The Idea of Temporary Residency
During World War I, many people fled the Ottoman Empire to the United States to escape the violence. However, they anticipated that they would ultimately return to their homeland after the war. These immigrants identified with the land in the Ottoman Empire and not the U.S. Therefore, there was no need to preoccupy themselves with the politics of this country; they thought they would leave in a couple of years anyway.
Since many were new arrivals to the United States, they focused on survival instead of politics. These immigrants cared more about where they were going to get their food, what job they could acquire and focused on ways to understand the English language. They didn’t even try to have a voice in the national sphere because they were so focused on providing for themselves.
However, after World War I, they became isolated and confused about their ties to the Arab World and the U.S., leading to weak Arab American communal solidarity. In response, many wanted to forge a connection to the new land they were inhabiting and joined the military. More than 7% of Arab Americans fought for the U.S. in its upcoming foreign conflicts and their women worked to handle the domestic needs of the U.S. Army.
Maintaining a Connection to Their Homeland
Even though many people were fighting for their new country, the Arab American community still felt very marginalized in the U.S. due to their lack of wealth and lack of power. Many of them focused on their religion and on adhering strictly to their culture. The media was attacking them as outsiders, so many did not want anything to do with national politics.
However, at the start of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, many Arab Americans began to become more involved. They were frustrated that they were not in the Arab world to defend the Palestinians, like so many of their fellow Arabs. Therefore, many Arab Americans established interest groups and organizations to help the Palestinians. Protests were organized to let the U.S. government know the stakes of the war. This beginning of political participation highlights the goal of Arab Americans to strengthen ties to their homeland while also taking advantage of their rights as U.S. citizens.
In response, Arab Americans became more involved with the Middle East issues. Many intellectuals were inspired to study the political and humanitarian crises in the Arab world, which led to widespread academic discourse in the United States about the issues. More Americans became cognizant of the problems many Arabs, especially Palestinians, were facing. This led to efforts of establishing political action and lobby groups (Association of Arab American University Graduates, National Association of Arab Americans, American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee, and Arab American Institute) advocating for Arab and Arab American issues. Such efforts increased knowledge and understanding of Arab American communities by directly corresponding with legislators. These groups emboldened Arab Americans to feel that they had a say in the U.S. policy.
Entering the National Sphere
After World War II, Arab Americans started running for public office. However, many of them were not elected due to lack of funding or moral support from the Arab American constituency. When the first Arab American joined Congress in 1959, George Kasem did not win due to Arab American votes; he won because of local support in general.
Since the 60’s and 70’s, notable Arab Americans, predominately of Lebanese/Syrian heritage, entered the world of politics, among them: George Mitchel, John Sununu, James Abourezk, Mary Rose Okar, Charles Boustany, Nick Rahall, and others.
In 1985, the only organization solely dedicated to Arab Americans in political life was established. The Arab American Institute has supported members of their community in their desires to run for office.
Change Due to 9/11
After 9/11, Arab Americans began to expand their local and national political activism to make sure their voice was heard. A year later, the National Network for Arab American Communities was established, as a branch of ACCESS, to help unify Arab Americans regarding domestic issues such as immigration, health care, and civil rights. Today, Arab American political participation is growing exponentially compared to many of the ethnic groups in the United States.
The voice of Arab Americans in U.S. politics is growing, especially through digital and social media. Arab Americans realize through the voting process, they can impact domestic and foreign policy issues. On election day, they have the ability to make their voice heard and increase their representation in Congress. Now more than ever Arab Americans are participating in the single most important virtue they can exercise as Americans, to vote. | 1,037 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After the bison and Native Americans had made their trails along the valley floor, early American pioneers followed. Their major route soon became known as The Great Valley Road, Boone’s Trace, The Great Road, The Wilderness Trail, then Route 11, and a part of it is now known as Main Street, Abingdon, Virginia.
In 1746, an expedition lead by Dr. Thomas Walker explored and surveyed the region and in 1769 a chance meeting of one of Dr. Walker’s friends, Joseph Martin, with Daniel Boone would change American history. Martin had accepted a challenge from Dr. Walker to form a settlement in what is now Powell Valley, Virginia. In 1773, a group led by Daniel Boone came by on their way to Kentucky. By this time, Boone had been leading groups of pioneers along this route west for many years.
In 1775 Judge Richard Henderson, a wealthy businessman and a group of his friends hired both Martin and Boone to work for the newly formed Transylvania Company. They intended to encourage settlement in the western states of Kentucky and Tennessee. Martin would serve as entry taker & civil leader in Powell Valley while Boone would serve as chief guide & scout and civil leader on the Kentucky side of the Cumberland Mountains. Boone led settlers from as far away as Pennsylvania through both the Cumberland Gap and Big Stone Gap, using The Wilderness Road for a large part of his route. It is estimated that approximately 2 to 300,000 hopeful settlers used the Wilderness Road in the years 1775 to 1810.
One of Daniel Boon’s favorite camping sites was along the creek flowing through parts of modern-day Abingdon. A legend tells us that while camped at this site, there was once an attack on Boone’s hunting dogs from wolves that lived in a cave nearby. He then started calling the area Wolf Hills and the emerging settlement was known by that name for several years. Wolf statues, carvings, and other artwork still turn up frequently in the town gift shops. A home was built on the property, but the wolf cave entrance has been preserved and can be seen in the back of the yard of the home.
“Black’s Fort was erected in the year 1776 on the lands of Capt. Joseph Black, on the west bank or near the west bank of what was then known as Eighteen Miles Creek, alias Castle’s Creek, by the settlers living in the vicinity, and about five hundred other settlers who had fled from their homes west of Abingdon upon the outbreak of the Indian War in 1776. It was one of those rude structures which the pioneers were accustomed to make for defense against the Indians, consisting of a few log cabins surrounded by a stockade.” The Cave House From an article written by C. ROBERT WEISFELD, Special to the Washington County News on Nov 13, 2015:
This fort was named the county seat of Washington County and was known by Black’s Fort until it and the surrounding settlement were incorporated in 1778. The fort itself and all of Wolf Hills was then re-named Abingdon in honor of First Lady Martha Washington’s ancestral home, Abingdon Parish in England.
The settlement had several groups of residents meeting as early as 1770 for religious services. These were usually held in individual homes, and some were served by circuit riders from more populated areas of the state. The first minister who came to Abingdon in 1773 was Parson Charles Cummings. He was known as “The Fightin’ Parson” because he always leaned his rifle against the pulpit while he led the service. Whether it was protection against the Indians or the wolves was never clear. His log cabin has been moved to the Sinking Spring Cemetery and preserved as it would have been in his lifetime. Several congregations grew over the years, including a Swendenborgian Church (New Jerusalem Church) in 1835, and the Catholic Villa Marie Academy of the Visitation (a girl’s school) in 1867. Today, there are United Methodist, Presbyterian, Episcopal, and Baptist churches, as well as other denominations.
As early as 1782 the town had several log houses, a log courthouse, jail, a blacksmith shop, and three taverns.
One of those taverns was built in 1779, has been well preserved, and is still used as a restaurant and meeting room today. Known simply as The Tavern, it has cozy fireplaces, low ceilings, narrow doorways, very good food, and it’s very own ghost.
Back when The Tavern was also an Inn for overnight guest such as Henry Clay, Louis Philippe, King of France; President Andrew Jackson; and Pierre Charles L'Enfant, designer of Washington D.C.
It also had a fair number of women that only came to be “Pleasure Doxies” for some of the travelers staying there. One of them was murdered by the man who hired her, then he promptly left town and was never caught. She continues to search all over the tavern looking for the man, but she also occasionally pinches customers on the rump, or knocks china to the floor, or floats around creating other mischief. The entire staff of The Tavern make sure they always work in twos, and especially never close up after hours alone. She can be mean.
Walking several blocks East on Main Street brings you to The Martha Washington Inn and Spa, known as “The Martha” to the locals. The Martha Washington Inn & Spa began life as the retirement home for General Robert Preston following his successes in the War of 1812. It was built in 1832 as a private residence for General Preston and Sarah Buchanan Preston and their nine children. Much of the architectural integrity of this historic landmark has been meticulously preserved for over a century and a half. The original brick residence still comprises the central structure of The Martha Washington Hotel and the original living room of the Preston family is now the main lobby of the hotel and the grand stairway and parlors are today much as they were in the 19th century.
In 1858 the Preston family home was purchased in order for the mansion to become an upscale college for young women. In honor of the first lady of our nation, the school was named Martha Washington College. The college operated for over 70 years through the Civil War and the Great Depression. In fact, it was during the Civil War that many of the Martha's most intriguing ghost stories and legends evolved.
The “War Between the States” had a dramatic effect on the college. Schoolgirls became nurses and the beautiful grounds became training barracks for the Washington Mounted Rifles. Union and Confederate troops were involved in frequent skirmishes in and around the town with the College serving as a makeshift hospital for the wounded, both Confederate and Yankee. One of the nurses fell in love with a Union officer who was dying from his injuries. To help him feel better, she would often take her violin to his room and play for him. She still does.
There is often seen a fully saddled horse running over the grounds, looking for his master who died in a battle on the grounds. There are several other sightings of ghost in different areas of the building and upstairs in one wing, there is a blood spot on the floor that will not stay hidden.
Despite the devastating effects of the Civil War, the Martha Washington College survived. However, the Great Depression, typhoid fever and a declining enrollment eventually took its toll. The Martha was closed in 1932, standing idle for several years. For a period of time the facility was used to house actors and actresses appearing at the Barter Theatre. Patricia Neal, Ernest Borgnine, and Ned Beatty are but a few of the prominent actors who began their career here… all of whom have later returned to visit The Martha.
In 1935, The Martha Washington opened as a hotel and throughout the years has hosted many illustrious guests. Eleanor Roosevelt, President Harry Truman, Lady Bird Johnson, Jimmy Carter, and Elizabeth Taylor are counted among the many famous guests who have frequented the hotel.
In 1984, The United Company, representing a group of dedicated businessmen, purchased The Martha Washington and began a multi million-dollar renovation. Aware of this historic landmark's importance to the town of Abingdon, the restoration was carefully designed to preserve and enhance much of its original splendor and architectural detail. In 1995, The Martha Washington Inn joined The Camberley Collection of fine historic properties.
Directly across Main Street from the Martha is the Barter Theatre. The man who began it was Robert H. Porterfield, (December 21, 1905 – October 28, 1971) from Saltville, Virginia, about 1-mile south of Abingdon. Growing up on a sheep farm, he soon realized he did not want to be a farmer, but did want to be an actor. He left home and went to New York City, but his timing was bad. Because it was The Great Depression, there was no work. After landing a bit part with a touring company, he came up with a great idea while riding a train with rest of the cast in the Midwest. Convincing some of his fellow very hungry and out of work friends to join him, they came back to Abingdon and began bartering produce from the farms and gardens of the region for the admission to a play. During this time, he continued to accept stage and film roles however, and his most prominent, credited film role was in the 1941 film Sargent York in which he portrayed Zeb Andrews, a local rival of the title character.
1933, Barter Theatre opened its doors, proclaiming "With vegetables you cannot sell, you can buy a good laugh." The price of admission was 40 cents or equivalent amount of produce. Four out of five Depression-era theatregoers paid their way with vegetables, dairy products and livestock. To the surprise of many, all the seats for the first show were filled. The concept of trading "ham for Hamlet" caught on quickly. At the end of the first season, the Barter Company cleared $4.35 in cash, two barrels of jelly and a collective weight gain of over 300 pounds. Today, at least one performance a year celebrates the Barter heritage by accepting donations for an area food bank as the price of admission. Legion says that the very first ticket was paid for with a small pig. She was so cute the cast could not bring themselves to make bacon or hams from her. Instead, they would tie her out in front of the theater and her squeals would let people know a show was about to start. Porterfield was once quoted as saying “That one pig has done more for drama than any individual or institution.” (As printed in the book “WILL WORK FOR FOOD”, available from the Barter Theater Gift Shop.
The actors performing at the building were distracted not only by the occasional squealing pig or clucking hen, but noise from the town jail, which was located directly beneath the stage. The jail space was later used as a holding area for dogs suspected of rabies. It was eventually converted into dressing rooms for Barter actors.
Although being allowed to live in the now closed Martha Washington School for girls, the players used several stages during the early years, but finally found the home they have now. Built around 1830, it was intended to be the combined church for both a Methodist and a Baptist congregation. Before the construction was finished, the two groups decided they each needed their own building. It was purchased by the town of Abingdon and was used as an opera house and then the Town Hall. It is still owned by the town and the Barter still rents it from the town for $2.00 per year.
An interview with the current Producing Artistic Director Richard Rose brought out several interesting highlights. The Barter is the first true repertory theater in the country, was designated the State Theater for Virginia in 1941, with a residential acting company and technical crew of about 130 full-time employees and about the same number of part-timers. Most of their audience consists of return patrons from within a 150-mile radius. The Barter was at the forefront of “color-blind casting”, and have continued to do so. There are apprenticeships available for technical students, the Barter has a thriving children’s’ theater, and sponsors the annual Appalachian Festival of Plays and Playwrights to encourage new writers. They often include some of these plays in their regular lineup.
Mr. Rose also talked about the ghost of the Barter. Before the renovation of the theater in 1995, a balcony ran down both sides of the upstairs almost to the stage. Several actors over the years talked of seeing Robert Porterfield, always dressed in a white suit, sitting in a seat on the front row of that balcony every opening night. Or he would be seen at other times looking out of one of the front windows. After the renovation of the theater, he has not been seen.
While interesting, there is so much more than ghosts and legends in Abingdon, Virginia. It is the beginning of the 34.3 mile Virginia Creeper Trail and the Muster Grounds for the Overmountain Men-1000 volunteers who helped turn the tide in our favor during the American Revolution. The Muster Grounds is also the trail head for the 330-mile Overmountain Victory National Historic Trail. If you do not care for hiking and/or biking, there are numerous historic places to visit, such as the Sinking Spring Cemetery, the William King Museum of Art, White’s Mill, and a self-guided walking tour of the downtown Historic District. There are numerous places to eat and several nearby motels, hotels, and inns for overnight stays. Be sure to check out the Abingdon Visitor Center/Hassinger House on Cummings Street. They have a very helpful, courteous staff that can offer tons of information about the area and the people.
Abingdon, Virginia is a wonderful small town with a big heart. A great place to visit or maybe even become a “local”. You would be welcomed.
If You Go:
Photos from Abingdon website.
Barter Theater photo by RebelAt (talk) (Uploads) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons
Patricia Apelt has been an avid reader since she was first able to hold a book in her hands. She is now writing them herself, with two novels already published and a third is ‘a work in progress’. She is also exploring the world of Travel Writer and enjoying it very much. She has five grown children and lives with her husband and three dogs in Poquoson, Virginia. www.patriciaapelt-author-connections.com | <urn:uuid:35df2d59-34c8-4410-846e-18780dcb6bd0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.travelthruhistory.com/html/historic219.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00225.warc.gz | en | 0.982869 | 3,072 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.051027461886405... | 1 | After the bison and Native Americans had made their trails along the valley floor, early American pioneers followed. Their major route soon became known as The Great Valley Road, Boone’s Trace, The Great Road, The Wilderness Trail, then Route 11, and a part of it is now known as Main Street, Abingdon, Virginia.
In 1746, an expedition lead by Dr. Thomas Walker explored and surveyed the region and in 1769 a chance meeting of one of Dr. Walker’s friends, Joseph Martin, with Daniel Boone would change American history. Martin had accepted a challenge from Dr. Walker to form a settlement in what is now Powell Valley, Virginia. In 1773, a group led by Daniel Boone came by on their way to Kentucky. By this time, Boone had been leading groups of pioneers along this route west for many years.
In 1775 Judge Richard Henderson, a wealthy businessman and a group of his friends hired both Martin and Boone to work for the newly formed Transylvania Company. They intended to encourage settlement in the western states of Kentucky and Tennessee. Martin would serve as entry taker & civil leader in Powell Valley while Boone would serve as chief guide & scout and civil leader on the Kentucky side of the Cumberland Mountains. Boone led settlers from as far away as Pennsylvania through both the Cumberland Gap and Big Stone Gap, using The Wilderness Road for a large part of his route. It is estimated that approximately 2 to 300,000 hopeful settlers used the Wilderness Road in the years 1775 to 1810.
One of Daniel Boon’s favorite camping sites was along the creek flowing through parts of modern-day Abingdon. A legend tells us that while camped at this site, there was once an attack on Boone’s hunting dogs from wolves that lived in a cave nearby. He then started calling the area Wolf Hills and the emerging settlement was known by that name for several years. Wolf statues, carvings, and other artwork still turn up frequently in the town gift shops. A home was built on the property, but the wolf cave entrance has been preserved and can be seen in the back of the yard of the home.
“Black’s Fort was erected in the year 1776 on the lands of Capt. Joseph Black, on the west bank or near the west bank of what was then known as Eighteen Miles Creek, alias Castle’s Creek, by the settlers living in the vicinity, and about five hundred other settlers who had fled from their homes west of Abingdon upon the outbreak of the Indian War in 1776. It was one of those rude structures which the pioneers were accustomed to make for defense against the Indians, consisting of a few log cabins surrounded by a stockade.” The Cave House From an article written by C. ROBERT WEISFELD, Special to the Washington County News on Nov 13, 2015:
This fort was named the county seat of Washington County and was known by Black’s Fort until it and the surrounding settlement were incorporated in 1778. The fort itself and all of Wolf Hills was then re-named Abingdon in honor of First Lady Martha Washington’s ancestral home, Abingdon Parish in England.
The settlement had several groups of residents meeting as early as 1770 for religious services. These were usually held in individual homes, and some were served by circuit riders from more populated areas of the state. The first minister who came to Abingdon in 1773 was Parson Charles Cummings. He was known as “The Fightin’ Parson” because he always leaned his rifle against the pulpit while he led the service. Whether it was protection against the Indians or the wolves was never clear. His log cabin has been moved to the Sinking Spring Cemetery and preserved as it would have been in his lifetime. Several congregations grew over the years, including a Swendenborgian Church (New Jerusalem Church) in 1835, and the Catholic Villa Marie Academy of the Visitation (a girl’s school) in 1867. Today, there are United Methodist, Presbyterian, Episcopal, and Baptist churches, as well as other denominations.
As early as 1782 the town had several log houses, a log courthouse, jail, a blacksmith shop, and three taverns.
One of those taverns was built in 1779, has been well preserved, and is still used as a restaurant and meeting room today. Known simply as The Tavern, it has cozy fireplaces, low ceilings, narrow doorways, very good food, and it’s very own ghost.
Back when The Tavern was also an Inn for overnight guest such as Henry Clay, Louis Philippe, King of France; President Andrew Jackson; and Pierre Charles L'Enfant, designer of Washington D.C.
It also had a fair number of women that only came to be “Pleasure Doxies” for some of the travelers staying there. One of them was murdered by the man who hired her, then he promptly left town and was never caught. She continues to search all over the tavern looking for the man, but she also occasionally pinches customers on the rump, or knocks china to the floor, or floats around creating other mischief. The entire staff of The Tavern make sure they always work in twos, and especially never close up after hours alone. She can be mean.
Walking several blocks East on Main Street brings you to The Martha Washington Inn and Spa, known as “The Martha” to the locals. The Martha Washington Inn & Spa began life as the retirement home for General Robert Preston following his successes in the War of 1812. It was built in 1832 as a private residence for General Preston and Sarah Buchanan Preston and their nine children. Much of the architectural integrity of this historic landmark has been meticulously preserved for over a century and a half. The original brick residence still comprises the central structure of The Martha Washington Hotel and the original living room of the Preston family is now the main lobby of the hotel and the grand stairway and parlors are today much as they were in the 19th century.
In 1858 the Preston family home was purchased in order for the mansion to become an upscale college for young women. In honor of the first lady of our nation, the school was named Martha Washington College. The college operated for over 70 years through the Civil War and the Great Depression. In fact, it was during the Civil War that many of the Martha's most intriguing ghost stories and legends evolved.
The “War Between the States” had a dramatic effect on the college. Schoolgirls became nurses and the beautiful grounds became training barracks for the Washington Mounted Rifles. Union and Confederate troops were involved in frequent skirmishes in and around the town with the College serving as a makeshift hospital for the wounded, both Confederate and Yankee. One of the nurses fell in love with a Union officer who was dying from his injuries. To help him feel better, she would often take her violin to his room and play for him. She still does.
There is often seen a fully saddled horse running over the grounds, looking for his master who died in a battle on the grounds. There are several other sightings of ghost in different areas of the building and upstairs in one wing, there is a blood spot on the floor that will not stay hidden.
Despite the devastating effects of the Civil War, the Martha Washington College survived. However, the Great Depression, typhoid fever and a declining enrollment eventually took its toll. The Martha was closed in 1932, standing idle for several years. For a period of time the facility was used to house actors and actresses appearing at the Barter Theatre. Patricia Neal, Ernest Borgnine, and Ned Beatty are but a few of the prominent actors who began their career here… all of whom have later returned to visit The Martha.
In 1935, The Martha Washington opened as a hotel and throughout the years has hosted many illustrious guests. Eleanor Roosevelt, President Harry Truman, Lady Bird Johnson, Jimmy Carter, and Elizabeth Taylor are counted among the many famous guests who have frequented the hotel.
In 1984, The United Company, representing a group of dedicated businessmen, purchased The Martha Washington and began a multi million-dollar renovation. Aware of this historic landmark's importance to the town of Abingdon, the restoration was carefully designed to preserve and enhance much of its original splendor and architectural detail. In 1995, The Martha Washington Inn joined The Camberley Collection of fine historic properties.
Directly across Main Street from the Martha is the Barter Theatre. The man who began it was Robert H. Porterfield, (December 21, 1905 – October 28, 1971) from Saltville, Virginia, about 1-mile south of Abingdon. Growing up on a sheep farm, he soon realized he did not want to be a farmer, but did want to be an actor. He left home and went to New York City, but his timing was bad. Because it was The Great Depression, there was no work. After landing a bit part with a touring company, he came up with a great idea while riding a train with rest of the cast in the Midwest. Convincing some of his fellow very hungry and out of work friends to join him, they came back to Abingdon and began bartering produce from the farms and gardens of the region for the admission to a play. During this time, he continued to accept stage and film roles however, and his most prominent, credited film role was in the 1941 film Sargent York in which he portrayed Zeb Andrews, a local rival of the title character.
1933, Barter Theatre opened its doors, proclaiming "With vegetables you cannot sell, you can buy a good laugh." The price of admission was 40 cents or equivalent amount of produce. Four out of five Depression-era theatregoers paid their way with vegetables, dairy products and livestock. To the surprise of many, all the seats for the first show were filled. The concept of trading "ham for Hamlet" caught on quickly. At the end of the first season, the Barter Company cleared $4.35 in cash, two barrels of jelly and a collective weight gain of over 300 pounds. Today, at least one performance a year celebrates the Barter heritage by accepting donations for an area food bank as the price of admission. Legion says that the very first ticket was paid for with a small pig. She was so cute the cast could not bring themselves to make bacon or hams from her. Instead, they would tie her out in front of the theater and her squeals would let people know a show was about to start. Porterfield was once quoted as saying “That one pig has done more for drama than any individual or institution.” (As printed in the book “WILL WORK FOR FOOD”, available from the Barter Theater Gift Shop.
The actors performing at the building were distracted not only by the occasional squealing pig or clucking hen, but noise from the town jail, which was located directly beneath the stage. The jail space was later used as a holding area for dogs suspected of rabies. It was eventually converted into dressing rooms for Barter actors.
Although being allowed to live in the now closed Martha Washington School for girls, the players used several stages during the early years, but finally found the home they have now. Built around 1830, it was intended to be the combined church for both a Methodist and a Baptist congregation. Before the construction was finished, the two groups decided they each needed their own building. It was purchased by the town of Abingdon and was used as an opera house and then the Town Hall. It is still owned by the town and the Barter still rents it from the town for $2.00 per year.
An interview with the current Producing Artistic Director Richard Rose brought out several interesting highlights. The Barter is the first true repertory theater in the country, was designated the State Theater for Virginia in 1941, with a residential acting company and technical crew of about 130 full-time employees and about the same number of part-timers. Most of their audience consists of return patrons from within a 150-mile radius. The Barter was at the forefront of “color-blind casting”, and have continued to do so. There are apprenticeships available for technical students, the Barter has a thriving children’s’ theater, and sponsors the annual Appalachian Festival of Plays and Playwrights to encourage new writers. They often include some of these plays in their regular lineup.
Mr. Rose also talked about the ghost of the Barter. Before the renovation of the theater in 1995, a balcony ran down both sides of the upstairs almost to the stage. Several actors over the years talked of seeing Robert Porterfield, always dressed in a white suit, sitting in a seat on the front row of that balcony every opening night. Or he would be seen at other times looking out of one of the front windows. After the renovation of the theater, he has not been seen.
While interesting, there is so much more than ghosts and legends in Abingdon, Virginia. It is the beginning of the 34.3 mile Virginia Creeper Trail and the Muster Grounds for the Overmountain Men-1000 volunteers who helped turn the tide in our favor during the American Revolution. The Muster Grounds is also the trail head for the 330-mile Overmountain Victory National Historic Trail. If you do not care for hiking and/or biking, there are numerous historic places to visit, such as the Sinking Spring Cemetery, the William King Museum of Art, White’s Mill, and a self-guided walking tour of the downtown Historic District. There are numerous places to eat and several nearby motels, hotels, and inns for overnight stays. Be sure to check out the Abingdon Visitor Center/Hassinger House on Cummings Street. They have a very helpful, courteous staff that can offer tons of information about the area and the people.
Abingdon, Virginia is a wonderful small town with a big heart. A great place to visit or maybe even become a “local”. You would be welcomed.
If You Go:
Photos from Abingdon website.
Barter Theater photo by RebelAt (talk) (Uploads) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons
Patricia Apelt has been an avid reader since she was first able to hold a book in her hands. She is now writing them herself, with two novels already published and a third is ‘a work in progress’. She is also exploring the world of Travel Writer and enjoying it very much. She has five grown children and lives with her husband and three dogs in Poquoson, Virginia. www.patriciaapelt-author-connections.com | 3,107 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Curious Case of Charles Darwin and Homeopathy
In 1849, Charles Darwin was so ill that he was unable to work one out of every 3 days, and after having various troubling symptoms for 2–12 years, he wrote to a friend that he was ‘going the way of all flesh’. He sought treatment from Dr James Manby Gully, a medical doctor who used water cure and homeopathic medicines. Despite being highly skeptical of these treatments, he experienced a dramatic improvement in his health, though some of his digestive and skin symptoms returned various times in his life. He grew to appreciate water cure, but remained skeptical of homeopathy, even though his own experiments on insectivore plants using what can be described as homeopathic doses of ammonia salts surprised and shocked him with their significant biological effect. Darwin even expressed concern that he should publish these results. Two of Darwin’s sons were as incredulous as he was, but their observations confirmed the results of his experiments.
He found that solutions of certain salts of ammonia stimulated the glands of the plant’s tentacles and caused the plant to turn inward. He made this solution more and more dilute, but the plant still was able to detect the presence of the salt. | <urn:uuid:49eedce3-0eec-4328-a2a6-58838277d628> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.hydrogen2oxygen.net/en/2016/11/10/the-curious-case-of-charles-darwin-and-homeopathy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00466.warc.gz | en | 0.986374 | 252 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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... | 6 | The Curious Case of Charles Darwin and Homeopathy
In 1849, Charles Darwin was so ill that he was unable to work one out of every 3 days, and after having various troubling symptoms for 2–12 years, he wrote to a friend that he was ‘going the way of all flesh’. He sought treatment from Dr James Manby Gully, a medical doctor who used water cure and homeopathic medicines. Despite being highly skeptical of these treatments, he experienced a dramatic improvement in his health, though some of his digestive and skin symptoms returned various times in his life. He grew to appreciate water cure, but remained skeptical of homeopathy, even though his own experiments on insectivore plants using what can be described as homeopathic doses of ammonia salts surprised and shocked him with their significant biological effect. Darwin even expressed concern that he should publish these results. Two of Darwin’s sons were as incredulous as he was, but their observations confirmed the results of his experiments.
He found that solutions of certain salts of ammonia stimulated the glands of the plant’s tentacles and caused the plant to turn inward. He made this solution more and more dilute, but the plant still was able to detect the presence of the salt. | 252 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mahatma Gandhi is considered as the father of Indian independence movement. He was born in October 2, 1869. He married at the age of 13 years and when his father died he was sent to England to study law. It is in England that he became interested in philosophy. He returned to India in 1891 and went to South Africa to assist in law suits. This paper will discuss Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy, his life in SA and his notion of satyagra and swarai. The paper will conclude on Gandhi’s assassination and its aftermath.
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- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
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Mahatma Gandhi’s Philosophy
Mahatma Gandhi developed some guiding principles and adhered to these philosophies which came to be called ‘Gandhism.’ His philosophies have inspired many people throughout the world and have been especially used as the basis of civil rights movements against perceived oppressive regimes. Hi philosophy is hinged on the truth and nonviolence principles.
The sovereign principle according to Gandhi is the truth or ‘satya’ he observed that life was an eternal conquest to discover the truth and his life’s journey was marked by experiments and learning from his own mistakes. Gandhi believed that the concept of truth is above and beyond any other considerations. He observed that every one of us needs to observe the truth as long as we are alive. He likened the truth to observe the truth and the absolute truth is God’s guiding principle.
The principle of nonviolence or ‘Ahimsa’ was integral to Indians and especially to Gandhi in advocating for nonviolence struggle for freedom in India. Gandhi was determined to eliminate satygra movements that accompanied any form of violence. Violent incidents in Uttar Pradesh and Chauri Chaura led him to disband civil disobedience movements. It is regarded that Gandhi adopted vegetarianism due to his manifestation of nonviolence principles (Colors of India).
British Colonialism in India
British rule in India changed the country’s history. The British arrived in India towards the end of the 17th century and it was during this time that the British East India Company was formed to increase trade between India and Britain while and break the Dutch monopoly. With time, BEIC had acquired more powers and started to administer the whole country. BEIC’s policies were disliked all over the country and people revolted against them resulting to its downfall and administration went to the queen. Britain annexed more of India’s states and formed laws that could govern them. Later the whole of the Indian subcontinent was under British rule. The mid 19th century saw Britain introduce railways, postal services and telegraph. Britain passed many acts that were met with a lot of resistance by Indians and as a result the Indians revolted against the British rule but each of India’s movement was brutally crushed by British forces. Leaders like Gandhi openly criticized and condemned the British ule through nonviolence mass rejection of the Britain rule (iliveindia.com).
Chronology of Significant Events in Gandhi’s Life
Mahatma Gandhi was born in October 2, 1869 and died in January 30, 1948. At the age of 18, he set out to study law in London. He attempted to fit into the English society by buying good suits, trying to talk good English and learning how to dance but after some time trying all this, he realized that he was only wasting time and money. He decided to just stay simple. He was also able to achieve his lifelong desire of being a vegetarian.
In 1893 at the age of 23 years, he left his family and set off to SA. He wanted to learn some law and make some few monies but it was while in SA that he transformed from the quiet and shy man to a resilient and potent leader. He was especially vocal against discrimination. After realizing that there was a lot of discrimination in SA, Gandhi spent some time working to better Indians rights. During this time he was particularly influenced by the Gita and leant about samabhava and aparigraha. His years in SA proved to be important for his spiritual and political development.
When World War I broke out in 1914, Gandhi went back to India and supported the British at first but changed his stance when he realized that the British had adopted Rowlatt Act in 1919. The act allowed the government to imprison Indians without trial and it is at this time that he developed the nonviolence disobedience or the satyagra. He succeeded in convincing Indians against his case of nonviolence agitation (Rosenberg).
Mahatma Gandhi’s Notion of Satyagraha and Swaraj
According to Gandhi, he believed that if he took the vow of chastity, this would allow him to focus on Satyagraha which can be translated as insistence of the truth or as passive resistance. He believed that British translation to ‘passive resistance’ did not give the intended Indian meaning as it was an act that could be conducted with anger. Satyagraha thus meant ‘truth force.’ He used the term to insist on a focused but forceful nonviolent resistance to British aggression and injustices. He believed that people who used Satyagraha could resist any injustices by not following the unjust law and never take advantage to each other opponents’ problems. He coined and used the term in 1907 while in SA during the black act. Indians in SA rejected the Black Act using Satyagraha (Rosenberg)
Swaraj means self-governance. Gandhi developed the concept of Swaraj during India’s struggle for independence. According to Gandhi, Swaraj means more than ‘just wanting English rule without the British’. He believed that the British rule was not just as it alienated Indians. It involves self governance through self rule and through community building. He stressed on the need by Indians to do away with British bureaucratic rule and its education system. Swaraj’s main principle was the questioning of moral inadequacy of western civilization as the model for free India. Thus the Swaraj meant the call for self rule and self respect from dehumizing institutions (Swaraj Foundation).
The role of Religious Faith and God in Gandhi’s philosophy
According to Gandhi, God is the creator of all that is onto the earth and is the power behind and above unity. He believes that God is the truth and he is the source of vision of the truth. This however he observed can be achieved by realizing of the nonviolence actions. This means that Gandhi declares God as the truth and the basis of that truth and unity. Nonviolence acts is the only way to conceive the truth. He believes that life, economic, political and religion cannot be divided into different compartments. According to him, religion was not just a matter of individual experience but rather a matter of humanizing religion and moralizing it. He interpreted different religions (Hinduism, Christianity and Islam) and said that they were federation of different religious faiths (20th WCP: Gandhi and Comparative Religion).
Experimentation with satyagraha and how he experimented with swaraj
- The first time Gandhi experimented with satyagraha was while he was in SA in 1907. He organized opposition of other Indians to reject the Asiatic Registration Law that required all Indians to get registration numbers and carry with them at all times. The act was later repealed in 1914 and he proved that nonviolent protests can be useful.
- He always remained truthful because he believed that was his best and strongest weapons. He thus never lost his satyagraha. In this way, he was able to earn the hearts of his opponents. He fought and won against the British through his nonviolence protests.
- He criticized the concept of western civilization and sets himself against it. He finds survival for the fittest as unacceptable.
- He also rejected imperial colonialism and was able to overcome it through nonviolent protests.
Gandhi's Death and its Aftermath
Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated on January 30, 1948. He was shot by a hindu man who thought that Gandhi was harming Hindus by becoming friends with muslims. He was then cremated and his ashes scattered over sacred rivers. Aftermath of Gandhi’s death is caused violent attacks in the Pune city which was home of the assassin as well as other parts of India. Political parties associated with the suspected assassins were banned and violence broke against the Brahmins community from where the assassin hailed (Rosenberg).
Mahatma Gandhi was a great philosopher not only during his time but as a historian. His nonviolence philosophy and helped India gain independence through peaceful means and his philosophies are still relevant today despite his death in 1948. Gandhi’s legacy still lives on.
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0.4031895101070404... | 1 | Mahatma Gandhi is considered as the father of Indian independence movement. He was born in October 2, 1869. He married at the age of 13 years and when his father died he was sent to England to study law. It is in England that he became interested in philosophy. He returned to India in 1891 and went to South Africa to assist in law suits. This paper will discuss Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy, his life in SA and his notion of satyagra and swarai. The paper will conclude on Gandhi’s assassination and its aftermath.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
Mahatma Gandhi’s Philosophy
Mahatma Gandhi developed some guiding principles and adhered to these philosophies which came to be called ‘Gandhism.’ His philosophies have inspired many people throughout the world and have been especially used as the basis of civil rights movements against perceived oppressive regimes. Hi philosophy is hinged on the truth and nonviolence principles.
The sovereign principle according to Gandhi is the truth or ‘satya’ he observed that life was an eternal conquest to discover the truth and his life’s journey was marked by experiments and learning from his own mistakes. Gandhi believed that the concept of truth is above and beyond any other considerations. He observed that every one of us needs to observe the truth as long as we are alive. He likened the truth to observe the truth and the absolute truth is God’s guiding principle.
The principle of nonviolence or ‘Ahimsa’ was integral to Indians and especially to Gandhi in advocating for nonviolence struggle for freedom in India. Gandhi was determined to eliminate satygra movements that accompanied any form of violence. Violent incidents in Uttar Pradesh and Chauri Chaura led him to disband civil disobedience movements. It is regarded that Gandhi adopted vegetarianism due to his manifestation of nonviolence principles (Colors of India).
British Colonialism in India
British rule in India changed the country’s history. The British arrived in India towards the end of the 17th century and it was during this time that the British East India Company was formed to increase trade between India and Britain while and break the Dutch monopoly. With time, BEIC had acquired more powers and started to administer the whole country. BEIC’s policies were disliked all over the country and people revolted against them resulting to its downfall and administration went to the queen. Britain annexed more of India’s states and formed laws that could govern them. Later the whole of the Indian subcontinent was under British rule. The mid 19th century saw Britain introduce railways, postal services and telegraph. Britain passed many acts that were met with a lot of resistance by Indians and as a result the Indians revolted against the British rule but each of India’s movement was brutally crushed by British forces. Leaders like Gandhi openly criticized and condemned the British ule through nonviolence mass rejection of the Britain rule (iliveindia.com).
Chronology of Significant Events in Gandhi’s Life
Mahatma Gandhi was born in October 2, 1869 and died in January 30, 1948. At the age of 18, he set out to study law in London. He attempted to fit into the English society by buying good suits, trying to talk good English and learning how to dance but after some time trying all this, he realized that he was only wasting time and money. He decided to just stay simple. He was also able to achieve his lifelong desire of being a vegetarian.
In 1893 at the age of 23 years, he left his family and set off to SA. He wanted to learn some law and make some few monies but it was while in SA that he transformed from the quiet and shy man to a resilient and potent leader. He was especially vocal against discrimination. After realizing that there was a lot of discrimination in SA, Gandhi spent some time working to better Indians rights. During this time he was particularly influenced by the Gita and leant about samabhava and aparigraha. His years in SA proved to be important for his spiritual and political development.
When World War I broke out in 1914, Gandhi went back to India and supported the British at first but changed his stance when he realized that the British had adopted Rowlatt Act in 1919. The act allowed the government to imprison Indians without trial and it is at this time that he developed the nonviolence disobedience or the satyagra. He succeeded in convincing Indians against his case of nonviolence agitation (Rosenberg).
Mahatma Gandhi’s Notion of Satyagraha and Swaraj
According to Gandhi, he believed that if he took the vow of chastity, this would allow him to focus on Satyagraha which can be translated as insistence of the truth or as passive resistance. He believed that British translation to ‘passive resistance’ did not give the intended Indian meaning as it was an act that could be conducted with anger. Satyagraha thus meant ‘truth force.’ He used the term to insist on a focused but forceful nonviolent resistance to British aggression and injustices. He believed that people who used Satyagraha could resist any injustices by not following the unjust law and never take advantage to each other opponents’ problems. He coined and used the term in 1907 while in SA during the black act. Indians in SA rejected the Black Act using Satyagraha (Rosenberg)
Swaraj means self-governance. Gandhi developed the concept of Swaraj during India’s struggle for independence. According to Gandhi, Swaraj means more than ‘just wanting English rule without the British’. He believed that the British rule was not just as it alienated Indians. It involves self governance through self rule and through community building. He stressed on the need by Indians to do away with British bureaucratic rule and its education system. Swaraj’s main principle was the questioning of moral inadequacy of western civilization as the model for free India. Thus the Swaraj meant the call for self rule and self respect from dehumizing institutions (Swaraj Foundation).
The role of Religious Faith and God in Gandhi’s philosophy
According to Gandhi, God is the creator of all that is onto the earth and is the power behind and above unity. He believes that God is the truth and he is the source of vision of the truth. This however he observed can be achieved by realizing of the nonviolence actions. This means that Gandhi declares God as the truth and the basis of that truth and unity. Nonviolence acts is the only way to conceive the truth. He believes that life, economic, political and religion cannot be divided into different compartments. According to him, religion was not just a matter of individual experience but rather a matter of humanizing religion and moralizing it. He interpreted different religions (Hinduism, Christianity and Islam) and said that they were federation of different religious faiths (20th WCP: Gandhi and Comparative Religion).
Experimentation with satyagraha and how he experimented with swaraj
- The first time Gandhi experimented with satyagraha was while he was in SA in 1907. He organized opposition of other Indians to reject the Asiatic Registration Law that required all Indians to get registration numbers and carry with them at all times. The act was later repealed in 1914 and he proved that nonviolent protests can be useful.
- He always remained truthful because he believed that was his best and strongest weapons. He thus never lost his satyagraha. In this way, he was able to earn the hearts of his opponents. He fought and won against the British through his nonviolence protests.
- He criticized the concept of western civilization and sets himself against it. He finds survival for the fittest as unacceptable.
- He also rejected imperial colonialism and was able to overcome it through nonviolent protests.
Gandhi's Death and its Aftermath
Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated on January 30, 1948. He was shot by a hindu man who thought that Gandhi was harming Hindus by becoming friends with muslims. He was then cremated and his ashes scattered over sacred rivers. Aftermath of Gandhi’s death is caused violent attacks in the Pune city which was home of the assassin as well as other parts of India. Political parties associated with the suspected assassins were banned and violence broke against the Brahmins community from where the assassin hailed (Rosenberg).
Mahatma Gandhi was a great philosopher not only during his time but as a historian. His nonviolence philosophy and helped India gain independence through peaceful means and his philosophies are still relevant today despite his death in 1948. Gandhi’s legacy still lives on.
Most popular orders | 1,871 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On August 6th, 1945, 70,0000 lives were ended in a matter of seconds. The United States had dropped an atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima. Today, many argue whether or not the U.S. should have taken such a drastic measure.
Was it entirely necessary that the nation drop such a devastating weapon? To answer that we must first look at was going on in the world at the time of the Pacific conflict. The U.S. had been fighting a massive war since 1941. Morale was most likely low, and resources were at the same level. Still, both sides continued to fight, and both were determined to win.
Obviously, the best thing that could have possibly happened would have been to bring the war to a quick end with a minimum of allied casualties. Harry Trumans decision to drop the atom bombs was entirely warranted and was in the best interest of Americans and the world. Three factors should be considered to fully realize this. First, what would have happened should we have not dropped the bombs? Would WWII have ended shortly afterwards without nuclear arms- not likely. Secondly, we must consider the Japanese peoples extreme dedication to their country and emperor, willing to give up their own lives without thinking to stop the enemy. Lastly, the morality of nuclear bombing must be explored.Order now
While many may argue against the use of such a seemingly cruel form of attack was unnecessary, it is obvious that The Atomic Bomb Essay was the only means to put an end of World War II . Dropping the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki was not only necessary to end Pacific involvement in World War II and save American lives, but it was also executed in the most efficient and effective way possible.
The woman sat, staring out the window. Four of her six sons had already died in World War II. The other two were already headed to Japan. A tear slid down her cheek; she was sure she was going to lose them too.
She knew only too well the horrors of war and the death toll that would ensue. Suddenly, the news came out over the radio: Japan had surrendered, due to the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The tears of sadness turned into tears of joy. She knew that her remaining two sons were going to return home safely. A projected 225,000 total casualties were estimated if a land invasion was used in Japan (McNulty 2001). If the nation had not dropped the atomic bombs, the war would have most assuredly continued.
Although we would have more than likely declared the final victory, a lot more on both sides would have died (Hodges Interview). The United States had already seen the devastation that the Japanese could cause in Okinawa, where they killed 50,00 American soldiers. Also noticed was the havoc they could wreak on their own kind; the 1937 Rape of Nanjing in which Japanese soldiers killed 300,000 men, women, and children certainly proved that (McNulty 2001). Could we expect these inhumane people to go easy on our American soldiers? Certainly not.
The Japanese soldier was taught from a very young age that it was not a sacrifice to die for his country; it was an honor. To die in battle was to honor the emperor.
Secratary of War Stimson wrote, “The Japanese soldier has proved himself capable of suicidal last ditch defense; he will continue to display as such in his homeland” (Claypool 72). The Japanese “died with reckless abandon”, burned soldiers out of caves with “flamethrowers and explosives” and flew into American ships on hundreds of Kamikaze raids (Beth 73). President Truman was unwilling to sacrifice so many men because the war in the Gulf was over; the Japanese had shown no sign that they were willing to surrender. (Sparknotes.com 2001).
The droppings of atom bombs on Japan were handled in the most effective way possible.
President Truman decided to use the bomb quickly to prevent the further loss of American lives (Beth 76). All the scientists who worked on the Manhatten Project were agahst; they did not know their project was going to kill so many people. They . | <urn:uuid:d9238a99-de55-4447-a032-c2f92e6a5a94> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://artscolumbia.org/essays/the-atomic-bomb-essay-12-106272/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00484.warc.gz | en | 0.988112 | 862 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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... | 6 | On August 6th, 1945, 70,0000 lives were ended in a matter of seconds. The United States had dropped an atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima. Today, many argue whether or not the U.S. should have taken such a drastic measure.
Was it entirely necessary that the nation drop such a devastating weapon? To answer that we must first look at was going on in the world at the time of the Pacific conflict. The U.S. had been fighting a massive war since 1941. Morale was most likely low, and resources were at the same level. Still, both sides continued to fight, and both were determined to win.
Obviously, the best thing that could have possibly happened would have been to bring the war to a quick end with a minimum of allied casualties. Harry Trumans decision to drop the atom bombs was entirely warranted and was in the best interest of Americans and the world. Three factors should be considered to fully realize this. First, what would have happened should we have not dropped the bombs? Would WWII have ended shortly afterwards without nuclear arms- not likely. Secondly, we must consider the Japanese peoples extreme dedication to their country and emperor, willing to give up their own lives without thinking to stop the enemy. Lastly, the morality of nuclear bombing must be explored.Order now
While many may argue against the use of such a seemingly cruel form of attack was unnecessary, it is obvious that The Atomic Bomb Essay was the only means to put an end of World War II . Dropping the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki was not only necessary to end Pacific involvement in World War II and save American lives, but it was also executed in the most efficient and effective way possible.
The woman sat, staring out the window. Four of her six sons had already died in World War II. The other two were already headed to Japan. A tear slid down her cheek; she was sure she was going to lose them too.
She knew only too well the horrors of war and the death toll that would ensue. Suddenly, the news came out over the radio: Japan had surrendered, due to the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The tears of sadness turned into tears of joy. She knew that her remaining two sons were going to return home safely. A projected 225,000 total casualties were estimated if a land invasion was used in Japan (McNulty 2001). If the nation had not dropped the atomic bombs, the war would have most assuredly continued.
Although we would have more than likely declared the final victory, a lot more on both sides would have died (Hodges Interview). The United States had already seen the devastation that the Japanese could cause in Okinawa, where they killed 50,00 American soldiers. Also noticed was the havoc they could wreak on their own kind; the 1937 Rape of Nanjing in which Japanese soldiers killed 300,000 men, women, and children certainly proved that (McNulty 2001). Could we expect these inhumane people to go easy on our American soldiers? Certainly not.
The Japanese soldier was taught from a very young age that it was not a sacrifice to die for his country; it was an honor. To die in battle was to honor the emperor.
Secratary of War Stimson wrote, “The Japanese soldier has proved himself capable of suicidal last ditch defense; he will continue to display as such in his homeland” (Claypool 72). The Japanese “died with reckless abandon”, burned soldiers out of caves with “flamethrowers and explosives” and flew into American ships on hundreds of Kamikaze raids (Beth 73). President Truman was unwilling to sacrifice so many men because the war in the Gulf was over; the Japanese had shown no sign that they were willing to surrender. (Sparknotes.com 2001).
The droppings of atom bombs on Japan were handled in the most effective way possible.
President Truman decided to use the bomb quickly to prevent the further loss of American lives (Beth 76). All the scientists who worked on the Manhatten Project were agahst; they did not know their project was going to kill so many people. They . | 893 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There were three types of government in Ancient Greece: an oligarchy, monarchy, and a democracy. An oligarchy was governed by a few wealthy and powerful people. A monarchy was governed by only one person. A democracy is when citizens voted on who the leader was and public matters. Citizens were only men who had Greek origin and were not slaves. If citizens did not care for a politician, when they voted, they wrote on a clay tablet which person they wanted to leave Athens. If one person got more than 6,000 votes against him, he couldn’t come back to Athens for 10 years.
Ancient Greece was divided into areas called city-states. There were many city-states and each one had its own government. Athens and Sparta were two of the most powerful city-states. Sparta was ruled by the military. In early times, Athens was governed by a monarchy. A monarchy is a Greek work meaning “ruled by one.” Soldiers hand-picked their new leader and put him into power. Monarchy did not last long in Athens. The Athenians build a new government called an oligarchy, which means “ruled by the few.”Some leaders were known as tyrants. A tyranny is an unjust government led by someone who has taken power. By 508 B.C. democracy started in Athens. Greece had one of thefirst democracies ever!
In Athens, democracy meant “Power of the people,” although women couldn’t vote or run for office. Citizens who were 18 and male could be council members, judges or government officials. All three jobs last only one year and not one single person got paid for their services! The assembly would meet at the Acropolis four days every month. Democracy is important because it gives everyone a say in the government, so everyone is treated fairly. In a democracy, anyone can run the country, but in a monarchy, sometimes a bad person rules and will do bad things.
In Athens there were originally three archons: the archon basilieus, or king archon, the eponymous a | <urn:uuid:4e452cf4-baea-46f5-9e31-bea22ce417d2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/athen-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00506.warc.gz | en | 0.992789 | 432 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.2317080050706... | 1 | There were three types of government in Ancient Greece: an oligarchy, monarchy, and a democracy. An oligarchy was governed by a few wealthy and powerful people. A monarchy was governed by only one person. A democracy is when citizens voted on who the leader was and public matters. Citizens were only men who had Greek origin and were not slaves. If citizens did not care for a politician, when they voted, they wrote on a clay tablet which person they wanted to leave Athens. If one person got more than 6,000 votes against him, he couldn’t come back to Athens for 10 years.
Ancient Greece was divided into areas called city-states. There were many city-states and each one had its own government. Athens and Sparta were two of the most powerful city-states. Sparta was ruled by the military. In early times, Athens was governed by a monarchy. A monarchy is a Greek work meaning “ruled by one.” Soldiers hand-picked their new leader and put him into power. Monarchy did not last long in Athens. The Athenians build a new government called an oligarchy, which means “ruled by the few.”Some leaders were known as tyrants. A tyranny is an unjust government led by someone who has taken power. By 508 B.C. democracy started in Athens. Greece had one of thefirst democracies ever!
In Athens, democracy meant “Power of the people,” although women couldn’t vote or run for office. Citizens who were 18 and male could be council members, judges or government officials. All three jobs last only one year and not one single person got paid for their services! The assembly would meet at the Acropolis four days every month. Democracy is important because it gives everyone a say in the government, so everyone is treated fairly. In a democracy, anyone can run the country, but in a monarchy, sometimes a bad person rules and will do bad things.
In Athens there were originally three archons: the archon basilieus, or king archon, the eponymous a | 424 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Robert Burns is the best known of all Scottish poets. He wrote about the feelings of ordinary poor people, love between man and woman, he glorified a healthy, joyous and clever Scotch peasant. The poor people loved him as the most gifted poet who expressed their thoughts and feelings in his poems and verses.
Burns was born on January 25, 1759, into the family of a peasant farmer in southwest Scotland. The family was poor and the children had to work from the early age. When Robert was 13 his father sent him to school as the boy had shown great abilities in his studies at home. Robert and his brother Gilbert went to school in turn, as there was no money to pay for the studies of both boys.
When one was at school, the other helped the father in the field.
From his mother Robert learned something which was to be of value to him. As his mother worked in the kitchen she often sang the old songs and ballads of the countryside. Later Burns used in his works the songs and stories he had heard in his little cottage home. From an early age Robert was so fond of poetry that he not only read verses but memorized them as well.
He was fond of Shakespeare and Milton. When he was 16 he wrote his first verses.
With tenderness, understanding and simplicity, he depicts the life he knew, and his poems touch the heart and soul of every reader. Before his poems were published, they had been passed round among his friends in the village. Burns was self-educated poet. The source of his poetry was the life of common people and Scottish folklore.
The young poet felt deeply the injustice of the world where the landlords owned the best land, pastures and woods. | <urn:uuid:10278067-8e4b-44f7-8647-f44c5f6d97cb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tvory.predmety.in.ua/robert-burns-1759-1796/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00205.warc.gz | en | 0.996998 | 353 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.1757348626852... | 4 | Robert Burns is the best known of all Scottish poets. He wrote about the feelings of ordinary poor people, love between man and woman, he glorified a healthy, joyous and clever Scotch peasant. The poor people loved him as the most gifted poet who expressed their thoughts and feelings in his poems and verses.
Burns was born on January 25, 1759, into the family of a peasant farmer in southwest Scotland. The family was poor and the children had to work from the early age. When Robert was 13 his father sent him to school as the boy had shown great abilities in his studies at home. Robert and his brother Gilbert went to school in turn, as there was no money to pay for the studies of both boys.
When one was at school, the other helped the father in the field.
From his mother Robert learned something which was to be of value to him. As his mother worked in the kitchen she often sang the old songs and ballads of the countryside. Later Burns used in his works the songs and stories he had heard in his little cottage home. From an early age Robert was so fond of poetry that he not only read verses but memorized them as well.
He was fond of Shakespeare and Milton. When he was 16 he wrote his first verses.
With tenderness, understanding and simplicity, he depicts the life he knew, and his poems touch the heart and soul of every reader. Before his poems were published, they had been passed round among his friends in the village. Burns was self-educated poet. The source of his poetry was the life of common people and Scottish folklore.
The young poet felt deeply the injustice of the world where the landlords owned the best land, pastures and woods. | 355 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The World's Columbian Exposition was a world's fair held in Chicago in 1893 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus' arrival in the New World in 1492. Most of the buildings of the fair were designed in the neoclassical architecture style. The area at the Court of Honor was known as The White City. Facades were made not of stone, but of a mixture of plaster, cement, and jute fiber called staff, which was painted white, giving the buildings their "gleam". Architecture critics derided the structures as "decorated sheds". The buildings were clad in white stucco, which, in comparison to the tenements of Chicago, seemed illuminated. It was also called the White City because of the extensive use of street lights, which made the boulevards and buildings usable at night. Photographed by the Allgeier Company, 1893. | <urn:uuid:e35ed7e0-5942-4771-93df-3d2b2ed8b3ef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-columbian-exposition-1893-135097605.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00312.warc.gz | en | 0.989359 | 181 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.3255709707736... | 1 | The World's Columbian Exposition was a world's fair held in Chicago in 1893 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus' arrival in the New World in 1492. Most of the buildings of the fair were designed in the neoclassical architecture style. The area at the Court of Honor was known as The White City. Facades were made not of stone, but of a mixture of plaster, cement, and jute fiber called staff, which was painted white, giving the buildings their "gleam". Architecture critics derided the structures as "decorated sheds". The buildings were clad in white stucco, which, in comparison to the tenements of Chicago, seemed illuminated. It was also called the White City because of the extensive use of street lights, which made the boulevards and buildings usable at night. Photographed by the Allgeier Company, 1893. | 194 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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Archbishop of York, d. on 29 February, 992. Of Danish parentage, Oswald was brought up by his uncle Odo, Archbishop of Canterbury, and instructed by Fridegode. For some time he was dean of the house of the secular canons at Winchester, but led by the desire of a stricter life he entered the Benedictine Monastery of Fleury, where Odo himself had received the monastic habit. He was ordained there and in 959 returned to England betaking himself to his kinsman Oskytel, then Archbishop of York. He took an active part in ecclesiastical affairs at York until St. Dunstan procured his appointment to the See of Worcester . He was consecrated by St. Dunstan in 962. Oswald was an ardent supporter of Dunstan in his efforts to purify the Church from abuses, and aided by King Edgar he carried out his policy of replacing by communities the canons who held monastic possessions. Edgar gave the monasteries of St. Albans, Ely, and Benfleet to Oswald, who established monks at Westbury (983), Pershore (984), at Winchelcumbe (985), and at Worcester, and re-established Ripon. But his most famous foundation was that of Ramsey in Huntingdonshire, the church of which was dedicated in 974, and again after an accident in 991. In 972 by the joint action of St. Dunstan and Edgar, Oswald was made Archbishop of York, and journeyed to Rome to receive the pallium from John XIII. He retained, however, with the sanction of the pope, jurisdiction over the diocese of Worcester where he frequently resided in order to foster his monastic reforms (Eadmer, 203). On Edgar's death in 975, his work, hitherto so successful, received a severe check at the hands of Elfhere, King of Mercia, who broke up many communities. Ramsey, however, was spared, owing to the powerful patronage of Ethelwin, Earl of East Anglia. Whilst Archbishop of York, Oswald collected from the ruins of Ripon the relics of the saints, some of which were conveyed to Worcester. He died in the act of washing the feet of the poor, as was his daily custom during Lent, and was buried in the Church of St. Mary at Worcester. Oswald used a gentler policy than his colleague Ethelwold and always refrained from violent measures. He greatly valued and promoted learning amongst the clergy and induced many scholars to come from Fleury. He wrote two treatises and some synodal decrees. His feast is celebrated on 28 February.
Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | <urn:uuid:9e2f4d18-7c04-4c8e-9a56-aef45036d55f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=8829 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00415.warc.gz | en | 0.980269 | 684 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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FREE Catholic Classes
Archbishop of York, d. on 29 February, 992. Of Danish parentage, Oswald was brought up by his uncle Odo, Archbishop of Canterbury, and instructed by Fridegode. For some time he was dean of the house of the secular canons at Winchester, but led by the desire of a stricter life he entered the Benedictine Monastery of Fleury, where Odo himself had received the monastic habit. He was ordained there and in 959 returned to England betaking himself to his kinsman Oskytel, then Archbishop of York. He took an active part in ecclesiastical affairs at York until St. Dunstan procured his appointment to the See of Worcester . He was consecrated by St. Dunstan in 962. Oswald was an ardent supporter of Dunstan in his efforts to purify the Church from abuses, and aided by King Edgar he carried out his policy of replacing by communities the canons who held monastic possessions. Edgar gave the monasteries of St. Albans, Ely, and Benfleet to Oswald, who established monks at Westbury (983), Pershore (984), at Winchelcumbe (985), and at Worcester, and re-established Ripon. But his most famous foundation was that of Ramsey in Huntingdonshire, the church of which was dedicated in 974, and again after an accident in 991. In 972 by the joint action of St. Dunstan and Edgar, Oswald was made Archbishop of York, and journeyed to Rome to receive the pallium from John XIII. He retained, however, with the sanction of the pope, jurisdiction over the diocese of Worcester where he frequently resided in order to foster his monastic reforms (Eadmer, 203). On Edgar's death in 975, his work, hitherto so successful, received a severe check at the hands of Elfhere, King of Mercia, who broke up many communities. Ramsey, however, was spared, owing to the powerful patronage of Ethelwin, Earl of East Anglia. Whilst Archbishop of York, Oswald collected from the ruins of Ripon the relics of the saints, some of which were conveyed to Worcester. He died in the act of washing the feet of the poor, as was his daily custom during Lent, and was buried in the Church of St. Mary at Worcester. Oswald used a gentler policy than his colleague Ethelwold and always refrained from violent measures. He greatly valued and promoted learning amongst the clergy and induced many scholars to come from Fleury. He wrote two treatises and some synodal decrees. His feast is celebrated on 28 February.
Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | 727 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Desecration of the Dead, Depredations of the Dead
by Estéban Trujillo de Gutiérrez
” … Sometimes the bodies of the Sumerians were placed in sarcophagi of clay. The earlier type was of “bath-tub” shape, round and flat-bottomed, with a rounded lid, while the later was the “slipper-shaped coffin,” which was ornamented with charms. There is a close resemblance between the “bath-tub” coffins of Sumeria and the Egyptian pottery coffins of oval shape found in Third and Fourth Dynasty tombs in rock chambers near Nuerat. Certain designs on wooden coffins, and tombs as early as the First Dynasty, have direct analogies in Babylonia.
No great tombs were erected in Sumeria. The coffins were usually laid in brick vaults below dwellings, or below temples, or in trenches outside the city walls. On the “stele of victory,” which belongs to the period of Eannatum, patesi of Lagash, the dead bodies on the battlefield are piled up in pairs quite naked, and earth is being heaped over them; this is a specimen of mound burial.
According to Herodotus the Babylonians “buried their dead in honey, and had funeral lamentations like the Egyptians.” The custom of preserving the body in this manner does not appear to have been an ancient one, and may have resulted from cultural contact with the Nile valley during the late Assyrian period. So long as the bones were undisturbed, the spirit was supposed to be assured of rest in the Underworld. This archaic belief was widespread …
… In Babylonia the return of the spirits of the dead was greatly dreaded. Ishtar once uttered the terrible threat: “I will cause the dead to rise; they will then eat and live. The dead will be more numerous than the living.”
When a foreign country was invaded, it was a common custom to break open the tombs and scatter the bones they contained. Probably it was believed, when such acts of vandalism were committed, that the offended spirits would plague their kinsfolk.
Ghosts always haunted the homes they once lived in, and were as malignant as demons. It is significant to find in this connection that the bodies of enemies who were slain in battle were not given decent burial, but mutilated and left for birds and beasts of prey to devour.
The demons that plagued the dead might also attack the living. A fragmentary narrative, which used to be referred to as the Cuthean Legend of Creation, and has been shown by Mr. L.W. King to have no connection with the struggle between Merodach and the dragon, deals with a war waged by an ancient king against a horde of evil spirits, led by “the lord of heights, lord of the Anunaki (earth spirits).” Some of the supernatural warriors had bodies like birds; others had “raven faces,” and all had been “suckled by Tiamat.”
For three years the king sent out great armies to attack the demons, but “none returned alive.” Then he decided to go forth himself to save his country from destruction. So he prepared for the conflict, and took the precaution of performing elaborate and therefore costly religious rites so as to secure the cooperation of the gods.
His expedition was successful, for he routed the supernatural army. On his return home, he recorded his great victory on tablets which were placed in the shrine of Nergal at Cuthah.
This myth may be an echo of Nergal’s raid against Eresh-ki-gal. Or, being associated with Cuthah, it may have been composed to encourage burial in that city’s sacred cemetery, which had been cleared by the famous old king of the evil demons which tormented the dead and made seasonal attacks against the living.”
Donald A. Mackenzie, Myths of Babylonia and Assyria, 1915. | <urn:uuid:4354646b-05ad-48b0-9fd3-181f196f04ec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://therealsamizdat.com/2015/01/07/desecration-of-the-dead-depredations-of-the-dead/?shared=email&msg=fail | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00513.warc.gz | en | 0.981307 | 856 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.33027836680... | 12 | Desecration of the Dead, Depredations of the Dead
by Estéban Trujillo de Gutiérrez
” … Sometimes the bodies of the Sumerians were placed in sarcophagi of clay. The earlier type was of “bath-tub” shape, round and flat-bottomed, with a rounded lid, while the later was the “slipper-shaped coffin,” which was ornamented with charms. There is a close resemblance between the “bath-tub” coffins of Sumeria and the Egyptian pottery coffins of oval shape found in Third and Fourth Dynasty tombs in rock chambers near Nuerat. Certain designs on wooden coffins, and tombs as early as the First Dynasty, have direct analogies in Babylonia.
No great tombs were erected in Sumeria. The coffins were usually laid in brick vaults below dwellings, or below temples, or in trenches outside the city walls. On the “stele of victory,” which belongs to the period of Eannatum, patesi of Lagash, the dead bodies on the battlefield are piled up in pairs quite naked, and earth is being heaped over them; this is a specimen of mound burial.
According to Herodotus the Babylonians “buried their dead in honey, and had funeral lamentations like the Egyptians.” The custom of preserving the body in this manner does not appear to have been an ancient one, and may have resulted from cultural contact with the Nile valley during the late Assyrian period. So long as the bones were undisturbed, the spirit was supposed to be assured of rest in the Underworld. This archaic belief was widespread …
… In Babylonia the return of the spirits of the dead was greatly dreaded. Ishtar once uttered the terrible threat: “I will cause the dead to rise; they will then eat and live. The dead will be more numerous than the living.”
When a foreign country was invaded, it was a common custom to break open the tombs and scatter the bones they contained. Probably it was believed, when such acts of vandalism were committed, that the offended spirits would plague their kinsfolk.
Ghosts always haunted the homes they once lived in, and were as malignant as demons. It is significant to find in this connection that the bodies of enemies who were slain in battle were not given decent burial, but mutilated and left for birds and beasts of prey to devour.
The demons that plagued the dead might also attack the living. A fragmentary narrative, which used to be referred to as the Cuthean Legend of Creation, and has been shown by Mr. L.W. King to have no connection with the struggle between Merodach and the dragon, deals with a war waged by an ancient king against a horde of evil spirits, led by “the lord of heights, lord of the Anunaki (earth spirits).” Some of the supernatural warriors had bodies like birds; others had “raven faces,” and all had been “suckled by Tiamat.”
For three years the king sent out great armies to attack the demons, but “none returned alive.” Then he decided to go forth himself to save his country from destruction. So he prepared for the conflict, and took the precaution of performing elaborate and therefore costly religious rites so as to secure the cooperation of the gods.
His expedition was successful, for he routed the supernatural army. On his return home, he recorded his great victory on tablets which were placed in the shrine of Nergal at Cuthah.
This myth may be an echo of Nergal’s raid against Eresh-ki-gal. Or, being associated with Cuthah, it may have been composed to encourage burial in that city’s sacred cemetery, which had been cleared by the famous old king of the evil demons which tormented the dead and made seasonal attacks against the living.”
Donald A. Mackenzie, Myths of Babylonia and Assyria, 1915. | 821 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We know and admire Michelangelo as a sculptor, painter and architect, a true genius of Renaissance art. Many of the Michelangelo drawings that he completed, some as studies for his larger works such as the frescoes in the Sistine Chapel, and some as gifts for friends, are notable works of art in their own right. The art historian Vasari stated that Michelangelo destroyed many of his drawings, “so that he would leave nothing that is not perfect.” The many drawings that do survive provide a snapshot of the thought process of a great artist. Presented here is a personal selection of just a few examples of Michelangelo’s work.
Head of Cleopatra, c.1533-4, black chalk on paper, Casa Buonarroti, Florence, Italy.
The Egyptian Queen seems unperturbed by the asp coiled around her shoulders and biting her breast.
Portrait of Andrea Quartesi, c.1532
The only surviving portrait drawing by Michelangelo. Quartesi was a youth of noble birth a member of a wealthy Florentine banking family. | <urn:uuid:fa61464a-92ec-4965-95ab-a4155e719e31> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.italian-renaissance-art.com/Michelangelo-Drawings.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00133.warc.gz | en | 0.980334 | 230 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.58966112136... | 2 | We know and admire Michelangelo as a sculptor, painter and architect, a true genius of Renaissance art. Many of the Michelangelo drawings that he completed, some as studies for his larger works such as the frescoes in the Sistine Chapel, and some as gifts for friends, are notable works of art in their own right. The art historian Vasari stated that Michelangelo destroyed many of his drawings, “so that he would leave nothing that is not perfect.” The many drawings that do survive provide a snapshot of the thought process of a great artist. Presented here is a personal selection of just a few examples of Michelangelo’s work.
Head of Cleopatra, c.1533-4, black chalk on paper, Casa Buonarroti, Florence, Italy.
The Egyptian Queen seems unperturbed by the asp coiled around her shoulders and biting her breast.
Portrait of Andrea Quartesi, c.1532
The only surviving portrait drawing by Michelangelo. Quartesi was a youth of noble birth a member of a wealthy Florentine banking family. | 222 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Listed 7 sub titles with search on: Subjects about the place
for destination: "ATHENS
Subjects about the place (7)
Religious & Cultural Life in the Golden Age
Perseus Project - Athenian Religious & Cultural Life in the Golden Age - Thomas R. Martin, An Overview of Classical Greek History from Homer to Alexander
Continuity and Change in Athenian Social and Intellectual History
Perseus Project - Thomas R. Martin, An Overview of Classical Greek History from Homer to Alexander
The Peloponnesian War and Athenian Life
Perseus Project - Thomas R. Martin, An Overview of Classical Greek History from Homer to Alexander
Greek Social Classes
The best information about Greek social class comes from
a city called Athens. People who had more of an education and more money were
known as the upper class. Directly below the upper class were the Metics, or the
middle class. This group of people were not necessarily known as the “middle
class” they were just known to be somewhere in between the upper and the
lower class. They didn't have all the opportunities of the upper class, but they
were still better off than the lower class. Below them were the freemen, or the
lower class. The very bottom of the social ladder consisted of slaves. I will
show how the people of Athens were placed in these classes during the time period
from 600 to about 300 BC. This time frame was called the Classical period.
The Upper Class
In order to be a member of the upper class in Athens there
are two major requirements. You must be a citizen, which allowed you to vote if
you were a man, and you aren't allowed to have a job. A member of the upper class
must be free from economic tasks such as trading. An upperclassman's job was often
considered owning slaves, and most of the time it was the wives' job to manage
them. In turn this allows him time for politics, government, war, literature,
and philosophy. The Athenians believed there must be a leisure class, or there
would be no standard for good taste, no encouragement of the arts, no civilization.
The aristocrats of Athens believed that a man in a hurry was not civilized. This
elite class was very small. They numbered about 300 families. The Young boys from
this class had the opportunity to attend school and learn about literature and
philosophy. They started going to school at about age five or six. However the
girls stayed home with their mothers and learned the duties of a good wife and
mother. Because by the age of fifteen or so, she would be married off to start
a family and raise children. Marriages of the upper and middle class were arranged
by the parents. Love was not taken into consideration; it was more of a business
arrangement. Ancient units of money during this time period were called talents.
To be considered wealthy, a land owner needed about 20 talents.
The In-Between Class
For the most part, Athens had an upper and a lower class. However
of those two classes, there were people in between. This might be referred to
as a middle class. The majority of this class consisted of non-citizens. The free-men
(non-slaves) of foreign birth spent their life in Athens. Because the free-men
were not born in to citizenship, they had no chance of ever becoming a citizen.
They were mostly professional men: merchants, contractors, manufacturers, managers,
tradesmen, craftsmen, doctors, and artists. In the course of their wandering,
they found in Athens the jobs they needed and opportunity to make money, which
somewhat outweighed the down side of not being able to vote. These men were willing
to give up their right to vote in other cities because they could not make as
good of a living in neighboring cities.
The ceramic industry was owned entirely by the middle class. The non-citizens
were forbidden to own land, or marry into a family of a citizen. Creating such
a law allowed the citizens to buy land at a cheaper price, because outside competition
for the land was eliminated. This working class made sure that the navy fleet
was maintained, the empire was supported through heavy taxes, and the commercial
supremacy of Athens was preserved. The upper class wanted to show the rest of
the world how great they were, and used all the classes below them to do the dirty
work. Men who owned between one talent and 20 minae, that is a third of a talent,
were able to serve as hoplites (foot soldiers), and the wealthiest 1,000 of these
9,000 men rode horses during battle.
Women in the middle class had a lot of work to do. Usually they had
less slaves to help with their chores. One of their most important jobs was making
clothes. They had to spin the wool themselves, without a spinning wheel, to make
the thread. Then they had to weave the fabric in order to make the material for
the clothes. This was one of the first jobs that little girls learned. And this
was very time consuming. It was also the woman's job to cook, clean and tend to
the garden and the animals. Another job that took up a lot of time was getting
water from the well. You can imagine that a woman in the middle class really had
her hands full.
The Lower Class
The lower class was partly made up of freedmen, who at one time in
their lives had been slaves. These people were not citizens of Athens, so the
best they could have ever been were middle class, or well off lower class. There
were different ways that a slave could gain his or her freedom. The slave may
have been freed by his or her ransom being paid off by a relative or friend. If
a slave ever earned enough money he could buy his own freedom, which was difficult
because slaves did not always get paid for their services, and if they did it
was usually very little. Sometimes, if they had time, he or she would have to
work a second job. There was also a chance that men would be released if he were
to fight in a war. And two of the more common ways to acquire freedom, were for
the master to die, or if the master felt the job the slave was bought for had
been completed. If a slave was bought in order to tutor a child through school,
upon the child's graduation, it's more than likely that the slave was set free.
Every once in a while a slave who was set free had a chance to make a better life
The Greeks in general felt that all men were not created equal. To
an Athenian, there was no greater disgrace than being stripped of his citizenship.
Some families had lived in Greece
for generations, but they still were not considered citizens. The lower classes
outnumbered the upper class by an enormous number, but in the 600's BC, only the
upper class citizens who owned land could vote. This meant that all the decisions
were made by the upper class men who owned land, even though the rules and laws
applied to all. This might look like an evil system, this oligarchy- which was
the rule of the few, but it was an improvement over the traditional style of leadership,
which consisted of only one person making the political decisions for everyone.
By the 400's BC, Athens had a democracy and all of the men in the three classes
could vote (everyone but the slaves and the metics).
The slaves of Athens were un-ransomed prisoners of war, victims of
slave raids, infants rescued from exposure, and criminals. Only a number of slaves
were considered barbarians because they were from a different place. The cost
of a slave ranged from 50 to 1,000 dollars. Even a lower-class citizen sometimes
had a slave or two, while a rich home could have as many as fifty. The Athenian
government employed a number of public slaves as clerks, attendants, minor officials,
or policemen. Many slaves were women who worked in the home. If a slave misbehaved
he was often whipped; If he was hit in the face by a person whose rank was higher
than a slave, the slave must not defend himself. If a slave were going to testify
in court, he or she could only testify legally under torture, to make sure the
slave told the truth. In no case could a citizen legally go as far as to kill
his slave. The treatment of slaves verried. Sometimes the owners treated their
slaves better than others. In these earlier times slavery was legal, but not all
people agreed with this. As one philosopher noted, “God has sent all men
into the world free, and nature has made no man a slave, but slavery goes on.”
The worst position for a woman was as a mistreated slave. She not
only had herself to look after, but often she had the concern of her child or
getting pregnant. There was hardly any medical attention for her and usually no
time off to recover or take proper care of her baby. Situations were different,
sometimes women had more care than others.
by Philippa Fraser
Ancient Greek Education
In Athens the popular viewpoint of the time was that the State and
its government were set up to benefit the individual citizen. The training of
boys, both physical and mental, should be for citizenship and for living, not
just for warfare. Such education involved the cultivation of the mind even more
than the body, and had as its goals the attainment of character, taste, and, above
all, sophrosyne, or patience, moderation, and good behavior in word, thought,
and daily actions.
In Athens, education was largely a private matter. There were, of
course, exceptions. For example, certain large gymnasiums were built and maintained
for public use.
Not much is known about Greek education other than the subjects taught.
We do know that only boys were generally educated, and that the sons of wealthy
Athenians began school earlier and stayed longer than the sons of not-quite-so-wealthy
parents. These latter boys usually left school around the age of fourteen.
Little children were taught at home by their parents or by a slave,
called a paedagogus. At the age of six or seven the boys were sent to primary
school which was usually within the neighborhood. Elementary school teachers were
always men, never women. Because of the low pay, and the Athenian aversion to
taking a job, these men were themselves little educated and had little or no social
standing. The money these teachers made came from the tuition fees the child's
parents sent monthly. The costs of tuition and the topic of study were the choice
of the teacher.
In school, the boys sat on plain benches while their teacher sat in
an armchair, called a cathedra, and dictated, or read to the boys, their lessons
from a book. At this time, books were very expensive. Therefore, the boys did
not own copies of the books they were studying. Instead, while the teacher was
reading out loud, the students would write down on tablets of wax what he was
saying. Later they would memorize what they had written. In this way, entire books
were memorized by Athenian students!
Interestingly enough, Greeks never read silently to themselves--always
out loud. Proper enunciation of sound and clearness of words were essential and
voice training was constant. Classes were taught and information was learned almost
entirely from the spoken word. This is why the Greeks had a love of drama, recitations,
public recitals, and contests. Paintings the Athenians put on their vases show
us pictures of the school rooms. They had writing tablets, rulers, baskets full
of manuscripts, and, for music, lyres and flutes. Playing the lyre, an instrument
resembling a small hand-held harp, was considered so important, that if a boy
couldn't play the lyre well enough, it was thought to be a sign of bad breeding.
In the better and larger schools reading, writing, and mathematics
would be taught by a special teacher, called the grammatistes, lessons in music
and poetry were given by teachers called the kitharistes, and physical training
was directed by the trainer, or paidotribes.
Education in ancient Greece
was far different from education today. The Athenian boy in school had a study
program far easier than boys (and girls) have today. The Athenian boy could concentrate
only on the Greek language and literature because no other languages were taught.
Mathematics was basic and simple. There was little scientific knowledge in the
fifth and fourth centuries (499 -300) B.C. The readings were mainly the works
of Homer, Hesiod, Theognis and the lyric poets and probably, towards the end of
the fifth century (499-400) B.C. the tragic plays of various authors. Especially
emphasized were the poems of Homer. These poems were the very backbone of the
Primary education for Athenian boys lasted usually from the ages of
six to fourteen. Secondary education, for boys from the wealthier families, was
from the ages of fourteen to eighteen. Then, finally, the boys entered a military
training camp for two years, until the age of twenty, when they were called ephebes.
Gradually this military training was decreased to only one year, and school attendance,
once mandatory, later became, after the Macedonian conquest, voluntary. Toward
the end of the second century B.C. (199-100), foreigners were freely admitted
to the college.
Aristocracy in Athens
In the aristocratic political structure of Athens, offices were filled
according to wealth and birth right. At first the offices were held for life.
Later, the terms were shortened to ten years.
The Athenians had nine positions in their government. They were called
the Basileus, Polemarkhos, Arkhon, and six Thesmothetai. Each one of the nine
officials had a different job. The Basileus had religious power. He was in charge
of things such as giving his wife to the god, Dionysos. The Polemarkhos, translated
“military leader”, was exactly that. He was in charge of the military.
Another office held was the Arkhon (or Archon). The official was to
take care of anything administrative in Athens. The last positions were the six
Thesmothetai. This position came about sometime later than the first three. These
men were to record statutes (laws) and preserve them for judgment between litigants.
As a unit these officials were called the nine arkhons. This term is directly
translated into “leader”. Arkhon is used as the name for the administrative
leader and to describe all nine of the offices held.
The Judiciary System in Ancient Athens
The Athenians claim the credit of being the first to have regular
processes of law. In the beginning the administration of justice was done by amateurs.
People were selected by lot, they presided over trials and preliminary hearings
before the popular courts. In the fifth century when rhetoric was being taught,
some became so good at persuasion, they held a distinct advantage. These men wrote
speeches for clients to use as their own. Good speeches were like advertisements
Oratory rhetoric was divided into epideictic, deliberative, and forensic.
Deliberative was used to address the people in the general Assembly. Forensic
was delivered in the law courts. These are usually called political oratory because
they both deal with government. Epideictic or display oratory included all other
oratations, such as those delivered during festivals, public rites, or moral discourses.
While under Macedonian rule oratory rhetoric languished and Athens
became a provincial town. Other cities succeeded Athens, the “School of
Greece” as Pericles
had called her. However, oratory eventually degenerated into declamation.
The Areopagus, the popular Assembly, called the Ecclesia, and the
regular magistrates or Archons all had well-recognized judicial functions. The
steps in which government controlled and developed the administration of justice
can be followed easier in Athens than anywhere else, because we have more information
In 900-800 B.C. government was what Aristotle called a “monarchy
of the heroic age.” There were no laws or tribunals. It was up to the individual
to get justice for wrongs against him. Relatives and friends were always expected
to help and sometimes the whole community if it concerned them all. When a person
of another tribe committed an outrage, a crime, against a citizen, his fellow
citizens would help him demand compensation. Because of this, communities started
to seek to prevent and punish aggressors from other tribes. This is where the
popular assembly came in. Anyone could appeal to it provided it was of public
In the case of minor disputes it was left to kings or other prominent
persons whose integrity and judgment inspired confidence. This led to the belief
that settling disputes was a royal prerogative. This is the justification of Aristotle's
statement that “the king [in the Heroic Age] was a general and a judge and
had control of religion.”
About 700 B.C. the monarchy had been gradually disappearing and the
dispensing of justice had by this time become a recognized function of government.
Unfortunately the chiefs who were the ruling aristocracy did not have a problem
enriching themselves by accepting bribes. This and the needs of more complex social
and economic organization aroused the people to demand written laws and rules
of procedure to protect against corrupt judges.
“No worse foe than a despot hath a state
Under whom, first, can be no written laws,
But one rules, keeping in his private hands
The Law: so is equality no more.
But when the laws are written then the weak
And wealthy have alike but equal right.”
After the aristocratic republic came an oligarchy. Instead of kings
there were magistrates elected annually on the basis of wealth and birth. Soon
functions of the king were distributed among nine magistrates called “archons.”
The chief was the Archon. He handled civil suits involving estates and family
relations. The Polemarch exercised the military functions of the king and had
jurisdiction over aliens. The remaining six were known as the Thesmothetae. They
took cognizance of all cases outside the jurisdiction of the other magistrates
and recorded judicial decisions. The Areopagus was the governing body of the state
and served as a criminal court.
In 621 B.C. Draco gave Athens its first code. The only laws that have
survived are those dealing with homicide. So severe were the punishments in his
code that some said Draco wrote his laws not in ink but in blood.
In 594 B.C. Solon, the great lawgiver, threw out all of Draco's laws
except the ones dealing with homicide, and gave Athens a democratic constitution
with a senate and popular assembly. With the expulsion of the tyrants Cleisthenes
revised the constitution in a democratic spirit.
The Ecclesia was the sovereign power of the state and composed of
all citizens. Associated with it was the Council of Five Hundred, or Boule, which
was a representative body chosen annually by lot from citizens of thirty years
or older. Fifty were selected from each of the ten tribes into which the citizens
were divided. Each of the ten was a committee called the Prytaneis. They presided
over the Boule, furnished chairmen for the meetings of the government. Higher
offices of the state were filled from the first three of the four classes, into
which the citizens were divided on a basis of wealth.
All these bodies and officials shared in the administration of justice.
However the supreme judicial authority was vested in the sovereign people. They
normally dispensed justice only in the case of serious crimes or offenses not
otherwise provided for by law, though they could take action in any case they
Regular proceedings were called eisangeliae or “impeachment”.
Much like today it was a trial before a political body. A crime could also be
brought to attention by presentment. A vote of acquittal ended the matter, a vote
of condemnation though without legal effect usually encouraged the prosecutor
to bring the charge before a regular court. Basically it was an expression of
Solon also started the first court of appeals. Magistrates could not
be allowed to have final judgment where the people claimed the right to exercise
all functions of government. the right to grant appeal went to the members of
the Heliaea, a judicial assembly. Only those thirty years or older could be members.
And the members were not officials of the state over the people, they were the
Many changes happened between Cleisthenes and the age of Demosthenes.
Some were suggested by experience, others because of the progress of democracy.
Some to relieve the congestion of the courts.
Some of the more significant changes were: Pisistratus set up a tyranny
which endured for fifty years, he made no drastic changes and only filled offices
with his friends and family. He did however appoint judges to go on circuit throughout
the Attic townships, they acted primarily as arbitrators. Evidence stated to be
presented in the form of affidavits acknowledged by the witnesses in court so
appeals could be based on evidence in its original form.Pericles made provision
for paying the jurors a small fee. In 425 B.C. Cleon made a substantial increase
in that pay. Amnesty, statute of limitations, accord and satisfaction were also
started by the ancient Greeks.
Homicide in 900-800 B.C. was dealt with by relatives who started blood
feuds or put a price on the killer. The community did not intervene until the
shedding of blood polluted the soil. the killer had to be purified or banished
because he was considered polluted as well. Avoiding blood feuds and maintaining
peace was an important influence in bringing about state intervention. Special
courts were used to try homicide cases. The right to prosecute an alleged murderer
was left to near relatives of the victim; the state did not bring cases itself.
The Areopagus is reputed to be the most ancient homicide court in
Greece. In the beginning
it tried all cases of homicide, but after the differentiation of voluntary, involuntary,
and justifiable homicide four additional courts were instituted. Voluntary came
under the jurisdiction of the Areopagus under the King Archon who actively participated
in the trial. The Palladium tried cases of involuntary homicide and of killing
non-citizens, i.e., slaves, resident aliens, and transient foreigners. Justifiable
homicide was tried by the court of Delphinium. And the court at Preatto tried
those who, while in banishment for involuntary homicide, were charged with murder
or wounding with intent. All defendants were tried from a boat before the court
seated on the shore to prevent pollution of the soil. The judges were composed
of fifty-one special judges recruited from the membership of the Areopagus.
During the fifth century the Ephetae were replaced by regular juryman.
this occurred because the Areopagus was deprived of political and judicial powers.
The court of the Prytaneum, consisting of the tribal kings under the King Anchon,
tried unknown slayers and animals and inanimate objects that had caused the death
of a human being. Condemned objects were cast beyond the borders of Attica.
A similar practice is found in Anglo-Saxon law, where condemned objects were called
As you can see we have a judicial system not unlike the ancient Athenians.
They were the first to do many things in the ways of justice and government. Many
of today's governments have copied what they did so long ago. Whether or not it
is done better now or then is left to argument. | <urn:uuid:c1683e3d-a032-4737-875b-6ca72ebdcfcd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gtp.gr/LocInfo.asp?infoid=80&code=EGRAAA10ATHATC00090&PrimeCode=EGRAAA10ATHATC00090&Level=10&PrimeLevel=10&IncludeWide=1&LocId=60632 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00454.warc.gz | en | 0.980991 | 5,165 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.4464023411273... | 2 | Listed 7 sub titles with search on: Subjects about the place
for destination: "ATHENS
Subjects about the place (7)
Religious & Cultural Life in the Golden Age
Perseus Project - Athenian Religious & Cultural Life in the Golden Age - Thomas R. Martin, An Overview of Classical Greek History from Homer to Alexander
Continuity and Change in Athenian Social and Intellectual History
Perseus Project - Thomas R. Martin, An Overview of Classical Greek History from Homer to Alexander
The Peloponnesian War and Athenian Life
Perseus Project - Thomas R. Martin, An Overview of Classical Greek History from Homer to Alexander
Greek Social Classes
The best information about Greek social class comes from
a city called Athens. People who had more of an education and more money were
known as the upper class. Directly below the upper class were the Metics, or the
middle class. This group of people were not necessarily known as the “middle
class” they were just known to be somewhere in between the upper and the
lower class. They didn't have all the opportunities of the upper class, but they
were still better off than the lower class. Below them were the freemen, or the
lower class. The very bottom of the social ladder consisted of slaves. I will
show how the people of Athens were placed in these classes during the time period
from 600 to about 300 BC. This time frame was called the Classical period.
The Upper Class
In order to be a member of the upper class in Athens there
are two major requirements. You must be a citizen, which allowed you to vote if
you were a man, and you aren't allowed to have a job. A member of the upper class
must be free from economic tasks such as trading. An upperclassman's job was often
considered owning slaves, and most of the time it was the wives' job to manage
them. In turn this allows him time for politics, government, war, literature,
and philosophy. The Athenians believed there must be a leisure class, or there
would be no standard for good taste, no encouragement of the arts, no civilization.
The aristocrats of Athens believed that a man in a hurry was not civilized. This
elite class was very small. They numbered about 300 families. The Young boys from
this class had the opportunity to attend school and learn about literature and
philosophy. They started going to school at about age five or six. However the
girls stayed home with their mothers and learned the duties of a good wife and
mother. Because by the age of fifteen or so, she would be married off to start
a family and raise children. Marriages of the upper and middle class were arranged
by the parents. Love was not taken into consideration; it was more of a business
arrangement. Ancient units of money during this time period were called talents.
To be considered wealthy, a land owner needed about 20 talents.
The In-Between Class
For the most part, Athens had an upper and a lower class. However
of those two classes, there were people in between. This might be referred to
as a middle class. The majority of this class consisted of non-citizens. The free-men
(non-slaves) of foreign birth spent their life in Athens. Because the free-men
were not born in to citizenship, they had no chance of ever becoming a citizen.
They were mostly professional men: merchants, contractors, manufacturers, managers,
tradesmen, craftsmen, doctors, and artists. In the course of their wandering,
they found in Athens the jobs they needed and opportunity to make money, which
somewhat outweighed the down side of not being able to vote. These men were willing
to give up their right to vote in other cities because they could not make as
good of a living in neighboring cities.
The ceramic industry was owned entirely by the middle class. The non-citizens
were forbidden to own land, or marry into a family of a citizen. Creating such
a law allowed the citizens to buy land at a cheaper price, because outside competition
for the land was eliminated. This working class made sure that the navy fleet
was maintained, the empire was supported through heavy taxes, and the commercial
supremacy of Athens was preserved. The upper class wanted to show the rest of
the world how great they were, and used all the classes below them to do the dirty
work. Men who owned between one talent and 20 minae, that is a third of a talent,
were able to serve as hoplites (foot soldiers), and the wealthiest 1,000 of these
9,000 men rode horses during battle.
Women in the middle class had a lot of work to do. Usually they had
less slaves to help with their chores. One of their most important jobs was making
clothes. They had to spin the wool themselves, without a spinning wheel, to make
the thread. Then they had to weave the fabric in order to make the material for
the clothes. This was one of the first jobs that little girls learned. And this
was very time consuming. It was also the woman's job to cook, clean and tend to
the garden and the animals. Another job that took up a lot of time was getting
water from the well. You can imagine that a woman in the middle class really had
her hands full.
The Lower Class
The lower class was partly made up of freedmen, who at one time in
their lives had been slaves. These people were not citizens of Athens, so the
best they could have ever been were middle class, or well off lower class. There
were different ways that a slave could gain his or her freedom. The slave may
have been freed by his or her ransom being paid off by a relative or friend. If
a slave ever earned enough money he could buy his own freedom, which was difficult
because slaves did not always get paid for their services, and if they did it
was usually very little. Sometimes, if they had time, he or she would have to
work a second job. There was also a chance that men would be released if he were
to fight in a war. And two of the more common ways to acquire freedom, were for
the master to die, or if the master felt the job the slave was bought for had
been completed. If a slave was bought in order to tutor a child through school,
upon the child's graduation, it's more than likely that the slave was set free.
Every once in a while a slave who was set free had a chance to make a better life
The Greeks in general felt that all men were not created equal. To
an Athenian, there was no greater disgrace than being stripped of his citizenship.
Some families had lived in Greece
for generations, but they still were not considered citizens. The lower classes
outnumbered the upper class by an enormous number, but in the 600's BC, only the
upper class citizens who owned land could vote. This meant that all the decisions
were made by the upper class men who owned land, even though the rules and laws
applied to all. This might look like an evil system, this oligarchy- which was
the rule of the few, but it was an improvement over the traditional style of leadership,
which consisted of only one person making the political decisions for everyone.
By the 400's BC, Athens had a democracy and all of the men in the three classes
could vote (everyone but the slaves and the metics).
The slaves of Athens were un-ransomed prisoners of war, victims of
slave raids, infants rescued from exposure, and criminals. Only a number of slaves
were considered barbarians because they were from a different place. The cost
of a slave ranged from 50 to 1,000 dollars. Even a lower-class citizen sometimes
had a slave or two, while a rich home could have as many as fifty. The Athenian
government employed a number of public slaves as clerks, attendants, minor officials,
or policemen. Many slaves were women who worked in the home. If a slave misbehaved
he was often whipped; If he was hit in the face by a person whose rank was higher
than a slave, the slave must not defend himself. If a slave were going to testify
in court, he or she could only testify legally under torture, to make sure the
slave told the truth. In no case could a citizen legally go as far as to kill
his slave. The treatment of slaves verried. Sometimes the owners treated their
slaves better than others. In these earlier times slavery was legal, but not all
people agreed with this. As one philosopher noted, “God has sent all men
into the world free, and nature has made no man a slave, but slavery goes on.”
The worst position for a woman was as a mistreated slave. She not
only had herself to look after, but often she had the concern of her child or
getting pregnant. There was hardly any medical attention for her and usually no
time off to recover or take proper care of her baby. Situations were different,
sometimes women had more care than others.
by Philippa Fraser
Ancient Greek Education
In Athens the popular viewpoint of the time was that the State and
its government were set up to benefit the individual citizen. The training of
boys, both physical and mental, should be for citizenship and for living, not
just for warfare. Such education involved the cultivation of the mind even more
than the body, and had as its goals the attainment of character, taste, and, above
all, sophrosyne, or patience, moderation, and good behavior in word, thought,
and daily actions.
In Athens, education was largely a private matter. There were, of
course, exceptions. For example, certain large gymnasiums were built and maintained
for public use.
Not much is known about Greek education other than the subjects taught.
We do know that only boys were generally educated, and that the sons of wealthy
Athenians began school earlier and stayed longer than the sons of not-quite-so-wealthy
parents. These latter boys usually left school around the age of fourteen.
Little children were taught at home by their parents or by a slave,
called a paedagogus. At the age of six or seven the boys were sent to primary
school which was usually within the neighborhood. Elementary school teachers were
always men, never women. Because of the low pay, and the Athenian aversion to
taking a job, these men were themselves little educated and had little or no social
standing. The money these teachers made came from the tuition fees the child's
parents sent monthly. The costs of tuition and the topic of study were the choice
of the teacher.
In school, the boys sat on plain benches while their teacher sat in
an armchair, called a cathedra, and dictated, or read to the boys, their lessons
from a book. At this time, books were very expensive. Therefore, the boys did
not own copies of the books they were studying. Instead, while the teacher was
reading out loud, the students would write down on tablets of wax what he was
saying. Later they would memorize what they had written. In this way, entire books
were memorized by Athenian students!
Interestingly enough, Greeks never read silently to themselves--always
out loud. Proper enunciation of sound and clearness of words were essential and
voice training was constant. Classes were taught and information was learned almost
entirely from the spoken word. This is why the Greeks had a love of drama, recitations,
public recitals, and contests. Paintings the Athenians put on their vases show
us pictures of the school rooms. They had writing tablets, rulers, baskets full
of manuscripts, and, for music, lyres and flutes. Playing the lyre, an instrument
resembling a small hand-held harp, was considered so important, that if a boy
couldn't play the lyre well enough, it was thought to be a sign of bad breeding.
In the better and larger schools reading, writing, and mathematics
would be taught by a special teacher, called the grammatistes, lessons in music
and poetry were given by teachers called the kitharistes, and physical training
was directed by the trainer, or paidotribes.
Education in ancient Greece
was far different from education today. The Athenian boy in school had a study
program far easier than boys (and girls) have today. The Athenian boy could concentrate
only on the Greek language and literature because no other languages were taught.
Mathematics was basic and simple. There was little scientific knowledge in the
fifth and fourth centuries (499 -300) B.C. The readings were mainly the works
of Homer, Hesiod, Theognis and the lyric poets and probably, towards the end of
the fifth century (499-400) B.C. the tragic plays of various authors. Especially
emphasized were the poems of Homer. These poems were the very backbone of the
Primary education for Athenian boys lasted usually from the ages of
six to fourteen. Secondary education, for boys from the wealthier families, was
from the ages of fourteen to eighteen. Then, finally, the boys entered a military
training camp for two years, until the age of twenty, when they were called ephebes.
Gradually this military training was decreased to only one year, and school attendance,
once mandatory, later became, after the Macedonian conquest, voluntary. Toward
the end of the second century B.C. (199-100), foreigners were freely admitted
to the college.
Aristocracy in Athens
In the aristocratic political structure of Athens, offices were filled
according to wealth and birth right. At first the offices were held for life.
Later, the terms were shortened to ten years.
The Athenians had nine positions in their government. They were called
the Basileus, Polemarkhos, Arkhon, and six Thesmothetai. Each one of the nine
officials had a different job. The Basileus had religious power. He was in charge
of things such as giving his wife to the god, Dionysos. The Polemarkhos, translated
“military leader”, was exactly that. He was in charge of the military.
Another office held was the Arkhon (or Archon). The official was to
take care of anything administrative in Athens. The last positions were the six
Thesmothetai. This position came about sometime later than the first three. These
men were to record statutes (laws) and preserve them for judgment between litigants.
As a unit these officials were called the nine arkhons. This term is directly
translated into “leader”. Arkhon is used as the name for the administrative
leader and to describe all nine of the offices held.
The Judiciary System in Ancient Athens
The Athenians claim the credit of being the first to have regular
processes of law. In the beginning the administration of justice was done by amateurs.
People were selected by lot, they presided over trials and preliminary hearings
before the popular courts. In the fifth century when rhetoric was being taught,
some became so good at persuasion, they held a distinct advantage. These men wrote
speeches for clients to use as their own. Good speeches were like advertisements
Oratory rhetoric was divided into epideictic, deliberative, and forensic.
Deliberative was used to address the people in the general Assembly. Forensic
was delivered in the law courts. These are usually called political oratory because
they both deal with government. Epideictic or display oratory included all other
oratations, such as those delivered during festivals, public rites, or moral discourses.
While under Macedonian rule oratory rhetoric languished and Athens
became a provincial town. Other cities succeeded Athens, the “School of
Greece” as Pericles
had called her. However, oratory eventually degenerated into declamation.
The Areopagus, the popular Assembly, called the Ecclesia, and the
regular magistrates or Archons all had well-recognized judicial functions. The
steps in which government controlled and developed the administration of justice
can be followed easier in Athens than anywhere else, because we have more information
In 900-800 B.C. government was what Aristotle called a “monarchy
of the heroic age.” There were no laws or tribunals. It was up to the individual
to get justice for wrongs against him. Relatives and friends were always expected
to help and sometimes the whole community if it concerned them all. When a person
of another tribe committed an outrage, a crime, against a citizen, his fellow
citizens would help him demand compensation. Because of this, communities started
to seek to prevent and punish aggressors from other tribes. This is where the
popular assembly came in. Anyone could appeal to it provided it was of public
In the case of minor disputes it was left to kings or other prominent
persons whose integrity and judgment inspired confidence. This led to the belief
that settling disputes was a royal prerogative. This is the justification of Aristotle's
statement that “the king [in the Heroic Age] was a general and a judge and
had control of religion.”
About 700 B.C. the monarchy had been gradually disappearing and the
dispensing of justice had by this time become a recognized function of government.
Unfortunately the chiefs who were the ruling aristocracy did not have a problem
enriching themselves by accepting bribes. This and the needs of more complex social
and economic organization aroused the people to demand written laws and rules
of procedure to protect against corrupt judges.
“No worse foe than a despot hath a state
Under whom, first, can be no written laws,
But one rules, keeping in his private hands
The Law: so is equality no more.
But when the laws are written then the weak
And wealthy have alike but equal right.”
After the aristocratic republic came an oligarchy. Instead of kings
there were magistrates elected annually on the basis of wealth and birth. Soon
functions of the king were distributed among nine magistrates called “archons.”
The chief was the Archon. He handled civil suits involving estates and family
relations. The Polemarch exercised the military functions of the king and had
jurisdiction over aliens. The remaining six were known as the Thesmothetae. They
took cognizance of all cases outside the jurisdiction of the other magistrates
and recorded judicial decisions. The Areopagus was the governing body of the state
and served as a criminal court.
In 621 B.C. Draco gave Athens its first code. The only laws that have
survived are those dealing with homicide. So severe were the punishments in his
code that some said Draco wrote his laws not in ink but in blood.
In 594 B.C. Solon, the great lawgiver, threw out all of Draco's laws
except the ones dealing with homicide, and gave Athens a democratic constitution
with a senate and popular assembly. With the expulsion of the tyrants Cleisthenes
revised the constitution in a democratic spirit.
The Ecclesia was the sovereign power of the state and composed of
all citizens. Associated with it was the Council of Five Hundred, or Boule, which
was a representative body chosen annually by lot from citizens of thirty years
or older. Fifty were selected from each of the ten tribes into which the citizens
were divided. Each of the ten was a committee called the Prytaneis. They presided
over the Boule, furnished chairmen for the meetings of the government. Higher
offices of the state were filled from the first three of the four classes, into
which the citizens were divided on a basis of wealth.
All these bodies and officials shared in the administration of justice.
However the supreme judicial authority was vested in the sovereign people. They
normally dispensed justice only in the case of serious crimes or offenses not
otherwise provided for by law, though they could take action in any case they
Regular proceedings were called eisangeliae or “impeachment”.
Much like today it was a trial before a political body. A crime could also be
brought to attention by presentment. A vote of acquittal ended the matter, a vote
of condemnation though without legal effect usually encouraged the prosecutor
to bring the charge before a regular court. Basically it was an expression of
Solon also started the first court of appeals. Magistrates could not
be allowed to have final judgment where the people claimed the right to exercise
all functions of government. the right to grant appeal went to the members of
the Heliaea, a judicial assembly. Only those thirty years or older could be members.
And the members were not officials of the state over the people, they were the
Many changes happened between Cleisthenes and the age of Demosthenes.
Some were suggested by experience, others because of the progress of democracy.
Some to relieve the congestion of the courts.
Some of the more significant changes were: Pisistratus set up a tyranny
which endured for fifty years, he made no drastic changes and only filled offices
with his friends and family. He did however appoint judges to go on circuit throughout
the Attic townships, they acted primarily as arbitrators. Evidence stated to be
presented in the form of affidavits acknowledged by the witnesses in court so
appeals could be based on evidence in its original form.Pericles made provision
for paying the jurors a small fee. In 425 B.C. Cleon made a substantial increase
in that pay. Amnesty, statute of limitations, accord and satisfaction were also
started by the ancient Greeks.
Homicide in 900-800 B.C. was dealt with by relatives who started blood
feuds or put a price on the killer. The community did not intervene until the
shedding of blood polluted the soil. the killer had to be purified or banished
because he was considered polluted as well. Avoiding blood feuds and maintaining
peace was an important influence in bringing about state intervention. Special
courts were used to try homicide cases. The right to prosecute an alleged murderer
was left to near relatives of the victim; the state did not bring cases itself.
The Areopagus is reputed to be the most ancient homicide court in
Greece. In the beginning
it tried all cases of homicide, but after the differentiation of voluntary, involuntary,
and justifiable homicide four additional courts were instituted. Voluntary came
under the jurisdiction of the Areopagus under the King Archon who actively participated
in the trial. The Palladium tried cases of involuntary homicide and of killing
non-citizens, i.e., slaves, resident aliens, and transient foreigners. Justifiable
homicide was tried by the court of Delphinium. And the court at Preatto tried
those who, while in banishment for involuntary homicide, were charged with murder
or wounding with intent. All defendants were tried from a boat before the court
seated on the shore to prevent pollution of the soil. The judges were composed
of fifty-one special judges recruited from the membership of the Areopagus.
During the fifth century the Ephetae were replaced by regular juryman.
this occurred because the Areopagus was deprived of political and judicial powers.
The court of the Prytaneum, consisting of the tribal kings under the King Anchon,
tried unknown slayers and animals and inanimate objects that had caused the death
of a human being. Condemned objects were cast beyond the borders of Attica.
A similar practice is found in Anglo-Saxon law, where condemned objects were called
As you can see we have a judicial system not unlike the ancient Athenians.
They were the first to do many things in the ways of justice and government. Many
of today's governments have copied what they did so long ago. Whether or not it
is done better now or then is left to argument. | 5,101 | ENGLISH | 1 |
You may find lots of Robins and Chaffinches on a woodland walk! Exploring the beautiful woodland that we are so fortunate to have in our school grounds, was just one of the many activities that the children carried out on our Wow Day. Drama, dance, making edible nests and creating animals from natural resources, were just a few of the many activities that we squeezed into one day. We ended the busy day by starting to read our class book, ‘The Enchanted Wood’.
Archive for Chaffinches
What a great first half term Chaffinches have had. From making our own ice lollies to drinking hot chocolate with marshmallows, Chaffinches have had a fun-filled and busy start to the year. We launched our topic ‘Fire and Ice’ with an amazing Wow day where we made beautiful snowflakes, caused volcanoes to erupt, used a variety of media to make giant flames and played ‘ice’ hockey too.
Chaffinches have settled in very well to their new class and routines and are already making great progress, both in their work and with their independence.
In our English lessons, we began by looking at explorers of the Arctic, reading a book entitled ‘The Great Explorer’ by Chris Judge. We researched animals of the Arctic and wrote an information text about polar bears. We then moved half way around the world to learn about Antarctica, and the animals that can be found there. Another book we enjoyed reading is ‘The penguin who wanted to find out’: this inspired us to write our own adventure about Otto the penguin. We have been dancing like penguins and singing a song about Rocking at the North Pole.
We have been learning how to find the Arctic and the Antarctic, using globes, maps and atlases. Chaffinches were lucky enough to speak to a Research Scientist who is currently stationed in Antarctica: the children thought of some fantastic questions to ask her and were enthralled by her answers.
What a fantastic start to the new academic year. Well done Chaffinches!!
The children from Chaffinches went out into the forest to gather natural resources to create their own artwork of rainforest animals. They created snakes, a sloth, a toucan, a butterfly and a jaguar, using twigs, branches, leaves and stones
. Take a look at our creations.
Chaffinches have had a fantastic week learning about Climate Change. They now realise the importance of recycling, re-using and not wasting things, and how this can make a difference to our planet. We made a video to highlight what we’ve learned and how we can help!
What a fantastic time Robins and Chaffinches had at Woodside Wildlife Park. We were able to see some amazing animals, some of which are usually found in the rainforest. Children were able to see birds of prey, a tiger (rescued from a circus), bats, meerkats, lemurs and a sloth (Sid). As you can see from the photos, children had the chance to handle or stroke some of the reptiles and they loved it! We learned a lot about these amazing animals and about the habitats that they usually live in and the food they eat.
Over the last few months, several children from Year 1 and 2 have been taking part in a Book Club. They have enjoyed reading several books, have written detailed book reviews and have attended several meetings where they have discussed elements of the books and have shared their opinions on the various texts. This week, we ended Book Club with a celebration event. We played games and shared our views on books and authors. There was also an opportunity to take part in a competition to design an alternative book cover with some super new books as prizes. Well done to all the participants, we have had lots of fun sharing our love of books together.
Last Monday, Chaffinches, Robins and Wrens were lucky to be visited by Yorkshire author, Eleanor McKone. Eleanor read her book, ‘Piper’s Passport’ with the children, discussed what it was like being an author and what inspired her to write. The children then did some follow-up activities based on the book.
What a great way to start the new term!
Chaffinches began the term learning about Paddington in London. They loved learning about famous London landmarks such as the London Eye, Buckingham Palace and Big Ben. The children wrote postcards and narratives based on Paddington’s adventures. We also learned through dance and drama about the Great Fire of London.
Learning about Italy and its myths and famous landmarks was also a great success with the class. Chaffinches were also able to cook various types of Italian dishes, such as lasagne, spaghetti bolognese and pizza.
Chaffinches had a great visit to Pizza Express and the Botanical Gardens in Sheffield. At Pizza Express the children go to learn about the history of pizza and were able to make their own pizza and eat it. The visit was ‘the best visit’!
The children’s learning was culminated in our final event of our Italian Cafe. Children made souvenirs to sell, entertained parents with dancing and singing and then served pizza, which they had made.
Another huge success which was enjoyed by all!
Our local Librarian needed our help.
She wanted us to make some Christmas decorations, which would go on the front window of the library.
We were definitely keen to help her out.
Mrs Marriott went to have a look at the window once it had been decorated. It looks great, and we were happy to help out.
Chaffinches have really enjoyed learning new skills in hockey and have used them to play games. They are also currently learning new skills in gymnastics with Mr Kay: they can’t wait for the next lesson. | <urn:uuid:bdb9723a-164b-4ddb-8897-37df86f11028> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.anstongreenlands.org/site/?cat=6 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00361.warc.gz | en | 0.982092 | 1,213 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.529856920242309... | 1 | You may find lots of Robins and Chaffinches on a woodland walk! Exploring the beautiful woodland that we are so fortunate to have in our school grounds, was just one of the many activities that the children carried out on our Wow Day. Drama, dance, making edible nests and creating animals from natural resources, were just a few of the many activities that we squeezed into one day. We ended the busy day by starting to read our class book, ‘The Enchanted Wood’.
Archive for Chaffinches
What a great first half term Chaffinches have had. From making our own ice lollies to drinking hot chocolate with marshmallows, Chaffinches have had a fun-filled and busy start to the year. We launched our topic ‘Fire and Ice’ with an amazing Wow day where we made beautiful snowflakes, caused volcanoes to erupt, used a variety of media to make giant flames and played ‘ice’ hockey too.
Chaffinches have settled in very well to their new class and routines and are already making great progress, both in their work and with their independence.
In our English lessons, we began by looking at explorers of the Arctic, reading a book entitled ‘The Great Explorer’ by Chris Judge. We researched animals of the Arctic and wrote an information text about polar bears. We then moved half way around the world to learn about Antarctica, and the animals that can be found there. Another book we enjoyed reading is ‘The penguin who wanted to find out’: this inspired us to write our own adventure about Otto the penguin. We have been dancing like penguins and singing a song about Rocking at the North Pole.
We have been learning how to find the Arctic and the Antarctic, using globes, maps and atlases. Chaffinches were lucky enough to speak to a Research Scientist who is currently stationed in Antarctica: the children thought of some fantastic questions to ask her and were enthralled by her answers.
What a fantastic start to the new academic year. Well done Chaffinches!!
The children from Chaffinches went out into the forest to gather natural resources to create their own artwork of rainforest animals. They created snakes, a sloth, a toucan, a butterfly and a jaguar, using twigs, branches, leaves and stones
. Take a look at our creations.
Chaffinches have had a fantastic week learning about Climate Change. They now realise the importance of recycling, re-using and not wasting things, and how this can make a difference to our planet. We made a video to highlight what we’ve learned and how we can help!
What a fantastic time Robins and Chaffinches had at Woodside Wildlife Park. We were able to see some amazing animals, some of which are usually found in the rainforest. Children were able to see birds of prey, a tiger (rescued from a circus), bats, meerkats, lemurs and a sloth (Sid). As you can see from the photos, children had the chance to handle or stroke some of the reptiles and they loved it! We learned a lot about these amazing animals and about the habitats that they usually live in and the food they eat.
Over the last few months, several children from Year 1 and 2 have been taking part in a Book Club. They have enjoyed reading several books, have written detailed book reviews and have attended several meetings where they have discussed elements of the books and have shared their opinions on the various texts. This week, we ended Book Club with a celebration event. We played games and shared our views on books and authors. There was also an opportunity to take part in a competition to design an alternative book cover with some super new books as prizes. Well done to all the participants, we have had lots of fun sharing our love of books together.
Last Monday, Chaffinches, Robins and Wrens were lucky to be visited by Yorkshire author, Eleanor McKone. Eleanor read her book, ‘Piper’s Passport’ with the children, discussed what it was like being an author and what inspired her to write. The children then did some follow-up activities based on the book.
What a great way to start the new term!
Chaffinches began the term learning about Paddington in London. They loved learning about famous London landmarks such as the London Eye, Buckingham Palace and Big Ben. The children wrote postcards and narratives based on Paddington’s adventures. We also learned through dance and drama about the Great Fire of London.
Learning about Italy and its myths and famous landmarks was also a great success with the class. Chaffinches were also able to cook various types of Italian dishes, such as lasagne, spaghetti bolognese and pizza.
Chaffinches had a great visit to Pizza Express and the Botanical Gardens in Sheffield. At Pizza Express the children go to learn about the history of pizza and were able to make their own pizza and eat it. The visit was ‘the best visit’!
The children’s learning was culminated in our final event of our Italian Cafe. Children made souvenirs to sell, entertained parents with dancing and singing and then served pizza, which they had made.
Another huge success which was enjoyed by all!
Our local Librarian needed our help.
She wanted us to make some Christmas decorations, which would go on the front window of the library.
We were definitely keen to help her out.
Mrs Marriott went to have a look at the window once it had been decorated. It looks great, and we were happy to help out.
Chaffinches have really enjoyed learning new skills in hockey and have used them to play games. They are also currently learning new skills in gymnastics with Mr Kay: they can’t wait for the next lesson. | 1,187 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Quartermaster Department was organized in 1775, when the Continental Congress authorized a Quartermaster General and a deputy to serve the Army. The first Quartermaster General was Major Thomas Mifflin of Pennsylvania, who was appointed by General Washington. Until 1818, however, the measures introduced by the Quartermaster Department were temporary and usually limited to wartime.
Following the War of 1812, the Secretary of War obtained permission to reorganize the Army, and one of his acts was to establish a permanent Quartermaster General with a department in Washington. Brigadier General Thomas Sidney Jesup was selected to head the new bureau, which he guided until his death in 1860. (It was not until 1862 that retirement became available and not until 1882 that it was required.) Jesup was a wise choice, and he brought discipline and enthusiastic energy to his office. He needed both. His staff consisted of two Assistant Quartermasters with the rank of major, and twenty-eight Assistant Quartermaster with the rank of captain each receiving compensation varying from $10 the $20 a month, as the /secretary of War, Jesup had only six permanent clerks to maintain the office letter books, ledgers, etc. The number of items for which the department accounted, as well as the amount of contracts it let, are staggering. Yet the Quartermaster Department did it and did it well.
Like the rest of the Army, the Quartermaster Department suffered from either feast or famine. In times of war, it added staff and was given funds needed badly; in peacetime, however, appropriations drastically reduced the work the Quartermaster General deemed necessary. In the interim between the wars in Florida and Mexico, the budget of the army was extremely tight. In the fiscal year of 1844, only by the order of the Secretary of War were the Quartermasters at Philadelphia and New Orleans permitted to subscribe to one newspaper so that they might obtain shipping lists and current prices, knowledge of which was essential to the execution of their duties. The Washington office was allowed none-not even the newspaper that published the laws-and the Quartermaster General was forced to request that the Quartermaster at Philadelphia forward his newspaper to him, "when you have done with it."
Under such circumstances, construction periodically came to a virtual standstill. The stringent measures resulted in deteriorating buildings, and quartermasters were forced to rely almost entirely upon the soldiers for labor. When skilled labor was not available from the soldiers, the quartermaster was authorized to hire civilians who were specialized tradesmen, which included masons, turners, glaziers, and millwrights.
Reductions in the Army did not necessarily lessen the demands on the Quartermaster Department. Westward expansion necessitated new fortifications and abandonment of old ones that were no longer needed. Roads and bridges had to be built to connect these new bases and to provide supply lines. Economy may have been the watchword, but surviving Army structures from the 1840s including those at Fort Scott and Fort Laramie, indicate the Quartermasters planned graceful as well as practical buildings. Long porches offered shelter from the torrid summers of the plains; large windows let in air and sunlight; and plastered walls and graceful stairways and fireplaces reminded families of officers that they were not away from home entirely. Except for the kitchen wings, Bedlam, built at Fort Laramie in 1849, is eerily similar to the officers' quarters constructed at Fort Scott a few years earlier. Later posts of the Indian War period did not always have housing as fine as that of the pre-Civil War period.
The majority of the Assistant Quartermasters were graduates of the Military Academy, where they had received training in both architecture and engineering, disciplines they would need. Because of the wide range of objects under their jurisdiction and the opportunities for theft, Quartermasters were chosen for their honesty and kept strictly accountable for everything they ordered. By the outbreak of the Civil War, the Quartermaster Department had 53 separate forms to be filled out, inventorying everything from stationery to the number of days an enlisted man was mustered for extra-duty. So meticulous was Jesup that even the sale of a condemned horse was brought to his attention and received on paper the notation in his own hand, "let the horse be sold."
The information for this section was taken from the Historic Furnishings Report for the Quartermaster Storehouse at Fort Scott by Sally Johnson Ketcham.
Last updated: July 29, 2016 | <urn:uuid:24ee686d-cbd2-45cb-92eb-aee6e9d3017d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nps.gov/fosc/learn/education/qmdarmydepartment.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00279.warc.gz | en | 0.983084 | 909 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.59239673614501... | 4 | The Quartermaster Department was organized in 1775, when the Continental Congress authorized a Quartermaster General and a deputy to serve the Army. The first Quartermaster General was Major Thomas Mifflin of Pennsylvania, who was appointed by General Washington. Until 1818, however, the measures introduced by the Quartermaster Department were temporary and usually limited to wartime.
Following the War of 1812, the Secretary of War obtained permission to reorganize the Army, and one of his acts was to establish a permanent Quartermaster General with a department in Washington. Brigadier General Thomas Sidney Jesup was selected to head the new bureau, which he guided until his death in 1860. (It was not until 1862 that retirement became available and not until 1882 that it was required.) Jesup was a wise choice, and he brought discipline and enthusiastic energy to his office. He needed both. His staff consisted of two Assistant Quartermasters with the rank of major, and twenty-eight Assistant Quartermaster with the rank of captain each receiving compensation varying from $10 the $20 a month, as the /secretary of War, Jesup had only six permanent clerks to maintain the office letter books, ledgers, etc. The number of items for which the department accounted, as well as the amount of contracts it let, are staggering. Yet the Quartermaster Department did it and did it well.
Like the rest of the Army, the Quartermaster Department suffered from either feast or famine. In times of war, it added staff and was given funds needed badly; in peacetime, however, appropriations drastically reduced the work the Quartermaster General deemed necessary. In the interim between the wars in Florida and Mexico, the budget of the army was extremely tight. In the fiscal year of 1844, only by the order of the Secretary of War were the Quartermasters at Philadelphia and New Orleans permitted to subscribe to one newspaper so that they might obtain shipping lists and current prices, knowledge of which was essential to the execution of their duties. The Washington office was allowed none-not even the newspaper that published the laws-and the Quartermaster General was forced to request that the Quartermaster at Philadelphia forward his newspaper to him, "when you have done with it."
Under such circumstances, construction periodically came to a virtual standstill. The stringent measures resulted in deteriorating buildings, and quartermasters were forced to rely almost entirely upon the soldiers for labor. When skilled labor was not available from the soldiers, the quartermaster was authorized to hire civilians who were specialized tradesmen, which included masons, turners, glaziers, and millwrights.
Reductions in the Army did not necessarily lessen the demands on the Quartermaster Department. Westward expansion necessitated new fortifications and abandonment of old ones that were no longer needed. Roads and bridges had to be built to connect these new bases and to provide supply lines. Economy may have been the watchword, but surviving Army structures from the 1840s including those at Fort Scott and Fort Laramie, indicate the Quartermasters planned graceful as well as practical buildings. Long porches offered shelter from the torrid summers of the plains; large windows let in air and sunlight; and plastered walls and graceful stairways and fireplaces reminded families of officers that they were not away from home entirely. Except for the kitchen wings, Bedlam, built at Fort Laramie in 1849, is eerily similar to the officers' quarters constructed at Fort Scott a few years earlier. Later posts of the Indian War period did not always have housing as fine as that of the pre-Civil War period.
The majority of the Assistant Quartermasters were graduates of the Military Academy, where they had received training in both architecture and engineering, disciplines they would need. Because of the wide range of objects under their jurisdiction and the opportunities for theft, Quartermasters were chosen for their honesty and kept strictly accountable for everything they ordered. By the outbreak of the Civil War, the Quartermaster Department had 53 separate forms to be filled out, inventorying everything from stationery to the number of days an enlisted man was mustered for extra-duty. So meticulous was Jesup that even the sale of a condemned horse was brought to his attention and received on paper the notation in his own hand, "let the horse be sold."
The information for this section was taken from the Historic Furnishings Report for the Quartermaster Storehouse at Fort Scott by Sally Johnson Ketcham.
Last updated: July 29, 2016 | 963 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bantu Stephen Biko
Bantu Stephen Biko was born on December 18, 1946 into a modest Xhosa family in Ginsberg Township in the Eastern Cape. He was a South African anti-apartheid activist, an African nationalist and African socialist. He was at the forefront of a grassroots anti-apartheid campaign known as the Black Consciousness Movement during the late 1960s and 1970s. His ideas were articulated in a series of articles published under the pseudonym Frank Talk.
In 1966, he began studying medicine at the University of Natal, where he joined the National Union of South African Students (NUSAS). Strongly opposed to the apartheid system of racial segregation and white-minority rule in South Africa, Biko was frustrated that NUSAS and other anti-apartheid groups were dominated by white liberals, rather than by the Blacks. He thus became a leading figure in the creation of the South African Students’ Organisation (SASO) in 1968. Membership was open only to “Blacks”, a term that Biko used in reference not just to Bantu-speaking Africans but also to Coloureds and Indians. He was careful to keep his movement independent of white liberals, but opposed anti-white racism and had various white friends and lovers. The white-minority National Party government were initially supportive, seeing SASO’s creation as a victory for apartheid’s ethos of racial separatism.
More about this
Biko believed that Black people needed to rid themselves of any sense of racial inferiority, an idea he expressed by popularizing the slogan “black is beautiful”. In 1972, he was involved in founding the Black People’s Convention (BPC) to promote Black Consciousness ideas among the wider population. The government came to see Biko as a subversive threat and placed him under a banning order in 1973, severely restricting his activities. He remained politically active, helping organise BCPs such as a healthcare centre and a crèche in the Ginsberg area.
During his ban he received repeated anonymous threats, and was detained by state security services on several occasions. Following his arrest in August 1977, Biko was severely beaten by state security officers, resulting in his death on September 12; 1977. Over 20,000 people attended his funeral.
Biko’s fame spread posthumously. He became the subject of numerous songs and works of art. He became one of the earliest icons of the movement against apartheid, and is regarded as a political martyr and the “Father of Black Consciousness”. | <urn:uuid:4f827834-6af3-45a1-baf1-1a507494e4ba> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://face2faceafrica.com/article/from-nelson-mandela-to-steve-biko-here-are-four-top-south-african-politicians-the-xhosa-ethnic-group-produced/5 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00529.warc.gz | en | 0.985788 | 536 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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Bantu Stephen Biko was born on December 18, 1946 into a modest Xhosa family in Ginsberg Township in the Eastern Cape. He was a South African anti-apartheid activist, an African nationalist and African socialist. He was at the forefront of a grassroots anti-apartheid campaign known as the Black Consciousness Movement during the late 1960s and 1970s. His ideas were articulated in a series of articles published under the pseudonym Frank Talk.
In 1966, he began studying medicine at the University of Natal, where he joined the National Union of South African Students (NUSAS). Strongly opposed to the apartheid system of racial segregation and white-minority rule in South Africa, Biko was frustrated that NUSAS and other anti-apartheid groups were dominated by white liberals, rather than by the Blacks. He thus became a leading figure in the creation of the South African Students’ Organisation (SASO) in 1968. Membership was open only to “Blacks”, a term that Biko used in reference not just to Bantu-speaking Africans but also to Coloureds and Indians. He was careful to keep his movement independent of white liberals, but opposed anti-white racism and had various white friends and lovers. The white-minority National Party government were initially supportive, seeing SASO’s creation as a victory for apartheid’s ethos of racial separatism.
More about this
Biko believed that Black people needed to rid themselves of any sense of racial inferiority, an idea he expressed by popularizing the slogan “black is beautiful”. In 1972, he was involved in founding the Black People’s Convention (BPC) to promote Black Consciousness ideas among the wider population. The government came to see Biko as a subversive threat and placed him under a banning order in 1973, severely restricting his activities. He remained politically active, helping organise BCPs such as a healthcare centre and a crèche in the Ginsberg area.
During his ban he received repeated anonymous threats, and was detained by state security services on several occasions. Following his arrest in August 1977, Biko was severely beaten by state security officers, resulting in his death on September 12; 1977. Over 20,000 people attended his funeral.
Biko’s fame spread posthumously. He became the subject of numerous songs and works of art. He became one of the earliest icons of the movement against apartheid, and is regarded as a political martyr and the “Father of Black Consciousness”. | 552 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Definition: A co-operative is an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly-owned and democratically-controlled enterprise.
Co-operatives are business organizations owned by the members who use their services. Control rests equally with all members (“one member, one vote”) and surplus earnings are shared by members in proportion to the degree they use the services. Co-ops are structured in a democratic way that allows members to have a say in their actions. The members elect the board of directors and decide what should be done with any surplus that is generated in the co-op. The members of the co-op are people, or groups of people, who use and need the services and products a co-operative provides. If the co-op is created to provide work, the workers are the member-owners. If the co-op is created to purchase goods and services, the consumers (buyers) are the members. Co-ops can be either for-profit or not-for-profit enterprises. In Canada, most co-ops in the healthcare, childcare and housing sectors are not-for-profit co-ops. While some co-ops (such as family housing co-ops) receive some government funding, co-operatives are NOT government organizations. Co-ops are community initiated organizations and businesses.
Do you know a group of people with a common interest? Would they benefit from working together?
The Co-op model is the solution for many people trying to build a better life. | <urn:uuid:7d7e048d-0a1d-475b-a28f-69fde9303459> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://arctic-coop.com/index.php/about-co-ops/what-is-a-co-op/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00096.warc.gz | en | 0.980876 | 324 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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-0.1315519064664... | 4 | Definition: A co-operative is an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly-owned and democratically-controlled enterprise.
Co-operatives are business organizations owned by the members who use their services. Control rests equally with all members (“one member, one vote”) and surplus earnings are shared by members in proportion to the degree they use the services. Co-ops are structured in a democratic way that allows members to have a say in their actions. The members elect the board of directors and decide what should be done with any surplus that is generated in the co-op. The members of the co-op are people, or groups of people, who use and need the services and products a co-operative provides. If the co-op is created to provide work, the workers are the member-owners. If the co-op is created to purchase goods and services, the consumers (buyers) are the members. Co-ops can be either for-profit or not-for-profit enterprises. In Canada, most co-ops in the healthcare, childcare and housing sectors are not-for-profit co-ops. While some co-ops (such as family housing co-ops) receive some government funding, co-operatives are NOT government organizations. Co-ops are community initiated organizations and businesses.
Do you know a group of people with a common interest? Would they benefit from working together?
The Co-op model is the solution for many people trying to build a better life. | 302 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A thousand years of history
The church is built on the site where St Alfege was killed by the Danes in 1012 AD.
St Alfege, Archbishop of Canterbury, was taken hostage by the Danes after they burnt down his cathedral during a raid on the city. They took him to Greenwich, hoping to ransom him for 3,000 gold marks, a huge sum of money. St Alfege refused to be ransomed, knowing it could mean starvation for many of his people, and as a result he was martyred.
Heart of Greenwich Place and People project - rich heritage of St Alfege Church to be revealed thanks to National Lottery players. The project aims reinforce the church’s position as a heritage asset at the heart of Greenwich, reveal and interpret our hidden spaces and heritage for everyone. | <urn:uuid:be9a07bc-36ad-483e-8371-3b5713437851> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://st-alfege.org/Groups/298239/Heritage.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00151.warc.gz | en | 0.984013 | 172 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.5299984812736511... | 11 | A thousand years of history
The church is built on the site where St Alfege was killed by the Danes in 1012 AD.
St Alfege, Archbishop of Canterbury, was taken hostage by the Danes after they burnt down his cathedral during a raid on the city. They took him to Greenwich, hoping to ransom him for 3,000 gold marks, a huge sum of money. St Alfege refused to be ransomed, knowing it could mean starvation for many of his people, and as a result he was martyred.
Heart of Greenwich Place and People project - rich heritage of St Alfege Church to be revealed thanks to National Lottery players. The project aims reinforce the church’s position as a heritage asset at the heart of Greenwich, reveal and interpret our hidden spaces and heritage for everyone. | 172 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Consumer Credit Act of 1974 was an Act that was passed by Parliament in the United Kingdom. What this particular Act did was rebuild and reorganize the way in which consumer credit was handled in the United Kingdom. The purpose of this was to provide consumers with more rights and to form a more organized way in which business and the consumption of goods was done. This was helpful in order to regulate business procedures and still benefit the customer.
There are a number of different regulations and stipulations through this particular Consumer Credit Act. Some of them were very specific conditions that needed to be followed in order for business to occur.
For example, if an individual made an agreement of purchase with a business and wanted to cancel this agreement, under the Consumer Credit Act 1974 the consumer has the ability to cancel the agreement as long as they did not sign a contract in the business or shop with whom they are working, or as long as they did not enter into an agreement over the phone. Essentially, they are allowed to initiate the cancellation of the agreement if it was on their terms and territory when they agreed to it.
For sellers, a cancellation could be done through a formal court order if the seller had started to pay off the sale. The Consumer Credit Act of 1974 had many other types of terms and conditions regarding the business of buying and selling goods. However, this Act was replaced and completely changed by the Consumer Credit Act of 2006. | <urn:uuid:0e9cf9ad-2cbd-4b5b-8976-97a25a7bdb0a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://consumer.laws.com/consumer-law/consumer-credit-act | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00324.warc.gz | en | 0.990415 | 286 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.00315900... | 13 | The Consumer Credit Act of 1974 was an Act that was passed by Parliament in the United Kingdom. What this particular Act did was rebuild and reorganize the way in which consumer credit was handled in the United Kingdom. The purpose of this was to provide consumers with more rights and to form a more organized way in which business and the consumption of goods was done. This was helpful in order to regulate business procedures and still benefit the customer.
There are a number of different regulations and stipulations through this particular Consumer Credit Act. Some of them were very specific conditions that needed to be followed in order for business to occur.
For example, if an individual made an agreement of purchase with a business and wanted to cancel this agreement, under the Consumer Credit Act 1974 the consumer has the ability to cancel the agreement as long as they did not sign a contract in the business or shop with whom they are working, or as long as they did not enter into an agreement over the phone. Essentially, they are allowed to initiate the cancellation of the agreement if it was on their terms and territory when they agreed to it.
For sellers, a cancellation could be done through a formal court order if the seller had started to pay off the sale. The Consumer Credit Act of 1974 had many other types of terms and conditions regarding the business of buying and selling goods. However, this Act was replaced and completely changed by the Consumer Credit Act of 2006. | 300 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why was the Army so important to the Roman Empire?
The Roman army had also other important roles. Besides the building of the military sites, they also built roads, bridges, water conduits, canals and ships. The ships were supposed to be used mainly for military uses, but also helped with the foundation of the quick economic development of the province.
The legionaries would throw it at the enemy as they ran at them. It was not for hand-to-hand fighting. The main purpose of the pilum was to disrupt the defence of the enemy. They would be too concerned worrying about avoiding the incoming weapons to focus on what the legionnaires themselves were doing.
- The Romans saw bathing as a social activity as well as a way of keeping clean. They built communal bath houses, such as can be found at Bearsden in Glasgow, where they could relax and meet up. The Romans used a tool called a strigel to scrape dirt off their skin.
- The Romans did not invent drainage, sewers, the alphabet or roads, but they did develop them. They did invent underfloor heating, concrete and the calendar that our modern calendar is based on. Concrete played an important part in Roman building, helping them construct structures like aqueducts that included arches.
- Rich Romans had food cooked at home in the kitchen by slaves. Most ate a light breakfast, and a snack at mid day - perhaps bread and cheese, or boiled eggs and salad. They ate dinner in late afternoon, with a starter, a meat course (such as hare, pig, beef, goat, chicken, fish or pigeon) followed by fruit or nuts.
The Roman Army was a powerful force due to their strong discipline and extensive organization skills. Roman troops always fought in formation, as a group, and this made them quite powerful especially against less organized enemies who frequently fought with little formation.
- Each legion had between 4,000 and 6,000 soldiers. A legion was further divided into groups of 80 men called 'centuries'. Roman soldiers usually lined up for battle in a tight formation. After a terrifying burst of arrows and artillery, the Roman soldiers marched at a slow steady pace towards the enemy.
- The Roman Army was a powerful force due to their strong discipline and extensive organization skills. Roman troops always fought in formation, as a group, and this made them quite powerful especially against less organized enemies who frequently fought with little formation.
- A Roman soldier wore armour made from strips of iron and leather (lorica segmentata in Latin). On his head was a metal helmet (galea). He carried a rectangular shield (scutum), curved so it protected his body. The shield was made of wood and leather.
The Roman Empire was created and controlled by its soldiers. At the core of the army were its legions, which were without equal in their training, discipline and fighting ability. By the time Augustus came to power, the army contained 60 legions. Each of these was divided into ten cohorts of up to 480 men.
- The victory over the Carthaginians gave the Romans all the opportunity they needed to expand their power in the Mediterranean. The more wealthy and powerful the Romans became, the more able they were to further expand their empire. The Romans were not content with conquering land near to them.
- A typical legion of this period had 5,120 legionaries as well as a large number of camp followers, servants and slaves. Legions could contain as many as 6,000 fighting men when including the auxiliaries, although much later in Roman history the number was reduced to 1,040 to allow for greater mobility.
- A Forum was the main center of a Roman city. Usually located near the physical center of a Roman town, it served as a public area in which commercial, religious, economic, political, legal, and social activities occurred. Fora were common in all Roman cities, but none were as grand as the fora of Rome itself.
Updated: 2nd October 2019 | <urn:uuid:442d26fa-543b-4344-9eab-54b3e22755df> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://answersdrive.com/why-was-the-army-so-important-to-the-roman-empire-8147299 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00115.warc.gz | en | 0.988978 | 821 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.441038697957992... | 1 | Why was the Army so important to the Roman Empire?
The Roman army had also other important roles. Besides the building of the military sites, they also built roads, bridges, water conduits, canals and ships. The ships were supposed to be used mainly for military uses, but also helped with the foundation of the quick economic development of the province.
The legionaries would throw it at the enemy as they ran at them. It was not for hand-to-hand fighting. The main purpose of the pilum was to disrupt the defence of the enemy. They would be too concerned worrying about avoiding the incoming weapons to focus on what the legionnaires themselves were doing.
- The Romans saw bathing as a social activity as well as a way of keeping clean. They built communal bath houses, such as can be found at Bearsden in Glasgow, where they could relax and meet up. The Romans used a tool called a strigel to scrape dirt off their skin.
- The Romans did not invent drainage, sewers, the alphabet or roads, but they did develop them. They did invent underfloor heating, concrete and the calendar that our modern calendar is based on. Concrete played an important part in Roman building, helping them construct structures like aqueducts that included arches.
- Rich Romans had food cooked at home in the kitchen by slaves. Most ate a light breakfast, and a snack at mid day - perhaps bread and cheese, or boiled eggs and salad. They ate dinner in late afternoon, with a starter, a meat course (such as hare, pig, beef, goat, chicken, fish or pigeon) followed by fruit or nuts.
The Roman Army was a powerful force due to their strong discipline and extensive organization skills. Roman troops always fought in formation, as a group, and this made them quite powerful especially against less organized enemies who frequently fought with little formation.
- Each legion had between 4,000 and 6,000 soldiers. A legion was further divided into groups of 80 men called 'centuries'. Roman soldiers usually lined up for battle in a tight formation. After a terrifying burst of arrows and artillery, the Roman soldiers marched at a slow steady pace towards the enemy.
- The Roman Army was a powerful force due to their strong discipline and extensive organization skills. Roman troops always fought in formation, as a group, and this made them quite powerful especially against less organized enemies who frequently fought with little formation.
- A Roman soldier wore armour made from strips of iron and leather (lorica segmentata in Latin). On his head was a metal helmet (galea). He carried a rectangular shield (scutum), curved so it protected his body. The shield was made of wood and leather.
The Roman Empire was created and controlled by its soldiers. At the core of the army were its legions, which were without equal in their training, discipline and fighting ability. By the time Augustus came to power, the army contained 60 legions. Each of these was divided into ten cohorts of up to 480 men.
- The victory over the Carthaginians gave the Romans all the opportunity they needed to expand their power in the Mediterranean. The more wealthy and powerful the Romans became, the more able they were to further expand their empire. The Romans were not content with conquering land near to them.
- A typical legion of this period had 5,120 legionaries as well as a large number of camp followers, servants and slaves. Legions could contain as many as 6,000 fighting men when including the auxiliaries, although much later in Roman history the number was reduced to 1,040 to allow for greater mobility.
- A Forum was the main center of a Roman city. Usually located near the physical center of a Roman town, it served as a public area in which commercial, religious, economic, political, legal, and social activities occurred. Fora were common in all Roman cities, but none were as grand as the fora of Rome itself.
Updated: 2nd October 2019 | 834 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Last Lesson
The story revolves around the time when Prussian forces won control over France in 1870. The French districts of Alsace and Lorraine were ruled by Prussia. The Prussians banned the teaching of French in schools of these two districts and the French teachers were forced to leave. The story narrates one such situation wherein the French teacher, Mr. M. Hamel, is asked under orders from Berlin to discontinue teaching of French language. It depicts the last day of M. Hamel at school on which he delivers the last French lesson to his students with utmost sincerity and dedication.
The experience of a boy named Franz who was the student of Mr. M. Hamel is also narrated in the story. Franz was terrified with the French class. At first he was scared to come to school as he had not learnt his lesson. But when he came to know that it was his last lesson in French, he realised the importance of French language. The story captures the emotions of people on losing one of the most significant parts of their culture, which is language. | <urn:uuid:6dd29cf6-8f40-4f7b-b456-da2e4be933dd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.extramarks.com/ncert-solutions/cbse-class-12/english-core-the-last-lesson | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00046.warc.gz | en | 0.990745 | 221 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.4797348976... | 3 | The Last Lesson
The story revolves around the time when Prussian forces won control over France in 1870. The French districts of Alsace and Lorraine were ruled by Prussia. The Prussians banned the teaching of French in schools of these two districts and the French teachers were forced to leave. The story narrates one such situation wherein the French teacher, Mr. M. Hamel, is asked under orders from Berlin to discontinue teaching of French language. It depicts the last day of M. Hamel at school on which he delivers the last French lesson to his students with utmost sincerity and dedication.
The experience of a boy named Franz who was the student of Mr. M. Hamel is also narrated in the story. Franz was terrified with the French class. At first he was scared to come to school as he had not learnt his lesson. But when he came to know that it was his last lesson in French, he realised the importance of French language. The story captures the emotions of people on losing one of the most significant parts of their culture, which is language. | 223 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Home Language & Literature Families, Status and Dynasties: 1600-2000
From Peasantry to Entrepreneurship: Local Dynasties
In Sweden and Finland the peasantry was the Fourth Estate, an exceptional bonus because in many other European monarchies, peasants were part of the Third Estate. As an Estate, peasants achieved a relatively notable status, though they were clearly inferior to the nobility, the clergy and the bourgeoisie, the three other Estates. Landholders were eligible for the Diet, elected by their fellow landholders, one from each district (Jutikkala 1958, 260-80). Independent landowner peasants had a status hierarchy of their own, in which the order was primarily determined by the size of estate: the more land the peasant owned, the higher his or her local status. The highest rank consisted of so-called rusthall peasants, who usually had the largest landed property in their region. They were exempt from maintaining a cavalry soldier and horse. Beneath peasants were tenants, who had leased a small plot of land for cultivation, and landless cottagers, crofters, lodgers and farmhands (Jutikkala 1958, 339-45). All of them earned their main living from agriculture, as landholders or in the service of landholders, but many peasants also engaged in entrepreneurship. This was in fact quite common before the Industrial Revolution reached full swing (Hobsbawm 1990, 62). These entrepreneurs stayed in their home regions, and if their businesses did well and they managed to keep them in the family for more than two generations, they could create quite powerful local dynasties. One such entrepreneurial dynasty was the Finnish Abrahamsson family, who were engaged in shipbuilding and the shipping trade, quite a profitable business on the western coast and in the southwestern archipelago (Nikula 1948; Kaukiainen 1991; Dahlberg and Mickwitz 2014).
The Abrahamssons lived in Kustavi, the southwestern archipelago, where the poor soil made it impossible to conduct agriculture on a large scale. Shipbuilding and the shipping trade provided a source of extra income, but since rural people were declined burger rights, they did not have the permission to conduct trade outside the country and hence to grow their businesses. The situation improved after the mid-nineteenth century, however, with the abolition of legal disparity between peasant and town burgher shipping. This is remembered as the golden age of the peasant shipping trade (Kaukiainen 1991, 21; Tommila 2010, 18). Before going into the shipping trade, the Abrahamssons increased their riches by the only means available to peasants: through purchases of landed property, inheritance and advantageous marriages, the very same means used by the landed nobility, gentry and peasantry throughout Europe. Significantly, Finnish noble families also began to sell off their lands during the eighteenth century, first to civil servants, vicars, officers and merchants, but in the nineteenth century also to professionals and peasants (Tiirakari and Karki 2012; cf. Howell 2010, 87-92).
The same happened in Kustavi, where members of the Fleming councillor dynasty owned large stretches of land and many estates that they decided to sell off (Aapola 2004, 108-10). These transfers of land enhanced the Abrahamssons’ status in the local community and even further afield, when they purchased two large rusthall estates in the 1830s. As rusthall peasants, they now formed the uppermost layer in the peasantry’s status hierarchy. Abraham Abrahamsson (1794-1853) was the first in the family to be praised for being a ‘Great Man’. He was said to be a real highflyer who succeeded in everything to which he turned his hand (Aapola 2004, 18). In particular, his entry into the shipping trade sealed his status and reputation as the leading figure of the local community. The family’s heyday coincided with the heyday of shipbuilding and the shipping trade in the Kustavi region, where the sail tonnage was at its highest in 1875 (Kaukiainen 1991, 332-59).
Abraham Abrahamsson soon increased his stake in shipping companies, exporting a growing variety of foodstuffs, timber and other commodities to Stockholm, but more and more to other foreign countries too, finally as far as America. Profits were divided in proportion to shareholdings. As Abraham Abrahamsson had the largest stake in many sailing ships, he also made some handsome profits. Although ownership was dispersed, a dynastic tendency became evident in this family. As was normal practice, Abraham bequeathed his landed property to his sons and daughters, who mostly remained in their home region and continued farming there, but some of the sons also inherited shares of shipping companies. These sons and subsequently their sons continued as shipbuilders, altogether in three generations, from the mid-nineteenth century to the advent of the twentieth century. This gave birth to a dynastic clan, which gained extra strength from three marriages to another prominent local landholder family, the Erikssons, many of whom were sea captains but also successfully engaged in the shipping trade.
This rise to local power coincided with an increasing occurrence of cousin marriages. The first of them were contracted two generations before Abraham embarked on shipbuilding and the shipping trade, that is, at a time when the family purchased and inherited more lands and brought them into the family through advantageous marriages. Cousin marriages consolidated the sense of family cohesion, as they used to do at least in the higher royal and noble echelons, but they also reinforced the sense of being on the up and up. The first two cousin marriages descended straight to the said Abraham, the protagonist of the family’s saga. Bertil and Matt, two brothers from the Abrahamsson family, married Hebla and Anna, two sisters from another peasant family. The weddings took place in the 1750s and 1760s. The two couples had a son apiece, both of them Abraham by name. These two boys were thus cousins on their maternal and paternal side. The son of one Abraham, again Abraham (1794-1853) by name, married the other Abraham’s daughter Anna (1797-1834) in 1817. They were thus second cousins on their paternal and maternal side. This Abraham was the man who embarked on shipbuilding and the shipping trade and established himself as the initiator of the family’s heyday. He married off three of his four surviving children from the first marriage to the said Erik Eriksson’s children. This matrimonial package of three in-law couples welded together the most prominent local families in the shipping trade. The siblings were also third cousins. In the second generation after the said Abraham Abrahamsson, six of a total of nine children survived to adulthood, and four of them married their relations. In the third generation, altogether 23 children were born to Abraham’s children. Ten children or 43 per cent died in infancy. All 13 surviving children married. Nine or 54 per cent of a total of 17 marriages were cousin marriages. In the fourth generation, altogether 59 children were born; 18 or 31 per cent of them died before adulthood (age 20), most of them in early infancy. The most dramatic fate in this respect fell to Viktorina and Anton, the two double first cousins: they produced eight children, but only one daughter survived. She was said to be sickly, which probably explains why she remained unmarried. In this generation 28 per cent of all surviving children remained single. When the heyday came to an end in the fifth generation, the number of cousin marriages fell dramatically, to 16 per cent, but at the same time, singlehood increased further from 28 per cent in the fourth generation to 34 per cent. These two tendencies also went hand in hand in the nobility during the nineteenth century, when the nobility’s heyday was winding down. I would suggest that in both cases, the turbulence in the marriage market resulted from significant changes in statuses, which compelled both noble and entrepreneurial families to change their strategies in the marriage market as well as their occupational plans.
Although he had built a notable local dynasty, Abraham Abrahamsson was unable to prevent his family’s social decline. In contrast to the three very advantageous in-law marriages, his youngest child, Albertina (1832-68), had a mismatched marriage. Her second husband Karl, a farmhand, lived in Albertina’s household, and as so often happened in these circumstances, the housekeeper, in this case a farmhand, fell into intimacies with the master, in this case the mistress of the house. Again, as so often happened, they married. The problem with Karl was not that he was a farmhand, but that he was a heavy drinker who preferred to spend his time at the pub rather than at home. Noble families had their own share of heavy drinkers, but as long as they could perform the duties of their high-ranking offices, many of them at the royal court, and marry nobles, heavy drinking did not cause social decline. Among ordinary landholders, however, it often pushed the family towards poverty and separation from other relations, as in the case of the Abrahamsson family. The said couple produced three children, of whom only the youngest son (b. 1860) survived to adulthood. He started out as a landholder on his indebted farm, but he eventually lost it as a result of his criminal and antisocial life. He thus followed in his father’s footsteps. He married a restaurant worker ten years his senior, who was seemingly his social equal at the time and also possibly part of a social enclave characterized by heavy drinking and illicit behaviours. The wife bore two children by him, in 1881 and 1884, but no further information is available about their lots—a typical ending to a family story for children who achieved little success in their lives.
The Abrahamssons’ heyday came to an end when wooden sailing ships ceased to be a profitable business. This happened relatively late in Finland because of a severely delayed transition from sail to steam: the amount of tonnage carried by steam increased from 10 per cent in 1892 to a mere 18 per cent in 1913, in contrast to many other European countries where this increase occurred much earlier and much faster. In the United Kingdom, for instance, the proportion of steam tonnage increased from
60 per cent to 93 per cent, in Sweden from 31 per cent to 83 per cent and in Norway from 14 per cent to 66 per cent (Kaukiainen 1991, 24). The Abrahamssons did not go into the steamship business, which would have required much more capital and know-how than they were able to mobilize. The Abrahamssons’ heyday thus lasted as long as their sailing ships generated gratifying profits, that is, until the very early twentieth century. The Erikssons gave up the shipping trade at around the same time and for the same reason: trade by sailing ships no longer paid (Aapola 2004; Tommila 2010, 20). A return to farming was ever tempting, especially as estates were being split up through inheritance and no new lands were being purchased, in contrast to the times when the clans were on the ascendancy. Yet some 40 per cent of all the Abrahamssons born in the 1880s and 1890s continued as farmers, many of them now with a degree in agronomy and otherwise moving towards professionalism. Indeed, many of those in the 60 per cent majority also had a university degree: there was a judge, a medical doctor, a professor, a writer, a civil engineer and so on, in other words, increasing numbers of professionals.
Today, the descendants of the two clans are scattered across Finland, although many have returned to Kustavi, not to live but to spend their summers there in cottages they have built on their inherited lands (Aapola 2004; Tommila 2010). This is one way to treasure the legacy of one’s clan: to return to one’s roots in the countryside. The other is to study the family’s history and record it in a chronicle. Both clans—the Abrahamssons and the Erikssons—have done this as well (Aapola 2004; Tommila 2010). Moreover, the Erikssons revere their famous writer, Volter Kilpi (originally Eriksson), who wrote a book about how his father and his father’s partners purchased a sailing ship. In the summertime, Kilpi’s literary works bring together his devotees to Kustavi to attend lectures and discuss his works.
|< Prev||CONTENTS||Next >| | <urn:uuid:1c90856f-30a0-49f7-9c64-238825f64167> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://m.ebrary.net/38959/language_literature/peasantry_entrepreneurship_local_dynasties | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00498.warc.gz | en | 0.980237 | 2,636 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.100489750504493... | 1 | Home Language & Literature Families, Status and Dynasties: 1600-2000
From Peasantry to Entrepreneurship: Local Dynasties
In Sweden and Finland the peasantry was the Fourth Estate, an exceptional bonus because in many other European monarchies, peasants were part of the Third Estate. As an Estate, peasants achieved a relatively notable status, though they were clearly inferior to the nobility, the clergy and the bourgeoisie, the three other Estates. Landholders were eligible for the Diet, elected by their fellow landholders, one from each district (Jutikkala 1958, 260-80). Independent landowner peasants had a status hierarchy of their own, in which the order was primarily determined by the size of estate: the more land the peasant owned, the higher his or her local status. The highest rank consisted of so-called rusthall peasants, who usually had the largest landed property in their region. They were exempt from maintaining a cavalry soldier and horse. Beneath peasants were tenants, who had leased a small plot of land for cultivation, and landless cottagers, crofters, lodgers and farmhands (Jutikkala 1958, 339-45). All of them earned their main living from agriculture, as landholders or in the service of landholders, but many peasants also engaged in entrepreneurship. This was in fact quite common before the Industrial Revolution reached full swing (Hobsbawm 1990, 62). These entrepreneurs stayed in their home regions, and if their businesses did well and they managed to keep them in the family for more than two generations, they could create quite powerful local dynasties. One such entrepreneurial dynasty was the Finnish Abrahamsson family, who were engaged in shipbuilding and the shipping trade, quite a profitable business on the western coast and in the southwestern archipelago (Nikula 1948; Kaukiainen 1991; Dahlberg and Mickwitz 2014).
The Abrahamssons lived in Kustavi, the southwestern archipelago, where the poor soil made it impossible to conduct agriculture on a large scale. Shipbuilding and the shipping trade provided a source of extra income, but since rural people were declined burger rights, they did not have the permission to conduct trade outside the country and hence to grow their businesses. The situation improved after the mid-nineteenth century, however, with the abolition of legal disparity between peasant and town burgher shipping. This is remembered as the golden age of the peasant shipping trade (Kaukiainen 1991, 21; Tommila 2010, 18). Before going into the shipping trade, the Abrahamssons increased their riches by the only means available to peasants: through purchases of landed property, inheritance and advantageous marriages, the very same means used by the landed nobility, gentry and peasantry throughout Europe. Significantly, Finnish noble families also began to sell off their lands during the eighteenth century, first to civil servants, vicars, officers and merchants, but in the nineteenth century also to professionals and peasants (Tiirakari and Karki 2012; cf. Howell 2010, 87-92).
The same happened in Kustavi, where members of the Fleming councillor dynasty owned large stretches of land and many estates that they decided to sell off (Aapola 2004, 108-10). These transfers of land enhanced the Abrahamssons’ status in the local community and even further afield, when they purchased two large rusthall estates in the 1830s. As rusthall peasants, they now formed the uppermost layer in the peasantry’s status hierarchy. Abraham Abrahamsson (1794-1853) was the first in the family to be praised for being a ‘Great Man’. He was said to be a real highflyer who succeeded in everything to which he turned his hand (Aapola 2004, 18). In particular, his entry into the shipping trade sealed his status and reputation as the leading figure of the local community. The family’s heyday coincided with the heyday of shipbuilding and the shipping trade in the Kustavi region, where the sail tonnage was at its highest in 1875 (Kaukiainen 1991, 332-59).
Abraham Abrahamsson soon increased his stake in shipping companies, exporting a growing variety of foodstuffs, timber and other commodities to Stockholm, but more and more to other foreign countries too, finally as far as America. Profits were divided in proportion to shareholdings. As Abraham Abrahamsson had the largest stake in many sailing ships, he also made some handsome profits. Although ownership was dispersed, a dynastic tendency became evident in this family. As was normal practice, Abraham bequeathed his landed property to his sons and daughters, who mostly remained in their home region and continued farming there, but some of the sons also inherited shares of shipping companies. These sons and subsequently their sons continued as shipbuilders, altogether in three generations, from the mid-nineteenth century to the advent of the twentieth century. This gave birth to a dynastic clan, which gained extra strength from three marriages to another prominent local landholder family, the Erikssons, many of whom were sea captains but also successfully engaged in the shipping trade.
This rise to local power coincided with an increasing occurrence of cousin marriages. The first of them were contracted two generations before Abraham embarked on shipbuilding and the shipping trade, that is, at a time when the family purchased and inherited more lands and brought them into the family through advantageous marriages. Cousin marriages consolidated the sense of family cohesion, as they used to do at least in the higher royal and noble echelons, but they also reinforced the sense of being on the up and up. The first two cousin marriages descended straight to the said Abraham, the protagonist of the family’s saga. Bertil and Matt, two brothers from the Abrahamsson family, married Hebla and Anna, two sisters from another peasant family. The weddings took place in the 1750s and 1760s. The two couples had a son apiece, both of them Abraham by name. These two boys were thus cousins on their maternal and paternal side. The son of one Abraham, again Abraham (1794-1853) by name, married the other Abraham’s daughter Anna (1797-1834) in 1817. They were thus second cousins on their paternal and maternal side. This Abraham was the man who embarked on shipbuilding and the shipping trade and established himself as the initiator of the family’s heyday. He married off three of his four surviving children from the first marriage to the said Erik Eriksson’s children. This matrimonial package of three in-law couples welded together the most prominent local families in the shipping trade. The siblings were also third cousins. In the second generation after the said Abraham Abrahamsson, six of a total of nine children survived to adulthood, and four of them married their relations. In the third generation, altogether 23 children were born to Abraham’s children. Ten children or 43 per cent died in infancy. All 13 surviving children married. Nine or 54 per cent of a total of 17 marriages were cousin marriages. In the fourth generation, altogether 59 children were born; 18 or 31 per cent of them died before adulthood (age 20), most of them in early infancy. The most dramatic fate in this respect fell to Viktorina and Anton, the two double first cousins: they produced eight children, but only one daughter survived. She was said to be sickly, which probably explains why she remained unmarried. In this generation 28 per cent of all surviving children remained single. When the heyday came to an end in the fifth generation, the number of cousin marriages fell dramatically, to 16 per cent, but at the same time, singlehood increased further from 28 per cent in the fourth generation to 34 per cent. These two tendencies also went hand in hand in the nobility during the nineteenth century, when the nobility’s heyday was winding down. I would suggest that in both cases, the turbulence in the marriage market resulted from significant changes in statuses, which compelled both noble and entrepreneurial families to change their strategies in the marriage market as well as their occupational plans.
Although he had built a notable local dynasty, Abraham Abrahamsson was unable to prevent his family’s social decline. In contrast to the three very advantageous in-law marriages, his youngest child, Albertina (1832-68), had a mismatched marriage. Her second husband Karl, a farmhand, lived in Albertina’s household, and as so often happened in these circumstances, the housekeeper, in this case a farmhand, fell into intimacies with the master, in this case the mistress of the house. Again, as so often happened, they married. The problem with Karl was not that he was a farmhand, but that he was a heavy drinker who preferred to spend his time at the pub rather than at home. Noble families had their own share of heavy drinkers, but as long as they could perform the duties of their high-ranking offices, many of them at the royal court, and marry nobles, heavy drinking did not cause social decline. Among ordinary landholders, however, it often pushed the family towards poverty and separation from other relations, as in the case of the Abrahamsson family. The said couple produced three children, of whom only the youngest son (b. 1860) survived to adulthood. He started out as a landholder on his indebted farm, but he eventually lost it as a result of his criminal and antisocial life. He thus followed in his father’s footsteps. He married a restaurant worker ten years his senior, who was seemingly his social equal at the time and also possibly part of a social enclave characterized by heavy drinking and illicit behaviours. The wife bore two children by him, in 1881 and 1884, but no further information is available about their lots—a typical ending to a family story for children who achieved little success in their lives.
The Abrahamssons’ heyday came to an end when wooden sailing ships ceased to be a profitable business. This happened relatively late in Finland because of a severely delayed transition from sail to steam: the amount of tonnage carried by steam increased from 10 per cent in 1892 to a mere 18 per cent in 1913, in contrast to many other European countries where this increase occurred much earlier and much faster. In the United Kingdom, for instance, the proportion of steam tonnage increased from
60 per cent to 93 per cent, in Sweden from 31 per cent to 83 per cent and in Norway from 14 per cent to 66 per cent (Kaukiainen 1991, 24). The Abrahamssons did not go into the steamship business, which would have required much more capital and know-how than they were able to mobilize. The Abrahamssons’ heyday thus lasted as long as their sailing ships generated gratifying profits, that is, until the very early twentieth century. The Erikssons gave up the shipping trade at around the same time and for the same reason: trade by sailing ships no longer paid (Aapola 2004; Tommila 2010, 20). A return to farming was ever tempting, especially as estates were being split up through inheritance and no new lands were being purchased, in contrast to the times when the clans were on the ascendancy. Yet some 40 per cent of all the Abrahamssons born in the 1880s and 1890s continued as farmers, many of them now with a degree in agronomy and otherwise moving towards professionalism. Indeed, many of those in the 60 per cent majority also had a university degree: there was a judge, a medical doctor, a professor, a writer, a civil engineer and so on, in other words, increasing numbers of professionals.
Today, the descendants of the two clans are scattered across Finland, although many have returned to Kustavi, not to live but to spend their summers there in cottages they have built on their inherited lands (Aapola 2004; Tommila 2010). This is one way to treasure the legacy of one’s clan: to return to one’s roots in the countryside. The other is to study the family’s history and record it in a chronicle. Both clans—the Abrahamssons and the Erikssons—have done this as well (Aapola 2004; Tommila 2010). Moreover, the Erikssons revere their famous writer, Volter Kilpi (originally Eriksson), who wrote a book about how his father and his father’s partners purchased a sailing ship. In the summertime, Kilpi’s literary works bring together his devotees to Kustavi to attend lectures and discuss his works.
|< Prev||CONTENTS||Next >| | 2,794 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The first Slavic tribes arrived in the area which is modern-day Croatia in the 6th and 7th centuries, during great tribal migrations. Among them were the Croats, who are mentioned in sources in connection with a wider area, but were ethnically most concentrated and historically the strongest in the hinterland of the Adriatic coastline.
In the late 8th and early 9th centuries, they came under Frankish rule (Charlemagne), and were organised in two adjoining duchies (marches or marks) governed by local dukes. The Duchy of Croatia, with its seat in the Knin area, was established in what is today the coastal, mountainous area of southern Croatia, while the Duchy of Lower Pannonia (later Slavonia) was established in the lowlands of northern Croatia, with its seat in Sisak.
In the late 9th century, the Duchy of Lower Pannonia fell under the rule of the Hungarians, while power in the south was assumed by the Trpimirović dynasty. This dynasty began to ascend during the time of Tomislav (914–928), who expanded Croatia in the area of the Duchy of Lower Pannonia as well, and who in 925 was crowned as the first Croatian king. The Trpimirović dynasty reached its zenith with Kings Petar Krešimir IV (1054–78) and Dmitar Zvonimir (1078–89), when the Byzantine Dalmatia and Neretva Duchy were annexed to Croatia. Their reigns were characterised by a blossoming of culture, particularly in architecture and sculpture. The first written monuments in the Croatian language date back to this period (the Baška Tablet).
The Ban. This was the traditional title of the high-ranking state official whose main function was to act as regent for the monarch. From the late 12th century, two bans are mentioned; one for Croatia and Dalmatia, and the other for Slavonia. | <urn:uuid:cafd4930-6811-44bf-96c0-9673538daa51> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://hr-eu.net/index.php?view=article&id=20&lang=2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00480.warc.gz | en | 0.982429 | 425 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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-0.00897226575... | 10 | The first Slavic tribes arrived in the area which is modern-day Croatia in the 6th and 7th centuries, during great tribal migrations. Among them were the Croats, who are mentioned in sources in connection with a wider area, but were ethnically most concentrated and historically the strongest in the hinterland of the Adriatic coastline.
In the late 8th and early 9th centuries, they came under Frankish rule (Charlemagne), and were organised in two adjoining duchies (marches or marks) governed by local dukes. The Duchy of Croatia, with its seat in the Knin area, was established in what is today the coastal, mountainous area of southern Croatia, while the Duchy of Lower Pannonia (later Slavonia) was established in the lowlands of northern Croatia, with its seat in Sisak.
In the late 9th century, the Duchy of Lower Pannonia fell under the rule of the Hungarians, while power in the south was assumed by the Trpimirović dynasty. This dynasty began to ascend during the time of Tomislav (914–928), who expanded Croatia in the area of the Duchy of Lower Pannonia as well, and who in 925 was crowned as the first Croatian king. The Trpimirović dynasty reached its zenith with Kings Petar Krešimir IV (1054–78) and Dmitar Zvonimir (1078–89), when the Byzantine Dalmatia and Neretva Duchy were annexed to Croatia. Their reigns were characterised by a blossoming of culture, particularly in architecture and sculpture. The first written monuments in the Croatian language date back to this period (the Baška Tablet).
The Ban. This was the traditional title of the high-ranking state official whose main function was to act as regent for the monarch. From the late 12th century, two bans are mentioned; one for Croatia and Dalmatia, and the other for Slavonia. | 435 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the astonishing facts about the stone statues or moai of Easter Island is that 95 per cent of them all came from the same quarry, known as Rano Raraku. Of the 887 statues known to exist on the island, 397 of them are still in situ at Rano Raraku and 288 are known to have made it to their final destination: the ahus or platforms that were built to support them. But one of the biggest riddles about Easter Island is how the statues ‘traveled’ from the quarry to their platforms or ahus, sometimes as far as 20 or 25 kilometres away?
As Patricia Vargas, director of the Easter Island Studies Institute at the University of Chile puts it, “when you have a massive production of these megalithic works on an island that is absolutely barren, with just grass, immediately it captures the imagination and you ask yourself ‘how did it all happen?'”
As she points out, in every place on the Earth where huge megalithic pieces of statues or stones were transported, the explanation of how they were moved always involves the use of logs and ropes and a lot of people. But that just didn’t seem to fit the Easter Island picture. After all, there are only rolling hills and virtually no trees. Or is that what Easter Island was always like?
Until the early 1970s, no one talked about an island with a different environment until pollen analyses were made and until excavations were carried out in detail,” says Vargas. Sure enough, those analyses started offering a lot of proof that there was a different landscape when the statue making was taking place – roughly between 1200 and 1600 AD. “There is certainty that the island had a wide variety of trees, including a huge type of palm that could get to be one metre wide,” she adds. “So, if we assume that the island has a different vegetation, and there were plenty of trees and different kinds of shrubs and plants that would make it easy to make cords and ropes, then the only thing you have to figure out is how they used these materials to transport the statues.
Moving the moai
How the Rapa Nui people transported the moai across the island has eluded visitors and archeologists alike. That’s not to say that there haven’t been concerted efforts to come up with a plausible explanation. Rapa Nui legend has it that the moai “walked from the quarry”. Indeed, a drawing by a crew member aboard a 1728 Dutch voyage to Easter Island clearly depicts a standing moai being moved by people using ropes and perhaps even logs. But is this the real explanation?
It depends on the size and weight of the statue you’re talking about, says Vargas. “Since we have statues that measure from one metre up to 10 metres high, we must search for different methods of how to transport them. Some are very slender and very fragile. Others are very heavy and very easy to transport without a problem.”
It is possible that some of them could have been transported standing, which would have corresponded to the way the natives described it, but it’s unlikely that was the primary way. As Vargas suggests, “you can make skids out of logs and place the statue on top, standing or on its back, and just pull it. If you have enough rope and people to do it and a lot of time to do it, you could pull a huge weight.” This is quite similar to what one researcher from Los Angeles actually tried.
Jo Anne Van Tilburg is an archeologist from UCLA who’s made her life out of studying the mysteries of Rapa Nui. Recently she was bold enough to test her own hypothesis as to how the moai were moved. “My personal theory is that they transported them using the same technology that the larger Polynesian community used to build, move, sail, and handle the large voyaging canoes,” she says. “What I have developed is a theory which suggests that using the tools, the technology and the engineering expertise of the ancient mariners, they were able to move and erect the statues.”
In essence, her theory suggests that the statue was placed horizontally on top of two large logs that were tied to the statue. Then, placing smaller logs underneath and perpendicular to the larger two logs, the statue could be rolled along using ropes and brute force. To back up her theory she’s quick to point out that the average statue on Easter Island is smaller and not as heavy as some of the big hulls of the western Polynesian canoes. “And we know that we moved these over very rough terrain from very high altitudes to low altitudes before they launched them.”
So in April 1999 Van Tilburg and some colleagues tried it out and, in short, it worked. “My experiment shows that it took approximately 40 people to move an average statue and 20 people to erect it. And that it could have been done in less than 10 days,” she says proudly. But while it theoretically worked, there’s no certain way of knowing whether her theory is the ‘right’ one.
One method or many?
Vargas has seen or heard about all the theories, and there’ve been many – everything from extraterrestrial visitations to more plausible variations on Van Tilburg’s method. Vargas, however, is not quite willing to commit to one single answer. “I think it depends on where the statue was going, the conditions of the terrain and also how big or fragile the statue was,” she says. “In my mind, they were probably using more than one method.”
Whatever the method (or methods), Vargas does know one thing – having modern, state of the art machinery doesn’t necessarily make things easier when it comes to moving and erecting the moai. She and her colleagues from the University of Chile set up an experiment in 1992 to re-erect 15 statues on the southeast coast of the island – at Ahu Tongariti. These megalithic statues – some weighing 70 tonnes – were knocked down and widely dispersed by a devastating 1960 tsunami. “We had a really modern, computerized crane – the most advanced in the world – and we had a lot of trouble,” she admits. “In fact, it took us four years of work with a group of 40 people working day after day.”
So there’s no doubt in the minds of researchers that the Rapa Nui people had highly perfected the art of moving and erecting the moai using ways that might now be considered primitive. But their expertise and zeal in making the statues may have had a downside. Some have suggested that as the people of Easter Island became pre-occupied with making larger and larger statues after their arrival in the island, this pursuit may have been a contributing factor to the eventual collapse of their culture. | <urn:uuid:2a8b5084-4c0f-4610-8d78-0ef0431a4bdc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://coolinterestingstuff.com/easter-island-the-mystery-of-the-walking-statues | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00543.warc.gz | en | 0.981994 | 1,467 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.8700624704... | 6 | One of the astonishing facts about the stone statues or moai of Easter Island is that 95 per cent of them all came from the same quarry, known as Rano Raraku. Of the 887 statues known to exist on the island, 397 of them are still in situ at Rano Raraku and 288 are known to have made it to their final destination: the ahus or platforms that were built to support them. But one of the biggest riddles about Easter Island is how the statues ‘traveled’ from the quarry to their platforms or ahus, sometimes as far as 20 or 25 kilometres away?
As Patricia Vargas, director of the Easter Island Studies Institute at the University of Chile puts it, “when you have a massive production of these megalithic works on an island that is absolutely barren, with just grass, immediately it captures the imagination and you ask yourself ‘how did it all happen?'”
As she points out, in every place on the Earth where huge megalithic pieces of statues or stones were transported, the explanation of how they were moved always involves the use of logs and ropes and a lot of people. But that just didn’t seem to fit the Easter Island picture. After all, there are only rolling hills and virtually no trees. Or is that what Easter Island was always like?
Until the early 1970s, no one talked about an island with a different environment until pollen analyses were made and until excavations were carried out in detail,” says Vargas. Sure enough, those analyses started offering a lot of proof that there was a different landscape when the statue making was taking place – roughly between 1200 and 1600 AD. “There is certainty that the island had a wide variety of trees, including a huge type of palm that could get to be one metre wide,” she adds. “So, if we assume that the island has a different vegetation, and there were plenty of trees and different kinds of shrubs and plants that would make it easy to make cords and ropes, then the only thing you have to figure out is how they used these materials to transport the statues.
Moving the moai
How the Rapa Nui people transported the moai across the island has eluded visitors and archeologists alike. That’s not to say that there haven’t been concerted efforts to come up with a plausible explanation. Rapa Nui legend has it that the moai “walked from the quarry”. Indeed, a drawing by a crew member aboard a 1728 Dutch voyage to Easter Island clearly depicts a standing moai being moved by people using ropes and perhaps even logs. But is this the real explanation?
It depends on the size and weight of the statue you’re talking about, says Vargas. “Since we have statues that measure from one metre up to 10 metres high, we must search for different methods of how to transport them. Some are very slender and very fragile. Others are very heavy and very easy to transport without a problem.”
It is possible that some of them could have been transported standing, which would have corresponded to the way the natives described it, but it’s unlikely that was the primary way. As Vargas suggests, “you can make skids out of logs and place the statue on top, standing or on its back, and just pull it. If you have enough rope and people to do it and a lot of time to do it, you could pull a huge weight.” This is quite similar to what one researcher from Los Angeles actually tried.
Jo Anne Van Tilburg is an archeologist from UCLA who’s made her life out of studying the mysteries of Rapa Nui. Recently she was bold enough to test her own hypothesis as to how the moai were moved. “My personal theory is that they transported them using the same technology that the larger Polynesian community used to build, move, sail, and handle the large voyaging canoes,” she says. “What I have developed is a theory which suggests that using the tools, the technology and the engineering expertise of the ancient mariners, they were able to move and erect the statues.”
In essence, her theory suggests that the statue was placed horizontally on top of two large logs that were tied to the statue. Then, placing smaller logs underneath and perpendicular to the larger two logs, the statue could be rolled along using ropes and brute force. To back up her theory she’s quick to point out that the average statue on Easter Island is smaller and not as heavy as some of the big hulls of the western Polynesian canoes. “And we know that we moved these over very rough terrain from very high altitudes to low altitudes before they launched them.”
So in April 1999 Van Tilburg and some colleagues tried it out and, in short, it worked. “My experiment shows that it took approximately 40 people to move an average statue and 20 people to erect it. And that it could have been done in less than 10 days,” she says proudly. But while it theoretically worked, there’s no certain way of knowing whether her theory is the ‘right’ one.
One method or many?
Vargas has seen or heard about all the theories, and there’ve been many – everything from extraterrestrial visitations to more plausible variations on Van Tilburg’s method. Vargas, however, is not quite willing to commit to one single answer. “I think it depends on where the statue was going, the conditions of the terrain and also how big or fragile the statue was,” she says. “In my mind, they were probably using more than one method.”
Whatever the method (or methods), Vargas does know one thing – having modern, state of the art machinery doesn’t necessarily make things easier when it comes to moving and erecting the moai. She and her colleagues from the University of Chile set up an experiment in 1992 to re-erect 15 statues on the southeast coast of the island – at Ahu Tongariti. These megalithic statues – some weighing 70 tonnes – were knocked down and widely dispersed by a devastating 1960 tsunami. “We had a really modern, computerized crane – the most advanced in the world – and we had a lot of trouble,” she admits. “In fact, it took us four years of work with a group of 40 people working day after day.”
So there’s no doubt in the minds of researchers that the Rapa Nui people had highly perfected the art of moving and erecting the moai using ways that might now be considered primitive. But their expertise and zeal in making the statues may have had a downside. Some have suggested that as the people of Easter Island became pre-occupied with making larger and larger statues after their arrival in the island, this pursuit may have been a contributing factor to the eventual collapse of their culture. | 1,440 | ENGLISH | 1 |
ALCATRAZ FEDERAL PENITENTIARY
Alcatraz was a maximum-security penitentiary located in Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay, California. It was operated from 1934 to 1963, and during its 29 years of operation it gained a reputation well known among society. It was believed to be an escape-proof penitentiary. “The Rock” was a popular name that identified Alcatraz, and its mention provoked fear among prisoners. They were aware of the isolation system that Alcatraz severely enforced. Alcatraz was meant to tame the toughest and most notorious criminals that other penitentiaries could not control, such as USP Atlanta and USP Leavenworth. Al Capone, George “Machine Gun” Kelly, and Robert “Birdman” Stroud were some of the most notorious criminals held within the walls of “The Rock”. Moreover, Alcatraz Island is 1.5 miles off shore. This distance provided Alcatraz Penitentiary with an essential advantage. It was the most challenging obstacle for any prisoner who tried to escape. Alcatraz’ regulations also proved to be quite successful, but not flawless. “…they frequently underwent the scrutiny of a metal detector… but the device was fickle, ringing loudly when unarmed men walked through but allowing the occasional knife to pass unnoticed.”(Bergreen 541). There are sophisticated regulations and improvements that can be implemented to a penitentiary. However, I strongly believe that no penitentiary will ever be escape-proof.
Some of the regulations and conditions inside Alcatraz are mentioned by Bosworth. Prisoners were not to share cells, so each had his own. There was high staff ratio in comparison to inmate ratio. Movement of prisoners from one place to another was highly restricted and monitored. Six cells conformed the D Unit or Treatment Unit were prisoners were isolated in in complete darkness. A silent system was enforced a few years, and prisoners rarely had a chance to speak. In addition, inmate population was very low, and they received the same treatment. Convicts also could receive visits, but they were very limited. Surprisingly, prisoners at Alcatraz had some privileges that had to be earned. In other words, socializing was a privilege. Working to earn money, playing musical instruments, a chance to use athletic equipment and writing supplies were privileges. Other included the opportunity to attend the library, the recreation area, and the auditorium (22-23). However, they could also lose those privileges easily by showing disruptive behavior. A prisoner could easily show disruptive behavior because it was very closely observed by the wards. “If they refused three meals in a row, they were placed in D block—isolation.” (Bergreen 539). Disruptive behavior also resulted in severe punishment. “Nor could the man confined to isolation eat in the cafeteria; they remained in their cells twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week and received Spartan “meals” consisting of bread and water…” (Bergreen 539).
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0.63594245910... | 1 | ALCATRAZ FEDERAL PENITENTIARY
Alcatraz was a maximum-security penitentiary located in Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay, California. It was operated from 1934 to 1963, and during its 29 years of operation it gained a reputation well known among society. It was believed to be an escape-proof penitentiary. “The Rock” was a popular name that identified Alcatraz, and its mention provoked fear among prisoners. They were aware of the isolation system that Alcatraz severely enforced. Alcatraz was meant to tame the toughest and most notorious criminals that other penitentiaries could not control, such as USP Atlanta and USP Leavenworth. Al Capone, George “Machine Gun” Kelly, and Robert “Birdman” Stroud were some of the most notorious criminals held within the walls of “The Rock”. Moreover, Alcatraz Island is 1.5 miles off shore. This distance provided Alcatraz Penitentiary with an essential advantage. It was the most challenging obstacle for any prisoner who tried to escape. Alcatraz’ regulations also proved to be quite successful, but not flawless. “…they frequently underwent the scrutiny of a metal detector… but the device was fickle, ringing loudly when unarmed men walked through but allowing the occasional knife to pass unnoticed.”(Bergreen 541). There are sophisticated regulations and improvements that can be implemented to a penitentiary. However, I strongly believe that no penitentiary will ever be escape-proof.
Some of the regulations and conditions inside Alcatraz are mentioned by Bosworth. Prisoners were not to share cells, so each had his own. There was high staff ratio in comparison to inmate ratio. Movement of prisoners from one place to another was highly restricted and monitored. Six cells conformed the D Unit or Treatment Unit were prisoners were isolated in in complete darkness. A silent system was enforced a few years, and prisoners rarely had a chance to speak. In addition, inmate population was very low, and they received the same treatment. Convicts also could receive visits, but they were very limited. Surprisingly, prisoners at Alcatraz had some privileges that had to be earned. In other words, socializing was a privilege. Working to earn money, playing musical instruments, a chance to use athletic equipment and writing supplies were privileges. Other included the opportunity to attend the library, the recreation area, and the auditorium (22-23). However, they could also lose those privileges easily by showing disruptive behavior. A prisoner could easily show disruptive behavior because it was very closely observed by the wards. “If they refused three meals in a row, they were placed in D block—isolation.” (Bergreen 539). Disruptive behavior also resulted in severe punishment. “Nor could the man confined to isolation eat in the cafeteria; they remained in their cells twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week and received Spartan “meals” consisting of bread and water…” (Bergreen 539).
The strict regulations that Alcatraz... | 647 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The 1900 U.S. Senate election in Vermont pitted Governor William Dillingham against Congressman and General William Grout. As the race got nastier, both candidates started slinging mud – or more accurately butter.
Consider the humble butter churn – a fixture of New England farmhouses. The earliest Pilgrims in America prized butter. It offered a way to preserve the fat in milk so that it could be used during the winter. And so they churned their milk into butter, tucking it away for the cold months.
Over the next 250 years, butter making technology scaled up dramatically. But by 1870 a new threat was emerging: margarine. At the Paris World Exhibition of 1866, the French government offered a prize to anyone who could develop a palatable, cheap synthetic butter. A French chemist answered the call, and margarine was born in 1869.
Butter vs. Margarine
Ever since then, a wide variety of butter substitutes, made from animal fats or vegetable oils, have reached the markets as butter-like spreads that we commonly refer to as margarine. Margarine had several advantages over butter. It was cheaper, lasted longer and the products that go into margarine can be used for other purposes. So if margarine wasn’t flying off the shelves, manufacturers weren’t left with unsold surplus.
Margarine also came along right about the time of the 1873 financial collapse and the recession that followed. That failure devastated the United States economy. To farmers, the arrival of a cheap alternative to butter that would worsen their misery was the last thing they needed.
Meanwhile, the invention of margarine inspired producers to slip fats and oils into a wide variety of dairy products. Consumers were buying “filled cheese,” which was cheese to which fat extenders had been added. And one company even tried creating whole milk by adding fat to skim milk.
The farmers looked for political help. Over the years, states and the federal government took a number of steps to protect butter. These regulations lasted all the way up until 1950. States initially tried to outlaw margarine, but these efforts proved unconstitutional. Massachusetts pioneered a law that prevented the sale of margarine that contained any coloring.
One of margarine’s flaws was that in its raw state it was white, whereas butter had a slight yellow tint. The white color was off-putting to consumers, and by banning yellow margarine, state’s made sure that customers knew what they were getting. That law was tested in the courts all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court, which found that it was Constitutional. New Hampshire and other states took the idea even further, legislating that margarine be colored pink.
The Politics of Butter
The issue would flare up in the election featuring General Grout and Governor Dillingham, two powerful Republican leaders. Grout was older, and a congressman. Dillingham was governor and a former congressman. As Dillingham saw it, Grout believed the senate seat was his by reason of his age. The seat had opened up when Sen. Justin Morrill died, and Grout assumed he should have it.
Grout was a strong supporter of the dairy farmers in Washington. He had put forward legislation that would not only put a heavy tax on margarine, but it would also expand the requirement that margarine had to be uncolored. Instead of the matter being decided state by state, Grout’s proposal would make it a nationwide rule.
Dillingham tried to portray himself as equally supportive of the farmers. That’s when Grout made the startling charge that Dillingham not only wasn’t pro-butter, he was a paid operator for the margarine political machine.
Grout accused Dillingham of taking money from the “oleomargarine trust” to pay for his campaign. And, he pointed out, that Dillingham had not supported a bill in Congress that would have outlawed margarine. He implied that Dillingham had done so as a favor to his backers in the margarine industry.
Dillingham fired back, defending his record as a butter protector. He had, he said, supported a law similar to the Massachusetts law preventing the sale of colored margarine. And if he was elected to the Senate, he pledged, he would gladly support Grout’s bill to tax margarine and ban colored margarine nationwide.
Dillingham’s supporters suggested that it would be best if he would just leave public life, which had rewarded him so well financially, and retire to his family farm.
Publisher O.L. French wrote in the Vermont Phoenix, “It seems to me your whole trouble arises from the fact that you have for years past had the idea that you had a first mortgage on Mr. Morrill’s place in the Senate when he should be through with it, and this idea has taken such complete possession of you that you (have decided) to foreclose.”
In the end, Governor Dillingham prevailed and was elected to the Senate. In one closely watch party caucus in Brattleboro, careful attention was paid to how the farmers voted. They narrowly sided with Dillingham.
Dillingham would serve in the Senate until 1923. Grout moved back to his farm and died in 1902.
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0.087092459201... | 6 | The 1900 U.S. Senate election in Vermont pitted Governor William Dillingham against Congressman and General William Grout. As the race got nastier, both candidates started slinging mud – or more accurately butter.
Consider the humble butter churn – a fixture of New England farmhouses. The earliest Pilgrims in America prized butter. It offered a way to preserve the fat in milk so that it could be used during the winter. And so they churned their milk into butter, tucking it away for the cold months.
Over the next 250 years, butter making technology scaled up dramatically. But by 1870 a new threat was emerging: margarine. At the Paris World Exhibition of 1866, the French government offered a prize to anyone who could develop a palatable, cheap synthetic butter. A French chemist answered the call, and margarine was born in 1869.
Butter vs. Margarine
Ever since then, a wide variety of butter substitutes, made from animal fats or vegetable oils, have reached the markets as butter-like spreads that we commonly refer to as margarine. Margarine had several advantages over butter. It was cheaper, lasted longer and the products that go into margarine can be used for other purposes. So if margarine wasn’t flying off the shelves, manufacturers weren’t left with unsold surplus.
Margarine also came along right about the time of the 1873 financial collapse and the recession that followed. That failure devastated the United States economy. To farmers, the arrival of a cheap alternative to butter that would worsen their misery was the last thing they needed.
Meanwhile, the invention of margarine inspired producers to slip fats and oils into a wide variety of dairy products. Consumers were buying “filled cheese,” which was cheese to which fat extenders had been added. And one company even tried creating whole milk by adding fat to skim milk.
The farmers looked for political help. Over the years, states and the federal government took a number of steps to protect butter. These regulations lasted all the way up until 1950. States initially tried to outlaw margarine, but these efforts proved unconstitutional. Massachusetts pioneered a law that prevented the sale of margarine that contained any coloring.
One of margarine’s flaws was that in its raw state it was white, whereas butter had a slight yellow tint. The white color was off-putting to consumers, and by banning yellow margarine, state’s made sure that customers knew what they were getting. That law was tested in the courts all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court, which found that it was Constitutional. New Hampshire and other states took the idea even further, legislating that margarine be colored pink.
The Politics of Butter
The issue would flare up in the election featuring General Grout and Governor Dillingham, two powerful Republican leaders. Grout was older, and a congressman. Dillingham was governor and a former congressman. As Dillingham saw it, Grout believed the senate seat was his by reason of his age. The seat had opened up when Sen. Justin Morrill died, and Grout assumed he should have it.
Grout was a strong supporter of the dairy farmers in Washington. He had put forward legislation that would not only put a heavy tax on margarine, but it would also expand the requirement that margarine had to be uncolored. Instead of the matter being decided state by state, Grout’s proposal would make it a nationwide rule.
Dillingham tried to portray himself as equally supportive of the farmers. That’s when Grout made the startling charge that Dillingham not only wasn’t pro-butter, he was a paid operator for the margarine political machine.
Grout accused Dillingham of taking money from the “oleomargarine trust” to pay for his campaign. And, he pointed out, that Dillingham had not supported a bill in Congress that would have outlawed margarine. He implied that Dillingham had done so as a favor to his backers in the margarine industry.
Dillingham fired back, defending his record as a butter protector. He had, he said, supported a law similar to the Massachusetts law preventing the sale of colored margarine. And if he was elected to the Senate, he pledged, he would gladly support Grout’s bill to tax margarine and ban colored margarine nationwide.
Dillingham’s supporters suggested that it would be best if he would just leave public life, which had rewarded him so well financially, and retire to his family farm.
Publisher O.L. French wrote in the Vermont Phoenix, “It seems to me your whole trouble arises from the fact that you have for years past had the idea that you had a first mortgage on Mr. Morrill’s place in the Senate when he should be through with it, and this idea has taken such complete possession of you that you (have decided) to foreclose.”
In the end, Governor Dillingham prevailed and was elected to the Senate. In one closely watch party caucus in Brattleboro, careful attention was paid to how the farmers voted. They narrowly sided with Dillingham.
Dillingham would serve in the Senate until 1923. Grout moved back to his farm and died in 1902.
If you enjoyed this article, you may like Mammoth Cheese Rolls from the Berkshires to Washington. | 1,115 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A few days before his death in Rome in 1564 Michelangelo is said to have destroyed all the drawings in his house. He had done something similar on at least three previous occasions. But despite his efforts more than two hundred drawings are almost universally accepted today as being wholly or in part by his hand, and most experts would argue for a much higher figure. Substantial though these numbers are, it is clear that only a tiny fraction of the drawings that he produced has survived. For example, there are famous studies of individual figures on the Sistine ceiling, but only for three or four figures, though it seems virtually certain that he made similar drawings for every major figure, of which there are well over a hundred. The situation with his other major works in painting, notably the lost cartoon for a battle picture in the town hall of Florence, known as the Battle of Cascina, and the Last Judgment, is just as bad if not worse. About a hundred and thirty of the surviving drawings are currently on show in the Metropolitan Museum, including many of the most famous, in what must be one of the most comprehensive displays ever assembled. It includes examples of all the different types of drawing Michelangelo seems to have produced, from rough pen sketches to completed full-size cartoons, and covers every stage in his career.
It was normal practice among Florentine painters of his time to develop their ideas in drawings and to change these ideas only in minor ways when they were transformed into paintings. There was a practical reason for this, in that the prestigious and widely practised technique of fresco painting required meticulous planning in advance through drawings, establishing a clear distinction between conception and execution in the creation of paintings. This was not true to the same extent of sculpture, and drawings by sculptors are much less common than those by painters, so it is no surprise that relatively few of Michelangelo’s surviving drawings can be related to his own sculptures. Obviously, too, his architectural projects all had to be based on and developed through drawn plans. In short, most of Michelangelo’s drawings were made for strictly practical purposes, and once they had served their original function they were useful only for reference or as scrap paper.
Throughout history artists have tended to make a sharp distinction between finished works of art and the working material they use in creating them. Such material almost always remains the property of the artist, and at least until after the artist’s death it is not normally put on the market. Many artists of Michelangelo’s time seem to have preserved a good part of their drawings in case they might be useful at some later date, and some of their holdings subsequently passed to other artists. But Michelangelo was probably not alone in destroying his working drawings, and he clearly did not do so in a systematic way. Some of the drawings that have survived were probably left in Florence when he moved definitively to Rome in the 1530s, including instructions for his agents in the marble quarries with diagrams of blocks needed for an architectural project. Others were on pieces of paper which may have been preserved because they also contained notes, fragments of poems or drafts of letters, for example. Such drawings can be seen in New York, together with an outstanding selection of the small group of highly finished sheets that he made as gifts for a few close friends.
Apart from those that he gave away, most of the surviving drawings probably remained the property of Michelangelo’s relatives and were gradually dispersed, although many are still preserved in the family house in Florence. But until the 19th century the market for artists’ working drawings was extremely limited. The evidence that non-artists collected working drawings in the 16th century is very slight, but from the late 17th century there were a few such collectors, including some who assembled huge holdings. Painters too engaged in the collecting of drawings, one of the most successful being Thomas Lawrence, several of whose drawings are in the exhibition. Just how little value was attached to Michelangelo’s working material on paper is shown by the fate of the cartoon he made around 1504 for the Battle of Cascina, which was to be the companion piece to a large battle picture by Leonardo da Vinci. The composition, consisting almost entirely of male nudes, is known through an early copy included in the current exhibition. It was evidently greatly admired by other Florentine artists, who copied and then cut up the cartoon. Within a few years it had been destroyed, evidently because even Michelangelo’s fellow artists made no attempt to preserve any fragments once they had learned the lessons these provided.
This is not to say that there was no demand for drawings in Michelangelo’s own day. Those he gave away were original compositions, unrelated to any of his commissions. Although there are records of patrons and others asking for any drawings by his hand, it is doubtful whether they meant this literally. Even if they did, it does not follow that they had a taste for working drawings, or indeed for drawings at all. Michelangelo was one of the most famous men of his time, whose name was known to virtually every educated Italian. He was the subject of two substantial biographies published in his lifetime, and two more soon after his death. His fame is often discussed today in terms of the social status of artists, but this is rather misleading, if it has or had any sense at all. It had long been recognised that outstanding artists were in a category on their own, and reference was often made to the many anecdotes about the leading artists of classical antiquity, such as the painter Apelles, who was said to have painted Alexander the Great and then to have succeeded him as the lover of Campaspe, because Alexander recognised that as a painter he had a keener appreciation of her beauty than Alexander himself. In more recent times, both Giotto and Brunelleschi were exceptionally famous and not regarded as mere manual workers, but thought to possess unique talents. Michelangelo easily fitted into this pattern.
The demand for something by his hand was surely an early instance of the kind of celebrity culture with which we are now very familiar. Michelangelo’s contemporaries were certainly in awe of his personality, and this was probably not entirely unrelated to the fact that his name led to endless not entirely unserious suggestions that his work was angelic or divine. Today any sheet of paper that contains so much as a rough sketch by Michelangelo or a line of his very distinctive handwriting has acquired a cachet that makes it almost like a religious relic. Such a sheet gives, or seems to give, a direct access into his way of thinking and especially into his creative process – something that interests us much more than it interested his contemporaries. This issue is at the heart of the New York exhibition, which is necessarily much more about how he thought and worked than about the works he created for the public domain and on which his reputation was based.
One obvious problem with Michelangelo’s drawings has to do with attribution. The drawings he gave as gifts were frequently copied at the time, and there has been much discussion about whether surviving versions are originals or copies. Controversy has also surrounded drawings of a more practical kind. For example, Michelangelo certainly provided drawings for his friend Sebastiano del Piombo, and there was long uncertainty about which drawings associated with Sebastiano’s own paintings were by Michelangelo, and which by Sebastiano. Several of these were displayed last year at the National Gallery and two reappear in New York; but on the question of their authorship there is now wide agreement, although Bernard Berenson, for example, took a very different view from the one now accepted.At stake is not just the status of the drawings themselves, but also the wider question of exactly what contribution Michelangelo made to Sebastiano’s paintings.
The drawings associated with Michelangelo’s own works also raise problems. This is partly because even these drawings could have been copied by other artists at an early date as part of their own education, or even by his own assistants. It is also clear that Michelangelo taught some of his own pupils and assistants how to draw, and there are individual sheets which seem to show the work of master and pupil. The distinction between different hands is not always easy to make, and art historians tend to credit Michelangelo himself only with those elements that seem particularly confident and accomplished. This assumption may not necessarily be correct, because even Michelangelo may on occasion have made a weak drawing, or at least a misplaced line. It is possible that some of the current claims about such drawings set the bar for his participation too high, and some suggestions, for example, that a few sheets are the work of more than two artists seem tenuous and over-speculative. Nor can we necessarily assume that when the outlines of a figure have been strengthened, this was done by someone other than Michelangelo.
The question of exactly what part of every drawing was made by Michelangelo himself is of great interest to curators of drawings and to collectors, but is often unlikely to have a definitive solution, however reluctant some of the specialists are to admit this. There is a strong subjective element in the process of attribution. Fortunately, for those who are interested in how Michelangelo worked, the issue of whether a drawing is an original or a copy is usually of only marginal importance.
The catalogue of the New York exhibition, which is too large to be carried easily, is unusual in format but very well conceived.It consists mainly of a broadly chronological account of Michelangelo’s career written by the organiser, Carmen Bambach, centred on his drawings and especially on those on display. The chronological structure is also followed in the exhibition itself, except that the drawings associated with the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel are shown out of sequence, beneath a large reproduction of the ceiling itself. A particularly strong section is devoted to Michelangelo’s earliest drawings, which were indebted to those of his first teacher, the painter Domenico Ghirlandaio, although the pupil very soon surpassed his master in terms of skill. Also notable are the substantial groups of drawings for the main projects that occupied him for most of the two decades that followed the completion of the Sistine ceiling in 1512. The first of these was the huge tomb of Pope Julius II, who had commissioned the ceiling. Another was the design for the façade of the Florentine church of San Lorenzo, and the third was the Medici mausoleum in the new sacristy of this church.
These three projects have two things in common: they all involved an extraordinarily ambitious combination of the sculpture and architecture, and none was completed in the form Michelangelo intended, although Matteo Renzi, while he was mayor of Florence before becoming prime minister of Italy, rather implausibly proposed constructing the façade of San Lorenzo as a new attraction for tourists, on the basis of a wooden model made for Michelangelo which doesn’t show the intended relief sculptures. All of these projects were abandoned or modified because of lack of funds or the demands of new patrons, but it is doubtful whether any of them could ever have been completed as Michelangelo had proposed. Fortunately, after his departure from Florence the new sacristy was finished by other craftsmen with great tact and without much apparent reference to Michelangelo’s surviving designs.
Although the exhibition is more about the way Michelangelo worked than about the works he produced, there are three sculptures supposedly by him on display, none of them intact and none in any way typical: an unfinished bust of Brutus, an unfinished statue of a standing figure possibly representing David and possibly Apollo, and the so-called Manhattan Boy, a very damaged and puzzling figure first identified in New York about half a century ago, and then forgotten until the 1990s. The attribution has often been questioned, but there is good evidence that it was in a collection in Rome in the 1550s, with an attribution to Michelangelo recorded in several publications of the period. It then turned up a century later in another Roman collection, this time identified as an ancient statue, and was still there, seemingly intact, in the 1760s, although it is likely that by that time the right arm had already been broken and restored. In 1905 it emerged on the art market, with broken legs and with the feet, arms and much of a quiver missing, attributed to the School of Michelangelo. How the attribution to Michelangelo was lost, or why it was rejected, and how the statue was smashed and then only partly reconstituted have not been explained. Equally troubling are the implausibly elongated thighs of the figure and the huge difference in quality between this statue and the Bacchus now in Florence, which was said by one of Michelangelo’s earliest biographers to have been made for the same patron at about the same time. Another supposed early work on display is a painting from Fort Worth showing the Temptation of St Anthony, a composition based on an engraving by Martin Schongauer. If an early biographer had not reported that Michelangelo made such a picture as a student, it is doubtful whether anyone would have attributed this panel to him.
A better idea of Michelangelo’s artistic priorities is provided by the drawings he gave to his friends. The high finish of many of these has led several scholars to suppose they are copies, but this is not very convincing, as Bambach and most other specialists have recognised. In most of these drawings Michelangelo seems to have had a free hand in the choice of subject matter, which is often unconventional and extremely obscure. There is no obvious problem in understanding a drawing of Cleopatra in an exotic headdress, or one of Ganymede being carried up by Jupiter in the form of an eagle, but another drawing shows a naked man reclining against a globe, with a naked angel blowing a trumpet immediately above hm and more naked figures in the background, some embracing and others struggling, and yet another includes naked putti carrying a horse upside down, collecting water from a well and heating a huge cooking pot. More conventional in subject matter are the drawings on religious themes that he made for his exceedingly pious friend Vittoria Colonna. In all these drawings Michelangelo can be seen at his most personal. There is his usual obsession with the representation of male nudes with exaggerated musculature, now combined with an increasing piety and an apparent preoccupation with suffering and death. Similar concerns can be seen in his late frescoes, the Last Judgment and the decoration of the Pauline Chapel in the Vatican. The latter has always been difficult of access, and the former was controversial from the time it was unveiled, mainly because of the prominent display of male genitalia, which was not surprisingly thought inappropriate in the context of the altar wall of the papal chapel. Another criticism was that although Michelangelo’s figures were stupendous demonstrations of his skill in the depiction of the male nude in different poses – something that was considered particularly challenging – they were all stupendous in much the same way.
There is some justice in these criticisms, and it is telling that the Last Judgment, although in his lifetime the best known of Michelangelo’s works, was relatively uninfluential; and the same could be said of his other late figurative compositions, including those in his drawings, which were quite widely known through copies. Some of the least attractive objects in the exhibition are the small dull paintings made by Marcello Venusti from Michelangelo’s late religious drawings, which were much admired for their religious feeling but haven’t aroused much enthusiasm in later times. It was a good idea to include them, since they show Michelangelo’s limitations just as many of the earlier exhibits reveal his more familiar strengths. In any case, his main concern in his later years was not with painting or sculpture, but architecture, and here, especially in his designs for St Peter’s and for the Capitol in Rome, he was at his most inventive and original, taking a notably more independent approach than any of his contemporaries to the surviving buildings of antiquity.
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Please include name, address, and a telephone number. | <urn:uuid:36d090d1-85e4-4099-a0a1-943ef7198aec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v40/n03/charles-hope/useful-only-for-scrap-paper | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00514.warc.gz | en | 0.988247 | 3,357 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.688949704170... | 4 | A few days before his death in Rome in 1564 Michelangelo is said to have destroyed all the drawings in his house. He had done something similar on at least three previous occasions. But despite his efforts more than two hundred drawings are almost universally accepted today as being wholly or in part by his hand, and most experts would argue for a much higher figure. Substantial though these numbers are, it is clear that only a tiny fraction of the drawings that he produced has survived. For example, there are famous studies of individual figures on the Sistine ceiling, but only for three or four figures, though it seems virtually certain that he made similar drawings for every major figure, of which there are well over a hundred. The situation with his other major works in painting, notably the lost cartoon for a battle picture in the town hall of Florence, known as the Battle of Cascina, and the Last Judgment, is just as bad if not worse. About a hundred and thirty of the surviving drawings are currently on show in the Metropolitan Museum, including many of the most famous, in what must be one of the most comprehensive displays ever assembled. It includes examples of all the different types of drawing Michelangelo seems to have produced, from rough pen sketches to completed full-size cartoons, and covers every stage in his career.
It was normal practice among Florentine painters of his time to develop their ideas in drawings and to change these ideas only in minor ways when they were transformed into paintings. There was a practical reason for this, in that the prestigious and widely practised technique of fresco painting required meticulous planning in advance through drawings, establishing a clear distinction between conception and execution in the creation of paintings. This was not true to the same extent of sculpture, and drawings by sculptors are much less common than those by painters, so it is no surprise that relatively few of Michelangelo’s surviving drawings can be related to his own sculptures. Obviously, too, his architectural projects all had to be based on and developed through drawn plans. In short, most of Michelangelo’s drawings were made for strictly practical purposes, and once they had served their original function they were useful only for reference or as scrap paper.
Throughout history artists have tended to make a sharp distinction between finished works of art and the working material they use in creating them. Such material almost always remains the property of the artist, and at least until after the artist’s death it is not normally put on the market. Many artists of Michelangelo’s time seem to have preserved a good part of their drawings in case they might be useful at some later date, and some of their holdings subsequently passed to other artists. But Michelangelo was probably not alone in destroying his working drawings, and he clearly did not do so in a systematic way. Some of the drawings that have survived were probably left in Florence when he moved definitively to Rome in the 1530s, including instructions for his agents in the marble quarries with diagrams of blocks needed for an architectural project. Others were on pieces of paper which may have been preserved because they also contained notes, fragments of poems or drafts of letters, for example. Such drawings can be seen in New York, together with an outstanding selection of the small group of highly finished sheets that he made as gifts for a few close friends.
Apart from those that he gave away, most of the surviving drawings probably remained the property of Michelangelo’s relatives and were gradually dispersed, although many are still preserved in the family house in Florence. But until the 19th century the market for artists’ working drawings was extremely limited. The evidence that non-artists collected working drawings in the 16th century is very slight, but from the late 17th century there were a few such collectors, including some who assembled huge holdings. Painters too engaged in the collecting of drawings, one of the most successful being Thomas Lawrence, several of whose drawings are in the exhibition. Just how little value was attached to Michelangelo’s working material on paper is shown by the fate of the cartoon he made around 1504 for the Battle of Cascina, which was to be the companion piece to a large battle picture by Leonardo da Vinci. The composition, consisting almost entirely of male nudes, is known through an early copy included in the current exhibition. It was evidently greatly admired by other Florentine artists, who copied and then cut up the cartoon. Within a few years it had been destroyed, evidently because even Michelangelo’s fellow artists made no attempt to preserve any fragments once they had learned the lessons these provided.
This is not to say that there was no demand for drawings in Michelangelo’s own day. Those he gave away were original compositions, unrelated to any of his commissions. Although there are records of patrons and others asking for any drawings by his hand, it is doubtful whether they meant this literally. Even if they did, it does not follow that they had a taste for working drawings, or indeed for drawings at all. Michelangelo was one of the most famous men of his time, whose name was known to virtually every educated Italian. He was the subject of two substantial biographies published in his lifetime, and two more soon after his death. His fame is often discussed today in terms of the social status of artists, but this is rather misleading, if it has or had any sense at all. It had long been recognised that outstanding artists were in a category on their own, and reference was often made to the many anecdotes about the leading artists of classical antiquity, such as the painter Apelles, who was said to have painted Alexander the Great and then to have succeeded him as the lover of Campaspe, because Alexander recognised that as a painter he had a keener appreciation of her beauty than Alexander himself. In more recent times, both Giotto and Brunelleschi were exceptionally famous and not regarded as mere manual workers, but thought to possess unique talents. Michelangelo easily fitted into this pattern.
The demand for something by his hand was surely an early instance of the kind of celebrity culture with which we are now very familiar. Michelangelo’s contemporaries were certainly in awe of his personality, and this was probably not entirely unrelated to the fact that his name led to endless not entirely unserious suggestions that his work was angelic or divine. Today any sheet of paper that contains so much as a rough sketch by Michelangelo or a line of his very distinctive handwriting has acquired a cachet that makes it almost like a religious relic. Such a sheet gives, or seems to give, a direct access into his way of thinking and especially into his creative process – something that interests us much more than it interested his contemporaries. This issue is at the heart of the New York exhibition, which is necessarily much more about how he thought and worked than about the works he created for the public domain and on which his reputation was based.
One obvious problem with Michelangelo’s drawings has to do with attribution. The drawings he gave as gifts were frequently copied at the time, and there has been much discussion about whether surviving versions are originals or copies. Controversy has also surrounded drawings of a more practical kind. For example, Michelangelo certainly provided drawings for his friend Sebastiano del Piombo, and there was long uncertainty about which drawings associated with Sebastiano’s own paintings were by Michelangelo, and which by Sebastiano. Several of these were displayed last year at the National Gallery and two reappear in New York; but on the question of their authorship there is now wide agreement, although Bernard Berenson, for example, took a very different view from the one now accepted.At stake is not just the status of the drawings themselves, but also the wider question of exactly what contribution Michelangelo made to Sebastiano’s paintings.
The drawings associated with Michelangelo’s own works also raise problems. This is partly because even these drawings could have been copied by other artists at an early date as part of their own education, or even by his own assistants. It is also clear that Michelangelo taught some of his own pupils and assistants how to draw, and there are individual sheets which seem to show the work of master and pupil. The distinction between different hands is not always easy to make, and art historians tend to credit Michelangelo himself only with those elements that seem particularly confident and accomplished. This assumption may not necessarily be correct, because even Michelangelo may on occasion have made a weak drawing, or at least a misplaced line. It is possible that some of the current claims about such drawings set the bar for his participation too high, and some suggestions, for example, that a few sheets are the work of more than two artists seem tenuous and over-speculative. Nor can we necessarily assume that when the outlines of a figure have been strengthened, this was done by someone other than Michelangelo.
The question of exactly what part of every drawing was made by Michelangelo himself is of great interest to curators of drawings and to collectors, but is often unlikely to have a definitive solution, however reluctant some of the specialists are to admit this. There is a strong subjective element in the process of attribution. Fortunately, for those who are interested in how Michelangelo worked, the issue of whether a drawing is an original or a copy is usually of only marginal importance.
The catalogue of the New York exhibition, which is too large to be carried easily, is unusual in format but very well conceived.It consists mainly of a broadly chronological account of Michelangelo’s career written by the organiser, Carmen Bambach, centred on his drawings and especially on those on display. The chronological structure is also followed in the exhibition itself, except that the drawings associated with the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel are shown out of sequence, beneath a large reproduction of the ceiling itself. A particularly strong section is devoted to Michelangelo’s earliest drawings, which were indebted to those of his first teacher, the painter Domenico Ghirlandaio, although the pupil very soon surpassed his master in terms of skill. Also notable are the substantial groups of drawings for the main projects that occupied him for most of the two decades that followed the completion of the Sistine ceiling in 1512. The first of these was the huge tomb of Pope Julius II, who had commissioned the ceiling. Another was the design for the façade of the Florentine church of San Lorenzo, and the third was the Medici mausoleum in the new sacristy of this church.
These three projects have two things in common: they all involved an extraordinarily ambitious combination of the sculpture and architecture, and none was completed in the form Michelangelo intended, although Matteo Renzi, while he was mayor of Florence before becoming prime minister of Italy, rather implausibly proposed constructing the façade of San Lorenzo as a new attraction for tourists, on the basis of a wooden model made for Michelangelo which doesn’t show the intended relief sculptures. All of these projects were abandoned or modified because of lack of funds or the demands of new patrons, but it is doubtful whether any of them could ever have been completed as Michelangelo had proposed. Fortunately, after his departure from Florence the new sacristy was finished by other craftsmen with great tact and without much apparent reference to Michelangelo’s surviving designs.
Although the exhibition is more about the way Michelangelo worked than about the works he produced, there are three sculptures supposedly by him on display, none of them intact and none in any way typical: an unfinished bust of Brutus, an unfinished statue of a standing figure possibly representing David and possibly Apollo, and the so-called Manhattan Boy, a very damaged and puzzling figure first identified in New York about half a century ago, and then forgotten until the 1990s. The attribution has often been questioned, but there is good evidence that it was in a collection in Rome in the 1550s, with an attribution to Michelangelo recorded in several publications of the period. It then turned up a century later in another Roman collection, this time identified as an ancient statue, and was still there, seemingly intact, in the 1760s, although it is likely that by that time the right arm had already been broken and restored. In 1905 it emerged on the art market, with broken legs and with the feet, arms and much of a quiver missing, attributed to the School of Michelangelo. How the attribution to Michelangelo was lost, or why it was rejected, and how the statue was smashed and then only partly reconstituted have not been explained. Equally troubling are the implausibly elongated thighs of the figure and the huge difference in quality between this statue and the Bacchus now in Florence, which was said by one of Michelangelo’s earliest biographers to have been made for the same patron at about the same time. Another supposed early work on display is a painting from Fort Worth showing the Temptation of St Anthony, a composition based on an engraving by Martin Schongauer. If an early biographer had not reported that Michelangelo made such a picture as a student, it is doubtful whether anyone would have attributed this panel to him.
A better idea of Michelangelo’s artistic priorities is provided by the drawings he gave to his friends. The high finish of many of these has led several scholars to suppose they are copies, but this is not very convincing, as Bambach and most other specialists have recognised. In most of these drawings Michelangelo seems to have had a free hand in the choice of subject matter, which is often unconventional and extremely obscure. There is no obvious problem in understanding a drawing of Cleopatra in an exotic headdress, or one of Ganymede being carried up by Jupiter in the form of an eagle, but another drawing shows a naked man reclining against a globe, with a naked angel blowing a trumpet immediately above hm and more naked figures in the background, some embracing and others struggling, and yet another includes naked putti carrying a horse upside down, collecting water from a well and heating a huge cooking pot. More conventional in subject matter are the drawings on religious themes that he made for his exceedingly pious friend Vittoria Colonna. In all these drawings Michelangelo can be seen at his most personal. There is his usual obsession with the representation of male nudes with exaggerated musculature, now combined with an increasing piety and an apparent preoccupation with suffering and death. Similar concerns can be seen in his late frescoes, the Last Judgment and the decoration of the Pauline Chapel in the Vatican. The latter has always been difficult of access, and the former was controversial from the time it was unveiled, mainly because of the prominent display of male genitalia, which was not surprisingly thought inappropriate in the context of the altar wall of the papal chapel. Another criticism was that although Michelangelo’s figures were stupendous demonstrations of his skill in the depiction of the male nude in different poses – something that was considered particularly challenging – they were all stupendous in much the same way.
There is some justice in these criticisms, and it is telling that the Last Judgment, although in his lifetime the best known of Michelangelo’s works, was relatively uninfluential; and the same could be said of his other late figurative compositions, including those in his drawings, which were quite widely known through copies. Some of the least attractive objects in the exhibition are the small dull paintings made by Marcello Venusti from Michelangelo’s late religious drawings, which were much admired for their religious feeling but haven’t aroused much enthusiasm in later times. It was a good idea to include them, since they show Michelangelo’s limitations just as many of the earlier exhibits reveal his more familiar strengths. In any case, his main concern in his later years was not with painting or sculpture, but architecture, and here, especially in his designs for St Peter’s and for the Capitol in Rome, he was at his most inventive and original, taking a notably more independent approach than any of his contemporaries to the surviving buildings of antiquity.
Send Letters To:
London Review of Books,
28 Little Russell Street
London, WC1A 2HN
Please include name, address, and a telephone number. | 3,307 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It took Einstein nine years to get a job in academia. The young physicist later spent two years searching for an academic position before settling for a gig at the Swiss patent office in Bern.
March 14, His work helps astronomers study everything from gravitational waves to Mercury's orbit. He also is known for his work on general relativity and the photoelectric effect; his work on the latter earned him a Nobel Prize in Einstein also made vain attempts to unify all the forces of the universe in a single theory, which he was still working on at the time of his death.
The house was destroyed during World War II. The family moved to Munich shortly after his birth, then to Italy as his father faced problems with running his own business. His father, Hermann, ran an electrochemical factory and his mother, Pauline, Albert einstine care of Albert and his younger sister, Maria.
He Albert einstine his first wonder — a compass — at age 5. He was mystified that invisible forces could deflect the needle. This would lead to a lifelong fascination with invisible forces. The second wonder came at age 12 when he discovered a book of geometry, which he devoured, calling it his "holy geometry book.
However, Einstein rebelled against the authoritarian attitude of some of his teachers and dropped out of school at He later took an entrance exam for the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich, and while his performances in physics and math were excellent, his marks in other areas were not sufficient, and he did not pass the exam.
He took additional courses to close the gap in his knowledge, and was admitted to Swiss Polytechnic in Inhe received a diploma to teach physics and mathematics.
However, Einstein could not find a teaching position, and famously began work in a Bern patent office inaccording to his Nobel Prize biography. It was here, after analyzing patent applications, that he developed his work in special relativity and other parts of physics that made him famous.
Einstein married Mileva Maric, a longtime love of his from Zurich, in Their children, Hans Albert and Eduard, were born in and The fate of a child born to them in before their marriage, Lieserl, is unknown. ESA Career highlights Einstein's career was peripatetic.
He earned his doctorate inand subsequently took on professor positions in ZurichPrague and Zurich He became a German citizen. A major validation of Einstein's work came inwhen Sir Arthur Eddington, secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society, led an expedition to Africa that measured the position of stars during a total solar eclipse.
The group found that the position of stars was shifted due to the bending of light around the sun. Eddington's results rocked the foundations of science, according to Rowan Hooper, a film critic for New Scientist.
Set against the backdrop of World War I, the British Eddington's acceptance of the German Einstein's theory meant that the ordered universe of Isaac Newton, also British, was replaced with an entirely new philosophy.
Einstein was the first of those [modern] celebrities. Einstein then renounced his German citizenship and moved to the United States to become a professor of theoretical physics at Princeton.
He became a U. Einstein remained active in the physics community through his later years. Inhe famously penned a letter to President Franklin D.
Roosevelt warning that uranium could be used for an atomic bomb. His voice was heard at the top of government. Bohr's theories held the day, and Einstein later incorporated quantum theory in his own calculations.
Einstein's brain Einstein died of an aortic aneurysm on April 18, Claim: While a college student, Albert Einstein humiliated an atheist professor by using the "Evil is the absence of God" argument on metin2sell.com Albert Einstein: Albert Einstein, German-born physicist who developed the special and general theories of relativity and won the Nobel Prize for Physics in for his explanation of the photoelectric effect.
Einstein is generally considered the most influential physicist of the 20th century. Albert Einstein: Read about Einstein's astounding theory of relativity and his discovery of the quantum, his thoughtful philosophy, and his rise above a turbulent life including marriages and exile.
This Einstein exhibit contains many pictures, cartoons, voice clips, and essays on Einstein's work on special relativity, Brownian motion, and more. Albert Einstein's religious views have been widely studied and often misunderstood. Einstein stated that he believed in the pantheistic God of Baruch Spinoza.
He did not believe in a personal God who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve.
He clarified however that, "I am not an atheist", preferring to call himself an agnostic, or a. Welcome to the Official Licensing Site of Albert Einstein. Learn more about Albert Einstein and contact us today for any commercial licensing inquiries. Albert Einstein College of Medicine is one of the nation’s premier institutions for medical education, basic research and clinical investigation. | <urn:uuid:bc846135-16ea-4f82-852f-bdbcc5f5b2b7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://puzinye.metin2sell.com/albert-einstine-3027db.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00381.warc.gz | en | 0.981296 | 1,032 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.16380515694... | 1 | It took Einstein nine years to get a job in academia. The young physicist later spent two years searching for an academic position before settling for a gig at the Swiss patent office in Bern.
March 14, His work helps astronomers study everything from gravitational waves to Mercury's orbit. He also is known for his work on general relativity and the photoelectric effect; his work on the latter earned him a Nobel Prize in Einstein also made vain attempts to unify all the forces of the universe in a single theory, which he was still working on at the time of his death.
The house was destroyed during World War II. The family moved to Munich shortly after his birth, then to Italy as his father faced problems with running his own business. His father, Hermann, ran an electrochemical factory and his mother, Pauline, Albert einstine care of Albert and his younger sister, Maria.
He Albert einstine his first wonder — a compass — at age 5. He was mystified that invisible forces could deflect the needle. This would lead to a lifelong fascination with invisible forces. The second wonder came at age 12 when he discovered a book of geometry, which he devoured, calling it his "holy geometry book.
However, Einstein rebelled against the authoritarian attitude of some of his teachers and dropped out of school at He later took an entrance exam for the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich, and while his performances in physics and math were excellent, his marks in other areas were not sufficient, and he did not pass the exam.
He took additional courses to close the gap in his knowledge, and was admitted to Swiss Polytechnic in Inhe received a diploma to teach physics and mathematics.
However, Einstein could not find a teaching position, and famously began work in a Bern patent office inaccording to his Nobel Prize biography. It was here, after analyzing patent applications, that he developed his work in special relativity and other parts of physics that made him famous.
Einstein married Mileva Maric, a longtime love of his from Zurich, in Their children, Hans Albert and Eduard, were born in and The fate of a child born to them in before their marriage, Lieserl, is unknown. ESA Career highlights Einstein's career was peripatetic.
He earned his doctorate inand subsequently took on professor positions in ZurichPrague and Zurich He became a German citizen. A major validation of Einstein's work came inwhen Sir Arthur Eddington, secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society, led an expedition to Africa that measured the position of stars during a total solar eclipse.
The group found that the position of stars was shifted due to the bending of light around the sun. Eddington's results rocked the foundations of science, according to Rowan Hooper, a film critic for New Scientist.
Set against the backdrop of World War I, the British Eddington's acceptance of the German Einstein's theory meant that the ordered universe of Isaac Newton, also British, was replaced with an entirely new philosophy.
Einstein was the first of those [modern] celebrities. Einstein then renounced his German citizenship and moved to the United States to become a professor of theoretical physics at Princeton.
He became a U. Einstein remained active in the physics community through his later years. Inhe famously penned a letter to President Franklin D.
Roosevelt warning that uranium could be used for an atomic bomb. His voice was heard at the top of government. Bohr's theories held the day, and Einstein later incorporated quantum theory in his own calculations.
Einstein's brain Einstein died of an aortic aneurysm on April 18, Claim: While a college student, Albert Einstein humiliated an atheist professor by using the "Evil is the absence of God" argument on metin2sell.com Albert Einstein: Albert Einstein, German-born physicist who developed the special and general theories of relativity and won the Nobel Prize for Physics in for his explanation of the photoelectric effect.
Einstein is generally considered the most influential physicist of the 20th century. Albert Einstein: Read about Einstein's astounding theory of relativity and his discovery of the quantum, his thoughtful philosophy, and his rise above a turbulent life including marriages and exile.
This Einstein exhibit contains many pictures, cartoons, voice clips, and essays on Einstein's work on special relativity, Brownian motion, and more. Albert Einstein's religious views have been widely studied and often misunderstood. Einstein stated that he believed in the pantheistic God of Baruch Spinoza.
He did not believe in a personal God who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve.
He clarified however that, "I am not an atheist", preferring to call himself an agnostic, or a. Welcome to the Official Licensing Site of Albert Einstein. Learn more about Albert Einstein and contact us today for any commercial licensing inquiries. Albert Einstein College of Medicine is one of the nation’s premier institutions for medical education, basic research and clinical investigation. | 1,026 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On the evening of Sunday, September 30, 1962, Southern segregationists rioted and fought state and federal forces on the campus of the University of Mississippi (Ole Miss) in Oxford, Mississippi to prevent the enrollment of the first African American student to attend the university, James Meredith, a U.S. military veteran.
President John F. Kennedy had sent federal marshals to Oxford on Saturday, September 29, 1962 to prepare for protests he knew would arise from Meredith’s arrival and enrollment. While this occurred, Mississippi Governor Ross Barnett, a publicly avowed segregationist, spoke at an Ole Miss football game encouraging action on campus to block Meredith’s entry into the university. The next day, Meredith was escorted by Mississippi Highway Patrol as he made his way to the campus to move into his dorm room. He was greeted by 500 federal marshals assigned for his protection. Thousands of rioters from across the South gathered that evening at Ole Miss. The highway patrol tried to push back the crowd, but were dismissed by Mississippi Senator George Yarbrough at around 7:25 p.m. The crowd increased rapidly, and a full riot broke out at 7:30 p.m.
The crowd reached approximately three thousand rioters, led by former Army Major General Edwin Walker, who had recently been forced to retire when he was ordered to stop giving out racist hate literature to his troops but refused to do so. The crowd consisted of high school and college students, Ku Klux Klan members, Oxford residents, and people from outside the area.
By 9:00 p.m. the riot turned extremely violent. U.S. marshals who had been defending Meredith and university officials in the Lyceum building on campus, where Meredith registered, ran out of tear gas. Rioters threw rocks and bottles and began to shoot. President Kennedy then decided to bring in the Mississippi National Guard and Army troops from Memphis, Tennessee, during the middle of the night, led by Brigadier General Charles Billingslea.
Before their arrival, rioters learned of Meredith’s dorm hall, Baxter Hall, and began to attack it. When Billingslea and his men arrived, a white mob set his car on fire while he, the Deputy Commanding General John Corley, and aide Captain Harold Lyon were still inside. The three were able to escape but were forced to crawl 200 yards through gunfire from the mob to get to the Lyceum building. To try and keep control of the crowds, Billingslea created a sequence of secret code words to signal for first, when to issue ammunition to the platoons, second when to issue it to the squads, and finally when to load. None of these could occur without the codes given by Billingslea. This resulted in one third of the Marshals, totaling 166 men, were injured in the mass fight and 40 soldiers and National Guardsmen wounded.
Two men were murdered during the riot: French journalist Paul Guihard who was working for the Agence France-Presse, and 23-year-old Ray Gunter, a white jukebox repairman. In total, more than 300 people were injured. On October 1, 1962, the riot was suppressed with 3,000 soldiers stationed to occupy Oxford and the Ole Miss campus. Meredith, escorted by U.S. Marshals, attended his first class at Ole Miss, an American history course. | <urn:uuid:5eb5c6be-a8c2-4376-a3f9-7c798af2e036> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/ole-miss-riot-1962/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00406.warc.gz | en | 0.980576 | 698 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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-0.0061227632... | 10 | On the evening of Sunday, September 30, 1962, Southern segregationists rioted and fought state and federal forces on the campus of the University of Mississippi (Ole Miss) in Oxford, Mississippi to prevent the enrollment of the first African American student to attend the university, James Meredith, a U.S. military veteran.
President John F. Kennedy had sent federal marshals to Oxford on Saturday, September 29, 1962 to prepare for protests he knew would arise from Meredith’s arrival and enrollment. While this occurred, Mississippi Governor Ross Barnett, a publicly avowed segregationist, spoke at an Ole Miss football game encouraging action on campus to block Meredith’s entry into the university. The next day, Meredith was escorted by Mississippi Highway Patrol as he made his way to the campus to move into his dorm room. He was greeted by 500 federal marshals assigned for his protection. Thousands of rioters from across the South gathered that evening at Ole Miss. The highway patrol tried to push back the crowd, but were dismissed by Mississippi Senator George Yarbrough at around 7:25 p.m. The crowd increased rapidly, and a full riot broke out at 7:30 p.m.
The crowd reached approximately three thousand rioters, led by former Army Major General Edwin Walker, who had recently been forced to retire when he was ordered to stop giving out racist hate literature to his troops but refused to do so. The crowd consisted of high school and college students, Ku Klux Klan members, Oxford residents, and people from outside the area.
By 9:00 p.m. the riot turned extremely violent. U.S. marshals who had been defending Meredith and university officials in the Lyceum building on campus, where Meredith registered, ran out of tear gas. Rioters threw rocks and bottles and began to shoot. President Kennedy then decided to bring in the Mississippi National Guard and Army troops from Memphis, Tennessee, during the middle of the night, led by Brigadier General Charles Billingslea.
Before their arrival, rioters learned of Meredith’s dorm hall, Baxter Hall, and began to attack it. When Billingslea and his men arrived, a white mob set his car on fire while he, the Deputy Commanding General John Corley, and aide Captain Harold Lyon were still inside. The three were able to escape but were forced to crawl 200 yards through gunfire from the mob to get to the Lyceum building. To try and keep control of the crowds, Billingslea created a sequence of secret code words to signal for first, when to issue ammunition to the platoons, second when to issue it to the squads, and finally when to load. None of these could occur without the codes given by Billingslea. This resulted in one third of the Marshals, totaling 166 men, were injured in the mass fight and 40 soldiers and National Guardsmen wounded.
Two men were murdered during the riot: French journalist Paul Guihard who was working for the Agence France-Presse, and 23-year-old Ray Gunter, a white jukebox repairman. In total, more than 300 people were injured. On October 1, 1962, the riot was suppressed with 3,000 soldiers stationed to occupy Oxford and the Ole Miss campus. Meredith, escorted by U.S. Marshals, attended his first class at Ole Miss, an American history course. | 716 | ENGLISH | 1 |
WASHINGTON — What were billed as the oldest fossils on Earth may just be some rocks, according to a new study.
Two years ago, a team of Australian scientists found odd structures in Greenland that they said were partly leftovers from microbes that lived on an ancient seafloor. They were said to be 3.7 billion years old, which suggests life formed quicker and easier than thought after Earth formed.
But on Wednesday, the journal Nature, which published the 2016 study, released new research using NASA technology that concludes the structures found on rocks were likely not fossils but more rock. The Australian scientists, however, still maintain they are.
The new work was done by NASA astrobiologist Abigail Allwood, who had found the previously oldest fossil at nearly 3.5 billion years old. When she read the 2016 paper, she thought "there was something not quite right" so she went to Greenland and looked herself.
Allwood found the shapes, the weathering and mostly the interior layers of the structures didn't fit with this type of fossil, called stromatolites. One even was growing in what she called the wrong direction.
Then Allwood used a version of an instrument that's being sent to Mars in a few years to create a chemical map of the structure. She said it didn't have the chemical signature of fossilized life.
Three outside experts told The Associated Press they agree with the newest research; none thought they were fossils as suggested by Allen Nutman at the University of Wollongong in Australia.
A claim of such an old fossil requires several lines of evidence, "so scientists were impressed but not convinced by Nutman's work," said University of Connecticut's Pieter Visscher. He said he was persuaded by Allwood's thorough work that it was not a fossil.
Nutman and his colleagues released a statement defending their work. They said Allwood took samples from the far end of one of two sites and didn't test the original specimens when offered.
"This is a classic comparing apples and oranges scenario, leading to the inevitable outcome that ours and their observations do not exactly match," they said in the statement.
Said another of the outside experts, Marie Catherine Sforna of the University of Liege in Belgium: "The search for traces of early life is without any doubt a difficult task and often raises controversy." | <urn:uuid:c6fa2e81-d0ef-4c3c-9054-9688ab30e9b2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.timestelegram.com/news/20181017/oldest-fossils-on-earth-new-look-finds-might-just-be-rocks/1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00351.warc.gz | en | 0.986 | 485 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.5710621476173401... | 2 | WASHINGTON — What were billed as the oldest fossils on Earth may just be some rocks, according to a new study.
Two years ago, a team of Australian scientists found odd structures in Greenland that they said were partly leftovers from microbes that lived on an ancient seafloor. They were said to be 3.7 billion years old, which suggests life formed quicker and easier than thought after Earth formed.
But on Wednesday, the journal Nature, which published the 2016 study, released new research using NASA technology that concludes the structures found on rocks were likely not fossils but more rock. The Australian scientists, however, still maintain they are.
The new work was done by NASA astrobiologist Abigail Allwood, who had found the previously oldest fossil at nearly 3.5 billion years old. When she read the 2016 paper, she thought "there was something not quite right" so she went to Greenland and looked herself.
Allwood found the shapes, the weathering and mostly the interior layers of the structures didn't fit with this type of fossil, called stromatolites. One even was growing in what she called the wrong direction.
Then Allwood used a version of an instrument that's being sent to Mars in a few years to create a chemical map of the structure. She said it didn't have the chemical signature of fossilized life.
Three outside experts told The Associated Press they agree with the newest research; none thought they were fossils as suggested by Allen Nutman at the University of Wollongong in Australia.
A claim of such an old fossil requires several lines of evidence, "so scientists were impressed but not convinced by Nutman's work," said University of Connecticut's Pieter Visscher. He said he was persuaded by Allwood's thorough work that it was not a fossil.
Nutman and his colleagues released a statement defending their work. They said Allwood took samples from the far end of one of two sites and didn't test the original specimens when offered.
"This is a classic comparing apples and oranges scenario, leading to the inevitable outcome that ours and their observations do not exactly match," they said in the statement.
Said another of the outside experts, Marie Catherine Sforna of the University of Liege in Belgium: "The search for traces of early life is without any doubt a difficult task and often raises controversy." | 481 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In a major shake-up of the military high command, Adolf Hitler assumes the position of commander in chief of the German army.
The German offensive against Moscow was proving to be a disaster. A perimeter had been established by the Soviets 200 miles from the city—and the Germans couldn’t break through. The harsh winter weather—with temperatures often dropping to 31 degrees below zero—had virtually frozen German tanks in their tracks. Soviet General Georgi Zhukov had unleashed a ferocious counteroffensive of infantry, tanks, and planes that had forced the flailing Germans into retreat. In short, the Germans were being beaten for the first time in the war, and the toll to their collective psyche was great. “The myth of the invincibility of the German army was broken,” German General Franz Halder would write later.
But Hitler refused to accept this notion. He began removing officers from their command. General Fedor von Bock, who had been suffering severe stomach pains and who on December 1 had complained to Halder that he was no longer able to “operate” with his debilitated troops, was replaced by General Hans von Kluge, whose own 4th Army had been pushed into permanent retreat from Moscow. General Karl von Runstedt was relieved of the southern armies because he had retreated from Rostov. Hitler clearly did not believe in giving back captured territory, so in the biggest shake-up of all, he declared himself commander in chief of the army. He would train it “in a National Socialist way”—that is, by personal fiat. He would compose the strategies and the officers would dance to his tune. | <urn:uuid:9c6f8a63-257e-4031-961f-ea72b278e04f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/hitler-takes-command-of-the-german-army | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00490.warc.gz | en | 0.988133 | 340 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.4165306687355041... | 4 | In a major shake-up of the military high command, Adolf Hitler assumes the position of commander in chief of the German army.
The German offensive against Moscow was proving to be a disaster. A perimeter had been established by the Soviets 200 miles from the city—and the Germans couldn’t break through. The harsh winter weather—with temperatures often dropping to 31 degrees below zero—had virtually frozen German tanks in their tracks. Soviet General Georgi Zhukov had unleashed a ferocious counteroffensive of infantry, tanks, and planes that had forced the flailing Germans into retreat. In short, the Germans were being beaten for the first time in the war, and the toll to their collective psyche was great. “The myth of the invincibility of the German army was broken,” German General Franz Halder would write later.
But Hitler refused to accept this notion. He began removing officers from their command. General Fedor von Bock, who had been suffering severe stomach pains and who on December 1 had complained to Halder that he was no longer able to “operate” with his debilitated troops, was replaced by General Hans von Kluge, whose own 4th Army had been pushed into permanent retreat from Moscow. General Karl von Runstedt was relieved of the southern armies because he had retreated from Rostov. Hitler clearly did not believe in giving back captured territory, so in the biggest shake-up of all, he declared himself commander in chief of the army. He would train it “in a National Socialist way”—that is, by personal fiat. He would compose the strategies and the officers would dance to his tune. | 333 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The consequences of the great chicago fire of 1871
This change was not even remotely considered until the great Chicago Fire of Economic History: Vol.
By the end of the 19th century, the city was well on its way to recovery. Would Chicago have developed in the same way without the fire? As the fire grew, the southwest wind intensified and became superheated, causing structures to catch fire from the heat and from burning debris blown by the wind.
Fire departments across the country that had few fire fighters on duty, started to hire more firefighters and put more on duty during the days and at night. Thousands of people, with flames licking at their heels, scrambled to escape to the North Division.
The simple little mistakes made in the great fire years ago, today are thought to be easily prevented with all the safety improvements made since then.
How did the chicago fire affect architecture
About this time, Mayor Roswell B. The same day the Great Chicago Fire began, a fire broke out in Peshtigo, Wisconsin, in which more than 1, people perished. Air from every direction got sucked into the center of the flames, generating a whirlwind effect carrying flaming debris high into the night air. Only two-and-a-half inches of rain had fallen on the city between July 3 and October 9. The second event was another, somewhat smaller fire, in July How did the Great Chicago Fire of impact Chicago and its architecture? Cities like Chicago that had old equipment that was not running too well anymore, got new equipment, and old ones repaired. They included most of the heavy industries, including the stockyards. Businessmen preferred plain-looking buildings, because putting on fancy ornament s cost more money. Also likely a factor in the fire's rapid spread was the amount of flammable waste that had accumulated in the river from years of improper disposal methods used by local industries. Sources Carson, Thomas and Mary R. All of the city's sidewalks and many roads were also made of wood. Typical four-story downtown commercial buildings were often a hybrid of brick, stone and iron construction.
The partitions between offices were made of brick and terra cotta.
based on 114 review | <urn:uuid:2ff2f6aa-fce8-4d47-a5fb-340feab8bd05> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lisylafadiciwu.whatshanesaid.com/the-consequences-of-the-great-chicago-fire-of-187157499526fl.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00418.warc.gz | en | 0.982355 | 447 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.439506679... | 1 | The consequences of the great chicago fire of 1871
This change was not even remotely considered until the great Chicago Fire of Economic History: Vol.
By the end of the 19th century, the city was well on its way to recovery. Would Chicago have developed in the same way without the fire? As the fire grew, the southwest wind intensified and became superheated, causing structures to catch fire from the heat and from burning debris blown by the wind.
Fire departments across the country that had few fire fighters on duty, started to hire more firefighters and put more on duty during the days and at night. Thousands of people, with flames licking at their heels, scrambled to escape to the North Division.
The simple little mistakes made in the great fire years ago, today are thought to be easily prevented with all the safety improvements made since then.
How did the chicago fire affect architecture
About this time, Mayor Roswell B. The same day the Great Chicago Fire began, a fire broke out in Peshtigo, Wisconsin, in which more than 1, people perished. Air from every direction got sucked into the center of the flames, generating a whirlwind effect carrying flaming debris high into the night air. Only two-and-a-half inches of rain had fallen on the city between July 3 and October 9. The second event was another, somewhat smaller fire, in July How did the Great Chicago Fire of impact Chicago and its architecture? Cities like Chicago that had old equipment that was not running too well anymore, got new equipment, and old ones repaired. They included most of the heavy industries, including the stockyards. Businessmen preferred plain-looking buildings, because putting on fancy ornament s cost more money. Also likely a factor in the fire's rapid spread was the amount of flammable waste that had accumulated in the river from years of improper disposal methods used by local industries. Sources Carson, Thomas and Mary R. All of the city's sidewalks and many roads were also made of wood. Typical four-story downtown commercial buildings were often a hybrid of brick, stone and iron construction.
The partitions between offices were made of brick and terra cotta.
based on 114 review | 445 | ENGLISH | 1 |
JAMES SULLIVAN, the fifth governor of Massachusetts, was born in Berwick, Maine on April 22, 1744. His early education was attained through tutoring by his father. He later worked and studied law in his brother’s legal firm. Sullivan then established a successful legal career, serving as the King’s Counsel for York County. He also served as a justice for the Massachusetts Supreme Court from 1776 to 1782, as well as serving as a probate judge for Suffolk County from 1788 to 1790. Sullivan entered into a political career in 1774, serving as a member of the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, a position he held until 1775. He also served as a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives from 1775 to 1776, was a member of the 1779 Massachusetts Constitutional Convention, and served as a member of the Continental Congress in 1784 and 1785. He served as a member of the Massachusetts Executive Council in 1787, and was the Massachusetts attorney general from 1790 to 1807. Sullivan was an unsuccessful gubernatorial candidate five times before finally winning election on April 6, 1807. He was reelected to a second term on April 4, 1808 but died eight months later. Governor Sullivan, who authored several books on history, finance and legal issues, was buried in the Central Boston Common Cemetery.
Sobel, Robert, and John Raimo, eds.Biographical Directory of the Governors of the United States, 1789-1978, Vol. 2, Westport, Conn.; Meckler Books, 1978. 4 vols. | <urn:uuid:22fec609-856f-4026-b188-5cc388aa687b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nga.org/governor/james-sullivan/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00249.warc.gz | en | 0.987331 | 328 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.0912837609... | 12 | JAMES SULLIVAN, the fifth governor of Massachusetts, was born in Berwick, Maine on April 22, 1744. His early education was attained through tutoring by his father. He later worked and studied law in his brother’s legal firm. Sullivan then established a successful legal career, serving as the King’s Counsel for York County. He also served as a justice for the Massachusetts Supreme Court from 1776 to 1782, as well as serving as a probate judge for Suffolk County from 1788 to 1790. Sullivan entered into a political career in 1774, serving as a member of the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, a position he held until 1775. He also served as a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives from 1775 to 1776, was a member of the 1779 Massachusetts Constitutional Convention, and served as a member of the Continental Congress in 1784 and 1785. He served as a member of the Massachusetts Executive Council in 1787, and was the Massachusetts attorney general from 1790 to 1807. Sullivan was an unsuccessful gubernatorial candidate five times before finally winning election on April 6, 1807. He was reelected to a second term on April 4, 1808 but died eight months later. Governor Sullivan, who authored several books on history, finance and legal issues, was buried in the Central Boston Common Cemetery.
Sobel, Robert, and John Raimo, eds.Biographical Directory of the Governors of the United States, 1789-1978, Vol. 2, Westport, Conn.; Meckler Books, 1978. 4 vols. | 389 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Charlemagne, also known as Charles the Great and Charles I, was not only a king of France, but a commanding historical figure. Charlemagne is believed to have been born sometime around the year 742. He became King of the Franks in 768 and went on to become the Emperor of the Carolingian Empire in 800, before his death in 814.
Charlemagne’s father, King Pepin (the short), officially put an end to the Merovingian line of kings to become King of the Franks, and willed that Francia be divided between both Charlemagne and his brother Carloman upon his death in 768. The divided rule was short lived, ○“Carloman had succumbed to disease after ruling two years in common with his brother, at his death Charles was unanimously elected King of the Franks” (Einhard 27). By the time Charlemagne was elected King of the Franks, his country had already occupied the majority of France, all of the Netherlands, and Belgium, most of Switzerland, and a sizeable portion of Germany. During his reign of forty-seven years he added even more territories including: Saxony, Bavaria, parts of Austria, the Kingdom of Lombardy, and the Spanish March, which was in the Pyrenees along the French border. During his reign Charlemagne managed to amass a kingdom that became the largest in the history of Western Europe, after the collapse of the Roman Empire.
After Pope Leo III called on Charlemagne for assistance after being brutalized by the Romans, ○“Charles accordingly went to Rome, to sent in order the affairs of the Church, which were in great confusion, and passed the whole winter there” (Einhard 56). Following his tending to the Pope and the Church, on December 25, 800, Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Romans and Augustus by Pope Leo III. After being given the title of Emperor, Charlemagne codified laws and even stabilized and standardized currency. He focused on Christian beliefs and fostered architecture and arts. This period has become known as the Carolingian Dynasty. The sense of renewal in a newly stabilized society was stimulated by an elite group of scholars gathered to Charlemagne’s court. During this time, there was a strong flourish of arts, literature, architecture, and religion.
Charlemagne married several times and had several children, not only as product of his marriages, but from his concubines as well. He was very intent on having his children, male and female, study the liberal arts. He was also particularly personally fond of these studies. At the time of his death in 814, his son Louis succeeded him.
Einhard, born in 775 in an ancient Frankish homeland, in a valley of the River Main, was taken into Charlemagne’s court sometime between 791 and 792. After the scholar Alcuin retired to the monastery, Einhard became a go to source for answers for Charlemagne. After Charlemagne’s death Einhard felt compelled to write a biography about his king and friend, writing that, ○“In any event, I would rather commit my story to writing, and hand it down in... | <urn:uuid:8d80b700-f1c2-494f-9646-2cd44f680c6f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/charlemagne-15 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00147.warc.gz | en | 0.98801 | 674 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.01415642723441... | 1 | Charlemagne, also known as Charles the Great and Charles I, was not only a king of France, but a commanding historical figure. Charlemagne is believed to have been born sometime around the year 742. He became King of the Franks in 768 and went on to become the Emperor of the Carolingian Empire in 800, before his death in 814.
Charlemagne’s father, King Pepin (the short), officially put an end to the Merovingian line of kings to become King of the Franks, and willed that Francia be divided between both Charlemagne and his brother Carloman upon his death in 768. The divided rule was short lived, ○“Carloman had succumbed to disease after ruling two years in common with his brother, at his death Charles was unanimously elected King of the Franks” (Einhard 27). By the time Charlemagne was elected King of the Franks, his country had already occupied the majority of France, all of the Netherlands, and Belgium, most of Switzerland, and a sizeable portion of Germany. During his reign of forty-seven years he added even more territories including: Saxony, Bavaria, parts of Austria, the Kingdom of Lombardy, and the Spanish March, which was in the Pyrenees along the French border. During his reign Charlemagne managed to amass a kingdom that became the largest in the history of Western Europe, after the collapse of the Roman Empire.
After Pope Leo III called on Charlemagne for assistance after being brutalized by the Romans, ○“Charles accordingly went to Rome, to sent in order the affairs of the Church, which were in great confusion, and passed the whole winter there” (Einhard 56). Following his tending to the Pope and the Church, on December 25, 800, Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Romans and Augustus by Pope Leo III. After being given the title of Emperor, Charlemagne codified laws and even stabilized and standardized currency. He focused on Christian beliefs and fostered architecture and arts. This period has become known as the Carolingian Dynasty. The sense of renewal in a newly stabilized society was stimulated by an elite group of scholars gathered to Charlemagne’s court. During this time, there was a strong flourish of arts, literature, architecture, and religion.
Charlemagne married several times and had several children, not only as product of his marriages, but from his concubines as well. He was very intent on having his children, male and female, study the liberal arts. He was also particularly personally fond of these studies. At the time of his death in 814, his son Louis succeeded him.
Einhard, born in 775 in an ancient Frankish homeland, in a valley of the River Main, was taken into Charlemagne’s court sometime between 791 and 792. After the scholar Alcuin retired to the monastery, Einhard became a go to source for answers for Charlemagne. After Charlemagne’s death Einhard felt compelled to write a biography about his king and friend, writing that, ○“In any event, I would rather commit my story to writing, and hand it down in... | 686 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1856, the atmosphere in Congress grew increasingly divisive following the 1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act, which allowed popular sovereignty in both territories. Popular sovereignty meant that the people of those territories could vote on whether or not to allow slavery. Kansas was a battleground for those who supported slavery and those who were against slavery. People from both sides rushed into Kansas after the Kansas-Nebraska Act to try to influence the vote.
Sumner's Venomous Words
On May 19th, 1856, Massachusetts anti-slavery, Republican senator Charles Sumner delivered a vituperative speech to the Senate that came to be known as the “Crimes Against Kansas Speech." In the speech he insulted the author of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, Stephen A. Douglas. He saved his most vicious words, however, for South Carolina Senator Andrew Butler. Sumner’s words were so venomous that they were denounced by most Northerners as “un-American.” Only the most radical abolitionists seemed to support the speech. Unfortunately for Sumner, South Carolina representative Preston Brooks was listening. Brooks was a distant cousin of Butler.
The Revenge of Preston Brooks
On May 22, Brooks sought out Sumner in the Senate chamber and said, “You’ve libeled my state and slandered my white-haired old relative, Senator Andrew Butler, and I’ve come to punish you for it.” Brooks proceeded to beat Sumner over the head with his cane to the point of unconsciousness. When he was satisfied that the beating was sufficient, Brooks calmly left the scene as stunned onlookers gawked.
Brooks Becomes a Martyr of-sorts
Brooks resigned from the Senate, but was hailed as a hero throughout the South. Brooks was said to have received dozens of new canes from his new legion of pro-slavery supporters. Northerners were horrified, but hailed Sumner as a hero and leader of the anti-slavery cause. Sumner was severely injured and took years to fully recover. When his injuries finally healed, he served an additional 15 years in the Senate.
The beating, now called the Caning of Senator Sumner, served to further strain relations between the North and South and brought the country one step closer to Civil War. | <urn:uuid:3bea348d-47e9-4735-b7e2-1ddaf453d012> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/the-caning-of-senator-sumner | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00443.warc.gz | en | 0.981322 | 478 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.10298176854848... | 1 | In 1856, the atmosphere in Congress grew increasingly divisive following the 1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act, which allowed popular sovereignty in both territories. Popular sovereignty meant that the people of those territories could vote on whether or not to allow slavery. Kansas was a battleground for those who supported slavery and those who were against slavery. People from both sides rushed into Kansas after the Kansas-Nebraska Act to try to influence the vote.
Sumner's Venomous Words
On May 19th, 1856, Massachusetts anti-slavery, Republican senator Charles Sumner delivered a vituperative speech to the Senate that came to be known as the “Crimes Against Kansas Speech." In the speech he insulted the author of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, Stephen A. Douglas. He saved his most vicious words, however, for South Carolina Senator Andrew Butler. Sumner’s words were so venomous that they were denounced by most Northerners as “un-American.” Only the most radical abolitionists seemed to support the speech. Unfortunately for Sumner, South Carolina representative Preston Brooks was listening. Brooks was a distant cousin of Butler.
The Revenge of Preston Brooks
On May 22, Brooks sought out Sumner in the Senate chamber and said, “You’ve libeled my state and slandered my white-haired old relative, Senator Andrew Butler, and I’ve come to punish you for it.” Brooks proceeded to beat Sumner over the head with his cane to the point of unconsciousness. When he was satisfied that the beating was sufficient, Brooks calmly left the scene as stunned onlookers gawked.
Brooks Becomes a Martyr of-sorts
Brooks resigned from the Senate, but was hailed as a hero throughout the South. Brooks was said to have received dozens of new canes from his new legion of pro-slavery supporters. Northerners were horrified, but hailed Sumner as a hero and leader of the anti-slavery cause. Sumner was severely injured and took years to fully recover. When his injuries finally healed, he served an additional 15 years in the Senate.
The beating, now called the Caning of Senator Sumner, served to further strain relations between the North and South and brought the country one step closer to Civil War. | 468 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What do we understand from the story "How It Happened" by Arthur Conan Doyle about the existence of people after death?
It should be noted that the story opens with two short sentences:
She was a writing medium. This is what she wrote:--
A medium is a person who can supposedly communicate with the dead, so a "writing medium" must be a person who takes down dictation from dead persons. (Other mediums usually allow the dead to speak through them in their own voices, or approximations thereof.)
The rest of the story is told in the first person by a man who is dead, although we don't fully realize that fact until the very end. This is because the explanation about the medium is so brief and because we get caught up in the dramatic action involved with a man desperately trying to steer a runaway automobile down a steep, winding hill.
The story suggests that people continue to exist after death. They are conscious of everything around them and are able to communicate with other dead people but are invisible and insubstantial as far as the living are concerned.
Arthur Conan Doyle had a problem with writing this story. He wanted it to be a first-person narrative--but how could the narrator tell his own story if he was already dead? The solution was to have the dead man dictate his story to a medium.
It is well known that Doyle became a convinced believer in spiritualism, especially after he had a beloved son killed in World War I. So "How It Happened" is not just a fantasy written to amuse readers. It expresses something that Doyle himself sincerely believed. He attended many spiritualist seances hoping to communicate with his dead son and with other deceased persons, and he devoted much writing time to promoting spiritualism and other supernatural phenomena. This was considered odd by skeptics because Doyle was the creator of the supremely rational, skeptical Sherlock Holmes.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:09395082-05f8-42e2-9af8-65e97a9469c7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-do-we-understand-from-story-how-happened-by-313651?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=topics_related_hh_questions&en_category=internal_campaign | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00031.warc.gz | en | 0.981007 | 394 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.0219876... | 3 | What do we understand from the story "How It Happened" by Arthur Conan Doyle about the existence of people after death?
It should be noted that the story opens with two short sentences:
She was a writing medium. This is what she wrote:--
A medium is a person who can supposedly communicate with the dead, so a "writing medium" must be a person who takes down dictation from dead persons. (Other mediums usually allow the dead to speak through them in their own voices, or approximations thereof.)
The rest of the story is told in the first person by a man who is dead, although we don't fully realize that fact until the very end. This is because the explanation about the medium is so brief and because we get caught up in the dramatic action involved with a man desperately trying to steer a runaway automobile down a steep, winding hill.
The story suggests that people continue to exist after death. They are conscious of everything around them and are able to communicate with other dead people but are invisible and insubstantial as far as the living are concerned.
Arthur Conan Doyle had a problem with writing this story. He wanted it to be a first-person narrative--but how could the narrator tell his own story if he was already dead? The solution was to have the dead man dictate his story to a medium.
It is well known that Doyle became a convinced believer in spiritualism, especially after he had a beloved son killed in World War I. So "How It Happened" is not just a fantasy written to amuse readers. It expresses something that Doyle himself sincerely believed. He attended many spiritualist seances hoping to communicate with his dead son and with other deceased persons, and he devoted much writing time to promoting spiritualism and other supernatural phenomena. This was considered odd by skeptics because Doyle was the creator of the supremely rational, skeptical Sherlock Holmes.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 384 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Name for a vessel made of clay, earthenware, bronze and more rarely also from Glass, The Greek name "Amphora" is derived from the fact that the vessel could be "carried two handles" ("amphi" = "carrying two handles" and "phéro" = "carrying"). For larger volumes or weights, this was done by two people. It was probably made by the Canaanites, the ancestors of the Phoenicians, invented and 1500 BC AD Egypt brought. The amphorae became the most popular vessel in the world antiquity, which was used for liquids of all kinds, especially for oil or wine. It was later used by the Greeks until after China brought.
The classic wine amphora was a bulbous clay pot with two handles on a narrow neck and a tapered lower part. Most of the time, amphorae had no feet, so they could not be placed without a mostly three-legged stand, but were also stored lying down or hung on the handles. They were also often used for ship transport, for which purpose they were stuck in a thick layer of sand with the pointed base. There were various forms, including the Attic Pelike (also Stamnos) with a fixed base and short neck, which was mainly used for the storage and transport of wine and oil, but also as an urn for storing the ashes in tombs. Small amphorae for ointment oils, perfumes or fragrances were used as Amphoriskos designated.
The size was very different. Greek amphorae for wine held about 40 liters; with the Romans "Amphora" was also used as a unit of measure for 26 liters (see under congius the ancient Roman dimensions). The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus (90-21 BC) writes that when trading between Romans and Celts (in the 5th century BC) the equivalent of only one amphora of wine was a slave, but that was certainly not the true equivalent. Often the amphorae were covered with wax or resin poured out. In Greece it was customary to cover the surface of the wine with a layer of resin and oil before capping to increase the shelf life. This is how the traditional Harz wine is made Retsina emerged.
Amphorae were sealed with plugs made of terracotta (burned earth), which were fastened with string and then sealed with lacquer, clay or pitch. This made the container airtight and the wine contained in it could be stored for a long time. The famous one referred to as "Opimian" Falernian has been preserved in amphorae for 100 years and longer. Also one labeling was already common among the Romans. Since the vintage was the only way to differentiate between wines until the development of renowned growing regions, the amphorae were labeled accordingly. Such labels were written on either the belly or neck of the amphorae with ink, red lead (lead oxide) or white paint. They also hung on the neck in the form of tablets.
The two most important labels were the age and the variety. Sometimes even warehouse information or the date of racking was given, the color only if a growing area produced both white and red wine. Occasionally, quality attributes such as "bonum" or "excellens" were found on the tablets. But even then there was already one misnomer, such as the Falernian, Clay pots were like the amphorae Dolium (Roman Empire) and pithos (Greece), as well as those still used today Kvevri (Georgia) and tinaja (Spain) These were or are much larger with up to several 1,000 liters. Today, amphorae are increasingly used in the fermentation and / or maturation of wines made according to ancient methods. See under Kachetic procedure and Orange Wine,
Amphorae Apulia: By AlMare - Own WEerk, CC BY-SA 3.0 , Link
Amphorae Croatia: Von Silverije - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0 , Link
Amphora Shipwreck: By Dimitris Vetsikas from Pixabay
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0.18927374482154... | 3 | Name for a vessel made of clay, earthenware, bronze and more rarely also from Glass, The Greek name "Amphora" is derived from the fact that the vessel could be "carried two handles" ("amphi" = "carrying two handles" and "phéro" = "carrying"). For larger volumes or weights, this was done by two people. It was probably made by the Canaanites, the ancestors of the Phoenicians, invented and 1500 BC AD Egypt brought. The amphorae became the most popular vessel in the world antiquity, which was used for liquids of all kinds, especially for oil or wine. It was later used by the Greeks until after China brought.
The classic wine amphora was a bulbous clay pot with two handles on a narrow neck and a tapered lower part. Most of the time, amphorae had no feet, so they could not be placed without a mostly three-legged stand, but were also stored lying down or hung on the handles. They were also often used for ship transport, for which purpose they were stuck in a thick layer of sand with the pointed base. There were various forms, including the Attic Pelike (also Stamnos) with a fixed base and short neck, which was mainly used for the storage and transport of wine and oil, but also as an urn for storing the ashes in tombs. Small amphorae for ointment oils, perfumes or fragrances were used as Amphoriskos designated.
The size was very different. Greek amphorae for wine held about 40 liters; with the Romans "Amphora" was also used as a unit of measure for 26 liters (see under congius the ancient Roman dimensions). The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus (90-21 BC) writes that when trading between Romans and Celts (in the 5th century BC) the equivalent of only one amphora of wine was a slave, but that was certainly not the true equivalent. Often the amphorae were covered with wax or resin poured out. In Greece it was customary to cover the surface of the wine with a layer of resin and oil before capping to increase the shelf life. This is how the traditional Harz wine is made Retsina emerged.
Amphorae were sealed with plugs made of terracotta (burned earth), which were fastened with string and then sealed with lacquer, clay or pitch. This made the container airtight and the wine contained in it could be stored for a long time. The famous one referred to as "Opimian" Falernian has been preserved in amphorae for 100 years and longer. Also one labeling was already common among the Romans. Since the vintage was the only way to differentiate between wines until the development of renowned growing regions, the amphorae were labeled accordingly. Such labels were written on either the belly or neck of the amphorae with ink, red lead (lead oxide) or white paint. They also hung on the neck in the form of tablets.
The two most important labels were the age and the variety. Sometimes even warehouse information or the date of racking was given, the color only if a growing area produced both white and red wine. Occasionally, quality attributes such as "bonum" or "excellens" were found on the tablets. But even then there was already one misnomer, such as the Falernian, Clay pots were like the amphorae Dolium (Roman Empire) and pithos (Greece), as well as those still used today Kvevri (Georgia) and tinaja (Spain) These were or are much larger with up to several 1,000 liters. Today, amphorae are increasingly used in the fermentation and / or maturation of wines made according to ancient methods. See under Kachetic procedure and Orange Wine,
Amphorae Apulia: By AlMare - Own WEerk, CC BY-SA 3.0 , Link
Amphorae Croatia: Von Silverije - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0 , Link
Amphora Shipwreck: By Dimitris Vetsikas from Pixabay
Amphora terracotta: by Capri23auto from Pixabay | 895 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Born Francois-Marie Arouet) French philosopher, essayist, dramatist, historian, poet, critic, and autobiographer.
The following entry provides an overview of Voltaire's life and works. See also Candide Criticism.
The eighteenth century is often called the Age of Enlightenment, but it is just as often called the Age of Voltaire—in the minds of many intellectual historians, the two are synonymous. Voltaire wrote in many genres, excelling at several, but in the modern era he is best remembered for his connections with the theater, his philosophical works, and his contes—short adventure stories dramatizing philosophical issues. The most famous of these is Candide (1759), a satire of G. W. Leibniz's philosophy of optimism, which examined the reality and absurdity of human suffering. He attracted many admirers as well as many critics; his open anticlerical stance was particularly controversial and led to many of his works being censored. He was a Deist for much of his life, and was skeptical of most established political and religious institutions, though he strove for objectivity in his writings. Although exiled from Paris more than once, by the end of his life he was generally celebrated as one of France's greatest thinkers. The values for which he fought most vigorously—freedom and progress—have become basic assumptions underlying modern Western civilization.
Voltaire was born Francois-Marie Arouet on November 21, 1694, in or around Paris. His parents were Marguerite Daumard and Francois Arouet, a notary in Paris. He was so weak at birth that he was not expected to live, and was ill and hypochondriacal much of his life. Biographers have suggested that the young Francois-Marie made up for a feeble body by developing a lively mind; even as a student he was known for his brilliance, wit, and impulsive nature. His sister and mother, with whom he was quite close, died when he was young, and he and his brother parted ways over the issue of religious tolerance. He was educated by the Jesuits at the Collège Louis-le-Grand in Paris where he learned to love literature and to distrust religious institutions. His godfather, the abbé Châteauneuf, also oversaw parts of his education. The abbé introduced him to abbé Chaulieu, who in turn introduced him to Deism and the art of writing poetry. Abbé Châteauneuf also introduced his godchild to his lover, the courtesan Ninon de Lenclos, who further encouraged his studies in philosophy and literature, and took him to the Société du Temple, a group of hedonistic libertines who rejected Christianity and embraced humanism. Thus, even in his adolescence, Francois-Marie developed a strong foundation for the philosophy he would espouse as Voltaire.
After completing school, Francois-Marie planned to pursue a career as a poet, but his father intervened, sending him to Holland to work for the French ambassador. Holland was the home of exiled Huguenots, victims of religious intolerance; Francois-Marie fell in love with a young Huguenot girl known as “Pimpette” and was swiftly called home. He entered law school to please his father and began his literary career in earnest, using the connections developed in school and at the Société du Temple, and his gift for witty conversation, to move in the highest social circles, but fell nearly as quickly as he rose. After writing a poem lampooning the regent Phillipe d'Orleans, he was exiled from Paris, though he later pleaded successfully for his return. In 1717, Francois-Marie again mocked the regent in verse, but instead of being exiled he was sent to the Bastille for a year. While there, he wrote one of his greatest poems: La ligue; ou Henry le Grand (The League, or Henry the Great), an epic poem on the subject of Henry IV and his advancement of religious freedom. The poem was not published until 1723, and was then printed secretly.
After his release from prison in April 1718 he began his long association with the...
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0.27443361282348... | 1 | (Born Francois-Marie Arouet) French philosopher, essayist, dramatist, historian, poet, critic, and autobiographer.
The following entry provides an overview of Voltaire's life and works. See also Candide Criticism.
The eighteenth century is often called the Age of Enlightenment, but it is just as often called the Age of Voltaire—in the minds of many intellectual historians, the two are synonymous. Voltaire wrote in many genres, excelling at several, but in the modern era he is best remembered for his connections with the theater, his philosophical works, and his contes—short adventure stories dramatizing philosophical issues. The most famous of these is Candide (1759), a satire of G. W. Leibniz's philosophy of optimism, which examined the reality and absurdity of human suffering. He attracted many admirers as well as many critics; his open anticlerical stance was particularly controversial and led to many of his works being censored. He was a Deist for much of his life, and was skeptical of most established political and religious institutions, though he strove for objectivity in his writings. Although exiled from Paris more than once, by the end of his life he was generally celebrated as one of France's greatest thinkers. The values for which he fought most vigorously—freedom and progress—have become basic assumptions underlying modern Western civilization.
Voltaire was born Francois-Marie Arouet on November 21, 1694, in or around Paris. His parents were Marguerite Daumard and Francois Arouet, a notary in Paris. He was so weak at birth that he was not expected to live, and was ill and hypochondriacal much of his life. Biographers have suggested that the young Francois-Marie made up for a feeble body by developing a lively mind; even as a student he was known for his brilliance, wit, and impulsive nature. His sister and mother, with whom he was quite close, died when he was young, and he and his brother parted ways over the issue of religious tolerance. He was educated by the Jesuits at the Collège Louis-le-Grand in Paris where he learned to love literature and to distrust religious institutions. His godfather, the abbé Châteauneuf, also oversaw parts of his education. The abbé introduced him to abbé Chaulieu, who in turn introduced him to Deism and the art of writing poetry. Abbé Châteauneuf also introduced his godchild to his lover, the courtesan Ninon de Lenclos, who further encouraged his studies in philosophy and literature, and took him to the Société du Temple, a group of hedonistic libertines who rejected Christianity and embraced humanism. Thus, even in his adolescence, Francois-Marie developed a strong foundation for the philosophy he would espouse as Voltaire.
After completing school, Francois-Marie planned to pursue a career as a poet, but his father intervened, sending him to Holland to work for the French ambassador. Holland was the home of exiled Huguenots, victims of religious intolerance; Francois-Marie fell in love with a young Huguenot girl known as “Pimpette” and was swiftly called home. He entered law school to please his father and began his literary career in earnest, using the connections developed in school and at the Société du Temple, and his gift for witty conversation, to move in the highest social circles, but fell nearly as quickly as he rose. After writing a poem lampooning the regent Phillipe d'Orleans, he was exiled from Paris, though he later pleaded successfully for his return. In 1717, Francois-Marie again mocked the regent in verse, but instead of being exiled he was sent to the Bastille for a year. While there, he wrote one of his greatest poems: La ligue; ou Henry le Grand (The League, or Henry the Great), an epic poem on the subject of Henry IV and his advancement of religious freedom. The poem was not published until 1723, and was then printed secretly.
After his release from prison in April 1718 he began his long association with the...
(The entire section is 96,500 words.) | 895 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Translated By: Seten Tomh
Laozi, literally “Old Master,” probably lived during the Warring States period of the 4th century BCE. This was an era in ancient Chinese history characterized by war, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation, leading to the first unified Chinese empire known as the Qin dynasty. Laozi was an official in the imperial archives, a scholar who worked as the Keeper of the archives for the royal court of Zhou. This allowed him broad access to the works of the Yellow Emperor and other classics of the time. Laozi never opened a formal school but attracted a large number of students and loyal disciples. Laozi grew weary of the moral decay of life in Chengzhou and, noting the kingdom’s decline, travelled west to live as a hermit in the unsettled frontier at an advanced age. At the western gate he was recognized by the guard Yinxi. The sentry asked the old master to record his wisdom for the good of the country before he would be permitted to pass. The text Laozi wrote was the Tao Te Ching. | <urn:uuid:c8f5063c-8204-4cdd-b8a1-f8f936511311> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://chronikerpress.com/featured-title/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00082.warc.gz | en | 0.982647 | 231 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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Laozi, literally “Old Master,” probably lived during the Warring States period of the 4th century BCE. This was an era in ancient Chinese history characterized by war, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation, leading to the first unified Chinese empire known as the Qin dynasty. Laozi was an official in the imperial archives, a scholar who worked as the Keeper of the archives for the royal court of Zhou. This allowed him broad access to the works of the Yellow Emperor and other classics of the time. Laozi never opened a formal school but attracted a large number of students and loyal disciples. Laozi grew weary of the moral decay of life in Chengzhou and, noting the kingdom’s decline, travelled west to live as a hermit in the unsettled frontier at an advanced age. At the western gate he was recognized by the guard Yinxi. The sentry asked the old master to record his wisdom for the good of the country before he would be permitted to pass. The text Laozi wrote was the Tao Te Ching. | 225 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For a long time, women were excluded from formal education system thereby restricting them from expressing their opinions through their writing that would reflect their experiences of oppression. Women were victims not only of the everyday forms of violence in the household but they were also denied of equal political rights in the public sphere.
During the late colonial period however, these discriminations of patriarchal domination were brought into light by the social reformers in Bengal and Maharashtra. The Indian elites began to be amalgamated into a middle class which sought to transform itself by organising campaigns against various caste based discrimination, child marriage, sati, purdah system etc. They took up the responsibility on behalf of the women of abolishing the orthodox prejudices and restructuring the society.
However, such appropriations of the lives of women were not only flawed, but they often led to the preservation of patriarchy rather than its abolishment. 19th century reformers believed that the difference between the sexes was such that their roles, functions, aims and desires were different. Later, they asserted that such differences mustn’t be a reason for the subjugation of women. Conversely, however, they used this same “difference” to portray women as “mothers of the nation” or as “goddesses” for their nationalist propaganda. Such perspectives were emphasised not only to provide momentum to the nationalist movement but also to guard the institutions of family and religion from any crisis or dysfunction.
The denial of educational opportunities to women in turn helped men acquire cultural capital over the years thereby gradually facilitating them to become more eligible to read, write, interpret and understand the changes occurring in and around them. Their cultural capital also helped these upper castes, middle class men to attain social and economic capital which created a gap between the social positions of the two genders. They became objects of knowledge, of language and of power that took charge of advancing the Women’s movement and were not ready to pass over the control that they commanded over the lives of women.
Rassundari Devi’s “Amar Jibon (1876)” is a text that marked the historic event of publishing a woman’s autobiography which challenged patriarchy as early as the 19th century Bengal. She did not receive any formal education, since literate women were looked down upon at that period of time.
However, there are accounts of women who challenged such patriarchal orders and produced texts in order to motivate and mobilise women to come together and resist against the gender norms. Rassundari Devi’s “Amar Jibon (1876)” is a text that marked the historic event of publishing a woman’s autobiography which challenged patriarchy as early as the 19th century Bengal. She did not receive any formal education, since literate women were looked down upon at that period of time. However, that could not forbid her to read and write. Since then, various other female writers had started lettering their experiences into texts that would help mobilise women against the oppressive gender roles.
The criticism by the colonialists against the orthodox and traditional Indian culture focused largely on the treatment of women. The nationalists, especially the middle class reformers, hence brought a “new patriarchy” into existence that claimed to be different not only from the traditional Indian order but also dissimilar from the Western culture. It began the construction of a “new woman” typically belonging to the urban, middle class families who was exposed to these changes that were occurring in the educational system of the society. This “new woman” was educated but not westernized, but neither was she the oppressed object of traditional patriarchy that denied educational opportunities and a space in the public sphere.
Autonomous organisations were formed and forms of activism were constructed with approaches that were written and conceptualised by women. But even though the leadership was passed on to women, it was still the privileged, urban, upper caste, middle class women who took the charge to decide the course of action of their rebellion against oppression. It failed to capture the oppression that Dalit women, rural women or the Muslim women faced during that time thereby resulting to an inadequate representation of the subaltern.
These issues, which were giving birth to differences between women in that period of time and failing to assemble women from all classes, castes, creeds, cultures, ethnicities and religions, still persist to exist even in the contemporary industrialised, democratic India. The state, even after seven decades of independence has been unable to ensure equal opportunities for women, which would guarantee an unbiased representation of women in politics, movements and in other spheres of everyday life. However, contemporary feminists have tried to include the subaltern in their literature as well as their movements and are continuously making an effort to bring forward the voices that were repressed through centuries.
Writing: A Form Of Protest
When Mahasweta Devi started writing she was 13 and India was still colonized. She is now popularly known as one of the foremost post-colonial feminists who signify a “rare union of revolutionary creativity and radical social action”. Her work traces not only the history of resistance by women against the colonial rule but they also reflect of her incessant battle against the government machinery that exploited and oppressed the subaltern groups in many parts of India since independence. Her sympathetic portrayal of the subordination of women and the violence afflicted on them by various masculine structures, both in public (State) and private (Family) domains of the society had spread a consciousness of the need for a struggle to build a movement for women in India.
Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain, a Bengali writer and activist, popularly considered as the pioneer of Islamic feminism in India wrote a sci-fi utopian novella called “Sultana’s Dream (1905)” which attempted to include the Muslim women within the feminist philosophy challenging the bias of Women’s movement that simply concerned itself with issues about the Hindu women thereby ignoring diverse voices and opinions. After a decade, in the year 1916, the Begum of Bhopal founded the All India Muslim Conference whose primary objective was to impart education to women and fight against Muslim forms of patriarchal order and gender roles. Much later, Ismat Chugtai became a powerful voice in Urdu literature and fought for the freedom of speech when she was convicted for homoeroticism and her “fearless explorations of feminine sexuality” in her book “Lihaaf (1942)”.
Apart from Bengal, Maharashtra too witnessed the production of a great variety of feminist literature. Marathi female writers such as Tarabai Shinde, Pandita Ramabai and Anandibai Joshi have produced writings that have critiqued colonialism as well as provided profundity to the Women’s protests within the movement by challenging religious oppression, brahmanical order and male domination.
Marathi female writers such as Tarabai Shinde, Pandita Ramabai and Anandibai Joshi have produced writings that have critiqued colonialism as well as provided profundity to the Women’s protests within the movement by challenging religious oppression, brahmanical order and male domination.
Various writers from different parts of the country started penning down their experiences as women or as nationalists demanding equal recognition in the movement for Independence. Texts written by Cornelia Sorabji and Sarojini Naidu reflect such ideas that claimed spaces for women, be it ideological or political. However, a major breakthrough occurred in the Women’s movement when the Committee on the Status of Women in India published a report called “Towards Equality” in the year 1974 which dealt with various themes and issues concerning the conditions of women in India.
The last three decades witnessed a huge growth in the number of feminist writings written both around the Indian context keeping them in constant dialogue with the feminist developments worldwide. Writers such as Kamla Bhasin, Ritu Menon, Vandana Shiva, Arundhati Roy contributed an enormous range of perspectives to several matters from a feminist standpoint. In the domain of journalism and media too, women started entering such spaces which earlier were dominated by men.
Women also entered into the Indian film industry and produced films that were based on issues regarding women’s sexuality, their oppression, their everyday struggles and their contribution in the society. Deepa Mehta’s “Fire (1998)”, a script based on homosexual relationship between two Hindu women produced an outrage from Hindu fundamentalist groups which led to various incidents of violence in the theatres as they attempted to shut down screenings of the film.
Two decades later, the situation hasn’t changed much as even today films based on feminist scripts are banned by religious fanatics who constantly try to threaten such progressive ideas through means of political power or physical violence. This too happens when women speak up in social media about issues not only concerning to the Women, but also raise their voices against religious, caste based, ethnic atrocities in the country.
They fall victims to various episodes of verbal threatening in the form of rape threats or are even physically or sexually assaulted or even murdered by the orthodox, conservative groups. The harassment of Gurmehar Kaur and the murder of the journalist, Gauri Lankesh who resisted against various forces through their writings on their social media accounts, stand as examples of such ruthless violence against women by the Hindu fundamentalists even in the 21st century India thereby resulting in a setback to the Women’s movement in this country.
My knowledge about the contribution to literature by women is restricted to the works of Bengali or Maharashtrian writers since I was mostly exposed to them. It is also restricted to the works of women that were published and received a certain amount of recognition. However, there are various texts that were written but never received ample acknowledgement.
There are also male writers, filmmakers, journalists who have contributed in the Women’s movement in India and have suffered the consequences of taking a standpoint for women through their writings. These limitations need to be addressed and written about in order to provide a more elaborate explanation as to how the act of writing can be revolutionary for movements.
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0.174939021468162... | 11 | For a long time, women were excluded from formal education system thereby restricting them from expressing their opinions through their writing that would reflect their experiences of oppression. Women were victims not only of the everyday forms of violence in the household but they were also denied of equal political rights in the public sphere.
During the late colonial period however, these discriminations of patriarchal domination were brought into light by the social reformers in Bengal and Maharashtra. The Indian elites began to be amalgamated into a middle class which sought to transform itself by organising campaigns against various caste based discrimination, child marriage, sati, purdah system etc. They took up the responsibility on behalf of the women of abolishing the orthodox prejudices and restructuring the society.
However, such appropriations of the lives of women were not only flawed, but they often led to the preservation of patriarchy rather than its abolishment. 19th century reformers believed that the difference between the sexes was such that their roles, functions, aims and desires were different. Later, they asserted that such differences mustn’t be a reason for the subjugation of women. Conversely, however, they used this same “difference” to portray women as “mothers of the nation” or as “goddesses” for their nationalist propaganda. Such perspectives were emphasised not only to provide momentum to the nationalist movement but also to guard the institutions of family and religion from any crisis or dysfunction.
The denial of educational opportunities to women in turn helped men acquire cultural capital over the years thereby gradually facilitating them to become more eligible to read, write, interpret and understand the changes occurring in and around them. Their cultural capital also helped these upper castes, middle class men to attain social and economic capital which created a gap between the social positions of the two genders. They became objects of knowledge, of language and of power that took charge of advancing the Women’s movement and were not ready to pass over the control that they commanded over the lives of women.
Rassundari Devi’s “Amar Jibon (1876)” is a text that marked the historic event of publishing a woman’s autobiography which challenged patriarchy as early as the 19th century Bengal. She did not receive any formal education, since literate women were looked down upon at that period of time.
However, there are accounts of women who challenged such patriarchal orders and produced texts in order to motivate and mobilise women to come together and resist against the gender norms. Rassundari Devi’s “Amar Jibon (1876)” is a text that marked the historic event of publishing a woman’s autobiography which challenged patriarchy as early as the 19th century Bengal. She did not receive any formal education, since literate women were looked down upon at that period of time. However, that could not forbid her to read and write. Since then, various other female writers had started lettering their experiences into texts that would help mobilise women against the oppressive gender roles.
The criticism by the colonialists against the orthodox and traditional Indian culture focused largely on the treatment of women. The nationalists, especially the middle class reformers, hence brought a “new patriarchy” into existence that claimed to be different not only from the traditional Indian order but also dissimilar from the Western culture. It began the construction of a “new woman” typically belonging to the urban, middle class families who was exposed to these changes that were occurring in the educational system of the society. This “new woman” was educated but not westernized, but neither was she the oppressed object of traditional patriarchy that denied educational opportunities and a space in the public sphere.
Autonomous organisations were formed and forms of activism were constructed with approaches that were written and conceptualised by women. But even though the leadership was passed on to women, it was still the privileged, urban, upper caste, middle class women who took the charge to decide the course of action of their rebellion against oppression. It failed to capture the oppression that Dalit women, rural women or the Muslim women faced during that time thereby resulting to an inadequate representation of the subaltern.
These issues, which were giving birth to differences between women in that period of time and failing to assemble women from all classes, castes, creeds, cultures, ethnicities and religions, still persist to exist even in the contemporary industrialised, democratic India. The state, even after seven decades of independence has been unable to ensure equal opportunities for women, which would guarantee an unbiased representation of women in politics, movements and in other spheres of everyday life. However, contemporary feminists have tried to include the subaltern in their literature as well as their movements and are continuously making an effort to bring forward the voices that were repressed through centuries.
Writing: A Form Of Protest
When Mahasweta Devi started writing she was 13 and India was still colonized. She is now popularly known as one of the foremost post-colonial feminists who signify a “rare union of revolutionary creativity and radical social action”. Her work traces not only the history of resistance by women against the colonial rule but they also reflect of her incessant battle against the government machinery that exploited and oppressed the subaltern groups in many parts of India since independence. Her sympathetic portrayal of the subordination of women and the violence afflicted on them by various masculine structures, both in public (State) and private (Family) domains of the society had spread a consciousness of the need for a struggle to build a movement for women in India.
Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain, a Bengali writer and activist, popularly considered as the pioneer of Islamic feminism in India wrote a sci-fi utopian novella called “Sultana’s Dream (1905)” which attempted to include the Muslim women within the feminist philosophy challenging the bias of Women’s movement that simply concerned itself with issues about the Hindu women thereby ignoring diverse voices and opinions. After a decade, in the year 1916, the Begum of Bhopal founded the All India Muslim Conference whose primary objective was to impart education to women and fight against Muslim forms of patriarchal order and gender roles. Much later, Ismat Chugtai became a powerful voice in Urdu literature and fought for the freedom of speech when she was convicted for homoeroticism and her “fearless explorations of feminine sexuality” in her book “Lihaaf (1942)”.
Apart from Bengal, Maharashtra too witnessed the production of a great variety of feminist literature. Marathi female writers such as Tarabai Shinde, Pandita Ramabai and Anandibai Joshi have produced writings that have critiqued colonialism as well as provided profundity to the Women’s protests within the movement by challenging religious oppression, brahmanical order and male domination.
Marathi female writers such as Tarabai Shinde, Pandita Ramabai and Anandibai Joshi have produced writings that have critiqued colonialism as well as provided profundity to the Women’s protests within the movement by challenging religious oppression, brahmanical order and male domination.
Various writers from different parts of the country started penning down their experiences as women or as nationalists demanding equal recognition in the movement for Independence. Texts written by Cornelia Sorabji and Sarojini Naidu reflect such ideas that claimed spaces for women, be it ideological or political. However, a major breakthrough occurred in the Women’s movement when the Committee on the Status of Women in India published a report called “Towards Equality” in the year 1974 which dealt with various themes and issues concerning the conditions of women in India.
The last three decades witnessed a huge growth in the number of feminist writings written both around the Indian context keeping them in constant dialogue with the feminist developments worldwide. Writers such as Kamla Bhasin, Ritu Menon, Vandana Shiva, Arundhati Roy contributed an enormous range of perspectives to several matters from a feminist standpoint. In the domain of journalism and media too, women started entering such spaces which earlier were dominated by men.
Women also entered into the Indian film industry and produced films that were based on issues regarding women’s sexuality, their oppression, their everyday struggles and their contribution in the society. Deepa Mehta’s “Fire (1998)”, a script based on homosexual relationship between two Hindu women produced an outrage from Hindu fundamentalist groups which led to various incidents of violence in the theatres as they attempted to shut down screenings of the film.
Two decades later, the situation hasn’t changed much as even today films based on feminist scripts are banned by religious fanatics who constantly try to threaten such progressive ideas through means of political power or physical violence. This too happens when women speak up in social media about issues not only concerning to the Women, but also raise their voices against religious, caste based, ethnic atrocities in the country.
They fall victims to various episodes of verbal threatening in the form of rape threats or are even physically or sexually assaulted or even murdered by the orthodox, conservative groups. The harassment of Gurmehar Kaur and the murder of the journalist, Gauri Lankesh who resisted against various forces through their writings on their social media accounts, stand as examples of such ruthless violence against women by the Hindu fundamentalists even in the 21st century India thereby resulting in a setback to the Women’s movement in this country.
My knowledge about the contribution to literature by women is restricted to the works of Bengali or Maharashtrian writers since I was mostly exposed to them. It is also restricted to the works of women that were published and received a certain amount of recognition. However, there are various texts that were written but never received ample acknowledgement.
There are also male writers, filmmakers, journalists who have contributed in the Women’s movement in India and have suffered the consequences of taking a standpoint for women through their writings. These limitations need to be addressed and written about in order to provide a more elaborate explanation as to how the act of writing can be revolutionary for movements.
Featured Image Source: The New York Times | 2,069 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tolerance is a willingness to accept something or somebody’s opinions that a person may not agree with. It involves respecting others or rules regardless of what they are. It normally involves endurance and perseverance. The following examples of my experience will interpret the notion of tolerance.
I was admitted to members of the church in a secondary school. It was a rule for every student to follow its doctrines and beliefs. We went to church every morning and evening. Every student was to participate in the church activities. It was difficult to practice some of their beliefs, such as memorizing their prayers, but I endured till the end. Just like any other law, I had to love and obey the rule and practice it. I knew that I did not have to agree with other people’s beliefs but had to tolerate and appreciate them.
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Another instance that I have practiced tolerance was when we went in a one-week camp and were put in pairs. Each pair was to share basic necessities including a tent. Any task given was to be done by the pairs, and we were to walk in pairs. It was made in a way that no one was to walk or do anything alone. Unfortunately, my partner was a drug addict. He used all sorts of drugs that I had no idea what their names were. He carried them in his hand bag whenever we went. In addition, he had a very powerful perfume. He could spray it every time he wanted to use drugs. I guess this was to neutralize the smell of the drug. The mixture, i.e. perfume smell and drug smell, was pathetic. It could at times make me vomit! The camp was only for one week, during which I tolerated his acts.
To draw a conclusion, not every person we meet has the qualities and behavior we desire, but we have to tolerate them.
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:c70fe15a-8b68-40f4-bc14-6399dcf89481> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essays-experts.com/essays/informative/tolerance.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00382.warc.gz | en | 0.991496 | 433 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.015347089618... | 1 | Tolerance is a willingness to accept something or somebody’s opinions that a person may not agree with. It involves respecting others or rules regardless of what they are. It normally involves endurance and perseverance. The following examples of my experience will interpret the notion of tolerance.
I was admitted to members of the church in a secondary school. It was a rule for every student to follow its doctrines and beliefs. We went to church every morning and evening. Every student was to participate in the church activities. It was difficult to practice some of their beliefs, such as memorizing their prayers, but I endured till the end. Just like any other law, I had to love and obey the rule and practice it. I knew that I did not have to agree with other people’s beliefs but had to tolerate and appreciate them.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
Another instance that I have practiced tolerance was when we went in a one-week camp and were put in pairs. Each pair was to share basic necessities including a tent. Any task given was to be done by the pairs, and we were to walk in pairs. It was made in a way that no one was to walk or do anything alone. Unfortunately, my partner was a drug addict. He used all sorts of drugs that I had no idea what their names were. He carried them in his hand bag whenever we went. In addition, he had a very powerful perfume. He could spray it every time he wanted to use drugs. I guess this was to neutralize the smell of the drug. The mixture, i.e. perfume smell and drug smell, was pathetic. It could at times make me vomit! The camp was only for one week, during which I tolerated his acts.
To draw a conclusion, not every person we meet has the qualities and behavior we desire, but we have to tolerate them.
Most popular orders | 421 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The E class were ordered as part of the 1931 Naval Construction Programme, the F class following in 1932. These ships were based on the preceding D class with minor changes to the hull and armament. Two of the ships were modified to accommodate 60 mines. The F class were repeats of the E's with some minor differences. All of the destroyers were fitted with ASDIC (sonar) and the ability to use the Two-Speed Destroyer Sweep (TSDS) minesweeping gear.
The E- and F-class destroyers displaced 1,405 long tons (1,428 t) at standard load and 1,940 long tons (1,970 t) at deep load. They had an overall length of 329 feet (100.3 m), a beam of 33 feet 3 inches (10.1 m) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches (3.8 m). The ships' complement was 145 officers and ratings. They were powered by two Parsons geared steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by three Admiralty 3-drum boilers that operated at a pressure of 300 psi (2,068 kPa; 21 kgf/cm2) and a temperature of 620 °F (327 °C). The turbines developed a total of 36,000 shaft horsepower (27,000 kW) and gave a maximum speed of 35.5 knots (65.7 km/h; 40.9 mph). The destroyers carried a maximum of 470–480 long tons (480–490 t) of fuel oil that gave them a range of 6,350 nautical miles (11,760 km; 7,310 mi) at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph).
All of the ships had the same main armament, four quick-firing (QF) 4.7-inch (120 mm) Mark IX guns in single mounts, designated 'A', 'B', 'X', and 'Y' from front to rear. The guns had a maximum elevation of 40° which was achieved by using a lowered section of the deck around the mount, the "well", that allowed the breech of the gun to be lowered below deck height. They fired a 50-pound (22.7 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2,650 ft/s (810 m/s) to a range of 16,970 yards (15,520 m). For anti-aircraft (AA) defence, they had two quadruple mounts for the QF 0.5-inch Vickers Mk III machine gun on platforms between the funnels. The E- and F-class ships were fitted with two quadruple mounts for 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes. The ships, except for the minelayers, were also equipped with two throwers and one rack for 20 depth charges. The stern of the minelayers was fitted with a pair of sponsons that housed part of the mechanical chain-conveyor system and to ensure smooth delivery of her mines. To compensate for the weight of her Mark XIV mines, their rails, two 4.7-inch guns, their ammunition, both sets of torpedo tubes, their whalers and their davits had to be removed.
The main guns were controlled by an Admiralty Fire Control Clock Mk I that used data derived from the manually-operated director-control tower and the separate 9-foot (2.7 m) rangefinder situated above the bridge. They had no capability for anti-aircraft fire and the anti-aircraft guns were aimed solely by eye.
Beginning in May 1940, the after bank of torpedo tubes was removed and replaced with a QF 12-pounder 20-cwt anti-aircraft gun, the after mast and funnel being cut down to improve the gun's field of fire. Four to eight QF 20 mm Oerlikon cannons were added to the surviving ships, usually replacing the .50-calibre machine gun mounts between the funnels. One pair of these was added to the bridge wings and the other pair was mounted abreast the searchlight platform. Early in the war, depth charge stowage increased to 38. By 1943, all the surviving ships, except Fury had the 'Y' gun on the quarterdeck removed to allow for additional depth charge stowage and two additional depth charge throwers. The 12-pounder was removed to allow for the installation of a Huff-Duff radio direction finder on a short mainmast and for more depth charges. All of the survivors, except perhaps for Echo, had 'A' or 'B' gun replaced by a Hedgehog anti-submarine spigot mortar, and their director-control tower and rangefinder above the bridge removed in exchange for a Type 271 target-indication radar, Fame had her 'A' gun reinstalled by 1944. A Type 286 short-range, surface-search radar, adapted from the Royal Air Force's ASV radar, was also added. The early models, however, could only scan directly forward and had to be aimed by turning the entire ship. Express's modifications differed somewhat in that 'B' gun was replaced by a twin-gun QF 6-pounder Hotchkiss mount and a split Hedgehog installation. In addition, she retained her 12-pounder gun, but her remaining torpedo tubes were removed.
For the first time since the A class of the 1927 programme, the flotilla leaders were built to an enlarged design, being lengthened to incorporate an additional QF 4.7-inch gun between the funnels. The lengthened design resulted in a three boiler room layout to enhance water-tight integrity. The leaders were not fitted for minesweeping or minelaying. They displaced 1,475–1,495 long tons (1,499–1,519 t) at standard load and 2,010–2,050 long tons (2,040–2,080 t) at deep load. The ships had an overall length of 343 feet (104.5 m), a beam of 33 feet 9 inches (10.3 m) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches (3.8 m). The ships carried a total of 175 personnel which included the staff of the Captain (D), commanding officer of the flotilla. Their turbines were 2,000 shp (1,500 kW) more powerful than the private ships, which made them 0.5 knots (0.93 km/h; 0.58 mph) faster; their propulsion machinery was otherwise identical. Exmouth was an early wartime loss and consequently received no modifications, but Faulknor survived the war. Her modifications differed somewhat from those of the private ships. She received a 4-inch (102 mm) AA gun in lieu of her aft torpedo tubes, although they were later reinstalled and the 4-inch gun replaced 'X' 4.7-inch gun. Two Oerlikons were later added on the forward part of her aft superstructure and a quadruple QF two-pounder "pom-pom" mount replaced 'Q' gun between the funnels. Finally her rangefinder was replaced by a high-angle director fitted with a Type 285 gunnery radar.
All of the E class were assigned to the 5th Destroyer Flotilla (DF) of the Home Fleet upon commissioning during 1934. Following the Italian invasion of Abyssinia, the entire flotilla was sent to the Red Sea in August 1935 to monitor Italian warship movements until April 1936. Refitted upon their return, many were deployed to Spanish waters during the Spanish Civil War in 1936–39 to intercept shipping carrying contraband goods to Spain and to protect British-flagged ships. While the F-class ships were assigned to the 6th Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet, they followed much the same pattern as their E-class sisters. In April 1939 the 5th and 6th DFs were renumbered the 7th and 8th Destroyer Flotillas, respectively. In mid-1939, newly-commissioned J-class destroyers began to replace the E-class ships and they were reduced to reserve for lack of manpower. Increasing tensions with Nazi Germany in August, caused the British to mobilize the Navy's reserves, which allowed the ships to be manned again and assigned to the 12th Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet.
When the war began on 3 September, the E-class ships, except for the two minelayers, Esk and Express, were assigned to the Western Approaches Command (WAC) for convoy escort and patrolling duties, while the Fs remained with the Home Fleet, performing the same sorts of tasks. On 14 September, Faulknor, Firedrake, and Foxhound, escorting the aircraft carrier Ark Royal, sank U-39, the first German submarine to be lost during the war, after she had unsuccessfully attacked the carrier. Six days later, Fearless, Faulknor, Forester, and Fortune sank U-27. Most of the E class remained with the WAC until April 1940, but several were transferred to Rosyth Command at the end of 1939. Exmouth was one of these and was sunk by U-22 on 21 January 1940 in the Moray Firth. On the other hand, Escapade forced U-63 to the surface on 25 February, which was then scuttled by her crew, and Fortune sank U-44 on 20 March. Esk and Express were assigned to the specialist 20th Destroyer Flotilla shortly after the war began, together with the four I-class destroyer-minelayers, and were busy laying mines in the North Sea and off the English coast through April–May 1940.
The beginning of the Norwegian Campaign in April saw almost all of the E and F class transferred to the Home Fleet for operations in Norwegian waters. For the most part they escorted the ships of the Home Fleet and the various convoys to and from Norway, but Forester and Foxhound were part of the escort for the battleship Warspite during the Second Battle of Narvik on 13 April and the latter helped to sink one German destroyer. While escorting one convoy, Fearless and the destroyer Brazen sank U-49 two days later. Esk and Express were the only two ships committed to the evacuation of Dunkirk in May–June, each rescuing thousands of Allied troops.
Fearless, Escapade, Faulknor, and Foxhound of the 8th DF escorted Ark Royal and the battlecruiser Hood to Gibraltar in late June, where they formed Force H. Eight days later, they participated in the attack on Mers-el-Kébir against the Vichy French ships stationed there, together with Forester, Foresight and Escort. The latter ship was sunk by an Italian submarine on 11 July while covering a Malta convoy. Most of Force H returned to the UK for a brief refit in early August, but upon their return at the end of the month, the 8th DF now consisted of Faulknor, Forester, Foresight, Firedrake, Fortune, Fury, and Greyhound. On the night of 31 August/1 September, Esk, Express and three other minelaying destroyers laid a minefield off the Dutch island of Texel. While doing so, the latter ship struck a mine that blew her bow off. While closing to render aid, Esk struck two mines that broke her in half with heavy casualties. Express was towed back to England for repairs that lasted until October 1941. On 13 September, Force H met a convoy that was carrying troops intended to capture Dakar from the Vichy French that was escorted by Inglefield, Eclipse, Echo, Encounter, and Escapade. Ten days later they attacked Dakar where Foresight and Inglefield sank the French submarine Persée, Fortune sank the submarine Ajax a day later and Foresight sank the submarine Bévéziers on the 25th. After the battle, Escapade and Echo returned to the Home Fleet and resumed their regular duties of fleet escort. On 17 October, Fame ran aground and could not be refloated for several months. The following day, Firedrake together with the destroyer Wrestler and two Royal Air Force flying boats sank the Italian submarine Durbo. Fury, Encounter, Faulknor, Firedrake, and Forester participated in the inconclusive Battle of Cape Spartivento on 27 November.
In 1941, the 8th DF escorted Force H as it covered multiple convoys and aircraft carriers flying off aircraft to Malta. While returning from one of the latter missions, Forester, Foresight, Faulknor, Fearless and Foxhound sank U-138 on 18 June. A month later, Fearless was crippled by Italian bombs on 23 July while escorting a convoy to Malta and had to be scuttled by her sister Foresight while Firedrake was badly damaged by near misses and had to return to Gibraltar for repairs. The ships of the 8th DF mostly returned home between August and October for repairs and refits. Encounter was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in April and spent several months under repair as she was badly damaged by bombs at Malta. The ship was then transferred to the Eastern Fleet in November and arrived at Singapore the following month. Eclipse, Echo, and Electra were assigned to the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet at the beginning of 1941 where they escorted the larger ships of the fleet while they were searching for German commerce raiders and on other missions. Escapade began escorting convoys to Russia in August and continued to do so for most of the following year. Electra did the same for several months until she was detailed to escort the battleship Prince of Wales and the battlecruiser Repulse to Singapore in October, together with Express.
Express and Electra were half of the escorts for Prince of Wales and Repulse as they sailed north on 9 December, but could do little as the Japanese bombers sank the two capital ships other than help to rescue the 3,000-odd survivors. Upon their return to Singapore, they joined Encounter and the other destroyers there escorting ships between Singapore and the Sunda Strait. Electra and Encounter escorted the heavy cruiser Exeter during the Battle of the Java Sea on 27 February 1942. The former ship was sunk by a Japanese destroyer as she covered Exeter's withdrawal. Several days later, Encounter and the American destroyer Pope were escorting the damaged Exeter en route to Ceylon when they encountered four Japanese heavy cruisers and their escorts. Encounter and Exeter were sunk in the subsequent battle on 1 March. Express did not participate in any of these battles because she'd been damaged by a boiler room fire in early February and her repairs did not begin until April. Fortune joined her sister with the Eastern Fleet in February, with Foxhound following two months later.
On 27 March, Fury, Eclipse and the light cruiser Trinidad were escorting Convoy PQ 13 in the Arctic when they were intercepted by three German destroyers. In the ensuing action, the cruiser was damaged by one of her own torpedoes and Eclipse was hit twice, although the cruiser sank the German destroyer Z26. Foresight, Forester and the light cruiser Edinburgh were the close escort for Convoy QP 11, returning from Murmansk to Iceland, when Edinburgh was torpedoed on 29 April. The two hits disabled her steering and she had to be towed by the two destroyers. Two days later, they were attacked by three German destroyers which badly damaged Foresight and Forester and put another torpedo into Edinburgh, crippling her. The two destroyers took off the survivors and scuttled the cruiser. Temporarily repaired at Murmansk, the sisters were part of Trinidad's escort home when she was set on fire by a German bomber and had to be scuttled on 15 May. Faulknor, Fury, Escapade, Echo, and Eclipse escorted more Arctic convoys in May–September, Faulknor sinking U-88 on 12 September while escorting Convoy PQ 18. Foresight and Fury were briefly detached to escort the fleet during Operation Pedestal in August, during which the former was torpedoed and had to be scuttled. While being repaired, Fame was converted into an escort destroyer and was assigned to the WAC, joining her sister, Fearless, upon its completion in September. A month later, she sank U-353 while protecting Convoy SC 104. Fearless was torpedoed and sunk by U-211 on 16 December.
When convoys to Russia resumed in December 1942, Fury, Forester, Faulknor, Eclipse, and Echo were assigned as escorts. Fury, and Eclipse were detached to augment the escorts of the WAC in March–May 1943, joining their sisters, Fame and Escapade, when German submarine attacks reached their peak. The former had already sunk U-69 on 17 February while escorting Convoy ONS 165. Express, Fortune and Foxhound was assigned to the Eastern Fleet at the beginning of 1943, but the first two returned to Britain in February to begin refits, during which they were transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy and renamed Gatineau and Saskatchewan in June and May, respectively. Foxhound followed in August and was converted into an escort destroyer before being given to the Canadians in February 1944 and renamed Qu'Appelle. Forester was assigned to Escort Group C1 of the WAC in June. Escapade was badly damaged by a premature detonation of her Hedgehog projectiles in September and was under repair until the end of 1944. Faulknor, Fury, Echo, and Eclipse were transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet to escort the covering force during the invasion of Sicily in July and the subsequent landings in mainland Italy. Faulknor, Fury, and Eclipse participated in the Dodecanese Campaign after the surrender of Italy in September and the latter ship sank after hitting a mine on 24 October.
Echo began a long refit at Malta in December and was loaned to the Royal Hellenic Navy upon its completion in April 1944. Renamed Navarinon, she supported government forces during the Greek Civil War and was retained after the end of the war. Faulknor and Fury later supported operations in Italy before returning to the UK for Operation Overlord in June. While escorting Convoy HX 280, Gatineau helped to sink U-744 on 6 March, four days later Forester participated in the sinking of U-845. Fame, Forester, Gatineau, Saskatchewan, and Qu'Appelle joined their sisters covering the preparations for the invasion of Normandy and the invasion itself. Fame and two others destroyers sank U-767 on 18 June. Fury struck a mine on 21 June and was forced to beach herself to prevent her from sinking. She was written off after she was salvaged and was broken up for scrap beginning in September. Saskatchewan and Gatineau returned to Canada in August for lengthy refits that lasted into 1945 after which they returned to the UK. Qu'Appelle returned to the North Atlantic in October and Forester helped to sink U-413 on 20 August and then was sent back to the North Atlantic. Escapade was fitted with the new Squid anti-submarine mortar when her repairs were finished.
Gatineau, Saskatchewan, and Qu'Appelle were used to ferry Canadian troops back home before they were placed in reserve in 1946 and subsequently sold for scrap, although Gatineau was scuttled in 1948 in British Columbia to serve as a breakwater. Faulknor and Forester were reduced to reserve in 1945 and broken up the following year; Escapade lasted on active duty a year longer as she served in the Anti-Submarine Training Flotilla until 1946, but the ship was scrapped the next year. Unlike most of her sisters, Fame remained on active duty until 1947 when she was placed in reserve. She was sold to the Dominican Republic in 1949 and renamed Generalissimo. The ship was renamed Sanchez in 1962 and finally discarded in 1968. Navarinon later became a training ship before she was returned to the Royal Navy in 1956 and broken up the following year. | <urn:uuid:f05b19b3-382b-4e51-b123-10b7d66c2bbb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/E-and-F-class-destroyer | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00403.warc.gz | en | 0.981366 | 4,170 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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-0.007386310026... | 2 | The E class were ordered as part of the 1931 Naval Construction Programme, the F class following in 1932. These ships were based on the preceding D class with minor changes to the hull and armament. Two of the ships were modified to accommodate 60 mines. The F class were repeats of the E's with some minor differences. All of the destroyers were fitted with ASDIC (sonar) and the ability to use the Two-Speed Destroyer Sweep (TSDS) minesweeping gear.
The E- and F-class destroyers displaced 1,405 long tons (1,428 t) at standard load and 1,940 long tons (1,970 t) at deep load. They had an overall length of 329 feet (100.3 m), a beam of 33 feet 3 inches (10.1 m) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches (3.8 m). The ships' complement was 145 officers and ratings. They were powered by two Parsons geared steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by three Admiralty 3-drum boilers that operated at a pressure of 300 psi (2,068 kPa; 21 kgf/cm2) and a temperature of 620 °F (327 °C). The turbines developed a total of 36,000 shaft horsepower (27,000 kW) and gave a maximum speed of 35.5 knots (65.7 km/h; 40.9 mph). The destroyers carried a maximum of 470–480 long tons (480–490 t) of fuel oil that gave them a range of 6,350 nautical miles (11,760 km; 7,310 mi) at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph).
All of the ships had the same main armament, four quick-firing (QF) 4.7-inch (120 mm) Mark IX guns in single mounts, designated 'A', 'B', 'X', and 'Y' from front to rear. The guns had a maximum elevation of 40° which was achieved by using a lowered section of the deck around the mount, the "well", that allowed the breech of the gun to be lowered below deck height. They fired a 50-pound (22.7 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2,650 ft/s (810 m/s) to a range of 16,970 yards (15,520 m). For anti-aircraft (AA) defence, they had two quadruple mounts for the QF 0.5-inch Vickers Mk III machine gun on platforms between the funnels. The E- and F-class ships were fitted with two quadruple mounts for 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes. The ships, except for the minelayers, were also equipped with two throwers and one rack for 20 depth charges. The stern of the minelayers was fitted with a pair of sponsons that housed part of the mechanical chain-conveyor system and to ensure smooth delivery of her mines. To compensate for the weight of her Mark XIV mines, their rails, two 4.7-inch guns, their ammunition, both sets of torpedo tubes, their whalers and their davits had to be removed.
The main guns were controlled by an Admiralty Fire Control Clock Mk I that used data derived from the manually-operated director-control tower and the separate 9-foot (2.7 m) rangefinder situated above the bridge. They had no capability for anti-aircraft fire and the anti-aircraft guns were aimed solely by eye.
Beginning in May 1940, the after bank of torpedo tubes was removed and replaced with a QF 12-pounder 20-cwt anti-aircraft gun, the after mast and funnel being cut down to improve the gun's field of fire. Four to eight QF 20 mm Oerlikon cannons were added to the surviving ships, usually replacing the .50-calibre machine gun mounts between the funnels. One pair of these was added to the bridge wings and the other pair was mounted abreast the searchlight platform. Early in the war, depth charge stowage increased to 38. By 1943, all the surviving ships, except Fury had the 'Y' gun on the quarterdeck removed to allow for additional depth charge stowage and two additional depth charge throwers. The 12-pounder was removed to allow for the installation of a Huff-Duff radio direction finder on a short mainmast and for more depth charges. All of the survivors, except perhaps for Echo, had 'A' or 'B' gun replaced by a Hedgehog anti-submarine spigot mortar, and their director-control tower and rangefinder above the bridge removed in exchange for a Type 271 target-indication radar, Fame had her 'A' gun reinstalled by 1944. A Type 286 short-range, surface-search radar, adapted from the Royal Air Force's ASV radar, was also added. The early models, however, could only scan directly forward and had to be aimed by turning the entire ship. Express's modifications differed somewhat in that 'B' gun was replaced by a twin-gun QF 6-pounder Hotchkiss mount and a split Hedgehog installation. In addition, she retained her 12-pounder gun, but her remaining torpedo tubes were removed.
For the first time since the A class of the 1927 programme, the flotilla leaders were built to an enlarged design, being lengthened to incorporate an additional QF 4.7-inch gun between the funnels. The lengthened design resulted in a three boiler room layout to enhance water-tight integrity. The leaders were not fitted for minesweeping or minelaying. They displaced 1,475–1,495 long tons (1,499–1,519 t) at standard load and 2,010–2,050 long tons (2,040–2,080 t) at deep load. The ships had an overall length of 343 feet (104.5 m), a beam of 33 feet 9 inches (10.3 m) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches (3.8 m). The ships carried a total of 175 personnel which included the staff of the Captain (D), commanding officer of the flotilla. Their turbines were 2,000 shp (1,500 kW) more powerful than the private ships, which made them 0.5 knots (0.93 km/h; 0.58 mph) faster; their propulsion machinery was otherwise identical. Exmouth was an early wartime loss and consequently received no modifications, but Faulknor survived the war. Her modifications differed somewhat from those of the private ships. She received a 4-inch (102 mm) AA gun in lieu of her aft torpedo tubes, although they were later reinstalled and the 4-inch gun replaced 'X' 4.7-inch gun. Two Oerlikons were later added on the forward part of her aft superstructure and a quadruple QF two-pounder "pom-pom" mount replaced 'Q' gun between the funnels. Finally her rangefinder was replaced by a high-angle director fitted with a Type 285 gunnery radar.
All of the E class were assigned to the 5th Destroyer Flotilla (DF) of the Home Fleet upon commissioning during 1934. Following the Italian invasion of Abyssinia, the entire flotilla was sent to the Red Sea in August 1935 to monitor Italian warship movements until April 1936. Refitted upon their return, many were deployed to Spanish waters during the Spanish Civil War in 1936–39 to intercept shipping carrying contraband goods to Spain and to protect British-flagged ships. While the F-class ships were assigned to the 6th Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet, they followed much the same pattern as their E-class sisters. In April 1939 the 5th and 6th DFs were renumbered the 7th and 8th Destroyer Flotillas, respectively. In mid-1939, newly-commissioned J-class destroyers began to replace the E-class ships and they were reduced to reserve for lack of manpower. Increasing tensions with Nazi Germany in August, caused the British to mobilize the Navy's reserves, which allowed the ships to be manned again and assigned to the 12th Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet.
When the war began on 3 September, the E-class ships, except for the two minelayers, Esk and Express, were assigned to the Western Approaches Command (WAC) for convoy escort and patrolling duties, while the Fs remained with the Home Fleet, performing the same sorts of tasks. On 14 September, Faulknor, Firedrake, and Foxhound, escorting the aircraft carrier Ark Royal, sank U-39, the first German submarine to be lost during the war, after she had unsuccessfully attacked the carrier. Six days later, Fearless, Faulknor, Forester, and Fortune sank U-27. Most of the E class remained with the WAC until April 1940, but several were transferred to Rosyth Command at the end of 1939. Exmouth was one of these and was sunk by U-22 on 21 January 1940 in the Moray Firth. On the other hand, Escapade forced U-63 to the surface on 25 February, which was then scuttled by her crew, and Fortune sank U-44 on 20 March. Esk and Express were assigned to the specialist 20th Destroyer Flotilla shortly after the war began, together with the four I-class destroyer-minelayers, and were busy laying mines in the North Sea and off the English coast through April–May 1940.
The beginning of the Norwegian Campaign in April saw almost all of the E and F class transferred to the Home Fleet for operations in Norwegian waters. For the most part they escorted the ships of the Home Fleet and the various convoys to and from Norway, but Forester and Foxhound were part of the escort for the battleship Warspite during the Second Battle of Narvik on 13 April and the latter helped to sink one German destroyer. While escorting one convoy, Fearless and the destroyer Brazen sank U-49 two days later. Esk and Express were the only two ships committed to the evacuation of Dunkirk in May–June, each rescuing thousands of Allied troops.
Fearless, Escapade, Faulknor, and Foxhound of the 8th DF escorted Ark Royal and the battlecruiser Hood to Gibraltar in late June, where they formed Force H. Eight days later, they participated in the attack on Mers-el-Kébir against the Vichy French ships stationed there, together with Forester, Foresight and Escort. The latter ship was sunk by an Italian submarine on 11 July while covering a Malta convoy. Most of Force H returned to the UK for a brief refit in early August, but upon their return at the end of the month, the 8th DF now consisted of Faulknor, Forester, Foresight, Firedrake, Fortune, Fury, and Greyhound. On the night of 31 August/1 September, Esk, Express and three other minelaying destroyers laid a minefield off the Dutch island of Texel. While doing so, the latter ship struck a mine that blew her bow off. While closing to render aid, Esk struck two mines that broke her in half with heavy casualties. Express was towed back to England for repairs that lasted until October 1941. On 13 September, Force H met a convoy that was carrying troops intended to capture Dakar from the Vichy French that was escorted by Inglefield, Eclipse, Echo, Encounter, and Escapade. Ten days later they attacked Dakar where Foresight and Inglefield sank the French submarine Persée, Fortune sank the submarine Ajax a day later and Foresight sank the submarine Bévéziers on the 25th. After the battle, Escapade and Echo returned to the Home Fleet and resumed their regular duties of fleet escort. On 17 October, Fame ran aground and could not be refloated for several months. The following day, Firedrake together with the destroyer Wrestler and two Royal Air Force flying boats sank the Italian submarine Durbo. Fury, Encounter, Faulknor, Firedrake, and Forester participated in the inconclusive Battle of Cape Spartivento on 27 November.
In 1941, the 8th DF escorted Force H as it covered multiple convoys and aircraft carriers flying off aircraft to Malta. While returning from one of the latter missions, Forester, Foresight, Faulknor, Fearless and Foxhound sank U-138 on 18 June. A month later, Fearless was crippled by Italian bombs on 23 July while escorting a convoy to Malta and had to be scuttled by her sister Foresight while Firedrake was badly damaged by near misses and had to return to Gibraltar for repairs. The ships of the 8th DF mostly returned home between August and October for repairs and refits. Encounter was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in April and spent several months under repair as she was badly damaged by bombs at Malta. The ship was then transferred to the Eastern Fleet in November and arrived at Singapore the following month. Eclipse, Echo, and Electra were assigned to the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet at the beginning of 1941 where they escorted the larger ships of the fleet while they were searching for German commerce raiders and on other missions. Escapade began escorting convoys to Russia in August and continued to do so for most of the following year. Electra did the same for several months until she was detailed to escort the battleship Prince of Wales and the battlecruiser Repulse to Singapore in October, together with Express.
Express and Electra were half of the escorts for Prince of Wales and Repulse as they sailed north on 9 December, but could do little as the Japanese bombers sank the two capital ships other than help to rescue the 3,000-odd survivors. Upon their return to Singapore, they joined Encounter and the other destroyers there escorting ships between Singapore and the Sunda Strait. Electra and Encounter escorted the heavy cruiser Exeter during the Battle of the Java Sea on 27 February 1942. The former ship was sunk by a Japanese destroyer as she covered Exeter's withdrawal. Several days later, Encounter and the American destroyer Pope were escorting the damaged Exeter en route to Ceylon when they encountered four Japanese heavy cruisers and their escorts. Encounter and Exeter were sunk in the subsequent battle on 1 March. Express did not participate in any of these battles because she'd been damaged by a boiler room fire in early February and her repairs did not begin until April. Fortune joined her sister with the Eastern Fleet in February, with Foxhound following two months later.
On 27 March, Fury, Eclipse and the light cruiser Trinidad were escorting Convoy PQ 13 in the Arctic when they were intercepted by three German destroyers. In the ensuing action, the cruiser was damaged by one of her own torpedoes and Eclipse was hit twice, although the cruiser sank the German destroyer Z26. Foresight, Forester and the light cruiser Edinburgh were the close escort for Convoy QP 11, returning from Murmansk to Iceland, when Edinburgh was torpedoed on 29 April. The two hits disabled her steering and she had to be towed by the two destroyers. Two days later, they were attacked by three German destroyers which badly damaged Foresight and Forester and put another torpedo into Edinburgh, crippling her. The two destroyers took off the survivors and scuttled the cruiser. Temporarily repaired at Murmansk, the sisters were part of Trinidad's escort home when she was set on fire by a German bomber and had to be scuttled on 15 May. Faulknor, Fury, Escapade, Echo, and Eclipse escorted more Arctic convoys in May–September, Faulknor sinking U-88 on 12 September while escorting Convoy PQ 18. Foresight and Fury were briefly detached to escort the fleet during Operation Pedestal in August, during which the former was torpedoed and had to be scuttled. While being repaired, Fame was converted into an escort destroyer and was assigned to the WAC, joining her sister, Fearless, upon its completion in September. A month later, she sank U-353 while protecting Convoy SC 104. Fearless was torpedoed and sunk by U-211 on 16 December.
When convoys to Russia resumed in December 1942, Fury, Forester, Faulknor, Eclipse, and Echo were assigned as escorts. Fury, and Eclipse were detached to augment the escorts of the WAC in March–May 1943, joining their sisters, Fame and Escapade, when German submarine attacks reached their peak. The former had already sunk U-69 on 17 February while escorting Convoy ONS 165. Express, Fortune and Foxhound was assigned to the Eastern Fleet at the beginning of 1943, but the first two returned to Britain in February to begin refits, during which they were transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy and renamed Gatineau and Saskatchewan in June and May, respectively. Foxhound followed in August and was converted into an escort destroyer before being given to the Canadians in February 1944 and renamed Qu'Appelle. Forester was assigned to Escort Group C1 of the WAC in June. Escapade was badly damaged by a premature detonation of her Hedgehog projectiles in September and was under repair until the end of 1944. Faulknor, Fury, Echo, and Eclipse were transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet to escort the covering force during the invasion of Sicily in July and the subsequent landings in mainland Italy. Faulknor, Fury, and Eclipse participated in the Dodecanese Campaign after the surrender of Italy in September and the latter ship sank after hitting a mine on 24 October.
Echo began a long refit at Malta in December and was loaned to the Royal Hellenic Navy upon its completion in April 1944. Renamed Navarinon, she supported government forces during the Greek Civil War and was retained after the end of the war. Faulknor and Fury later supported operations in Italy before returning to the UK for Operation Overlord in June. While escorting Convoy HX 280, Gatineau helped to sink U-744 on 6 March, four days later Forester participated in the sinking of U-845. Fame, Forester, Gatineau, Saskatchewan, and Qu'Appelle joined their sisters covering the preparations for the invasion of Normandy and the invasion itself. Fame and two others destroyers sank U-767 on 18 June. Fury struck a mine on 21 June and was forced to beach herself to prevent her from sinking. She was written off after she was salvaged and was broken up for scrap beginning in September. Saskatchewan and Gatineau returned to Canada in August for lengthy refits that lasted into 1945 after which they returned to the UK. Qu'Appelle returned to the North Atlantic in October and Forester helped to sink U-413 on 20 August and then was sent back to the North Atlantic. Escapade was fitted with the new Squid anti-submarine mortar when her repairs were finished.
Gatineau, Saskatchewan, and Qu'Appelle were used to ferry Canadian troops back home before they were placed in reserve in 1946 and subsequently sold for scrap, although Gatineau was scuttled in 1948 in British Columbia to serve as a breakwater. Faulknor and Forester were reduced to reserve in 1945 and broken up the following year; Escapade lasted on active duty a year longer as she served in the Anti-Submarine Training Flotilla until 1946, but the ship was scrapped the next year. Unlike most of her sisters, Fame remained on active duty until 1947 when she was placed in reserve. She was sold to the Dominican Republic in 1949 and renamed Generalissimo. The ship was renamed Sanchez in 1962 and finally discarded in 1968. Navarinon later became a training ship before she was returned to the Royal Navy in 1956 and broken up the following year. | 4,532 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Adventurer: Oliver van Noort
In 1597 the Dutch began raiding into the Pacific, hoping that by attacking the Spanish colonies and ships they could force the Spanish to grant them independence. In 1598 the Dutch launched an expedition to the Pacific under Admiral Oliver van Noort, who was acclaimed a hero for striking at the Spanish and completing the fourth expedition (after Magellan, Hawkins, and Cavendish) to circumnavigate the globe.
Van Noort first sighted Guam on September 15, 1600, approaching the island on the east side. He wrote that a canoe came alongside when they were still half a league away, and soon many more came out in their canoes with fish, coconuts, bananas, yams and sugarcane to barter for iron.
Noted CHamorus swimming abilities
He made note of the how strong the CHamorus were and about their excellent swimming abilities, also saying they were tricksters:
We were coasting the island which runs south and north about seven or eight leagues according to our estimate. We doubled the south cape, from which we saw a low point coming out where we thought we could anchor and the canoes were coming out from all sides to barter. There must have been over 200 canoes and aboard each two, three, four and five men, pressing together noisily, shouting hiero, hiero, which means iron, iron. Because of the pressing we must have crushed two or three underneath our keel; but, they did not care, because they are very good swimmers, know how to upturn their canoes and put back everything that was in it.
These islands bear their true name of Ladrones, because everybody there is inclined to steal, and is very subtle at it, even remarkable, because they cheated us in various ways in trading with them; by placing a handful of rice on top of a basket of coconut leaves; it looks as if there was much inside, but upon opening it, one finds only leaves and other things, because when bartering they place their canoes behind or on the side of the ships without coming aboard, and one must tie a piece of iron to a cord, and take in exchange what they give.
Some of them came aboard the ship, where they were given some food and drink, and one of them seeing one of our people who had a sword in hand, who was doing his turn at guard duty, grabbed it from him and leapt overboard with it, diving under the water. We aimed a few shots at others who had also stolen some things: but they all jumped overboard to avoid the shots, and the others who were not guilty did not care at all.
These people live in the water as well as on land, according to our opinion, because they know how to dive so skilfully, the women as well as the men, which we noticed when we threw five pieces of iron into the water which one single man went in to get all from below, something that amazed us very much.
Van Noort also commented on the canoes:
Their canoes are very beautiful and well made, such as any that we have seen in the Indies, being about 15 or 20 feet in length, and one feet and a half wide: They knew how to handle them well, sailing before the wind rather skillfully, without turning around to tack; rather, they sail against the wind with the other end forward, leaving the sail as is, which is made of reeds like dressed sheepskin.
Some women came aboard as well completely naked as the men, except that they had a green leaf before their middle. They wear their hair long and the men shorn just like we see at home, Adam and Eve in paintings.
For further reading
Lévesque, Rodrigue. History of Micronesia: A Collection of Source Documents. Vols. 8-11. Gatineau, Québec: Lévesque Publications. 1992-.
Madrid, Carlos. Beyond Distances: Governance, Politics and Deportation in the Mariana Islands from 1870 to 1877. Saipan, CNMI: Northern Mariana Islands Council for Humanities, 2006. | <urn:uuid:93b4b1b0-59ba-4db8-a91c-eb112a7d8f34> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.guampedia.com/oliver-van-noort/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00153.warc.gz | en | 0.983703 | 864 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.62637042999267... | 1 | Adventurer: Oliver van Noort
In 1597 the Dutch began raiding into the Pacific, hoping that by attacking the Spanish colonies and ships they could force the Spanish to grant them independence. In 1598 the Dutch launched an expedition to the Pacific under Admiral Oliver van Noort, who was acclaimed a hero for striking at the Spanish and completing the fourth expedition (after Magellan, Hawkins, and Cavendish) to circumnavigate the globe.
Van Noort first sighted Guam on September 15, 1600, approaching the island on the east side. He wrote that a canoe came alongside when they were still half a league away, and soon many more came out in their canoes with fish, coconuts, bananas, yams and sugarcane to barter for iron.
Noted CHamorus swimming abilities
He made note of the how strong the CHamorus were and about their excellent swimming abilities, also saying they were tricksters:
We were coasting the island which runs south and north about seven or eight leagues according to our estimate. We doubled the south cape, from which we saw a low point coming out where we thought we could anchor and the canoes were coming out from all sides to barter. There must have been over 200 canoes and aboard each two, three, four and five men, pressing together noisily, shouting hiero, hiero, which means iron, iron. Because of the pressing we must have crushed two or three underneath our keel; but, they did not care, because they are very good swimmers, know how to upturn their canoes and put back everything that was in it.
These islands bear their true name of Ladrones, because everybody there is inclined to steal, and is very subtle at it, even remarkable, because they cheated us in various ways in trading with them; by placing a handful of rice on top of a basket of coconut leaves; it looks as if there was much inside, but upon opening it, one finds only leaves and other things, because when bartering they place their canoes behind or on the side of the ships without coming aboard, and one must tie a piece of iron to a cord, and take in exchange what they give.
Some of them came aboard the ship, where they were given some food and drink, and one of them seeing one of our people who had a sword in hand, who was doing his turn at guard duty, grabbed it from him and leapt overboard with it, diving under the water. We aimed a few shots at others who had also stolen some things: but they all jumped overboard to avoid the shots, and the others who were not guilty did not care at all.
These people live in the water as well as on land, according to our opinion, because they know how to dive so skilfully, the women as well as the men, which we noticed when we threw five pieces of iron into the water which one single man went in to get all from below, something that amazed us very much.
Van Noort also commented on the canoes:
Their canoes are very beautiful and well made, such as any that we have seen in the Indies, being about 15 or 20 feet in length, and one feet and a half wide: They knew how to handle them well, sailing before the wind rather skillfully, without turning around to tack; rather, they sail against the wind with the other end forward, leaving the sail as is, which is made of reeds like dressed sheepskin.
Some women came aboard as well completely naked as the men, except that they had a green leaf before their middle. They wear their hair long and the men shorn just like we see at home, Adam and Eve in paintings.
For further reading
Lévesque, Rodrigue. History of Micronesia: A Collection of Source Documents. Vols. 8-11. Gatineau, Québec: Lévesque Publications. 1992-.
Madrid, Carlos. Beyond Distances: Governance, Politics and Deportation in the Mariana Islands from 1870 to 1877. Saipan, CNMI: Northern Mariana Islands Council for Humanities, 2006. | 891 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Martin Luther King Jr. was born 90 years ago, on Jan. 15, 1929.
But the name on his original birth certificate - filed April 12, 1934, five years after King was born - was not Martin. Nor was it Luther. In fact, for the first years of his life, he was Michael King. And it wasn't until he was 28 that, on July 23, 1957, his birth certificate was revised.
The name Michael was crossed out, next to which someone printed carefully in black ink: "Martin Luther, Jr."
The story of how Michael became Martin began in 1934 when King's father, who then was known as the Rev. Michael King or M.L. King, was senior pastor of Ebenezer Baptist Church and a prominent minister in Atlanta. In the summer of 1934, King's church sent him on a whirlwind trip. He traveled to Rome, Tunisia, Egypt, Jerusalem and Bethlehem before setting sail to Berlin, where he would attend a Baptist World Alliance meeting, according to the Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute at Stanford University.
The trip to Germany, historians say, had a profound effect on the elder King.
King arrived in Berlin a year after Adolf Hitler became chancellor. During his trip, the senior King toured the country where, in 1517, the German monk and theologian Mar tin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door of the Wittenberg castle church, challenging the Catholic Church. The act would lead to the Protestant Reformation, the revolution that would split Western Christianity.
All around him in Berlin, King Sr. was seeing the rise of Nazi Germany. The Baptist alliance responded to that hatred with a resolution deploring "all racial animosity, and every form of oppression or unfair discrimination toward the Jews, toward coloured people, or toward subject races in any part of the world."
When the senior King returned home in August 1934, he was a different man, said Clayborne Carson, director of the King Institute. It was sometime in this year that he changed his name and changed his son's name, too.
"It was a big deal for him to go there, to the birthplace of Protestantism," said Carson, who edited "The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr.," which was compiled and written after King's assassination. "That probably implanted the idea of changing his name to Martin Luther King."
The act was almost biblical. "Jacob became Israel, Saul of Tarsus became Paul, Simon became Peter," Taylor Branch wrote in "Parting the Waters: America in the King Years 1954-63." "For Mike King, who had come to Atlanta smelling like a mule, the switch to Martin Luther King caught the feeling of his leap to the stars."
The elder King was born Michael King on Dec. 19, 1897, in Stockbridge, Georgia, where his father worked on a plantation as a sharecropper, according to the King Institute. Mike King left the plantation after accusing the owner of cheating his father out of money.
In Atlanta, Mike King remade himself. "You can see him becoming more and more prestigious," Carson, who was charged by King's estate to edit his papers, told The Washington Post in an interview. "When he marries Alberta, he is a modestly educated preacher without a significant church . . . and probably a third-grade education until he goes to Morehouse College."
King Sr. graduated from Morehouse in 1930, and when his father-in-law died, he became pastor of Ebenezer Baptist Church. "From that point on, he is pretty much consistently called M.L.," Carson said. Many black people in the South used initials; they didn't want to be called by their first names. If they had initials, it was not an option for white people to call black people by their names.
Scholars say there is no definitive account of why the senior King changed his name, Carson said.
"Daddy King himself said he changed the name because he had an uncle named Martin and an uncle named Luther, and he was following his father's wishes to change the name," Carson said. "But it seems likely he was affected by the trip to Berlin because that would have brought him in the land of Martin Luther. I think the obvious reason is Martin Luther sounded more distinguished than Mike King."
But the younger King initially "shrank from it, commenting publicly only once, after the Montgomery bus boycott, that 'perhaps' he 'earned' his name," Branch said. "Reverend King supplied the wish and the preparation, but it remained for strangers in the world at large to impose Martin Luther King's name upon him."
The transformation from Michael to Martin is illustrated in MLK's writings and letters.
In an October 1948 letter to his mother, the younger King wrote home from Crozer Theological Seminary: "I often tell the boys around the campus I have the best mother in the world. You will never know how I appreciate the many kind things you and daddy are doing for me. So far I have gotten the money (5 dollars) every week." He signed the letter, "Your son, M.L."
By the 1950s, the young King had become Martin in his letters, according to the King Institute. In a July 18, 1952, letter to Coretta, who would become his wife, King writes: "Darling, I miss you so much." The letter is poetic: "My life without you is like a year without a spring time which comes to give illumination and heat to the atmosphere saturated by the dark cold breeze of winter." He goes on to talk about his opposition to capitalism and trade monopolies and the necessity of gradual social change.
King signs the letter, "Eternally Yours, Martin."
In what would be his final sermon, on April 3, 1968, in Memphis, where King had returned to help the sanitation workers' strike, King revealed why his father had changed his name to Martin. The sermon, in which King spoke extemporaneously to the mass meeting at Bishop Charles Mason Temple, is long remembered as prophetic.
King begins the sermon in a steady cadence: "If I were standing at the beginning of time, with the possibility of taking a kind of general and panoramic view of the whole of human history up to now, and the Almighty said to me, 'Martin Luther King, which age would you like to live in?,' I would take my mental flight by Egypt and I would watch God's children in their magnificent trek from the dark dungeons of Egypt through, or rather across the Red Sea, through the wilderness on toward the promised land. And in spite of its magnificence, I wouldn't stop there."
King described traveling to Greece and to Mount Olympus, "and I would see Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Euripides and Aristophanes assembled around the Parthenon. And I would watch them around the Parthenon as they discussed the great and eternal issues of reality. But I wouldn't stop there."
He spoke of traveling through the "heyday of the Roman Empire," then moving on to the "day of the Renaissance."
"I would even go by the way that the man for whom I'm named had his habitat, and I would watch Martin Luther as he tacks his 95 theses on the door at the church of Wittenberg."
King concluded his sermon: "Like anybody, I would like to live a long life; longevity has its place. But I'm not concerned about that now," he said, his voice rising. "I just want to do God's will. And He's allowed me to go up to the mountain. And I've looked over. And I've seen the promised land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the promised land! And so I'm happy, tonight. I'm not worried about anything. I'm not fearing any man. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord."
The next evening, as King prepared to go to dinner at the home of a local minister, a shot rang out, killing him on the balcony of the Lorraine Motel. And the world mourned Martin Luther King Jr. | <urn:uuid:28270f34-232b-4be2-96a4-5581ec330fbc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.uticaod.com/news/20190121/story-of-how-michael-king-jr-became-martin-luther-king-jr | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00086.warc.gz | en | 0.987886 | 1,710 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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-0.34085... | 4 | Martin Luther King Jr. was born 90 years ago, on Jan. 15, 1929.
But the name on his original birth certificate - filed April 12, 1934, five years after King was born - was not Martin. Nor was it Luther. In fact, for the first years of his life, he was Michael King. And it wasn't until he was 28 that, on July 23, 1957, his birth certificate was revised.
The name Michael was crossed out, next to which someone printed carefully in black ink: "Martin Luther, Jr."
The story of how Michael became Martin began in 1934 when King's father, who then was known as the Rev. Michael King or M.L. King, was senior pastor of Ebenezer Baptist Church and a prominent minister in Atlanta. In the summer of 1934, King's church sent him on a whirlwind trip. He traveled to Rome, Tunisia, Egypt, Jerusalem and Bethlehem before setting sail to Berlin, where he would attend a Baptist World Alliance meeting, according to the Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute at Stanford University.
The trip to Germany, historians say, had a profound effect on the elder King.
King arrived in Berlin a year after Adolf Hitler became chancellor. During his trip, the senior King toured the country where, in 1517, the German monk and theologian Mar tin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door of the Wittenberg castle church, challenging the Catholic Church. The act would lead to the Protestant Reformation, the revolution that would split Western Christianity.
All around him in Berlin, King Sr. was seeing the rise of Nazi Germany. The Baptist alliance responded to that hatred with a resolution deploring "all racial animosity, and every form of oppression or unfair discrimination toward the Jews, toward coloured people, or toward subject races in any part of the world."
When the senior King returned home in August 1934, he was a different man, said Clayborne Carson, director of the King Institute. It was sometime in this year that he changed his name and changed his son's name, too.
"It was a big deal for him to go there, to the birthplace of Protestantism," said Carson, who edited "The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr.," which was compiled and written after King's assassination. "That probably implanted the idea of changing his name to Martin Luther King."
The act was almost biblical. "Jacob became Israel, Saul of Tarsus became Paul, Simon became Peter," Taylor Branch wrote in "Parting the Waters: America in the King Years 1954-63." "For Mike King, who had come to Atlanta smelling like a mule, the switch to Martin Luther King caught the feeling of his leap to the stars."
The elder King was born Michael King on Dec. 19, 1897, in Stockbridge, Georgia, where his father worked on a plantation as a sharecropper, according to the King Institute. Mike King left the plantation after accusing the owner of cheating his father out of money.
In Atlanta, Mike King remade himself. "You can see him becoming more and more prestigious," Carson, who was charged by King's estate to edit his papers, told The Washington Post in an interview. "When he marries Alberta, he is a modestly educated preacher without a significant church . . . and probably a third-grade education until he goes to Morehouse College."
King Sr. graduated from Morehouse in 1930, and when his father-in-law died, he became pastor of Ebenezer Baptist Church. "From that point on, he is pretty much consistently called M.L.," Carson said. Many black people in the South used initials; they didn't want to be called by their first names. If they had initials, it was not an option for white people to call black people by their names.
Scholars say there is no definitive account of why the senior King changed his name, Carson said.
"Daddy King himself said he changed the name because he had an uncle named Martin and an uncle named Luther, and he was following his father's wishes to change the name," Carson said. "But it seems likely he was affected by the trip to Berlin because that would have brought him in the land of Martin Luther. I think the obvious reason is Martin Luther sounded more distinguished than Mike King."
But the younger King initially "shrank from it, commenting publicly only once, after the Montgomery bus boycott, that 'perhaps' he 'earned' his name," Branch said. "Reverend King supplied the wish and the preparation, but it remained for strangers in the world at large to impose Martin Luther King's name upon him."
The transformation from Michael to Martin is illustrated in MLK's writings and letters.
In an October 1948 letter to his mother, the younger King wrote home from Crozer Theological Seminary: "I often tell the boys around the campus I have the best mother in the world. You will never know how I appreciate the many kind things you and daddy are doing for me. So far I have gotten the money (5 dollars) every week." He signed the letter, "Your son, M.L."
By the 1950s, the young King had become Martin in his letters, according to the King Institute. In a July 18, 1952, letter to Coretta, who would become his wife, King writes: "Darling, I miss you so much." The letter is poetic: "My life without you is like a year without a spring time which comes to give illumination and heat to the atmosphere saturated by the dark cold breeze of winter." He goes on to talk about his opposition to capitalism and trade monopolies and the necessity of gradual social change.
King signs the letter, "Eternally Yours, Martin."
In what would be his final sermon, on April 3, 1968, in Memphis, where King had returned to help the sanitation workers' strike, King revealed why his father had changed his name to Martin. The sermon, in which King spoke extemporaneously to the mass meeting at Bishop Charles Mason Temple, is long remembered as prophetic.
King begins the sermon in a steady cadence: "If I were standing at the beginning of time, with the possibility of taking a kind of general and panoramic view of the whole of human history up to now, and the Almighty said to me, 'Martin Luther King, which age would you like to live in?,' I would take my mental flight by Egypt and I would watch God's children in their magnificent trek from the dark dungeons of Egypt through, or rather across the Red Sea, through the wilderness on toward the promised land. And in spite of its magnificence, I wouldn't stop there."
King described traveling to Greece and to Mount Olympus, "and I would see Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Euripides and Aristophanes assembled around the Parthenon. And I would watch them around the Parthenon as they discussed the great and eternal issues of reality. But I wouldn't stop there."
He spoke of traveling through the "heyday of the Roman Empire," then moving on to the "day of the Renaissance."
"I would even go by the way that the man for whom I'm named had his habitat, and I would watch Martin Luther as he tacks his 95 theses on the door at the church of Wittenberg."
King concluded his sermon: "Like anybody, I would like to live a long life; longevity has its place. But I'm not concerned about that now," he said, his voice rising. "I just want to do God's will. And He's allowed me to go up to the mountain. And I've looked over. And I've seen the promised land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the promised land! And so I'm happy, tonight. I'm not worried about anything. I'm not fearing any man. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord."
The next evening, as King prepared to go to dinner at the home of a local minister, a shot rang out, killing him on the balcony of the Lorraine Motel. And the world mourned Martin Luther King Jr. | 1,758 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sinai and Miriam Kantor
In 1912, Sinai and Miriam, a Russian-Jewish couple, had dreams of going to America. Sinai wanted to start a career as a doctor, while Miriam had dreams of being a dentist. They didn’t have many options back home, and going to America sounded like a great idea. They were excited to begin their new lives in the land of opportunity. The couple had enough money to travel in style, so they decided to make the trip a vacation. Sailing to America in luxury sounded like a perfect plan. They board an ocean liner at the port of Southampton in England. They were going to travel to America in the grandest cruise ship ever built, the Titanic.
Everything was going fine for five days. At close to midnight on the fifth day, the ship hit an iceberg in the North Atlantic. The Titanic was known as an unsinkable ship. The people who designed it claimed that the ship’s watertight bulkheads would prevent the boat from sinking. Unfortunately, they were wrong. The water filled the first bulkhead and spilled over the top. The water had filled six of the compartments. The ship could have sailed to safety is five were filled with water, but not six.
When it became apparent that the ship was going down, people started to panic. There were 2,200 people on board, and there wasn’t enough room for everyone on the lifeboats. Because the ship was supposed to be unsinkable, some people believed that littering the deck with lifeboats was a waste of time. They compromised and put half the number of lifeboats necessary to save everyone on board in case the ship sank. When it actually did, there weren’t enough lifeboats for everyone. The lifeboats that they did have weren’t filled to capacity, which meant that many people knew that wouldn’t find a place on a boat. First-class women and children were allowed on the boats first, and so on. Because only women and children were loaded into the lifeboats first, Miriam got lucky. She got into a lifeboat, and hours later, she was rescued by the RMS Carpathia.
Sadly, Sinai didn’t get so lucky. He didn’t find a place on a lifeboat, and he drowned when the ship went down into the water. He died along with over 1,500 other souls. It wasn’t just third-class and steerage passengers that perished when the Titanic sank. In fact, the two richest men on the boat died that night. It was one of the biggest tragedies of all time. For Miriam, it was devastating. She and her husband were planning to start a new life together in America, now she was alone in New York, without the love of her life.
Recovering the Bodies
Eight days after the tragic sinking, the CS Mackay-Bennett, a ship owned by the Commercial Trade Company, arrived on the scene. It was up to them to collect the bodies that were floating on the surface of the water. There were many bodies under the water, and those would never be recovered. By the time the ship sank to the bottom of the ocean, there was too much pressure under the sea for rescue teams to get there. They did manage to recover the dead, who were still floating. One of them was Sanai.
When his body was collected, Miriam was already in New York. She wanted her husband’s personal effects back, but she had to deal with some bureaucratic struggles. She was very upset that it was so difficult for her to retrieve her husband’s personal effects. One of the personal effects that Sinai had with him when he died was his pocket watch. It was something that meant a lot to Sinai, so Miriam wanted it desperately. It was a Swiss-made watch that must have been of high quality since is managed to survive after being in the seawater for so long. The hands had Hebrew numerals, but most had washed off. The back of the watch had an etching of Moses receiving the Ten Commandments.
Miriam treasured the watch because it was one of the only things the 24-year-old widow had of her husband’s. She held onto the watch and passed it down to her children, who passed it down to theirs. The watch was a family heirloom for over a century, until 2018, when a greedy family member decided to sell the watch that meant so much to Miriam.
An Anonymous Descendant
Miriam’s descendant wanted to remain anonymous. They were likely ashamed that they were selling such a valuable family heirloom. The family member contacted Heritage Auctions in Texas to see if they could sell the watch.
An antique watch collector put in the winning bid for the watch. He paid $57,500 for the watch. He didn’t buy it so that he could carry it around or put it in his collection. Instead, he had it placed in the Miottel Museum in Berkeley, California, so that it could be put on display for everyone to see. This is s museum with plenty of memorabilia from the Titanic.
A Sad Story
This Precious Pocket Watch Was Salvaged From The Titanic – And It Has A Tearjerking Story. Miriam lost her husband; then, over a century later, a family member sold the watch that she worked so hard to get back. It’s nice that the watch is in a museum, but that isn’t what Miriam wanted. She wanted the watch to remain in her family for future generations to enjoy. | <urn:uuid:e06e9694-ad29-4c63-bc5b-40bb83e3ce19> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://factsverse.com/this-precious-pocket-watch-was-salvaged-from-the-titanic-and-it-has-a-tearjerking-story/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00511.warc.gz | en | 0.992041 | 1,174 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.0375769063... | 5 | Sinai and Miriam Kantor
In 1912, Sinai and Miriam, a Russian-Jewish couple, had dreams of going to America. Sinai wanted to start a career as a doctor, while Miriam had dreams of being a dentist. They didn’t have many options back home, and going to America sounded like a great idea. They were excited to begin their new lives in the land of opportunity. The couple had enough money to travel in style, so they decided to make the trip a vacation. Sailing to America in luxury sounded like a perfect plan. They board an ocean liner at the port of Southampton in England. They were going to travel to America in the grandest cruise ship ever built, the Titanic.
Everything was going fine for five days. At close to midnight on the fifth day, the ship hit an iceberg in the North Atlantic. The Titanic was known as an unsinkable ship. The people who designed it claimed that the ship’s watertight bulkheads would prevent the boat from sinking. Unfortunately, they were wrong. The water filled the first bulkhead and spilled over the top. The water had filled six of the compartments. The ship could have sailed to safety is five were filled with water, but not six.
When it became apparent that the ship was going down, people started to panic. There were 2,200 people on board, and there wasn’t enough room for everyone on the lifeboats. Because the ship was supposed to be unsinkable, some people believed that littering the deck with lifeboats was a waste of time. They compromised and put half the number of lifeboats necessary to save everyone on board in case the ship sank. When it actually did, there weren’t enough lifeboats for everyone. The lifeboats that they did have weren’t filled to capacity, which meant that many people knew that wouldn’t find a place on a boat. First-class women and children were allowed on the boats first, and so on. Because only women and children were loaded into the lifeboats first, Miriam got lucky. She got into a lifeboat, and hours later, she was rescued by the RMS Carpathia.
Sadly, Sinai didn’t get so lucky. He didn’t find a place on a lifeboat, and he drowned when the ship went down into the water. He died along with over 1,500 other souls. It wasn’t just third-class and steerage passengers that perished when the Titanic sank. In fact, the two richest men on the boat died that night. It was one of the biggest tragedies of all time. For Miriam, it was devastating. She and her husband were planning to start a new life together in America, now she was alone in New York, without the love of her life.
Recovering the Bodies
Eight days after the tragic sinking, the CS Mackay-Bennett, a ship owned by the Commercial Trade Company, arrived on the scene. It was up to them to collect the bodies that were floating on the surface of the water. There were many bodies under the water, and those would never be recovered. By the time the ship sank to the bottom of the ocean, there was too much pressure under the sea for rescue teams to get there. They did manage to recover the dead, who were still floating. One of them was Sanai.
When his body was collected, Miriam was already in New York. She wanted her husband’s personal effects back, but she had to deal with some bureaucratic struggles. She was very upset that it was so difficult for her to retrieve her husband’s personal effects. One of the personal effects that Sinai had with him when he died was his pocket watch. It was something that meant a lot to Sinai, so Miriam wanted it desperately. It was a Swiss-made watch that must have been of high quality since is managed to survive after being in the seawater for so long. The hands had Hebrew numerals, but most had washed off. The back of the watch had an etching of Moses receiving the Ten Commandments.
Miriam treasured the watch because it was one of the only things the 24-year-old widow had of her husband’s. She held onto the watch and passed it down to her children, who passed it down to theirs. The watch was a family heirloom for over a century, until 2018, when a greedy family member decided to sell the watch that meant so much to Miriam.
An Anonymous Descendant
Miriam’s descendant wanted to remain anonymous. They were likely ashamed that they were selling such a valuable family heirloom. The family member contacted Heritage Auctions in Texas to see if they could sell the watch.
An antique watch collector put in the winning bid for the watch. He paid $57,500 for the watch. He didn’t buy it so that he could carry it around or put it in his collection. Instead, he had it placed in the Miottel Museum in Berkeley, California, so that it could be put on display for everyone to see. This is s museum with plenty of memorabilia from the Titanic.
A Sad Story
This Precious Pocket Watch Was Salvaged From The Titanic – And It Has A Tearjerking Story. Miriam lost her husband; then, over a century later, a family member sold the watch that she worked so hard to get back. It’s nice that the watch is in a museum, but that isn’t what Miriam wanted. She wanted the watch to remain in her family for future generations to enjoy. | 1,140 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Any pay raise or hike would take effect for the Congress that follows a sitting Congress. Founding Father James Madison first proposed back in along with other amendments that became the Bill of Rights, but it took years for it to become the law of the land.
Congress passed the Twenty-Seventh Amendment by a two-thirds vote of both Houses, inalong with eleven other proposed constitutional amendments the last ten of which were ratified by the states inbecoming the Bill of Rights. The Amendment provides that: This is a very good thing.
The King had built up his power by corrupting these office holders, giving them easy and well-paid civil office jobs so that they would support him in Parliament.
This did not sit well with the general public, or with James Madison—it seemed like a big opening for Congress to pay itself too much. InMadison proposed twelve amendments to the federal Constitution, the first ten of which were ratified in and became the federal Bill of Rights.
One of the proposed amendments, which was not ratified at that time, was an amendment that became the Twenty-Seventh Amendment and which forbade congressional pay increases from taking effect until there had been an intervening election of members of Congress.
Madison did not want Congress to have power over its own pay without limitation. But he also did not want the President to control congressional salaries, since that would give the President too much power over Congress.
So instead, he proposed that an election had to happen before any pay raise could take effect. If the public opposed an overly generous congressional pay raise, the public could throw the offending congressmen out of office when they ran for re-election.
The congressional pay amendment was only ratified by 6 states initially. But the First Congress, which had passed the Amendment inhad not attached a time limit within which the Amendment had to be ratified by the states.
Some subsequent constitutional amendments have provided for such time limits. In the nineteenth century, one state joined this small group, and others in the twentieth, but no one thought it was going anywhere—or thought about it much at all.
Inthe Amendment was languishing before the states with only a tiny fraction of the number of states needed to ratify having ratified it.
That year Gregory Watson, a sophomore at the University of Texas, was assigned to write a paper about a government process. He came across a chapter in a book on the Constitution, listing proposed constitutional amendments that had not been ratified.
He wrote his paper on the congressional pay amendment, arguing that there was no time limit on when it could be ratified, and that it could be ratified now. He got a C on the paper.
Maybe if he had received a better grade on his paper, the story would have ended there, but Watson was sure it was a better paper, so he appealed his grade, first to his T.
After that, Watson kept pushing, and the Amendment picked up steam. As a result, a campaign was launched to get three-quarters of the states to ratify the Amendment over the totality of the period between and the present day. Infive states passed it, and bythe 38 states needed for full ratification had all passed the Amendment.
The Archivist of the United States declared the Amendment to be legally ratified, and, subsequently, Congress on May 20,declared the ratification to be legal and the Amendment to be part of the Constitution.
As of today, forty-six states have ratified the Twenty-Seventh Amendment while four have not.27th Amendment paper. Topics: United States The 27th amendment is very unique in that it took about years from the date that is was proposed to the date it was officially ratified by the states. The 27th amendment has to do with pay raises or decreases for the members of Congress.
Changes to the Congressional pay are supposed to. May 30, · 27th Amendment or Bust. John Heltman. May 30, researching a term paper he was going to write on the Equal Rights Amendment. He happened upon a book published by the Government Printing Office that included a copy of the Constitution, as well as several amendments that had been passed by Congress but not yet ratified .
May 05, · The Bad Grade That Changed The U.S. Constitution The 27th Amendment had languished for nearly years before a Texas student made passing it a personal cause.
The amendment was ratified 25 years. The ratification of the 27th amendment can be traced to a college student who proposed the idea in a term paper and was given a C by his professor for the idea.
The Twenty-seventh Amendment (Amendment XXVII) In the paper, Watson argued that the amendment was still "live" and could be ratified. On May 19th, , the 27th Amendment's certificate of ratification, signed by the Archivist of the United States on May 18th. Unfortunately for Watson, but fortunately for the 27th Amendment, he was given a C on his paper.
After his appeals to get the grade raised were rejected, Watson decided to take his appeal to the American people in a big way. | <urn:uuid:74697b87-4f6e-4b77-9044-ff8a832127f4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rytulifovip.iridis-photo-restoration.com/27th-amendment-paper-35727si.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00469.warc.gz | en | 0.990955 | 1,039 | 4.53125 | 5 | [
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0.1097709685... | 1 | Any pay raise or hike would take effect for the Congress that follows a sitting Congress. Founding Father James Madison first proposed back in along with other amendments that became the Bill of Rights, but it took years for it to become the law of the land.
Congress passed the Twenty-Seventh Amendment by a two-thirds vote of both Houses, inalong with eleven other proposed constitutional amendments the last ten of which were ratified by the states inbecoming the Bill of Rights. The Amendment provides that: This is a very good thing.
The King had built up his power by corrupting these office holders, giving them easy and well-paid civil office jobs so that they would support him in Parliament.
This did not sit well with the general public, or with James Madison—it seemed like a big opening for Congress to pay itself too much. InMadison proposed twelve amendments to the federal Constitution, the first ten of which were ratified in and became the federal Bill of Rights.
One of the proposed amendments, which was not ratified at that time, was an amendment that became the Twenty-Seventh Amendment and which forbade congressional pay increases from taking effect until there had been an intervening election of members of Congress.
Madison did not want Congress to have power over its own pay without limitation. But he also did not want the President to control congressional salaries, since that would give the President too much power over Congress.
So instead, he proposed that an election had to happen before any pay raise could take effect. If the public opposed an overly generous congressional pay raise, the public could throw the offending congressmen out of office when they ran for re-election.
The congressional pay amendment was only ratified by 6 states initially. But the First Congress, which had passed the Amendment inhad not attached a time limit within which the Amendment had to be ratified by the states.
Some subsequent constitutional amendments have provided for such time limits. In the nineteenth century, one state joined this small group, and others in the twentieth, but no one thought it was going anywhere—or thought about it much at all.
Inthe Amendment was languishing before the states with only a tiny fraction of the number of states needed to ratify having ratified it.
That year Gregory Watson, a sophomore at the University of Texas, was assigned to write a paper about a government process. He came across a chapter in a book on the Constitution, listing proposed constitutional amendments that had not been ratified.
He wrote his paper on the congressional pay amendment, arguing that there was no time limit on when it could be ratified, and that it could be ratified now. He got a C on the paper.
Maybe if he had received a better grade on his paper, the story would have ended there, but Watson was sure it was a better paper, so he appealed his grade, first to his T.
After that, Watson kept pushing, and the Amendment picked up steam. As a result, a campaign was launched to get three-quarters of the states to ratify the Amendment over the totality of the period between and the present day. Infive states passed it, and bythe 38 states needed for full ratification had all passed the Amendment.
The Archivist of the United States declared the Amendment to be legally ratified, and, subsequently, Congress on May 20,declared the ratification to be legal and the Amendment to be part of the Constitution.
As of today, forty-six states have ratified the Twenty-Seventh Amendment while four have not.27th Amendment paper. Topics: United States The 27th amendment is very unique in that it took about years from the date that is was proposed to the date it was officially ratified by the states. The 27th amendment has to do with pay raises or decreases for the members of Congress.
Changes to the Congressional pay are supposed to. May 30, · 27th Amendment or Bust. John Heltman. May 30, researching a term paper he was going to write on the Equal Rights Amendment. He happened upon a book published by the Government Printing Office that included a copy of the Constitution, as well as several amendments that had been passed by Congress but not yet ratified .
May 05, · The Bad Grade That Changed The U.S. Constitution The 27th Amendment had languished for nearly years before a Texas student made passing it a personal cause.
The amendment was ratified 25 years. The ratification of the 27th amendment can be traced to a college student who proposed the idea in a term paper and was given a C by his professor for the idea.
The Twenty-seventh Amendment (Amendment XXVII) In the paper, Watson argued that the amendment was still "live" and could be ratified. On May 19th, , the 27th Amendment's certificate of ratification, signed by the Archivist of the United States on May 18th. Unfortunately for Watson, but fortunately for the 27th Amendment, he was given a C on his paper.
After his appeals to get the grade raised were rejected, Watson decided to take his appeal to the American people in a big way. | 1,048 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1. Foo fighters
The term foo fighter was used by Allied aircraft pilots in World War II to describe various UFOs or mysterious aerial phenomena seen in the skies over both the European and Pacific theaters of operations. Though "foo fighter" initially described a type of UFO reported and named by the U.S. 415th Night Fighter Squadron, the term was also commonly used to mean any UFO sighting from that period. Formally reported from November 1944 onwards, witnesses often assumed that the foo fighters were secret weapons employed by the enemy.
However, they could not be outmaneuvered or shot down. The phenomenon was so widespread that the lights earned a name – in the European Theater of Operations they were often called "Kraut fireballs", but for the most part called "foo fighters". The military took the sightings seriously, suspecting that the mysterious sightings might be secret German weapons, but further investigation revealed that German and Japanese pilots had reported similar sightings.
2. Ghost rockets
Ghost rockets were rocket- or missile-shaped unidentified flying objects sighted in 1946, mostly in Sweden and nearby countries. The first reports of ghost rockets were made on February 26, 1946, by Finnish observers. About 2,000 sightings were logged between May and December 1946, with peaks on 9 and 11 August 1946. Two hundred sightings were verified with radar returns, and authorities recovered physical fragments which were attributed to ghost rockets.
Investigations concluded that many ghost rocket sightings were probably caused by meteors. For example, the peaks of the sightings, on the 9 and 11 August 1946, also fall within the peak of the annual Perseid meteor shower. However, most ghost rocket sightings did not occur during meteor shower activity, and furthermore displayed characteristics inconsistent with meteors, such as reported maneuverability.
3. Belgian UFO wave
The Belgian UFO wave was a series of sightings of purported triangular UFOs in Belgium, which lasted from 29 November 1989 to April 1990. Months after the event, many people claimed to have witnessed the object, but no pictures, videos or any other type of proof was ever provided.
The Belgian UFO wave began in November 1989. Reports were filed, most many weeks after the events. No witnesses managed to take any photographic evidence of the event. Many of the reports related a large object flying at low altitude. Some reports also stated that the craft was of a flat, triangular shape, with lights underneath.
4. Phoenix Lights
The Phoenix Lights were a series of widely sighted unidentified flying objects or UFOs observed in the skies over the U.S. states of Arizona, Nevada, and the Mexican state of Sonora on March 13, 1997.
Lights of varying descriptions were seen by thousands of people between 19:30 and 22:30 MST, in a space of about 300 miles (480 km), from the Nevada line, through Phoenix, to the edge of Tucson. There were two distinct events involved in the incident: a triangular formation of lights seen to pass over the state, and a series of stationary lights seen in the Phoenix area. The United States Air Force identified the second group of lights as flares dropped by A-10 Warthog aircraft that were on training exercises at the Barry Goldwater Range in southwest Arizona. Witnesses claim to have observed a huge carpenter's square-shaped UFO, containing five spherical lights or possibly light-emitting engines. Fife Symington, the governor at the time, was one witness to this incident; he later called the object "otherworldly."
5. 1952 Washington, D.C. UFO incident
The 1952 Washington, D.C. UFO incident was a series of unidentified flying object reports in USA from July 12 to July 29, 1952, over Washington, D.C. The most publicized sightings took place on consecutive weekends, July 19–20 and July 26–27.
,,We knew immediately that a very strange situation existed . . . their movements were completely radical compared to those of ordinary aircraft."
Barnes had two controllers check Nugent's radar; they found that it was working normally. Barnes then called National Airport's radar-equipped control tower; the controllers there, Howard Cocklin and Joe Zacko, said that they also had unidentified blips on their radar screen, and that they had seen "a bright light hovering in the sky...[it] took off, zooming away at incredible speed."
6. Kaikoura lights
The Kaikoura lights is a name given by the New Zealand media to a series of UFO sightings that occurred in December 1978, over the skies above the Kaikoura mountain ranges in the northeast of New Zealand's South Island. The first sightings were made on 21 December when the crew of a Safe Air Ltd cargo aircraft began observing a series of strange lights around their Armstrong Whitworth AW.660 Argosy aircraft, which tracked along with their aircraft for several minutes before disappearing and then reappearing elsewhere, the UFO was very large and had five white flashing lights that were visible on the craft. Some people say that they could see some little disks drop from the UFO and then disappear (they were never found). The pilots described some of the lights to be the size of a house and others small but flashing brilliantly. These objects appeared on the air traffic controller radar in Wellington and also on the aircraft's on-board radar.
A spate of sightings followed the initial report and an Air Force Skyhawk was put on stand-by to investigate any positive sightings.
7. Japan Air Lines flight 1628 incident
Japan Air Lines flight 1628 was a UFO incident that occurred on November 17, 1986 involving a Japanese Boeing 747-200F cargo aircraft. The aircraft was en route from Paris to Narita International Airport, near Tokyo, with a cargo of Beaujolais wine. On the Reykjavík to Anchorage section of the flight, at 17:11 over eastern Alaska, the crew first witnessed two unidentified objects to their left. These abruptly rose from below and closed in to escort their aircraft. Each had two rectangular arrays of what appeared to be glowing nozzles or thrusters, though their bodies remained obscured by darkness.
8. Voronezh UFO incident
The Voronezh UFO incident was an alleged UFO sighting reported in Voronezh, Soviet Union, on September 27, 1989. The incident was allegedly witnessed by a group of children, with other members of the local community, including civil servants, claiming to have seen the craft only.
The story reported by the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS) claimed that a group of children had spotted a small ball in the park whilst playing (now Yuzhny Park), which quickly morphed into a disc, which landed near them. Witnesses then reported a "three-eyed alien" and a robot exiting the craft. The alien stared at a horrified onlooker, freezing them in their tracks, before departing and returning five minutes later to abduct a 16-year-old boy, using what was described as a 50 cm-long "pistol tube".
9. Finnish Air Force sighting
In Finland, on April 12, 1969 seven yellow disc or ball shaped objects were spotted above Pori Airport. Jouko Kuronen from the Finnish Defence Forces was on the airfield with his plane when he heard on his radio that the overseer of Fouga Magister planes was talking to fighter pilot Tarmo Tukeva. The overseer commanded Tukeva to go see what were those seven air balloons that floated over the airport. The overseer told to Tukeva that their height was around 1500-3000 meters. Kuronen wanted to see also those objects that the overseer was talking about. After taking off, he turned his plane to see what was above. He saw seven disc or ball shaped objects and a Fouga Magister which was approaching them. Then Kuronen's own radar spotted the objects and they were also spotted by the ground control. When Tukeva got close enough, he also could say that these objects were ball or disc shaped but he could not tell his distance to them when lacking set points.
10. Manises UFO incident
The Manises UFO incident took place on 11 November 1979, forcing a commercial flight of the Spanish company Transportes Aéreos Españoles, with 109 passengers, to make an emergency landing at the Manises' airport in Valencia, Spain, when they were flying over Ibiza. After the emergency landing, a Spanish Air Force fighter aircraft took off from Los Llanos Base in order to intercept the mysterious object.
A TAE Supercaravelle was the first aircraft involved in the incident. Flight JK-297 had taken off from Salzburg (Austria) with 109 passengers on board, and had made a refuelling stop on the island Mallorca before setting course towards Las Palmas.
In order to avoid a possible collision, the captain changed altitude. However, the lights mirrored the new course and stayed about half a kilometer away from the plane. Since the object was violating all elementary safety rules and an evasive maneuver was deemed impossible by the crew, the captain decided on going off-course and made an emergency landing in Manises' airport. | <urn:uuid:51269e5b-35c2-4551-9962-8573fc86b9eb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.variousmag.eu/2019/10/10-mass-ufo-sightings-in-20th-century_12.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00076.warc.gz | en | 0.982754 | 1,878 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.15712723135... | 1 | 1. Foo fighters
The term foo fighter was used by Allied aircraft pilots in World War II to describe various UFOs or mysterious aerial phenomena seen in the skies over both the European and Pacific theaters of operations. Though "foo fighter" initially described a type of UFO reported and named by the U.S. 415th Night Fighter Squadron, the term was also commonly used to mean any UFO sighting from that period. Formally reported from November 1944 onwards, witnesses often assumed that the foo fighters were secret weapons employed by the enemy.
However, they could not be outmaneuvered or shot down. The phenomenon was so widespread that the lights earned a name – in the European Theater of Operations they were often called "Kraut fireballs", but for the most part called "foo fighters". The military took the sightings seriously, suspecting that the mysterious sightings might be secret German weapons, but further investigation revealed that German and Japanese pilots had reported similar sightings.
2. Ghost rockets
Ghost rockets were rocket- or missile-shaped unidentified flying objects sighted in 1946, mostly in Sweden and nearby countries. The first reports of ghost rockets were made on February 26, 1946, by Finnish observers. About 2,000 sightings were logged between May and December 1946, with peaks on 9 and 11 August 1946. Two hundred sightings were verified with radar returns, and authorities recovered physical fragments which were attributed to ghost rockets.
Investigations concluded that many ghost rocket sightings were probably caused by meteors. For example, the peaks of the sightings, on the 9 and 11 August 1946, also fall within the peak of the annual Perseid meteor shower. However, most ghost rocket sightings did not occur during meteor shower activity, and furthermore displayed characteristics inconsistent with meteors, such as reported maneuverability.
3. Belgian UFO wave
The Belgian UFO wave was a series of sightings of purported triangular UFOs in Belgium, which lasted from 29 November 1989 to April 1990. Months after the event, many people claimed to have witnessed the object, but no pictures, videos or any other type of proof was ever provided.
The Belgian UFO wave began in November 1989. Reports were filed, most many weeks after the events. No witnesses managed to take any photographic evidence of the event. Many of the reports related a large object flying at low altitude. Some reports also stated that the craft was of a flat, triangular shape, with lights underneath.
4. Phoenix Lights
The Phoenix Lights were a series of widely sighted unidentified flying objects or UFOs observed in the skies over the U.S. states of Arizona, Nevada, and the Mexican state of Sonora on March 13, 1997.
Lights of varying descriptions were seen by thousands of people between 19:30 and 22:30 MST, in a space of about 300 miles (480 km), from the Nevada line, through Phoenix, to the edge of Tucson. There were two distinct events involved in the incident: a triangular formation of lights seen to pass over the state, and a series of stationary lights seen in the Phoenix area. The United States Air Force identified the second group of lights as flares dropped by A-10 Warthog aircraft that were on training exercises at the Barry Goldwater Range in southwest Arizona. Witnesses claim to have observed a huge carpenter's square-shaped UFO, containing five spherical lights or possibly light-emitting engines. Fife Symington, the governor at the time, was one witness to this incident; he later called the object "otherworldly."
5. 1952 Washington, D.C. UFO incident
The 1952 Washington, D.C. UFO incident was a series of unidentified flying object reports in USA from July 12 to July 29, 1952, over Washington, D.C. The most publicized sightings took place on consecutive weekends, July 19–20 and July 26–27.
,,We knew immediately that a very strange situation existed . . . their movements were completely radical compared to those of ordinary aircraft."
Barnes had two controllers check Nugent's radar; they found that it was working normally. Barnes then called National Airport's radar-equipped control tower; the controllers there, Howard Cocklin and Joe Zacko, said that they also had unidentified blips on their radar screen, and that they had seen "a bright light hovering in the sky...[it] took off, zooming away at incredible speed."
6. Kaikoura lights
The Kaikoura lights is a name given by the New Zealand media to a series of UFO sightings that occurred in December 1978, over the skies above the Kaikoura mountain ranges in the northeast of New Zealand's South Island. The first sightings were made on 21 December when the crew of a Safe Air Ltd cargo aircraft began observing a series of strange lights around their Armstrong Whitworth AW.660 Argosy aircraft, which tracked along with their aircraft for several minutes before disappearing and then reappearing elsewhere, the UFO was very large and had five white flashing lights that were visible on the craft. Some people say that they could see some little disks drop from the UFO and then disappear (they were never found). The pilots described some of the lights to be the size of a house and others small but flashing brilliantly. These objects appeared on the air traffic controller radar in Wellington and also on the aircraft's on-board radar.
A spate of sightings followed the initial report and an Air Force Skyhawk was put on stand-by to investigate any positive sightings.
7. Japan Air Lines flight 1628 incident
Japan Air Lines flight 1628 was a UFO incident that occurred on November 17, 1986 involving a Japanese Boeing 747-200F cargo aircraft. The aircraft was en route from Paris to Narita International Airport, near Tokyo, with a cargo of Beaujolais wine. On the Reykjavík to Anchorage section of the flight, at 17:11 over eastern Alaska, the crew first witnessed two unidentified objects to their left. These abruptly rose from below and closed in to escort their aircraft. Each had two rectangular arrays of what appeared to be glowing nozzles or thrusters, though their bodies remained obscured by darkness.
8. Voronezh UFO incident
The Voronezh UFO incident was an alleged UFO sighting reported in Voronezh, Soviet Union, on September 27, 1989. The incident was allegedly witnessed by a group of children, with other members of the local community, including civil servants, claiming to have seen the craft only.
The story reported by the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS) claimed that a group of children had spotted a small ball in the park whilst playing (now Yuzhny Park), which quickly morphed into a disc, which landed near them. Witnesses then reported a "three-eyed alien" and a robot exiting the craft. The alien stared at a horrified onlooker, freezing them in their tracks, before departing and returning five minutes later to abduct a 16-year-old boy, using what was described as a 50 cm-long "pistol tube".
9. Finnish Air Force sighting
In Finland, on April 12, 1969 seven yellow disc or ball shaped objects were spotted above Pori Airport. Jouko Kuronen from the Finnish Defence Forces was on the airfield with his plane when he heard on his radio that the overseer of Fouga Magister planes was talking to fighter pilot Tarmo Tukeva. The overseer commanded Tukeva to go see what were those seven air balloons that floated over the airport. The overseer told to Tukeva that their height was around 1500-3000 meters. Kuronen wanted to see also those objects that the overseer was talking about. After taking off, he turned his plane to see what was above. He saw seven disc or ball shaped objects and a Fouga Magister which was approaching them. Then Kuronen's own radar spotted the objects and they were also spotted by the ground control. When Tukeva got close enough, he also could say that these objects were ball or disc shaped but he could not tell his distance to them when lacking set points.
10. Manises UFO incident
The Manises UFO incident took place on 11 November 1979, forcing a commercial flight of the Spanish company Transportes Aéreos Españoles, with 109 passengers, to make an emergency landing at the Manises' airport in Valencia, Spain, when they were flying over Ibiza. After the emergency landing, a Spanish Air Force fighter aircraft took off from Los Llanos Base in order to intercept the mysterious object.
A TAE Supercaravelle was the first aircraft involved in the incident. Flight JK-297 had taken off from Salzburg (Austria) with 109 passengers on board, and had made a refuelling stop on the island Mallorca before setting course towards Las Palmas.
In order to avoid a possible collision, the captain changed altitude. However, the lights mirrored the new course and stayed about half a kilometer away from the plane. Since the object was violating all elementary safety rules and an evasive maneuver was deemed impossible by the crew, the captain decided on going off-course and made an emergency landing in Manises' airport. | 2,009 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Earthquakes are one of the world’s worst natural disasters. They collapse buildings and infrastructure while taking lives. Caused by movements of the Earth’s crust the energy released causes seismic waves. Some are weak but strong earthquakes can destroy cities. Earthquakes can trigger tsunamis, avalanches, landslides and fires that further take a toll on life and property. The effects of an earthquake and its aftermath are worse in heavily populated areas where more lives may be lost and great damage done to property and the city’s infrastructure. Depending on the strength of the earthquake and its geographic location earthquakes can be extremely costly. Some areas of the world have to completely rebuild following an earthquake.
Here are the top 20 costliest earthquakes in world history.
20. San Francisco, California
The San Francisco earthquake of April 18, 1906 is considered to be one of the most significant earthquakes in history. The earthquake and subsequent fires nearly leveled the California and left property damage of $400 million. That is the equivalent to $10.7 billion today. The earthquake had a 7.8 magnitude and lasted 45 to 60 seconds. It occurred along the northern 296 miles of the San Andreas Fault. With the epicenter near the city of San Francisco, the effect of the quake were felt south of Los Angeles, north to Oregon and through central Nevada. The earthquake helped advance building codes for earthquake safer buildings and advanced the science of earthquakes. The San Francisco earthquake triggered fires that burned for 4 days. These were mostly caused by ruptured gas lines and account for the destruction of 90 percent of the damage. 3000 people lost their lives and 80 percent of the city of San Francisco was destroyed. 25,000 buildings were destroyed over 490 city blocks. The damage caused by the earthquake spread to surrounding agricultural areas and to cities including San Jose and Santa Rosa.
The Great Alaska Earthquake struck on Good Friday, March 27, 1964. The 9.2 magnitude earthquake in south central Alaska is one of the strongest ever recorded. It triggered massive tsunamis that affected the entire coast of North America. The cost of the earthquake was over $570 million. The earthquake lasted 4 minutes and killed 15 people. More than 100 would die from the following tsunamis and landslides. An underwater landslide in Prince William Sound collapsed the harbor and docks in the city of Valdez killing 30 people. In the city of Chenega 23 of its 68 residents died in the tsunami. Buildings and infrastructure were heavily damaged and coastal cities were destroyed.
18. Tokyo, Japan
The “Great Kanto Earthquake” shook the main island of Honshu in Japan on September 1, 1923. The 7.9 magnitude earthquake triggered tsunamis and landslides causing further damage to the country. The damage cost over $600 million (that would be $14 billion today). A landslide pushed an entire train, train station and track into the sea. Over 142,000 died with 40,000 reported missing. Along with buildings and infrastructure damage, 570,000 homes were destroyed leaving 1.9 million people homeless. Japan would have more earthquakes including the costliest earthquake in history.
17. Valdivia, Chile
A 9.5 magnitude earthquake with the epicenter near the city of Valdivia, Chile struck May 22, 1960. Several severe earthquakes shook a wide swath of the country of Chile between May 21 and June 6. The damages were about $1 billion (that would be $6 billion today). The “Great Chilean Earthquake” lasted about 10 minutes and set off landslides and widespread tsunamis. Tsunamis reached Hawaii, Japan, the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia and the Aleutian Islands. Tsunamis off Chile’s coast reached waves as high as 82 feet. More than 6000 people died. 20,000 people were left homeless in the heavily damaged Valdivia. The damage was widespread and severe through much of the country of Chile.
16. Tangshan, China
On July 28, 1976 at 4 am a 7.8 magnitude earthquake struck the Tangshan region of China. A second strong 7.1 magnitude aftershock followed hours later. The earthquake had the highest death toll of the twentieth century with about 255,000 people killed and 164,000 injured. The high death toll is in part attributed to the suddenness of the earthquake and, because it occurred at 4 am, most people were sleeping and unprepared. The earthquake struck with no warning pre-shocks. The initial earthquake lasted 14 to 16 seconds. Damage was extensive and tremors were felt far from the epicenter throughout China. 85 percent of the buildings in the Tangshan region were completely destroyed. It cost $1.3 billion to rebuild the damages, and the Chinese government at the time refused aid from the United Nations. This was one of the worst earthquakes in Chinese history.
15. Seattle/Tacoma, Washington
Named the “Nisqually Earthquake” after the Nisqually Delta, this earthquake centered in the southern Puget Sound and mostly affected areas including Seattle, Tacoma and Olympia. The 6.9 magnitude earthquake occurred on Ash Wednesday, February 28, 2001 and was felt throughout Washington, Oregon, Canada and Idaho. The damage was $2 billion. Fortunately there was no loss of life due to the earthquake, but there was a lot of property damage and infrastructure damage. Bridges and factories were heavily damaged. The air traffic control tower at Sea-Tac International Airport was damaged. Among the damaged buildings several were at thee Fort Lewis and McChord Air Force Base.
14. Kashmir, Pakistan
On October 8, 2005 a 7.6 magnitude earthquake shook northern Pakistan and Azad Kashmir. Effects of the earthquake were wide reaching and spread as far as Afghanistan, Tajikistan and western China. The total damage was $5.4 billion. The area was crippled by the earthquake and its aftershocks. Buildings, hospitals and schools were heavily damaged as well as infrastructure. An estimated 85,000 people died and more than 69,000 were injured. Many were left homeless and it took many years to rebuild the area
A 7.8 magnitude earthquake struck Nepal on April 25, 2015 causing $10 billion. The epicenter was the Gorkha District in Barpak, Gorkha and the effects were widespread. More than 5000 people were killed and over 10,000 suffered injuries. Many were left homeless. Many buildings including historically significant buildings and religious sites were destroyed in the worst earthquake to strike Nepal since 1934. The earthquake triggered an avalanche on Mount Everest killing 21 climbers. Another avalanche in the Langtank Valley left 250 people missing. A 7.3 magnitude aftershock caused further damage on May 12.
12. Jiji, Taiwan
On September 20, 1999 Taiwan was hit by a 7.3 magnitude earthquake, the deadliest in the nation since a 1935 earthquake. Known locally as the “921” earthquake it caused $10 billion in damages. Over 2400 people were killed and 11,300 were injured. 100,000 people were left homeless. The earthquake severely damaged 53,768 buildings including 820 schools. Power was lost due to damaged power stations and the automatic shutdown of 3 nuclear power plants. The main Central Cross-Island Highway was severely damaged. The earthquake triggered 132 landslides crushing homes.
11. Emilia, Italy
Known as the “Emilia Earthquakes”, the northern region of Italy was struck by several earthquakes between May 20 and June 3, 2012. The epicenter was near the city of Bologna. The first earthquake was a 6.1 magnitude and left 7 people dead and many buildings and homes severely damaged. Factories and agricultural land were damaged. More than 100 historically significant buildings were damaged. The first earthquake was followed b a 5.2 magnitude earthquake an hour later. A third earthquake on May 29 was a 5.8 magnitude and left 20 people dead. Many more buildings were damaged due to being weakened by the first earthquake. An aftershock on June 3 further caused damage. The cost of the earthquakes were $15.8 billion.
10. Izmit, Turkey
Northern Turkey was shaken by a 7.6 magnitude earthquake on August 17, 1999 that caused $20 billion in damages. The earthquake lasted 37 seconds. Over 17,000 people died and a half million people were left homeless. The city of Izmit was badly damaged. The western part of Istanbul also suffered severe damages as well as other surrounding areas. The brunt of the earthquake hit industrialized and heavily populated areas. Automotive plants, oil refineries and the Turkish Naval Headquarters were heavily damaged. A fire sparked by the earthquake spread to an oil refinery. Broken water mains limited means to put the fire out.
9. Leninakan, Armenia
Armenia, at the time a part of the Soviet Union, was hit by a 6.8 magnitude earthquake on December 7, 1988. The earthquake is known as the “Spitak Earthquake” and caused $20 billion in damages. The epicenter was in an industrial area of northern Armenia which housed a nuclear power plant, electrical substations and food and chemical industries. More than 25,000 people were reported dead from the earthquake and 130,000 were left injured. Many buildings were destroyed, and the country has since instilled stricter building codes.
8. Irpinia, Italy
On November 23, 1980 southwestern Italy was hit with a 6.9 magnitude earthquake and 90 aftershocks. The cost to repair the damage was $20 billion. The cities of Naples, Salerno, Lioni and others were heavily damaged with building collapses and infrastructure damage. Over 2400 people died and 7700 were injured. 250,000 were left homeless. In 1 town, 100 people died when a medieval church collapsed during Sunday service.
7. Chuetsu, Japan
A series of severe earthquakes occurred off the coast of Japan’s main island of Honshu in 2004. It began with a 6.6 magnitude earthquake on October 23, 2004. In a 66 hour period 15 more earthquakes shook the region. 68 people died and more than 4500 people were injured. The earthquake damaged many buildings and broke water mains. Electricity, telephone and internet service were interrupted by the earthquakes. Several railroad tracks were damaged and a train derailed during the first earthquake. Triggered landslides destroyed houses and cars and closed several highways. Some residents were unable to return to their homes for more than 2 years.
Most of the South American country of Chile was damaged by an 8.8 magnitude earthquake on February 27, 2010. The earthquake lasted 3 minutes and triggered tsunamis and fires further causing damage. The overall damage was $30 billion. The earthquake strongly shook 6 of the most heavily populated regions of the country. 525 people died and 25 were missing. 9 percent of the population of Chile lost their home. Damages in the city of Santiago included a fire at a chemical plant and 3 collapsed hospitals. Power outage affected 93 percent of the country’s population for several days. Tsunamis triggered by the earthquake damaged coastal towns with the heaviest damage in the port of Talcahuano. The earthquake triggered tsunami warnings in 53 countries. Minor damage was caused by tsunamis that reached San Diego, California and the Tohoku region of Japan.
5. Christchurch, New Zealand
On June 13, 2011 the South Island of New Zealand was hit by a 6.3 magnitude earthquake that caused major damage. The city of Canterbury and its suburbs received the brunt of the damage. The cost to repair was $40 billion. There were 185 deaths and many injuries caused by the earthquake. When the Canterbury Television Building collapsed and caught on fire 115 people died. The Pyne Gould Corporation building collapsed killing 18 people. 8 more were killed when masonry fell on a bus. Other buildings severely damaged included a medical clinic and an English language school as well as several churches and countless apartment buildings and homes. The region also suffered heavy road and bridge damage as well as other infrastructure damage.
4. Northridge, California
One of California’s costliest earthquakes occurred on January 17, 1994 and cost about $50 billion. The 6.7 magnitude earthquake lasted just 10 to 20 seconds. It was followed by 2 6.0 aftershocks. The magnitudes are the highest to strike an urban area in North America. The area affected was the north central San Fernando Valley near Los Angeles. Damages spread to the cities of Santa Monica, Simi Valley and Santa Clarita. The earthquake caused 57 deaths and over 8700 people were injured. It is believed the death toll could have been higher had it not been Martin Luther King Junior Day, a federal holiday. In the Northridge Meadows Apartment building, 13 people lost their loves. The earthquake collapsed the busy Santa Monica Freeway and damaged Interstates 10 and 5. Radio stations and television broadcasts were interrupted due to the earthquake which caused damage to studio sets and stages.
3. Sichuan, China
An 8.0 and a 7.9 magnitude earthquake hit the Sichuan region of China in the west and northwest region of the country on May 8, 2008. The earthquakes caused over $145 billion in damage. The event was the deadliest and costliest natural disaster to strike China. Over 69,000 people lost their lives with 18,000 people missing. Those left injured were more than 37,000. Millions were left homeless. The most expensive earthquake in China leveled much of the region.
2. Kobe, Japan
The Great Hanshin Earthquake struck the Hyogo Prefecture of Japan on January 17, 1995 and caused $200,000 in damages. The 6.9 magnitude earthquake hit the city of Kobe the worst. Overall more than 6000 people were killed. Over 400,000 buildings were destroyed as well as elevated roadways, railroads and bridges. Of the 150 quays in the Port of Kobe 120 were destroyed. Over 300 fires were caused by the earthquake and the city infrastructures were crippled.
1. Tohoku, Japan
On March 11, 2011 Japan was hit with one of the worst earthquakes ever. The costliest earthquake to strike the world cost about $235 billion along with more than 15,800 lives. The 9.0 magnitude earthquake shook northeastern Japan and triggered a large tsunami which caused further damage. The earthquake crippled the Japanese economy and caused damage to structures, roads and railways. More than 129,000 buildings were destroyed. The earthquake set off a panic that the Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant would explode and fears of leaked radiation. Japan continues to rebuild from the world’s costliest earthquake in history. | <urn:uuid:a467231e-1f3e-45d5-98a6-87ad10459693> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://moneyinc.com/20-costliest-earthquakes-world-history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00367.warc.gz | en | 0.981735 | 2,991 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.4007788896560... | 11 | Earthquakes are one of the world’s worst natural disasters. They collapse buildings and infrastructure while taking lives. Caused by movements of the Earth’s crust the energy released causes seismic waves. Some are weak but strong earthquakes can destroy cities. Earthquakes can trigger tsunamis, avalanches, landslides and fires that further take a toll on life and property. The effects of an earthquake and its aftermath are worse in heavily populated areas where more lives may be lost and great damage done to property and the city’s infrastructure. Depending on the strength of the earthquake and its geographic location earthquakes can be extremely costly. Some areas of the world have to completely rebuild following an earthquake.
Here are the top 20 costliest earthquakes in world history.
20. San Francisco, California
The San Francisco earthquake of April 18, 1906 is considered to be one of the most significant earthquakes in history. The earthquake and subsequent fires nearly leveled the California and left property damage of $400 million. That is the equivalent to $10.7 billion today. The earthquake had a 7.8 magnitude and lasted 45 to 60 seconds. It occurred along the northern 296 miles of the San Andreas Fault. With the epicenter near the city of San Francisco, the effect of the quake were felt south of Los Angeles, north to Oregon and through central Nevada. The earthquake helped advance building codes for earthquake safer buildings and advanced the science of earthquakes. The San Francisco earthquake triggered fires that burned for 4 days. These were mostly caused by ruptured gas lines and account for the destruction of 90 percent of the damage. 3000 people lost their lives and 80 percent of the city of San Francisco was destroyed. 25,000 buildings were destroyed over 490 city blocks. The damage caused by the earthquake spread to surrounding agricultural areas and to cities including San Jose and Santa Rosa.
The Great Alaska Earthquake struck on Good Friday, March 27, 1964. The 9.2 magnitude earthquake in south central Alaska is one of the strongest ever recorded. It triggered massive tsunamis that affected the entire coast of North America. The cost of the earthquake was over $570 million. The earthquake lasted 4 minutes and killed 15 people. More than 100 would die from the following tsunamis and landslides. An underwater landslide in Prince William Sound collapsed the harbor and docks in the city of Valdez killing 30 people. In the city of Chenega 23 of its 68 residents died in the tsunami. Buildings and infrastructure were heavily damaged and coastal cities were destroyed.
18. Tokyo, Japan
The “Great Kanto Earthquake” shook the main island of Honshu in Japan on September 1, 1923. The 7.9 magnitude earthquake triggered tsunamis and landslides causing further damage to the country. The damage cost over $600 million (that would be $14 billion today). A landslide pushed an entire train, train station and track into the sea. Over 142,000 died with 40,000 reported missing. Along with buildings and infrastructure damage, 570,000 homes were destroyed leaving 1.9 million people homeless. Japan would have more earthquakes including the costliest earthquake in history.
17. Valdivia, Chile
A 9.5 magnitude earthquake with the epicenter near the city of Valdivia, Chile struck May 22, 1960. Several severe earthquakes shook a wide swath of the country of Chile between May 21 and June 6. The damages were about $1 billion (that would be $6 billion today). The “Great Chilean Earthquake” lasted about 10 minutes and set off landslides and widespread tsunamis. Tsunamis reached Hawaii, Japan, the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia and the Aleutian Islands. Tsunamis off Chile’s coast reached waves as high as 82 feet. More than 6000 people died. 20,000 people were left homeless in the heavily damaged Valdivia. The damage was widespread and severe through much of the country of Chile.
16. Tangshan, China
On July 28, 1976 at 4 am a 7.8 magnitude earthquake struck the Tangshan region of China. A second strong 7.1 magnitude aftershock followed hours later. The earthquake had the highest death toll of the twentieth century with about 255,000 people killed and 164,000 injured. The high death toll is in part attributed to the suddenness of the earthquake and, because it occurred at 4 am, most people were sleeping and unprepared. The earthquake struck with no warning pre-shocks. The initial earthquake lasted 14 to 16 seconds. Damage was extensive and tremors were felt far from the epicenter throughout China. 85 percent of the buildings in the Tangshan region were completely destroyed. It cost $1.3 billion to rebuild the damages, and the Chinese government at the time refused aid from the United Nations. This was one of the worst earthquakes in Chinese history.
15. Seattle/Tacoma, Washington
Named the “Nisqually Earthquake” after the Nisqually Delta, this earthquake centered in the southern Puget Sound and mostly affected areas including Seattle, Tacoma and Olympia. The 6.9 magnitude earthquake occurred on Ash Wednesday, February 28, 2001 and was felt throughout Washington, Oregon, Canada and Idaho. The damage was $2 billion. Fortunately there was no loss of life due to the earthquake, but there was a lot of property damage and infrastructure damage. Bridges and factories were heavily damaged. The air traffic control tower at Sea-Tac International Airport was damaged. Among the damaged buildings several were at thee Fort Lewis and McChord Air Force Base.
14. Kashmir, Pakistan
On October 8, 2005 a 7.6 magnitude earthquake shook northern Pakistan and Azad Kashmir. Effects of the earthquake were wide reaching and spread as far as Afghanistan, Tajikistan and western China. The total damage was $5.4 billion. The area was crippled by the earthquake and its aftershocks. Buildings, hospitals and schools were heavily damaged as well as infrastructure. An estimated 85,000 people died and more than 69,000 were injured. Many were left homeless and it took many years to rebuild the area
A 7.8 magnitude earthquake struck Nepal on April 25, 2015 causing $10 billion. The epicenter was the Gorkha District in Barpak, Gorkha and the effects were widespread. More than 5000 people were killed and over 10,000 suffered injuries. Many were left homeless. Many buildings including historically significant buildings and religious sites were destroyed in the worst earthquake to strike Nepal since 1934. The earthquake triggered an avalanche on Mount Everest killing 21 climbers. Another avalanche in the Langtank Valley left 250 people missing. A 7.3 magnitude aftershock caused further damage on May 12.
12. Jiji, Taiwan
On September 20, 1999 Taiwan was hit by a 7.3 magnitude earthquake, the deadliest in the nation since a 1935 earthquake. Known locally as the “921” earthquake it caused $10 billion in damages. Over 2400 people were killed and 11,300 were injured. 100,000 people were left homeless. The earthquake severely damaged 53,768 buildings including 820 schools. Power was lost due to damaged power stations and the automatic shutdown of 3 nuclear power plants. The main Central Cross-Island Highway was severely damaged. The earthquake triggered 132 landslides crushing homes.
11. Emilia, Italy
Known as the “Emilia Earthquakes”, the northern region of Italy was struck by several earthquakes between May 20 and June 3, 2012. The epicenter was near the city of Bologna. The first earthquake was a 6.1 magnitude and left 7 people dead and many buildings and homes severely damaged. Factories and agricultural land were damaged. More than 100 historically significant buildings were damaged. The first earthquake was followed b a 5.2 magnitude earthquake an hour later. A third earthquake on May 29 was a 5.8 magnitude and left 20 people dead. Many more buildings were damaged due to being weakened by the first earthquake. An aftershock on June 3 further caused damage. The cost of the earthquakes were $15.8 billion.
10. Izmit, Turkey
Northern Turkey was shaken by a 7.6 magnitude earthquake on August 17, 1999 that caused $20 billion in damages. The earthquake lasted 37 seconds. Over 17,000 people died and a half million people were left homeless. The city of Izmit was badly damaged. The western part of Istanbul also suffered severe damages as well as other surrounding areas. The brunt of the earthquake hit industrialized and heavily populated areas. Automotive plants, oil refineries and the Turkish Naval Headquarters were heavily damaged. A fire sparked by the earthquake spread to an oil refinery. Broken water mains limited means to put the fire out.
9. Leninakan, Armenia
Armenia, at the time a part of the Soviet Union, was hit by a 6.8 magnitude earthquake on December 7, 1988. The earthquake is known as the “Spitak Earthquake” and caused $20 billion in damages. The epicenter was in an industrial area of northern Armenia which housed a nuclear power plant, electrical substations and food and chemical industries. More than 25,000 people were reported dead from the earthquake and 130,000 were left injured. Many buildings were destroyed, and the country has since instilled stricter building codes.
8. Irpinia, Italy
On November 23, 1980 southwestern Italy was hit with a 6.9 magnitude earthquake and 90 aftershocks. The cost to repair the damage was $20 billion. The cities of Naples, Salerno, Lioni and others were heavily damaged with building collapses and infrastructure damage. Over 2400 people died and 7700 were injured. 250,000 were left homeless. In 1 town, 100 people died when a medieval church collapsed during Sunday service.
7. Chuetsu, Japan
A series of severe earthquakes occurred off the coast of Japan’s main island of Honshu in 2004. It began with a 6.6 magnitude earthquake on October 23, 2004. In a 66 hour period 15 more earthquakes shook the region. 68 people died and more than 4500 people were injured. The earthquake damaged many buildings and broke water mains. Electricity, telephone and internet service were interrupted by the earthquakes. Several railroad tracks were damaged and a train derailed during the first earthquake. Triggered landslides destroyed houses and cars and closed several highways. Some residents were unable to return to their homes for more than 2 years.
Most of the South American country of Chile was damaged by an 8.8 magnitude earthquake on February 27, 2010. The earthquake lasted 3 minutes and triggered tsunamis and fires further causing damage. The overall damage was $30 billion. The earthquake strongly shook 6 of the most heavily populated regions of the country. 525 people died and 25 were missing. 9 percent of the population of Chile lost their home. Damages in the city of Santiago included a fire at a chemical plant and 3 collapsed hospitals. Power outage affected 93 percent of the country’s population for several days. Tsunamis triggered by the earthquake damaged coastal towns with the heaviest damage in the port of Talcahuano. The earthquake triggered tsunami warnings in 53 countries. Minor damage was caused by tsunamis that reached San Diego, California and the Tohoku region of Japan.
5. Christchurch, New Zealand
On June 13, 2011 the South Island of New Zealand was hit by a 6.3 magnitude earthquake that caused major damage. The city of Canterbury and its suburbs received the brunt of the damage. The cost to repair was $40 billion. There were 185 deaths and many injuries caused by the earthquake. When the Canterbury Television Building collapsed and caught on fire 115 people died. The Pyne Gould Corporation building collapsed killing 18 people. 8 more were killed when masonry fell on a bus. Other buildings severely damaged included a medical clinic and an English language school as well as several churches and countless apartment buildings and homes. The region also suffered heavy road and bridge damage as well as other infrastructure damage.
4. Northridge, California
One of California’s costliest earthquakes occurred on January 17, 1994 and cost about $50 billion. The 6.7 magnitude earthquake lasted just 10 to 20 seconds. It was followed by 2 6.0 aftershocks. The magnitudes are the highest to strike an urban area in North America. The area affected was the north central San Fernando Valley near Los Angeles. Damages spread to the cities of Santa Monica, Simi Valley and Santa Clarita. The earthquake caused 57 deaths and over 8700 people were injured. It is believed the death toll could have been higher had it not been Martin Luther King Junior Day, a federal holiday. In the Northridge Meadows Apartment building, 13 people lost their loves. The earthquake collapsed the busy Santa Monica Freeway and damaged Interstates 10 and 5. Radio stations and television broadcasts were interrupted due to the earthquake which caused damage to studio sets and stages.
3. Sichuan, China
An 8.0 and a 7.9 magnitude earthquake hit the Sichuan region of China in the west and northwest region of the country on May 8, 2008. The earthquakes caused over $145 billion in damage. The event was the deadliest and costliest natural disaster to strike China. Over 69,000 people lost their lives with 18,000 people missing. Those left injured were more than 37,000. Millions were left homeless. The most expensive earthquake in China leveled much of the region.
2. Kobe, Japan
The Great Hanshin Earthquake struck the Hyogo Prefecture of Japan on January 17, 1995 and caused $200,000 in damages. The 6.9 magnitude earthquake hit the city of Kobe the worst. Overall more than 6000 people were killed. Over 400,000 buildings were destroyed as well as elevated roadways, railroads and bridges. Of the 150 quays in the Port of Kobe 120 were destroyed. Over 300 fires were caused by the earthquake and the city infrastructures were crippled.
1. Tohoku, Japan
On March 11, 2011 Japan was hit with one of the worst earthquakes ever. The costliest earthquake to strike the world cost about $235 billion along with more than 15,800 lives. The 9.0 magnitude earthquake shook northeastern Japan and triggered a large tsunami which caused further damage. The earthquake crippled the Japanese economy and caused damage to structures, roads and railways. More than 129,000 buildings were destroyed. The earthquake set off a panic that the Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant would explode and fears of leaked radiation. Japan continues to rebuild from the world’s costliest earthquake in history. | 3,413 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“Death of a salesman” is a play written in 1949 by an American playwright, Arthur Miller. The play is based from both Miller’s personal experiences and the theatrical traditions in which he was instructed in. “Death of a salesman” revolves around the Loman family with Willy Loman, the father, who also works as a salesman as the main character.
Willy Loman has indulged himself in a myth of being well liked and being attractive in order to succeed in the business world. He believes that personal talent is not as important and actually uses this myth against his neighbors and friends, Charley and Bernard, who he does not consider to be physically attractive.
Due to this belief implanted in them, the Lomans lead an unpleasant and unfulfilled life while their neighbors enjoyed success. Willy is also in a delusional mental state and is caught in between the past and the present in which he keeps having hallucinations and reveries.
He lives in a flimsy fantasy world which is full of excuses and daydreams as he desperately attempts to make sense of himself, his hopes and the world that once held so much promise.
In the play, Miller uses different styles and devices to bring out Willy’s situation and what it is all about and symbolism is one of these styles. Here is an analysis of symbolism in the play: Willy Loman’s character, including his salesman career, symbolizes an ordinary man in the American society.
He acts as representation of the ordinary man leading a fruitless life in a flourishing nation. Somehow, Willy reflects the dilemma of the common man fighting for his survival and trying to pay his bills yet live like everyone else. This is especially observed when he is caught in a dilemma on how to pay his last mortgage payment.
In addition, Charley, his neighbor constantly gives him money to take home to his wife as if it was his salary as his salesman job is fluttering around him and he does not earn enough from it.
In one of their conversations, he even tells Charley that a gentleman is valuable more when he is departed than when he is living. It’s ironical that in the end, he commits suicide so that his family can get his life insurance money to pay for the mortgage.
Contrary, Charley’s character symbolizes the voice of reason in Willy’s deluded world. Charley who is Willy’s neighbor and only friend is a successful man with his own sales business. He tries to offer Willy a job several times and even after Willy is fired, but Willy turns down the offers as he regards it as an insult to his image. However, Charley is only trying to help him out but Willey couldn’t appreciate that.
In one of the scenes, Charley is present during one of Willy’s daydream and as he tries to talk to him convincingly, but instead Willy yells back at him. This confuses Charley and he decides to leave him alone as he does not understand what is going on. Apart from his family, only Charley and Bernard, his son, attend Willy’s funeral.
In the play, leaves are often seen to appear around the present setting during Willy’s reveries. These leaves are a representation of the leaves from the two elm trees which were situated next to the house in the early days. This was before Willy cut them down to build a hammock for him to relax with his family.
The trees were also cut down to pave way for the development of the apartment blocks around their neighborhood. When Willy first moved into the neighborhood, the air was clean and fresh and the atmosphere, serene and quiet. However, in the present day, development and construction of new apartments has taken over and the atmosphere is no longer the same, it been over exploited and polluted.
In parts of the flashbacks, Biff and Happy are dressed in high school football sweaters. This is a symbol of the hope they had and the success that seemed so close during that time. Biff was the star of his high school football team and was even invited to attend 3 universities during his senior year.
Bernard even begs Biff if he could carry his helmet as he goes for the Ebbets Field game in his senior year. (Miller 165) notes that “In the scene at Frank Chop’s house, Happy goes on to brag to the woman he’s flirting with that Biff is a quarterback with the New York giants, which is a lie.”
The jungle, which is constantly mentioned in connection to Ben, is symbolic of life. Willy even says “The woods are burning! I can’t drive a car!” (as cited in Miller, 22) when he has a foreboding sense of his life crashing around him. Ben is Willy’s dead brother who had gone to Africa, discovered a diamond mine in the jungle and become very successful.
Ben says in the play “When I was seventeen, I walked into the jungle. And by twenty-one, I walked out. And by God, I was rich!” (as cited in Miller, 49). He asked Willy to go with him at the time but he refused and that became the cause for deep regret for the rest of his life.
In the same context, there is an appearance of diamonds which symbolize success. Willy idolizes Ben as he seems to be living the American dream while he is stuck in a rut he can’t pull himself out of. As the play comes to an end, Uncle Ben makes a reference to the jungle by saying that “You must go into the jungle and fetch a diamond out” (Miller 65). Willy keeps wishing that he had followed Ben to Alaska and then Africa, then he might have been just as rich.
Stockings are another form of symbolism depicted in the play. They symbolize Willy’s infidelity and his uncaring attitude towards his own wife.
Willy gives the stockings that his wife mends, to his mistress as gifts. During on one of his flashbacks, Willy hears “The Woman’s” laughter and becomes agitated. He immediately gets angry and starts shouting at his wife, Linda, and at Bernard. He even orders Linda to throw out the stockings and reprimands her for mending them.
His infidelity also costs him his relationship with his son when Biff accidentally found Willy with his mistress. Biff is dejected and he loses all respect for his father. Consequently, the guilt Willy feels is the cause of his tense relations with Biff and his disconcerted behavior around his wife.
The recorder is another form of symbolism that is used in the play. When Willy goes to his boss, Howard Wagner, to try and get him to relocate him to the New York office, Wagner does not give him time to talk. (Miller 45) says that “Instead, he interrupts him and makes him listen to his wife and kids on the wire recorder. This recorder and the voices in it symbolize the success that Willy has always dreamed of and wished he had.” In all his endeavors, this success seems to elude him even though he never gives up hope.
Willy goes on and tells Wagner that he would get a recorder as well, which is a symbol of his pride, since there is no way he could afford to buy one. Eventually, his boss does not listen to him, turns down his plea and actually ends up firing him.
In the play, tennis rackets have also been used as a form of symbolism. They are actually a figure of Ironic symbolism of Bernard’s success. Bernard is seen going to take part in tennis with an associate of his, who owns a tennis court. This symbolism is seen as ironic because a glimpse from the past projected that the Loman brothers would be the ones to be successful in the sports department.
From the first act, Bernard would be seen constantly trying to intervene in Biffs academic life, which he himself did not seem bothered with as he was busy concentrating on his football vocation. In the end, due to neglecting his grades, Biff ends up losing football as well, whereas Bernard, who concentrated more on his books, becomes successful even in sports.
The flutes and flute music have been used to symbolize the far gone and good times when Willy was a stable person. They bring nostalgia and memories of the old times when he was younger and with great hope for immense success in the business world, come the future. For instance, in one of the scenes where Willy goes into a reverie, he is talking with his brother Ben about his father, who used to manufacture and sell flutes.
Ben brags about how their father was a great man and inventor and it is obvious from this talk that Willy’s father was just as successful as his brother is. Willy is therefore left wondering why the same fate did not befall him as he believes that his family is of a thriving heritage.
In the last Act, as the play is about to come to an end, Willy is seen planting seedlings in the garden. (Miller 47) notes that “The seeds symbolize a natural process of growth that prevails in nature and the garden is symbolic of Willy wanting to leave something as a commemoration of him.” He hopes to leave something that people will look at and be reminded of him as a great man.
He plants the seeds in the hope that the garden will one day grow into something substantial enough in contrast to his life which he considers a failure.
As he plants the seeds, he has a conversation with Ben about a $20,000 deal that would give Biff a good start up boost in his life and his business. In the end, this deal he is talking about ends up being his life insurance.
In conclusion Miller uses symbolism in the play to clearly bring out the hopelessness in the Loman’s family. Through this, the audience can empathize with them and their situation. It becomes evident how the ‘American dream’ myth can adversely affect a person as they try to pursue it.
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-0.046600010246... | 2 | “Death of a salesman” is a play written in 1949 by an American playwright, Arthur Miller. The play is based from both Miller’s personal experiences and the theatrical traditions in which he was instructed in. “Death of a salesman” revolves around the Loman family with Willy Loman, the father, who also works as a salesman as the main character.
Willy Loman has indulged himself in a myth of being well liked and being attractive in order to succeed in the business world. He believes that personal talent is not as important and actually uses this myth against his neighbors and friends, Charley and Bernard, who he does not consider to be physically attractive.
Due to this belief implanted in them, the Lomans lead an unpleasant and unfulfilled life while their neighbors enjoyed success. Willy is also in a delusional mental state and is caught in between the past and the present in which he keeps having hallucinations and reveries.
He lives in a flimsy fantasy world which is full of excuses and daydreams as he desperately attempts to make sense of himself, his hopes and the world that once held so much promise.
In the play, Miller uses different styles and devices to bring out Willy’s situation and what it is all about and symbolism is one of these styles. Here is an analysis of symbolism in the play: Willy Loman’s character, including his salesman career, symbolizes an ordinary man in the American society.
He acts as representation of the ordinary man leading a fruitless life in a flourishing nation. Somehow, Willy reflects the dilemma of the common man fighting for his survival and trying to pay his bills yet live like everyone else. This is especially observed when he is caught in a dilemma on how to pay his last mortgage payment.
In addition, Charley, his neighbor constantly gives him money to take home to his wife as if it was his salary as his salesman job is fluttering around him and he does not earn enough from it.
In one of their conversations, he even tells Charley that a gentleman is valuable more when he is departed than when he is living. It’s ironical that in the end, he commits suicide so that his family can get his life insurance money to pay for the mortgage.
Contrary, Charley’s character symbolizes the voice of reason in Willy’s deluded world. Charley who is Willy’s neighbor and only friend is a successful man with his own sales business. He tries to offer Willy a job several times and even after Willy is fired, but Willy turns down the offers as he regards it as an insult to his image. However, Charley is only trying to help him out but Willey couldn’t appreciate that.
In one of the scenes, Charley is present during one of Willy’s daydream and as he tries to talk to him convincingly, but instead Willy yells back at him. This confuses Charley and he decides to leave him alone as he does not understand what is going on. Apart from his family, only Charley and Bernard, his son, attend Willy’s funeral.
In the play, leaves are often seen to appear around the present setting during Willy’s reveries. These leaves are a representation of the leaves from the two elm trees which were situated next to the house in the early days. This was before Willy cut them down to build a hammock for him to relax with his family.
The trees were also cut down to pave way for the development of the apartment blocks around their neighborhood. When Willy first moved into the neighborhood, the air was clean and fresh and the atmosphere, serene and quiet. However, in the present day, development and construction of new apartments has taken over and the atmosphere is no longer the same, it been over exploited and polluted.
In parts of the flashbacks, Biff and Happy are dressed in high school football sweaters. This is a symbol of the hope they had and the success that seemed so close during that time. Biff was the star of his high school football team and was even invited to attend 3 universities during his senior year.
Bernard even begs Biff if he could carry his helmet as he goes for the Ebbets Field game in his senior year. (Miller 165) notes that “In the scene at Frank Chop’s house, Happy goes on to brag to the woman he’s flirting with that Biff is a quarterback with the New York giants, which is a lie.”
The jungle, which is constantly mentioned in connection to Ben, is symbolic of life. Willy even says “The woods are burning! I can’t drive a car!” (as cited in Miller, 22) when he has a foreboding sense of his life crashing around him. Ben is Willy’s dead brother who had gone to Africa, discovered a diamond mine in the jungle and become very successful.
Ben says in the play “When I was seventeen, I walked into the jungle. And by twenty-one, I walked out. And by God, I was rich!” (as cited in Miller, 49). He asked Willy to go with him at the time but he refused and that became the cause for deep regret for the rest of his life.
In the same context, there is an appearance of diamonds which symbolize success. Willy idolizes Ben as he seems to be living the American dream while he is stuck in a rut he can’t pull himself out of. As the play comes to an end, Uncle Ben makes a reference to the jungle by saying that “You must go into the jungle and fetch a diamond out” (Miller 65). Willy keeps wishing that he had followed Ben to Alaska and then Africa, then he might have been just as rich.
Stockings are another form of symbolism depicted in the play. They symbolize Willy’s infidelity and his uncaring attitude towards his own wife.
Willy gives the stockings that his wife mends, to his mistress as gifts. During on one of his flashbacks, Willy hears “The Woman’s” laughter and becomes agitated. He immediately gets angry and starts shouting at his wife, Linda, and at Bernard. He even orders Linda to throw out the stockings and reprimands her for mending them.
His infidelity also costs him his relationship with his son when Biff accidentally found Willy with his mistress. Biff is dejected and he loses all respect for his father. Consequently, the guilt Willy feels is the cause of his tense relations with Biff and his disconcerted behavior around his wife.
The recorder is another form of symbolism that is used in the play. When Willy goes to his boss, Howard Wagner, to try and get him to relocate him to the New York office, Wagner does not give him time to talk. (Miller 45) says that “Instead, he interrupts him and makes him listen to his wife and kids on the wire recorder. This recorder and the voices in it symbolize the success that Willy has always dreamed of and wished he had.” In all his endeavors, this success seems to elude him even though he never gives up hope.
Willy goes on and tells Wagner that he would get a recorder as well, which is a symbol of his pride, since there is no way he could afford to buy one. Eventually, his boss does not listen to him, turns down his plea and actually ends up firing him.
In the play, tennis rackets have also been used as a form of symbolism. They are actually a figure of Ironic symbolism of Bernard’s success. Bernard is seen going to take part in tennis with an associate of his, who owns a tennis court. This symbolism is seen as ironic because a glimpse from the past projected that the Loman brothers would be the ones to be successful in the sports department.
From the first act, Bernard would be seen constantly trying to intervene in Biffs academic life, which he himself did not seem bothered with as he was busy concentrating on his football vocation. In the end, due to neglecting his grades, Biff ends up losing football as well, whereas Bernard, who concentrated more on his books, becomes successful even in sports.
The flutes and flute music have been used to symbolize the far gone and good times when Willy was a stable person. They bring nostalgia and memories of the old times when he was younger and with great hope for immense success in the business world, come the future. For instance, in one of the scenes where Willy goes into a reverie, he is talking with his brother Ben about his father, who used to manufacture and sell flutes.
Ben brags about how their father was a great man and inventor and it is obvious from this talk that Willy’s father was just as successful as his brother is. Willy is therefore left wondering why the same fate did not befall him as he believes that his family is of a thriving heritage.
In the last Act, as the play is about to come to an end, Willy is seen planting seedlings in the garden. (Miller 47) notes that “The seeds symbolize a natural process of growth that prevails in nature and the garden is symbolic of Willy wanting to leave something as a commemoration of him.” He hopes to leave something that people will look at and be reminded of him as a great man.
He plants the seeds in the hope that the garden will one day grow into something substantial enough in contrast to his life which he considers a failure.
As he plants the seeds, he has a conversation with Ben about a $20,000 deal that would give Biff a good start up boost in his life and his business. In the end, this deal he is talking about ends up being his life insurance.
In conclusion Miller uses symbolism in the play to clearly bring out the hopelessness in the Loman’s family. Through this, the audience can empathize with them and their situation. It becomes evident how the ‘American dream’ myth can adversely affect a person as they try to pursue it.
Miller, Arthur. Death of a Salesman. Oxford, UK: Penguin Classic, 1998. Print. | 2,096 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Dredd Scott Case
The Dredd Scott case involved a landmark decision in the history of the Supreme Court, in the history of the United States the decision in this case was one of the most damaging statements in the history of the Supreme Court, involving the citizenship of a black person in the United States, and the constitutionality of the Missouri Compromise in 1820. The history of a black man named Dredd Scott states that he was a slave originally owed by a family by the name of Blow, which ended up selling him in 1833 to an army surgeon by the name of Dr. John Emerson of St. Luis. Due to his involvement as an army surgeon, Emerson was transferred to numerous places such as Rock Island, Illinois, Fort Snelling in the Wisconsin Territory then back to St. Louis in the end of 1838. Scott had accompanied Emerson throughout this period. Emerson had taken Scott to places that forbidden slavery according to the Missouri Compromise of 1820 and Scott was even allowed to marry during this! time period on free territory, his companion being a woman who was also a slave owned by Emerson. As Emerson and Scott had returned to St. Louis, a territory where slavery was legal, Emerson died and Scott was left to his widow, who eventually gave Scott back to his original owners, the Blows. Henry Blow,
Scott’s original master, was opposed to the extension of slavery into the Western territories, and Blow lent Scott’s residence on free soil in Illinois and Wisconsin Territory had made him a free man. In 1846, Dredd Scott brought suit in the state court on the grounds that residence in a free territory released him from slavery. A lower state court had found to be in favor of Scott, but in 1852, the Supreme Court of Missouri ruled that upon his return to territory where slavery was legal, the status of
slavery was reattached to him and therefore he had no standing before the court. The case was brought before the federal circuit court, which took jurisdiction, but held against Scott. The case was taken on appeal to the Supreme Court, where it was argued at length in 1855 and 1856 and finally decided in 1857.
The decision handed down by a majority of the vote of the court was that there was no power in the in the existing form of government to make citizens slave or free, !
and at the time of the formation of the US Constitution they were not and could not be citizens of the United States in any of the states. Scott was ruled still to be a slave, and not a citizen of Missouri or any US state for that matter, from which it followed that he had no right to sue in the federal courts. Now it was not so much the court’s decision that was so damaging, but the series of opinions that Roger Taney, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and how we look at it. The court had announced its
decision on March 6, 1857. By a 7 - 2 vote, the court ruled against Scott. Of the seven opinions written by the members of the majority, Chief Justice Taney’s is considered to... | <urn:uuid:00424afa-24df-4e2b-95c5-2b345fff19c6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-dredd-scott-case | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00141.warc.gz | en | 0.988462 | 645 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.466373980045318... | 1 | The Dredd Scott Case
The Dredd Scott case involved a landmark decision in the history of the Supreme Court, in the history of the United States the decision in this case was one of the most damaging statements in the history of the Supreme Court, involving the citizenship of a black person in the United States, and the constitutionality of the Missouri Compromise in 1820. The history of a black man named Dredd Scott states that he was a slave originally owed by a family by the name of Blow, which ended up selling him in 1833 to an army surgeon by the name of Dr. John Emerson of St. Luis. Due to his involvement as an army surgeon, Emerson was transferred to numerous places such as Rock Island, Illinois, Fort Snelling in the Wisconsin Territory then back to St. Louis in the end of 1838. Scott had accompanied Emerson throughout this period. Emerson had taken Scott to places that forbidden slavery according to the Missouri Compromise of 1820 and Scott was even allowed to marry during this! time period on free territory, his companion being a woman who was also a slave owned by Emerson. As Emerson and Scott had returned to St. Louis, a territory where slavery was legal, Emerson died and Scott was left to his widow, who eventually gave Scott back to his original owners, the Blows. Henry Blow,
Scott’s original master, was opposed to the extension of slavery into the Western territories, and Blow lent Scott’s residence on free soil in Illinois and Wisconsin Territory had made him a free man. In 1846, Dredd Scott brought suit in the state court on the grounds that residence in a free territory released him from slavery. A lower state court had found to be in favor of Scott, but in 1852, the Supreme Court of Missouri ruled that upon his return to territory where slavery was legal, the status of
slavery was reattached to him and therefore he had no standing before the court. The case was brought before the federal circuit court, which took jurisdiction, but held against Scott. The case was taken on appeal to the Supreme Court, where it was argued at length in 1855 and 1856 and finally decided in 1857.
The decision handed down by a majority of the vote of the court was that there was no power in the in the existing form of government to make citizens slave or free, !
and at the time of the formation of the US Constitution they were not and could not be citizens of the United States in any of the states. Scott was ruled still to be a slave, and not a citizen of Missouri or any US state for that matter, from which it followed that he had no right to sue in the federal courts. Now it was not so much the court’s decision that was so damaging, but the series of opinions that Roger Taney, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and how we look at it. The court had announced its
decision on March 6, 1857. By a 7 - 2 vote, the court ruled against Scott. Of the seven opinions written by the members of the majority, Chief Justice Taney’s is considered to... | 662 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Old Sarum is the site of the earliest settlement of Salisbury in England. Located on a hill about 2 miles (3 km) north of modern Salisbury near the A345 road, the settlement appears in some of the earliest records in the country. It is an English Heritage property and is open to the public.
The great monoliths of Stonehenge and Avebury were erected nearby and indications of prehistoric settlement have been discovered from as early as 3000 BC. An Iron Age hillfort was erected around 400 BC, controlling the intersection of two native trade paths and the Hampshire Avon. The site continued to be occupied during the Roman period, when the paths became roads. The Saxons took the British fort in the 6th century and later used it as a stronghold against marauding Vikings. The Normans constructed a motte and bailey castle, a stone curtain wall, and a great cathedral. A royal palace was built within the castle for King Henry I and was subsequently used by Plantagenet monarchs. This heyday of the settlement lasted for around 300 years until disputes between the Sheriff of Wiltshire and the Bishop of Salisbury finally led to the removal of the church into the nearby plain. As New Salisbury grew up around the construction site for the new cathedral in the early 13th century, the buildings of Old Sarum were dismantled for stone and the old town dwindled. Its long-neglected castle was abandoned by Edward II in 1322 and sold by Henry VIII in 1514.
Although the settlement was effectively uninhabited, its landowners continued to have parliamentary representation into the 19th century, making it one of the most notorious of the rotten boroughs that existed before the Reform Act of 1832. Old Sarum served as a pocket borough of the Pitt family.
Edward Rutherfurd's 1987 novel Sarum traces the history of the town.
The present name seems to have been a corruption of the medieval Latin and Norman forms of the name Salisbury, such as the Sarisburie that appeared in the Domesday Book. -burh and -byrig , denoting fortresses or their adjacent settlements.) The longer name was first abbreviated as Sar̅, but, as such a mark was used to contract the Latin suffix -um (common in placenames), the name was confused and became Sarum sometime around the 13th century. The earliest known use was on the seal of the St Nicholas hospital at New Salisbury, which was in use in 1239. The 14th-century Bishop Wyvil was the first to describe himself as episcopus Sarum. The addition of 'old' to the name distinguished it from New Sarum, the formal name of the present-day city of Salisbury until 2009.(These were adaptions of the earlier names Searoburh, Searobyrig, and Searesbyrig, calques of the indigenous Brittonic name with the Old English suffixes
The hilltop at Old Sarum shows evidence of Neolithic settlement BC. There is evidence that early hunters and, later, farming communities occupied the site. A protective hill fort was constructed by the local inhabitants around 400 BC during the British Iron Age by creating enormous banks and ditches surrounding the hill. The hillfort is broadly oval shaped, measuring 400 m (1,300 ft) in length and 360 m (1,180 ft) in width. It consists of a double bank and intermediate ditch with an entrance on the eastern side. Numerous other hillforts of the same period can be found locally, including Figsbury Ring to the east and Vespasian's Camp to the north. The archaeologist Sir R.C. Hoare described it as "a city of high note in the remotest periods by the several barrows near it, and its proximity to the two largest stone circles in England, namely, Stonehenge and Avebury."as early as 3000
At the time of the Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century, the area of Old Sarum seems to have formed part of the territory of the Atrebates, Caer-Caradog or Gradawc (Old Welsh : kaer gradaỽc ) and as Caer-Wallawg. Bishop Ussher argued for its identification with the "Cair Caratauc" listed among the 28 cities of Britain by the History of the Britons traditionally ascribed to Nennius.a British tribe apparently ruled by Gaulish exiles. Although the dynasty's founder Commius had become a foe of Caesar's, his sons submitted to Augustus as client kings. Their realm became known as the Regnenses and the overthrow of one of them, Verica, was the casus belli used to justify the Emperor Claudius's invasion. Claims that the British hillfort was called Sorviodunum result from misinterpretation of the Roman road network and Sorbiodoni in the Antonine Itinerary. It does not seem to have been occupied by the Roman army at all, although it may simply be that the fort has not yet been located. The settlement appeared in the Welsh Chronicle of the Britons as
Cynric, king of Wessex, captured the hill in 552. King Alfred to restore its fortifications. In the early part of the 9th century, it was a frequent residence of Egbert of Wessex and, in 960, King Edgar assembled a national council there to plan a defence against the Danes in the north. Along with Wilton, it was abandoned by its residents to be sacked and burned by the Dano-Norwegian king Sweyn Forkbeard in 1003. It subsequently became the site of Wilton's mint.It remained part of Wessex thereafter but, preferring settlements in bottomland like nearby Wilton, the Saxons largely ignored Old Sarum until the Viking invasions led
A motte-and-bailey castle was built by 1070, four years after the Norman conquest. Callixtus III in 1457.The castle was held directly by the Norman kings; its castellan was generally also the sheriff of Wiltshire. In 1075, the Council of London established Herman as the first bishop of Salisbury (Seriberiensis episcopus), uniting his former sees of Sherborne and Ramsbury into a single diocese which covered the counties of Dorset, Wiltshire, and Berkshire. He and Saint Osmund began the construction of the first Salisbury cathedral but neither lived to see its completion in 1092. Osmund was a cousin of William the Conqueror and Lord Chancellor of England; he was responsible for the codification of the Sarum Rite, the compilation of the Domesday Book, and—after centuries of advocacy from Salisbury's bishops—was finally canonized by Pope
The Domesday Book was probably presented to William I at Old Sarum in 1086,the same year he convened the prelates, nobles, sheriffs, and knights of his dominions there to pay him homage by the Oath of Salisbury. Two other national councils were held there: one by William Rufus in 1096 and another by Henry I in 1116, which has sometimes been described as the first English Parliament. William Rufus confirmed its bishop in various additional sources of income, which were later confirmed by Henry II.
The cathedral was consecrated on 5 April 1092 but suffered extensive damage in a storm, traditionally said to have occurred only five days later. Bishop Roger was a close ally of Henry I who served as his viceroy during the king's absence to Normandy and directed the royal administration and exchequer along with his extended family. He refurbished and expanded Old Sarum's cathedral in the 1110s. This work ultimately doubled the cathedral's length and involved the large-scale leveling of the ecclesiastical district in the northwest quadrant of the town. He began work on a royal palace during the 1130s, prior to his arrest by Henry's successor Stephen. This palace was long thought to have been the small structure whose ruins are located in the small central bailey; it may, however, have been the large palace recently discovered in the southeast quadrant of the outer bailey. This palace was 170 m × 65 m (560 ft × 210 ft), surrounded a large central courtyard, and had walls up to 3 m (10 ft) thick. A 60-metre-long (200 ft) room was probably a great hall and there seems to have been a large tower. At the time of Roger's arrest by King Stephen , the bishop administered the castle on the king's behalf; it was thereafter allowed to fall into disrepair but the sheriff and castellan continued to administer the area under the king's authority.
Medieval Sarum also seems to have had industrial facilities such as kilns and furnaces. [ clarification needed ] between Old Sarum and Wilton was one of five specially designated by Richard I for the holding of English tournaments.Residential areas were principally located in the two southern quadrants, built up beside the ditch protecting the inner bailey and Norman castle. Henry II held his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, prisoner at Old Sarum. In the 1190s, the plain
An early 12th-century observer, William of Malmesbury, called Sarum a town "more like a castle than city, being environed with a high wall", and noted that "notwithstanding that it was very well accommodated with all other conveniences, yet such was the want for water that it sold at a great rate".Holinshed denied this and noted that the hill was "very plentifully served with springs and wells of very sweet water"; excavation has discovered numerous wells (including one within the Norman keep) but suggests that they were so deep as to make their use more cumbersome than carting water uphill from the rivers. The issue was presented to kings Richard and John as the prime reason to relocate the cathedral but seems to have only been part of the issue.
The late 12th-century canon Peter of Blois £90 000 in coin in trust for his father, in addition to jewels, vestments, and plate, but was forced to delay the change after John's succession.described his prebendary as "barren, dry, and solitary, exposed to the rage of the wind" and the cathedral "as a captive on the hill where it was built, like the ark of God shut up in the profane house of Baal." Holinshed records that the clerics brawled openly with the garrison troops. Bishop Herbert received permission for the move from Richard I, who was agreeably disposed towards the diocese after discovering it held
By papal order, Herbert's brother Richard Poore was translated from Chichester to succeed him in 1217; the next year, Sarum's dean and chapter presented arguments to Rome for the cathedral's relocation. Pope Honorius III thereupon issued an indulgence to relocate the cathedral on 29 March 1217 or 1218. The chapter voted unanimously for the move and agreed to pay for it by withholding various portions of their prebends over the next seven years. On Easter Monday, 1219, a wooden chapel dedicated to the Virgin Mary was begun near the banks of the Hampshire Avon; on Trinity Sunday, Bishop Poore celebrated mass there and consecrated a cemetery. On St Vitalis's Day, April 28, 1220, the foundation of the future stone cathedral was begun.The investigation of these claims by the papal legate Cardinal Gualo verified the chapter's claims that the site's water was both expensive and sometimes restricted by the castellans; that housing within the walls was insufficient for the clerics, who were required to rent from the laity; that the wind was sometimes so strong that divine offices could not be heard and the roof was repeatedly damaged; and that the soldiers of the royal fortress restricted access to the cathedral precinct to the common folk during Ash Wednesday and on other occasions for providing the eucharist and the clerics felt imperiled by their circumstances.
The settlement that grew up around it was called New Salisbury, then (at least formally) New Sarum, then finally Salisbury. The former cathedral was formally dissolved in 1226. Edward II ordered the castle's demolition in 1322.The inhabitants of the new city gradually razed the old, constructing Salisbury Cathedral and other buildings from the materials at Old Sarum. Evidence of quarrying into the 14th century shows some continued habitation, but the settlement was largely abandoned and
The castle grounds were sold by Henry VIII in 1514. From the reign of Edward II in the 14th century, the 'borough' of Old Sarum elected two members to the House of Commons despite the fact that, from at least the 17th century, it had no resident voters at all. One of the members in the 18th century was William Pitt the Elder. In 1831, Old Sarum had eleven voters, all of whom were landowners who lived elsewhere. This made Old Sarum the most notorious of the rotten boroughs. The 1832 Reform Act subsumed the Old Sarum area into an enlarged borough of Wilton. Old Sarum was an extra-parochial area and became a civil parish in 1858. The civil parish was abolished in 1894.
The site of the castle and cathedral is considered a highly important British monument: it was among the 26 English locations scheduled by the 1882 Ancient Monuments Protection Act,the first such British legislation. This protection has subsequently continued, expanding to include some suburban areas west and southeast of the outer bailey. It was also listed as a Grade I site in 1972. Old Sarum is now administered by English Heritage. Its paved carpark and grass overflow carpark are located in the eastern area of the outer bailey.
W. H. St J. Hope, W. Hawley, and D.H. Montgomerie excavated the site between 1909 and 1915 for the Society of Antiquaries of London.
In 1917, during World War I, a site just northeast of Old Sarum along the Portway was developed as the 'Ford Farm' aerodrome. This became Old Sarum Airfield, which remains in operation with a single grass runway.
A second excavation occurred in the 1950s under John W G Musty and Philip Rahtz.
In 2014, an on-site geophysical survey of the inner and outer bailey by the University of Southampton revealed its royal palace,as well as the street plan of the medieval city. The survey made use of soil resistivity to electric current, electrical resistivity tomography, magnetometry, and ground-penetrating radar. The team planned to return in 2015 to complete a similar survey of the Romano-British site located south of the hillfort.
Wiltshire is a county in South West England with an area of 3,485 km2. It is landlocked and borders the counties of Dorset, Somerset, Hampshire, Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire and Berkshire. The county town was originally Wilton, after which the county is named, but Wiltshire Council is now based in the county town of Trowbridge. Within the county's boundary are two unitary authority areas, Wiltshire and Swindon, governed respectively by Wiltshire Council and Swindon Borough Council.
Salisbury is a cathedral city in Wiltshire, England, with a population of 40,302, at the confluence of the rivers Avon, Nadder, Ebble, Wylye and Bourne. The city is approximately 20 miles (32 km) from Southampton and 30 miles (48 km) from Bath.
Salisbury Cathedral, formally known as the Cathedral Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary, is an Anglican cathedral in Salisbury, England. The cathedral is regarded as one of the leading examples of Early English architecture. Its main body was completed in 38 years, from 1220 to 1258.
Amesbury is a town and civil parish in Wiltshire, England. It is most famous for the prehistoric monument of Stonehenge which is in its parish, and for the discovery of the Amesbury Archer—dubbed the King of Stonehenge in the press—in 2002. It has been confirmed by archaeologists that it is the oldest continuously occupied settlement in the United Kingdom, having been first settled around 8820 BC.
Osmund, Count of Sées, was a Norman noble and clergyman. Following the Norman conquest of England, he served as Lord Chancellor and as the second bishop of Salisbury, or Old Sarum.
Lieutenant-Colonel William Hawley (1851–1941) was a British archaeologist who undertook pioneering excavations at Stonehenge.
Wiltshire is a historic county located in the South West England region. Wiltshire is landlocked and is in the east of the region.
The Diocese of Salisbury is a Church of England diocese in the south of England, within the ecclesiastical Province of Canterbury. The diocese covers most of Dorset, and most of Wiltshire. The diocese is led by the Bishop of Salisbury and the diocesan synod. The bishop's seat is at Salisbury Cathedral.
Old Sarum was from 1295 to 1832 a parliamentary constituency of England, of Great Britain, and finally of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It was a so-called rotten borough, with an extremely small electorate that was consequently vastly over-represented and could be used by a patron to gain undue influence. The constituency was on the site of what had been the original settlement of Salisbury, known as Old Sarum. The population had moved to New Sarum at the foot of the hill and at a confluence known as the cathedral city of Salisbury in the 14th century. The constituency was abolished under the Reform Act 1832.
Clarendon Palace is a medieval ruin 2 1⁄4 miles (3.6 km) east of Salisbury in Wiltshire, England. The palace was a royal residence during the Middle Ages, and was the location of the Assize of Clarendon which developed the Constitutions of Clarendon. It now lies within the grounds of Clarendon Park.
The Bishop of Salisbury is the ordinary of the Church of England's Diocese of Salisbury in the Province of Canterbury. The diocese covers much of the counties of Wiltshire and Dorset. The see is in the City of Salisbury where the bishop's seat is located at the Cathedral Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary. The current bishop is Nick Holtam, the 78th Bishop of Salisbury, who was consecrated at St Paul's Cathedral on 22 July 2011 and enthroned in Salisbury Cathedral on 15 October 2011.
Richard Mitford was an English bishop of Chichester from 17 November 1389, consecrated on 10 April 1390, and then bishop of Salisbury. He was translated to the see of Salisbury on 25 October 1395.
Stratford-sub-Castle in Wiltshire, England was anciently a separate village and civil parish but since 1954 has been a northern suburb of the city of Salisbury. At approximately 170 ft above sea level, it is dominated to the east by the remains of an Iron Age hillfort within the boundaries of which a Norman castle was built. This now-ruined castle led to the village taking the name Stratford-under-Castle, later changing to Stratford sub Castle. Stratford lies south-west of the abandoned medieval settlement of Old Sarum which was also built within the area of the hill fort. It is approximately twenty one miles from Southampton.
Salisbury Cathedral School is a co-educational independent school in Salisbury, Wiltshire, England. It was founded in 1091 by Saint Osmund at Old Sarum.
Vespasian's Camp is an Iron Age hillfort close to the town of Amesbury, Wiltshire, England. The camp is less than 3 kilometres (2 mi) from the Neolithic and Bronze Age site of Stonehenge and was built on a hill next to the Stonehenge Avenue.
St Lawrence's Church at Stratford-sub-Castle is a Grade I listed Church of England parish church, situated to the north of Salisbury. It stands close to the abandoned settlement of Old Sarum and about 2 miles (3.2 km) north of Salisbury Cathedral.
Fugglestone St Peter was a small village, manor, and civil parish in Wiltshire, England, lying between the town of Wilton and the city of Salisbury. As a civil parish it came to an end in 1894, when it was divided between the adjoining parishes, but it still exists as a small settlement within the boundaries of Wilton, the street names being Minster Street, Salisbury Road, Maple Crescent, and Fugglestone.
Old Sarum Cathedral was a Catholic and Norman cathedral at old Salisbury, now known as Old Sarum, between 1092 and 1220. Only its foundations remain, in the northwest quadrant of the circular outer bailey of the site, which is located near modern Salisbury, Wiltshire, in the United Kingdom. The cathedral was the seat of the bishops of Salisbury during the early Norman period and the original source of the Sarum Rite.
Malmesbury Castle was a castle in the town of Malmesbury, Wiltshire, England.
Laverstock and Ford is a parish council serving the civil parish of Laverstock, on the northeast and eastern outskirts of Salisbury, Wiltshire, England. The parish is shaped like a figure 7 and incorporates the villages of Laverstock and Ford, the eastern half of the former manor of Milford, the ancient settlement of Old Sarum, and part of the Hampton Park district on the edge of Salisbury.
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0.6630158... | 1 | Old Sarum is the site of the earliest settlement of Salisbury in England. Located on a hill about 2 miles (3 km) north of modern Salisbury near the A345 road, the settlement appears in some of the earliest records in the country. It is an English Heritage property and is open to the public.
The great monoliths of Stonehenge and Avebury were erected nearby and indications of prehistoric settlement have been discovered from as early as 3000 BC. An Iron Age hillfort was erected around 400 BC, controlling the intersection of two native trade paths and the Hampshire Avon. The site continued to be occupied during the Roman period, when the paths became roads. The Saxons took the British fort in the 6th century and later used it as a stronghold against marauding Vikings. The Normans constructed a motte and bailey castle, a stone curtain wall, and a great cathedral. A royal palace was built within the castle for King Henry I and was subsequently used by Plantagenet monarchs. This heyday of the settlement lasted for around 300 years until disputes between the Sheriff of Wiltshire and the Bishop of Salisbury finally led to the removal of the church into the nearby plain. As New Salisbury grew up around the construction site for the new cathedral in the early 13th century, the buildings of Old Sarum were dismantled for stone and the old town dwindled. Its long-neglected castle was abandoned by Edward II in 1322 and sold by Henry VIII in 1514.
Although the settlement was effectively uninhabited, its landowners continued to have parliamentary representation into the 19th century, making it one of the most notorious of the rotten boroughs that existed before the Reform Act of 1832. Old Sarum served as a pocket borough of the Pitt family.
Edward Rutherfurd's 1987 novel Sarum traces the history of the town.
The present name seems to have been a corruption of the medieval Latin and Norman forms of the name Salisbury, such as the Sarisburie that appeared in the Domesday Book. -burh and -byrig , denoting fortresses or their adjacent settlements.) The longer name was first abbreviated as Sar̅, but, as such a mark was used to contract the Latin suffix -um (common in placenames), the name was confused and became Sarum sometime around the 13th century. The earliest known use was on the seal of the St Nicholas hospital at New Salisbury, which was in use in 1239. The 14th-century Bishop Wyvil was the first to describe himself as episcopus Sarum. The addition of 'old' to the name distinguished it from New Sarum, the formal name of the present-day city of Salisbury until 2009.(These were adaptions of the earlier names Searoburh, Searobyrig, and Searesbyrig, calques of the indigenous Brittonic name with the Old English suffixes
The hilltop at Old Sarum shows evidence of Neolithic settlement BC. There is evidence that early hunters and, later, farming communities occupied the site. A protective hill fort was constructed by the local inhabitants around 400 BC during the British Iron Age by creating enormous banks and ditches surrounding the hill. The hillfort is broadly oval shaped, measuring 400 m (1,300 ft) in length and 360 m (1,180 ft) in width. It consists of a double bank and intermediate ditch with an entrance on the eastern side. Numerous other hillforts of the same period can be found locally, including Figsbury Ring to the east and Vespasian's Camp to the north. The archaeologist Sir R.C. Hoare described it as "a city of high note in the remotest periods by the several barrows near it, and its proximity to the two largest stone circles in England, namely, Stonehenge and Avebury."as early as 3000
At the time of the Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century, the area of Old Sarum seems to have formed part of the territory of the Atrebates, Caer-Caradog or Gradawc (Old Welsh : kaer gradaỽc ) and as Caer-Wallawg. Bishop Ussher argued for its identification with the "Cair Caratauc" listed among the 28 cities of Britain by the History of the Britons traditionally ascribed to Nennius.a British tribe apparently ruled by Gaulish exiles. Although the dynasty's founder Commius had become a foe of Caesar's, his sons submitted to Augustus as client kings. Their realm became known as the Regnenses and the overthrow of one of them, Verica, was the casus belli used to justify the Emperor Claudius's invasion. Claims that the British hillfort was called Sorviodunum result from misinterpretation of the Roman road network and Sorbiodoni in the Antonine Itinerary. It does not seem to have been occupied by the Roman army at all, although it may simply be that the fort has not yet been located. The settlement appeared in the Welsh Chronicle of the Britons as
Cynric, king of Wessex, captured the hill in 552. King Alfred to restore its fortifications. In the early part of the 9th century, it was a frequent residence of Egbert of Wessex and, in 960, King Edgar assembled a national council there to plan a defence against the Danes in the north. Along with Wilton, it was abandoned by its residents to be sacked and burned by the Dano-Norwegian king Sweyn Forkbeard in 1003. It subsequently became the site of Wilton's mint.It remained part of Wessex thereafter but, preferring settlements in bottomland like nearby Wilton, the Saxons largely ignored Old Sarum until the Viking invasions led
A motte-and-bailey castle was built by 1070, four years after the Norman conquest. Callixtus III in 1457.The castle was held directly by the Norman kings; its castellan was generally also the sheriff of Wiltshire. In 1075, the Council of London established Herman as the first bishop of Salisbury (Seriberiensis episcopus), uniting his former sees of Sherborne and Ramsbury into a single diocese which covered the counties of Dorset, Wiltshire, and Berkshire. He and Saint Osmund began the construction of the first Salisbury cathedral but neither lived to see its completion in 1092. Osmund was a cousin of William the Conqueror and Lord Chancellor of England; he was responsible for the codification of the Sarum Rite, the compilation of the Domesday Book, and—after centuries of advocacy from Salisbury's bishops—was finally canonized by Pope
The Domesday Book was probably presented to William I at Old Sarum in 1086,the same year he convened the prelates, nobles, sheriffs, and knights of his dominions there to pay him homage by the Oath of Salisbury. Two other national councils were held there: one by William Rufus in 1096 and another by Henry I in 1116, which has sometimes been described as the first English Parliament. William Rufus confirmed its bishop in various additional sources of income, which were later confirmed by Henry II.
The cathedral was consecrated on 5 April 1092 but suffered extensive damage in a storm, traditionally said to have occurred only five days later. Bishop Roger was a close ally of Henry I who served as his viceroy during the king's absence to Normandy and directed the royal administration and exchequer along with his extended family. He refurbished and expanded Old Sarum's cathedral in the 1110s. This work ultimately doubled the cathedral's length and involved the large-scale leveling of the ecclesiastical district in the northwest quadrant of the town. He began work on a royal palace during the 1130s, prior to his arrest by Henry's successor Stephen. This palace was long thought to have been the small structure whose ruins are located in the small central bailey; it may, however, have been the large palace recently discovered in the southeast quadrant of the outer bailey. This palace was 170 m × 65 m (560 ft × 210 ft), surrounded a large central courtyard, and had walls up to 3 m (10 ft) thick. A 60-metre-long (200 ft) room was probably a great hall and there seems to have been a large tower. At the time of Roger's arrest by King Stephen , the bishop administered the castle on the king's behalf; it was thereafter allowed to fall into disrepair but the sheriff and castellan continued to administer the area under the king's authority.
Medieval Sarum also seems to have had industrial facilities such as kilns and furnaces. [ clarification needed ] between Old Sarum and Wilton was one of five specially designated by Richard I for the holding of English tournaments.Residential areas were principally located in the two southern quadrants, built up beside the ditch protecting the inner bailey and Norman castle. Henry II held his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, prisoner at Old Sarum. In the 1190s, the plain
An early 12th-century observer, William of Malmesbury, called Sarum a town "more like a castle than city, being environed with a high wall", and noted that "notwithstanding that it was very well accommodated with all other conveniences, yet such was the want for water that it sold at a great rate".Holinshed denied this and noted that the hill was "very plentifully served with springs and wells of very sweet water"; excavation has discovered numerous wells (including one within the Norman keep) but suggests that they were so deep as to make their use more cumbersome than carting water uphill from the rivers. The issue was presented to kings Richard and John as the prime reason to relocate the cathedral but seems to have only been part of the issue.
The late 12th-century canon Peter of Blois £90 000 in coin in trust for his father, in addition to jewels, vestments, and plate, but was forced to delay the change after John's succession.described his prebendary as "barren, dry, and solitary, exposed to the rage of the wind" and the cathedral "as a captive on the hill where it was built, like the ark of God shut up in the profane house of Baal." Holinshed records that the clerics brawled openly with the garrison troops. Bishop Herbert received permission for the move from Richard I, who was agreeably disposed towards the diocese after discovering it held
By papal order, Herbert's brother Richard Poore was translated from Chichester to succeed him in 1217; the next year, Sarum's dean and chapter presented arguments to Rome for the cathedral's relocation. Pope Honorius III thereupon issued an indulgence to relocate the cathedral on 29 March 1217 or 1218. The chapter voted unanimously for the move and agreed to pay for it by withholding various portions of their prebends over the next seven years. On Easter Monday, 1219, a wooden chapel dedicated to the Virgin Mary was begun near the banks of the Hampshire Avon; on Trinity Sunday, Bishop Poore celebrated mass there and consecrated a cemetery. On St Vitalis's Day, April 28, 1220, the foundation of the future stone cathedral was begun.The investigation of these claims by the papal legate Cardinal Gualo verified the chapter's claims that the site's water was both expensive and sometimes restricted by the castellans; that housing within the walls was insufficient for the clerics, who were required to rent from the laity; that the wind was sometimes so strong that divine offices could not be heard and the roof was repeatedly damaged; and that the soldiers of the royal fortress restricted access to the cathedral precinct to the common folk during Ash Wednesday and on other occasions for providing the eucharist and the clerics felt imperiled by their circumstances.
The settlement that grew up around it was called New Salisbury, then (at least formally) New Sarum, then finally Salisbury. The former cathedral was formally dissolved in 1226. Edward II ordered the castle's demolition in 1322.The inhabitants of the new city gradually razed the old, constructing Salisbury Cathedral and other buildings from the materials at Old Sarum. Evidence of quarrying into the 14th century shows some continued habitation, but the settlement was largely abandoned and
The castle grounds were sold by Henry VIII in 1514. From the reign of Edward II in the 14th century, the 'borough' of Old Sarum elected two members to the House of Commons despite the fact that, from at least the 17th century, it had no resident voters at all. One of the members in the 18th century was William Pitt the Elder. In 1831, Old Sarum had eleven voters, all of whom were landowners who lived elsewhere. This made Old Sarum the most notorious of the rotten boroughs. The 1832 Reform Act subsumed the Old Sarum area into an enlarged borough of Wilton. Old Sarum was an extra-parochial area and became a civil parish in 1858. The civil parish was abolished in 1894.
The site of the castle and cathedral is considered a highly important British monument: it was among the 26 English locations scheduled by the 1882 Ancient Monuments Protection Act,the first such British legislation. This protection has subsequently continued, expanding to include some suburban areas west and southeast of the outer bailey. It was also listed as a Grade I site in 1972. Old Sarum is now administered by English Heritage. Its paved carpark and grass overflow carpark are located in the eastern area of the outer bailey.
W. H. St J. Hope, W. Hawley, and D.H. Montgomerie excavated the site between 1909 and 1915 for the Society of Antiquaries of London.
In 1917, during World War I, a site just northeast of Old Sarum along the Portway was developed as the 'Ford Farm' aerodrome. This became Old Sarum Airfield, which remains in operation with a single grass runway.
A second excavation occurred in the 1950s under John W G Musty and Philip Rahtz.
In 2014, an on-site geophysical survey of the inner and outer bailey by the University of Southampton revealed its royal palace,as well as the street plan of the medieval city. The survey made use of soil resistivity to electric current, electrical resistivity tomography, magnetometry, and ground-penetrating radar. The team planned to return in 2015 to complete a similar survey of the Romano-British site located south of the hillfort.
Wiltshire is a county in South West England with an area of 3,485 km2. It is landlocked and borders the counties of Dorset, Somerset, Hampshire, Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire and Berkshire. The county town was originally Wilton, after which the county is named, but Wiltshire Council is now based in the county town of Trowbridge. Within the county's boundary are two unitary authority areas, Wiltshire and Swindon, governed respectively by Wiltshire Council and Swindon Borough Council.
Salisbury is a cathedral city in Wiltshire, England, with a population of 40,302, at the confluence of the rivers Avon, Nadder, Ebble, Wylye and Bourne. The city is approximately 20 miles (32 km) from Southampton and 30 miles (48 km) from Bath.
Salisbury Cathedral, formally known as the Cathedral Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary, is an Anglican cathedral in Salisbury, England. The cathedral is regarded as one of the leading examples of Early English architecture. Its main body was completed in 38 years, from 1220 to 1258.
Amesbury is a town and civil parish in Wiltshire, England. It is most famous for the prehistoric monument of Stonehenge which is in its parish, and for the discovery of the Amesbury Archer—dubbed the King of Stonehenge in the press—in 2002. It has been confirmed by archaeologists that it is the oldest continuously occupied settlement in the United Kingdom, having been first settled around 8820 BC.
Osmund, Count of Sées, was a Norman noble and clergyman. Following the Norman conquest of England, he served as Lord Chancellor and as the second bishop of Salisbury, or Old Sarum.
Lieutenant-Colonel William Hawley (1851–1941) was a British archaeologist who undertook pioneering excavations at Stonehenge.
Wiltshire is a historic county located in the South West England region. Wiltshire is landlocked and is in the east of the region.
The Diocese of Salisbury is a Church of England diocese in the south of England, within the ecclesiastical Province of Canterbury. The diocese covers most of Dorset, and most of Wiltshire. The diocese is led by the Bishop of Salisbury and the diocesan synod. The bishop's seat is at Salisbury Cathedral.
Old Sarum was from 1295 to 1832 a parliamentary constituency of England, of Great Britain, and finally of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It was a so-called rotten borough, with an extremely small electorate that was consequently vastly over-represented and could be used by a patron to gain undue influence. The constituency was on the site of what had been the original settlement of Salisbury, known as Old Sarum. The population had moved to New Sarum at the foot of the hill and at a confluence known as the cathedral city of Salisbury in the 14th century. The constituency was abolished under the Reform Act 1832.
Clarendon Palace is a medieval ruin 2 1⁄4 miles (3.6 km) east of Salisbury in Wiltshire, England. The palace was a royal residence during the Middle Ages, and was the location of the Assize of Clarendon which developed the Constitutions of Clarendon. It now lies within the grounds of Clarendon Park.
The Bishop of Salisbury is the ordinary of the Church of England's Diocese of Salisbury in the Province of Canterbury. The diocese covers much of the counties of Wiltshire and Dorset. The see is in the City of Salisbury where the bishop's seat is located at the Cathedral Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary. The current bishop is Nick Holtam, the 78th Bishop of Salisbury, who was consecrated at St Paul's Cathedral on 22 July 2011 and enthroned in Salisbury Cathedral on 15 October 2011.
Richard Mitford was an English bishop of Chichester from 17 November 1389, consecrated on 10 April 1390, and then bishop of Salisbury. He was translated to the see of Salisbury on 25 October 1395.
Stratford-sub-Castle in Wiltshire, England was anciently a separate village and civil parish but since 1954 has been a northern suburb of the city of Salisbury. At approximately 170 ft above sea level, it is dominated to the east by the remains of an Iron Age hillfort within the boundaries of which a Norman castle was built. This now-ruined castle led to the village taking the name Stratford-under-Castle, later changing to Stratford sub Castle. Stratford lies south-west of the abandoned medieval settlement of Old Sarum which was also built within the area of the hill fort. It is approximately twenty one miles from Southampton.
Salisbury Cathedral School is a co-educational independent school in Salisbury, Wiltshire, England. It was founded in 1091 by Saint Osmund at Old Sarum.
Vespasian's Camp is an Iron Age hillfort close to the town of Amesbury, Wiltshire, England. The camp is less than 3 kilometres (2 mi) from the Neolithic and Bronze Age site of Stonehenge and was built on a hill next to the Stonehenge Avenue.
St Lawrence's Church at Stratford-sub-Castle is a Grade I listed Church of England parish church, situated to the north of Salisbury. It stands close to the abandoned settlement of Old Sarum and about 2 miles (3.2 km) north of Salisbury Cathedral.
Fugglestone St Peter was a small village, manor, and civil parish in Wiltshire, England, lying between the town of Wilton and the city of Salisbury. As a civil parish it came to an end in 1894, when it was divided between the adjoining parishes, but it still exists as a small settlement within the boundaries of Wilton, the street names being Minster Street, Salisbury Road, Maple Crescent, and Fugglestone.
Old Sarum Cathedral was a Catholic and Norman cathedral at old Salisbury, now known as Old Sarum, between 1092 and 1220. Only its foundations remain, in the northwest quadrant of the circular outer bailey of the site, which is located near modern Salisbury, Wiltshire, in the United Kingdom. The cathedral was the seat of the bishops of Salisbury during the early Norman period and the original source of the Sarum Rite.
Malmesbury Castle was a castle in the town of Malmesbury, Wiltshire, England.
Laverstock and Ford is a parish council serving the civil parish of Laverstock, on the northeast and eastern outskirts of Salisbury, Wiltshire, England. The parish is shaped like a figure 7 and incorporates the villages of Laverstock and Ford, the eastern half of the former manor of Milford, the ancient settlement of Old Sarum, and part of the Hampton Park district on the edge of Salisbury.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Old Sarum .| | 4,762 | ENGLISH | 1 |
General James Wolfe
The moon did little to light the inky black river as thousands of men held their breath; a French sentry challenged one of the small boats. “Sshh, or the English will hear us”. Relief, the boats were allowed to pass. At 4.07 am on the 13th September 1759 the British army led by 32 year old Major General James Wolfe began landing at the Anse du Foulon. As dawn broke they scaled the 180 foot cliffs and found their place in history at the Battle of Quebec.
In 1726 Edward and Henrietta Wolfe moved to Westerham. Edward was a Lieutenant Colonel on half pay and moved with his new bride from York to be closer to the seat of military influence in London. They rented the last house on the Maidstone Road; a large old Tudor house that had been greatly altered a century earlier and was then called Spiers.
Soon Henrietta gave birth to the first of two sons, James, and just over a year later young Edward was born. The boys made friends with George Warde whose parents had also moved to Westerham from York and had bought Squerryes Court.
This friendship was to be life-long. At the tender age of fourteen James received news of his first commission as an army officer whilst in the grounds of Squerryes.
James Wolfe was born to be a soldier. At twenty three he was promoted lieutenant colonel of the 20th Regiment of Foot and had been in hand to hand combat at the battles of Dettingen, Falkirk, Culloden, and Lauffeld. After a long spell in Scotland following the ’45 rebellion he was sent as a brigade commander under Lord Amherst with troops to capture Louisbourg – the gateway to the St Lawrence River, the key to controlling North America.
Noticed by William Pitt for his good service at Louisbourg, he was appointed to command the army sent to capture Quebec, the capital of New France – the French colony in North America. In spring 1759 Wolfe led his army of English, Scots and colonial soldiers to lay siege to Quebec. A frustrating summer campaign of inconclusive raiding led many, including Wolfe, to despair that the city would ever fall. However, in early September news reached the young General of a French convoy of small boats due to bring food and suppliers to the besieged city.
Seizing the opportunity, Wolfe and his officers rallied the men for a daring night time raid. The plan was to get past the city in small boats, row up river to a steep path that led to the Plains of Abraham, the large plateau above the city, and continue the assault from there. Believing the height of the cliffs made them impenetrable the French commanders did not anticipate an attack there and were caught unprepared.
For many years Wolfe had understood what soldiers were capable of and how they could make best use of their weapons. He had trained his own regiment in a new method of volley fire that was devastating to an enemy. Soon all the British army were using this method. When the French finally reached the Plains of Abraham shortly before 10 am this training paid off. The French advanced in three columns firing as they went but British discipline was not broken and the line of troops held fire until the enemy were just forty yards away. With just two rippling volleys the battle was won and the French army fled, leaving the city to surrender on 18th September.
However, victory came at a terrible cost and many men were killed and wounded on both sides. Wolfe was wounded three times and survived only long enough to hear that the French had fled and to utter his final words, “Now, God be praised, I will die in peace”. Montcalm, the French military commander also paid the ultimate price; he was wounded during the battle and died the following day.
PORTRAIT OF WOLFE AT QUEBEC, a reproduction of one by Shaak. Wolfe stands proud, in profile, holding his right arm up. Wolfe’s black arm-band indicates that he was in mourning for his father.
Many buildings and street names in Westerham recall James Wolfe; Spiers was renamed Quebec House in his memory and is now owned by the National Trust and open to the public; an urn in the grounds of Squerryes Court marks the spot where he received news of his first commission; a memorial window and plaque in St Mary’s give thanks for his life; a notice on the George & Dragon pub recalls his last visit to Westerham shortly before he departed for Canada and in 1911 a statue on the town’s green was erected in his memory.
In September 2009, the people of Westerham remembered the events of 250 years ago with a series of celebrations and commemorations and re-enactments at Squerryes Court and Quebec House.
To read an account of the Westerham Wolfe Weekend, click here »
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0.25279891... | 13 | General James Wolfe
The moon did little to light the inky black river as thousands of men held their breath; a French sentry challenged one of the small boats. “Sshh, or the English will hear us”. Relief, the boats were allowed to pass. At 4.07 am on the 13th September 1759 the British army led by 32 year old Major General James Wolfe began landing at the Anse du Foulon. As dawn broke they scaled the 180 foot cliffs and found their place in history at the Battle of Quebec.
In 1726 Edward and Henrietta Wolfe moved to Westerham. Edward was a Lieutenant Colonel on half pay and moved with his new bride from York to be closer to the seat of military influence in London. They rented the last house on the Maidstone Road; a large old Tudor house that had been greatly altered a century earlier and was then called Spiers.
Soon Henrietta gave birth to the first of two sons, James, and just over a year later young Edward was born. The boys made friends with George Warde whose parents had also moved to Westerham from York and had bought Squerryes Court.
This friendship was to be life-long. At the tender age of fourteen James received news of his first commission as an army officer whilst in the grounds of Squerryes.
James Wolfe was born to be a soldier. At twenty three he was promoted lieutenant colonel of the 20th Regiment of Foot and had been in hand to hand combat at the battles of Dettingen, Falkirk, Culloden, and Lauffeld. After a long spell in Scotland following the ’45 rebellion he was sent as a brigade commander under Lord Amherst with troops to capture Louisbourg – the gateway to the St Lawrence River, the key to controlling North America.
Noticed by William Pitt for his good service at Louisbourg, he was appointed to command the army sent to capture Quebec, the capital of New France – the French colony in North America. In spring 1759 Wolfe led his army of English, Scots and colonial soldiers to lay siege to Quebec. A frustrating summer campaign of inconclusive raiding led many, including Wolfe, to despair that the city would ever fall. However, in early September news reached the young General of a French convoy of small boats due to bring food and suppliers to the besieged city.
Seizing the opportunity, Wolfe and his officers rallied the men for a daring night time raid. The plan was to get past the city in small boats, row up river to a steep path that led to the Plains of Abraham, the large plateau above the city, and continue the assault from there. Believing the height of the cliffs made them impenetrable the French commanders did not anticipate an attack there and were caught unprepared.
For many years Wolfe had understood what soldiers were capable of and how they could make best use of their weapons. He had trained his own regiment in a new method of volley fire that was devastating to an enemy. Soon all the British army were using this method. When the French finally reached the Plains of Abraham shortly before 10 am this training paid off. The French advanced in three columns firing as they went but British discipline was not broken and the line of troops held fire until the enemy were just forty yards away. With just two rippling volleys the battle was won and the French army fled, leaving the city to surrender on 18th September.
However, victory came at a terrible cost and many men were killed and wounded on both sides. Wolfe was wounded three times and survived only long enough to hear that the French had fled and to utter his final words, “Now, God be praised, I will die in peace”. Montcalm, the French military commander also paid the ultimate price; he was wounded during the battle and died the following day.
PORTRAIT OF WOLFE AT QUEBEC, a reproduction of one by Shaak. Wolfe stands proud, in profile, holding his right arm up. Wolfe’s black arm-band indicates that he was in mourning for his father.
Many buildings and street names in Westerham recall James Wolfe; Spiers was renamed Quebec House in his memory and is now owned by the National Trust and open to the public; an urn in the grounds of Squerryes Court marks the spot where he received news of his first commission; a memorial window and plaque in St Mary’s give thanks for his life; a notice on the George & Dragon pub recalls his last visit to Westerham shortly before he departed for Canada and in 1911 a statue on the town’s green was erected in his memory.
In September 2009, the people of Westerham remembered the events of 250 years ago with a series of celebrations and commemorations and re-enactments at Squerryes Court and Quebec House.
To read an account of the Westerham Wolfe Weekend, click here »
To get the events of the 1750’s in context, if your history is a bit rusty, click here » | 1,056 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Edward Wilmot Blyden [pictured 1851 by Anson, Rufus] (3 August 1832 – 7 February 1912) was a writer and politician who described both his parents as being of complete Igbo ancestry
As the father of pan-Africanism, he was an educator, writer, diplomat, and politician after settling in Liberia and afterwards Sierra Leone. Born in the Virgin Islands in the West Indies, he joined the free black immigrants from the United States who migrated to the region. He taught for five years in the British West African colony of Sierra Leone in the early 20th century. His writings on pan-Africanism were influential in both colonies. In Liberia, Edward Wilmot Blyden was an advocate for indigenous African people and their culture and was largely opposed to the encroachment and domination of Western culture through the small ruling Americo-Liberian population made up of former slaves and descendants of ex-slaves from the Caribbean and United States resettled on the coastal areas of Liberia. The Americo-Liberians largely saw Western civilisation as superior to the indigenous African cultures, Blyden sought to integrate the two populations in Liberia leading him to campaign for the independent state to be taken under Britain as a protectorate in the belief that the British would not interfere in the indigenous societies of the hinterlands as he believed the Americo-Liberains would, ultimately the plan to put Liberia under British governance gave way leading to his expulsion to Sierra Leone where he spent his last days. It was through these actions and the essays he made on African identity that he became known as the 'father of pan-Africanism', in his case he was an African culturalist, decades after his lifetime, his ideas, however, were realised in the form of African ethnic nationalism. | <urn:uuid:65284eb2-0f92-4bfd-b9e3-815d101b8f54> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.kbscomics.com/blank-6/2016/05/09/This-is-your-fourth-post | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00308.warc.gz | en | 0.987002 | 362 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.0409912616014... | 4 | Edward Wilmot Blyden [pictured 1851 by Anson, Rufus] (3 August 1832 – 7 February 1912) was a writer and politician who described both his parents as being of complete Igbo ancestry
As the father of pan-Africanism, he was an educator, writer, diplomat, and politician after settling in Liberia and afterwards Sierra Leone. Born in the Virgin Islands in the West Indies, he joined the free black immigrants from the United States who migrated to the region. He taught for five years in the British West African colony of Sierra Leone in the early 20th century. His writings on pan-Africanism were influential in both colonies. In Liberia, Edward Wilmot Blyden was an advocate for indigenous African people and their culture and was largely opposed to the encroachment and domination of Western culture through the small ruling Americo-Liberian population made up of former slaves and descendants of ex-slaves from the Caribbean and United States resettled on the coastal areas of Liberia. The Americo-Liberians largely saw Western civilisation as superior to the indigenous African cultures, Blyden sought to integrate the two populations in Liberia leading him to campaign for the independent state to be taken under Britain as a protectorate in the belief that the British would not interfere in the indigenous societies of the hinterlands as he believed the Americo-Liberains would, ultimately the plan to put Liberia under British governance gave way leading to his expulsion to Sierra Leone where he spent his last days. It was through these actions and the essays he made on African identity that he became known as the 'father of pan-Africanism', in his case he was an African culturalist, decades after his lifetime, his ideas, however, were realised in the form of African ethnic nationalism. | 375 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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