Split (1)

train · 729k rows

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An English physicist named Joseph John Thompson took the discharge tube research further. He measured how much heat cathode rays would produce, how much they could be bent, and other procedures, and by doing all that, he was able to estimate the mass of the rays. Through his research, he concluded that cathode rays weren't rays at all, but in fact were very light/small negatively-charged particles. He ended up calling these 'corpuscles'. They are now generally called as electrons. Thompson imagined that these negatively charged electrons were distributed randomly along a positively charged matrix. He compared it to a plum pudding, where the 'positively matrix' being the cake, and the 'electrons' being the fruits randomly scattered along the inside of the cake. The model is addressed to as the 'plum pudding model'. Despite of an electron's motion being random, the overall distribution is not.	<urn:uuid:a83ba8f6-f6b8-4185-b60c-6478617c796f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://coggle.it/diagram/XUfjpqMV3VyCTIZy/t/history-of-discovering-atom-by-f-audrey-odelyn%2C-and-aldrich	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00027.warc.gz	en	0.983328	183	3.40625	3	[ -0.22015288472175598, 0.13359153270721436, -0.048615481704473495, 0.2974543869495392, 0.13072338700294495, -0.23047596216201782, 0.35158485174179077, 0.17782782018184662, 0.02760777808725834, 0.1639443039894104, 0.09570250660181046, -0.7735821008682251, 0.21503405272960663, 0.4444687366485...	1	An English physicist named Joseph John Thompson took the discharge tube research further. He measured how much heat cathode rays would produce, how much they could be bent, and other procedures, and by doing all that, he was able to estimate the mass of the rays. Through his research, he concluded that cathode rays weren't rays at all, but in fact were very light/small negatively-charged particles. He ended up calling these 'corpuscles'. They are now generally called as electrons. Thompson imagined that these negatively charged electrons were distributed randomly along a positively charged matrix. He compared it to a plum pudding, where the 'positively matrix' being the cake, and the 'electrons' being the fruits randomly scattered along the inside of the cake. The model is addressed to as the 'plum pudding model'. Despite of an electron's motion being random, the overall distribution is not.	180	ENGLISH	1
Feminism is the advocacy of women’s rights Feminism is the advocacy of women’s rights on the basis of the equality of the sexes. Men and women are treated differently in this society. Women are treated as if they are worth less than a man. In the story The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald belittled women, women were disrespected, controlled and abused by the men in the story. A feminist would not be okay with the especially because the women did not stand up for themselves. With this being said The Great Gatsby cannot be considered as a feminist text. First of all feminist empowers women, In The Great Gatsby Fitzgerald disparages women. In this story, daisy is judged due to her drinking at a party. In the text “ I came into her room half an hour before the bridal dinner and found her lying on her bed as lovely a the June night in her flowered dress and as drunk as a monkey.” ( Fitzgerald 81) This quote suggests that women can't handle their liquor also she is compared to a monkey which is very disrespectful and not empowering at all. Many others may say this is a feminist text because they said she was looking lovely, However, she is still judged at the end, being compared to a monkey is not empowering at all. All in all judging women and bringing them down is far from supporting feminism so The Great Gatsby cannot be considered as a feminist text. Next, women were treated less than men and controlled their lives, for examples if the men told the women to bark they would bark. In the text, it says “ but she and Tom had gone away early that afternoon and taken baggage with them.” (Fitzgerald 172). This is when Gatsby was killed and Tom knew Daisy would want to go to his funeral so he packed everything up and moved away. Daisy had no say so in anything she just had to go when Tom said go. That is very controlling. Others might say this does not prove anything because what if Tom just wanted to move away, but why would he choose that time and why didn't Daisy have any say so? However, a feminist would want daisy to stand up for herself and be equal with Tom and go see Gatsby for the last time. All in all, this shows that men controlled women. The final reason why The Great Gatsby cannot be considered as a feminist text is that men would abuse women physically, mentally and emotionally. In the text it say, “ making a short deft movement Tom Buchanan broke her nose with his hand.” ( Fitzgerald 41) This just shows that men abused women and did not care for their feelings. Tom did not feel bad about it he felt like it was okay, he felt like it was normal to put his hands on women. Others might say that this quote does not support anything, because before he broke her nose Myrtle made him mad, but that does not give him the right to put his hands on her as if she was an animal. A feminist would want Myrtle to fight back and be equal not saying they should go around fighting each other but she should treat him how he treats her. This overall just makes women look weak. The story The Great Gatsby cannot be considered a feminist text due to how women were belittled. Women were disrespected, abused and controlled by the men. Women were portrayed as weak and dumb individuals. Women were not equal to the men at all of this is why The Great Gatsby cannot be considered a feminist text. This essay can be used as a great template for your paper. It was made by homework for you - an academic help service.	<urn:uuid:2e101e1e-f112-4bd1-b348-54ef42c7cdc4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://multiculturalhealthcare.net/pages/feminism-is-the-advocacy-of-womens-rights.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00089.warc.gz	en	0.992545	766	3.375	3	[ 0.17370356619358063, -0.11196424067020416, -0.2602737545967102, -0.004340816289186478, 0.13996431231498718, -0.040498748421669006, 0.3123354911804199, 0.344001829624176, 0.10180462896823883, -0.253822386264801, -0.39070558547973633, 0.03994464874267578, 0.37611931562423706, -0.032919153571...	1	Feminism is the advocacy of women’s rights Feminism is the advocacy of women’s rights on the basis of the equality of the sexes. Men and women are treated differently in this society. Women are treated as if they are worth less than a man. In the story The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald belittled women, women were disrespected, controlled and abused by the men in the story. A feminist would not be okay with the especially because the women did not stand up for themselves. With this being said The Great Gatsby cannot be considered as a feminist text. First of all feminist empowers women, In The Great Gatsby Fitzgerald disparages women. In this story, daisy is judged due to her drinking at a party. In the text “ I came into her room half an hour before the bridal dinner and found her lying on her bed as lovely a the June night in her flowered dress and as drunk as a monkey.” ( Fitzgerald 81) This quote suggests that women can't handle their liquor also she is compared to a monkey which is very disrespectful and not empowering at all. Many others may say this is a feminist text because they said she was looking lovely, However, she is still judged at the end, being compared to a monkey is not empowering at all. All in all judging women and bringing them down is far from supporting feminism so The Great Gatsby cannot be considered as a feminist text. Next, women were treated less than men and controlled their lives, for examples if the men told the women to bark they would bark. In the text, it says “ but she and Tom had gone away early that afternoon and taken baggage with them.” (Fitzgerald 172). This is when Gatsby was killed and Tom knew Daisy would want to go to his funeral so he packed everything up and moved away. Daisy had no say so in anything she just had to go when Tom said go. That is very controlling. Others might say this does not prove anything because what if Tom just wanted to move away, but why would he choose that time and why didn't Daisy have any say so? However, a feminist would want daisy to stand up for herself and be equal with Tom and go see Gatsby for the last time. All in all, this shows that men controlled women. The final reason why The Great Gatsby cannot be considered as a feminist text is that men would abuse women physically, mentally and emotionally. In the text it say, “ making a short deft movement Tom Buchanan broke her nose with his hand.” ( Fitzgerald 41) This just shows that men abused women and did not care for their feelings. Tom did not feel bad about it he felt like it was okay, he felt like it was normal to put his hands on women. Others might say that this quote does not support anything, because before he broke her nose Myrtle made him mad, but that does not give him the right to put his hands on her as if she was an animal. A feminist would want Myrtle to fight back and be equal not saying they should go around fighting each other but she should treat him how he treats her. This overall just makes women look weak. The story The Great Gatsby cannot be considered a feminist text due to how women were belittled. Women were disrespected, abused and controlled by the men. Women were portrayed as weak and dumb individuals. Women were not equal to the men at all of this is why The Great Gatsby cannot be considered a feminist text. This essay can be used as a great template for your paper. It was made by homework for you - an academic help service.	747	ENGLISH	1
Every three years New Zealanders are asked to make decisions about who should govern the country. Political parties and their candidates put themselves up for election to the House of Representatives and try to convince voters of their suitability for public office. Advertising, public meetings, talking through the media and the internet are all used in their campaigns, after which voters go to a polling place and choose between differing political visions and representatives. New Zealanders have been doing this since 1853. However, the way that elections are run and the manner in which electioneering occurs has changed significantly since then. Despite these changes, parliamentary elections and campaigns continue to be a central way of debating and contesting issues of economy, society and leadership. In the first years after New Zealand became a British colony (in 1840) it was ruled by a governor, but settlers wanted elections. In early 1840s Auckland the self-named ‘Radicals’ met at a place they called ‘the Senate’ to challenge the governor’s autocratic rule. In Wellington settlers elected their own municipal corporation (which the governor rejected). In the mid-1840s settlers in Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago formed constitutional associations that pushed for elections and self-government. The first parliamentary elections were held in 1853. Elections between 1853 and 1876 were held five years apart. Since 1879 elections have usually been held every three years. Times of crisis (world wars or severe economic depressions) have sometimes delayed elections, and governments have occasionally called early, or ‘snap’ elections (for example, in 1951 as a result of industrial unrest). New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy: the queen of New Zealand (Queen Elizabeth II, also the British queen) is the head of state, but real power resides in executive government. Executive government – the prime minister and cabinet ministers – is accountable to the House of Representatives, which is commonly known as Parliament. Members of Parliament are elected by people 18 and over, who are enrolled to vote in a defined area known as an electorate. For the first century of New Zealand’s governance there was also an upper house – the Legislative Council – which was abolished in 1950. Members of the Legislative Council were appointed by the government of the day, so elections and voting did not directly control its makeup. A referendum poses a question on which people have a direct vote. They are an established part of New Zealand’s political system, and have been used, for example, to decide whether military training should be compulsory and whether the term of Parliament should be lengthened to four years. Since 1993 citizens-initiated referendums have been allowed. To qualify, a petition supporting them needs to have been signed by 10% of voters within a 12-month period. A referendum can be either binding, which means a government must follow the opinion of the majority of voters, or indicative, where no further action is required. All citizens-initiated referendums are indicative (non-binding). In 2020 New Zealand has 67 territorial authorities that were governed by elected representatives, comprising 12 city councils, 54 district and regional councils, and Auckland council (a unitary authority performing both roles). These local government authorities hold elections by postal ballot for the positions of councillors and mayors every three years. At the same time district health boards (20 in 2020) also elect seven members each. All elections use the electoral rolls maintained by the Electoral Commission for general (that is, parliamentary) elections. Because the New Zealand system of government is relatively centralised, most electoral and political attention is focused on general elections. In the mid-19th century provincial government was more important, attracting more press attention, more candidates and more voters. New Zealand’s provincial governments were abolished in 1876. General elections have normally taken place in October or November in the third year of the parliamentary term – although since 2014 they have been in September. Elections have not always occurred on a single day – the first election of 1853 took place in different electorates between July and October. Since 1881 a single election day has been used for all the general (non-Māori) electorates. Initially this was a weekday, but since 1951 elections for both Māori and general seats have been held on the same day: a Saturday. On election day polling places are open for voting throughout the country, in places such as community and school halls, from 9 a.m. until 7 p.m. In 2014 there were 2,568 polling places. Votes are also cast at overseas polling booths and by post. By the 2010s many New Zealanders were casting advance votes prior to polling day. In 2017, 47% of votes were cast in advance. In the mid-19th century there were few polling places and no postal voting. Bribery of voters, drunken rowdiness, arguments and double voting were all part of the day. Initially, progress results were released before the polls closed. A desperate candidate who drummed up sufficient support could swing the election if his voters arrived in time. Although the release of progress results was outlawed in 1858, the practice did not stop for some time after that. Certain rules regulate conduct on election day. Scrutineers representing the candidates are allowed to observe the process from within the polling place. But all campaigning – and media coverage of it – must cease. Generally, election days have become very orderly affairs and complaints of serious electoral violations have been rare. The secret ballot has been a central feature of elections since 1871. Those who favoured it believed it would prevent intimidation or treating (candidates bribing electors with food and drink). Those who opposed it argued that voting was not an individual right but a trust exercised on behalf of the community – open voting meant that those who voted were accountable to the disenfranchised. Until 1990 voters took a printed ballot paper into a private booth and crossed out the names of candidates other than the one for whom they were voting. Since then, voters have put a tick beside their electoral choice. Voters put their own paper into a closed ballot box. At early elections a show of hands, followed by verbal voting if an unsuccessful candidate demanded it, was commonly used. The voter would tell voting officials their choice and it was recorded for everyone to see. In 1860 one newspaper even published the details of how every elector had voted. The secret ballot was made compulsory in 1890 for general electorates, but not until 1938 for the Māori electorates. Most votes are counted on the day of the election, with some special votes counted later. During the evening preliminary results are announced, and the winners of electorates are usually unofficially declared. Especially, since the introduction of the mixed-member proportional voting system in 1996, it has not always been clear on the night which party or parties would form the new government. Election night has always been a significant event, with much of the population following the results as they are publicly announced in the media. Until television became dominant, newspaper offices were often the centres of election night interest. Crowds gathered to watch the results posted up on outdoor hoardings. Traditionally, New Zealand’s election campaign has had a formal length of about one month. This is in part a result of laws and conventions relating to the time between the dissolution of Parliament and the election of the next one, which must be less than 40 days. A campaign’s beginning is generally signalled by the public campaign launches of each political party and the broadcast of opening television addresses by party leaders. From this point onwards candidates engage in an intense schedule of electioneering. Since the 1970s, with widespread television ownership, campaigns have been more ongoing, with the parties campaigning throughout the electoral cycle. This ‘permanent campaign’ has politicians using photo opportunities to gain media attention, while party strategists keep a close watch on public opinion polls (which are conducted by the parties themselves as well as the media). Campaign techniques have changed dramatically since New Zealand’s first election in 1853. In very early elections the main campaigning technique was for candidates to give speeches. They stood on top of soapboxes or other temporary wooden stages erected in public – otherwise known as the ‘hustings’. Electioneering has also involved political banquets, posters, bribery, public meetings in local halls and door-to-door canvassing. The early 1870s saw the first attempt at a national campaign. Government minister Donald McLean organised a campaign on behalf of the incumbent government, and Colonial Treasurer Julius Vogel toured the country. Although the governing group won the election, McLean’s method took years to catch on. It was not until the 1890s that a nationally organised political party – the Liberals – fought and won an election. Face-to-face contact with voters was slowly superseded – or at least supplemented – by the use of evolving media technologies. First, newspapers became the main medium for getting the message out in 19th-century New Zealand. Then, in the 1940s, radio surpassed newspapers as the main method of political communication. The 1960s saw the arrival of television, and by 1969 the medium was beginning to dominate election campaigns. Television election advertisements became increasingly sophisticated, and news coverage brought images of the campaign into people’s homes. From this point the whole configuration of electoral politics began to change to a more professional – some say Americanised – form. A telegenic image and highly adept communications skills became paramount. Politicians and their campaigns were tailored using commercial market-research principles. Commercial agencies, communications consultants and new technologies communicated with and listened to voters. Parties sought votes by focusing on their leaders and using soundbites and emotional appeals, rather than mainly through party manifestos which listed policies reflecting their political ideologies. In the 2000s the internet became a vehicle for further changes in electioneering. Parties and candidates used websites, blogs and social networking sites such as Twitter, Facebook and YouTube to get their appeals out. New Zealand had a high degree of electoral political participation in the 20th century, but there has been a steady decline since the 1960s. One of the key ways in which citizens have been involved in electoral politics has been through membership of political parties. In the period after the Second World War New Zealand was said to have one of the highest rates of membership in the Western world. About a quarter of all voters were members of a party in the 1960s. The level has declined significantly, and by the 2010s only about one voter in 50 was a member of a political party. Similarly, in the 2000s fewer people were directly involved in campaign activities such as door-to-door canvassing and election rallies. Voting is not compulsory in New Zealand, but in the period after the Second World War levels exceeded 90%. This declined by the 2000s to a turnout of about 75% (a rate last seen in 1893–1902). The turnout at the 2017 election was 79.8%, the highest since 2005. Voter turnout is measured as a proportion of the ‘voting-age population’. This allows for the fact that although it is compulsory to register to vote, not everyone does – in 2017 about 92% of the estimated voting-age population was enrolled. Edward Jollie was elected unopposed to represent the Cheviot electorate in 1859. ‘Elections in those days’, he wrote, ‘were not considered of much consequence. Settlers had so much to occupy them … and were so widely scattered about … that only those in the immediate vicinity of the place of nomination cared to attend. In the towns there was often considerable excitement but often more personal than political.’1 Participation in local government elections is much lower, despite the introduction of postal voting, partly to encourage voter participation. In the 2016 local government elections, 42% of eligible voters participated. Although there were mid-19th-century settlers who wanted the vote, and some elections were fiercely contested, many people were not very interested. Often those entitled to vote did not get their names onto the electoral roll, and until the 1880s many elections were decided by less than half of those registered. Political activity, including voting, campaigning and standing for election, was dominated by middle-class and well-to-do men until the later 19th century, when women and working-class men became active. Campaigning costs money, and issues relating to political finance and its regulation have been of increasing concern in New Zealand. Arguments are made about the unfairness of electoral participants having unequal amounts of money to spend on their campaigns, and the possibility of corruption resulting from donations made to campaigns. For these reasons there are a number of regulations about the use of money in elections. Bribery has been illegal in elections since 1858. Further restrictions have involved various limits on campaign advertising expenditure. In 1895 a limit on candidate expenditure of £200 was introduced. This was the equivalent of $36,960 in 2014, when the amount allowed per candidate was $25,700. William Brown, whose fight to be superintendent of Auckland Province in 1853 failed, is said to have spent £3,000 (more than $320,000 in 2010 values) on his campaign. Len Brown, who won the contest to be first mayor of the Auckland ‘super city’ in 2010, spent $390,761. The totals are comparable, but the two Browns spent a very different amount per voter. Len Brown spent 86 cents for each of 455,650 Aucklanders who turned out on the day. William Brown spent more than $184 (in 2010 values) on each of the 1,742 voters who went to the polls in Auckland province. At the first election using the MMP (mixed-member proportional) system in 1996, spending limits were extended to political parties. In 2008, for example, the two largest parties, Labour and National, had limits of about $2.4 million each. The rules were later changed. In 2011 a political party seeking party and electorate votes was allowed to spend up to $1,065,000, plus $25,000 for each electorate it contested. The major parties had an allocation of $2,815,000 for the three months leading up to the election. Parties that did not contest the party vote were permitted to spend $25,000 per contested electorate. Resources are also made available by the state for political parties to broadcast their message during the campaign. The Electoral Commission allocates time and money to be spent on television and radio advertisements, and on campaign opening and closing speeches. In 2008, $3.2 million and 102 minutes of television time was allocated to 14 parties – with 60% of the money going to Labour and National. Political parties are not permitted to use their own money to buy additional broadcast advertising. Two major controversies made political finance an issue following the 2005 general election. Members of the Exclusive Brethren church spent a considerable amount of money publishing leaflets that assisted the National Party’s campaign, thus circumventing the limits on expenditure by political parties. The second issue arose after the election. An investigation by the auditor-general, an independent official, found that all of the parliamentary parties except the Maori Party had unlawfully spent parliamentary funds on their election campaigns. The biggest offender was the governing Labour Party, which, along with the other offending parties, was pressured to pay back the money spent on election advertisements. The Labour-led government moved after the election to tighten up the regulation of political finance, with Parliament passing the Electoral Finance Act 2007 (EFA). The government’s stated intention was to prevent the undue influence of money on electoral outcomes, while providing greater transparency and accountability on party and candidate election activity. However, many saw the legislation as stifling freedom of expression and political debate in election years. The EFA was repealed in 2009 with the support of both National and Labour. In 2010 the National-led government introduced the Electoral (Finance Reform and Advance Voting) Amendment bill, which passed with the support of both major parties. This legislation was the result of a more thorough and consultative policy-making process than the EFA, and proved much less controversial. In addition to changes relating to electoral expenditure, the act gave New Zealanders the option of voting before election day, which many did in 2011 and 2014. In 2017, 47% of all votes were cast before election day, suggesting that the ritual of voting alongside one’s neighbours as a collective expression of citizenship may be becoming redundant. Atkinson, Neill. Adventures in democracy: a history of the vote in New Zealand. Dunedin: University of Otago Press in association with the Electoral Commission, 2003.	<urn:uuid:95fa7df1-e501-4ea4-a808-707f8b9e247d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://teara.govt.nz/en/elections-and-campaigns/print	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00476.warc.gz	en	0.982415	3,452	4.0625	4	[ -0.33013492822647095, 0.2853638529777527, 0.22360765933990479, -0.22224289178848267, -0.297325074672699, 0.3704918622970581, 0.10895442217588425, -0.06404444575309753, -0.10882091522216797, 0.5109615325927734, 0.17036926746368408, 0.1826358139514923, 0.21592336893081665, 0.2916433811187744...	3	Every three years New Zealanders are asked to make decisions about who should govern the country. Political parties and their candidates put themselves up for election to the House of Representatives and try to convince voters of their suitability for public office. Advertising, public meetings, talking through the media and the internet are all used in their campaigns, after which voters go to a polling place and choose between differing political visions and representatives. New Zealanders have been doing this since 1853. However, the way that elections are run and the manner in which electioneering occurs has changed significantly since then. Despite these changes, parliamentary elections and campaigns continue to be a central way of debating and contesting issues of economy, society and leadership. In the first years after New Zealand became a British colony (in 1840) it was ruled by a governor, but settlers wanted elections. In early 1840s Auckland the self-named ‘Radicals’ met at a place they called ‘the Senate’ to challenge the governor’s autocratic rule. In Wellington settlers elected their own municipal corporation (which the governor rejected). In the mid-1840s settlers in Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago formed constitutional associations that pushed for elections and self-government. The first parliamentary elections were held in 1853. Elections between 1853 and 1876 were held five years apart. Since 1879 elections have usually been held every three years. Times of crisis (world wars or severe economic depressions) have sometimes delayed elections, and governments have occasionally called early, or ‘snap’ elections (for example, in 1951 as a result of industrial unrest). New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy: the queen of New Zealand (Queen Elizabeth II, also the British queen) is the head of state, but real power resides in executive government. Executive government – the prime minister and cabinet ministers – is accountable to the House of Representatives, which is commonly known as Parliament. Members of Parliament are elected by people 18 and over, who are enrolled to vote in a defined area known as an electorate. For the first century of New Zealand’s governance there was also an upper house – the Legislative Council – which was abolished in 1950. Members of the Legislative Council were appointed by the government of the day, so elections and voting did not directly control its makeup. A referendum poses a question on which people have a direct vote. They are an established part of New Zealand’s political system, and have been used, for example, to decide whether military training should be compulsory and whether the term of Parliament should be lengthened to four years. Since 1993 citizens-initiated referendums have been allowed. To qualify, a petition supporting them needs to have been signed by 10% of voters within a 12-month period. A referendum can be either binding, which means a government must follow the opinion of the majority of voters, or indicative, where no further action is required. All citizens-initiated referendums are indicative (non-binding). In 2020 New Zealand has 67 territorial authorities that were governed by elected representatives, comprising 12 city councils, 54 district and regional councils, and Auckland council (a unitary authority performing both roles). These local government authorities hold elections by postal ballot for the positions of councillors and mayors every three years. At the same time district health boards (20 in 2020) also elect seven members each. All elections use the electoral rolls maintained by the Electoral Commission for general (that is, parliamentary) elections. Because the New Zealand system of government is relatively centralised, most electoral and political attention is focused on general elections. In the mid-19th century provincial government was more important, attracting more press attention, more candidates and more voters. New Zealand’s provincial governments were abolished in 1876. General elections have normally taken place in October or November in the third year of the parliamentary term – although since 2014 they have been in September. Elections have not always occurred on a single day – the first election of 1853 took place in different electorates between July and October. Since 1881 a single election day has been used for all the general (non-Māori) electorates. Initially this was a weekday, but since 1951 elections for both Māori and general seats have been held on the same day: a Saturday. On election day polling places are open for voting throughout the country, in places such as community and school halls, from 9 a.m. until 7 p.m. In 2014 there were 2,568 polling places. Votes are also cast at overseas polling booths and by post. By the 2010s many New Zealanders were casting advance votes prior to polling day. In 2017, 47% of votes were cast in advance. In the mid-19th century there were few polling places and no postal voting. Bribery of voters, drunken rowdiness, arguments and double voting were all part of the day. Initially, progress results were released before the polls closed. A desperate candidate who drummed up sufficient support could swing the election if his voters arrived in time. Although the release of progress results was outlawed in 1858, the practice did not stop for some time after that. Certain rules regulate conduct on election day. Scrutineers representing the candidates are allowed to observe the process from within the polling place. But all campaigning – and media coverage of it – must cease. Generally, election days have become very orderly affairs and complaints of serious electoral violations have been rare. The secret ballot has been a central feature of elections since 1871. Those who favoured it believed it would prevent intimidation or treating (candidates bribing electors with food and drink). Those who opposed it argued that voting was not an individual right but a trust exercised on behalf of the community – open voting meant that those who voted were accountable to the disenfranchised. Until 1990 voters took a printed ballot paper into a private booth and crossed out the names of candidates other than the one for whom they were voting. Since then, voters have put a tick beside their electoral choice. Voters put their own paper into a closed ballot box. At early elections a show of hands, followed by verbal voting if an unsuccessful candidate demanded it, was commonly used. The voter would tell voting officials their choice and it was recorded for everyone to see. In 1860 one newspaper even published the details of how every elector had voted. The secret ballot was made compulsory in 1890 for general electorates, but not until 1938 for the Māori electorates. Most votes are counted on the day of the election, with some special votes counted later. During the evening preliminary results are announced, and the winners of electorates are usually unofficially declared. Especially, since the introduction of the mixed-member proportional voting system in 1996, it has not always been clear on the night which party or parties would form the new government. Election night has always been a significant event, with much of the population following the results as they are publicly announced in the media. Until television became dominant, newspaper offices were often the centres of election night interest. Crowds gathered to watch the results posted up on outdoor hoardings. Traditionally, New Zealand’s election campaign has had a formal length of about one month. This is in part a result of laws and conventions relating to the time between the dissolution of Parliament and the election of the next one, which must be less than 40 days. A campaign’s beginning is generally signalled by the public campaign launches of each political party and the broadcast of opening television addresses by party leaders. From this point onwards candidates engage in an intense schedule of electioneering. Since the 1970s, with widespread television ownership, campaigns have been more ongoing, with the parties campaigning throughout the electoral cycle. This ‘permanent campaign’ has politicians using photo opportunities to gain media attention, while party strategists keep a close watch on public opinion polls (which are conducted by the parties themselves as well as the media). Campaign techniques have changed dramatically since New Zealand’s first election in 1853. In very early elections the main campaigning technique was for candidates to give speeches. They stood on top of soapboxes or other temporary wooden stages erected in public – otherwise known as the ‘hustings’. Electioneering has also involved political banquets, posters, bribery, public meetings in local halls and door-to-door canvassing. The early 1870s saw the first attempt at a national campaign. Government minister Donald McLean organised a campaign on behalf of the incumbent government, and Colonial Treasurer Julius Vogel toured the country. Although the governing group won the election, McLean’s method took years to catch on. It was not until the 1890s that a nationally organised political party – the Liberals – fought and won an election. Face-to-face contact with voters was slowly superseded – or at least supplemented – by the use of evolving media technologies. First, newspapers became the main medium for getting the message out in 19th-century New Zealand. Then, in the 1940s, radio surpassed newspapers as the main method of political communication. The 1960s saw the arrival of television, and by 1969 the medium was beginning to dominate election campaigns. Television election advertisements became increasingly sophisticated, and news coverage brought images of the campaign into people’s homes. From this point the whole configuration of electoral politics began to change to a more professional – some say Americanised – form. A telegenic image and highly adept communications skills became paramount. Politicians and their campaigns were tailored using commercial market-research principles. Commercial agencies, communications consultants and new technologies communicated with and listened to voters. Parties sought votes by focusing on their leaders and using soundbites and emotional appeals, rather than mainly through party manifestos which listed policies reflecting their political ideologies. In the 2000s the internet became a vehicle for further changes in electioneering. Parties and candidates used websites, blogs and social networking sites such as Twitter, Facebook and YouTube to get their appeals out. New Zealand had a high degree of electoral political participation in the 20th century, but there has been a steady decline since the 1960s. One of the key ways in which citizens have been involved in electoral politics has been through membership of political parties. In the period after the Second World War New Zealand was said to have one of the highest rates of membership in the Western world. About a quarter of all voters were members of a party in the 1960s. The level has declined significantly, and by the 2010s only about one voter in 50 was a member of a political party. Similarly, in the 2000s fewer people were directly involved in campaign activities such as door-to-door canvassing and election rallies. Voting is not compulsory in New Zealand, but in the period after the Second World War levels exceeded 90%. This declined by the 2000s to a turnout of about 75% (a rate last seen in 1893–1902). The turnout at the 2017 election was 79.8%, the highest since 2005. Voter turnout is measured as a proportion of the ‘voting-age population’. This allows for the fact that although it is compulsory to register to vote, not everyone does – in 2017 about 92% of the estimated voting-age population was enrolled. Edward Jollie was elected unopposed to represent the Cheviot electorate in 1859. ‘Elections in those days’, he wrote, ‘were not considered of much consequence. Settlers had so much to occupy them … and were so widely scattered about … that only those in the immediate vicinity of the place of nomination cared to attend. In the towns there was often considerable excitement but often more personal than political.’1 Participation in local government elections is much lower, despite the introduction of postal voting, partly to encourage voter participation. In the 2016 local government elections, 42% of eligible voters participated. Although there were mid-19th-century settlers who wanted the vote, and some elections were fiercely contested, many people were not very interested. Often those entitled to vote did not get their names onto the electoral roll, and until the 1880s many elections were decided by less than half of those registered. Political activity, including voting, campaigning and standing for election, was dominated by middle-class and well-to-do men until the later 19th century, when women and working-class men became active. Campaigning costs money, and issues relating to political finance and its regulation have been of increasing concern in New Zealand. Arguments are made about the unfairness of electoral participants having unequal amounts of money to spend on their campaigns, and the possibility of corruption resulting from donations made to campaigns. For these reasons there are a number of regulations about the use of money in elections. Bribery has been illegal in elections since 1858. Further restrictions have involved various limits on campaign advertising expenditure. In 1895 a limit on candidate expenditure of £200 was introduced. This was the equivalent of $36,960 in 2014, when the amount allowed per candidate was $25,700. William Brown, whose fight to be superintendent of Auckland Province in 1853 failed, is said to have spent £3,000 (more than $320,000 in 2010 values) on his campaign. Len Brown, who won the contest to be first mayor of the Auckland ‘super city’ in 2010, spent $390,761. The totals are comparable, but the two Browns spent a very different amount per voter. Len Brown spent 86 cents for each of 455,650 Aucklanders who turned out on the day. William Brown spent more than $184 (in 2010 values) on each of the 1,742 voters who went to the polls in Auckland province. At the first election using the MMP (mixed-member proportional) system in 1996, spending limits were extended to political parties. In 2008, for example, the two largest parties, Labour and National, had limits of about $2.4 million each. The rules were later changed. In 2011 a political party seeking party and electorate votes was allowed to spend up to $1,065,000, plus $25,000 for each electorate it contested. The major parties had an allocation of $2,815,000 for the three months leading up to the election. Parties that did not contest the party vote were permitted to spend $25,000 per contested electorate. Resources are also made available by the state for political parties to broadcast their message during the campaign. The Electoral Commission allocates time and money to be spent on television and radio advertisements, and on campaign opening and closing speeches. In 2008, $3.2 million and 102 minutes of television time was allocated to 14 parties – with 60% of the money going to Labour and National. Political parties are not permitted to use their own money to buy additional broadcast advertising. Two major controversies made political finance an issue following the 2005 general election. Members of the Exclusive Brethren church spent a considerable amount of money publishing leaflets that assisted the National Party’s campaign, thus circumventing the limits on expenditure by political parties. The second issue arose after the election. An investigation by the auditor-general, an independent official, found that all of the parliamentary parties except the Maori Party had unlawfully spent parliamentary funds on their election campaigns. The biggest offender was the governing Labour Party, which, along with the other offending parties, was pressured to pay back the money spent on election advertisements. The Labour-led government moved after the election to tighten up the regulation of political finance, with Parliament passing the Electoral Finance Act 2007 (EFA). The government’s stated intention was to prevent the undue influence of money on electoral outcomes, while providing greater transparency and accountability on party and candidate election activity. However, many saw the legislation as stifling freedom of expression and political debate in election years. The EFA was repealed in 2009 with the support of both National and Labour. In 2010 the National-led government introduced the Electoral (Finance Reform and Advance Voting) Amendment bill, which passed with the support of both major parties. This legislation was the result of a more thorough and consultative policy-making process than the EFA, and proved much less controversial. In addition to changes relating to electoral expenditure, the act gave New Zealanders the option of voting before election day, which many did in 2011 and 2014. In 2017, 47% of all votes were cast before election day, suggesting that the ritual of voting alongside one’s neighbours as a collective expression of citizenship may be becoming redundant. Atkinson, Neill. Adventures in democracy: a history of the vote in New Zealand. Dunedin: University of Otago Press in association with the Electoral Commission, 2003.	3,688	ENGLISH	1
This morning, the Tadpoles learned about squirrels. They learned that squirrels live in woodlands, eat nuts, and make homes out of sticks and leaves. After reading a book about squirrels and discussing the different pictures, the Tadpoles colored their own picture of a squirrel. In the back room, the Tadpoles enhanced their gross motor skills as they played. They climbed up and down the slide, pushed cars around while playing make believe, spun on sit-n-spins, rode on seesaws, and pushed and picked up the big mats to make a fort under the slide. In the front room, the Tadpoles practiced their fine motor skills as they played with blocks, trains, and baby dolls. They built tall towers and knocked them over, pushed trains around on tracks, and carefully put blankets on “sleeping” baby dolls. The Tadpoles also hopped on different letters on the alphabet mat, sometimes even laying on them. Outside, in the pleasant weather, the Tadpoles enhanced their gross motor skills as they climbed the dome and towers, ran around the yard, and played in toy cars. At one point, the Tadpoles helped gather leaves and sticks to make a squirrels nest. They filled a cardboard box with the items and talked with me about what squirrels do with their houses. One Jumper explained that squirrels live in trees. Upon being asked why, he explained it was to hide. Then we talked about how being in trees helps keep them safe. The Tadpoles had a lot of fun making their own squirrels nest. At 11, the Jumpers went to Toad Mountain to play with their Frog friends. While there, they followed the goats, feeding them leaves and grass, practiced their swinging skills, played make believe with the canoe and rocks, and built towers with the building blocks in the outdoor classroom. While the Jumpers were at Toad Mountain, the Swimmers continued playing and exploring the yard. Some explored the herb garden, others took turns on the swings, and some dug in the sand, making pretend food. It was a fun day at Frog Pond. Lead Tadpole Teacher	<urn:uuid:1c0a012c-ab4f-40cb-ba86-207697b1c837>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://frogpondkids.org/2013/10/08/tadpole-tales-squirrles/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00377.warc.gz	en	0.980438	448	3.546875	4	[ -0.21820798516273499, -0.12283539026975632, 0.4067171812057495, -0.34034106135368347, 0.2684447765350342, 0.11891582608222961, 0.3101840615272522, 0.03889365494251251, -0.06658828258514404, 0.3427106440067291, 0.13043196499347687, -0.21677425503730774, 0.2689089775085449, 0.352065473794937...	4	This morning, the Tadpoles learned about squirrels. They learned that squirrels live in woodlands, eat nuts, and make homes out of sticks and leaves. After reading a book about squirrels and discussing the different pictures, the Tadpoles colored their own picture of a squirrel. In the back room, the Tadpoles enhanced their gross motor skills as they played. They climbed up and down the slide, pushed cars around while playing make believe, spun on sit-n-spins, rode on seesaws, and pushed and picked up the big mats to make a fort under the slide. In the front room, the Tadpoles practiced their fine motor skills as they played with blocks, trains, and baby dolls. They built tall towers and knocked them over, pushed trains around on tracks, and carefully put blankets on “sleeping” baby dolls. The Tadpoles also hopped on different letters on the alphabet mat, sometimes even laying on them. Outside, in the pleasant weather, the Tadpoles enhanced their gross motor skills as they climbed the dome and towers, ran around the yard, and played in toy cars. At one point, the Tadpoles helped gather leaves and sticks to make a squirrels nest. They filled a cardboard box with the items and talked with me about what squirrels do with their houses. One Jumper explained that squirrels live in trees. Upon being asked why, he explained it was to hide. Then we talked about how being in trees helps keep them safe. The Tadpoles had a lot of fun making their own squirrels nest. At 11, the Jumpers went to Toad Mountain to play with their Frog friends. While there, they followed the goats, feeding them leaves and grass, practiced their swinging skills, played make believe with the canoe and rocks, and built towers with the building blocks in the outdoor classroom. While the Jumpers were at Toad Mountain, the Swimmers continued playing and exploring the yard. Some explored the herb garden, others took turns on the swings, and some dug in the sand, making pretend food. It was a fun day at Frog Pond. Lead Tadpole Teacher	449	ENGLISH	1
As the long 60s drew to close many groups, inspired by what they saw in the decade, began organizing for what was needed for them. Native Americans, Chicano-Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Asian-Americans were inspired by the black power movement and began organizing for their own identity. They, like the black power movement, did not want to assimilate into the white American culture they wanted their own identity in their own culture. In one of the articles on Chicano- Americans the author discusses how all of his early life he had tried to just fit into American culture and had forgotten his Chicano identity. When he began living and working in a community with other Chicanos he realized that Chicano is beautiful and that he should not forget his culture. The same goes for Asian Americans, they wanted people to see them as Asian-Americans with a cultural identity unique to them. They wanted equal representation and wanted their culture to be respected, they did not want to assimilate into the white American culture. Native Americans had had enough of their mistreatment. For more than a century they had been promised land and a space for their culture and they were continually pushed off their land and been the victims of broken promises. They decided enough was enough and they needed to move and take action. The group occupied Alcatraz Island off the coast of San Fransico this was ironic because it was a jail that had been abandoned, but the Native-Americans saw this as symbolic because now when people came to America through the west coast they would now see those who owned the land first. All of these movements were about creating a cultural identity that would be both American and Chicano or Asian or Puerto Rican. They didn’t want to be apart of the white American culture that did not respect and honor their culture. They wanted a group which would organize and further their culture. For instance, the Puerto Rican movement in New York wanted to do things for the community as a community even the most mundane of tasks like cleaning up trash. The goal was to be for the community as the community in whatever it needed. While the there were not many long-term changes that this group made on the foreign front, they had a lasting impact domestically and challenged the white American culture to not force their culture on others and respect other cultures. Often the 1960s are placed on a pedestal of change and social revolution, but that change was slower and more gradual than most people realize. It was not one moment specifically in history that sparked a revolution, but it was a grouping of events over time that made a change. In the case of the feminist movement, the second wave of feminism began with Kennedy commissioning a group of women to create writings on the status of women. Then a new group followed known as (NOW) National Organization of Women, in NOW mostly older women organized to empower women and make sure women were being fulfilled even in there lives as housewives or whatever it was that they were doing. Later came the Women’s liberation movement that was mostly made up of NOW’s children who drew ideas from the Black Panther party and organized to liberate women at all costs. In this movement, they did not want the mundane unfulfilling life of the housewife they wanted equal rights in the workforce and equal pay for the work similar to that of a man. They challenged the system of men that oppressed them and wanted to keep them at home. They came from movements such as the anti-war movement in which they were seen as coffee runners and minute takers and not as equal members. They stood for antiwar movements but did it as a group of women who were against the war, that way they could not be oppressed by men. Often in these movements, the men who were oppressing them were leading large movements yet they did not seem women as equal partners. Through these movements, we can see how change was gradual. Over time women were able to make progress by the revolution did not happen at a particular moment, it was over generations of time. The 1960s also housed change in ideas of sexuality. Today, if someone from the 1950s or 1960s came and witnessed our blatancy of sexuality they would be shocked (Bailey, Sexual Revolutions). However, our balance took a long time achieve and still does not entirely challenge the traditional ideas. During this time college students, per usual, had a lot to say about sexual freedom. Female college students were especially oppressed. They had curfews, parietals, and regulations to try and keep women from having sex. If a woman was caught having premarital sex they were socially outcasted or expelled from school. While all of these things were in place people were still having sex. They were just doing it in nontraditional settings (cars, lounges, etc.) it just meant that privacy was not assured. Even today religious college settings like Notre Dame still have no coed dormitories and things like parietals and as my friend who attends Notre Dame has told me it doesn’t really stop sexual relations. Gradually over time, it has become more acceptable for men and women to live together before they are married. It has taken a long time though in the 1970s it became more socially acceptable, even my parents in the 1990s who decided to live together before they were married felt a lot of pressure. My grandmother was furious with them for making this decision and because of this pressured them into marriage soon after they moved in together. Today my parents encourage me and my siblings to live with people of the opposite gender either romantically or not. Right now one of my roommates is male and my mom encouraged this. She sees it as a way to keep the apartment grounded. She also encourages us to live with our partners before we marry them so there are no surprises after the wedding, she says you don’t really know someone until you’ve lived with them. All of this has transpired over many generations in my family and shows that change did not happen overnight. 1968 was a year that left Americans in pain. Everything about the country was changing, people were rioting in the streets, students were organizing to change the democratic party, Dr. Martin Luther King was assassinated, Lyndon Johnson had announced he would not run for president, and Robert Kennedy was assassinated. People were downright angry, they were angry that young men were still dying in Vietnam and they were angry that Martin Luther King had been killed at the hands of a racist. The people felt that the American dream was lost. Students organized for a change in the democratic party, they changed the way that candidates ran for president. Students from New Hampshire created a map in which people could go door to door asking Democrats and independents to vote for McCarthy. McCarthy, in my opinion, was a surprising choice. He is shy and quiet, and he really didn’t even seem like he wanted the presidency. I guess that is what the students of the New Democratic movement wanted. They didn’t want someone who would tell them what to do they were looking for someone who would trust them. The students wanted someone who would look to them to make decisions. McCarthy had an attitude that he was doing everyone a favor by running for president and the students should thank him for letting them use his name. The students were looking for a name to push their agenda, they wanted the war in Vietnam to end. They were tired of Johnson pushing further and further into the war and they wanted change. They wanted their friends who were there doing the fighting to come home. The students really believed that America could be great if it made some major changes. They believed in democracy and had faith that with McCarthy the troops would come home, and change could be made. Dr. Martin Luther King was assassinated on April 4th, 1968. That day changed the civil rights movement in a drastic way. Now that the champion of nonviolence had died violently people turned to violence. “The assassin’s bullet not only Killed Dr. King, it killed a period of history. It killed Hope, and it killed a dream.” (B&B, 381) The assassination of Dr. King by a white American meant that any hope of change through peaceful nonviolent actions was no longer possible. It was clear that the only way that black Americans could ever get the fair and equal treatment they deserve was through violent means. Black Americans had to fight violence with violence. In a way, many black Americans thought that the dream of peaceful liberation had been gone for a long time, but King’s assassination proved that. In conclusion, 1968 meant a new wave of anger in the US. Young people were angry that Johnson’s war in Vietnam was still seeing American casualties. Black Americans were angry and full of grief from the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King. All of this anger led to change, students created a new democratic party and put faith into a leader who would listen to them. African Americans saw that nonviolence was not working and that in order to see real change they had to fight violence with violence. 1968 left the United States very divided. Since America’s foundation, African Americans have been badly mistreated and oppressed. From slavery to Jim Crow and onward African Americans have been regarded as second-class citizens. Martin Luther King Jr. had a dream in which black citizens and white citizens could live together in peace. However, not everyone agreed with King’s ideas of peace. For leaders such as Malcolm X, the black population in America had suffered far too long to move to a peaceful world. Malcolm X even went as far as saying he didn’t even see himself as an American. (BB, 120) At first, I didn’t understand how he could say that but after some thought, I have come to realize that my own circumstances do not allow me to understand that feeling because I have never seen oppression of this nature personally. For Malcolm X and the people who back him, oppression is so apparent. How could anyone who lives in oppression feel that they are apart of the state that is oppressing them? Malcolm X wanted a voice for black Americans. The primary reason for his movement was to give African Americans representation. Malcolm X on the service seems to be a negative and angry, but he was able to transform the black freedom struggle from what it was to a new movement in which African Americans would have a voice at all cost. Virginia Tech on March 5, 1965, was, like most places in the US, divided. Up until this point in the presentations, Virginia Tech seemed as though it was the land that time had forgotten, but it is evident through The Virginia Tech that the issue of racial inequality was an area that the university could not ignore. On the Friday before this paper was issued the Corps of Cadets put on their annual Minstrel show (pictured below). This year, however, the students would not stand by and accept this kind of racism on their campus so a group of students stood outside Burras hall and picketed the show. In the paper, we see a letter to the editor that discusses how this student cannot understand how a group of college-educated people could watch this show. He is offended by the use of the “N” word and feels the Corps misjudgment poorly represents the student body and compares it humorously to the “Drunks of Radford” The editor responses by defending the Corps and attacking the picketers. He first states that the picketers made an active attempt to “humiliate” the audience for attending. He blames the picketers for trying to insight racial controversy through their picketing and that they could have attempted to reach their goal of a show cancellation through the academic council for evaluation since it was on the schedule for a long time. The editor says that VPI through “understanding and restraint” the students have reached peace with cultural differences since 1952 when the first black student was enrolled. He claims that VPI is the center for diversity and that any practice besides restraint and understanding could lead to a boilover. It is fascinating that a school with very little racial equality can see themselves as equal. It is so interesting to see someone defend a minstrel show and then claim that Virginia Tech was a peaceful place of equality. Another response to this letter is from a student who doesn’t understand the issue with the minstrel show and blackface. He essentially feels that the jokes have truth to them, but are exaggerated stereotypes which makes it funny and okay. He for some reason feels that until recently Black Americans would attend and be okay with these shows, but now in order to attract attention, everyone has an issue with them. His thought is that it is just a joke. Both of these editors show the racism that existed on Virginia Tech’s campus. While their justifications for the Minstrel Show are different both sides try to play the “it’s not racist” card but, both fail to see the show for what it is. I also found the advertisements particularly interesting in this newspaper, three of them stood out specifically. The first was an ad for employment at IBM. I think this is super interesting because the people who responded to that advertisement could have potentially helped to create the computer as we know it today and it’s so interesting to think those people could have come from Tech. I also found the Army ROTC ad very interesting because while Vietnam is not mentioned like at all directly in this paper the ROTC ad shows that people knew they were going to war. This ad plays off people’s emotions and fear of the war by saying that they are good enough to be an officer don’t settle for an enlisted or drafted position that is for the uneducated less fortunate. Lastly, I found the ad for jobs in Europe interesting because it reminds me of our modern day study abroad except people go to work. Either way, it is another symbol of privilege on Virginia Tech’s campus and shows that people had money so that they could afford to go and work in Europe. Lyndon Johnson is quoted saying after JFK’s assassination that he had received the presidency he never wanted. JFK had always had a passive stance on civil rights. It seems obvious that it was something he hoped for but he needed the support of the white southerners, therefore, he was caught in a political trap. JFK would address the general public and bring up the injustices that were committed against black Americans, unfortunately, due to his need for the white southern vote and his short presidency he would not accomplish really anything in the ways of civil rights. Although the way LBJ had to take office is horrible his stance on civil rights was exactly what was needed. Most people remember LBJ as the president who did Vietnam, however, that view misses all that he did domestically for civil rights. From the beginning, LBJ’s stance was that equal rights were written into the constitution and legislators have taken an oath to honor that constitution, therefore, it is common sense that black Americans should have assured civil rights. He sold it to Congress as a matter of honoring the constitution, but today we know that LBJ really thought of this as an obvious need to treat all of America’s citizens with equality. Unlike Kennedy, LBJ was an enforcer and planned to enforce civil rights. He was not motivated politically to try and win the white southerners votes he had never had their support so instead, he worked for equality for all. He even used some leverage from JFK’s tragic death to push to Congress that civil rights for black American’s is what JFK would have wanted. Today it is hard to imagine being arrested simply for playing music in a city park but unfortunately, this was a reality that many folk musicians and their listeners faced if they chose “organize” without permission. The sixties as I see it was a time where Beatniks faced oppression for choosing to be individuals in a public place. Jonny the foot wanted to challenge this and chose to express himself vocally in a public place and was arrested for his chosen form of expression. He left his not so perfect niche in Nebraska and come to a place where people could be individuals as weird and wonderful as they wanted. He’s chosen form of expression was feet art that showed the miles he put on them similar to the way a car shows its mileage. He, like many other Beatniks, was after individuality. This wasn’t uncommon for the people of his generation that grew up un the cookie cutter towns that preached materialism and sameness. Not everyone chose to express themselves like Johnny. One form of expression arose in the form of the Folk Revival where musicians like Bob Dylan proved their individuality lyrically speaking out against injustices through rhythm and lyrics. Some of these Folk revivalists were women like Joan Baez who chose to express her independence and liberation as a woman from men who wanted to tie her down. In the end, all of these people were after the same thing, freedom to express themselves where ever they chose. They were met by the “upstanding citizens” who arrested and brutalized them for simply protesting or playing music publically. This was the cost of being an individual, potential arrest, police brutality, and jail time. Today, in a time where singing and participating in demonstrations in a public park is not something people are being arrested for, it is easy to forget the social change that the Beatniks and Folk Revivalists brought about, however, without them we may not be so familiar with the ability to express ourselves. This week we read a lot about Anne Moody and how she was affected by all the tensions that were surrounding her youth. Anne Moody at points would become almost physically ill thinking all of the injustice that was happening around her and more so than that she would become ill thinking about how all of the adults around her did nothing to stop them. Sometimes it’s easy to forget that everything that we have learned about in history has an actual effect on people. For instance, Anne Moody was still in high school and was affected by the Brown vs. Board of Education supreme court decision. Due to the nonspecific wording of the ruling, schools were in no rush to integrate so Anne Moody would not end up going to a white high school. However, in her town, the white people organized and built a really nice school so that maybe the black people would not want to integrate because it would be “equal”. I had heard that school districts would do things like this, but when you read about Anne Moody’s life these events really stand out as injustices. White people in the south were so set against their children going to integrated schools that they would spend loads of money to try and prevent it. Today we realize how absolutely absurd that it and how senseless it is to spend all of that money to protect their moronic racism. I was also really struck by the section where Emma had her foot blown off by Wilbert, yet no one blamed Wilbert instead they blamed the white man. I think the way that Anne Moody explained the situation makes it clear that the injustices were much greater than inconveniences, men really could not get jobs that paid enough to provide to their families. The black freedom struggle was more than a political movement, but it was also a struggle for economic equality. In this section of Anne Moody’s account, I think she wants her audience to see that and while I don’t think anyone excuses Wilbert for his actions I think everyone can sympathize with him and see how this inequality has driven him to a point of almost insanity full of misdirected anger. In conclusion, Anne Moody’s life put the historical events that we’ve learned about in school into perspective and shows that they had actual effects on real people not just effects on the NAACP and the political movement. Additionally, they affected the economic livelihood of black men and while these men were not slaves they often worked like one and were not compensated nearly enough to work and be treated the way they were. Hello everyone, welcome to my blog! My name is Kayla Mizelle and I am a Sophomore history major from Richmond, Virginia. I am studying history with the intent of becoming a middle school history teacher. The history that I most enjoy studying is, America in the 1960s. I first realized my interest in the subject in my high school’s history club where our instructor showed us the CNN 1960’s documentary series on Netflix. I hope in this class to learn new perspectives from the time outside the traditional history. Additionally, I am really interested in California, specifically San Francisco, during the 1960s psychedelic movement. A little bit about me, I love being outside. A few hobbies of mine include fishing, kayaking, hiking, and hammocking. Family is very important to me and my family is a little different and very large. I have a mother and a father who love my siblings and I very much as well as a stepfather and stepmother. I have two younger biological siblings who are twins, Ashley and Vance or as I like to call them, my best friends. I also have three older stepbrothers, one stepsister in law, and pretty soon I will be a step-aunt! If that wasn’t hard enough to follow we also have quite a few pets who are more like siblings, we have two dogs, two cats, and a gecko. I’m looking forward to going deeper into the history of the sixties this semester!	<urn:uuid:81fb732d-6681-4862-86e5-89252c70fa06>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blogs.lt.vt.edu/kmizelle/category/uncategorized/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00418.warc.gz	en	0.990293	4,435	3.859375	4	[ 0.07107341289520264, 0.02330777421593666, 0.2510928213596344, -0.17951393127441406, -0.10869794338941574, 0.4293054938316345, -0.37912407517433167, -0.07550234347581863, -0.2619437575340271, -0.03421483188867569, 0.2628442049026489, 0.38852953910827637, -0.26422953605651855, 0.127448529005...	6	As the long 60s drew to close many groups, inspired by what they saw in the decade, began organizing for what was needed for them. Native Americans, Chicano-Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Asian-Americans were inspired by the black power movement and began organizing for their own identity. They, like the black power movement, did not want to assimilate into the white American culture they wanted their own identity in their own culture. In one of the articles on Chicano- Americans the author discusses how all of his early life he had tried to just fit into American culture and had forgotten his Chicano identity. When he began living and working in a community with other Chicanos he realized that Chicano is beautiful and that he should not forget his culture. The same goes for Asian Americans, they wanted people to see them as Asian-Americans with a cultural identity unique to them. They wanted equal representation and wanted their culture to be respected, they did not want to assimilate into the white American culture. Native Americans had had enough of their mistreatment. For more than a century they had been promised land and a space for their culture and they were continually pushed off their land and been the victims of broken promises. They decided enough was enough and they needed to move and take action. The group occupied Alcatraz Island off the coast of San Fransico this was ironic because it was a jail that had been abandoned, but the Native-Americans saw this as symbolic because now when people came to America through the west coast they would now see those who owned the land first. All of these movements were about creating a cultural identity that would be both American and Chicano or Asian or Puerto Rican. They didn’t want to be apart of the white American culture that did not respect and honor their culture. They wanted a group which would organize and further their culture. For instance, the Puerto Rican movement in New York wanted to do things for the community as a community even the most mundane of tasks like cleaning up trash. The goal was to be for the community as the community in whatever it needed. While the there were not many long-term changes that this group made on the foreign front, they had a lasting impact domestically and challenged the white American culture to not force their culture on others and respect other cultures. Often the 1960s are placed on a pedestal of change and social revolution, but that change was slower and more gradual than most people realize. It was not one moment specifically in history that sparked a revolution, but it was a grouping of events over time that made a change. In the case of the feminist movement, the second wave of feminism began with Kennedy commissioning a group of women to create writings on the status of women. Then a new group followed known as (NOW) National Organization of Women, in NOW mostly older women organized to empower women and make sure women were being fulfilled even in there lives as housewives or whatever it was that they were doing. Later came the Women’s liberation movement that was mostly made up of NOW’s children who drew ideas from the Black Panther party and organized to liberate women at all costs. In this movement, they did not want the mundane unfulfilling life of the housewife they wanted equal rights in the workforce and equal pay for the work similar to that of a man. They challenged the system of men that oppressed them and wanted to keep them at home. They came from movements such as the anti-war movement in which they were seen as coffee runners and minute takers and not as equal members. They stood for antiwar movements but did it as a group of women who were against the war, that way they could not be oppressed by men. Often in these movements, the men who were oppressing them were leading large movements yet they did not seem women as equal partners. Through these movements, we can see how change was gradual. Over time women were able to make progress by the revolution did not happen at a particular moment, it was over generations of time. The 1960s also housed change in ideas of sexuality. Today, if someone from the 1950s or 1960s came and witnessed our blatancy of sexuality they would be shocked (Bailey, Sexual Revolutions). However, our balance took a long time achieve and still does not entirely challenge the traditional ideas. During this time college students, per usual, had a lot to say about sexual freedom. Female college students were especially oppressed. They had curfews, parietals, and regulations to try and keep women from having sex. If a woman was caught having premarital sex they were socially outcasted or expelled from school. While all of these things were in place people were still having sex. They were just doing it in nontraditional settings (cars, lounges, etc.) it just meant that privacy was not assured. Even today religious college settings like Notre Dame still have no coed dormitories and things like parietals and as my friend who attends Notre Dame has told me it doesn’t really stop sexual relations. Gradually over time, it has become more acceptable for men and women to live together before they are married. It has taken a long time though in the 1970s it became more socially acceptable, even my parents in the 1990s who decided to live together before they were married felt a lot of pressure. My grandmother was furious with them for making this decision and because of this pressured them into marriage soon after they moved in together. Today my parents encourage me and my siblings to live with people of the opposite gender either romantically or not. Right now one of my roommates is male and my mom encouraged this. She sees it as a way to keep the apartment grounded. She also encourages us to live with our partners before we marry them so there are no surprises after the wedding, she says you don’t really know someone until you’ve lived with them. All of this has transpired over many generations in my family and shows that change did not happen overnight. 1968 was a year that left Americans in pain. Everything about the country was changing, people were rioting in the streets, students were organizing to change the democratic party, Dr. Martin Luther King was assassinated, Lyndon Johnson had announced he would not run for president, and Robert Kennedy was assassinated. People were downright angry, they were angry that young men were still dying in Vietnam and they were angry that Martin Luther King had been killed at the hands of a racist. The people felt that the American dream was lost. Students organized for a change in the democratic party, they changed the way that candidates ran for president. Students from New Hampshire created a map in which people could go door to door asking Democrats and independents to vote for McCarthy. McCarthy, in my opinion, was a surprising choice. He is shy and quiet, and he really didn’t even seem like he wanted the presidency. I guess that is what the students of the New Democratic movement wanted. They didn’t want someone who would tell them what to do they were looking for someone who would trust them. The students wanted someone who would look to them to make decisions. McCarthy had an attitude that he was doing everyone a favor by running for president and the students should thank him for letting them use his name. The students were looking for a name to push their agenda, they wanted the war in Vietnam to end. They were tired of Johnson pushing further and further into the war and they wanted change. They wanted their friends who were there doing the fighting to come home. The students really believed that America could be great if it made some major changes. They believed in democracy and had faith that with McCarthy the troops would come home, and change could be made. Dr. Martin Luther King was assassinated on April 4th, 1968. That day changed the civil rights movement in a drastic way. Now that the champion of nonviolence had died violently people turned to violence. “The assassin’s bullet not only Killed Dr. King, it killed a period of history. It killed Hope, and it killed a dream.” (B&B, 381) The assassination of Dr. King by a white American meant that any hope of change through peaceful nonviolent actions was no longer possible. It was clear that the only way that black Americans could ever get the fair and equal treatment they deserve was through violent means. Black Americans had to fight violence with violence. In a way, many black Americans thought that the dream of peaceful liberation had been gone for a long time, but King’s assassination proved that. In conclusion, 1968 meant a new wave of anger in the US. Young people were angry that Johnson’s war in Vietnam was still seeing American casualties. Black Americans were angry and full of grief from the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King. All of this anger led to change, students created a new democratic party and put faith into a leader who would listen to them. African Americans saw that nonviolence was not working and that in order to see real change they had to fight violence with violence. 1968 left the United States very divided. Since America’s foundation, African Americans have been badly mistreated and oppressed. From slavery to Jim Crow and onward African Americans have been regarded as second-class citizens. Martin Luther King Jr. had a dream in which black citizens and white citizens could live together in peace. However, not everyone agreed with King’s ideas of peace. For leaders such as Malcolm X, the black population in America had suffered far too long to move to a peaceful world. Malcolm X even went as far as saying he didn’t even see himself as an American. (BB, 120) At first, I didn’t understand how he could say that but after some thought, I have come to realize that my own circumstances do not allow me to understand that feeling because I have never seen oppression of this nature personally. For Malcolm X and the people who back him, oppression is so apparent. How could anyone who lives in oppression feel that they are apart of the state that is oppressing them? Malcolm X wanted a voice for black Americans. The primary reason for his movement was to give African Americans representation. Malcolm X on the service seems to be a negative and angry, but he was able to transform the black freedom struggle from what it was to a new movement in which African Americans would have a voice at all cost. Virginia Tech on March 5, 1965, was, like most places in the US, divided. Up until this point in the presentations, Virginia Tech seemed as though it was the land that time had forgotten, but it is evident through The Virginia Tech that the issue of racial inequality was an area that the university could not ignore. On the Friday before this paper was issued the Corps of Cadets put on their annual Minstrel show (pictured below). This year, however, the students would not stand by and accept this kind of racism on their campus so a group of students stood outside Burras hall and picketed the show. In the paper, we see a letter to the editor that discusses how this student cannot understand how a group of college-educated people could watch this show. He is offended by the use of the “N” word and feels the Corps misjudgment poorly represents the student body and compares it humorously to the “Drunks of Radford” The editor responses by defending the Corps and attacking the picketers. He first states that the picketers made an active attempt to “humiliate” the audience for attending. He blames the picketers for trying to insight racial controversy through their picketing and that they could have attempted to reach their goal of a show cancellation through the academic council for evaluation since it was on the schedule for a long time. The editor says that VPI through “understanding and restraint” the students have reached peace with cultural differences since 1952 when the first black student was enrolled. He claims that VPI is the center for diversity and that any practice besides restraint and understanding could lead to a boilover. It is fascinating that a school with very little racial equality can see themselves as equal. It is so interesting to see someone defend a minstrel show and then claim that Virginia Tech was a peaceful place of equality. Another response to this letter is from a student who doesn’t understand the issue with the minstrel show and blackface. He essentially feels that the jokes have truth to them, but are exaggerated stereotypes which makes it funny and okay. He for some reason feels that until recently Black Americans would attend and be okay with these shows, but now in order to attract attention, everyone has an issue with them. His thought is that it is just a joke. Both of these editors show the racism that existed on Virginia Tech’s campus. While their justifications for the Minstrel Show are different both sides try to play the “it’s not racist” card but, both fail to see the show for what it is. I also found the advertisements particularly interesting in this newspaper, three of them stood out specifically. The first was an ad for employment at IBM. I think this is super interesting because the people who responded to that advertisement could have potentially helped to create the computer as we know it today and it’s so interesting to think those people could have come from Tech. I also found the Army ROTC ad very interesting because while Vietnam is not mentioned like at all directly in this paper the ROTC ad shows that people knew they were going to war. This ad plays off people’s emotions and fear of the war by saying that they are good enough to be an officer don’t settle for an enlisted or drafted position that is for the uneducated less fortunate. Lastly, I found the ad for jobs in Europe interesting because it reminds me of our modern day study abroad except people go to work. Either way, it is another symbol of privilege on Virginia Tech’s campus and shows that people had money so that they could afford to go and work in Europe. Lyndon Johnson is quoted saying after JFK’s assassination that he had received the presidency he never wanted. JFK had always had a passive stance on civil rights. It seems obvious that it was something he hoped for but he needed the support of the white southerners, therefore, he was caught in a political trap. JFK would address the general public and bring up the injustices that were committed against black Americans, unfortunately, due to his need for the white southern vote and his short presidency he would not accomplish really anything in the ways of civil rights. Although the way LBJ had to take office is horrible his stance on civil rights was exactly what was needed. Most people remember LBJ as the president who did Vietnam, however, that view misses all that he did domestically for civil rights. From the beginning, LBJ’s stance was that equal rights were written into the constitution and legislators have taken an oath to honor that constitution, therefore, it is common sense that black Americans should have assured civil rights. He sold it to Congress as a matter of honoring the constitution, but today we know that LBJ really thought of this as an obvious need to treat all of America’s citizens with equality. Unlike Kennedy, LBJ was an enforcer and planned to enforce civil rights. He was not motivated politically to try and win the white southerners votes he had never had their support so instead, he worked for equality for all. He even used some leverage from JFK’s tragic death to push to Congress that civil rights for black American’s is what JFK would have wanted. Today it is hard to imagine being arrested simply for playing music in a city park but unfortunately, this was a reality that many folk musicians and their listeners faced if they chose “organize” without permission. The sixties as I see it was a time where Beatniks faced oppression for choosing to be individuals in a public place. Jonny the foot wanted to challenge this and chose to express himself vocally in a public place and was arrested for his chosen form of expression. He left his not so perfect niche in Nebraska and come to a place where people could be individuals as weird and wonderful as they wanted. He’s chosen form of expression was feet art that showed the miles he put on them similar to the way a car shows its mileage. He, like many other Beatniks, was after individuality. This wasn’t uncommon for the people of his generation that grew up un the cookie cutter towns that preached materialism and sameness. Not everyone chose to express themselves like Johnny. One form of expression arose in the form of the Folk Revival where musicians like Bob Dylan proved their individuality lyrically speaking out against injustices through rhythm and lyrics. Some of these Folk revivalists were women like Joan Baez who chose to express her independence and liberation as a woman from men who wanted to tie her down. In the end, all of these people were after the same thing, freedom to express themselves where ever they chose. They were met by the “upstanding citizens” who arrested and brutalized them for simply protesting or playing music publically. This was the cost of being an individual, potential arrest, police brutality, and jail time. Today, in a time where singing and participating in demonstrations in a public park is not something people are being arrested for, it is easy to forget the social change that the Beatniks and Folk Revivalists brought about, however, without them we may not be so familiar with the ability to express ourselves. This week we read a lot about Anne Moody and how she was affected by all the tensions that were surrounding her youth. Anne Moody at points would become almost physically ill thinking all of the injustice that was happening around her and more so than that she would become ill thinking about how all of the adults around her did nothing to stop them. Sometimes it’s easy to forget that everything that we have learned about in history has an actual effect on people. For instance, Anne Moody was still in high school and was affected by the Brown vs. Board of Education supreme court decision. Due to the nonspecific wording of the ruling, schools were in no rush to integrate so Anne Moody would not end up going to a white high school. However, in her town, the white people organized and built a really nice school so that maybe the black people would not want to integrate because it would be “equal”. I had heard that school districts would do things like this, but when you read about Anne Moody’s life these events really stand out as injustices. White people in the south were so set against their children going to integrated schools that they would spend loads of money to try and prevent it. Today we realize how absolutely absurd that it and how senseless it is to spend all of that money to protect their moronic racism. I was also really struck by the section where Emma had her foot blown off by Wilbert, yet no one blamed Wilbert instead they blamed the white man. I think the way that Anne Moody explained the situation makes it clear that the injustices were much greater than inconveniences, men really could not get jobs that paid enough to provide to their families. The black freedom struggle was more than a political movement, but it was also a struggle for economic equality. In this section of Anne Moody’s account, I think she wants her audience to see that and while I don’t think anyone excuses Wilbert for his actions I think everyone can sympathize with him and see how this inequality has driven him to a point of almost insanity full of misdirected anger. In conclusion, Anne Moody’s life put the historical events that we’ve learned about in school into perspective and shows that they had actual effects on real people not just effects on the NAACP and the political movement. Additionally, they affected the economic livelihood of black men and while these men were not slaves they often worked like one and were not compensated nearly enough to work and be treated the way they were. Hello everyone, welcome to my blog! My name is Kayla Mizelle and I am a Sophomore history major from Richmond, Virginia. I am studying history with the intent of becoming a middle school history teacher. The history that I most enjoy studying is, America in the 1960s. I first realized my interest in the subject in my high school’s history club where our instructor showed us the CNN 1960’s documentary series on Netflix. I hope in this class to learn new perspectives from the time outside the traditional history. Additionally, I am really interested in California, specifically San Francisco, during the 1960s psychedelic movement. A little bit about me, I love being outside. A few hobbies of mine include fishing, kayaking, hiking, and hammocking. Family is very important to me and my family is a little different and very large. I have a mother and a father who love my siblings and I very much as well as a stepfather and stepmother. I have two younger biological siblings who are twins, Ashley and Vance or as I like to call them, my best friends. I also have three older stepbrothers, one stepsister in law, and pretty soon I will be a step-aunt! If that wasn’t hard enough to follow we also have quite a few pets who are more like siblings, we have two dogs, two cats, and a gecko. I’m looking forward to going deeper into the history of the sixties this semester!	4,384	ENGLISH	1
Aside from the Union Flag or the Royal Union Flag (in Canada), the national flag of the United Kingdom is also commonly known as the Union Jack. Aside from the UK, the Union Jack is also the official flag of British Overseas Territories. In addition, the flag appears on the upper left-hand region of the flags of some countries, especially those that were once colonies of Britain. The flag’s design dates all the way back to 1603 during the reign of King George III. The design of the Union Jack features three symbols, namely the red cross of Saint George, the Saltire of Saint Andrew, and the Cross of St Patrick, which is also red. All these three symbols, which represent England, Ireland, and Scotland, are on a blue background. The naming of the flag can be traced back to the 17th century after the demise of the monarch who was Queen Elizabeth I of England in 1603. At that time, the kingdoms of England and Scotland had not been united. At the time of her death, Elizabeth I did not leave any heirs since she had not been married. King James VI of Scotland was the only surviving heir and, therefore, became the next king of England. The ascension of James VI saw to it that the two kingdoms had a similar monarch, which is why his ascension was called the union of the crowns. A few years after his ascension in 1606, King James VI issued a decree for the creation of the British flag. Since there were only two kingdoms under his leadership, he decreed that the flag had to have both the crosses of St. Andrew and St. George to represent Scotland and England respectively. The resulting flag that was designed was one of the first designs of the Union Jack. However, it is important to note that when the flag was first released, it was not known as the Union Jack or the Union Flag. Instead, it was simply known as the flag of Britain or the British flag. The royal decree from the king did not state that the flag had to be called the Union Jack. Possible Theories for the Origin of "Union Jack" One of the most popular theories is that the nickname originated from naval usage. This theory has been disputed in recent times after more investigations. However, it is important to note that the maritime bow flag was commonly known as the “jack” even before the flag was designed. During the union of 1801, there were several mentions of the flag that were made by the king. The flags at sea were known by several names such as pendants, ensigns, flags, and jacks. This theory most likely arose from these proclamations. Another possible theory could have been the international reputation of the British Royal Navy since most British ships used the term “jack” to refer to flags. Over the years, the name was also popularized by political figures such as Winston Churchill who was the Prime Minister of the UK between 1940 and 1945. About the Author Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:f43ddb5c-799d-4e5a-95ff-1d76fb4cc243>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/why-is-the-british-flag-called-the-union-jack.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00115.warc.gz	en	0.984789	684	3.546875	4	[ -0.4463443160057068, 0.44271793961524963, 0.4167904257774353, -0.051464952528476715, 0.06494012475013733, 0.06462028622627258, -0.005888121202588081, 0.07285290211439133, 0.5596728920936584, -0.06926877051591873, -0.06271977722644806, -0.4699695110321045, 0.008838607929646969, -0.355276018...	2	Aside from the Union Flag or the Royal Union Flag (in Canada), the national flag of the United Kingdom is also commonly known as the Union Jack. Aside from the UK, the Union Jack is also the official flag of British Overseas Territories. In addition, the flag appears on the upper left-hand region of the flags of some countries, especially those that were once colonies of Britain. The flag’s design dates all the way back to 1603 during the reign of King George III. The design of the Union Jack features three symbols, namely the red cross of Saint George, the Saltire of Saint Andrew, and the Cross of St Patrick, which is also red. All these three symbols, which represent England, Ireland, and Scotland, are on a blue background. The naming of the flag can be traced back to the 17th century after the demise of the monarch who was Queen Elizabeth I of England in 1603. At that time, the kingdoms of England and Scotland had not been united. At the time of her death, Elizabeth I did not leave any heirs since she had not been married. King James VI of Scotland was the only surviving heir and, therefore, became the next king of England. The ascension of James VI saw to it that the two kingdoms had a similar monarch, which is why his ascension was called the union of the crowns. A few years after his ascension in 1606, King James VI issued a decree for the creation of the British flag. Since there were only two kingdoms under his leadership, he decreed that the flag had to have both the crosses of St. Andrew and St. George to represent Scotland and England respectively. The resulting flag that was designed was one of the first designs of the Union Jack. However, it is important to note that when the flag was first released, it was not known as the Union Jack or the Union Flag. Instead, it was simply known as the flag of Britain or the British flag. The royal decree from the king did not state that the flag had to be called the Union Jack. Possible Theories for the Origin of "Union Jack" One of the most popular theories is that the nickname originated from naval usage. This theory has been disputed in recent times after more investigations. However, it is important to note that the maritime bow flag was commonly known as the “jack” even before the flag was designed. During the union of 1801, there were several mentions of the flag that were made by the king. The flags at sea were known by several names such as pendants, ensigns, flags, and jacks. This theory most likely arose from these proclamations. Another possible theory could have been the international reputation of the British Royal Navy since most British ships used the term “jack” to refer to flags. Over the years, the name was also popularized by political figures such as Winston Churchill who was the Prime Minister of the UK between 1940 and 1945. About the Author Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	694	ENGLISH	1
Mistakes and Tragedy in Oedipus the King In the tragedy, “Oedipus the King,” Oedipus and his parents made mistakes that lead them to peripeteia. After learning that their future will be filled with sadness, they were not willing to accept it and instead decided to try and change it. Sophocles’ tragedy implicitly illustrates how difficult it is to change one’s fate. Regardless of the precautions taken to avoid it, the final result remains the same, since one’s fate has already been predetermined. Oedipus’ parents begin the tragedy by making the first mistake. When Apollo’s servant tells them that their son will kill the father, marry the mother, and have children with her, they try to prevent this from happening. They send their 3-month-old Oedipus away, and pierce his ankles (710-725). This shows how the parents tried to rewrite fate by getting rid of Oedipus. Sophocles is trying to show that one should not attempt to know one’s future, because it causes one to try and change one’s fate, which leads to future peripeteia due to them no longer expecting that result. Oedipus makes the second mistake. By believing that Polybus is his father, and by knowing his fate, he tries to protect them by leaving Corinth and never returning until Polybus and Merope pass away (771-830). However, Oedipus unknowingly kills his real father in a moment of hot-temperedness. Oedipus then becomes the king of Thebes, and marries Jocasta, who is actually his biological mother. Despite Oedipus believing that he has escaped fate, he has still unknowingly married his biological mother, and this shows how fate always prevails. No matter what path one chooses to take, although the steps are different, fate causes one to end up in the same destination. These mistakes lead to the peripeteia in Oedipus’ life: he goes from being the King of Thebes to all of a sudden losing everything after learning that Jocasta is his biological mother. However, he still needs to obey the oath that he made to his people, and face the punishment (133-146). Oedipus never imagined that he would be the murderer, since at the time he did not know that Laius is his biological father. After he completely understands his background and what he did in the past, he is facing the reversal of fortune. He believes that the gods did not guard him very well during his life (1480). He believes that the herdsman saving him from death was not a “kindly service” but actually a mistake, because he believes if they allowed him to die he would not have to suffer like this” (1351-1355). In conclusion, these mistakes match the Aristotle’s framework of hamartia, which lead to the peripeteia in the lives of Oedipus and Jocasta. They both believed that they had nothing to worry about, but in the end realized that they had not changed their fate at all. From this tragedy I learnt that fate is predetermined, and cannot be changed. The reason why they have the reversal of fortune is because they depended so greatly on this false change of fate that once they reached their destination, they were unprepared to deal with the consequences.	<urn:uuid:d984d595-2c29-4c29-ace8-c2d94d3efc6a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://freebooksummary.com/mistakes-and-tragedy-in-oedipus-the-king-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00443.warc.gz	en	0.98431	729	3.265625	3	[ -0.2897651195526123, 0.07632528245449066, 0.4776410460472107, -0.6960549354553223, 0.03269535303115845, -0.3671417236328125, 0.4744439721107483, 0.11772369593381882, 0.22651466727256775, -0.03576740622520447, -0.0336170569062233, -0.4757480323314667, -0.05155347287654877, 0.162836551666259...	2	Mistakes and Tragedy in Oedipus the King In the tragedy, “Oedipus the King,” Oedipus and his parents made mistakes that lead them to peripeteia. After learning that their future will be filled with sadness, they were not willing to accept it and instead decided to try and change it. Sophocles’ tragedy implicitly illustrates how difficult it is to change one’s fate. Regardless of the precautions taken to avoid it, the final result remains the same, since one’s fate has already been predetermined. Oedipus’ parents begin the tragedy by making the first mistake. When Apollo’s servant tells them that their son will kill the father, marry the mother, and have children with her, they try to prevent this from happening. They send their 3-month-old Oedipus away, and pierce his ankles (710-725). This shows how the parents tried to rewrite fate by getting rid of Oedipus. Sophocles is trying to show that one should not attempt to know one’s future, because it causes one to try and change one’s fate, which leads to future peripeteia due to them no longer expecting that result. Oedipus makes the second mistake. By believing that Polybus is his father, and by knowing his fate, he tries to protect them by leaving Corinth and never returning until Polybus and Merope pass away (771-830). However, Oedipus unknowingly kills his real father in a moment of hot-temperedness. Oedipus then becomes the king of Thebes, and marries Jocasta, who is actually his biological mother. Despite Oedipus believing that he has escaped fate, he has still unknowingly married his biological mother, and this shows how fate always prevails. No matter what path one chooses to take, although the steps are different, fate causes one to end up in the same destination. These mistakes lead to the peripeteia in Oedipus’ life: he goes from being the King of Thebes to all of a sudden losing everything after learning that Jocasta is his biological mother. However, he still needs to obey the oath that he made to his people, and face the punishment (133-146). Oedipus never imagined that he would be the murderer, since at the time he did not know that Laius is his biological father. After he completely understands his background and what he did in the past, he is facing the reversal of fortune. He believes that the gods did not guard him very well during his life (1480). He believes that the herdsman saving him from death was not a “kindly service” but actually a mistake, because he believes if they allowed him to die he would not have to suffer like this” (1351-1355). In conclusion, these mistakes match the Aristotle’s framework of hamartia, which lead to the peripeteia in the lives of Oedipus and Jocasta. They both believed that they had nothing to worry about, but in the end realized that they had not changed their fate at all. From this tragedy I learnt that fate is predetermined, and cannot be changed. The reason why they have the reversal of fortune is because they depended so greatly on this false change of fate that once they reached their destination, they were unprepared to deal with the consequences.	724	ENGLISH	1
Custom Social Structure of the Tlingit People Essay Paper Sample The Tlingit people live in the southeastern coast of Alaska and the Alexander Archipelago. They have their Tlingit language has rare and complex grammar and sounds that are not in any language. The culture of the Tlingit is based on the family and kinship ties (Emmons, 1991). They value the proper behavior, wealth, power, and generosity. Their society is divided into two moieties that were distinguished by being affiliated to either the Wolf or the Raven. The moiety was the main line that divided the Tlingit society even though the current generation does not identify themselves with the moiety. Today, individuals identify themselves with their matrilineal clans, which are known as naa in Tlingit language. According to the Tlingit, a clan is a group of persons who are related through shared history, genealogy, and possessory rights (Emmons, 1991). The clan is the major property owner and not individual persons. Buy Social Structure of the Tlingit People essay paper online * Final order price might be slightly different depending on the current exchange rate of chosen payment system. The Tlingit marriages were arranged and the man went to live in the woman's house. A man was supposed to get married to a woman who comes from his father's clan but both should not be related. This means that children and their paternal grandfather shared a clan. These children could be able to inherit names, prestige, personal possessions, occupation, and wealth. He had access to the resources of his wife's clan and articipated in food gathering. Children belonged to the mother's clan and thus fathers played a minor role in raising children. He gave them gifts and played with them. This is what inspired many grandfathers to play an active role in raising their grandchildren. A maternal uncle taught Tlingit children manners, discipline, and imparted basic skills. Maternal uncles were feared because they exposed children to tough discipline and training. Any Tlingit person is a part of a clan, either by adoption or by birth. Most of the Tlingit children belong to the clan of their fathers. The way father and child relate is extremely influential on the way two clans relate. If a clan has trouble, they can call the clan of the child's father to assists. On the same grounds, they may not call him, if they consider that clan their enemy. Every clan had various houses (hit) under it. A house was formed of a group of persons who had close family relations. This people lived in a physical communal house that was the property of the clan but the material property was theirs. A male of high status within the family led every house. This person was referred to as house leader (hit s'aati'). The house chief who was recognized as having a powerful status in community was chosen as the community chief or leader (aan s'aati'). The hhouse leader played the role of an administrator and caretaker of house, and some of the clan property. The house leader referred to himself as the clan "slave" because he did not own any of the property. His key role was to give ordered whether an item was to be used or not. In the real sense, the house leader did not own the item thus, he was not authorized to sell, destroy, or dispense it. The house leader also acted as an "overseer" at potlatches where the history and value of cal regalia would be reconfirmed by being used ceremonially or for clan payments. Potlatches (koo.eex') were events that were held during childbirth, and naming, death, marriage, special events, wealth sharing, raising totems, and honoring the dead (Emmons, 1991). The main feature of the Tlingit culture is the memorial potlatch. Two years after a person's death, a potlatch is held to reinstate balance within the community. This also signified the end of the mourning period for the deceased family. The main aim of a potlatch was to banish fear associated with death and afterlife uncertainties. It is important to note that the social structure in the Tlingit community was matrilineal and no individual owned property. Although these people have been suffered from "Americanization," they still hold to their beliefs and values that is why they have a matrilineal system until date. Related exploratory-essay essays Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:7107b705-6111-4800-bd56-48c553cdcdd5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://primewritings.com/essays/exploratory-essay/social-structure-of-the-tlingit-people.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00170.warc.gz	en	0.981768	932	3.5625	4	[ 0.025161057710647583, 0.4309501647949219, -0.04992491006851196, -0.3256884217262268, -0.3130819797515869, -0.24133658409118652, 0.5142176747322083, -0.10043022036552429, -0.12828722596168518, -0.27326637506484985, 0.35768556594848633, -0.2259843796491623, 0.22666776180267334, 0.09109918028...	1	Custom Social Structure of the Tlingit People Essay Paper Sample The Tlingit people live in the southeastern coast of Alaska and the Alexander Archipelago. They have their Tlingit language has rare and complex grammar and sounds that are not in any language. The culture of the Tlingit is based on the family and kinship ties (Emmons, 1991). They value the proper behavior, wealth, power, and generosity. Their society is divided into two moieties that were distinguished by being affiliated to either the Wolf or the Raven. The moiety was the main line that divided the Tlingit society even though the current generation does not identify themselves with the moiety. Today, individuals identify themselves with their matrilineal clans, which are known as naa in Tlingit language. According to the Tlingit, a clan is a group of persons who are related through shared history, genealogy, and possessory rights (Emmons, 1991). The clan is the major property owner and not individual persons. Buy Social Structure of the Tlingit People essay paper online * Final order price might be slightly different depending on the current exchange rate of chosen payment system. The Tlingit marriages were arranged and the man went to live in the woman's house. A man was supposed to get married to a woman who comes from his father's clan but both should not be related. This means that children and their paternal grandfather shared a clan. These children could be able to inherit names, prestige, personal possessions, occupation, and wealth. He had access to the resources of his wife's clan and articipated in food gathering. Children belonged to the mother's clan and thus fathers played a minor role in raising children. He gave them gifts and played with them. This is what inspired many grandfathers to play an active role in raising their grandchildren. A maternal uncle taught Tlingit children manners, discipline, and imparted basic skills. Maternal uncles were feared because they exposed children to tough discipline and training. Any Tlingit person is a part of a clan, either by adoption or by birth. Most of the Tlingit children belong to the clan of their fathers. The way father and child relate is extremely influential on the way two clans relate. If a clan has trouble, they can call the clan of the child's father to assists. On the same grounds, they may not call him, if they consider that clan their enemy. Every clan had various houses (hit) under it. A house was formed of a group of persons who had close family relations. This people lived in a physical communal house that was the property of the clan but the material property was theirs. A male of high status within the family led every house. This person was referred to as house leader (hit s'aati'). The house chief who was recognized as having a powerful status in community was chosen as the community chief or leader (aan s'aati'). The hhouse leader played the role of an administrator and caretaker of house, and some of the clan property. The house leader referred to himself as the clan "slave" because he did not own any of the property. His key role was to give ordered whether an item was to be used or not. In the real sense, the house leader did not own the item thus, he was not authorized to sell, destroy, or dispense it. The house leader also acted as an "overseer" at potlatches where the history and value of cal regalia would be reconfirmed by being used ceremonially or for clan payments. Potlatches (koo.eex') were events that were held during childbirth, and naming, death, marriage, special events, wealth sharing, raising totems, and honoring the dead (Emmons, 1991). The main feature of the Tlingit culture is the memorial potlatch. Two years after a person's death, a potlatch is held to reinstate balance within the community. This also signified the end of the mourning period for the deceased family. The main aim of a potlatch was to banish fear associated with death and afterlife uncertainties. It is important to note that the social structure in the Tlingit community was matrilineal and no individual owned property. Although these people have been suffered from "Americanization," they still hold to their beliefs and values that is why they have a matrilineal system until date. Related exploratory-essay essays Most popular orders	931	ENGLISH	1
Paleolithic vs.. Neolithic The first scholars that existed named the whole period of human development the “Stone Age. ” The Stone Age is divided into three periods which are Paleolithic which meaner the old Greek age, Megalithic and Neolithic which is the new Greek age. The Paleolithic and Neolithic stone ages have many great differences and have changed greatly between the two periods. This has been the unmasking of the habits of all man including ones in modern day. Primitive man traveled on all fours which mainly gathered nuts, berries, and small animals, because they were closer to the ground and easier to obtain. Their brows were further away from their faces so that gave them tunnel vision which only allowed them to see in the direction they were facing. Because of the fact the intellectual ability was too low many of the stubborn killed off with the inability to learn how to eat, drink, and avoid other attributes that would lead to their demise. The ones that survived however led to flourish and eventually adapt until all of the species of man could fathom all the basic needs to live. Considering that the longer the group lived and thrived the more the group would repopulate, and if they repopulated they needed more food to sustain the and so they had to adapt to obtain more food or they would over populate. The evolution changed very relevant things that would help with the requirement of sustenance; this next step in human history is known as Megalithic or middle Stone Age. They developed the technique to walk on two legs instead of all fours which also enabled the capability to travel longer distances and chase after fleeing prey. Another example of helping obtain sustenance would be that their brows receded so their hunting methods could become improved to see the animals that are being hunted. After a few years they learned how to use basic tools for round about Jobs, to help gather basic supplies. They also reached the point where they understood how to create fire and use it to cook. These early humans also developed agriculture base that not everyone wanted to accept because hunting and gathering was easier and less work. They also began to trap wild animals and get other resources from them. These boosts marked the next step in human history known as Neolithic era. Many advances in agriculture had allowed man to settle down and build permanent houses. With the advances in agriculture they had time to repopulate and increase heir bands to support larger communities. They also had a lot of time to think since they no longer needed to hunt and waist a lot of time. A lot of early men were ignorant and they died, so the society advanced and it continued to live on after they all perished. They did not want to learn new things that would help their society continue to prosper, so they Just stuck with the “old ways”. Even with the ability to adapt and change to have what is better for survival. Man will have a hard time to change because they feel that life is easier doing the same thing all day, every day. By greasepaint’s	<urn:uuid:295e730f-f25e-41a1-a320-6dbe41c49cbd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://googlebestbuy.com/paleolithic-vs-neolithic/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00156.warc.gz	en	0.986279	628	3.5	4	[ -0.22633686661720276, 0.4318532943725586, 0.29513949155807495, 0.21112409234046936, -0.278541624546051, -0.27067404985427856, -0.26950305700302124, 0.15455405414104462, -0.21371990442276, -0.11067919433116913, -0.21974410116672516, -0.5417758226394653, 0.12116210162639618, 0.48773550987243...	15	Paleolithic vs.. Neolithic The first scholars that existed named the whole period of human development the “Stone Age. ” The Stone Age is divided into three periods which are Paleolithic which meaner the old Greek age, Megalithic and Neolithic which is the new Greek age. The Paleolithic and Neolithic stone ages have many great differences and have changed greatly between the two periods. This has been the unmasking of the habits of all man including ones in modern day. Primitive man traveled on all fours which mainly gathered nuts, berries, and small animals, because they were closer to the ground and easier to obtain. Their brows were further away from their faces so that gave them tunnel vision which only allowed them to see in the direction they were facing. Because of the fact the intellectual ability was too low many of the stubborn killed off with the inability to learn how to eat, drink, and avoid other attributes that would lead to their demise. The ones that survived however led to flourish and eventually adapt until all of the species of man could fathom all the basic needs to live. Considering that the longer the group lived and thrived the more the group would repopulate, and if they repopulated they needed more food to sustain the and so they had to adapt to obtain more food or they would over populate. The evolution changed very relevant things that would help with the requirement of sustenance; this next step in human history is known as Megalithic or middle Stone Age. They developed the technique to walk on two legs instead of all fours which also enabled the capability to travel longer distances and chase after fleeing prey. Another example of helping obtain sustenance would be that their brows receded so their hunting methods could become improved to see the animals that are being hunted. After a few years they learned how to use basic tools for round about Jobs, to help gather basic supplies. They also reached the point where they understood how to create fire and use it to cook. These early humans also developed agriculture base that not everyone wanted to accept because hunting and gathering was easier and less work. They also began to trap wild animals and get other resources from them. These boosts marked the next step in human history known as Neolithic era. Many advances in agriculture had allowed man to settle down and build permanent houses. With the advances in agriculture they had time to repopulate and increase heir bands to support larger communities. They also had a lot of time to think since they no longer needed to hunt and waist a lot of time. A lot of early men were ignorant and they died, so the society advanced and it continued to live on after they all perished. They did not want to learn new things that would help their society continue to prosper, so they Just stuck with the “old ways”. Even with the ability to adapt and change to have what is better for survival. Man will have a hard time to change because they feel that life is easier doing the same thing all day, every day. By greasepaint’s	610	ENGLISH	1
Dead bodies from Haiti’s earthquake are being piled into dump trucks and unloaded in mass graves outside Port-au-Prince. This burial method dates back to the Middle Ages but according to the field manual, Management of dead bodies after disasters, produced by the International Committee of the Red Cross, burying bodies in mass graves can be traumatizing for survivors and lead to legal troubles later on, as family members seek to retrieve loved ones. The manual also notes an important misconception, one still being posited by some newscasters in Haiti: “The bodies of people who have died in a disaster do not cause epidemics…In most cases, those who have survived are more likely to be spreading diseases.” It was fear of disease that led to some of the largest mass graves in history, those dug across Europe during the Bubonic Plague. A particularly virulent outbreak, called the Black Death, killed one-quarter to one-half of the European population in the mid-14th century. Flea-infested rats are believed to have spread the plague from the Gobi Desert to the Crimea, Constantinople and eventually all of Europe. Bouts of plague continued to erupt in the centuries to follow, with one of the last ones occurring in London, in 1665. In The Decameron, a bloody chronicle of the plague in 14th century Florence, Giovanni Boccaccio describes a scene similar to those presently being witnessed throughout Port-au-Prince. “Dead bodies filled every corner. Most of them were treated in the same manner by the survivors, who were more concerned to get rid of their rotting bodies than moved by charity towards the dead. With the aid of porters, if they could get them, they carried the bodies out of the houses and laid them at the door; where every morning quantities of the dead might be seen. They then were laid on biers or, as these were often lacking, on tables. Such was the multitude of corpses brought to the churches every day and almost every hour that there was not enough consecrated ground to give them burial, especially since they wanted to bury each person in the family grave, according to the old custom. Although the cemeteries were full they were forced to dig huge trenches, where they buried the bodies by hundreds. Here they stowed them away like bales in the hold of a ship and covered them with a little earth, until the whole trench was full.” A mass grave recently discovered on a small island in the Venetian Lagoon held over 1,500 plague victims. During the late 15th century, the island, Lazzaretto Vecchio, served as a lazaret, a place where the sick were quarantined to help stem the spread of plague. Researchers believe this practice may have helped Venice recover more quickly from the devastating plague outbreaks of the 15th and 16th centuries. Perhaps what is most difficult about watching bulldozers gather corpses along the streets of Port-au-Prince is that one knows the bodies will be dumped without ceremony, and without lament. The family and friends who would typically sing and cry are often unaware their loved ones are even dead. They may be dead themselves. It is a scene disturbingly similar to one that occurred in London during the Great Plague of 1665, described by Daniel Defoe in A Journal of the Plague Year. “This was a mournful scene indeed, and affected me almost as much as the rest…The cart had in it sixteen or seventeen bodies; some were wrapt up in linen sheets, some in rags, some little other than naked, or so loose that what covering they had fell from them in the shooting out of the cart, and they fell quite naked among the rest; but the matter was not much to them, or the indecency much to any one else, seeing they were all dead, and were to be huddled together into the common grave of mankind, as we may call it, for here was no difference made, but poor and rich went together; there was no other way of burials, neither was it possible there should, for coffins were not to be had for the prodigious numbers that fell in such a calamity as this.”	<urn:uuid:704c201e-a072-44a5-ab55-b9251a3d8ce8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.funeralwise.com/digital-dying/mass-graves-saved-venice-but-are-they-right-for-haiti/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00041.warc.gz	en	0.985031	868	3.59375	4	[ -0.13248854875564575, 0.1433412730693817, 0.5197315216064453, -0.024340175092220306, 0.5462222099304199, -0.2026972472667694, 0.07713048160076141, 0.27151891589164734, -0.13646386563777924, 0.08293057233095169, 0.1859021782875061, -0.25249993801116943, -0.10664522647857666, 0.3381304740905...	4	Dead bodies from Haiti’s earthquake are being piled into dump trucks and unloaded in mass graves outside Port-au-Prince. This burial method dates back to the Middle Ages but according to the field manual, Management of dead bodies after disasters, produced by the International Committee of the Red Cross, burying bodies in mass graves can be traumatizing for survivors and lead to legal troubles later on, as family members seek to retrieve loved ones. The manual also notes an important misconception, one still being posited by some newscasters in Haiti: “The bodies of people who have died in a disaster do not cause epidemics…In most cases, those who have survived are more likely to be spreading diseases.” It was fear of disease that led to some of the largest mass graves in history, those dug across Europe during the Bubonic Plague. A particularly virulent outbreak, called the Black Death, killed one-quarter to one-half of the European population in the mid-14th century. Flea-infested rats are believed to have spread the plague from the Gobi Desert to the Crimea, Constantinople and eventually all of Europe. Bouts of plague continued to erupt in the centuries to follow, with one of the last ones occurring in London, in 1665. In The Decameron, a bloody chronicle of the plague in 14th century Florence, Giovanni Boccaccio describes a scene similar to those presently being witnessed throughout Port-au-Prince. “Dead bodies filled every corner. Most of them were treated in the same manner by the survivors, who were more concerned to get rid of their rotting bodies than moved by charity towards the dead. With the aid of porters, if they could get them, they carried the bodies out of the houses and laid them at the door; where every morning quantities of the dead might be seen. They then were laid on biers or, as these were often lacking, on tables. Such was the multitude of corpses brought to the churches every day and almost every hour that there was not enough consecrated ground to give them burial, especially since they wanted to bury each person in the family grave, according to the old custom. Although the cemeteries were full they were forced to dig huge trenches, where they buried the bodies by hundreds. Here they stowed them away like bales in the hold of a ship and covered them with a little earth, until the whole trench was full.” A mass grave recently discovered on a small island in the Venetian Lagoon held over 1,500 plague victims. During the late 15th century, the island, Lazzaretto Vecchio, served as a lazaret, a place where the sick were quarantined to help stem the spread of plague. Researchers believe this practice may have helped Venice recover more quickly from the devastating plague outbreaks of the 15th and 16th centuries. Perhaps what is most difficult about watching bulldozers gather corpses along the streets of Port-au-Prince is that one knows the bodies will be dumped without ceremony, and without lament. The family and friends who would typically sing and cry are often unaware their loved ones are even dead. They may be dead themselves. It is a scene disturbingly similar to one that occurred in London during the Great Plague of 1665, described by Daniel Defoe in A Journal of the Plague Year. “This was a mournful scene indeed, and affected me almost as much as the rest…The cart had in it sixteen or seventeen bodies; some were wrapt up in linen sheets, some in rags, some little other than naked, or so loose that what covering they had fell from them in the shooting out of the cart, and they fell quite naked among the rest; but the matter was not much to them, or the indecency much to any one else, seeing they were all dead, and were to be huddled together into the common grave of mankind, as we may call it, for here was no difference made, but poor and rich went together; there was no other way of burials, neither was it possible there should, for coffins were not to be had for the prodigious numbers that fell in such a calamity as this.”	870	ENGLISH	1
By 1936 it was clear to defence strategists that, in the event of a war, the air would be a new theatre of war. Aerial bombing of cities and civilian targets was to be expected, with the development of aircraft over the previous twenty years making it both possible and likely. In Britain, the Air Ministry calculated that aerial bombing could cause up to 200,000 casualties per week. It was during this period that the British government considered relocating key governmental department offices out of London to somewhere in the countryside, therefore protecting them from any potential bombing raids. In the end, the vast relocation of offices did not happen, however it was agreed that an emergency government building should be built, somewhere where the cabinet could meet in relative safety, should London be under attack from the air. The site chosen for these underground offices was the New Public Offices, a building roughly half way between 10 Downing Street and Westminster Palace, and right in the heart of Whitehall. Construction on the reinforced, bomb-proof basement began in 1938, with the project managed by Sir Hastings Ismay and Sir Leslie Hollis. The basement was fitted out with military broadcasting and communications equipment, and was ventilated to allow for around the clock habitation. The war rooms opened on the 27th of August, 1939, just six days before Germany invaded Poland and eight days before Britain declared war on Germany. The world was at war, and it wasn't long before London was the target of aerial bombing, just as the defence chiefs had predicted it would be. Throughout the Blitz, as the bombs of the Luftwaffe rained down on London, Churchill and his government ministers met at the war rooms and discussed war tactics. It was the place, Churchill said in May of 1940, 'from which I will direct the war'. For the entirety of the war, cabinet meetings were held at the war rooms, 115 of them in total. Churchill was not exaggerating when he said, in May of 1940, that the rooms would be the place 'from which I will direct the war'. The bunker included a Transatlantic Telephone Room, and it was from there where Churchill had regular telephone meetings with the American President Roosevelt. Following the war, due to the historical importance of the cabinet war rooms, there were calls for the rooms to be preserved and converted into a museum. In 1974 the Imperial War Museum acquired the war rooms, and finally in 1984 – 39 years after the end of the Second World War – the war rooms were opened up to the public. Today known as the 'Churchill War Rooms' they are visited by over 300,000 people a year. 72 years after the surrender of Japan and the end of World War Two, the map room, cabinet meeting room, offices and staff bedrooms are all preserved exactly as they were when they were abandoned on that fateful August of 1945.	<urn:uuid:565ebdce-0653-4814-b4a6-eb2d3a07a2c3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.urbanks.co.uk/churchill-war-rooms	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00374.warc.gz	en	0.982451	578	3.703125	4	[ -0.1282949000597, 0.06575454771518707, 0.6272146701812744, -0.004124632570892572, 0.4866979122161865, 0.28761646151542664, -0.093344546854496, -0.014084463939070702, -0.014679018408060074, 0.1308182328939438, 0.08528268337249756, -0.18536701798439026, 0.08991992473602295, 0.837955474853515...	10	By 1936 it was clear to defence strategists that, in the event of a war, the air would be a new theatre of war. Aerial bombing of cities and civilian targets was to be expected, with the development of aircraft over the previous twenty years making it both possible and likely. In Britain, the Air Ministry calculated that aerial bombing could cause up to 200,000 casualties per week. It was during this period that the British government considered relocating key governmental department offices out of London to somewhere in the countryside, therefore protecting them from any potential bombing raids. In the end, the vast relocation of offices did not happen, however it was agreed that an emergency government building should be built, somewhere where the cabinet could meet in relative safety, should London be under attack from the air. The site chosen for these underground offices was the New Public Offices, a building roughly half way between 10 Downing Street and Westminster Palace, and right in the heart of Whitehall. Construction on the reinforced, bomb-proof basement began in 1938, with the project managed by Sir Hastings Ismay and Sir Leslie Hollis. The basement was fitted out with military broadcasting and communications equipment, and was ventilated to allow for around the clock habitation. The war rooms opened on the 27th of August, 1939, just six days before Germany invaded Poland and eight days before Britain declared war on Germany. The world was at war, and it wasn't long before London was the target of aerial bombing, just as the defence chiefs had predicted it would be. Throughout the Blitz, as the bombs of the Luftwaffe rained down on London, Churchill and his government ministers met at the war rooms and discussed war tactics. It was the place, Churchill said in May of 1940, 'from which I will direct the war'. For the entirety of the war, cabinet meetings were held at the war rooms, 115 of them in total. Churchill was not exaggerating when he said, in May of 1940, that the rooms would be the place 'from which I will direct the war'. The bunker included a Transatlantic Telephone Room, and it was from there where Churchill had regular telephone meetings with the American President Roosevelt. Following the war, due to the historical importance of the cabinet war rooms, there were calls for the rooms to be preserved and converted into a museum. In 1974 the Imperial War Museum acquired the war rooms, and finally in 1984 – 39 years after the end of the Second World War – the war rooms were opened up to the public. Today known as the 'Churchill War Rooms' they are visited by over 300,000 people a year. 72 years after the surrender of Japan and the end of World War Two, the map room, cabinet meeting room, offices and staff bedrooms are all preserved exactly as they were when they were abandoned on that fateful August of 1945.	627	ENGLISH	1
In the 1860s Russia experienced an outbreak of Germanophobia, mainly restricted to a small group of writers in St. Petersburg who had united around a right-wing newspaper. It began in 1864 with the publication of an article by a writer (using the pseudonym "Shedoferotti") who proposed that Poland be given autonomy and that the privileges of the German barons in the Baltic governorates and Finland be preserved. Mikhail Katkov published a harsh criticism of the article in the Moscow News, which in turn caused a flood of angry articles in which Russian writers expressed their irritation with Europeans, some of which featured direct attacks on Germans. The following year, 1865, the 100th anniversary of the death of Mikhail Lomonosov was marked throughout the Russian empire. Articles were published mentioning the difficulties Lomonosov had encountered from the foreign members of the Russian Academy of Sciences, most of whom had been of German descent. The authors then criticized contemporary German scholars for their neglect of the Russian language and for printing articles in foreign languages while receiving funds from the Russian people. It was further suggested by some writers that Russian citizens of German origin who did not speak Russian and follow the Orthodox faith should be considered foreigners. It was also proposed that people of German descent be forbidden from holding diplomatic posts as they might not have "solidarity with respect to Russia". Despite the press campaign against Germans, Germanophobic feelings did not develop in Russia to any widespread extent, and died out, due to the Imperial family's German roots and the presence of many German names in the Russian political elite. Negative comments about Germany had begun to appear in Britain in the 1870s, following the Prussian victory in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–71. Criticisms were expressed in the press and in the birth of the invasion novel (e.g. The Battle of Dorking), many of which focused on the idea that Britain might be Germany's next victim. These fears were also fueled by the new mass press, which had a huge impact on public opinion. Lord Alfred Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Northcliff, who used his Newspapers like "Daily Mail" or "The Times" to rush against Germany, was particularly prominent in this role and influenced the classes and the masses like no one else against Germany. In 1887, the label Made in Germany was introduced, to get British buyers to adhere to the concept of "buying British". After suffering slight losses, German manufacturers soon found the label to be of good use. But it shows another reason for British sentiments against Germany. The British Empire was one of the leading economic powers in the world and didn‘t want to lose its place to Germany. With increasing economic power of the German Empire the Germans were perceived as competitors more and more. In the 1890s there was widespread hostility towards foreigners in Britain, mainly directed against eastern European Jews but also including Germans. Joseph Bannister believed that German residents in Britain were mostly "gambling-house keepers, hotel-porters, barbers, 'bullies', runaway conscripts, bath-attendants, street musicians, criminals, bakers, socialists, cheap clerks, etc". Interviewees for the Royal Commission on Alien Immigration believed that Germans were involved in prostitution and burglary, and many people also viewed Germans working in Britain as threatening the livelihood of Britons by being willing to work for longer hours. Anti-German hostility deepened since early 1896 after the Kruger telegram of Kaiser Wilhelm II, in which he congratulated President Kruger of the Transvaal on resisting the British Jameson Raid. Attacks on Germans in London were reported in the German press at the time but do not appear to have actually occurred. The Saturday Review (London) suggested "be ready to fight Germany, as Germania delenda est" ("Germany is to be destroyed", a reference to the coda against the Carthaginians adopted by Cato the Elder's speeches in the second Roman Republic). The Kaiser's reputation was further degraded by his angry tirade and the Daily Telegraph Affair. "The Battle of Dorking (1871)" In which England is invaded by Germany This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it. (March 2019) In the 19th century the mass influx of German immigrants which made them the largest group of Americans by ancestry today, resulted in nativist reactionary movements not unlike those of the contemporary Western world. These would eventually culminate in 1844 with the establishment of the American Party, which had an openly xenophobic stance. One of many incidents described in a 19th century account included the blocking of a funeral procession in New York by a group who proceeded to hurl insults at the pallbearers. Incidents such as these led to more meetings of Germans who would eventually establish fraternal groups such as the Sons of Hermann in 1840, having been founded as a means to "improve and foster German customs and the spread of benevolence among Germans in the United States".	<urn:uuid:090423d0-a076-4308-b39e-f0cee08cdc50>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.think.ovh/%D7%AA%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%91/en/Anti-German_sentiment	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00174.warc.gz	en	0.980719	1,023	3.578125	4	[ -0.035275377333164215, 0.025702867656946182, 0.025609781965613365, 0.3663824200630188, 0.26233935356140137, -0.11631391197443008, -0.13592085242271423, 0.6516506671905518, -0.26704615354537964, -0.05759040638804436, -0.11309725791215897, 0.08993639051914215, 0.06906726956367493, 0.41721901...	1	In the 1860s Russia experienced an outbreak of Germanophobia, mainly restricted to a small group of writers in St. Petersburg who had united around a right-wing newspaper. It began in 1864 with the publication of an article by a writer (using the pseudonym "Shedoferotti") who proposed that Poland be given autonomy and that the privileges of the German barons in the Baltic governorates and Finland be preserved. Mikhail Katkov published a harsh criticism of the article in the Moscow News, which in turn caused a flood of angry articles in which Russian writers expressed their irritation with Europeans, some of which featured direct attacks on Germans. The following year, 1865, the 100th anniversary of the death of Mikhail Lomonosov was marked throughout the Russian empire. Articles were published mentioning the difficulties Lomonosov had encountered from the foreign members of the Russian Academy of Sciences, most of whom had been of German descent. The authors then criticized contemporary German scholars for their neglect of the Russian language and for printing articles in foreign languages while receiving funds from the Russian people. It was further suggested by some writers that Russian citizens of German origin who did not speak Russian and follow the Orthodox faith should be considered foreigners. It was also proposed that people of German descent be forbidden from holding diplomatic posts as they might not have "solidarity with respect to Russia". Despite the press campaign against Germans, Germanophobic feelings did not develop in Russia to any widespread extent, and died out, due to the Imperial family's German roots and the presence of many German names in the Russian political elite. Negative comments about Germany had begun to appear in Britain in the 1870s, following the Prussian victory in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–71. Criticisms were expressed in the press and in the birth of the invasion novel (e.g. The Battle of Dorking), many of which focused on the idea that Britain might be Germany's next victim. These fears were also fueled by the new mass press, which had a huge impact on public opinion. Lord Alfred Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Northcliff, who used his Newspapers like "Daily Mail" or "The Times" to rush against Germany, was particularly prominent in this role and influenced the classes and the masses like no one else against Germany. In 1887, the label Made in Germany was introduced, to get British buyers to adhere to the concept of "buying British". After suffering slight losses, German manufacturers soon found the label to be of good use. But it shows another reason for British sentiments against Germany. The British Empire was one of the leading economic powers in the world and didn‘t want to lose its place to Germany. With increasing economic power of the German Empire the Germans were perceived as competitors more and more. In the 1890s there was widespread hostility towards foreigners in Britain, mainly directed against eastern European Jews but also including Germans. Joseph Bannister believed that German residents in Britain were mostly "gambling-house keepers, hotel-porters, barbers, 'bullies', runaway conscripts, bath-attendants, street musicians, criminals, bakers, socialists, cheap clerks, etc". Interviewees for the Royal Commission on Alien Immigration believed that Germans were involved in prostitution and burglary, and many people also viewed Germans working in Britain as threatening the livelihood of Britons by being willing to work for longer hours. Anti-German hostility deepened since early 1896 after the Kruger telegram of Kaiser Wilhelm II, in which he congratulated President Kruger of the Transvaal on resisting the British Jameson Raid. Attacks on Germans in London were reported in the German press at the time but do not appear to have actually occurred. The Saturday Review (London) suggested "be ready to fight Germany, as Germania delenda est" ("Germany is to be destroyed", a reference to the coda against the Carthaginians adopted by Cato the Elder's speeches in the second Roman Republic). The Kaiser's reputation was further degraded by his angry tirade and the Daily Telegraph Affair. "The Battle of Dorking (1871)" In which England is invaded by Germany This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it. (March 2019) In the 19th century the mass influx of German immigrants which made them the largest group of Americans by ancestry today, resulted in nativist reactionary movements not unlike those of the contemporary Western world. These would eventually culminate in 1844 with the establishment of the American Party, which had an openly xenophobic stance. One of many incidents described in a 19th century account included the blocking of a funeral procession in New York by a group who proceeded to hurl insults at the pallbearers. Incidents such as these led to more meetings of Germans who would eventually establish fraternal groups such as the Sons of Hermann in 1840, having been founded as a means to "improve and foster German customs and the spread of benevolence among Germans in the United States".	1,063	ENGLISH	1
The fortified settlement was built between the end of XII and the beginning of XIII century under the control of the Aldobrandeschi family. Its origins are prior to those of the nearby village of Montiano. However, the castle experienced a tragedy, because, at the beginning of the fourteenth century, suffered a violent siege conducted by Siena which caused serious damage resulting in unavailability. This siege had led to the abandonment of the settlement for the benefit of Montiano village, which had begun to develop only from the late thirteenth century onwards. The old Montiano Castle is located in the greenery and is presented in the form of ruins. the remains of the walls are well recognizable that surrounded the entire fortified settlement, developing along a perimeter of elliptical shape; Also visible are the ruins of other structures not readily identifiable. The complex was built entirely of sandstone, as demonstrated by the ruins that have been preserved.	<urn:uuid:91df7aec-b120-4684-8e97-197fdee98160>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.vivilamaremma.net/castello-montiano/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00467.warc.gz	en	0.983706	191	3.3125	3	[ -0.2670692801475525, 0.12681588530540466, 0.2115396410226822, -0.049139875918626785, -0.27970176935195923, -0.10483916103839874, 0.09694565087556839, 0.07232119143009186, 0.0037052787374705076, -0.10750140249729156, 0.006522751413285732, -0.626775324344635, 0.5235779285430908, 0.3199169933...	4	The fortified settlement was built between the end of XII and the beginning of XIII century under the control of the Aldobrandeschi family. Its origins are prior to those of the nearby village of Montiano. However, the castle experienced a tragedy, because, at the beginning of the fourteenth century, suffered a violent siege conducted by Siena which caused serious damage resulting in unavailability. This siege had led to the abandonment of the settlement for the benefit of Montiano village, which had begun to develop only from the late thirteenth century onwards. The old Montiano Castle is located in the greenery and is presented in the form of ruins. the remains of the walls are well recognizable that surrounded the entire fortified settlement, developing along a perimeter of elliptical shape; Also visible are the ruins of other structures not readily identifiable. The complex was built entirely of sandstone, as demonstrated by the ruins that have been preserved.	186	ENGLISH	1
Fort Washita, Oklahoma was established in 1842 by General Zachary Taylor to protect the Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations from the Plains Indians. The post was the southwestern-most fort in the United States at the time. After having been forced to move from their homelands in the southeastern United States to Indian Territory, the Choctaw and Chickasaw settled in what is now southern Oklahoma. However, this land had traditionally been the hunting grounds of several Plains tribes including the Comanche, Wichita, Caddo, and Kiowa. These indigenous tribes were not happy with the newcomers and occasionally threatened them. Initially, log barracks were built to house the officers and soldiers, but more permanent stone buildings were constructed in 1849. More stone buildings were also built over the next several years including a hospital, surgeon’s quarters, and additional wooden structures including stables and corrals for the cavalry. The troops garrisoned at the fort were responsible for protecting the “Civilized” Indians and provided quarters for the Indian Agency to the two tribes. Families and slaves soon followed the soldiers to the frontier fort. Though officers’ families stayed in assigned quarters, enlisted men were allotted only ½ of a bed in a barracks. If they had families, their wives and children lived in a small settlement that formed just to the west of the fort. This community, first called Rugglesville for Major Daniel Ruggles who commanded the fort after the Mexican-American War, was not a good family environment as it was filled with saloons, gambling halls, and bordellos. The frontier community would eventually support a general store, a post office, restaurants, and hotels. Colonel William Harney built a billiards hall, bowling alley, and tavern on the post in 1844. The town would later be called Hatsboro, but was entirely gone by the turn of the century. When the Mexican-American War broke out in 1846, activity at the fort increased as it became a staging point for the conflict. The number of troops garrisoned at the post increased from an average of 150 to almost 2,000 during this time. After the war was over, gold was discovered in California in 1849, prompting thousands of people to head west in search of their fortunes. Many of these emigrants chose the more southern route to California to avoid the cold winters, the snow, and cholera outbreaks that plagued the northern routes. However, the southern route was not without peril, being subject to attacks from the Plains Indians. Due to the danger, many emigrating parties rendezvoused at Fort Washita, before making the long journey. In 1850 General Matthew Arbuckle, commander at Fort Smith, Arkansas ordered the establishment of a fort west of Fort Washita to aid the protection of California emigrants. This fort became Fort Arbuckle and was commanded by General William G. Belknap. However, when Belknap fell ill in the fall of 1851 and was being transferred to Fort Gibson, Oklahoma to see his family he died along the way on November 10, 1851, and was interred at Fort Washita. By 1858 there was an east barracks, hospital, and surgeon’s quarters all built from native stone, in addition to a number of wooden structures. A corral and stables on the hillside southwest of the fort supported cavalry operations, which comprised the bulk of the forces assigned to Fort Washita until the 1850s. Afterward, the post served as a United States Army Field Artillery School, at which time several artillery units were assigned to the fort in addition to infantry and cavalry. Fort Washita’s importance as a military post waned as the frontier moved westward, the Chickasaw and Choctaw Indians grew more settled and incursions by the Plains Indians lessened. As a result, the fort was closed briefly in February 1858 but was reopened in December of the same year due to an increased number of Comanche raids. When the Civil War broke out, the fort was abandoned by Union forces in April 1861 and was immediately taken over by Confederate troops. Though no battles occurred at the post, it became an important Confederate supply depot and for most of the war, was the headquarters of Brigadier General Douglas Cooper. The fort stayed in Confederate hands until the end of the war, at which time the southern forces burned the fort and it was never reoccupied. In 1870, the War Department transferred the fort to the Department of the Interior and its buildings remained unused and deteriorating for the next two decades. In 1897, the communal lands of the Chickasaw Nation, including Fort Washita, were divided up and allotments given to individual Chickasaw citizens. The former military land was given over to the Colbert family, a prominent Chickasaw family. Charles Colbert turned the west barracks into a personal home and the remaining buildings were used as living quarters and agricultural buildings for the next 60 years. The Colberts also used the cemetery as a family cemetery, as well as allotting some land to area families for their use. The old west barracks continued to serve as Colbert’s household until it burned down in 1917. In 1962, the site was acquired by the Oklahoma Historical Society who painstakingly restored, rebuilt, and preserved many of the buildings and ruins. In 1965, the historic fort was designated as a National Historic Landmark. Sadly, on September 25, 2010, the reconstructed south barracks were destroyed by fire. Three teens were arrested for setting the fire and were sentenced. In 2016, the Chickasaw Nation partnered with the Oklahoma Historical Society to assume responsibility and management of Fort Washita. Today, visitors to Fort Washita can tour restored structures, witness Civil War reenactments, and take part in the yearly Fur Trade Era Rendezvous to experience what life was like before and during the Civil War. Other events throughout the year include storytelling, outdoor movies and special seasonal and holiday events that the whole family can enjoy. In addition to the many buildings and foundations, the post cemetery still exists, as well as the Colbert Cemetery, a Chickasaw burial ground, and a Confederate Cemetery. Fort Washita is located some 15 miles northwest of Durant, Oklahoma at 3348 State Road 199. 3348 State Rd. 199 Star Route 213 Durant, Oklahoma 74701-9443	<urn:uuid:89080c5b-0aba-4c62-a741-14b5d48d4400>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.legendsofamerica.com/ok-fortwashita/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00384.warc.gz	en	0.982929	1,312	3.96875	4	[ 0.05161353945732117, -0.10565102100372314, 0.5717856884002686, 0.044516004621982574, -0.11806382238864899, -0.15125471353530884, -0.07873574644327164, -0.04488832503557205, -0.13905373215675354, 0.0024198538158088923, 0.06941832602024078, -0.30444711446762085, 0.17675405740737915, 0.094832...	5	Fort Washita, Oklahoma was established in 1842 by General Zachary Taylor to protect the Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations from the Plains Indians. The post was the southwestern-most fort in the United States at the time. After having been forced to move from their homelands in the southeastern United States to Indian Territory, the Choctaw and Chickasaw settled in what is now southern Oklahoma. However, this land had traditionally been the hunting grounds of several Plains tribes including the Comanche, Wichita, Caddo, and Kiowa. These indigenous tribes were not happy with the newcomers and occasionally threatened them. Initially, log barracks were built to house the officers and soldiers, but more permanent stone buildings were constructed in 1849. More stone buildings were also built over the next several years including a hospital, surgeon’s quarters, and additional wooden structures including stables and corrals for the cavalry. The troops garrisoned at the fort were responsible for protecting the “Civilized” Indians and provided quarters for the Indian Agency to the two tribes. Families and slaves soon followed the soldiers to the frontier fort. Though officers’ families stayed in assigned quarters, enlisted men were allotted only ½ of a bed in a barracks. If they had families, their wives and children lived in a small settlement that formed just to the west of the fort. This community, first called Rugglesville for Major Daniel Ruggles who commanded the fort after the Mexican-American War, was not a good family environment as it was filled with saloons, gambling halls, and bordellos. The frontier community would eventually support a general store, a post office, restaurants, and hotels. Colonel William Harney built a billiards hall, bowling alley, and tavern on the post in 1844. The town would later be called Hatsboro, but was entirely gone by the turn of the century. When the Mexican-American War broke out in 1846, activity at the fort increased as it became a staging point for the conflict. The number of troops garrisoned at the post increased from an average of 150 to almost 2,000 during this time. After the war was over, gold was discovered in California in 1849, prompting thousands of people to head west in search of their fortunes. Many of these emigrants chose the more southern route to California to avoid the cold winters, the snow, and cholera outbreaks that plagued the northern routes. However, the southern route was not without peril, being subject to attacks from the Plains Indians. Due to the danger, many emigrating parties rendezvoused at Fort Washita, before making the long journey. In 1850 General Matthew Arbuckle, commander at Fort Smith, Arkansas ordered the establishment of a fort west of Fort Washita to aid the protection of California emigrants. This fort became Fort Arbuckle and was commanded by General William G. Belknap. However, when Belknap fell ill in the fall of 1851 and was being transferred to Fort Gibson, Oklahoma to see his family he died along the way on November 10, 1851, and was interred at Fort Washita. By 1858 there was an east barracks, hospital, and surgeon’s quarters all built from native stone, in addition to a number of wooden structures. A corral and stables on the hillside southwest of the fort supported cavalry operations, which comprised the bulk of the forces assigned to Fort Washita until the 1850s. Afterward, the post served as a United States Army Field Artillery School, at which time several artillery units were assigned to the fort in addition to infantry and cavalry. Fort Washita’s importance as a military post waned as the frontier moved westward, the Chickasaw and Choctaw Indians grew more settled and incursions by the Plains Indians lessened. As a result, the fort was closed briefly in February 1858 but was reopened in December of the same year due to an increased number of Comanche raids. When the Civil War broke out, the fort was abandoned by Union forces in April 1861 and was immediately taken over by Confederate troops. Though no battles occurred at the post, it became an important Confederate supply depot and for most of the war, was the headquarters of Brigadier General Douglas Cooper. The fort stayed in Confederate hands until the end of the war, at which time the southern forces burned the fort and it was never reoccupied. In 1870, the War Department transferred the fort to the Department of the Interior and its buildings remained unused and deteriorating for the next two decades. In 1897, the communal lands of the Chickasaw Nation, including Fort Washita, were divided up and allotments given to individual Chickasaw citizens. The former military land was given over to the Colbert family, a prominent Chickasaw family. Charles Colbert turned the west barracks into a personal home and the remaining buildings were used as living quarters and agricultural buildings for the next 60 years. The Colberts also used the cemetery as a family cemetery, as well as allotting some land to area families for their use. The old west barracks continued to serve as Colbert’s household until it burned down in 1917. In 1962, the site was acquired by the Oklahoma Historical Society who painstakingly restored, rebuilt, and preserved many of the buildings and ruins. In 1965, the historic fort was designated as a National Historic Landmark. Sadly, on September 25, 2010, the reconstructed south barracks were destroyed by fire. Three teens were arrested for setting the fire and were sentenced. In 2016, the Chickasaw Nation partnered with the Oklahoma Historical Society to assume responsibility and management of Fort Washita. Today, visitors to Fort Washita can tour restored structures, witness Civil War reenactments, and take part in the yearly Fur Trade Era Rendezvous to experience what life was like before and during the Civil War. Other events throughout the year include storytelling, outdoor movies and special seasonal and holiday events that the whole family can enjoy. In addition to the many buildings and foundations, the post cemetery still exists, as well as the Colbert Cemetery, a Chickasaw burial ground, and a Confederate Cemetery. Fort Washita is located some 15 miles northwest of Durant, Oklahoma at 3348 State Road 199. 3348 State Rd. 199 Star Route 213 Durant, Oklahoma 74701-9443	1,379	ENGLISH	1
Mexico’s capital is both the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Indigenous people, the other being Quito, Ecuador. The city was originally built on an island of Lake Texcoco by the Aztecs in 1325 as Tenochtitlan, which was almost completely destroyed in the 1521 siege of Tenochtitlan and subsequently redesigned and rebuilt in accordance with the Spanish urban standards. In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenochtitlán, and as of 1585, it was officially known as Ciudad de México (Mexico City). Mexico City was the political, administrative, and financial center of a major part of the Spanish colonial empire. After independence from Spain was achieved, the federal district was created in 1824.	<urn:uuid:51928620-51f0-4784-8a1c-98370b4d4008>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://comptabilite-ligne.info/mexico-city-landscape/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00326.warc.gz	en	0.985588	171	3.625	4	[ -0.06048942357301712, 0.06720954924821854, 0.42489248514175415, 0.1539940983057022, -0.07516051828861237, 0.011287274770438671, 0.10338307917118073, 0.12011325359344482, -0.48659273982048035, -0.23217613995075226, -0.017506921663880348, -0.3365178108215332, -0.13170023262500763, 0.14865393...	1	Mexico’s capital is both the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Indigenous people, the other being Quito, Ecuador. The city was originally built on an island of Lake Texcoco by the Aztecs in 1325 as Tenochtitlan, which was almost completely destroyed in the 1521 siege of Tenochtitlan and subsequently redesigned and rebuilt in accordance with the Spanish urban standards. In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenochtitlán, and as of 1585, it was officially known as Ciudad de México (Mexico City). Mexico City was the political, administrative, and financial center of a major part of the Spanish colonial empire. After independence from Spain was achieved, the federal district was created in 1824.	175	ENGLISH	1
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work! Little is known of Hopkins before 1644, but apparently he had been a lawyer, practicing in Essex. In March 1644 he alleged his first discovery of witches—six of them, in Manningtree, who he claimed tried to kill him. He thereupon became a “Witch Finder Generall,” going about Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, and Huntingdon getting villagers and townspeople to hire him and his two assistants (for a fee) to search out witches, force their confessions, and have them hanged by the authorities. Between 1644 and 1647 the hapless victims (including a few Anglican clergymen) numbered perhaps 230 or more. Many of his methods of inquisition were not far removed from actual torture. He pricked any skin deformity on the accused that was thought to be an extra pap for suckling imps; such parts, if insensible, were believed to prove that the accused was a witch. Another method was to force the accused to walk about all night, for only when at rest could a witch summon his or her familiars, who would terrify the accusers away. A further test was to fling the accused bound into water, because a witch, having denied his or her baptism, would in turn be repelled by the water so that he or she would float and not sink into it. It has long been propounded that Hopkins was himself accused of being a witch, subjected to his own test of being bound and thrown into water and hanged after he was found to float. In fact, Hopkins died after an illness, likely tuberculosis. Learn More in these related Britannica articles: Witchcraft, the exercise or invocation of alleged supernatural powers to control people or events, practices typically involving sorcery or magic. Although defined differently in disparate historical and cultural contexts, witchcraft has often been seen, especially in the West, as the work of crones who meet secretly at night, indulge in… English Civil Wars English Civil Wars, (1642–51), fighting that took place in the British Isles between supporters of the monarchy of Charles I (and his son and successor, Charles II) and opposing groups in each of Charles’s kingdoms, including Parliamentarians in England, Covenanters in Scotland, and Confederates in Ireland.… Joseph SevernJohn Keats: Last years: …ordered south for the winter, Joseph Severn undertook to accompany him to Rome. They sailed in September 1820, and from Naples they went to Rome, where in early December Keats had a relapse. Faithfully tended by Severn to the last, he died in Rome.…	<urn:uuid:a4668974-9d84-493c-adc8-4b145fe969ab>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.britannica.com/biography/Matthew-Hopkins	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00357.warc.gz	en	0.984433	581	3.328125	3	[ -0.1971588432788849, 0.220505028963089, 0.31263211369514465, 0.10632583498954773, 0.11969424784183502, 0.19064292311668396, 0.5620192289352417, -0.21203002333641052, -0.17270147800445557, -0.061225853860378265, -0.5011119246482849, -0.04024912416934967, -0.5419718623161316, 0.1486079841852...	1	Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work! Little is known of Hopkins before 1644, but apparently he had been a lawyer, practicing in Essex. In March 1644 he alleged his first discovery of witches—six of them, in Manningtree, who he claimed tried to kill him. He thereupon became a “Witch Finder Generall,” going about Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, and Huntingdon getting villagers and townspeople to hire him and his two assistants (for a fee) to search out witches, force their confessions, and have them hanged by the authorities. Between 1644 and 1647 the hapless victims (including a few Anglican clergymen) numbered perhaps 230 or more. Many of his methods of inquisition were not far removed from actual torture. He pricked any skin deformity on the accused that was thought to be an extra pap for suckling imps; such parts, if insensible, were believed to prove that the accused was a witch. Another method was to force the accused to walk about all night, for only when at rest could a witch summon his or her familiars, who would terrify the accusers away. A further test was to fling the accused bound into water, because a witch, having denied his or her baptism, would in turn be repelled by the water so that he or she would float and not sink into it. It has long been propounded that Hopkins was himself accused of being a witch, subjected to his own test of being bound and thrown into water and hanged after he was found to float. In fact, Hopkins died after an illness, likely tuberculosis. Learn More in these related Britannica articles: Witchcraft, the exercise or invocation of alleged supernatural powers to control people or events, practices typically involving sorcery or magic. Although defined differently in disparate historical and cultural contexts, witchcraft has often been seen, especially in the West, as the work of crones who meet secretly at night, indulge in… English Civil Wars English Civil Wars, (1642–51), fighting that took place in the British Isles between supporters of the monarchy of Charles I (and his son and successor, Charles II) and opposing groups in each of Charles’s kingdoms, including Parliamentarians in England, Covenanters in Scotland, and Confederates in Ireland.… Joseph SevernJohn Keats: Last years: …ordered south for the winter, Joseph Severn undertook to accompany him to Rome. They sailed in September 1820, and from Naples they went to Rome, where in early December Keats had a relapse. Faithfully tended by Severn to the last, he died in Rome.…	592	ENGLISH	1
The Moor is courageous and smart but after all his race and color make him feel like being ostracized. Othello was also frequently performed as an Arab Moor during the 19th century. None of the characters in the play knows what Iago is really up to, and they blindly trust him and accept his advice. Every character in this story plays a significant role on the outcome of the story especially the antagonist named Iago. The most notable American production may be 's 1943 staging starring as Othello and as Iago. Elements Contributing to Othello's Role of the Tragic Hero What is a tragic hero? Another possible source was the by. Artist portrays American actor as Othello. It helps people know who to trust and what judgements they make regarding a person. Archived from on 3 June 2017. Othello confronts Desdemona, and then her in their bed. Usually the hero's own actions and obsessions bring… 852 Words 4 Pages Shakespearean tragic heroes by the absolute feeling of affection the audience feels for him even unto the very end of the play. Iago finds it easy to drive Othello to jealousy and think that Desdemona loves another man because he already feels that her love for him is too good to be true. Desdemona's physical whiteness is otherwise presented in opposition to Othello's dark skin; V. Perhaps he wants us to pity Desdemona, who is brutally murdered for something she did not do. Throughout the play Desdemona is rarely viewed as a human being, she is merely a prize, and from the very beginning Desdemona is an object of lust. The former governor Montano arrives, with Gratiano and Iago. Iago has only to push Othello to the belief that he has been betrayed, and Othello does the rest, judging, condemning, and executing Desdemona. However, once he makes a decision, he is again the military man, decisive in action. Highlighting, that her loyalties to her husband come before her loyalties to Desdemona. Although, Iago could have attempted to persuade anyone else into killing someone, but with out flaws like Othello had, it would not be possible. In the play Othello there are many people who play a role in the death of Desdemona. I stuck a pony tail on with a bell on the end of it. First, this term was used to refer to speakers of a common language and then and then to dente national affiliations. This is the second time Othello has sworn to kill both Cassio and Desdemona. The 1982 staging starred as Othello and as Iago. First, Iago persuades Cassio to have a few. Desdemona and Othello are secretly married before the play begins. In fact, he had second thoughts in Iago's statement. Montano tries to calm down an angry and drunk Cassio, but they end up fighting one another. Iago successfully brings out the monster from inside Othello. The race of the title role is often seen as Shakespeare's way of isolating the character, culturally as well as visually, from the Venetian nobles and officers, and the isolation may seem more genuine when a black actor takes the role. When discussing the murder with Iago, Othello speaks in prose showing the systematic approach to revenge, as would be common in the devising of military plans. Aristotle describes a tragic hero as a character of high status who experiences a fall from great social status. Through the Restoration and Queen Anne periods a number of great actors played the role of Othello, but only one was able to live up to Burbage: Thomas Betterton. Audiences of the time would expect Othello to be insecure about his race and the implied age gap between himself and Desdemona. Archived from on 20 August 2008. On the other hand, Othello is insecure about being an outsider and chooses to believe Iago's report that Desdemona is cheating on him rather than believe his wife is faithful. This is a metaphor as the devil has consumed his mind into a phase of dramatic jealousy, where the Devil inside of him has resulted to killing Desdemona. Reputation is what people think of you and it is a part of human nature. He is also angry that his reputation would be tarnished when found out that he is a cuckold. Though the actual racial definition of the term is murky, the implications are religious as well as racial. So in saying that, if you were to be publically disgraced it was better to die than live in shame. Quartos were also published in 1630, 1655, 1681, 1695, 1699 and 1705. He is the only one to know the reality of his plans. Cassio's tarnished reputation only helps Iago succeed in his plan. Othello is jealous, as he cannot bare Cassio in being happy, thus he points out the obvious of Cassio laughing. Othello is jealous, as he cannot bare Cassio in being happy, thus he points out the obvious of Cassio laughing. If you answered a , please go out and make this movie happen. Othello then turns on Iago with savage intensity and demands to see the proof of Desdemona's infidelity. Iago goads Cassio on to talk about his affair with Bianca, a local courtesan, but whispers her name so quietly that Othello believes the two men are talking about Desdemona. To others, it can be an illness that they cannot cure. Othello belongs to the out group and once he has been isolated, he is weak and defenceless. What are we to make of Emilia? This last rule is why it is such a shock that Desdemona has had a clandestine marriage. Many critics have also noted that lago is propelled to revenge by feelings of frustration and loathing; he can't tolerate the very sight of those who have status and happiness Cassio and Othello. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, global confrontation between Turk and Christian worried military theorists. She promises to speak of him with her husband repeatedly until the quarrel is patched up and Cassio is recalled. He is consumed with doubt and suspicion. Cinthio's tale may have been based on an actual incident occurring in Venice about 1508.	<urn:uuid:d88f9267-fcd9-4593-933b-ddf3911ad44f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://hueygrov.es/othellos-role-in-the-play.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00072.warc.gz	en	0.980748	1,330	3.265625	3	[ -0.1996639519929886, 0.07945214211940765, 0.14856360852718353, -0.106623575091362, -0.20860575139522552, -0.11379174143075943, 0.5505496263504028, 0.14299558103084564, 0.01816575974225998, -0.5604299306869507, 0.41871094703674316, -0.3464927077293396, 0.239023819565773, 0.3899267911911011,...	1	The Moor is courageous and smart but after all his race and color make him feel like being ostracized. Othello was also frequently performed as an Arab Moor during the 19th century. None of the characters in the play knows what Iago is really up to, and they blindly trust him and accept his advice. Every character in this story plays a significant role on the outcome of the story especially the antagonist named Iago. The most notable American production may be 's 1943 staging starring as Othello and as Iago. Elements Contributing to Othello's Role of the Tragic Hero What is a tragic hero? Another possible source was the by. Artist portrays American actor as Othello. It helps people know who to trust and what judgements they make regarding a person. Archived from on 3 June 2017. Othello confronts Desdemona, and then her in their bed. Usually the hero's own actions and obsessions bring… 852 Words 4 Pages Shakespearean tragic heroes by the absolute feeling of affection the audience feels for him even unto the very end of the play. Iago finds it easy to drive Othello to jealousy and think that Desdemona loves another man because he already feels that her love for him is too good to be true. Desdemona's physical whiteness is otherwise presented in opposition to Othello's dark skin; V. Perhaps he wants us to pity Desdemona, who is brutally murdered for something she did not do. Throughout the play Desdemona is rarely viewed as a human being, she is merely a prize, and from the very beginning Desdemona is an object of lust. The former governor Montano arrives, with Gratiano and Iago. Iago has only to push Othello to the belief that he has been betrayed, and Othello does the rest, judging, condemning, and executing Desdemona. However, once he makes a decision, he is again the military man, decisive in action. Highlighting, that her loyalties to her husband come before her loyalties to Desdemona. Although, Iago could have attempted to persuade anyone else into killing someone, but with out flaws like Othello had, it would not be possible. In the play Othello there are many people who play a role in the death of Desdemona. I stuck a pony tail on with a bell on the end of it. First, this term was used to refer to speakers of a common language and then and then to dente national affiliations. This is the second time Othello has sworn to kill both Cassio and Desdemona. The 1982 staging starred as Othello and as Iago. First, Iago persuades Cassio to have a few. Desdemona and Othello are secretly married before the play begins. In fact, he had second thoughts in Iago's statement. Montano tries to calm down an angry and drunk Cassio, but they end up fighting one another. Iago successfully brings out the monster from inside Othello. The race of the title role is often seen as Shakespeare's way of isolating the character, culturally as well as visually, from the Venetian nobles and officers, and the isolation may seem more genuine when a black actor takes the role. When discussing the murder with Iago, Othello speaks in prose showing the systematic approach to revenge, as would be common in the devising of military plans. Aristotle describes a tragic hero as a character of high status who experiences a fall from great social status. Through the Restoration and Queen Anne periods a number of great actors played the role of Othello, but only one was able to live up to Burbage: Thomas Betterton. Audiences of the time would expect Othello to be insecure about his race and the implied age gap between himself and Desdemona. Archived from on 20 August 2008. On the other hand, Othello is insecure about being an outsider and chooses to believe Iago's report that Desdemona is cheating on him rather than believe his wife is faithful. This is a metaphor as the devil has consumed his mind into a phase of dramatic jealousy, where the Devil inside of him has resulted to killing Desdemona. Reputation is what people think of you and it is a part of human nature. He is also angry that his reputation would be tarnished when found out that he is a cuckold. Though the actual racial definition of the term is murky, the implications are religious as well as racial. So in saying that, if you were to be publically disgraced it was better to die than live in shame. Quartos were also published in 1630, 1655, 1681, 1695, 1699 and 1705. He is the only one to know the reality of his plans. Cassio's tarnished reputation only helps Iago succeed in his plan. Othello is jealous, as he cannot bare Cassio in being happy, thus he points out the obvious of Cassio laughing. Othello is jealous, as he cannot bare Cassio in being happy, thus he points out the obvious of Cassio laughing. If you answered a , please go out and make this movie happen. Othello then turns on Iago with savage intensity and demands to see the proof of Desdemona's infidelity. Iago goads Cassio on to talk about his affair with Bianca, a local courtesan, but whispers her name so quietly that Othello believes the two men are talking about Desdemona. To others, it can be an illness that they cannot cure. Othello belongs to the out group and once he has been isolated, he is weak and defenceless. What are we to make of Emilia? This last rule is why it is such a shock that Desdemona has had a clandestine marriage. Many critics have also noted that lago is propelled to revenge by feelings of frustration and loathing; he can't tolerate the very sight of those who have status and happiness Cassio and Othello. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, global confrontation between Turk and Christian worried military theorists. She promises to speak of him with her husband repeatedly until the quarrel is patched up and Cassio is recalled. He is consumed with doubt and suspicion. Cinthio's tale may have been based on an actual incident occurring in Venice about 1508.	1,365	ENGLISH	1
Many of us live on the hyphen of Different cultures. This statement by Richard Rodriguez is true from many people in the world today. But what factors contribute the identification with culture and a nation? The various factors that define a culture are the way people see a cultures attitude, family values, religion in the family, and the origin of your family. At the present time the people of the world are very stereotypical, this is one of the many ways to misinterpret people of a different culture. To best understand a culture you should take the time to absorb their way of life to really appreciate their culture. The first factor, which contributes to the identification with a culture and a nation, is a culture attitude towards outsiders. In Canadians: What do they want? written by Margaret Atwood, it tells of Americans attitude toward the Canadians as a lesser person and their need to be liked by others. The Canadians are looked at as inferior because after WW II, American business owners went into Canada and took over most of their businesses. Some Canadians hate Americans for this because they have taken their own identity away from Canada. In The Arab World by Edward Hall, he uses hidden dimensions and proxemic patterns to show how the Arab culture presents itself.I moved my body in such a way as to communicate annoyance. Strangely enough, instead of moving away, my actions seemed only to encourage him, because he moved even closer.(p.201) This statement shows how an Arab man makes an American man nervous by getting to close. But what is too close? In the Arab culture closeness is a sign of respect, but in American culture closeness is only for people who are affectionate. Another example of attitudes in culture is in the story Some Reflections on American Manners by Alexis de Tocqueville. Tocqueville argues that American have no code of behavior and also has too much mobility in their actions. Through his essay Tocqueville uses the example that America has turned into an Individualistic Society and have destroyed the Aristocratic way of life with the new idea of democracy. The attitude of an insider of a culture is seen differently than what the visitors of that culture see. This view from a different person brings stereotypes about; this is the wrong way to start a relationship with a culture or a person. Secondly, family values also contribute to the identity of a culture and a nation. The essay The Way to Rainy Mountain written by N. Scott Momaday, the writer want to be with his grandmother. She is a way to his past and his roots. The grandmother was a teacher to her grandson. My grandmother had a reverence for the sun, a holy regard that now is all but gone out of mankind. There was a wariness in her, and an ancient awe. The writer had a respect and thought that his grandmother was the only way back to his roots. The writers view of family is very strong because he uses a myth, which most Native Americans use to tells stories and teach their young of their past. Maxine Hong Kingston wrote an essay called The Woman Warrior which deals with the Chinese culture, and their view of woman having little significance to that of the men. During the story she writes of the of her going to school and it only being good for her future husbands, and not her own.(p.191) This view of family values by Kingston is that of a male dominated society that woman will never have any say. Another example of family values is in my family. I have been taught to attend church every Sunday. When in the future I have my family I will instill this value into my family values. This has made me a better person. Many people know that I attend church regularly and have much respect for the Mormon religion because of it. Family values are very important in being able to identify with a culture and its people. Continuing on to the next contributing factor in identification with a culture or nation is religion. In most cultures in the world growing up in the church you are pressured into being saved by Jesus. In Salvation written by Langston Hughes he writes of a young black man, which is pressured into lying about being saved. This young man is a casualty of religion in the world: he is pressured by family values as well as religion by lying. Many cultures in the world today have pressured their children into their religion and not giving them the choice to choose what they think is right. In my family religion was pushed at a very early age. I live in an area that has little to no Mormons in the school system; this gives me a sense of being a minority. These other kids in the schools developed stereotypes of me because I was not of the majority religions of the school. Religion is a important part of most cultures, but cultures have pushed religion every since time has began and will continue too till the world ends. Lastly, the origin of your family is also a contributing factor in identifying a culture or a nation. In The woman Warrior Kingston uses the example of being of Chinese and America decent. Being of mixed origin can mix emotion for a child growing up into a certain culture. The writer has grown up in the Chinese culture but also has the American society putting pressure on her to go out and get an education as well as a job. In the Chinese culture a woman place is in the home, so her family looks her down upon her. In The Myth of the Latin Woman Judith Cofer tells of a young woman who has the pressure of her family and her friends at the same time, making her emotions mixed. She is brought up to be a proper senorita (p.177) but to her Anglo friends at school and her neighbors she is seen as too mature and flashy. Yet I often felt humiliated when I appeared at an American friends party wearing a dress more suitable to a semiformal(p.178) This statement shows how different culture see each others dress as a sign of identity. In the Latin culture woman wear little clothing and wear flashy colors, this is only cause of the heat. The Americans see this as a sign of maturity in their culture and look down on women who dress like this in everyday life. The woman in the story was confused, she couldnt decide whether to stay with her own family values or find a new identity with her friends. Another example of trying to identify with a culture is being born in one culture but living in another. Many parents today move jobs, so when their child is growing up in a neighborhood where they are the majority they can identify with them more easily. But when they move into a new neighborhood where they are the minority, they are usually picked on and have lower self-esteems. Trying to identify with a culture is a hard task to do for the children of the world today. Trying to find an identity for a child is an important thing while growing up. In conclusion I believe that the factors that contribute to the identification of a culture are attitude, family values, religion, and the origin of your family. I was brought up not to stereotype; my parents put me in a school where there were diverse cultures. I made many friends of different cultures and that has helped me to this day. Being able to identify with a culture better helps you to understand why and how the do things differently than you do. Most people are afraid to learn something new but when learning a new culture and not having a basis against it makes other cultures more interesting. I believe having more influence from many cultures make you a better person because you have the view of many, not just a few, or just one.	<urn:uuid:e71a4bc9-0105-487e-bae1-c1f3d24b498c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pennsylvaniaangerclass.com/born-of-different-cultrues/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00125.warc.gz	en	0.982086	1,546	3.609375	4	[ 0.38141876459121704, 0.9151115417480469, 0.1595701426267624, -0.2103017270565033, 0.08355677127838135, 0.5359047651290894, 0.7470202445983887, 0.18425670266151428, 0.038215070962905884, -0.047103479504585266, 0.2727780044078827, 0.026998259127140045, 0.32208219170570374, -0.270371556282043...	1	Many of us live on the hyphen of Different cultures. This statement by Richard Rodriguez is true from many people in the world today. But what factors contribute the identification with culture and a nation? The various factors that define a culture are the way people see a cultures attitude, family values, religion in the family, and the origin of your family. At the present time the people of the world are very stereotypical, this is one of the many ways to misinterpret people of a different culture. To best understand a culture you should take the time to absorb their way of life to really appreciate their culture. The first factor, which contributes to the identification with a culture and a nation, is a culture attitude towards outsiders. In Canadians: What do they want? written by Margaret Atwood, it tells of Americans attitude toward the Canadians as a lesser person and their need to be liked by others. The Canadians are looked at as inferior because after WW II, American business owners went into Canada and took over most of their businesses. Some Canadians hate Americans for this because they have taken their own identity away from Canada. In The Arab World by Edward Hall, he uses hidden dimensions and proxemic patterns to show how the Arab culture presents itself.I moved my body in such a way as to communicate annoyance. Strangely enough, instead of moving away, my actions seemed only to encourage him, because he moved even closer.(p.201) This statement shows how an Arab man makes an American man nervous by getting to close. But what is too close? In the Arab culture closeness is a sign of respect, but in American culture closeness is only for people who are affectionate. Another example of attitudes in culture is in the story Some Reflections on American Manners by Alexis de Tocqueville. Tocqueville argues that American have no code of behavior and also has too much mobility in their actions. Through his essay Tocqueville uses the example that America has turned into an Individualistic Society and have destroyed the Aristocratic way of life with the new idea of democracy. The attitude of an insider of a culture is seen differently than what the visitors of that culture see. This view from a different person brings stereotypes about; this is the wrong way to start a relationship with a culture or a person. Secondly, family values also contribute to the identity of a culture and a nation. The essay The Way to Rainy Mountain written by N. Scott Momaday, the writer want to be with his grandmother. She is a way to his past and his roots. The grandmother was a teacher to her grandson. My grandmother had a reverence for the sun, a holy regard that now is all but gone out of mankind. There was a wariness in her, and an ancient awe. The writer had a respect and thought that his grandmother was the only way back to his roots. The writers view of family is very strong because he uses a myth, which most Native Americans use to tells stories and teach their young of their past. Maxine Hong Kingston wrote an essay called The Woman Warrior which deals with the Chinese culture, and their view of woman having little significance to that of the men. During the story she writes of the of her going to school and it only being good for her future husbands, and not her own.(p.191) This view of family values by Kingston is that of a male dominated society that woman will never have any say. Another example of family values is in my family. I have been taught to attend church every Sunday. When in the future I have my family I will instill this value into my family values. This has made me a better person. Many people know that I attend church regularly and have much respect for the Mormon religion because of it. Family values are very important in being able to identify with a culture and its people. Continuing on to the next contributing factor in identification with a culture or nation is religion. In most cultures in the world growing up in the church you are pressured into being saved by Jesus. In Salvation written by Langston Hughes he writes of a young black man, which is pressured into lying about being saved. This young man is a casualty of religion in the world: he is pressured by family values as well as religion by lying. Many cultures in the world today have pressured their children into their religion and not giving them the choice to choose what they think is right. In my family religion was pushed at a very early age. I live in an area that has little to no Mormons in the school system; this gives me a sense of being a minority. These other kids in the schools developed stereotypes of me because I was not of the majority religions of the school. Religion is a important part of most cultures, but cultures have pushed religion every since time has began and will continue too till the world ends. Lastly, the origin of your family is also a contributing factor in identifying a culture or a nation. In The woman Warrior Kingston uses the example of being of Chinese and America decent. Being of mixed origin can mix emotion for a child growing up into a certain culture. The writer has grown up in the Chinese culture but also has the American society putting pressure on her to go out and get an education as well as a job. In the Chinese culture a woman place is in the home, so her family looks her down upon her. In The Myth of the Latin Woman Judith Cofer tells of a young woman who has the pressure of her family and her friends at the same time, making her emotions mixed. She is brought up to be a proper senorita (p.177) but to her Anglo friends at school and her neighbors she is seen as too mature and flashy. Yet I often felt humiliated when I appeared at an American friends party wearing a dress more suitable to a semiformal(p.178) This statement shows how different culture see each others dress as a sign of identity. In the Latin culture woman wear little clothing and wear flashy colors, this is only cause of the heat. The Americans see this as a sign of maturity in their culture and look down on women who dress like this in everyday life. The woman in the story was confused, she couldnt decide whether to stay with her own family values or find a new identity with her friends. Another example of trying to identify with a culture is being born in one culture but living in another. Many parents today move jobs, so when their child is growing up in a neighborhood where they are the majority they can identify with them more easily. But when they move into a new neighborhood where they are the minority, they are usually picked on and have lower self-esteems. Trying to identify with a culture is a hard task to do for the children of the world today. Trying to find an identity for a child is an important thing while growing up. In conclusion I believe that the factors that contribute to the identification of a culture are attitude, family values, religion, and the origin of your family. I was brought up not to stereotype; my parents put me in a school where there were diverse cultures. I made many friends of different cultures and that has helped me to this day. Being able to identify with a culture better helps you to understand why and how the do things differently than you do. Most people are afraid to learn something new but when learning a new culture and not having a basis against it makes other cultures more interesting. I believe having more influence from many cultures make you a better person because you have the view of many, not just a few, or just one.	1,548	ENGLISH	1
Science of war 2: spotting enemy guns using toilet-inspired technology Towards the middle of World War 1, an Australian physicist at the front was lifted off the toilet seat one too many times. In part 2 of this series, Dr Karl explains how sound ranging technology changed the course of the war. Last time, I started on how the military technology of sound ranging was invented. Sound ranging technology locates enemy guns, using only microphones. The 'Eureka' moment for a 25-year-old Australian Nobel-Prize winner, who was serving at the front, came when he got lifted off the toilet seat, by the firing of the big guns, just once too often. In September 1915 (the second year of World War I) William Lawrence Bragg was serving in France. He heard the terrible news that his brother had died fighting at Gallipoli. Soon after, he received a much happier letter from his father telling him that they had been jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. They are still the only father-son team to share a Nobel Prize, and William Lawrence Bragg is still the youngest Nobel Laureate in Physics — at the tender age of just 25 years. Their prize was given for their work in understanding the nature of X-rays — which they did in the years before The Great War. This made it possible to blast a beam of X-rays into a crystal, measure how the beam is bent, and then work out the locations of the atoms inside that crystal. The structure of DNA, one of the most profound insights into the nature of life we humans have ever made, was obtained using the knowledge they had uncovered. But back in that war-torn year of 1915, even though Bragg was a Nobel Prize winner, he was not exempted from having to serve. He had started the war riding horses in the mounted infantry, but soon ended up in the maps section of General HG — trying to pinpoint the position of German artillery pieces using various technologies. The most promising one was to record the signal from an array of microphones. But they had a problem. When a cannon fires, it generates mostly low-frequency sounds. A field gun booms at 25 hertz, but a larger artillery piece emits most of its sound energy as inaudible infrasound — way down at 10 hertz. Back then, nobody knew this. The breakthrough needed to capture the low frequency infrasound came as two separate hints from nature. Hint No. 1: Bragg was billeted in accommodation in Flanders. The toilet was a small room, with a door, but no window. When the door was shut, the only connection to the outside world was the pipe leading from under his toilet seat. There was a British six-inch artillery piece about 400 metres away. When it fired, his bare bottom was actually lifted off the toilet seat by the inaudible infrasound energy, even though he could often hear nothing at all. So now he knew there was enormous energy in the inaudible infrasound - but he didn't how to detect it. Hint No. 2 came via Corporal W.S Tucker, also a physics graduate, who served in Bragg's team. Tucker slept in a shack that had walls, not of wood or brick, but tar-paper — literally stiff paper that had been covered with tar to make it waterproof. There was a hole in the tar-paper next to his pillow. Every now and then, even though there was no wind and he had not heard artillery fire, a puff of chilly air would annoyingly strike his cheek. The two physicists realised that when a big gun fired, its high-energy low-frequency infrasound was causing the puff of air. To them, the solution was obvious. They got a small empty wooden ammunition box, ran a thin platinum wire along inside the box, and drilled a hole in the box near the wire. They ran electricity through the wire, which heated it up. When a big gun fired, the infrasound pressure wave forced a puff of air onto the hot wire and cooled it down. This changed the resistance of the wire, which they did have the technology to measure. Using their method, the allied sound ranging could locate German artillery to within 25 - 50 metres. It was brilliantly demonstrated on 20 November, 1917, near the German-occupied French city of Cambrai. Thanks to the new technology of sound ranging, the German artillery was quickly silenced. It was a great hour for the Allies — and church bells were rung in London. Sound ranging again was used to devastating effect in the Battle of Amiens, on 8 August, 1918. And shortly thereafter, the war was over. I guess that proves, once and for all, that men might do their best thinking on the toilet seat, and should be allowed to sit there for as long as they like ... Published 10 March 2015 © 2020 Karl S. Kruszelnicki Pty Ltd	<urn:uuid:23b8eff5-686f-4bda-b009-2e053fee6c87>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2015/03/10/4188332.htm?site=science/greatmomentsinscience	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00512.warc.gz	en	0.984302	1,031	3.625	4	[ -0.27344000339508057, 0.5430439710617065, 0.1964450478553772, -0.10965222865343094, -0.22073139250278473, 0.02379683591425419, 0.07519035041332245, 0.42593520879745483, -0.2184663861989975, -0.26426827907562256, 0.04508913680911064, -0.2797320485115051, 0.2933143973350525, 0.23596282303333...	4	Science of war 2: spotting enemy guns using toilet-inspired technology Towards the middle of World War 1, an Australian physicist at the front was lifted off the toilet seat one too many times. In part 2 of this series, Dr Karl explains how sound ranging technology changed the course of the war. Last time, I started on how the military technology of sound ranging was invented. Sound ranging technology locates enemy guns, using only microphones. The 'Eureka' moment for a 25-year-old Australian Nobel-Prize winner, who was serving at the front, came when he got lifted off the toilet seat, by the firing of the big guns, just once too often. In September 1915 (the second year of World War I) William Lawrence Bragg was serving in France. He heard the terrible news that his brother had died fighting at Gallipoli. Soon after, he received a much happier letter from his father telling him that they had been jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. They are still the only father-son team to share a Nobel Prize, and William Lawrence Bragg is still the youngest Nobel Laureate in Physics — at the tender age of just 25 years. Their prize was given for their work in understanding the nature of X-rays — which they did in the years before The Great War. This made it possible to blast a beam of X-rays into a crystal, measure how the beam is bent, and then work out the locations of the atoms inside that crystal. The structure of DNA, one of the most profound insights into the nature of life we humans have ever made, was obtained using the knowledge they had uncovered. But back in that war-torn year of 1915, even though Bragg was a Nobel Prize winner, he was not exempted from having to serve. He had started the war riding horses in the mounted infantry, but soon ended up in the maps section of General HG — trying to pinpoint the position of German artillery pieces using various technologies. The most promising one was to record the signal from an array of microphones. But they had a problem. When a cannon fires, it generates mostly low-frequency sounds. A field gun booms at 25 hertz, but a larger artillery piece emits most of its sound energy as inaudible infrasound — way down at 10 hertz. Back then, nobody knew this. The breakthrough needed to capture the low frequency infrasound came as two separate hints from nature. Hint No. 1: Bragg was billeted in accommodation in Flanders. The toilet was a small room, with a door, but no window. When the door was shut, the only connection to the outside world was the pipe leading from under his toilet seat. There was a British six-inch artillery piece about 400 metres away. When it fired, his bare bottom was actually lifted off the toilet seat by the inaudible infrasound energy, even though he could often hear nothing at all. So now he knew there was enormous energy in the inaudible infrasound - but he didn't how to detect it. Hint No. 2 came via Corporal W.S Tucker, also a physics graduate, who served in Bragg's team. Tucker slept in a shack that had walls, not of wood or brick, but tar-paper — literally stiff paper that had been covered with tar to make it waterproof. There was a hole in the tar-paper next to his pillow. Every now and then, even though there was no wind and he had not heard artillery fire, a puff of chilly air would annoyingly strike his cheek. The two physicists realised that when a big gun fired, its high-energy low-frequency infrasound was causing the puff of air. To them, the solution was obvious. They got a small empty wooden ammunition box, ran a thin platinum wire along inside the box, and drilled a hole in the box near the wire. They ran electricity through the wire, which heated it up. When a big gun fired, the infrasound pressure wave forced a puff of air onto the hot wire and cooled it down. This changed the resistance of the wire, which they did have the technology to measure. Using their method, the allied sound ranging could locate German artillery to within 25 - 50 metres. It was brilliantly demonstrated on 20 November, 1917, near the German-occupied French city of Cambrai. Thanks to the new technology of sound ranging, the German artillery was quickly silenced. It was a great hour for the Allies — and church bells were rung in London. Sound ranging again was used to devastating effect in the Battle of Amiens, on 8 August, 1918. And shortly thereafter, the war was over. I guess that proves, once and for all, that men might do their best thinking on the toilet seat, and should be allowed to sit there for as long as they like ... Published 10 March 2015 © 2020 Karl S. Kruszelnicki Pty Ltd	1,048	ENGLISH	1
– Pierre Beauchamp Pierre Beauchamp lived from 1636 to 1705 he was born in Versailles a wealthy French area into a family of French dance masters; he was a French dancer, teacher and choreographer. He was the ballet tutor of King Louis XIV also known as the Sun King and was regarded as one of the finest dancers of his time. Beauchamp is also known to be the first to officially codify the five basic positions of ballet. The first assigned date of ballet is in 1581, when the so called Ballet Comique de la Reine was produced, this was in the early baroque period where dance was moving of court dancing which was an interpretation of fencing the baroque period was from 16th to 18th Century. During the baroque period during the Reign of King Louis XIV ballet progressed a great deal, King Louis XIV was an excellent dancer as a young man and was one of the most helpful patrons dance has ever known. In 1661 King Louis asked his ballet master Beauchamp to establish rules for ballet which resulted in the five basic positions of ballet. Beauchamp was a brilliant dancer himself, he was known for his pirouettes, elevations and tours en l’air. During King Louis’s reign the proscenium arch was introduced to France, this stage was elevated and only had one front; this differed to the stages before it because they had 3 view points, also, because of the elevation of the stage the royalty watching the ballet could not mingle with the dancers on the floor, before the stage was at the same level as the audience. Because of the one view point, to show the audience the most aesthetic and best display of their technique dancers rotated their feet so their precise footwork could be seen from the front. Beauchamp was made director of the Academie Royale de Danse in 1671 which was a famous French dance school. Beauchamp made his debut to the court of Louis XIV at age 17 (1648), in the Ballet du dereglement des. During King Louis XIV time France stabilized and become one of the strongest countries in Europe. Dancing in the Renaissance period, was based mainly on court dancing, it was important for noblemen to show their skill expertise and masculinity through dance, dancing was seen as a more social activity for the royalty were there were set dances which everyone knew. These wealthy royals employed dance masters to improve. During the Baroque period 16th to 18th century was when ballet first started to form (Ballet Comique de la Reine), elaborate spectacles ere displayed for the courts entertainment, Beauchamp was highly influential in French Baroque dance. This was because of his skill as a dancer, the status given to him by being King Louis XIV dance tutor and also his work in codifying the ballet positions. Beauchamp affected the development of classical ballet by creating the five basic ballet positions of ballet which all traditional ballet moves and transitions are derived from. During the Renaissance period dancers were encumbered by extremely heavy wigs, masks and costumes. This changed during the Baroque period because the style of dancing became much more elevated, with leaps and spring steps. Also women for the first time were introduced to the stage. Beauchamp had a major affect on the development of classical ballet through many events and features of his life, being a teacher ,dancing, codifier and choreographer. He made the path of ballet more set in stone.	<urn:uuid:58165b35-3670-4ba1-b0d5-027cbeda3b53>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/pierre-beauchamp/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00386.warc.gz	en	0.988645	721	3.265625	3	[ -0.19025331735610962, -0.15958300232887268, 0.18198302388191223, -0.4768752455711365, -0.32988470792770386, -0.4012671113014221, -0.39344435930252075, 0.12424787878990173, 0.10499804466962814, -0.21867252886295319, 0.32324570417404175, -0.1818990707397461, -0.1551210582256317, 0.4178228676...	1	– Pierre Beauchamp Pierre Beauchamp lived from 1636 to 1705 he was born in Versailles a wealthy French area into a family of French dance masters; he was a French dancer, teacher and choreographer. He was the ballet tutor of King Louis XIV also known as the Sun King and was regarded as one of the finest dancers of his time. Beauchamp is also known to be the first to officially codify the five basic positions of ballet. The first assigned date of ballet is in 1581, when the so called Ballet Comique de la Reine was produced, this was in the early baroque period where dance was moving of court dancing which was an interpretation of fencing the baroque period was from 16th to 18th Century. During the baroque period during the Reign of King Louis XIV ballet progressed a great deal, King Louis XIV was an excellent dancer as a young man and was one of the most helpful patrons dance has ever known. In 1661 King Louis asked his ballet master Beauchamp to establish rules for ballet which resulted in the five basic positions of ballet. Beauchamp was a brilliant dancer himself, he was known for his pirouettes, elevations and tours en l’air. During King Louis’s reign the proscenium arch was introduced to France, this stage was elevated and only had one front; this differed to the stages before it because they had 3 view points, also, because of the elevation of the stage the royalty watching the ballet could not mingle with the dancers on the floor, before the stage was at the same level as the audience. Because of the one view point, to show the audience the most aesthetic and best display of their technique dancers rotated their feet so their precise footwork could be seen from the front. Beauchamp was made director of the Academie Royale de Danse in 1671 which was a famous French dance school. Beauchamp made his debut to the court of Louis XIV at age 17 (1648), in the Ballet du dereglement des. During King Louis XIV time France stabilized and become one of the strongest countries in Europe. Dancing in the Renaissance period, was based mainly on court dancing, it was important for noblemen to show their skill expertise and masculinity through dance, dancing was seen as a more social activity for the royalty were there were set dances which everyone knew. These wealthy royals employed dance masters to improve. During the Baroque period 16th to 18th century was when ballet first started to form (Ballet Comique de la Reine), elaborate spectacles ere displayed for the courts entertainment, Beauchamp was highly influential in French Baroque dance. This was because of his skill as a dancer, the status given to him by being King Louis XIV dance tutor and also his work in codifying the ballet positions. Beauchamp affected the development of classical ballet by creating the five basic ballet positions of ballet which all traditional ballet moves and transitions are derived from. During the Renaissance period dancers were encumbered by extremely heavy wigs, masks and costumes. This changed during the Baroque period because the style of dancing became much more elevated, with leaps and spring steps. Also women for the first time were introduced to the stage. Beauchamp had a major affect on the development of classical ballet through many events and features of his life, being a teacher ,dancing, codifier and choreographer. He made the path of ballet more set in stone.	730	ENGLISH	1
Seneca Indian Ely S. Parker was born Hasanoanda, which means “Leading Name,” in 1828 as his parents William and Elizabeth Parker attempted to return home in their buckboard to the Tonawanda Reservation, in Indian Falls, New York. His father was a Seneca chief, a veteran of the War of 1812, a Baptist minister, and a local miller; his mother a descendent of an Iroquois prophet. Ely’s life had been foretold to his parents, in a prophecy describing a distinguished warrior and peacemaker from their tribe. At age 14, Ely first attended Yates Academy, and after two years transferred to the elite Cayuga Academy, where he learned self-confidence by stoically enduring racial hostility. Later, the Seneca gave him a new name, as he reached manhood: Donehogawa (“Keeper of the Western Door of the Iroquois Loghouse”). In 1851, he became great sachem of the Six Tribes–the head chief. Despite the respect he earned from his tribe, Harvard University denied admission because he was an Indian; the New York Bar would not consider his application to practice law, saying he was not a citizen. He turned to engineering, earning a degree from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and in 1857, met lifelong friend Ulysses S. Grant in Galena, Illinois, while working on two government projects. Parker, who was told he could not fight for the Union because he was an Indian, turned to his friend Gen. Grant for help in May 1863, and Grant had him commissioned as a captain. Parker served in the Vicksburg campaign as an engineer, and later was attached to Grant’s command reaching the rank of lieutenant colonel before being brevetted as a brigadier general in the U.S. Volunteers on April 9, 1865. As Grant’s adjutant, he wrote out the final articles of Confederate surrender in April 1865 at Appomattox. He later reported that General Robert E. Lee mistakenly believed that Parker was a black man and was surprised to see him serving in a prominent role. After learning his background, Lee said he was glad to see “one real American” there, to which Parker replied, “We are all Americans.” After the war, Parker continued to serve on Grant’s staff. In 1869, President Grant appointed his friend the first American Indian to serve as commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. His two years as leader of the BIA was fraught with controversy and scandal as he attempted to enforce Grant’s peace policy in the West. Parker, who never found success in business after the Wall Street crash of 1873, slowly sank into abject poverty and died on August 31, 1895. He was first buried near his home in Fairfield, Connecticut, but two years later, his remains were reinterred with those of tribal ancestors at Forest Lawn in Buffalo, New York. Tom Augherton is an Arizona-based freelance writer. Do you know about an unsung character of the Old West whose story we should share here? Send the details to firstname.lastname@example.org, and be sure to include high-resolution historical photos	<urn:uuid:34d6dada-2143-4964-b66b-dac8d3fa4578>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://truewestmagazine.com/article/ely-s-parker/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00527.warc.gz	en	0.986067	684	3.46875	3	[ -0.17833027243614197, 0.43091440200805664, 0.5566978454589844, -0.008881518617272377, -0.49997884035110474, -0.20256254076957703, 0.6287562251091003, -0.05310884863138199, -0.43482837080955505, -0.46014001965522766, 0.2439819574356079, -0.08238348364830017, -0.487331360578537, 0.1866942942...	7	Seneca Indian Ely S. Parker was born Hasanoanda, which means “Leading Name,” in 1828 as his parents William and Elizabeth Parker attempted to return home in their buckboard to the Tonawanda Reservation, in Indian Falls, New York. His father was a Seneca chief, a veteran of the War of 1812, a Baptist minister, and a local miller; his mother a descendent of an Iroquois prophet. Ely’s life had been foretold to his parents, in a prophecy describing a distinguished warrior and peacemaker from their tribe. At age 14, Ely first attended Yates Academy, and after two years transferred to the elite Cayuga Academy, where he learned self-confidence by stoically enduring racial hostility. Later, the Seneca gave him a new name, as he reached manhood: Donehogawa (“Keeper of the Western Door of the Iroquois Loghouse”). In 1851, he became great sachem of the Six Tribes–the head chief. Despite the respect he earned from his tribe, Harvard University denied admission because he was an Indian; the New York Bar would not consider his application to practice law, saying he was not a citizen. He turned to engineering, earning a degree from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and in 1857, met lifelong friend Ulysses S. Grant in Galena, Illinois, while working on two government projects. Parker, who was told he could not fight for the Union because he was an Indian, turned to his friend Gen. Grant for help in May 1863, and Grant had him commissioned as a captain. Parker served in the Vicksburg campaign as an engineer, and later was attached to Grant’s command reaching the rank of lieutenant colonel before being brevetted as a brigadier general in the U.S. Volunteers on April 9, 1865. As Grant’s adjutant, he wrote out the final articles of Confederate surrender in April 1865 at Appomattox. He later reported that General Robert E. Lee mistakenly believed that Parker was a black man and was surprised to see him serving in a prominent role. After learning his background, Lee said he was glad to see “one real American” there, to which Parker replied, “We are all Americans.” After the war, Parker continued to serve on Grant’s staff. In 1869, President Grant appointed his friend the first American Indian to serve as commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. His two years as leader of the BIA was fraught with controversy and scandal as he attempted to enforce Grant’s peace policy in the West. Parker, who never found success in business after the Wall Street crash of 1873, slowly sank into abject poverty and died on August 31, 1895. He was first buried near his home in Fairfield, Connecticut, but two years later, his remains were reinterred with those of tribal ancestors at Forest Lawn in Buffalo, New York. Tom Augherton is an Arizona-based freelance writer. Do you know about an unsung character of the Old West whose story we should share here? Send the details to firstname.lastname@example.org, and be sure to include high-resolution historical photos	690	ENGLISH	1
Caledonian Railway Coat of Arms \|Dates of operation\|\|1830s–1923\| \|Successor\|\|London, Midland and Scottish Railway\| The Caledonian Railway (CR) was a major Scottish railway company. It was formed in the early 19th century with the objective of forming a link between English railways and Glasgow. It progressively extended its network and reached Edinburgh and Aberdeen, with a dense network of branch lines in the area surrounding Glasgow. It was absorbed into the London, Midland and Scottish Railway in 1923. Many of its principal routes are still used, and the original main line between Carlisle and Glasgow is in use as part of the West Coast Main Line railway (with a modified entry into Glasgow itself). In the mid-1830s railways in England evolved from local concerns to longer routes that connected cities, and then became networks. In Scotland it was clear that this was the way forward, and there was a desire to connect the central belt to the incipient English network. There was controversy over the route that such a line might take, but the Caledonian Railway was formed on 31 July 1845 and it opened its main line between Glasgow, Edinburgh and Carlisle in 1848, making an alliance with the English London and North Western Railway. In the obituary of the engineer Richard Price-Williams written in 1916 the contractor of the Caledonian Railway is stated to be Thomas Brassey and the civil engineer George Heald. Although the company was supported by Scottish investors, more than half of its shares were held in England. Establishing itself as an inter-city railway, the Caledonian set about securing territory by leasing other authorised or newly built lines, and fierce competition developed with other, larger Scottish railways, particularly the North British Railway and the Glasgow and South Western Railway. The company established primacy in some areas, but remained less than successful in others; considerable sums were expended in the process, not always finding the approval of shareholders. A considerable passenger traffic developed on the Firth of Clyde serving island resorts, and fast boat trains were run from Glasgow to steamer piers; the company was refused permission to operate its own steamers, and it formed a partnership with a nominally independent, but friendly, operator, the Caledonian Steam Packet Company. In 1923 the railways of Great Britain were "grouped" under the Railways Act 1921 and the Caledonian Railway was a constituent of the newly formed London Midland and Scottish Railway; its capitalisation at that time was £57 million (equivalent to £3.19 billion today), and it had a single track mileage of 2,827 miles (4,550 km). It extended from Aberdeen to Portpatrick, and from Oban to Carlisle, running express passenger services and a heavy mineral traffic. In the closing years of the 18th century, the pressing need to bring coal cheaply to Glasgow from the plentiful Monklands coalfield had been met by the construction of the Monkland Canal, opened throughout in 1794. This encouraged development of the coalfield but dissatisfaction at the monopoly prices said to be exacted by the canal led to the construction of the Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway (M&KR), Scotland's first public railway; it opened in 1826. Development of the use of blackband ironstone by David Mushet, and the invention of the hot blast process of iron smelting by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828 led to a huge and rapid increase in iron production and demand for the ore and for coal in the Coatbridge area. The industrial development led to the construction of other railways contiguous with the M&KR, in particular the Garnkirk and Glasgow Railway and the Wishaw and Coltness Railway. These two lines worked in harmony, merging to form the Glasgow, Garnkirk and Coatbridge Railway in 1841, and competing with the M&KR and its allies. All these lines used the local track gauge of 4 ft 6 in (1,370 mm), and they were referred to as the coal lines; passenger traffic was not a dominant activity. During this period, the first long-distance railways were opened in England; the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, the first inter-city line, opened in 1830 and was an immediate success. It was quickly followed by the London and Birmingham Railway in 1838 and the Grand Junction Railway in 1837, and the North Union Railway reaching Preston in 1838, so that London was linked with the Lancashire and West Midlands centres of industry. It was clearly desirable to connect central Scotland into the emerging network. At first it was assumed that only one route from Scotland to England would be feasible, and there was considerable controversy over the possible route. A major difficulty was the terrain of the Southern Uplands: a route running through the hilly lands would involve steep and lengthy gradients that were challenging for the engine power of the time; a route around them, either to the west or the east, involved much lengthier main lines, and made connection to both Edinburgh and Glasgow more problematic. Many competing schemes were put forward, not all of them well thought out, and two successive Government commissions examined them. However, they did not have mandatory force, and after considerable rivalry, the Caledonian Railway obtained an authorising Act of Parliament on 31 July 1845, for lines from Glasgow and Edinburgh to Carlisle. The share capital was to be £1,800,000 (equivalent to £175 million today). The Glasgow and Edinburgh lines combined at Carstairs in Clydesdale, and the route then crossed over Beattock summit and continued on through Annandale. The promoters had engaged in a frenzy of provisional acquisitions of other lines being put forward or already being constructed, as they considered it was vital to secure territory to their own control and to exclude competing concerns as far as possible. However, if they hoped to operate the only Anglo-Scottish route, they were disappointed. The North British Railway opened between Edinburgh and Berwick-upon-Tweed on 22 June 1846, forming part of what has become the East Coast Main Line. The Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock and Ayr Railway had opened in 1841 with the declared intention of reaching Carlisle by way of Dumfries; it did so in 1850, changing its name then to the Glasgow and South Western Railway. The main line was opened from Carlisle to Beattock on 10 September 1847, and throughout between Glasgow and Carlisle on 15 February 1848. A continuous railway route between Glasgow and London existed for the first time. (It had been possible to travel via Edinburgh and Newcastle upon Tyne since 1846, but this involved crossing the River Tweed at Berwick by road, and the River Tyne at Newcastle by ferry.) The Caledonian Railway's Edinburgh line from Carstairs opened on 1 April 1848. The terminal at Edinburgh was Lothian Road. Glasgow was reached over the Glasgow, Garnkirk and Coatbridge Railway (successor to the Garnkirk and Glasgow Railway), and the Wishaw and Coltness Railway, which the Caledonian had leased from 1 January 1847 and 1 January 1846 respectively. The Glasgow station was the Townhead terminus of the Glasgow, Garnkirk and Coatbridge Railway. During the process of seeking Parliamentary authorisation, the Caledonian observed that the Clydesdale Junction Railway was being promoted. The Caledonian acquired that line during its construction, and it opened in 1849. It gave an alternative, and shorter access to another Glasgow passenger terminal, named South Side, and to the Clyde Quays at General Terminus (over the connected General Terminus and Glasgow Harbour Railway). The South Side station was already being used by the Glasgow, Barrhead and Neilston Direct Railway, worked by the Caledonian. One day, they hoped, they might extend that line into Ayrshire. Meanwhile, the line was leased (for 999 years) to the Caledonian in 1849. The Caledonian recognised that the Townhead terminus was unsatisfactory and constructed a deviation from Milton Junction to a new Glasgow terminus at Buchanan Street. It opened on 1 November 1849. Trains to Edinburgh, Stirling and Carlisle used the new station; the Stirling trains had to reverse at Gartsherrie Junction. The Garnkirk's old Glebe Street (Townhead) station was reduced to goods and mineral duties. In 1853 or 1854 the Hayhill Fork, between Gartcosh and Garnqueen, was opened, enabling direct running from Buchanan Street towards Stirling. In the period between formation of the Caledonian Railway and the opening of the main line, a large number of leases and working arrangements had been concluded with other railways being promoted or built. This was mostly done by guaranteeing those shareholders an income on their capital, which meant no immediate cash was required. When the lines started working, suddenly a huge periodical payment was required, and the income was inadequate to satisfy it. There were also suggestions of improper share acquisitions, and in the period 1848 to 1850 a number of shareholder inquiries disclosed bad practices, and many board members had to resign in February 1850. The Company had obtained Parliamentary powers to merge with the Glasgow, Paisley and Greenock Railway (GP&GR) in 1847, but even more alarming revelations of financial impropriety emerged regarding that company, and the Caledonian considered getting authorisation to cancel the amalgamation. However, it was later decided to proceed, and the amalgamation took place by Act of Parliament of 7 August 1851. The GP&GR operated the line between Glasgow and Paisley jointly with the Glasgow and South Western Railway (G&SWR), and the Paisley line used a terminus at Bridge Street, in Glasgow. The Caledonian now worked trains at three termini in Glasgow: Buchanan Street, South Side (from the Clydesdale Junction line, mostly used for local trains to Motherwell and Hamilton), and Bridge Street (on the Paisley line). Gradually the financial difficulties were got under control, by economy, and by the discovery that several of the lease agreements were illegal. Handsome dividends continued to be paid, but it was not until March 1853 that the dividend was paid wholly from revenue.[note 1] If the Caledonian Railway had been formed as an inter-city trunk line, its attention was early on turned to other demands. Local interests in Lanark promoted a branch line to their town, opening in 1855. Coal owners in South Lanarkshire pressed for a railway connection, and the Lesmahagow Railway was formed by them, opening in 1856. It was later absorbed by the Caledonian, but other lines followed in the sparsely populated but mineral-rich area. As new coal mines opened, so new branches were needed, connecting Coalburn, Stonehouse, Strathaven, Muirkirk and Darvel and many other places, with new lines built right up until 1905. When the coal became exhausted in the second half of the twentieth century, the railways were progressively closed; passenger traffic had always been light and it too disappeared. Only the passenger traffic to the Lanark and Larkhall branches remain in operation. In North Lanarkshire the North British Railway was a keen competitor, having taken over the Monkland Railways. The area contained the rapidly growing iron production area surrounding Coatbridge, and servicing that industry with coal and iron ore, and transport to local and more distant metal processing locations, dominated the Caledonian's activity in the region. The Rutherglen and Coatbridge line, later linking Airdie, and the Carfin to Midcalder line were routes with significant passenger traffic. Many lines to coal and iron ore pits further east were built, but serving remote areas the lines closed when the mineral extraction ceased. With the Barrhead line in full operation, interests in Busby wanted a railway connection. The wealthy middle class saw the town as an elegant location and the Busby Railway opened in 1866. Commuting was already in fashion. The line was extended to East Kilbride in 1868, although at that time (long before the New Town) the village did not generate much business for the railway. When the main line was built, no branches were provided in the thinly populated terrain. Four independent companies made branches themselves, and the Caledonian built two. In 1863 an independent line, the Dumfries, Lochmaben and Lockerbie Railway was opened. The line was encouraged by the Caledonian Railway, giving westward access into Dumfriesshire, and worked by it; the Caledonian acquired the line in 1865. The Portpatrick Railway had opened between Castle Douglas and Portpatrick in 1861-1862 and the Caledonian Railway worked that railway; it obtained running powers over the G&SWR between Dumfries and Castle Douglas, and at a stroke the Caledonian had penetrated deep into the south-west, and to the ferry service to the north of Ireland, territory that the G&SWR had assumed was its own. The Portpatrick Railway later reformed with the Wigtownshire Railway as the Portpatrick and Wigtownshire Joint Railway; the Caledonian was a one-quarter owner. The North British Railway opened the branch line to Dolphinton, east of Carstairs, and the Caledonian feared that the next step would be an incursion by the NBR into Caledonian territory, possibly seeking running powers on the main line. To head this off, the Caledonian built its own Dolphinton branch from Carstairs; it opened in 1867. Dolphinton had a population of 260 and two railways, and traffic was correspondingly meagre, and the line closed in 1945 (passengers) and 1950 (goods). The independent Solway Junction Railway was opened in 1869, linking iron mines in Cumberland with the Caledonian Railway at Kirtlebridge, crossing the Solway Firth by a 1,940 yd (1,770 m) viaduct; the company worked the line itself. It considerably shortened the route to the Lanarkshire ironworks, and was heavily used at first, but the traffic was depleted by cheap imported iron ore within a decade. The Scottish part of the line was acquired by the Caledonian Railway in 1873, and the whole line in 1895. Serious ice damage and later heavy maintenance costs made the line seriously unprofitable and it was closed in 1921. When the Caledonian's first main line opened, it used the Townhead terminus of the Glasgow, Garnkirk and Coatbridge Railway, and almost simultaneously, it acquired access to the South Side station planned for the Clydesdale Junction Railway. It extended from Townhead to Buchanan Street, an "inadequate and very cramped station" in 1849, but the route from there to the southwards main line was very circuitous. The Caledonian also worked the Glasgow, Paisley and Greenock Railway with a terminus at Bridge Street, also inconveniently situated south of the Clyde: the Caledonian, therefore, had three unsatisfactory Glasgow termini. As early as 1846 proposals to cross the Clyde from Gushetfaulds to a Dunlop Street terminal had been put forward; the idea was killed by fierce opposition from the Clyde Bridges Trust (which would lose toll income) and the Admiralty (who insisted on a swing bridge). Another scheme failed to get finance in 1866 and again in 1873, but in 1875 an Act was obtained to build a bridge crossing the Clyde and bringing the South Side route into the city centre. A four track railway bridge crossing the river was designed by Blyth and Cunningham and built by Sir William Arrol & Co.; the Clyde railway bridge was complete on 1 October 1878. The new Glasgow Central station on Gordon Street opened in December 1879. It had eight platforms, but was considered to be unsatisfactory, having narrow platforms; the circulating area was "ridiculously small"; there was no good cab stance and inadequate siding accommodation. The Bridge Street terminus was jointly operated with the Glasgow and South Western Railway (G&SWR); it had to be reconstructed as a through station, and the Greenock line trains (operated by the Caledonian) continued to use it. A ninth platform was added to Central station in 1889, but a major expansion took place in the years 1901-1906, when the platforms were lengthened and four platforms added on the west side; a second river crossing was provided. In 1904 Bridge Street station was substantially changed to provide carriage washing and stabling facilities; it closed as a passenger station on 1 March 1905. Central station was operated by a single signal box, staffed with ten men. It was commissioned on 3 May 1908; it had 374 miniature levers, the largest of its type in the world, operating points and signals by electro-pneumatic and electro-magnetic equipment. The Moffat Railway was opened from Beattock on 2 April 1883. It was just over one and a half miles (2.4 km) long. It was worked by the Caledonian and absorbed on 11 November 1889. The Caledonian Railway sought to develop both Moffat and Peebles as watering places, and ran The Tinto Express from both places, combining at Symington, to Edinburgh and Glasgow for several years. With the intention of revitalising the lead mining industry, the Leadhills and Wanlockhead Branch was opened as a light railway from Elvanfoot in 1901 - 1902. With challenging gradients to reach Scotland's highest village in otherwise remote territory, the line scraped a bare living and closed in 1938. In the mid 1850s the steamer connections on the River Clyde assumed ever increasing importance, and journey transit times from settlements in Argyll and the islands to Glasgow became critical. The inconvenient situation of the Greenock station and pier encouraged thoughts of more convenient routes, and in 1862 the Greenock and Wemyss Bay Railway was authorised. It was an independent company intending to provide a fast connection from Rothesay, Bute; it opened on 13 May 1865 and in August 1893 it amalgamated with the Caledonian Railway, having been operated by the Caledonian Railway since its opening. In 1889 the Caledonian itself opened an extension line from Greenock to Gourock, more conveniently situated than Greenock; this involved the expensive construction of Newton Street Tunnel, the longest in Scotland. In competing with rival rail and steamer connections, the Caledonian became frustrated with its reliance on independent steamer operators, and tried to obtain powers to operate the vessels directly; this was refused by Parliament on competition grounds, and in reaction the company founded the nominally independent Caledonian Steam Packet Company in 1889. The CSPC expanded its routes and services considerably; following nationalisation of the railways in 1948 it became owned by British Railways, but was divested in 1968 and later became a constituent of Caledonian MacBrayne Ltd, which is (2015) state-owned. In the final decades of the nineteenth century, as the cities spread into conurbations, the company's attention turned to increasing traffic in areas now thought of as "suburban". Street running tramways were already responding to the demand for passenger travel in these areas, but as yet they used horse traction. The Cathcart District Railway was promoted as an independent concern but heavily supported by the Caledonian. It opened in 1886 from Pollokshields to Mount Florida and Cathcart (the eastern arm of the present-day Cathcart Circle Line) in 1886, and was extended via Shawlands to form a loop in 1894. It was worked by the Caledonian, although the company retained its independence until 1923. The Glasgow Central Railway was authorised as an independent company to build a surface line from Rutherglen to Maryhill. It encountered fierce opposition, and the scheme was taken over by the Caledonian and converted into a route mainly in tunnel. It opened in 1896, further encouraging suburban passenger travel. It closed in 1959 but re-opened (as the Argyle Line) in 1979. The Paisley and Barrhead District Railway was incorporated in 1897 and transferred to the Caledonian in 1902; it was to link Paisley and Barrhead and enable a circular service from Glasgow. The line was substantially ready in 1902 but by now street tramways were electrically operated and eminently successful. It was plain that a passenger service would not be viable against tram competition and the intended passenger service was never started. The area of the north bank of the river Clyde became increasingly important for industry, and therefore became heavily populated. The North British Railway and its satellites had gained an early monopoly of this traffic, but its importance encouraged the Caledonian to enter the area. The Lanarkshire and Dumbartonshire Railway was nominally independent, running from near Maryhill to Dumbarton, opening progressively between 1894 and 1896. In 1896 the Caledonian gained access to Loch Lomond with the opening of the Dumbarton and Balloch Joint Railway, (originally built by the Caledonian and Dumbartonshire Junction Railway), built jointly with the NBR. In 1888 the Lanarkshire and Ayrshire Railway opened a 6.5 miles (10.5 km) line from Giffen on the Glasgow, Barrhead and Kilmarnock Joint Railway to Ardrossan. Its purpose was to shorten the route for Caledonian mineral traffic, and it was worked by the Caledonian. In 1903 - 1904 it was extended eastwards to Cathcart and Newton, enabling the heavy mineral trains to avoid the Joint Line and the congested area around Gushetfaulds from the Lanarkshire coalfields to Ardrossan Harbour. The Caledonian Railway entered Edinburgh from Carstairs on 15 February 1848; its terminus was a one-platform station named Lothian Road. This was the first line to offer travel without change of carriage between Edinburgh and England: passengers on the rival North British Railway needed to cross the River Tweed on foot to continue their rail journey. The unsatisfactory Edinburgh terminus needed improvement but funds were limited, and the Caledonian built a short spur to Haymarket; talks had taken place about using the E&GR and NBR station, later named Waverley; but the NBR rejected the idea. Eventually in 1870 the Lothian Road station was much improved and extended, and the new terminus was named Princes Street. The owner of Granton Harbour encouraged, and half-funded, the construction of a branch from near Lothian Road, and this opened in 1861. A branch from the Granton line to Leith Docks was made in 1864. This line was opened to passengers from 1879: the Leith terminal was later renamed Leith North. After 1900 the port authorities built new modern docks to the east of the former Leith docks, and the Caledonian further extended its Leith line to reach the new facilities: the Leith New Lines opened in 1903. It had been planned to open a passenger service on the line, and passenger stations had been built, but street tramcar competition made it clear that an inner suburban passenger railway was unviable and the passenger service was never inaugurated. The Edinburgh main line passed close to numerous mineral workings, and several short branches and connections were made to collieries, iron workings and shale oil plants. The Wilsontown branch from Auchengray, opened in 1860 was the most significant, and carried a passenger service. The original Wishaw and Coltness Railway, now leased by the Caledonian, had long since reached Cleland ironworks from the west, and in 1869 the line was extended from near there to Midcalder Junction on the Edinburgh main line, passing through Shotts, Fauldhouse and Midcalder. This line connected to many further mines and industrial sites, and gave the Caledonian a passenger route between Glasgow and Edinburgh that competed with the North British Railway's route through Falkirk. The first main line had by-passed a considerable centre of industry located on the Water of Leith south-west of the city, and a branch line to Balerno opened on 1 August 1874. The line was successful in encouraging residential building, especially at Colinton, and also leisure excursions: for a time it was known as the picnic line, but it too succumbed to more convenient transport facilities by road, and it closed to passengers in 1943. Speculative residential development encouraged the construction of a line to Barnton, west of Edinburgh. The branch line opened on 1 March 1894; the terminus was named Cramond Brig at first. The Caledonian intended to make the line into a loop, returning to the city by way of Corstorphine, but this idea was shelved. The Caledonian Railway had intended to lease, or absorb, the Scottish Central Railway (SCR), which obtained its Act of Parliament on the same day as the Caledonian. The SCR needed a partner railway to get access to Glasgow and Edinburgh, but the rival Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway (E&GR) would provide that. The SCR opened from Greenhill Junction with the E&GR to Perth on 22 May 1848, and the Caledonian opened its branch to reach Greenhill Junction on 7 August 1848. The SCR remained independent for some time, mainly because of Parliamentary opposition to proposed mergers. The SCR built Perth General station, which became the focus of several railways at that traffic centre, and a Joint Committee managed the station. The SCR itself managed to absorb some local railways; the Crieff Junction Railway had opened from Crieff to what later became Gleneagles station in 1856, and it was worked by the SCR and absorbed in 1865. In 1858 the Dunblane, Doune and Callander Railway was opened in 1858. It achieved considerable significance as the starting point for the Callander and Oban Railway, described below. It was absorbed by the SCR in 1865 immediately before the SCR amalgamated with the Caledonian Railway on 1 August 1865, finally having gained Parliamentary approval to do so. The Scottish Central Railway was absorbed by the Caledonian Railway in 1865. Several railways obtained their Acts of Parliament on the same day as the Caledonian, on 31 July 1845. There was a frenzy of railway promotion in that year, and it seemed as if every locality must have its own line. The Scottish Central Railway had been described above; the Scottish Midland Junction Railway (SMJR), the Aberdeen Railway and the Dundee and Perth Railway also got their Acts on the same day. The SMJR built a line from Perth to Forfar; at Perth it used the Scottish Central Railway joint station. The main line ran through the fertile area of Strathmore and the SMJR adopted two existing short lines that were on a suitable alignment. They were the Newtyle and Coupar Angus Railway and the Newtyle and Glammiss Railway. (Glammiss is spelt Glamis nowadays.) Both were unsuccessful adjuncts to the Dundee and Newtyle Railway, built using stone block sleepers and a track gauge of 4 ft 6.5 in (1,384 mm). The two short lines were modernised and altered to double track using standard gauge. At Forfar the SMJR joined the Arbroath and Forfar Railway, another earlier stone block railway, in this case using the track gauge of 5 ft 6 in (1,680 mm). The SMJR opened in 1848. The Aberdeen Railway was to run north from Guthrie, a few miles north-west of Arbroath. Joining the Arbroath and Forfar Railway there, it obtained access to both termini of that line. It was authorised to lease the A&FR. The Aberdeen Railway may have underestimated the cost of upgrading the A&FR's stone block track, and it ran out of money building its own main line; its construction was delayed and it encountered political difficulty in Aberdeen itself. It opened in 1850 to Ferryhill, on the southern margin of the city, extending to Guild Street station in 1854. There were branches to Brechin and Montrose. At this early stage the Caledonian Railway saw itself as the future creator of an extensive network in Scotland, and it set about gaining control of as many other railways as possible. It did so not by purchasing them, but by leasing them. This had the advantage that no payment was required at first, only a periodical payment much later. The Caledonian negotiated with the SCR, the SMJR and the Aberdeen Railway and believed it had captured them, but the SCR had other ideas. Much later the Caledonian found that the periodical lease payments were unaffordable, and it was rescued by the legal opinion that the lease agreements had been ultra vires. The Dundee and Perth Railway opened in 1847; it was taken over by the Scottish Central Railway, and its network came to the Caledonian with the SCR when that company was taken over by the Caledonian in 1865. The Scottish Midland Junction Railway opened in 1848 from Perth to Forfar, giving onward access to Aberdeen. The SMJR and the Aberdeen Railway amalgamated in 1856 to form the Scottish North Eastern Railway in 1856. The SNER did not remain independent for long: it was absorbed by the Caledonian in 1866. At the time of the absorption the SNER and the Great North of Scotland Railway were engaged in building a through line at Aberdeen, with a new Joint station; it opened in 1867. The Caledonian had now got what it had wanted from the outset: control of an extensive network of lines covering a considerable territorial area. This came at a cost: Parliament became increasingly uncomfortable with monopolies of this kind, and when the North British Railway protested, it was given running powers over much of the Caledonian's northern system. There was worse to come: as the North British approached Dundee (with the building of the Tay Bridge, which opened in 1878, the NBR sought and was given joint ownership of the Dundee and Arbroath Railway, which became jointly owned in 1881. The NBR had already built an independent line from Arbroath to Kinnaber Junction, north of Montrose, and so, with the opening in 1890 of the Forth Bridge immediately north of Edinburgh, now had a rival route to Aberdeen. Competition between the companies on the east and west coast routes from London to Aberdeen led in 1895 to what the press called the Race to the North. Acquisition of the SNER and other lines brought a number of branch lines to communities off the main line. A number of infill lines were added towards the end of the nineteenth century. The Dundee and Forfar direct line was opened by the Caledonian in 1870 between Broughty Ferry and Forfar, developing residential travel (to Dundee) but otherwise only a rural line. The Forfar and Brechin Railway was promoted as a potential alternative main line; it opened in 1895 but remained simply a rural branch. The Callander and Oban Railway was an independent company intended to connect the Western Seas to the railway network, but it had been promised financial support by the Scottish Central Railway (SCR). The Caledonian absorbed the SCR in 1865 and the directors were dismayed at the level of commitment to a difficult construction scheme barely started. Construction took many years, reaching a "Killin" station in 1870 and completing in 1880, and money was always desperately tight. The line was never profitable although it contributed greatly to the development of the town of Oban. A branch was built to Ballachulish, opened in 1903. Crieff now had two railway connections, using the same station. The upsurge in tourism in Strathearn encouraged many visitors, who used Crieff as a railhead and continued by road. In 1893 the Crieff and Comrie Railway made a short extension into Strathearn, and this encouraged ideas of completing a link right through to the Callander and Oban line. There were wild dreams of Irish cattle imports coming to Perth markets over the route. This became the Lochearnhead, St Fillans and Comrie Railway; due to serious problems raising capital, it took from 1901 to 1905 to open fully. The through traffic never developed and passenger connections at Balquhidder were poor, discouraging through travel. From July 1865, the Caledonian Railway adopted "a version of the Scottish arms, without, so far as is known, getting the blessing of the Lord Lyon King of Arms". This was a lion rampant with a riband bearing the motto of the Order of the Thistle, Nemo me impune lacessit. Above there was a crest showing helmet surmounted by a crown; the supporters were unicorns. This was slightly modified in August 1866 and from September 1888 a further riband was added below the motto; this bore the words Caledonian Railway Company. From the base of the shield hung a medallion of St Andrew. A lion sejant affronted was superimposed on the crest above which was the inscription In Defence [sic]. The motto was now worded Nemo me impune lacesset but this was corrected to Nemo me impune lacessit in 1899.	<urn:uuid:b31500f0-6984-42b7-829b-4783319e01bb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Caledonian_Railway	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00433.warc.gz	en	0.980721	6,958	3.484375	3	[ 0.21344122290611267, -0.11583910882472992, 0.3614358901977539, 0.1810305416584015, 0.03919193521142006, -0.19900211691856384, -0.2714962363243103, 0.08530140668153763, -0.16058436036109924, -0.28432008624076843, 0.5082318186759949, -0.7719446420669556, 0.41712328791618347, 0.03193321824073...	1	Caledonian Railway Coat of Arms \|Dates of operation\|\|1830s–1923\| \|Successor\|\|London, Midland and Scottish Railway\| The Caledonian Railway (CR) was a major Scottish railway company. It was formed in the early 19th century with the objective of forming a link between English railways and Glasgow. It progressively extended its network and reached Edinburgh and Aberdeen, with a dense network of branch lines in the area surrounding Glasgow. It was absorbed into the London, Midland and Scottish Railway in 1923. Many of its principal routes are still used, and the original main line between Carlisle and Glasgow is in use as part of the West Coast Main Line railway (with a modified entry into Glasgow itself). In the mid-1830s railways in England evolved from local concerns to longer routes that connected cities, and then became networks. In Scotland it was clear that this was the way forward, and there was a desire to connect the central belt to the incipient English network. There was controversy over the route that such a line might take, but the Caledonian Railway was formed on 31 July 1845 and it opened its main line between Glasgow, Edinburgh and Carlisle in 1848, making an alliance with the English London and North Western Railway. In the obituary of the engineer Richard Price-Williams written in 1916 the contractor of the Caledonian Railway is stated to be Thomas Brassey and the civil engineer George Heald. Although the company was supported by Scottish investors, more than half of its shares were held in England. Establishing itself as an inter-city railway, the Caledonian set about securing territory by leasing other authorised or newly built lines, and fierce competition developed with other, larger Scottish railways, particularly the North British Railway and the Glasgow and South Western Railway. The company established primacy in some areas, but remained less than successful in others; considerable sums were expended in the process, not always finding the approval of shareholders. A considerable passenger traffic developed on the Firth of Clyde serving island resorts, and fast boat trains were run from Glasgow to steamer piers; the company was refused permission to operate its own steamers, and it formed a partnership with a nominally independent, but friendly, operator, the Caledonian Steam Packet Company. In 1923 the railways of Great Britain were "grouped" under the Railways Act 1921 and the Caledonian Railway was a constituent of the newly formed London Midland and Scottish Railway; its capitalisation at that time was £57 million (equivalent to £3.19 billion today), and it had a single track mileage of 2,827 miles (4,550 km). It extended from Aberdeen to Portpatrick, and from Oban to Carlisle, running express passenger services and a heavy mineral traffic. In the closing years of the 18th century, the pressing need to bring coal cheaply to Glasgow from the plentiful Monklands coalfield had been met by the construction of the Monkland Canal, opened throughout in 1794. This encouraged development of the coalfield but dissatisfaction at the monopoly prices said to be exacted by the canal led to the construction of the Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway (M&KR), Scotland's first public railway; it opened in 1826. Development of the use of blackband ironstone by David Mushet, and the invention of the hot blast process of iron smelting by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828 led to a huge and rapid increase in iron production and demand for the ore and for coal in the Coatbridge area. The industrial development led to the construction of other railways contiguous with the M&KR, in particular the Garnkirk and Glasgow Railway and the Wishaw and Coltness Railway. These two lines worked in harmony, merging to form the Glasgow, Garnkirk and Coatbridge Railway in 1841, and competing with the M&KR and its allies. All these lines used the local track gauge of 4 ft 6 in (1,370 mm), and they were referred to as the coal lines; passenger traffic was not a dominant activity. During this period, the first long-distance railways were opened in England; the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, the first inter-city line, opened in 1830 and was an immediate success. It was quickly followed by the London and Birmingham Railway in 1838 and the Grand Junction Railway in 1837, and the North Union Railway reaching Preston in 1838, so that London was linked with the Lancashire and West Midlands centres of industry. It was clearly desirable to connect central Scotland into the emerging network. At first it was assumed that only one route from Scotland to England would be feasible, and there was considerable controversy over the possible route. A major difficulty was the terrain of the Southern Uplands: a route running through the hilly lands would involve steep and lengthy gradients that were challenging for the engine power of the time; a route around them, either to the west or the east, involved much lengthier main lines, and made connection to both Edinburgh and Glasgow more problematic. Many competing schemes were put forward, not all of them well thought out, and two successive Government commissions examined them. However, they did not have mandatory force, and after considerable rivalry, the Caledonian Railway obtained an authorising Act of Parliament on 31 July 1845, for lines from Glasgow and Edinburgh to Carlisle. The share capital was to be £1,800,000 (equivalent to £175 million today). The Glasgow and Edinburgh lines combined at Carstairs in Clydesdale, and the route then crossed over Beattock summit and continued on through Annandale. The promoters had engaged in a frenzy of provisional acquisitions of other lines being put forward or already being constructed, as they considered it was vital to secure territory to their own control and to exclude competing concerns as far as possible. However, if they hoped to operate the only Anglo-Scottish route, they were disappointed. The North British Railway opened between Edinburgh and Berwick-upon-Tweed on 22 June 1846, forming part of what has become the East Coast Main Line. The Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock and Ayr Railway had opened in 1841 with the declared intention of reaching Carlisle by way of Dumfries; it did so in 1850, changing its name then to the Glasgow and South Western Railway. The main line was opened from Carlisle to Beattock on 10 September 1847, and throughout between Glasgow and Carlisle on 15 February 1848. A continuous railway route between Glasgow and London existed for the first time. (It had been possible to travel via Edinburgh and Newcastle upon Tyne since 1846, but this involved crossing the River Tweed at Berwick by road, and the River Tyne at Newcastle by ferry.) The Caledonian Railway's Edinburgh line from Carstairs opened on 1 April 1848. The terminal at Edinburgh was Lothian Road. Glasgow was reached over the Glasgow, Garnkirk and Coatbridge Railway (successor to the Garnkirk and Glasgow Railway), and the Wishaw and Coltness Railway, which the Caledonian had leased from 1 January 1847 and 1 January 1846 respectively. The Glasgow station was the Townhead terminus of the Glasgow, Garnkirk and Coatbridge Railway. During the process of seeking Parliamentary authorisation, the Caledonian observed that the Clydesdale Junction Railway was being promoted. The Caledonian acquired that line during its construction, and it opened in 1849. It gave an alternative, and shorter access to another Glasgow passenger terminal, named South Side, and to the Clyde Quays at General Terminus (over the connected General Terminus and Glasgow Harbour Railway). The South Side station was already being used by the Glasgow, Barrhead and Neilston Direct Railway, worked by the Caledonian. One day, they hoped, they might extend that line into Ayrshire. Meanwhile, the line was leased (for 999 years) to the Caledonian in 1849. The Caledonian recognised that the Townhead terminus was unsatisfactory and constructed a deviation from Milton Junction to a new Glasgow terminus at Buchanan Street. It opened on 1 November 1849. Trains to Edinburgh, Stirling and Carlisle used the new station; the Stirling trains had to reverse at Gartsherrie Junction. The Garnkirk's old Glebe Street (Townhead) station was reduced to goods and mineral duties. In 1853 or 1854 the Hayhill Fork, between Gartcosh and Garnqueen, was opened, enabling direct running from Buchanan Street towards Stirling. In the period between formation of the Caledonian Railway and the opening of the main line, a large number of leases and working arrangements had been concluded with other railways being promoted or built. This was mostly done by guaranteeing those shareholders an income on their capital, which meant no immediate cash was required. When the lines started working, suddenly a huge periodical payment was required, and the income was inadequate to satisfy it. There were also suggestions of improper share acquisitions, and in the period 1848 to 1850 a number of shareholder inquiries disclosed bad practices, and many board members had to resign in February 1850. The Company had obtained Parliamentary powers to merge with the Glasgow, Paisley and Greenock Railway (GP&GR) in 1847, but even more alarming revelations of financial impropriety emerged regarding that company, and the Caledonian considered getting authorisation to cancel the amalgamation. However, it was later decided to proceed, and the amalgamation took place by Act of Parliament of 7 August 1851. The GP&GR operated the line between Glasgow and Paisley jointly with the Glasgow and South Western Railway (G&SWR), and the Paisley line used a terminus at Bridge Street, in Glasgow. The Caledonian now worked trains at three termini in Glasgow: Buchanan Street, South Side (from the Clydesdale Junction line, mostly used for local trains to Motherwell and Hamilton), and Bridge Street (on the Paisley line). Gradually the financial difficulties were got under control, by economy, and by the discovery that several of the lease agreements were illegal. Handsome dividends continued to be paid, but it was not until March 1853 that the dividend was paid wholly from revenue.[note 1] If the Caledonian Railway had been formed as an inter-city trunk line, its attention was early on turned to other demands. Local interests in Lanark promoted a branch line to their town, opening in 1855. Coal owners in South Lanarkshire pressed for a railway connection, and the Lesmahagow Railway was formed by them, opening in 1856. It was later absorbed by the Caledonian, but other lines followed in the sparsely populated but mineral-rich area. As new coal mines opened, so new branches were needed, connecting Coalburn, Stonehouse, Strathaven, Muirkirk and Darvel and many other places, with new lines built right up until 1905. When the coal became exhausted in the second half of the twentieth century, the railways were progressively closed; passenger traffic had always been light and it too disappeared. Only the passenger traffic to the Lanark and Larkhall branches remain in operation. In North Lanarkshire the North British Railway was a keen competitor, having taken over the Monkland Railways. The area contained the rapidly growing iron production area surrounding Coatbridge, and servicing that industry with coal and iron ore, and transport to local and more distant metal processing locations, dominated the Caledonian's activity in the region. The Rutherglen and Coatbridge line, later linking Airdie, and the Carfin to Midcalder line were routes with significant passenger traffic. Many lines to coal and iron ore pits further east were built, but serving remote areas the lines closed when the mineral extraction ceased. With the Barrhead line in full operation, interests in Busby wanted a railway connection. The wealthy middle class saw the town as an elegant location and the Busby Railway opened in 1866. Commuting was already in fashion. The line was extended to East Kilbride in 1868, although at that time (long before the New Town) the village did not generate much business for the railway. When the main line was built, no branches were provided in the thinly populated terrain. Four independent companies made branches themselves, and the Caledonian built two. In 1863 an independent line, the Dumfries, Lochmaben and Lockerbie Railway was opened. The line was encouraged by the Caledonian Railway, giving westward access into Dumfriesshire, and worked by it; the Caledonian acquired the line in 1865. The Portpatrick Railway had opened between Castle Douglas and Portpatrick in 1861-1862 and the Caledonian Railway worked that railway; it obtained running powers over the G&SWR between Dumfries and Castle Douglas, and at a stroke the Caledonian had penetrated deep into the south-west, and to the ferry service to the north of Ireland, territory that the G&SWR had assumed was its own. The Portpatrick Railway later reformed with the Wigtownshire Railway as the Portpatrick and Wigtownshire Joint Railway; the Caledonian was a one-quarter owner. The North British Railway opened the branch line to Dolphinton, east of Carstairs, and the Caledonian feared that the next step would be an incursion by the NBR into Caledonian territory, possibly seeking running powers on the main line. To head this off, the Caledonian built its own Dolphinton branch from Carstairs; it opened in 1867. Dolphinton had a population of 260 and two railways, and traffic was correspondingly meagre, and the line closed in 1945 (passengers) and 1950 (goods). The independent Solway Junction Railway was opened in 1869, linking iron mines in Cumberland with the Caledonian Railway at Kirtlebridge, crossing the Solway Firth by a 1,940 yd (1,770 m) viaduct; the company worked the line itself. It considerably shortened the route to the Lanarkshire ironworks, and was heavily used at first, but the traffic was depleted by cheap imported iron ore within a decade. The Scottish part of the line was acquired by the Caledonian Railway in 1873, and the whole line in 1895. Serious ice damage and later heavy maintenance costs made the line seriously unprofitable and it was closed in 1921. When the Caledonian's first main line opened, it used the Townhead terminus of the Glasgow, Garnkirk and Coatbridge Railway, and almost simultaneously, it acquired access to the South Side station planned for the Clydesdale Junction Railway. It extended from Townhead to Buchanan Street, an "inadequate and very cramped station" in 1849, but the route from there to the southwards main line was very circuitous. The Caledonian also worked the Glasgow, Paisley and Greenock Railway with a terminus at Bridge Street, also inconveniently situated south of the Clyde: the Caledonian, therefore, had three unsatisfactory Glasgow termini. As early as 1846 proposals to cross the Clyde from Gushetfaulds to a Dunlop Street terminal had been put forward; the idea was killed by fierce opposition from the Clyde Bridges Trust (which would lose toll income) and the Admiralty (who insisted on a swing bridge). Another scheme failed to get finance in 1866 and again in 1873, but in 1875 an Act was obtained to build a bridge crossing the Clyde and bringing the South Side route into the city centre. A four track railway bridge crossing the river was designed by Blyth and Cunningham and built by Sir William Arrol & Co.; the Clyde railway bridge was complete on 1 October 1878. The new Glasgow Central station on Gordon Street opened in December 1879. It had eight platforms, but was considered to be unsatisfactory, having narrow platforms; the circulating area was "ridiculously small"; there was no good cab stance and inadequate siding accommodation. The Bridge Street terminus was jointly operated with the Glasgow and South Western Railway (G&SWR); it had to be reconstructed as a through station, and the Greenock line trains (operated by the Caledonian) continued to use it. A ninth platform was added to Central station in 1889, but a major expansion took place in the years 1901-1906, when the platforms were lengthened and four platforms added on the west side; a second river crossing was provided. In 1904 Bridge Street station was substantially changed to provide carriage washing and stabling facilities; it closed as a passenger station on 1 March 1905. Central station was operated by a single signal box, staffed with ten men. It was commissioned on 3 May 1908; it had 374 miniature levers, the largest of its type in the world, operating points and signals by electro-pneumatic and electro-magnetic equipment. The Moffat Railway was opened from Beattock on 2 April 1883. It was just over one and a half miles (2.4 km) long. It was worked by the Caledonian and absorbed on 11 November 1889. The Caledonian Railway sought to develop both Moffat and Peebles as watering places, and ran The Tinto Express from both places, combining at Symington, to Edinburgh and Glasgow for several years. With the intention of revitalising the lead mining industry, the Leadhills and Wanlockhead Branch was opened as a light railway from Elvanfoot in 1901 - 1902. With challenging gradients to reach Scotland's highest village in otherwise remote territory, the line scraped a bare living and closed in 1938. In the mid 1850s the steamer connections on the River Clyde assumed ever increasing importance, and journey transit times from settlements in Argyll and the islands to Glasgow became critical. The inconvenient situation of the Greenock station and pier encouraged thoughts of more convenient routes, and in 1862 the Greenock and Wemyss Bay Railway was authorised. It was an independent company intending to provide a fast connection from Rothesay, Bute; it opened on 13 May 1865 and in August 1893 it amalgamated with the Caledonian Railway, having been operated by the Caledonian Railway since its opening. In 1889 the Caledonian itself opened an extension line from Greenock to Gourock, more conveniently situated than Greenock; this involved the expensive construction of Newton Street Tunnel, the longest in Scotland. In competing with rival rail and steamer connections, the Caledonian became frustrated with its reliance on independent steamer operators, and tried to obtain powers to operate the vessels directly; this was refused by Parliament on competition grounds, and in reaction the company founded the nominally independent Caledonian Steam Packet Company in 1889. The CSPC expanded its routes and services considerably; following nationalisation of the railways in 1948 it became owned by British Railways, but was divested in 1968 and later became a constituent of Caledonian MacBrayne Ltd, which is (2015) state-owned. In the final decades of the nineteenth century, as the cities spread into conurbations, the company's attention turned to increasing traffic in areas now thought of as "suburban". Street running tramways were already responding to the demand for passenger travel in these areas, but as yet they used horse traction. The Cathcart District Railway was promoted as an independent concern but heavily supported by the Caledonian. It opened in 1886 from Pollokshields to Mount Florida and Cathcart (the eastern arm of the present-day Cathcart Circle Line) in 1886, and was extended via Shawlands to form a loop in 1894. It was worked by the Caledonian, although the company retained its independence until 1923. The Glasgow Central Railway was authorised as an independent company to build a surface line from Rutherglen to Maryhill. It encountered fierce opposition, and the scheme was taken over by the Caledonian and converted into a route mainly in tunnel. It opened in 1896, further encouraging suburban passenger travel. It closed in 1959 but re-opened (as the Argyle Line) in 1979. The Paisley and Barrhead District Railway was incorporated in 1897 and transferred to the Caledonian in 1902; it was to link Paisley and Barrhead and enable a circular service from Glasgow. The line was substantially ready in 1902 but by now street tramways were electrically operated and eminently successful. It was plain that a passenger service would not be viable against tram competition and the intended passenger service was never started. The area of the north bank of the river Clyde became increasingly important for industry, and therefore became heavily populated. The North British Railway and its satellites had gained an early monopoly of this traffic, but its importance encouraged the Caledonian to enter the area. The Lanarkshire and Dumbartonshire Railway was nominally independent, running from near Maryhill to Dumbarton, opening progressively between 1894 and 1896. In 1896 the Caledonian gained access to Loch Lomond with the opening of the Dumbarton and Balloch Joint Railway, (originally built by the Caledonian and Dumbartonshire Junction Railway), built jointly with the NBR. In 1888 the Lanarkshire and Ayrshire Railway opened a 6.5 miles (10.5 km) line from Giffen on the Glasgow, Barrhead and Kilmarnock Joint Railway to Ardrossan. Its purpose was to shorten the route for Caledonian mineral traffic, and it was worked by the Caledonian. In 1903 - 1904 it was extended eastwards to Cathcart and Newton, enabling the heavy mineral trains to avoid the Joint Line and the congested area around Gushetfaulds from the Lanarkshire coalfields to Ardrossan Harbour. The Caledonian Railway entered Edinburgh from Carstairs on 15 February 1848; its terminus was a one-platform station named Lothian Road. This was the first line to offer travel without change of carriage between Edinburgh and England: passengers on the rival North British Railway needed to cross the River Tweed on foot to continue their rail journey. The unsatisfactory Edinburgh terminus needed improvement but funds were limited, and the Caledonian built a short spur to Haymarket; talks had taken place about using the E&GR and NBR station, later named Waverley; but the NBR rejected the idea. Eventually in 1870 the Lothian Road station was much improved and extended, and the new terminus was named Princes Street. The owner of Granton Harbour encouraged, and half-funded, the construction of a branch from near Lothian Road, and this opened in 1861. A branch from the Granton line to Leith Docks was made in 1864. This line was opened to passengers from 1879: the Leith terminal was later renamed Leith North. After 1900 the port authorities built new modern docks to the east of the former Leith docks, and the Caledonian further extended its Leith line to reach the new facilities: the Leith New Lines opened in 1903. It had been planned to open a passenger service on the line, and passenger stations had been built, but street tramcar competition made it clear that an inner suburban passenger railway was unviable and the passenger service was never inaugurated. The Edinburgh main line passed close to numerous mineral workings, and several short branches and connections were made to collieries, iron workings and shale oil plants. The Wilsontown branch from Auchengray, opened in 1860 was the most significant, and carried a passenger service. The original Wishaw and Coltness Railway, now leased by the Caledonian, had long since reached Cleland ironworks from the west, and in 1869 the line was extended from near there to Midcalder Junction on the Edinburgh main line, passing through Shotts, Fauldhouse and Midcalder. This line connected to many further mines and industrial sites, and gave the Caledonian a passenger route between Glasgow and Edinburgh that competed with the North British Railway's route through Falkirk. The first main line had by-passed a considerable centre of industry located on the Water of Leith south-west of the city, and a branch line to Balerno opened on 1 August 1874. The line was successful in encouraging residential building, especially at Colinton, and also leisure excursions: for a time it was known as the picnic line, but it too succumbed to more convenient transport facilities by road, and it closed to passengers in 1943. Speculative residential development encouraged the construction of a line to Barnton, west of Edinburgh. The branch line opened on 1 March 1894; the terminus was named Cramond Brig at first. The Caledonian intended to make the line into a loop, returning to the city by way of Corstorphine, but this idea was shelved. The Caledonian Railway had intended to lease, or absorb, the Scottish Central Railway (SCR), which obtained its Act of Parliament on the same day as the Caledonian. The SCR needed a partner railway to get access to Glasgow and Edinburgh, but the rival Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway (E&GR) would provide that. The SCR opened from Greenhill Junction with the E&GR to Perth on 22 May 1848, and the Caledonian opened its branch to reach Greenhill Junction on 7 August 1848. The SCR remained independent for some time, mainly because of Parliamentary opposition to proposed mergers. The SCR built Perth General station, which became the focus of several railways at that traffic centre, and a Joint Committee managed the station. The SCR itself managed to absorb some local railways; the Crieff Junction Railway had opened from Crieff to what later became Gleneagles station in 1856, and it was worked by the SCR and absorbed in 1865. In 1858 the Dunblane, Doune and Callander Railway was opened in 1858. It achieved considerable significance as the starting point for the Callander and Oban Railway, described below. It was absorbed by the SCR in 1865 immediately before the SCR amalgamated with the Caledonian Railway on 1 August 1865, finally having gained Parliamentary approval to do so. The Scottish Central Railway was absorbed by the Caledonian Railway in 1865. Several railways obtained their Acts of Parliament on the same day as the Caledonian, on 31 July 1845. There was a frenzy of railway promotion in that year, and it seemed as if every locality must have its own line. The Scottish Central Railway had been described above; the Scottish Midland Junction Railway (SMJR), the Aberdeen Railway and the Dundee and Perth Railway also got their Acts on the same day. The SMJR built a line from Perth to Forfar; at Perth it used the Scottish Central Railway joint station. The main line ran through the fertile area of Strathmore and the SMJR adopted two existing short lines that were on a suitable alignment. They were the Newtyle and Coupar Angus Railway and the Newtyle and Glammiss Railway. (Glammiss is spelt Glamis nowadays.) Both were unsuccessful adjuncts to the Dundee and Newtyle Railway, built using stone block sleepers and a track gauge of 4 ft 6.5 in (1,384 mm). The two short lines were modernised and altered to double track using standard gauge. At Forfar the SMJR joined the Arbroath and Forfar Railway, another earlier stone block railway, in this case using the track gauge of 5 ft 6 in (1,680 mm). The SMJR opened in 1848. The Aberdeen Railway was to run north from Guthrie, a few miles north-west of Arbroath. Joining the Arbroath and Forfar Railway there, it obtained access to both termini of that line. It was authorised to lease the A&FR. The Aberdeen Railway may have underestimated the cost of upgrading the A&FR's stone block track, and it ran out of money building its own main line; its construction was delayed and it encountered political difficulty in Aberdeen itself. It opened in 1850 to Ferryhill, on the southern margin of the city, extending to Guild Street station in 1854. There were branches to Brechin and Montrose. At this early stage the Caledonian Railway saw itself as the future creator of an extensive network in Scotland, and it set about gaining control of as many other railways as possible. It did so not by purchasing them, but by leasing them. This had the advantage that no payment was required at first, only a periodical payment much later. The Caledonian negotiated with the SCR, the SMJR and the Aberdeen Railway and believed it had captured them, but the SCR had other ideas. Much later the Caledonian found that the periodical lease payments were unaffordable, and it was rescued by the legal opinion that the lease agreements had been ultra vires. The Dundee and Perth Railway opened in 1847; it was taken over by the Scottish Central Railway, and its network came to the Caledonian with the SCR when that company was taken over by the Caledonian in 1865. The Scottish Midland Junction Railway opened in 1848 from Perth to Forfar, giving onward access to Aberdeen. The SMJR and the Aberdeen Railway amalgamated in 1856 to form the Scottish North Eastern Railway in 1856. The SNER did not remain independent for long: it was absorbed by the Caledonian in 1866. At the time of the absorption the SNER and the Great North of Scotland Railway were engaged in building a through line at Aberdeen, with a new Joint station; it opened in 1867. The Caledonian had now got what it had wanted from the outset: control of an extensive network of lines covering a considerable territorial area. This came at a cost: Parliament became increasingly uncomfortable with monopolies of this kind, and when the North British Railway protested, it was given running powers over much of the Caledonian's northern system. There was worse to come: as the North British approached Dundee (with the building of the Tay Bridge, which opened in 1878, the NBR sought and was given joint ownership of the Dundee and Arbroath Railway, which became jointly owned in 1881. The NBR had already built an independent line from Arbroath to Kinnaber Junction, north of Montrose, and so, with the opening in 1890 of the Forth Bridge immediately north of Edinburgh, now had a rival route to Aberdeen. Competition between the companies on the east and west coast routes from London to Aberdeen led in 1895 to what the press called the Race to the North. Acquisition of the SNER and other lines brought a number of branch lines to communities off the main line. A number of infill lines were added towards the end of the nineteenth century. The Dundee and Forfar direct line was opened by the Caledonian in 1870 between Broughty Ferry and Forfar, developing residential travel (to Dundee) but otherwise only a rural line. The Forfar and Brechin Railway was promoted as a potential alternative main line; it opened in 1895 but remained simply a rural branch. The Callander and Oban Railway was an independent company intended to connect the Western Seas to the railway network, but it had been promised financial support by the Scottish Central Railway (SCR). The Caledonian absorbed the SCR in 1865 and the directors were dismayed at the level of commitment to a difficult construction scheme barely started. Construction took many years, reaching a "Killin" station in 1870 and completing in 1880, and money was always desperately tight. The line was never profitable although it contributed greatly to the development of the town of Oban. A branch was built to Ballachulish, opened in 1903. Crieff now had two railway connections, using the same station. The upsurge in tourism in Strathearn encouraged many visitors, who used Crieff as a railhead and continued by road. In 1893 the Crieff and Comrie Railway made a short extension into Strathearn, and this encouraged ideas of completing a link right through to the Callander and Oban line. There were wild dreams of Irish cattle imports coming to Perth markets over the route. This became the Lochearnhead, St Fillans and Comrie Railway; due to serious problems raising capital, it took from 1901 to 1905 to open fully. The through traffic never developed and passenger connections at Balquhidder were poor, discouraging through travel. From July 1865, the Caledonian Railway adopted "a version of the Scottish arms, without, so far as is known, getting the blessing of the Lord Lyon King of Arms". This was a lion rampant with a riband bearing the motto of the Order of the Thistle, Nemo me impune lacessit. Above there was a crest showing helmet surmounted by a crown; the supporters were unicorns. This was slightly modified in August 1866 and from September 1888 a further riband was added below the motto; this bore the words Caledonian Railway Company. From the base of the shield hung a medallion of St Andrew. A lion sejant affronted was superimposed on the crest above which was the inscription In Defence [sic]. The motto was now worded Nemo me impune lacesset but this was corrected to Nemo me impune lacessit in 1899.	7,424	ENGLISH	1
A nomad family raised domestic animals such as yaks, sheep, goats and horses. Male yaks were used for carrying loads and female yak called "dri" were providing milk. Similarly, male sheep were beasts of burden and female sheep call "mamo" were providing milk. Tibetans follow the four seasons. Nomads moved from pasture to pasture between the summer and winter places. Because they were on the move, most of them lived in tents. The tents were made of yak hair. The women spun the yak hair from the flocks and then it was woven. The men sewed them into tents. Yak hair tents were water proof and enduringly durable. A Tibetan nomad family before 1959 lived a self-sustained life. They produced their essential food and made all their clothing themselves. Spring was fun. Green grasses began to grow and then wild flowers covered the vast pastures. Cool spring breeze welcomes the wonderful summer followed by autumn where horse racing and festivities brought happy days. Tibet was predominately populated by nomads and farmers before Chinese occupation. This scene depicts the life of an ordinary Tibetan nomad family from Western Tibet.	<urn:uuid:661e6241-19bb-4ecf-9e8f-4bcb4bb7390c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dechencollections.com/single-post/2018/03/18/The-nomadic-life-in-Tibet	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00102.warc.gz	en	0.988989	241	3.390625	3	[ -0.0959211066365242, 0.5318270921707153, 0.39862295985221863, 0.35716909170150757, 0.11498221009969711, 0.17242608964443207, -0.0926176980137825, 0.01515340805053711, -0.24598054587841034, -0.07623893767595291, 0.0891735628247261, -0.34373438358306885, 0.3949946165084839, 0.140264213085174...	4	A nomad family raised domestic animals such as yaks, sheep, goats and horses. Male yaks were used for carrying loads and female yak called "dri" were providing milk. Similarly, male sheep were beasts of burden and female sheep call "mamo" were providing milk. Tibetans follow the four seasons. Nomads moved from pasture to pasture between the summer and winter places. Because they were on the move, most of them lived in tents. The tents were made of yak hair. The women spun the yak hair from the flocks and then it was woven. The men sewed them into tents. Yak hair tents were water proof and enduringly durable. A Tibetan nomad family before 1959 lived a self-sustained life. They produced their essential food and made all their clothing themselves. Spring was fun. Green grasses began to grow and then wild flowers covered the vast pastures. Cool spring breeze welcomes the wonderful summer followed by autumn where horse racing and festivities brought happy days. Tibet was predominately populated by nomads and farmers before Chinese occupation. This scene depicts the life of an ordinary Tibetan nomad family from Western Tibet.	240	ENGLISH	1
Aphantasia describes a condition where a person is unable to recall images in their mind. If you were to be given a prompt like, “Think of a red apple sitting on a window sill,” most people can picture what that looks like in their mind. Even when prompted, someone with aphantasia is not able to picture that image in their mind at all. They know what the image looks like. If shown a picture of an apple and an orange, they would be able to distinguish the two. They would be able to tell you want an apple looks like in factual manner. They would be reciting what they know is fact (i.e. apples are red, round, with a stem, and waxy outer skin) and not from an image that comes to mind. However, if asked to imagine an apple, they would not be able to bring the image to mind. It is an experience that less than 3% of the population deals with, but recently, awareness of aphantasia has been growin. There has been very little research done on aphantasia, but the growing interest in it has researchers seeking to understand it better. Some people who experienced a traumatic brain injury have lost the ability to recall images. Others, however, have always been unable to recall images. There are few signs that can help you understand if you have aphantasia: You cannot recall images even when prompted. Whether you are trying to recall a certain image or you are prompted to think of a certain image, you cannot recall anything. A friend might say, “Hey, I really liked that blue striped shirt you were wearing a few days ago. Where did you get it?” You would not be able to recall the shirt you were wearing in your mind. You might now it as fact thinking, “I know three days ago I wore a blue striped shirt, so I know which one they are referring to,” but you would not envision that shirt in your mind. Other aspects of your memory are not as good. You find yourself struggling to remember other things like directions to where you are going. When searching for a place, people often use landmarks or descriptions of what is nearby. Not being able to recall imagery makes other aspects of your memory feel as though it does not work as well. Learning through visuals can make it difficult without the ability think back to what was illustrated. You have trouble recognizing faces. If you see a picture of someone or have only met them once, it might be difficult to recognize them once you see them again. You might need more context because you are not able to visualize the person’s face in your mind and commit it to memory the same way other people can. As you spend more time with someone, you would recognize them, although it would only be if you saw them. It is important to note that aphantasia has the potential to make it more difficult to recognize faces whereas prosopagnosia (or face blindness) is the inability to recognize faces. Memories of people, places, and experiences play such a huge role in people’s lives. You might not even notice it until you find yourself with the inability to recall certain images and memories. Aphantasia can be difficult because not only can it affect the human experience but it is also something not many people understand. If you believe you may have aphantasia, it could be helpful to speak to a professional where you can have a safe place to talk about your own personal experiences.	<urn:uuid:3fd1ee7b-c832-4148-b557-b8db38436f2d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.e-counseling.com/mental-health/what-is-aphantasia/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00126.warc.gz	en	0.982052	721	3.390625	3	[ 0.19845521450042725, -0.04517852142453194, 0.024892140179872513, 0.22698107361793518, -0.4968114495277405, 0.33681586384773254, 1.0115094184875488, -0.05947435274720192, -0.2057776153087616, -0.18024128675460815, -0.03826262801885605, -0.5060368776321411, 0.11055180430412292, 0.41501379013...	3	Aphantasia describes a condition where a person is unable to recall images in their mind. If you were to be given a prompt like, “Think of a red apple sitting on a window sill,” most people can picture what that looks like in their mind. Even when prompted, someone with aphantasia is not able to picture that image in their mind at all. They know what the image looks like. If shown a picture of an apple and an orange, they would be able to distinguish the two. They would be able to tell you want an apple looks like in factual manner. They would be reciting what they know is fact (i.e. apples are red, round, with a stem, and waxy outer skin) and not from an image that comes to mind. However, if asked to imagine an apple, they would not be able to bring the image to mind. It is an experience that less than 3% of the population deals with, but recently, awareness of aphantasia has been growin. There has been very little research done on aphantasia, but the growing interest in it has researchers seeking to understand it better. Some people who experienced a traumatic brain injury have lost the ability to recall images. Others, however, have always been unable to recall images. There are few signs that can help you understand if you have aphantasia: You cannot recall images even when prompted. Whether you are trying to recall a certain image or you are prompted to think of a certain image, you cannot recall anything. A friend might say, “Hey, I really liked that blue striped shirt you were wearing a few days ago. Where did you get it?” You would not be able to recall the shirt you were wearing in your mind. You might now it as fact thinking, “I know three days ago I wore a blue striped shirt, so I know which one they are referring to,” but you would not envision that shirt in your mind. Other aspects of your memory are not as good. You find yourself struggling to remember other things like directions to where you are going. When searching for a place, people often use landmarks or descriptions of what is nearby. Not being able to recall imagery makes other aspects of your memory feel as though it does not work as well. Learning through visuals can make it difficult without the ability think back to what was illustrated. You have trouble recognizing faces. If you see a picture of someone or have only met them once, it might be difficult to recognize them once you see them again. You might need more context because you are not able to visualize the person’s face in your mind and commit it to memory the same way other people can. As you spend more time with someone, you would recognize them, although it would only be if you saw them. It is important to note that aphantasia has the potential to make it more difficult to recognize faces whereas prosopagnosia (or face blindness) is the inability to recognize faces. Memories of people, places, and experiences play such a huge role in people’s lives. You might not even notice it until you find yourself with the inability to recall certain images and memories. Aphantasia can be difficult because not only can it affect the human experience but it is also something not many people understand. If you believe you may have aphantasia, it could be helpful to speak to a professional where you can have a safe place to talk about your own personal experiences.	703	ENGLISH	1
Displacement and dispossession have been part of United States history since the birth of the nation. After the Native Americans were thought to have souls, they were no longer physically exterminated, but rather culturally exterminated (Smith 37). The land of the natives was taken and they were reduced to small and inadequate reservations. Native Americans were forced to attend boarding schools and were culturally dispossessed, women especially faced challenges because they faced discrimination based on their gender as well as their ethnicity, we continue to see similar dispossession in modern day society. Andrea Smith’s writing about the struggle of Native Americans in the boarding school system and Gloria Anzaldua’s mestiza consciousness demonstrate the dispossession of non-white people in the United States. Allies of the Native Americans advocated to “kill the Indian and save the man (Smith 36).” It was far more cost effective to commit “cultural rather than physical genocide (Smith 37).” Native Americans were denied the right to their culture, children were forced to attend boarding schools that would rid them of their cultural practices and “civilize them.” Native Americans were to be civilized in theses boarding schools and taught American culture, with the supposed goal to assimilate to mainstream society but “because of racism in the U.S., Native Peoples could never really assimilate into the dominant society (Smith 37).” Native Americans were dispossessed from their own culture, one door being closed without the other door ever being opened. Andrea Smith quotes Native American writer K. Tsianina Lomawaima saying “[an] ideological rationale more fully accounts for domesticity training: it was training in dispossession under the guise of domesticity (Smith 37).” Native children were taken from their homes and forced to attend boarding schools most of the time far removed from wherever home was for the children, being away made it more difficult for the children to run back to their families or homes. The first boarding school, the Carlisle School, was modeled after a prison in Florida (Smith 38).” Girls were taught gendered skills such as sewing, cooking, and cleaning with the pretext that those were valuable skills that were preparing them to be middle class wives (Smith 37). Because of the racist structure of American society, these girls were not going to be middle class wives, Smith argues that the native girls were being given this type of education not to train them to enter the middle class as wives, but rather to deny them their cultural roles in their own communities as leaders (Smith 37). In Native American communities, much different from the dominant culture, women were not submissive and domestic, but rather active participants in their communities and often leaders. “Within the moral space of the schoolhouse, women were able to confound to the roles of submission and domination...	<urn:uuid:7687d15d-4c42-4e8d-ac84-96c9ebdd0607>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/dispossession-2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00328.warc.gz	en	0.987895	586	3.90625	4	[ 0.07726558297872543, 0.4093778133392334, 0.39790916442871094, -0.014607589691877365, -0.2146613597869873, -0.0028541539795696735, -0.46001315116882324, 0.11344978213310242, -0.15283139050006866, 0.059249646961688995, 0.2933558523654938, 0.038893893361091614, 0.12413810193538666, -0.0118034...	1	Displacement and dispossession have been part of United States history since the birth of the nation. After the Native Americans were thought to have souls, they were no longer physically exterminated, but rather culturally exterminated (Smith 37). The land of the natives was taken and they were reduced to small and inadequate reservations. Native Americans were forced to attend boarding schools and were culturally dispossessed, women especially faced challenges because they faced discrimination based on their gender as well as their ethnicity, we continue to see similar dispossession in modern day society. Andrea Smith’s writing about the struggle of Native Americans in the boarding school system and Gloria Anzaldua’s mestiza consciousness demonstrate the dispossession of non-white people in the United States. Allies of the Native Americans advocated to “kill the Indian and save the man (Smith 36).” It was far more cost effective to commit “cultural rather than physical genocide (Smith 37).” Native Americans were denied the right to their culture, children were forced to attend boarding schools that would rid them of their cultural practices and “civilize them.” Native Americans were to be civilized in theses boarding schools and taught American culture, with the supposed goal to assimilate to mainstream society but “because of racism in the U.S., Native Peoples could never really assimilate into the dominant society (Smith 37).” Native Americans were dispossessed from their own culture, one door being closed without the other door ever being opened. Andrea Smith quotes Native American writer K. Tsianina Lomawaima saying “[an] ideological rationale more fully accounts for domesticity training: it was training in dispossession under the guise of domesticity (Smith 37).” Native children were taken from their homes and forced to attend boarding schools most of the time far removed from wherever home was for the children, being away made it more difficult for the children to run back to their families or homes. The first boarding school, the Carlisle School, was modeled after a prison in Florida (Smith 38).” Girls were taught gendered skills such as sewing, cooking, and cleaning with the pretext that those were valuable skills that were preparing them to be middle class wives (Smith 37). Because of the racist structure of American society, these girls were not going to be middle class wives, Smith argues that the native girls were being given this type of education not to train them to enter the middle class as wives, but rather to deny them their cultural roles in their own communities as leaders (Smith 37). In Native American communities, much different from the dominant culture, women were not submissive and domestic, but rather active participants in their communities and often leaders. “Within the moral space of the schoolhouse, women were able to confound to the roles of submission and domination...	577	ENGLISH	1
Healthcare In The Early Days Health care in the United States has come a long way from the days of snake oil salesmen and ‘cure all’ tonics advertised by quack doctors. In the early days of the 20th century, there was no such thing as health insurance. For most Americans health care was a very small portion of the budget and the American healthcare system was underdeveloped and primitive. For example, before modern medicine, hospitals were the equivalent to poorhouses where people went to die. It wasn’t until the creation of effective antibiotics, proper hygiene, and better medical schools that hospitals were seen as places that could efficiently heal the sick. However, all of these advancements in medicine started making health care much more expensive than it had ever been. People were now able to go to the doctor if they were gravely ill, but didn’t go for less serious ailments. Annual check-ups, as we know them, didn’t exist. By the end of the 1920s, many hospitals were noticing that people weren’t checking in unless their circumstances were dire. As a way to get more people in their hospital beds, Baylor University Hospital in Dallas, Texas created the pre-cursor to the health insurance system we’ve come to adopt. Our Current Healthcare Model As We Know It Today An official at Baylor hospital noticed that more money was spent on cosmetics than medical care. They wanted to use the same system -paying a bit each month- as a way to bring in more people. The first people to have this rudimentary health insurance was a group of public school teachers who paid 50 cents a month in exchange for Baylor hospital covering the rest of their charges. When the Great Depression hit in 1929, hospitals all over the country saw a massive decline in patients. The “Baylor model” became popular and eventually became what we now know as Blue Cross. This was the start of offering health insurance to workers, but this idea caught on like wildfire during World War II. During a time when the U.S. government was heavily rationing supplies, factories were kicked into high gear to start mass producing equipment for the war. Factory owners needed a way to attract workers and what better way than using fringe benefits to offer your employees company paid health insurance? The benefits of health insurance accelerated in 1943 when the IRS decided to make employer sponsored health insurance tax free. These measures over time led to an astounding increase in the number of people who enrolled in health insurance. In 1940, 9% of Americans had insurance and by 1953, that number shot up to 63%. Through accidents, experimentation, and government mandates we have a healthcare system where people with jobs are covered through their employers and almost everyone else is covered by the government. While there is still lots of room for improvement, this is how our uniquely American health care system came to be.	<urn:uuid:1052206f-f7f1-4440-8170-50154d4c13be>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://aximfsg.com/2019/12/05/have-you-ever-wondered-why-employers-pay-for-our-health-insurance/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00483.warc.gz	en	0.985897	589	3.46875	3	[ -0.5024064183235168, 0.14171452820301056, 0.06273718178272247, 0.09428559988737106, 0.0125900749117136, -0.028120435774326324, -0.14789853990077972, 0.2960450053215027, -0.146564781665802, -0.10274501144886017, 0.29986411333084106, 0.308704137802124, 0.05302606523036957, 0.1598110496997833...	7	Healthcare In The Early Days Health care in the United States has come a long way from the days of snake oil salesmen and ‘cure all’ tonics advertised by quack doctors. In the early days of the 20th century, there was no such thing as health insurance. For most Americans health care was a very small portion of the budget and the American healthcare system was underdeveloped and primitive. For example, before modern medicine, hospitals were the equivalent to poorhouses where people went to die. It wasn’t until the creation of effective antibiotics, proper hygiene, and better medical schools that hospitals were seen as places that could efficiently heal the sick. However, all of these advancements in medicine started making health care much more expensive than it had ever been. People were now able to go to the doctor if they were gravely ill, but didn’t go for less serious ailments. Annual check-ups, as we know them, didn’t exist. By the end of the 1920s, many hospitals were noticing that people weren’t checking in unless their circumstances were dire. As a way to get more people in their hospital beds, Baylor University Hospital in Dallas, Texas created the pre-cursor to the health insurance system we’ve come to adopt. Our Current Healthcare Model As We Know It Today An official at Baylor hospital noticed that more money was spent on cosmetics than medical care. They wanted to use the same system -paying a bit each month- as a way to bring in more people. The first people to have this rudimentary health insurance was a group of public school teachers who paid 50 cents a month in exchange for Baylor hospital covering the rest of their charges. When the Great Depression hit in 1929, hospitals all over the country saw a massive decline in patients. The “Baylor model” became popular and eventually became what we now know as Blue Cross. This was the start of offering health insurance to workers, but this idea caught on like wildfire during World War II. During a time when the U.S. government was heavily rationing supplies, factories were kicked into high gear to start mass producing equipment for the war. Factory owners needed a way to attract workers and what better way than using fringe benefits to offer your employees company paid health insurance? The benefits of health insurance accelerated in 1943 when the IRS decided to make employer sponsored health insurance tax free. These measures over time led to an astounding increase in the number of people who enrolled in health insurance. In 1940, 9% of Americans had insurance and by 1953, that number shot up to 63%. Through accidents, experimentation, and government mandates we have a healthcare system where people with jobs are covered through their employers and almost everyone else is covered by the government. While there is still lots of room for improvement, this is how our uniquely American health care system came to be.	599	ENGLISH	1
DIED: December 15, 1890 • Standing Rock, South Dakota Native American tribal chief Sitting Bull was a Sioux chief and holy man who defended his people and their way of life until the end of his own life. An honorable warrior and leader, Sitting Bull always put the well-being of his tribe before anything else. As their chief, he refused to sign his name to a treaty that would allow the U.S. government to take Sioux land. His death in 1890 remains a mystery, and historians have never been able to disprove the theory that he was assassinated for political reasons. He is most famous for his participation in the Battle of Little Bighorn, commonly referred to as "Custer's Last Stand." "What treaty that the whites have kept has the red man broken? Not one. What treaty that the whites ever made with us red men have they kept? Not one." A typical childhood Sitting Bull was born around 1831, in South Dakota's Grand River Valley. He was born into a Lakota tribe, which is a member of the Sioux (pronounced SUE) Nation. His given name was Tatanka Iyotanka, which describes a buffalo sitting on its haunches, immovable. Sitting Bull lived up to the name, always giving much thought to every situation before making a move. Sitting Bull, a serious youth, lived an uneventful childhood until the age of fourteen. At that time, he engaged in a successful raid on the Crow, a tribe known for its courage. His complete lack of fear made him known throughout neighboring tribes as a dedicated warrior. In 1847, at just fifteen, Sitting Bull proved the truth of his reputation when he galloped his horse past the skirmish line in a battle with the Flatheads. With arrows flying from all directions at him, the young warrior laughed and teased his enemies and managed to suffer only minor injuries. This convinced the Sioux that he must have been born with strong medicine powers. In 1856, Sitting Bull became a leader in both the Strong Heart and the Kit Fox warrior societies. Native Americans and others considered these Lakota societies to be the finest light cavalry in the world, and it was an honor to be a member. A few years later, Sitting Bull became a respected member of the Silent Eaters, an organized group concerned with tribal welfare. Goes head to head with U.S. soldiers Sitting Bull first fought U.S. soldiers in June 1863, when the U.S. army engaged in a campaign to seek revenge on Native American tribes that had rebelled against the government and killed hundreds of white settlers, including women and children. This event was known as the Santee Rebellion (named after the primary warring tribe), and it took place in 1862 in Minnesota. Sitting Bull's people took no part in the killings, but the army was not particular in which Native Americans it targeted for revenge. Throughout the next five years, Sitting Bull fought against the U.S. cavalry time and time again. In 1868, as proof of the respect he commanded, the fearless warrior was named head chief of the Lakota Nation. Sitting Bull was made chief just two years into the Plains Indian Wars (1866–90). During the span of the wars, the federal government was trying to force Native Americans from their tribal lands so that white settlers could move into the region. Although most Plains tribes were peaceful and lived together harmoniously, they were not about to let white men take their land without a fight. Sitting Bull was a dedicated enemy of the U.S. government and military. He knew that defeat would mean an end to his people's way of life and culture. Even in the first years of the wars, he saw the slaughter of the buffalo, the animal his people depended on for food, clothing, and shelter. He watched as white men brought their diseases and bad habits, such as drinking alcohol, into the native villages and camps. The worst years Hostilities peaked between 1869 and 1878. More than two hundred battles were fought during those years. By the late 1870s, the goal of the federal government became the Americanization of those whom many American officials and citizens called "savages." The tribes were expected to live on specific parcels of land. They were also forced to participate in American schooling and to learn to live the way white American society lived. In their speech, dress, and behavior, Native Americans were expected to turn their backs on their cultures and beliefs. In 1874, General George Armstrong Custer (1839–1876) led an expedition into the Black Hills of Dakota Territory, searching for gold. When they found what they were after, prospectors (those hopeful of finding gold) rushed into the Black Hills. This territory had formerly been off-limits to white settlers because it was considered sacred ground by many tribes. (The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 provided the official protection.) The Lakota living in those hills were forced to defend themselves against the criminal prospectors. The government then tried to buy the land from the tribes, but the Lakota refused to sell. Since buying the land did not work, the treaty was simply ignored, and the government informed the Lakota that if they had not willingly moved to reservations by January 31, 1876, they would be considered hostile. Sitting Bull, true to his name, did not move. In March 1876, federal troops began moving into the area. Sitting Bull knew they were coming, and he summoned the Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho to his camp in Montana Territory. They held a sun dance ritual, and during the ceremony, Sitting Bull had a vision. In it, he saw soldiers falling from the sky into the Lakota camp. Sitting Bull shared his vision with other chiefs and leaders, and on June 17, Chief Crazy Horse (1842?–1877) set out with five hundred of his men. They surprised U.S. troops on their way to Montana and forced their retreat. The Battle of Little Bighorn To celebrate their major victory, Sitting Bull moved the Lakota camp to the valley of Little Big Horn River, where they met with three thousand more Native Americans who left their reservations to follow the great chief. On June 25, Custer and the Seventh Cavalry attacked the camp. Greatly outnumbered, Custer and his men were killed. Sitting Bull's vision had come true. Custer's death outraged the American public. Although the general had defied orders and moved into battle sooner than he was told to do, and despite the fact that he was completely unaware that Crazy Horse had forced the retreat of U.S. troops, Custer became an overnight hero. His life and death were exaggerated in songs, poems, and tall tales. His career before his "last stand" had been ordinary, but now he was portrayed as a courageous hero whose life had been snuffed out by blood-thirsty savages. America wanted revenge. Exile and surrender Custer's defeat brought thousands more soldiers into the region, and the Lakota were specific targets. In May 1877, Sitting Bull took his tribe into Canada, where the United States could not capture him. When the government sent an official across the border to offer the chief a pardon (formal forgiveness for his "crime") in exchange for settlement on a reservation, an angry Sitting Bull refused. As recorded in Great Speeches by Native Americans, Sitting Bull's response to the government was, "For sixty-four years you have kept me and my people and treated us bad. What have we done that you should want us to stop? We have done nothing. … Don't you say two more words. Go back home where you came from. … This part of the country does not belong to your people. You belong on the other side; this side belongs to us." Sitting Bull and his people lasted four long years in Canada. When the buffalo were all but extinct and he could no longer keep the tribe fed and healthy, he crossed the border once more. On July 19, 1881, he surrendered at Fort Buford, Montana. According to the PBS Web site New Perspectives on the West, thegreatchiefsaid,"Iwishittobe remembered that I was the last man of my tribe to surrender my rifle." For Sitting Bull, surrender was the beginning of the end. But surrendering during the Plains Indian Wars was often used as a strategy to buy more time and eventually escape, and other famous Native American warriors used it to their advantage. Officials sent Sitting Bull to Standing Rock Reservation. When they realized how popular he still was and saw how welcomed he was there, they feared he might instigate an uprising, so he was sent down the Missouri River to Fort Randall. He was held as a prisoner of war for two years. Returns to Standing Rock In May 1883, Sitting Bull was reunited with his Lakota tribe at Standing Rock. The chief worked alongside his people in the fields, but it was common knowledge that he still had authority over the Native Americans there. When government officials visited to tell the tribes of their desire to open part of the reservation to white settlers, Sitting Bull spoke out against the plan. He left the reservation for four months in 1885 to join Buffalo Bill's Wild West show. This variety show featured several famous figures of the West, including Buffalo Bill Cody (1846–1917). It traveled the country entertaining settlers whose only knowledge of the wild frontier came from books and stories. For his part in riding around the arena once during each performance, Sitting Bull earned $50 a week. White society became too much for the aging chief, and here turned to his cabinat Standing Rock. Although the rules of the reservation required Sitting Bull to embrace Christianity and other white cultural norms, the chief refused. He lived with his two wives and children and never gave up his traditional lifestyle. Not long after he returned, Sitting Bull had another vision. In it, he was told that he would be killed by one of his own people. Vision comes true Sitting Bull was visited by a Lakota named Kicking Bear (Mato Wanahtaka; 1846–1904) in the fall of 1890. Kicking Bear shared with the chief news of a ceremony that was supposed to get rid of white people and give back to the Native Americans their traditional way of life. The ceremony was known as the Ghost Dance, and Lakota at other reservations had already adopted it. Officials at those reservations called in the military to keep the tribes under control. Those in charge at Standing Rock feared Sitting Bull would join the Ghost Dancers. If he did that, the movement would have a power beyond control. Before dawn on December 15, 1890, forty-three Lakota police officers broke down Sitting Bull's front door and dragged the chief to his front porch. Word of the arrest had already spread, and Sitting Bull's followers were waiting for him outside to lend their support. Geronimo: Famous Apache Warrior Geronimo was born in 1829 in either Arizona or New Mexico. Regardless, the region belonged to Mexico at the time. He was born into an Apache tribe and given the name Goyakla, which means "one who yawns." For unknown reasons, Mexican soldiers gave him the name he is known by: Geronimo. Although not himself a hereditary leader, Geronimo was often mistaken for one by outsiders because he acted as spokesman for his brother-in-law, an Apache chief named Juh (c. 1825–1883). Juh had a speech impediment, which made him unable to speak clearly. Geronimo had a wife and three children by the 1850s, and he was also responsible for the care of his widowed mother. In the summer of 1858, his tribe traveled to Mexico to trade with the Mexicans in a town the Apaches called Kaskiyeh. They set up camp, and women and children remained behind while the men went to town to trade. When the men returned to camp on the third day, they found most of their women and children murdered. Mexican soldiers from a neighboring town had attacked the camp, and Geronimo's wife, children, and mother were among the massacred. The loss of his family sent the warrior in search of vengeance, and he led his tribe in raids on Mexican towns and villages. He attacked people in New Mexico and Arizona along the way. Geronimo was a role model for other Apaches, who saw in him the values they held most dear. He was aggressive and courageous in battle, and his vow of vengeance was considered an honorable way to live. Many Apaches believedGeronimo had powers, which began to come to him in visions shortly after that fateful day in 1858. Legend claims he could walk without leaving footprints. His powers earned him the highly respected title of medicine man. As the U.S. government began forcing Native Americans from their lands and onto reservations (assigned lots of land), Geronimo and his Apaches fought fiercely. Although many people credited him with being the last Native American to surrender to the United States, in fact he surrendered more than once. The first time came in 1884, and his tribe members were taken to the San Carlos Indian Reservation. He and 144 Apaches escaped the following year, but surrendered ten months later when they were found in Mexico. As they were being brought back across the border, Geronimo and a small group of his men escaped. Although the United States had fifty-five hundred soldiers searching for the escapees, it took them five months and more than 1,600 miles (2,574.4 kilometers) to find them. Geronimo's final surrender took place near Douglas, Arizona, in September 1886. The U.S. government sent the warrior, along with 450 Apache men, women, and children, by train to Florida, where they lived for a year at Fort Pickens and Fort Marion. In 1888, they were moved to Mount Vernon, Alabama, where they stayed until 1894, when they were sent to Fort Sill, Oklahoma. Throughout all these years, the Apaches were technically considered prisoners of war. Geronimo died at Fort Sill in 1909. He was eighty-five years old. Despite having requested to be allowed to die in his native land of Arizona, he was never set free. A gunfight broke out, and in the chaos, Sitting Bull was shot and killed by a Lakota policeman. Catherine Weldon, a missionary and teacher who lived among the Lakota, described the chief in these words, as reported by Sally Roesch Wagner in her article "Sitting Bull: In Memory": "As a friend … sincere and true, as a patriot devoted and incorruptible. As a husband and father, affectionate and considerate. As a host, courteous and hospitable to the last degree." Weldon believed Sitting Bull was murdered so that he could not ever tell of secrets he knew that would disgrace the U.S. government. Wagner also claims that the government and military both were guilty of changing census records to reduce the number of Native Americans required to sign agreements to sell their land (as required by the Treaty of 1868). In addition, she declares that officials used illegal means to gather signatures to reach the required numbers. Weldon and Wagner voiced opinions that reflected those of others. According to Wagner's article, the New York World newspaper reported on December 21, 1890, that "The lying, thieving Indian agents wanted silence touching past thefts and immunity to continue their thieving." The editor of that paper supported his reporter's claims and said a military official's report of Sitting Bull's death gave evidence of the claims. "As it stands now it was organized butchery, and one of the most shameful incidents in our 'century of dishonor' toward the Indians," wrote the editor. An investigation into the murder was never made, and the assassination charges have never been found to be untrue. Wagner's article includes a quote from General Leonard Colby, head of the Nebraska National Guard. Colby claimed there was an "understanding between the officers of the Indian and military departments that it would be impossible to bring Sitting Bull to Standing Rock alive, and even if successfully captured, it would be difficult to tell what to do with him." Colby further reports that there was an arrangement between the commanding officers and the Indian police that the death of Sitting Bull would be preferable to his capture, and that "the slightest attempt to rescue him should be the signal for his destruction." Sitting Bull was buried without ceremony. It was not until 1953 that his remains were moved to Mobridge, South Dakota, where his grave was marked with granite. For More Information Blaisdell, Bob, ed. Great Speeches by Native Americans. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 2000. Geronimo. Geronimo: His Own Story. Edited by S. M. Barrett. New York: Dutton, 1970. Reprint, New York: Meridian, 1996. Marker, Sherry. Plains Indian Wars (America at War). New York: Facts on File, 2003. Roop, Connie, and Peter Roop. Sitting Bull. Scholastic Paperbacks, 2002. Utley, Robert. The Lance and the Shield: The Life and Times of Sitting Bull. New York: Henry Holt, 1993. "Chief Sitting Bull." History Channel.http://www.historychannel.com/exhibits/sioux/sittingbull.html (accessed on September 4, 2006). "Geronimo." Arizona State Museum.http://www.statemuseum.arizona.edu/artifact/geronimo.shtml (accessed on September 4, 2006). "Geronimo." Indians.org.http://www.indians.org/welker/geronimo.htm (accessed on September 4, 2006). "History of Sitting Bull." Canada's Digital Collections. http://collections.ic.gc.ca/beaupre/promme92.htm (accessed on September 4, 2006). McLaughlin, James. "An Account of Sitting Bull's Death." PBS: Archives of the West.http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/resources/archives/eight/sbarrest.htm (accessed on September 4, 2006). PBS. "Sitting Bull." New Perspectives on the West.http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/people/s_z/sittingbull.htm (accessed on September 4, 2006). Wagner, SallyRoesch."SittingBull:InMemory." First Nations: Issues of Consequence.http://www.dickshovel.com/sittingbull.html (accessed on September 4, 2006).	<urn:uuid:bc2e22fc-b1eb-4ac2-96d8-275231bccf4b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/bull-sitting	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00515.warc.gz	en	0.984767	3,926	3.53125	4	[ -0.06089923903346062, 0.316133588552475, 0.4522584080696106, -0.038790132850408554, -0.2628645896911621, -0.27367135882377625, 0.3205503225326538, 0.0236346535384655, -0.17996753752231598, -0.29897403717041016, 0.18204957246780396, -0.12903544306755066, 0.3191874027252197, 0.14439864456653...	5	DIED: December 15, 1890 • Standing Rock, South Dakota Native American tribal chief Sitting Bull was a Sioux chief and holy man who defended his people and their way of life until the end of his own life. An honorable warrior and leader, Sitting Bull always put the well-being of his tribe before anything else. As their chief, he refused to sign his name to a treaty that would allow the U.S. government to take Sioux land. His death in 1890 remains a mystery, and historians have never been able to disprove the theory that he was assassinated for political reasons. He is most famous for his participation in the Battle of Little Bighorn, commonly referred to as "Custer's Last Stand." "What treaty that the whites have kept has the red man broken? Not one. What treaty that the whites ever made with us red men have they kept? Not one." A typical childhood Sitting Bull was born around 1831, in South Dakota's Grand River Valley. He was born into a Lakota tribe, which is a member of the Sioux (pronounced SUE) Nation. His given name was Tatanka Iyotanka, which describes a buffalo sitting on its haunches, immovable. Sitting Bull lived up to the name, always giving much thought to every situation before making a move. Sitting Bull, a serious youth, lived an uneventful childhood until the age of fourteen. At that time, he engaged in a successful raid on the Crow, a tribe known for its courage. His complete lack of fear made him known throughout neighboring tribes as a dedicated warrior. In 1847, at just fifteen, Sitting Bull proved the truth of his reputation when he galloped his horse past the skirmish line in a battle with the Flatheads. With arrows flying from all directions at him, the young warrior laughed and teased his enemies and managed to suffer only minor injuries. This convinced the Sioux that he must have been born with strong medicine powers. In 1856, Sitting Bull became a leader in both the Strong Heart and the Kit Fox warrior societies. Native Americans and others considered these Lakota societies to be the finest light cavalry in the world, and it was an honor to be a member. A few years later, Sitting Bull became a respected member of the Silent Eaters, an organized group concerned with tribal welfare. Goes head to head with U.S. soldiers Sitting Bull first fought U.S. soldiers in June 1863, when the U.S. army engaged in a campaign to seek revenge on Native American tribes that had rebelled against the government and killed hundreds of white settlers, including women and children. This event was known as the Santee Rebellion (named after the primary warring tribe), and it took place in 1862 in Minnesota. Sitting Bull's people took no part in the killings, but the army was not particular in which Native Americans it targeted for revenge. Throughout the next five years, Sitting Bull fought against the U.S. cavalry time and time again. In 1868, as proof of the respect he commanded, the fearless warrior was named head chief of the Lakota Nation. Sitting Bull was made chief just two years into the Plains Indian Wars (1866–90). During the span of the wars, the federal government was trying to force Native Americans from their tribal lands so that white settlers could move into the region. Although most Plains tribes were peaceful and lived together harmoniously, they were not about to let white men take their land without a fight. Sitting Bull was a dedicated enemy of the U.S. government and military. He knew that defeat would mean an end to his people's way of life and culture. Even in the first years of the wars, he saw the slaughter of the buffalo, the animal his people depended on for food, clothing, and shelter. He watched as white men brought their diseases and bad habits, such as drinking alcohol, into the native villages and camps. The worst years Hostilities peaked between 1869 and 1878. More than two hundred battles were fought during those years. By the late 1870s, the goal of the federal government became the Americanization of those whom many American officials and citizens called "savages." The tribes were expected to live on specific parcels of land. They were also forced to participate in American schooling and to learn to live the way white American society lived. In their speech, dress, and behavior, Native Americans were expected to turn their backs on their cultures and beliefs. In 1874, General George Armstrong Custer (1839–1876) led an expedition into the Black Hills of Dakota Territory, searching for gold. When they found what they were after, prospectors (those hopeful of finding gold) rushed into the Black Hills. This territory had formerly been off-limits to white settlers because it was considered sacred ground by many tribes. (The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 provided the official protection.) The Lakota living in those hills were forced to defend themselves against the criminal prospectors. The government then tried to buy the land from the tribes, but the Lakota refused to sell. Since buying the land did not work, the treaty was simply ignored, and the government informed the Lakota that if they had not willingly moved to reservations by January 31, 1876, they would be considered hostile. Sitting Bull, true to his name, did not move. In March 1876, federal troops began moving into the area. Sitting Bull knew they were coming, and he summoned the Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho to his camp in Montana Territory. They held a sun dance ritual, and during the ceremony, Sitting Bull had a vision. In it, he saw soldiers falling from the sky into the Lakota camp. Sitting Bull shared his vision with other chiefs and leaders, and on June 17, Chief Crazy Horse (1842?–1877) set out with five hundred of his men. They surprised U.S. troops on their way to Montana and forced their retreat. The Battle of Little Bighorn To celebrate their major victory, Sitting Bull moved the Lakota camp to the valley of Little Big Horn River, where they met with three thousand more Native Americans who left their reservations to follow the great chief. On June 25, Custer and the Seventh Cavalry attacked the camp. Greatly outnumbered, Custer and his men were killed. Sitting Bull's vision had come true. Custer's death outraged the American public. Although the general had defied orders and moved into battle sooner than he was told to do, and despite the fact that he was completely unaware that Crazy Horse had forced the retreat of U.S. troops, Custer became an overnight hero. His life and death were exaggerated in songs, poems, and tall tales. His career before his "last stand" had been ordinary, but now he was portrayed as a courageous hero whose life had been snuffed out by blood-thirsty savages. America wanted revenge. Exile and surrender Custer's defeat brought thousands more soldiers into the region, and the Lakota were specific targets. In May 1877, Sitting Bull took his tribe into Canada, where the United States could not capture him. When the government sent an official across the border to offer the chief a pardon (formal forgiveness for his "crime") in exchange for settlement on a reservation, an angry Sitting Bull refused. As recorded in Great Speeches by Native Americans, Sitting Bull's response to the government was, "For sixty-four years you have kept me and my people and treated us bad. What have we done that you should want us to stop? We have done nothing. … Don't you say two more words. Go back home where you came from. … This part of the country does not belong to your people. You belong on the other side; this side belongs to us." Sitting Bull and his people lasted four long years in Canada. When the buffalo were all but extinct and he could no longer keep the tribe fed and healthy, he crossed the border once more. On July 19, 1881, he surrendered at Fort Buford, Montana. According to the PBS Web site New Perspectives on the West, thegreatchiefsaid,"Iwishittobe remembered that I was the last man of my tribe to surrender my rifle." For Sitting Bull, surrender was the beginning of the end. But surrendering during the Plains Indian Wars was often used as a strategy to buy more time and eventually escape, and other famous Native American warriors used it to their advantage. Officials sent Sitting Bull to Standing Rock Reservation. When they realized how popular he still was and saw how welcomed he was there, they feared he might instigate an uprising, so he was sent down the Missouri River to Fort Randall. He was held as a prisoner of war for two years. Returns to Standing Rock In May 1883, Sitting Bull was reunited with his Lakota tribe at Standing Rock. The chief worked alongside his people in the fields, but it was common knowledge that he still had authority over the Native Americans there. When government officials visited to tell the tribes of their desire to open part of the reservation to white settlers, Sitting Bull spoke out against the plan. He left the reservation for four months in 1885 to join Buffalo Bill's Wild West show. This variety show featured several famous figures of the West, including Buffalo Bill Cody (1846–1917). It traveled the country entertaining settlers whose only knowledge of the wild frontier came from books and stories. For his part in riding around the arena once during each performance, Sitting Bull earned $50 a week. White society became too much for the aging chief, and here turned to his cabinat Standing Rock. Although the rules of the reservation required Sitting Bull to embrace Christianity and other white cultural norms, the chief refused. He lived with his two wives and children and never gave up his traditional lifestyle. Not long after he returned, Sitting Bull had another vision. In it, he was told that he would be killed by one of his own people. Vision comes true Sitting Bull was visited by a Lakota named Kicking Bear (Mato Wanahtaka; 1846–1904) in the fall of 1890. Kicking Bear shared with the chief news of a ceremony that was supposed to get rid of white people and give back to the Native Americans their traditional way of life. The ceremony was known as the Ghost Dance, and Lakota at other reservations had already adopted it. Officials at those reservations called in the military to keep the tribes under control. Those in charge at Standing Rock feared Sitting Bull would join the Ghost Dancers. If he did that, the movement would have a power beyond control. Before dawn on December 15, 1890, forty-three Lakota police officers broke down Sitting Bull's front door and dragged the chief to his front porch. Word of the arrest had already spread, and Sitting Bull's followers were waiting for him outside to lend their support. Geronimo: Famous Apache Warrior Geronimo was born in 1829 in either Arizona or New Mexico. Regardless, the region belonged to Mexico at the time. He was born into an Apache tribe and given the name Goyakla, which means "one who yawns." For unknown reasons, Mexican soldiers gave him the name he is known by: Geronimo. Although not himself a hereditary leader, Geronimo was often mistaken for one by outsiders because he acted as spokesman for his brother-in-law, an Apache chief named Juh (c. 1825–1883). Juh had a speech impediment, which made him unable to speak clearly. Geronimo had a wife and three children by the 1850s, and he was also responsible for the care of his widowed mother. In the summer of 1858, his tribe traveled to Mexico to trade with the Mexicans in a town the Apaches called Kaskiyeh. They set up camp, and women and children remained behind while the men went to town to trade. When the men returned to camp on the third day, they found most of their women and children murdered. Mexican soldiers from a neighboring town had attacked the camp, and Geronimo's wife, children, and mother were among the massacred. The loss of his family sent the warrior in search of vengeance, and he led his tribe in raids on Mexican towns and villages. He attacked people in New Mexico and Arizona along the way. Geronimo was a role model for other Apaches, who saw in him the values they held most dear. He was aggressive and courageous in battle, and his vow of vengeance was considered an honorable way to live. Many Apaches believedGeronimo had powers, which began to come to him in visions shortly after that fateful day in 1858. Legend claims he could walk without leaving footprints. His powers earned him the highly respected title of medicine man. As the U.S. government began forcing Native Americans from their lands and onto reservations (assigned lots of land), Geronimo and his Apaches fought fiercely. Although many people credited him with being the last Native American to surrender to the United States, in fact he surrendered more than once. The first time came in 1884, and his tribe members were taken to the San Carlos Indian Reservation. He and 144 Apaches escaped the following year, but surrendered ten months later when they were found in Mexico. As they were being brought back across the border, Geronimo and a small group of his men escaped. Although the United States had fifty-five hundred soldiers searching for the escapees, it took them five months and more than 1,600 miles (2,574.4 kilometers) to find them. Geronimo's final surrender took place near Douglas, Arizona, in September 1886. The U.S. government sent the warrior, along with 450 Apache men, women, and children, by train to Florida, where they lived for a year at Fort Pickens and Fort Marion. In 1888, they were moved to Mount Vernon, Alabama, where they stayed until 1894, when they were sent to Fort Sill, Oklahoma. Throughout all these years, the Apaches were technically considered prisoners of war. Geronimo died at Fort Sill in 1909. He was eighty-five years old. Despite having requested to be allowed to die in his native land of Arizona, he was never set free. A gunfight broke out, and in the chaos, Sitting Bull was shot and killed by a Lakota policeman. Catherine Weldon, a missionary and teacher who lived among the Lakota, described the chief in these words, as reported by Sally Roesch Wagner in her article "Sitting Bull: In Memory": "As a friend … sincere and true, as a patriot devoted and incorruptible. As a husband and father, affectionate and considerate. As a host, courteous and hospitable to the last degree." Weldon believed Sitting Bull was murdered so that he could not ever tell of secrets he knew that would disgrace the U.S. government. Wagner also claims that the government and military both were guilty of changing census records to reduce the number of Native Americans required to sign agreements to sell their land (as required by the Treaty of 1868). In addition, she declares that officials used illegal means to gather signatures to reach the required numbers. Weldon and Wagner voiced opinions that reflected those of others. According to Wagner's article, the New York World newspaper reported on December 21, 1890, that "The lying, thieving Indian agents wanted silence touching past thefts and immunity to continue their thieving." The editor of that paper supported his reporter's claims and said a military official's report of Sitting Bull's death gave evidence of the claims. "As it stands now it was organized butchery, and one of the most shameful incidents in our 'century of dishonor' toward the Indians," wrote the editor. An investigation into the murder was never made, and the assassination charges have never been found to be untrue. Wagner's article includes a quote from General Leonard Colby, head of the Nebraska National Guard. Colby claimed there was an "understanding between the officers of the Indian and military departments that it would be impossible to bring Sitting Bull to Standing Rock alive, and even if successfully captured, it would be difficult to tell what to do with him." Colby further reports that there was an arrangement between the commanding officers and the Indian police that the death of Sitting Bull would be preferable to his capture, and that "the slightest attempt to rescue him should be the signal for his destruction." Sitting Bull was buried without ceremony. It was not until 1953 that his remains were moved to Mobridge, South Dakota, where his grave was marked with granite. For More Information Blaisdell, Bob, ed. Great Speeches by Native Americans. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 2000. Geronimo. Geronimo: His Own Story. Edited by S. M. Barrett. New York: Dutton, 1970. Reprint, New York: Meridian, 1996. Marker, Sherry. Plains Indian Wars (America at War). New York: Facts on File, 2003. Roop, Connie, and Peter Roop. Sitting Bull. Scholastic Paperbacks, 2002. Utley, Robert. The Lance and the Shield: The Life and Times of Sitting Bull. New York: Henry Holt, 1993. "Chief Sitting Bull." History Channel.http://www.historychannel.com/exhibits/sioux/sittingbull.html (accessed on September 4, 2006). "Geronimo." Arizona State Museum.http://www.statemuseum.arizona.edu/artifact/geronimo.shtml (accessed on September 4, 2006). "Geronimo." Indians.org.http://www.indians.org/welker/geronimo.htm (accessed on September 4, 2006). "History of Sitting Bull." Canada's Digital Collections. http://collections.ic.gc.ca/beaupre/promme92.htm (accessed on September 4, 2006). McLaughlin, James. "An Account of Sitting Bull's Death." PBS: Archives of the West.http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/resources/archives/eight/sbarrest.htm (accessed on September 4, 2006). PBS. "Sitting Bull." New Perspectives on the West.http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/people/s_z/sittingbull.htm (accessed on September 4, 2006). Wagner, SallyRoesch."SittingBull:InMemory." First Nations: Issues of Consequence.http://www.dickshovel.com/sittingbull.html (accessed on September 4, 2006).	4,034	ENGLISH	1
A Unique Bullying Prevention Model for Students with Disabilities Did you know that students with disabilities are bullied at a rate of 2 to 3 times more than their nondisabled peers? It’s true. Statistics show that bullying happens to almost 75% of students with disabilities. Many students with disabilities have few or no friends, and it makes it easier for someone to bully another student who is all alone or who doesn’t have someone looking out for them. A student who looks out for other students who are being bullied or who are isolated from other students and helps them out by making sure that they are included and protected from harm. Most students don’t like to see bullying, but they may not know what to do when it happens. Peer advocacy—speaking out on the behalf of others — is a unique approach that empowers students to protect those targeted by bullying. It works for two reasons: Students are more likely than adults to see what is happening with their peers, and peer influence is powerful. A student telling someone to stop bullying has much more impact than an adult giving that same advice. “I learned that even though I am only one person I can change society.” “Being a peer advocate makes me more aware when someone is not being included and it is a lot easier to include them and still have them feel comfortable. I have learned that there is so much more to me than just who I was before.” Encourage the adults in your school, such as your principal, school counselor, or teacher to consider a “Peer Advocacy” project at school. “Before I saw people give the kids with disabilities bad looks and didn’t stand up for them, now I will stand up for them.” “Before Peer Advocacy, kids were eating alone, now we are sitting with them and hanging out.” “Peer advocates should spread around the world.” “Later in life I’ll be able to say I was a peer advocate, I made a difference! Will you?” “I love being a Peer Advocate, it’s so much fun. I love it and am happy I joined. Before it was not as fun being in nothing then I heard about Peer Advocates and then that inspired me and I did it for the kids with disabilities and they rock!!” “I think it’s important to be a Peer Advocate to let kids know they’re not alone and that others really do have their back. Even through some treat them differently, they are just like everyone else. They should be treated the same too. From this experience I learned all that. I think others should consider this too.” Be a friend! Watch out for those students, with and without disabilities, who might need your help and have their backs. To be a friend, you can: If you know that someone is being teased, hurt, or harmed in any manner, you can: Students who have been peer advocates said, “when I saw bullying happen, I…” What Should You Do? Peer Advocacy \| PACERTalks About Bullying Episode 24 Insights and advice from students as they think through how to respond to real life bullying situations. In this video middle school students from a “peer advocacy” group explore how to handle a scenario in which a student with down syndrome is being bullied.	<urn:uuid:ea015c9b-2bb2-4200-b9cb-ce4692b6336a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.pacerteensagainstbullying.org/advocacy-for-others/peer-advocacy/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00332.warc.gz	en	0.984087	721	3.6875	4	[ -0.11989132314920425, -0.17756612598896027, 0.07528500258922577, -0.3718612790107727, -0.5407408475875854, 0.24849441647529602, 0.21976912021636963, 0.3837825655937195, 0.08894692361354828, -0.40245482325553894, 0.25777238607406616, -0.01627397909760475, 0.04980024695396423, -0.20816607773...	8	A Unique Bullying Prevention Model for Students with Disabilities Did you know that students with disabilities are bullied at a rate of 2 to 3 times more than their nondisabled peers? It’s true. Statistics show that bullying happens to almost 75% of students with disabilities. Many students with disabilities have few or no friends, and it makes it easier for someone to bully another student who is all alone or who doesn’t have someone looking out for them. A student who looks out for other students who are being bullied or who are isolated from other students and helps them out by making sure that they are included and protected from harm. Most students don’t like to see bullying, but they may not know what to do when it happens. Peer advocacy—speaking out on the behalf of others — is a unique approach that empowers students to protect those targeted by bullying. It works for two reasons: Students are more likely than adults to see what is happening with their peers, and peer influence is powerful. A student telling someone to stop bullying has much more impact than an adult giving that same advice. “I learned that even though I am only one person I can change society.” “Being a peer advocate makes me more aware when someone is not being included and it is a lot easier to include them and still have them feel comfortable. I have learned that there is so much more to me than just who I was before.” Encourage the adults in your school, such as your principal, school counselor, or teacher to consider a “Peer Advocacy” project at school. “Before I saw people give the kids with disabilities bad looks and didn’t stand up for them, now I will stand up for them.” “Before Peer Advocacy, kids were eating alone, now we are sitting with them and hanging out.” “Peer advocates should spread around the world.” “Later in life I’ll be able to say I was a peer advocate, I made a difference! Will you?” “I love being a Peer Advocate, it’s so much fun. I love it and am happy I joined. Before it was not as fun being in nothing then I heard about Peer Advocates and then that inspired me and I did it for the kids with disabilities and they rock!!” “I think it’s important to be a Peer Advocate to let kids know they’re not alone and that others really do have their back. Even through some treat them differently, they are just like everyone else. They should be treated the same too. From this experience I learned all that. I think others should consider this too.” Be a friend! Watch out for those students, with and without disabilities, who might need your help and have their backs. To be a friend, you can: If you know that someone is being teased, hurt, or harmed in any manner, you can: Students who have been peer advocates said, “when I saw bullying happen, I…” What Should You Do? Peer Advocacy \| PACERTalks About Bullying Episode 24 Insights and advice from students as they think through how to respond to real life bullying situations. In this video middle school students from a “peer advocacy” group explore how to handle a scenario in which a student with down syndrome is being bullied.	663	ENGLISH	1
Who was Ehud? Question: "Who was Ehud?" Answer: Who was Ehud? Ehud served as the second judge of Israel following Othniel. After Othniel’s death, the people of Israel sinned and fell to the king of Moab, serving him for 18 years (Judges 3:13–14). When the Israelites cried out for help, God sent Ehud to serve as judge. Facts about Ehud include that he was the son of Gera and belonged to the tribe of Benjamin. He was also noted as a left-handed man (Judges 3:15). This detail would become important to the success of his mission. Beginning in Judges 3:16, we read that Ehud made himself a small sword (about 16 inches long) and strapped it to his right thigh under his clothes—had Ehud been right-handed, he would have carried the sword on his left side. Next, he visited the Moabites’ King Eglon under pretense of paying a tribute. When Ehud was checked for weapons, his small sword was apparently missed as it was in an unexpected location. Following the presentation of his tribute, Ehud said that he had a secret message for the king. Everyone left the room except Ehud and King Eglon. Ehud then pulled out his sword and stuck it into the king’s stomach. The king was obese, and the sword disappeared inside his belly. Ehud left the sword and escaped through a porch opening. When Eglon’s servants later found the king dead, Ehud had already escaped and rallied the people of Israel. Going to the town of Seraiah, located in Ephraim, Ehud sounded a horn or shofar. The Israelites cut off the Moabites at the Jordan River. Judges 3:29 records that about 10,000 Moabites were killed in the battle. Once free from Eglon’s rule, the Israelites enjoyed 80 years of peace, the longest peaceful period recorded during the time of the judges (Judges 3:30). While this account is one of the more graphic scenes in Scripture, it is also very insightful. The original readers would have seen the power of God in this story for a variety of reasons. First, a lone man walked into the king’s palace, assassinated the king, and walked out without being captured. This was a highly unexpected event that involved great risk. Second, one battle changed the next 80 years of Israel’s history. Ehud’s story involves more than removing a wicked leader; it includes a change in national history for an entire generation. Third, Ehud’s success is a story of freedom. Just as God had redeemed Israel from Pharaoh and the land of Egypt when they cried out for help, God redeemed Israel from their bondage under King Eglon when they turned to Him. What can we learn by asking the question, “Who was Ehud?” Ehud’s actions offer a valuable look at how God can change the course of a nation in a single day when He responds to the cries of His people. Further, we see God being faithful to His promise to help Israel when they repented of their sins and turned to Him—a lesson relevant still today. Recommended Resource: NIV Application Commentary Judges/Ruth by K. Lawson Younger. Judges & Ruth: Holman Old Testament Commentary by W. Gary Phillips More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free! Who was Jephthah? Who were Tola, Jair, Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon? Who was Shamgar? What can we learn from the account of Micah and the idol in Judges? Who was Othniel? Questions about Judges Who was Ehud?	<urn:uuid:d9441aaf-7c40-4234-8eb3-d91ec6f20baf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gotquestions.org/who-was-Ehud.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00339.warc.gz	en	0.980465	816	3.390625	3	[ -0.6418015956878662, 0.6027653217315674, -0.023199986666440964, -0.24673901498317719, -0.01140317041426897, -0.12035611271858215, 0.7105119228363037, 0.23484748601913452, -0.30658191442489624, 0.4934655427932739, -0.1379503309726715, -0.024859599769115448, 0.07013434171676636, 0.0212619863...	1	Who was Ehud? Question: "Who was Ehud?" Answer: Who was Ehud? Ehud served as the second judge of Israel following Othniel. After Othniel’s death, the people of Israel sinned and fell to the king of Moab, serving him for 18 years (Judges 3:13–14). When the Israelites cried out for help, God sent Ehud to serve as judge. Facts about Ehud include that he was the son of Gera and belonged to the tribe of Benjamin. He was also noted as a left-handed man (Judges 3:15). This detail would become important to the success of his mission. Beginning in Judges 3:16, we read that Ehud made himself a small sword (about 16 inches long) and strapped it to his right thigh under his clothes—had Ehud been right-handed, he would have carried the sword on his left side. Next, he visited the Moabites’ King Eglon under pretense of paying a tribute. When Ehud was checked for weapons, his small sword was apparently missed as it was in an unexpected location. Following the presentation of his tribute, Ehud said that he had a secret message for the king. Everyone left the room except Ehud and King Eglon. Ehud then pulled out his sword and stuck it into the king’s stomach. The king was obese, and the sword disappeared inside his belly. Ehud left the sword and escaped through a porch opening. When Eglon’s servants later found the king dead, Ehud had already escaped and rallied the people of Israel. Going to the town of Seraiah, located in Ephraim, Ehud sounded a horn or shofar. The Israelites cut off the Moabites at the Jordan River. Judges 3:29 records that about 10,000 Moabites were killed in the battle. Once free from Eglon’s rule, the Israelites enjoyed 80 years of peace, the longest peaceful period recorded during the time of the judges (Judges 3:30). While this account is one of the more graphic scenes in Scripture, it is also very insightful. The original readers would have seen the power of God in this story for a variety of reasons. First, a lone man walked into the king’s palace, assassinated the king, and walked out without being captured. This was a highly unexpected event that involved great risk. Second, one battle changed the next 80 years of Israel’s history. Ehud’s story involves more than removing a wicked leader; it includes a change in national history for an entire generation. Third, Ehud’s success is a story of freedom. Just as God had redeemed Israel from Pharaoh and the land of Egypt when they cried out for help, God redeemed Israel from their bondage under King Eglon when they turned to Him. What can we learn by asking the question, “Who was Ehud?” Ehud’s actions offer a valuable look at how God can change the course of a nation in a single day when He responds to the cries of His people. Further, we see God being faithful to His promise to help Israel when they repented of their sins and turned to Him—a lesson relevant still today. Recommended Resource: NIV Application Commentary Judges/Ruth by K. Lawson Younger. Judges & Ruth: Holman Old Testament Commentary by W. Gary Phillips More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free! Who was Jephthah? Who were Tola, Jair, Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon? Who was Shamgar? What can we learn from the account of Micah and the idol in Judges? Who was Othniel? Questions about Judges Who was Ehud?	799	ENGLISH	1
Religion is a term that represents people’s beliefs and cultural systems. Everyone is free to join any religion as long as it is registered with a certain government. Each religion has its own doctrines and tenets. This is why, the one leading the group should be a person with the distinctive moral values. The main function of religion is to unite human beings with their gods. In one country, there may exist a various number of religious groups as, for instance, in Korea. Not long ago, Korean ancient beliefs have been associated with the religion group called Mugyo. Among their principles, the precious place occupies an ancestral veneration. This ritual has been a part of the traditional practices since the late centuries. All the same, the practices were affected by the wars that took place in Korea. Unfortunately, a lot of the people were forced to run away from their own country in order to look for a homage elsewhere. Naturally, they absorbed a new vision of things having been influenced by the environment of their new home countries. They were offered the new religious beliefs as a first priority over their own culture. Buy Religion and Modernity in Korea essay paper online After the end of the wars, some of these people went back to their native country and introduced their new believes to those in Korea. As a result, it caused the diffusion of the Korean culture boundaries. The appearance of the new religion movements was the another factor that contributed to the change of the traditional religions. The doctrines of these new movements taught that some of the cultural rituals, like ancestorial veneration or spirit consultation, involved the superstitious practices. In comparison, such religion as Christianity strictly condemns devil worshipping or idol worship. This religion has gained many followers, who having joined it tried to evade their cultural rituals, as they had been brainwashed and accused of not being godly. The other factor that also contributed to the changes in the traditional religions is urbanization together with a modernization .These two components come along with the influence of the western culture. The local people moved to the urban centers in the search of jobs .Here they met people from the different communities with whom they interacted and exchanged their views. This rural urban movement affected their religious believes, and at a certain time, the Korean government burned the Mugyo religions from the urban areas. This forced the followers living in the urban areas to move from shamanism to a different dominion. The Korean culture was eroded due to the points mentioned above. Today, there is even a division between North and South Korea as results of the wars that took place earlier. Some people have thought it was wise to retain their culture. That is why they have brought changes in the traditional believes so they fit in the new regime and were accepted by everyone . The innovations were implemented on the most criticized practices. The following is well discussed below: Mugyo is a religion that originated from the Southern Korea. It is also termed as the religion of gods or the Korean shamanism. It has a strong belief that the world is filled with spirits and ghosts. This religion has been renovated and made look like an archive of the Korean culture. It is associated with the veneration of ancestors which is termed as jerye in the Korean community. Veneration of ancestors is an activity that has been taking place in Korea since the past centuries. It is usually a practice associated with the honoring the ancestors, and taking care of them in terms of giving a support. This can include giving them gifts in the form of food, cigarettes, money, est. The Korean people believe that veneration of ancestors is one of the main stages among the other eight that one need to pass through, so as to complete their duties on earth. They associate it with filial duties to their parents. They take their time to honor their ancestors as they believe that all their physical exhaustion is a consequence of the hard work the parents did while bringing them up. In Korea, this religious practice is said to be a result of the combination of the Confucius teachings and the one of Laozi. Traditionally, the Koreans used to offer the food as sacrifices on the altar made for the deceased as it is stated in the Koreans mode of communication with the spirits in the spiritual world. At other times, they would visit their tombs and leave the gifts there. According to the beliefs involved in Mugyo, the veneration of ancestors was to be carried out by a woman who was known as mudang or shaman. This woman had to be from the ch`onmin social class. It was also a person from a poor family a low class person. Her main duty was to serve as an intermediate between the livings and the spirits. The Po spirit was the spirit believed to remain on earth after a person has died, and if not well taken care of went rooming from one place to another. Despite the fact that this religion had been dismissed by the government claiming that it mostly involved fallacy actions, due to the growth of self confidence in ones culture, it has found a way to remain in the communities minds and hearts.. Families in china believed that, when a person died, his/her soul continued to exist within the community, and it had powers to protect the family members from the wrong doers. The family members of the deceased were expected to feed the spirit by donating food and wine to the predecessor in a family temple. The rituals were hold on the tombs where their deceased was buried. The Korean people believed that a person had two souls, the Po and the Hun. The Hun was the spiritual soul that was supposed to enjoy a trip to the place of immortals; while the Po was considered to be a body spirit that remained on earth, and was the one they took care of. In addition, people were offered the Joss sticks instead of the prayers, which contained a message that the family wanted to pass to the deceased. There is a considerable difference of how veneration of ancestors was performed in the past, and how it is done in the modern days. For example, we have seen that in the past, the shaman was a woman but in the present days the ritual is performed by men. It is clear that the Korean people have made changes to enable it to be accepted by others in the community, starting with the government that thinks that this religion involves a lot of superstitious activities. Despite the fact that new religious denomination has cropped up, there are people who still perform this ritual. Unlike how it was being performed in the early days, where people used to feed their ancestors daily, nowadays they have one day in April during the Qingming, when they take time to respect their ancestors. This ceremony is conducted with the presence of only 10 men who are called Wei. It is held on a mountain where the men practice climbing behind the spring field. Their destination usually is a village cemetery. On their way, they move without stopping or talking. The cemetery contains piles of mud that is set in rows. These rows represent a certain age group. There is also a crucial difference in that, namely, the one who conducted the ritual in the past was a woman called mudang; those who perform the ritual these days are men called Wei. At the first place, the men reach the graves of the people who has died recently, and at last, move on to the rest rows systematically. The main attention is paid to the graves of their family members. One man known as Wei Minghe notifies the rest ones symbolizing the deceased house; and explains that if they manage to mud on the grave before the dawn, the dead soul will acquire a tiled roof; bud if they are late, then the deceased gets a thatched roof.This ceremony is conducted just before the sunrise. Christianity is a religion that has acquired quite a number of followers in China in the recent years. This religion took part in the renovation of the Korean rituals. In the past century, it had absolutely refused to get involved in the shamanic rituals. Unfortunately, its followers faced persecution and were sentenced to death. As a result, they opted to incorporate these practices in their new doctrine .They chose as well a concrete date on which they would carry out their memorial services to their ancestors. I suppose, that any cultural practices of the community should not be dismissed as it is a spiritual legacy of the people. Some of the rituals has been practiced since times, when those who are being venerated now were alive. The Koreans believe that, venerating their ancestors is one of the ways to show the filial grief, therefore, it should not be denounced as it has its own benefits. Through the commemoration of the ancestors, one gains the protection and the relief that the spirit would not room around causing disasters in the society as it is believed. Veneration of ancestors should then be a strong and valued cultural practice in the whole Korea. I think, the religion will never get to the end in Korea, as we can now see that they have managed to save their legacy, and no matter how the government tries to burn it, it finds a way to revive. Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:bfb4e18c-8e68-4cf5-a73b-9c8e98fd23bf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://exclusivepapers.com/essays/ethics/religion-and-modernity-in-korea.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00015.warc.gz	en	0.98524	1,862	3.65625	4	[ 0.25613272190093994, 0.3401603698730469, 0.24009861052036285, -0.5135281085968018, 0.11452196538448334, 0.1194419115781784, 0.3504858613014221, -0.2623071074485779, 0.08107711374759674, -0.07133494317531586, -0.05701862648129463, 0.09390956163406372, 0.35911113023757935, 0.0844867527484893...	1	Religion is a term that represents people’s beliefs and cultural systems. Everyone is free to join any religion as long as it is registered with a certain government. Each religion has its own doctrines and tenets. This is why, the one leading the group should be a person with the distinctive moral values. The main function of religion is to unite human beings with their gods. In one country, there may exist a various number of religious groups as, for instance, in Korea. Not long ago, Korean ancient beliefs have been associated with the religion group called Mugyo. Among their principles, the precious place occupies an ancestral veneration. This ritual has been a part of the traditional practices since the late centuries. All the same, the practices were affected by the wars that took place in Korea. Unfortunately, a lot of the people were forced to run away from their own country in order to look for a homage elsewhere. Naturally, they absorbed a new vision of things having been influenced by the environment of their new home countries. They were offered the new religious beliefs as a first priority over their own culture. Buy Religion and Modernity in Korea essay paper online After the end of the wars, some of these people went back to their native country and introduced their new believes to those in Korea. As a result, it caused the diffusion of the Korean culture boundaries. The appearance of the new religion movements was the another factor that contributed to the change of the traditional religions. The doctrines of these new movements taught that some of the cultural rituals, like ancestorial veneration or spirit consultation, involved the superstitious practices. In comparison, such religion as Christianity strictly condemns devil worshipping or idol worship. This religion has gained many followers, who having joined it tried to evade their cultural rituals, as they had been brainwashed and accused of not being godly. The other factor that also contributed to the changes in the traditional religions is urbanization together with a modernization .These two components come along with the influence of the western culture. The local people moved to the urban centers in the search of jobs .Here they met people from the different communities with whom they interacted and exchanged their views. This rural urban movement affected their religious believes, and at a certain time, the Korean government burned the Mugyo religions from the urban areas. This forced the followers living in the urban areas to move from shamanism to a different dominion. The Korean culture was eroded due to the points mentioned above. Today, there is even a division between North and South Korea as results of the wars that took place earlier. Some people have thought it was wise to retain their culture. That is why they have brought changes in the traditional believes so they fit in the new regime and were accepted by everyone . The innovations were implemented on the most criticized practices. The following is well discussed below: Mugyo is a religion that originated from the Southern Korea. It is also termed as the religion of gods or the Korean shamanism. It has a strong belief that the world is filled with spirits and ghosts. This religion has been renovated and made look like an archive of the Korean culture. It is associated with the veneration of ancestors which is termed as jerye in the Korean community. Veneration of ancestors is an activity that has been taking place in Korea since the past centuries. It is usually a practice associated with the honoring the ancestors, and taking care of them in terms of giving a support. This can include giving them gifts in the form of food, cigarettes, money, est. The Korean people believe that veneration of ancestors is one of the main stages among the other eight that one need to pass through, so as to complete their duties on earth. They associate it with filial duties to their parents. They take their time to honor their ancestors as they believe that all their physical exhaustion is a consequence of the hard work the parents did while bringing them up. In Korea, this religious practice is said to be a result of the combination of the Confucius teachings and the one of Laozi. Traditionally, the Koreans used to offer the food as sacrifices on the altar made for the deceased as it is stated in the Koreans mode of communication with the spirits in the spiritual world. At other times, they would visit their tombs and leave the gifts there. According to the beliefs involved in Mugyo, the veneration of ancestors was to be carried out by a woman who was known as mudang or shaman. This woman had to be from the ch`onmin social class. It was also a person from a poor family a low class person. Her main duty was to serve as an intermediate between the livings and the spirits. The Po spirit was the spirit believed to remain on earth after a person has died, and if not well taken care of went rooming from one place to another. Despite the fact that this religion had been dismissed by the government claiming that it mostly involved fallacy actions, due to the growth of self confidence in ones culture, it has found a way to remain in the communities minds and hearts.. Families in china believed that, when a person died, his/her soul continued to exist within the community, and it had powers to protect the family members from the wrong doers. The family members of the deceased were expected to feed the spirit by donating food and wine to the predecessor in a family temple. The rituals were hold on the tombs where their deceased was buried. The Korean people believed that a person had two souls, the Po and the Hun. The Hun was the spiritual soul that was supposed to enjoy a trip to the place of immortals; while the Po was considered to be a body spirit that remained on earth, and was the one they took care of. In addition, people were offered the Joss sticks instead of the prayers, which contained a message that the family wanted to pass to the deceased. There is a considerable difference of how veneration of ancestors was performed in the past, and how it is done in the modern days. For example, we have seen that in the past, the shaman was a woman but in the present days the ritual is performed by men. It is clear that the Korean people have made changes to enable it to be accepted by others in the community, starting with the government that thinks that this religion involves a lot of superstitious activities. Despite the fact that new religious denomination has cropped up, there are people who still perform this ritual. Unlike how it was being performed in the early days, where people used to feed their ancestors daily, nowadays they have one day in April during the Qingming, when they take time to respect their ancestors. This ceremony is conducted with the presence of only 10 men who are called Wei. It is held on a mountain where the men practice climbing behind the spring field. Their destination usually is a village cemetery. On their way, they move without stopping or talking. The cemetery contains piles of mud that is set in rows. These rows represent a certain age group. There is also a crucial difference in that, namely, the one who conducted the ritual in the past was a woman called mudang; those who perform the ritual these days are men called Wei. At the first place, the men reach the graves of the people who has died recently, and at last, move on to the rest rows systematically. The main attention is paid to the graves of their family members. One man known as Wei Minghe notifies the rest ones symbolizing the deceased house; and explains that if they manage to mud on the grave before the dawn, the dead soul will acquire a tiled roof; bud if they are late, then the deceased gets a thatched roof.This ceremony is conducted just before the sunrise. Christianity is a religion that has acquired quite a number of followers in China in the recent years. This religion took part in the renovation of the Korean rituals. In the past century, it had absolutely refused to get involved in the shamanic rituals. Unfortunately, its followers faced persecution and were sentenced to death. As a result, they opted to incorporate these practices in their new doctrine .They chose as well a concrete date on which they would carry out their memorial services to their ancestors. I suppose, that any cultural practices of the community should not be dismissed as it is a spiritual legacy of the people. Some of the rituals has been practiced since times, when those who are being venerated now were alive. The Koreans believe that, venerating their ancestors is one of the ways to show the filial grief, therefore, it should not be denounced as it has its own benefits. Through the commemoration of the ancestors, one gains the protection and the relief that the spirit would not room around causing disasters in the society as it is believed. Veneration of ancestors should then be a strong and valued cultural practice in the whole Korea. I think, the religion will never get to the end in Korea, as we can now see that they have managed to save their legacy, and no matter how the government tries to burn it, it finds a way to revive. Most popular orders	1,854	ENGLISH	1
John Lewis was born to a family of sharecroppers outside of Troy, Alabama, at a time when African Americans in the South were subjected to a humiliating segregation in education and all public facilities, and were effectively prevented from voting by systematic discrimination and intimidation. From an early age, John Lewis was committed to the goal of education for himself, and justice for his people. Inspired by the example of Rosa Parks and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. in the Montgomery bus boycott, he corresponded with Dr. King and resolved to join the struggle for civil rights. After attending segregated public schools in Pike County, Alabama, he graduated from the American Baptist Theological Seminary in Nashville, Tennessee and completed a bachelor’s degree in religion and philosophy at Fisk University. As a student he made a systematic study of the techniques and philosophy of nonviolence, and with his fellow students prepared thoroughly for their first actions. They began with sit-ins at segregated lunch counters. Day after day, Lewis and his fellow students sat silently at lunch counters where they were harassed, spit upon, beaten and finally arrested and held in jail, but they persisted in the sit-ins. In 1961, Lewis joined fellow students on the Freedom Rides, challenging the segregation of interstate buses. In the Montgomery bus terminal, he was again attacked by a mob and brutally beaten. Lewis was one of the founding members of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), and served as its president from 1963 to 1966 when SNCC was at the forefront of the student movement for civil rights. By 1963, he was recognized as one of the “Big Six” leaders of the Civil Rights Movement, along with Dr. King, Whitney Young, A. Phillip Randolph, James Farmer and Roy Wilkins. He was one of the planners and keynote speakers of the March on Washington in August 1963, the occasion of Dr. King’s celebrated “I Have a Dream” speech. In 1964, Lewis coordinated SNCC’s efforts for “Mississippi Freedom Summer,” a campaign to register black voters across the South. The following year, Lewis led one of the most dramatic protests of the era. On March 7, 1965 — a day that would become known as “Bloody Sunday” — Lewis and fellow activist Hosea Williams led over 600 marchers across the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, Alabama. At the end of the bridge, they were met by Alabama state troopers, who ordered them to disperse. When the marchers stopped to pray, the police discharged tear gas and mounted troopers charged the demonstrators, beating them with nightsticks. Lewis’s skull was fractured, but he escaped across the bridge to a church in Selma. Before he could be taken to the hospital, John Lewis appeared before the television cameras calling on President Johnson to intervene in Alabama. Scenes of the violence, and of the injured John Lewis, were broadcast around the world, and outraged public opinion demanded that the president take action. Two days later, Dr. King led 1,000 members of the clergy on a second march from Selma to Montgomery, with the eyes of the world watching. A week and a day after Bloody Sunday, President Johnson appeared before a joint session of Congress to demand passage of the Voting Rights Act, empowering the federal government to enforce the voting rights of all Americans. The passage of the voting rights act finally brought the federal government into the struggle, squarely on the side of the disenfranchised voters of the South. The violent deaths of his friends Martin Luther King, Jr. and Senator Robert Kennedy in 1968 were a great blow to John Lewis, but Lewis remained committed as ever to the philosophy of nonviolence. As Director of the Voter Education Project (VEP), he helped bring nearly four million new minority voters into the democratic process. For the first time since Reconstruction, African Americans were running for public office in the South, and winning. Lewis settled in Atlanta, Georgia, and when the former Governor of Georgia, Jimmy Carter, became President, he tapped John Lewis to head the federal volunteer agency, ACTION. In 1981, after Jimmy Carter had left the White House, John Lewis was elected to the Atlanta City Council, where he became an effective advocate of neighborhood preservation and government reform. In 1986 he ran for Congress, and John Lewis, whose own parents had been prevented from voting, who had been denied access to the schools and libraries of his hometown, who had been threatened, jailed and beaten for trying to register voters, was elected to the United States House of Representatives. Since then he has been re-elected repeatedly by overwhelming margins, on one occasion running unopposed. Today, he represents Georgia’s Fifth Congressional District, encompassing the entire city of Atlanta and parts of four surrounding counties. Congressman Lewis sits on the House Budget Committee and House Ways and Means Committee, where he serves on the Subcommittee on Health. He serves as Senior Chief Deputy Democratic Whip, is a member of the Democratic Steering Committee, the Congressional Black Caucus and the Congressional Committee to Support Writers and Journalists. Apart from his service in Congress, he is Co-Chair of the Faith and Politics Institute. Congressman Lewis has received numerous honorary degrees and awards, including the Martin Luther King, Jr. Nonviolent Peace Prize, the NAACP Spingarn Medal, the Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial Award of the National Education Association, and the John F. Kennedy “Profile in Courage” award for lifetime achievement. His courage and integrity have won him the admiration of congressional colleagues on both sides of the aisle. Senator John McCain has written a moving tribute to John Lewis in his book Why Courage Matters. Congressman Lewis gives his own account of his experiences in the Civil Rights era in Walking with the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement, published in 1998. Congressman Lewis began the 2008 presidential campaign as a supporter of Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton. His decision to switch his support to Senator Barack Obama was considered a major turning point in the campaign. When Lewis appeared at President Obama’s inauguration, he was the only surviving speaker from the 1963 March on Washington. In addition to his advocacy of domestic issues, Congressman Lewis has taken a passionate interest in human rights on the international stage. In 2009, he was arrested, with three other U.S. Representatives, outside the Embassy of Sudan, where they were protesting the obstruction of aid to refugees in Darfur. The Congressman has long been an ardent supporter of health insurance reform. In an eerie echo of his past struggles, he was subjected to angry catcalls and abusive language by opponents of the 2010 health care bill as he entered the Capitol for a crucial vote. As in years past, his courage was unwavering, and the passage of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act remains one of the proudest achievements of his legislative career. The following year, in a ceremony at the White House, President Barack Obama awarded him the nation’s highest civilian honor, the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In the 2018 election, John Lewis was elected to his 16th term in the House of Representatives. In the last days of 2019, Congressman Lewis announced that he had been diagnosed with Stage 4 pancreatic cancer. He resolved to return to Washington for the 2020 session of Congress to continue working as he seeks treatment. Following his announcement, supporters, admirers and his colleagues in Congress offered prayers, support and tributes to a beloved hero of the struggle for freedom and justice. “I thought I was going to die a few times. On the Freedom Rides in the year 1961, when I was beaten at the Greyhound bus station in Montgomery, I thought I was going to die. On March 7, 1965, when I was hit in the head with a night stick by a state trooper at the foot of the Edmund Pettus Bridge, I thought I was going to die. I thought I saw death, but nothing can make me question the philosophy of nonviolence.” By age 23, John Lewis was already recognized as one of the principal leaders of the American Civil Rights Movement, along with Martin Luther King, Jr. The son of sharecroppers in rural Alabama, he led his first demonstrations while studying theology in Nashville, Tennessee. As Chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, he was a leader in many of the most dramatic campaigns of the movement: the lunch counter sit-ins, the Freedom Rides and the March on Washington. He suffered serious injuries from mob violence and personal physical attacks, and would be arrested more than 40 times, but John Lewis would not be dissuaded from the pursuit of justice. In 1965 he led the historic march across the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, Alabama. The marchers were attacked by Alabama state troopers, and John Lewis had his skull fractured, but the subsequent march from Selma to Montgomery led directly to the passage of the Voting Rights Act, finally committing the federal government to the enforcement of voting rights for all Americans. Over the following decades, John Lewis led an explosion of minority voter registration that has transformed American politics. In 1986, he was elected to the United States House of Representatives. For more than 30 years, he has represented the City of Atlanta, Georgia and surrounding counties in Congress, where he remains one of America’s most courageous champions of human rights. Congressman Lewis, as a student you participated in the lunch counter sit-ins. These were among the first organized acts of civil disobedience protesting segregation. Could you tell us about that? I’ll tell you, I grew up overnight. By the fall of 1959 we had what we called “test sit-ins” in Nashville. We went through a period of role playing and social drama, and then it came time for a group of black and white college students to go to downtown Nashville and just sit at a lunch counter, to establish the fact that people were denied service. It was in November and December of 1959. And then from a sit-in started in Greensboro, North Carolina, on February the 1st, 1960, we started sitting in on a regular basis. And it was there that, by sitting down, I think we were really standing up. I saw many of us, and I know in my own case I grew up while I was sitting on a lunch counter stool. I became a different person. I became a different human being. What went through your mind? What was in your head the very first time you sat down at a segregated lunch counter? John Lewis: Somehow, in some way, I just felt that we were involved in something that was so large, so necessary, so right. It was almost holy. It was something very righteous and something very pure about it. I was sitting there with other young college students. For the most part we were well-dressed, we were orderly, we were peaceful, and we were looking straight ahead, or either we were doing our homework, and people would come up and call us “niggers.” They would come up and spit on us, put lighted cigarettes out in our hair or down our backs, pull us off the lunch counter stool, and we didn’t strike back. At times we would just look straight ahead. I just felt that we had to do what we were doing and that it was necessary. Weren’t you ever just afraid? John Lewis: As a participant in the movement, as I was sitting in, I came to that point where I lost all sense of fear. I will never forget in late February 1960, one morning we were preparing to sit in, and a very influential citizen of Nashville came to the church where we were gathering and said if we go down on this particular day the officials were going to allow people to beat us, to pull us off the lunch counter stools, and then going to arrest us, and, “Maybe you shouldn’t go. Maybe it’s too dangerous.” And we all said we had to go, and we went down. When I was growing up, my mother and father and family members said, “Don’t get in trouble. Don’t get in the way.” I got in trouble. I got in the way. It was necessary trouble. While we were sitting there and we were being pulled off the lunch counter stools and then beaten, the local officials, police officials, the chief of police and others, came up and placed us all under arrest. I was arrested along with 87 other students. The Nashville sit-ins became the first mass arrest in the sit-in movement, and I was taken to jail. I’ll tell you, I felt so liberated. I felt so free. I felt like I had crossed over. I think I said to myself, “What else can you do to me? You beat me. You harassed me. Now you have placed me under arrest. You put us in jail. What’s left? You can kill us.” But as a group, and I know as one person, we were determined to see the end of segregation and racial discrimination in places of public accommodation. So I lost my sense of fear. You know, no one would like to be beaten. No one would like to go to jail. Jail is not a pleasant place. No one liked to suffer pain, but for the common good we were committed. What did your parents think of all this? John Lewis: My mother, my father. My mother, my dear mother, she was so worried. She was so troubled. She didn’t know that I was even involved, because I hadn’t had any discussion until she heard that I was in jail, when the school official called and informed her that I was in jail with several other students. The next day or so I got a letter saying, “Get out of the movement. Get out of that mess. You went to school to get an education. You’re going to get yourself hurt. You’re going to get yourself killed.” And I wrote her back and said, “I think I did the right thing. It was the right thing to do.” Years later she became very, very supportive, especially after the Voting Rights Act was passed and she was allowed to become a registered voter. Did your belief in nonviolence ever waiver? Did you ever question the method? John Lewis: As a participant, and even today, I have never ever questioned the method, never questioned this idea, this concept of passive resistance. I believe in nonviolence as a way of life, as a way of living. I believe that this idea is one of those immutable principles that is non-negotiable if you’re going to create a world community at peace with itself. You have to accept nonviolence as a way of life, as a way of living. I thought I was going to die a few times. On the Freedom Rides in the year 1961, when I was beaten at the Greyhound bus station in Montgomery, I thought I was going to die. On March 7, 1965, when I was hit in the head with a night stick by a state trooper at the foot of the Edmund Pettus Bridge, I thought I was going to die. I thought I saw death, but nothing can make me question the philosophy of nonviolence. Or want to retaliate? John Lewis: No, I cannot and will not retaliate. We grew to respect the dignity and the worth of every human being. When we were harassed by Sheriff Clark in Selma or Bull Connor in Birmingham, when I was being beaten by an angry mob in Montgomery, you try to put yourself in the place of the people that are abusing you, and see that person as a human being, and try to do what you can to win that person over, to change that person. In a sense we all were victims, victims of a system. Let me ask about March 7, known as “Bloody Sunday.” What was going through your mind when you saw the array of state troopers on horseback, and you and Hosea Williams at the front of that line walked into that? John Lewis: As we started walking across the Alabama River, across the Edmund Pettus Bridge, I really thought that we would be arrested and taken to jail. I was prepared to be arrested, and I was wearing a backpack, and in this backpack I had two books, an apple, an orange, toothbrush and toothpaste. I thought we were going to go to jail. I wanted to have something to read, something to eat, and since I was going to be in jail with my friends, colleagues and neighbors, I wanted to be able to brush my teeth. And we get to the high point, highest point on that bridge. Down below we saw the Alabama state troopers, the Sheriff’s Deputies, members of Sheriff Clark’s posse, and when Major John Claude said, “This is an unlawful march.” I think he said, “I am Major John Claude of the Alabama state troopers. This is an unlawful march. You will not be allowed to continue. I give you three minutes to disperse and return to your church.” And I think Hosea Williams said, “Major, will you give us a moment to pray?” And before we could even get word back, he said, “Troopers advance.” I knew then that we were going to be beaten. And you saw these men putting on their gas masks, and they came towards us beating us with night sticks, pushing us, trampling us with horses, and releasing the tear gas. I became very concerned about the other people in the march, because I thought I was going to die. I just sort of said to myself, “This is it. This is the end of the road for me. I’m going to die right here on this bridge.” And to this day, 39 years later, I don’t know how I made it back across the bridge, through the streets of Selma, back to that little church that we left from, but I do recall being back at that church that Sunday afternoon. It was Brown Chapel AME Church. When we got back, the church was full to capacity. Several hundred people on the outside were trying to get in to protest what had happened. Someone asked me to say something to the audience, and I stood up and said, “I don’t understand it. President Johnson can send troops to Vietnam but cannot send troops to Selma, Alabama to protect people whose only desire is to register to vote.” The next thing I knew I had been admitted to the Good Samaritan hospital in Selma. Was that a turning point in the Civil Rights Movement? John Lewis: I think what happened in Selma was a turning point in the Civil Rights Movement and probably was one of the finest hours in the movement. Because of what happened in Selma, I mean people saw the film footage of what happened on television that Sunday night, that Monday morning. There was a sense of righteous indignation. People didn’t like it. The American people didn’t like it. There were demonstrations in almost every major city in America, on almost every major college campus, at the White House, the Department of Justice, at American embassies abroad. I remember Dr. King coming to visit me that Monday morning in the hospital, and he said, “John, don’t worry. We’ll make it from Selma to Montgomery. The Voting Rights Act will be passed.” And he told me that he was issuing a call for religious leaders to come to Selma the next day, and the next day, that Tuesday, March 9, more than a thousand ministers, priests, rabbis and nuns came to Selma and marched across the bridge to the point where we had been beaten two days earlier. President Johnson called Governor Wallace to come to the White House to try to get assurance from him that he would be able to protect us if we decided to march again. Wallace could not assure the President. Lyndon Johnson was so moved that he had to do something. The American people were saying, “You must act.” The Congress was saying, “You must do something.” So he went on television, and… On March 15, 1965, Lyndon Johnson made one of the most meaningful speeches any American president had made in modern times on the whole question of civil rights and voting rights. I was with Dr. King as we watched and listened to Lyndon Johnson the night of March 15. He spoke to the nation. He spoke to a general session of the Congress. He started that speech off that night by saying, “I speak tonight for the dignity of man and for the destiny of democracy.” He went on to say, “At times history and fate meet at a single place in man’s unending search for freedom. So it was more than a century ago at Lexington and at Concord. So it was at Appomattox. So it was last week in Selma, Alabama.” He condemned the violence in Selma, and he mentioned the fact that one good man, a man of God, was killed. Reverend James Reed, a white minister from Boston, had participated in a march on March 9. And then the night of March 9 he went out to try to get something to eat with two or three other white ministers, and they were jumped and beaten by members of the Klan, and a day or so later he died at a local hospital in Birmingham. President Johnson recognized that, but before he closed that speech and introduced the Voting Rights Act, he said, “We shall overcome.” He said it more than once, “And we shall overcome.” And he became the first president to use the theme song of the Civil Rights Movement in a major speech, and Dr. King was so moved he started crying, and we all cried a little when we heard Lyndon Johnson say, “And we shall overcome.”	<urn:uuid:ee412adf-5ba8-4972-85c6-7a68d761f4b3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.achievement.org/achiever/congressman-john-r-lewis/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00348.warc.gz	en	0.985651	4,584	3.484375	3	[ -0.4274972081184387, 0.46946394443511963, 0.3012455701828003, 0.19036217033863068, -0.32880252599716187, 0.30525273084640503, 0.06948930770158768, -0.0003204833483323455, -0.2009144127368927, 0.24653735756874084, -0.20050761103630066, 0.45397037267684937, -0.14362823963165283, -0.466384828...	4	John Lewis was born to a family of sharecroppers outside of Troy, Alabama, at a time when African Americans in the South were subjected to a humiliating segregation in education and all public facilities, and were effectively prevented from voting by systematic discrimination and intimidation. From an early age, John Lewis was committed to the goal of education for himself, and justice for his people. Inspired by the example of Rosa Parks and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. in the Montgomery bus boycott, he corresponded with Dr. King and resolved to join the struggle for civil rights. After attending segregated public schools in Pike County, Alabama, he graduated from the American Baptist Theological Seminary in Nashville, Tennessee and completed a bachelor’s degree in religion and philosophy at Fisk University. As a student he made a systematic study of the techniques and philosophy of nonviolence, and with his fellow students prepared thoroughly for their first actions. They began with sit-ins at segregated lunch counters. Day after day, Lewis and his fellow students sat silently at lunch counters where they were harassed, spit upon, beaten and finally arrested and held in jail, but they persisted in the sit-ins. In 1961, Lewis joined fellow students on the Freedom Rides, challenging the segregation of interstate buses. In the Montgomery bus terminal, he was again attacked by a mob and brutally beaten. Lewis was one of the founding members of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), and served as its president from 1963 to 1966 when SNCC was at the forefront of the student movement for civil rights. By 1963, he was recognized as one of the “Big Six” leaders of the Civil Rights Movement, along with Dr. King, Whitney Young, A. Phillip Randolph, James Farmer and Roy Wilkins. He was one of the planners and keynote speakers of the March on Washington in August 1963, the occasion of Dr. King’s celebrated “I Have a Dream” speech. In 1964, Lewis coordinated SNCC’s efforts for “Mississippi Freedom Summer,” a campaign to register black voters across the South. The following year, Lewis led one of the most dramatic protests of the era. On March 7, 1965 — a day that would become known as “Bloody Sunday” — Lewis and fellow activist Hosea Williams led over 600 marchers across the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, Alabama. At the end of the bridge, they were met by Alabama state troopers, who ordered them to disperse. When the marchers stopped to pray, the police discharged tear gas and mounted troopers charged the demonstrators, beating them with nightsticks. Lewis’s skull was fractured, but he escaped across the bridge to a church in Selma. Before he could be taken to the hospital, John Lewis appeared before the television cameras calling on President Johnson to intervene in Alabama. Scenes of the violence, and of the injured John Lewis, were broadcast around the world, and outraged public opinion demanded that the president take action. Two days later, Dr. King led 1,000 members of the clergy on a second march from Selma to Montgomery, with the eyes of the world watching. A week and a day after Bloody Sunday, President Johnson appeared before a joint session of Congress to demand passage of the Voting Rights Act, empowering the federal government to enforce the voting rights of all Americans. The passage of the voting rights act finally brought the federal government into the struggle, squarely on the side of the disenfranchised voters of the South. The violent deaths of his friends Martin Luther King, Jr. and Senator Robert Kennedy in 1968 were a great blow to John Lewis, but Lewis remained committed as ever to the philosophy of nonviolence. As Director of the Voter Education Project (VEP), he helped bring nearly four million new minority voters into the democratic process. For the first time since Reconstruction, African Americans were running for public office in the South, and winning. Lewis settled in Atlanta, Georgia, and when the former Governor of Georgia, Jimmy Carter, became President, he tapped John Lewis to head the federal volunteer agency, ACTION. In 1981, after Jimmy Carter had left the White House, John Lewis was elected to the Atlanta City Council, where he became an effective advocate of neighborhood preservation and government reform. In 1986 he ran for Congress, and John Lewis, whose own parents had been prevented from voting, who had been denied access to the schools and libraries of his hometown, who had been threatened, jailed and beaten for trying to register voters, was elected to the United States House of Representatives. Since then he has been re-elected repeatedly by overwhelming margins, on one occasion running unopposed. Today, he represents Georgia’s Fifth Congressional District, encompassing the entire city of Atlanta and parts of four surrounding counties. Congressman Lewis sits on the House Budget Committee and House Ways and Means Committee, where he serves on the Subcommittee on Health. He serves as Senior Chief Deputy Democratic Whip, is a member of the Democratic Steering Committee, the Congressional Black Caucus and the Congressional Committee to Support Writers and Journalists. Apart from his service in Congress, he is Co-Chair of the Faith and Politics Institute. Congressman Lewis has received numerous honorary degrees and awards, including the Martin Luther King, Jr. Nonviolent Peace Prize, the NAACP Spingarn Medal, the Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial Award of the National Education Association, and the John F. Kennedy “Profile in Courage” award for lifetime achievement. His courage and integrity have won him the admiration of congressional colleagues on both sides of the aisle. Senator John McCain has written a moving tribute to John Lewis in his book Why Courage Matters. Congressman Lewis gives his own account of his experiences in the Civil Rights era in Walking with the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement, published in 1998. Congressman Lewis began the 2008 presidential campaign as a supporter of Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton. His decision to switch his support to Senator Barack Obama was considered a major turning point in the campaign. When Lewis appeared at President Obama’s inauguration, he was the only surviving speaker from the 1963 March on Washington. In addition to his advocacy of domestic issues, Congressman Lewis has taken a passionate interest in human rights on the international stage. In 2009, he was arrested, with three other U.S. Representatives, outside the Embassy of Sudan, where they were protesting the obstruction of aid to refugees in Darfur. The Congressman has long been an ardent supporter of health insurance reform. In an eerie echo of his past struggles, he was subjected to angry catcalls and abusive language by opponents of the 2010 health care bill as he entered the Capitol for a crucial vote. As in years past, his courage was unwavering, and the passage of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act remains one of the proudest achievements of his legislative career. The following year, in a ceremony at the White House, President Barack Obama awarded him the nation’s highest civilian honor, the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In the 2018 election, John Lewis was elected to his 16th term in the House of Representatives. In the last days of 2019, Congressman Lewis announced that he had been diagnosed with Stage 4 pancreatic cancer. He resolved to return to Washington for the 2020 session of Congress to continue working as he seeks treatment. Following his announcement, supporters, admirers and his colleagues in Congress offered prayers, support and tributes to a beloved hero of the struggle for freedom and justice. “I thought I was going to die a few times. On the Freedom Rides in the year 1961, when I was beaten at the Greyhound bus station in Montgomery, I thought I was going to die. On March 7, 1965, when I was hit in the head with a night stick by a state trooper at the foot of the Edmund Pettus Bridge, I thought I was going to die. I thought I saw death, but nothing can make me question the philosophy of nonviolence.” By age 23, John Lewis was already recognized as one of the principal leaders of the American Civil Rights Movement, along with Martin Luther King, Jr. The son of sharecroppers in rural Alabama, he led his first demonstrations while studying theology in Nashville, Tennessee. As Chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, he was a leader in many of the most dramatic campaigns of the movement: the lunch counter sit-ins, the Freedom Rides and the March on Washington. He suffered serious injuries from mob violence and personal physical attacks, and would be arrested more than 40 times, but John Lewis would not be dissuaded from the pursuit of justice. In 1965 he led the historic march across the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, Alabama. The marchers were attacked by Alabama state troopers, and John Lewis had his skull fractured, but the subsequent march from Selma to Montgomery led directly to the passage of the Voting Rights Act, finally committing the federal government to the enforcement of voting rights for all Americans. Over the following decades, John Lewis led an explosion of minority voter registration that has transformed American politics. In 1986, he was elected to the United States House of Representatives. For more than 30 years, he has represented the City of Atlanta, Georgia and surrounding counties in Congress, where he remains one of America’s most courageous champions of human rights. Congressman Lewis, as a student you participated in the lunch counter sit-ins. These were among the first organized acts of civil disobedience protesting segregation. Could you tell us about that? I’ll tell you, I grew up overnight. By the fall of 1959 we had what we called “test sit-ins” in Nashville. We went through a period of role playing and social drama, and then it came time for a group of black and white college students to go to downtown Nashville and just sit at a lunch counter, to establish the fact that people were denied service. It was in November and December of 1959. And then from a sit-in started in Greensboro, North Carolina, on February the 1st, 1960, we started sitting in on a regular basis. And it was there that, by sitting down, I think we were really standing up. I saw many of us, and I know in my own case I grew up while I was sitting on a lunch counter stool. I became a different person. I became a different human being. What went through your mind? What was in your head the very first time you sat down at a segregated lunch counter? John Lewis: Somehow, in some way, I just felt that we were involved in something that was so large, so necessary, so right. It was almost holy. It was something very righteous and something very pure about it. I was sitting there with other young college students. For the most part we were well-dressed, we were orderly, we were peaceful, and we were looking straight ahead, or either we were doing our homework, and people would come up and call us “niggers.” They would come up and spit on us, put lighted cigarettes out in our hair or down our backs, pull us off the lunch counter stool, and we didn’t strike back. At times we would just look straight ahead. I just felt that we had to do what we were doing and that it was necessary. Weren’t you ever just afraid? John Lewis: As a participant in the movement, as I was sitting in, I came to that point where I lost all sense of fear. I will never forget in late February 1960, one morning we were preparing to sit in, and a very influential citizen of Nashville came to the church where we were gathering and said if we go down on this particular day the officials were going to allow people to beat us, to pull us off the lunch counter stools, and then going to arrest us, and, “Maybe you shouldn’t go. Maybe it’s too dangerous.” And we all said we had to go, and we went down. When I was growing up, my mother and father and family members said, “Don’t get in trouble. Don’t get in the way.” I got in trouble. I got in the way. It was necessary trouble. While we were sitting there and we were being pulled off the lunch counter stools and then beaten, the local officials, police officials, the chief of police and others, came up and placed us all under arrest. I was arrested along with 87 other students. The Nashville sit-ins became the first mass arrest in the sit-in movement, and I was taken to jail. I’ll tell you, I felt so liberated. I felt so free. I felt like I had crossed over. I think I said to myself, “What else can you do to me? You beat me. You harassed me. Now you have placed me under arrest. You put us in jail. What’s left? You can kill us.” But as a group, and I know as one person, we were determined to see the end of segregation and racial discrimination in places of public accommodation. So I lost my sense of fear. You know, no one would like to be beaten. No one would like to go to jail. Jail is not a pleasant place. No one liked to suffer pain, but for the common good we were committed. What did your parents think of all this? John Lewis: My mother, my father. My mother, my dear mother, she was so worried. She was so troubled. She didn’t know that I was even involved, because I hadn’t had any discussion until she heard that I was in jail, when the school official called and informed her that I was in jail with several other students. The next day or so I got a letter saying, “Get out of the movement. Get out of that mess. You went to school to get an education. You’re going to get yourself hurt. You’re going to get yourself killed.” And I wrote her back and said, “I think I did the right thing. It was the right thing to do.” Years later she became very, very supportive, especially after the Voting Rights Act was passed and she was allowed to become a registered voter. Did your belief in nonviolence ever waiver? Did you ever question the method? John Lewis: As a participant, and even today, I have never ever questioned the method, never questioned this idea, this concept of passive resistance. I believe in nonviolence as a way of life, as a way of living. I believe that this idea is one of those immutable principles that is non-negotiable if you’re going to create a world community at peace with itself. You have to accept nonviolence as a way of life, as a way of living. I thought I was going to die a few times. On the Freedom Rides in the year 1961, when I was beaten at the Greyhound bus station in Montgomery, I thought I was going to die. On March 7, 1965, when I was hit in the head with a night stick by a state trooper at the foot of the Edmund Pettus Bridge, I thought I was going to die. I thought I saw death, but nothing can make me question the philosophy of nonviolence. Or want to retaliate? John Lewis: No, I cannot and will not retaliate. We grew to respect the dignity and the worth of every human being. When we were harassed by Sheriff Clark in Selma or Bull Connor in Birmingham, when I was being beaten by an angry mob in Montgomery, you try to put yourself in the place of the people that are abusing you, and see that person as a human being, and try to do what you can to win that person over, to change that person. In a sense we all were victims, victims of a system. Let me ask about March 7, known as “Bloody Sunday.” What was going through your mind when you saw the array of state troopers on horseback, and you and Hosea Williams at the front of that line walked into that? John Lewis: As we started walking across the Alabama River, across the Edmund Pettus Bridge, I really thought that we would be arrested and taken to jail. I was prepared to be arrested, and I was wearing a backpack, and in this backpack I had two books, an apple, an orange, toothbrush and toothpaste. I thought we were going to go to jail. I wanted to have something to read, something to eat, and since I was going to be in jail with my friends, colleagues and neighbors, I wanted to be able to brush my teeth. And we get to the high point, highest point on that bridge. Down below we saw the Alabama state troopers, the Sheriff’s Deputies, members of Sheriff Clark’s posse, and when Major John Claude said, “This is an unlawful march.” I think he said, “I am Major John Claude of the Alabama state troopers. This is an unlawful march. You will not be allowed to continue. I give you three minutes to disperse and return to your church.” And I think Hosea Williams said, “Major, will you give us a moment to pray?” And before we could even get word back, he said, “Troopers advance.” I knew then that we were going to be beaten. And you saw these men putting on their gas masks, and they came towards us beating us with night sticks, pushing us, trampling us with horses, and releasing the tear gas. I became very concerned about the other people in the march, because I thought I was going to die. I just sort of said to myself, “This is it. This is the end of the road for me. I’m going to die right here on this bridge.” And to this day, 39 years later, I don’t know how I made it back across the bridge, through the streets of Selma, back to that little church that we left from, but I do recall being back at that church that Sunday afternoon. It was Brown Chapel AME Church. When we got back, the church was full to capacity. Several hundred people on the outside were trying to get in to protest what had happened. Someone asked me to say something to the audience, and I stood up and said, “I don’t understand it. President Johnson can send troops to Vietnam but cannot send troops to Selma, Alabama to protect people whose only desire is to register to vote.” The next thing I knew I had been admitted to the Good Samaritan hospital in Selma. Was that a turning point in the Civil Rights Movement? John Lewis: I think what happened in Selma was a turning point in the Civil Rights Movement and probably was one of the finest hours in the movement. Because of what happened in Selma, I mean people saw the film footage of what happened on television that Sunday night, that Monday morning. There was a sense of righteous indignation. People didn’t like it. The American people didn’t like it. There were demonstrations in almost every major city in America, on almost every major college campus, at the White House, the Department of Justice, at American embassies abroad. I remember Dr. King coming to visit me that Monday morning in the hospital, and he said, “John, don’t worry. We’ll make it from Selma to Montgomery. The Voting Rights Act will be passed.” And he told me that he was issuing a call for religious leaders to come to Selma the next day, and the next day, that Tuesday, March 9, more than a thousand ministers, priests, rabbis and nuns came to Selma and marched across the bridge to the point where we had been beaten two days earlier. President Johnson called Governor Wallace to come to the White House to try to get assurance from him that he would be able to protect us if we decided to march again. Wallace could not assure the President. Lyndon Johnson was so moved that he had to do something. The American people were saying, “You must act.” The Congress was saying, “You must do something.” So he went on television, and… On March 15, 1965, Lyndon Johnson made one of the most meaningful speeches any American president had made in modern times on the whole question of civil rights and voting rights. I was with Dr. King as we watched and listened to Lyndon Johnson the night of March 15. He spoke to the nation. He spoke to a general session of the Congress. He started that speech off that night by saying, “I speak tonight for the dignity of man and for the destiny of democracy.” He went on to say, “At times history and fate meet at a single place in man’s unending search for freedom. So it was more than a century ago at Lexington and at Concord. So it was at Appomattox. So it was last week in Selma, Alabama.” He condemned the violence in Selma, and he mentioned the fact that one good man, a man of God, was killed. Reverend James Reed, a white minister from Boston, had participated in a march on March 9. And then the night of March 9 he went out to try to get something to eat with two or three other white ministers, and they were jumped and beaten by members of the Klan, and a day or so later he died at a local hospital in Birmingham. President Johnson recognized that, but before he closed that speech and introduced the Voting Rights Act, he said, “We shall overcome.” He said it more than once, “And we shall overcome.” And he became the first president to use the theme song of the Civil Rights Movement in a major speech, and Dr. King was so moved he started crying, and we all cried a little when we heard Lyndon Johnson say, “And we shall overcome.”	4,569	ENGLISH	1
Pepin removed Grifo and installed the young Tassilo as duke, but under Frankish overlordship. Later, in 757, according to the Royal Frankish Annals, Tassilo became Pepin’s vassal for his lands at an assembly held at Compiègne. However, this highly legalistic account is quite out of character for the period. K. L. Pearson has suggested that it probably represents a reworking of the original document by the annalist to emphasise Charlemagne’s overlordship over Tassilo during the period of hostilities between the two rulers. Around 760 Tassilo married Liutperga, daughter of the Lombard king Desiderius continuing a tradition of Lombardo-Bavarian connections. He made several journeys to Italy to visit his father in law and to establish political relations with the pope. That year he founded Gars Abbey on the Inn River in southern Bavaria. He was however not able to protect the pope against Lombard expansions which has been seen as a reason for Rome"s lack of supporting Tassilo in his later conflict with Charlemagne. Still, there is consensus among historians that Tassilo despite his acting as a kingly sovereign did not intend to become king himself. Pearson suggests that he left out of a feeling of obligation to the Aquitanians in light of an earlier alliance made between Tassilo’s father and the Aquitanian duke during his conflict with Pepin in 743. Whatever the motivations behind Tassilo"s abandoning the campaign, the Royal Frankish Annals for that year are particularly scathing of him, saying that he "brushed aside his oaths and all his promises and sneaked away on a wicked pretext". Working on the premise, argued by Pearson, that these annals may have been revised to emphasise Tassilo as a vassal suggests that this was the beginning of a campaign to depict Tassilo as an oath-breaker and as one unprepared to carry out the main function of his office, namely, to fight, making him unfit for rule. This incident was the linchpin in Charlemagne and Pope Hadrian I’s argument that Tassilo was not an independent prince, but a rebellious vassal deserving punishment. This punishment was carried out, after much political maneuvering during a diet in the Imperial Palace Ingelheim, in 788, when Tassilo was finally deposed and entered a monastery. In 794, Tassilo was made once more, at the synod of Frankfurt, to renounce his and his family"s claims to Bavaria.	<urn:uuid:d970070e-0af0-4a5c-9e5d-6b903507dd85>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://prabook.com/web/tassilo.tassilo_iii_duke_of_bavaria/1841090	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00524.warc.gz	en	0.983402	556	3.265625	3	[ -0.27752214670181274, 0.8223483562469482, 0.13248318433761597, -0.09867376834154129, -0.41408082842826843, -0.48663753271102905, 0.10067618638277054, -0.2914206385612488, 0.03847426176071167, -0.09470805525779724, -0.47524237632751465, -0.491493821144104, 0.19211429357528687, 0.18696275353...	2	Pepin removed Grifo and installed the young Tassilo as duke, but under Frankish overlordship. Later, in 757, according to the Royal Frankish Annals, Tassilo became Pepin’s vassal for his lands at an assembly held at Compiègne. However, this highly legalistic account is quite out of character for the period. K. L. Pearson has suggested that it probably represents a reworking of the original document by the annalist to emphasise Charlemagne’s overlordship over Tassilo during the period of hostilities between the two rulers. Around 760 Tassilo married Liutperga, daughter of the Lombard king Desiderius continuing a tradition of Lombardo-Bavarian connections. He made several journeys to Italy to visit his father in law and to establish political relations with the pope. That year he founded Gars Abbey on the Inn River in southern Bavaria. He was however not able to protect the pope against Lombard expansions which has been seen as a reason for Rome"s lack of supporting Tassilo in his later conflict with Charlemagne. Still, there is consensus among historians that Tassilo despite his acting as a kingly sovereign did not intend to become king himself. Pearson suggests that he left out of a feeling of obligation to the Aquitanians in light of an earlier alliance made between Tassilo’s father and the Aquitanian duke during his conflict with Pepin in 743. Whatever the motivations behind Tassilo"s abandoning the campaign, the Royal Frankish Annals for that year are particularly scathing of him, saying that he "brushed aside his oaths and all his promises and sneaked away on a wicked pretext". Working on the premise, argued by Pearson, that these annals may have been revised to emphasise Tassilo as a vassal suggests that this was the beginning of a campaign to depict Tassilo as an oath-breaker and as one unprepared to carry out the main function of his office, namely, to fight, making him unfit for rule. This incident was the linchpin in Charlemagne and Pope Hadrian I’s argument that Tassilo was not an independent prince, but a rebellious vassal deserving punishment. This punishment was carried out, after much political maneuvering during a diet in the Imperial Palace Ingelheim, in 788, when Tassilo was finally deposed and entered a monastery. In 794, Tassilo was made once more, at the synod of Frankfurt, to renounce his and his family"s claims to Bavaria.	548	ENGLISH	1
The History & Evolution of Bicycles The cycle is probably one of the first Human propelled machines called velocipede or called dandy horse. It was probably designed as an alternate of a horse. Bicycle evolution started with the onset of 19 century. Countries of Europe were the frontrunners in the development of cycles. There were various stages in the development of cycles. The initial prototypes were made of wood. Then came the metal frames that were introduced that had metallic wheels. Riders used to mount them and push them with legs. It was nothing but an assisted mode of walking. Some bicycles had different sized wheels. The front-wheel was bigger than the rear wheel. Around the mid of 19th Century, rotary cranks and pedals were added to the front wheel hub. The seat was mounted on the front wheel that helped in acceleration. Pedaling made it easier for riders to thrust ahead at greater speed. In the last decade of the 19th century, John Dunlop’s redefined pneumatic bicycle tires. This made the ride less bumpy. Just before the rubber tires were fitted in cycles, came chain. With it, both the tires were attached to it. Chain drive and pneumatic tires made the ride comfortable and faster. Later on, the cycle gained prominence in Europe and many other parts of the planet. During the world wars, cycles were widely used by soldiers to move swiftly. Chinese took to bicycling in a big way. It was known as the kingdom of bicycle and during 1970, when Mao Zedong launched the ‘Great Leap Forward’ Program, having a bicycle in every Chinese home was made a mission. Owning a cycle meant prosperity. The British got bicycles in India. But it was largely used by who’s who of the upper echelons. The bicycle Industry took birth in 1938 when it was decided by the Indian Government to manufacture them to be used by British and Allied forces. In 1943, Cycle Manufacturers’ Association was formed. Bicycle penetration in India started only after the year 1960. Interestingly, the Indian Government introduced voluntary price control on bicycles. By 1970, India became the fifth largest producer of bicycles in the world. This was the period when the economic growth in India was stalled and there were huge inflationary pressures on the economy. Cycle Industry also felt the heat of it. After the repeated requests made by manufacturers association, the Indian Government agreed to increase the price by INR 9.70 per cycle. What was initially a poor man’s carriage, the bicycle has transformed into a fitness machine. Health Experts hail cycling as one of the best exercises. Its designs changed. The bicycle evolution machine became lean and trendy. Introduction of gears led to faster cruising and now with battery fit in it, the cycle has become a smart machine. These are called as E-Bikes. There are hosts of technological features in E-bikes that make it very useful; be it in exercise or riding. E-bikes are on the course of redefining this product and industry. Overall, one can say we are cycling ahead to a better future!	<urn:uuid:6c8ca9e2-9137-4216-948c-c48bfa23e963>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.gozero.in/bicycle-evolution/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=bicycle-evolution	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00176.warc.gz	en	0.986244	643	3.5625	4	[ -0.4972596764564514, 0.12013016641139984, 0.3820810914039612, 0.10129424184560776, -0.6409294605255127, 0.19518989324569702, -0.16957372426986694, 0.3734568953514099, 0.10892491042613983, 0.1833755075931549, 0.003322239499539137, -0.2203505039215088, 0.23491384088993073, 0.1276439130306244...	1	The History & Evolution of Bicycles The cycle is probably one of the first Human propelled machines called velocipede or called dandy horse. It was probably designed as an alternate of a horse. Bicycle evolution started with the onset of 19 century. Countries of Europe were the frontrunners in the development of cycles. There were various stages in the development of cycles. The initial prototypes were made of wood. Then came the metal frames that were introduced that had metallic wheels. Riders used to mount them and push them with legs. It was nothing but an assisted mode of walking. Some bicycles had different sized wheels. The front-wheel was bigger than the rear wheel. Around the mid of 19th Century, rotary cranks and pedals were added to the front wheel hub. The seat was mounted on the front wheel that helped in acceleration. Pedaling made it easier for riders to thrust ahead at greater speed. In the last decade of the 19th century, John Dunlop’s redefined pneumatic bicycle tires. This made the ride less bumpy. Just before the rubber tires were fitted in cycles, came chain. With it, both the tires were attached to it. Chain drive and pneumatic tires made the ride comfortable and faster. Later on, the cycle gained prominence in Europe and many other parts of the planet. During the world wars, cycles were widely used by soldiers to move swiftly. Chinese took to bicycling in a big way. It was known as the kingdom of bicycle and during 1970, when Mao Zedong launched the ‘Great Leap Forward’ Program, having a bicycle in every Chinese home was made a mission. Owning a cycle meant prosperity. The British got bicycles in India. But it was largely used by who’s who of the upper echelons. The bicycle Industry took birth in 1938 when it was decided by the Indian Government to manufacture them to be used by British and Allied forces. In 1943, Cycle Manufacturers’ Association was formed. Bicycle penetration in India started only after the year 1960. Interestingly, the Indian Government introduced voluntary price control on bicycles. By 1970, India became the fifth largest producer of bicycles in the world. This was the period when the economic growth in India was stalled and there were huge inflationary pressures on the economy. Cycle Industry also felt the heat of it. After the repeated requests made by manufacturers association, the Indian Government agreed to increase the price by INR 9.70 per cycle. What was initially a poor man’s carriage, the bicycle has transformed into a fitness machine. Health Experts hail cycling as one of the best exercises. Its designs changed. The bicycle evolution machine became lean and trendy. Introduction of gears led to faster cruising and now with battery fit in it, the cycle has become a smart machine. These are called as E-Bikes. There are hosts of technological features in E-bikes that make it very useful; be it in exercise or riding. E-bikes are on the course of redefining this product and industry. Overall, one can say we are cycling ahead to a better future!	647	ENGLISH	1
How Presiding Bishop Blake Was Inspired by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. The date: Sept 2, 1945. At the end of World War II, the Allies, including the United States, Great Britain, France, Russia and others, announced their victory over the Axis powers: Germany, Italy, and Japan. Approximately 73 million people died in the World War II conflict, including many Black American soldiers who fought on the battlefield but could not ride on the bus when they returned home. The city: North Little Rock, Arkansas. My father loaded our family into our car and joined thousands of people in a spontaneous parade celebrating America’s victory. My brother was in the back seat; celebrating by waving a small American flag out of the window of our car. A white family pulled up beside us, and their son snatched my brother’s flag from his hand. As they pulled away, my brother and I protested to our father, “Daddy daddy, that boy stole our flag! Get it back for us!” My father told us to be quiet. My father said nothing. He was justifiably afraid. But at the age of 5: - I learned that because I was Black, my flag could be snatched away from me, and there was nothing I could do about it. - I learned that a Black family’s rights can be violated, and they could not protest or fight back. - I learned that I did not have the same rights as did others. My rights could be snatched away at any time. Fifteen years later, the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and others did protest and did insist on equal rights for Black people. A few years later, the US legislators responded with the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the voting rights act of 1965. Two decades later, that legislation was sealed by instituting a day of honor for Dr. Martin Luther King. In honoring him, our nation began to hand back flags that had been snatched from the hands of millions of Black citizens in the United States of America. They proclaimed that a man is just a man, no matter what his color is: no more, and no less. “We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men have been created equal and are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights. Among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” – The Declaration of Independence Dr. Martin Luther King was obviously a great man; he was obviously a great leader. He helped us to begin snatching back the flags which had long been beyond our reach. Those of us who saw him and heard him also admired him and respected him. Thousands of us went to Selma, to Montgomery, and to a host of other cities where there was injustice. He inspired some of us to risk our lives and others to even give their lives – if necessary – for the cause of freedom. He was a committed man willing to make great sacrifices. He could have chosen an easier pathway, but he was driven by his dream. It is well known that he was an educated man, a trained man. Words were his tools; his instruments. He was a brilliant man. He perfected his art, his craft. He was skillful as a strategist and as a negotiator. He was just one man but he made a difference; he made his contribution. Adapted from Presiding Bishop Charles Edward Blake’s sermon commemorating the 50th anniversary of Dr. King’s Mountaintop Speech. April 3, 2018, Memphis, TN. WATCH the video below about the historic 1963 MARCH ON WASHINGTON, courtesy of The History Channel, below:	<urn:uuid:62e8193e-9c03-4fef-a27b-d0cc4bd93f35>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://westa.org/bishop-blake-what-ive-learned-from-dr-king/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00345.warc.gz	en	0.987415	764	3.359375	3	[ -0.28741398453712463, 0.47289013862609863, -0.11803499609231949, -0.2997695207595825, -0.5806261897087097, 0.03127235919237137, 0.39183664321899414, 0.2566750645637512, 0.13562768697738647, -0.07760313153266907, -0.09511071443557739, 0.12314251065254211, 0.0744265764951706, -0.067194923758...	6	How Presiding Bishop Blake Was Inspired by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. The date: Sept 2, 1945. At the end of World War II, the Allies, including the United States, Great Britain, France, Russia and others, announced their victory over the Axis powers: Germany, Italy, and Japan. Approximately 73 million people died in the World War II conflict, including many Black American soldiers who fought on the battlefield but could not ride on the bus when they returned home. The city: North Little Rock, Arkansas. My father loaded our family into our car and joined thousands of people in a spontaneous parade celebrating America’s victory. My brother was in the back seat; celebrating by waving a small American flag out of the window of our car. A white family pulled up beside us, and their son snatched my brother’s flag from his hand. As they pulled away, my brother and I protested to our father, “Daddy daddy, that boy stole our flag! Get it back for us!” My father told us to be quiet. My father said nothing. He was justifiably afraid. But at the age of 5: - I learned that because I was Black, my flag could be snatched away from me, and there was nothing I could do about it. - I learned that a Black family’s rights can be violated, and they could not protest or fight back. - I learned that I did not have the same rights as did others. My rights could be snatched away at any time. Fifteen years later, the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and others did protest and did insist on equal rights for Black people. A few years later, the US legislators responded with the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the voting rights act of 1965. Two decades later, that legislation was sealed by instituting a day of honor for Dr. Martin Luther King. In honoring him, our nation began to hand back flags that had been snatched from the hands of millions of Black citizens in the United States of America. They proclaimed that a man is just a man, no matter what his color is: no more, and no less. “We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men have been created equal and are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights. Among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” – The Declaration of Independence Dr. Martin Luther King was obviously a great man; he was obviously a great leader. He helped us to begin snatching back the flags which had long been beyond our reach. Those of us who saw him and heard him also admired him and respected him. Thousands of us went to Selma, to Montgomery, and to a host of other cities where there was injustice. He inspired some of us to risk our lives and others to even give their lives – if necessary – for the cause of freedom. He was a committed man willing to make great sacrifices. He could have chosen an easier pathway, but he was driven by his dream. It is well known that he was an educated man, a trained man. Words were his tools; his instruments. He was a brilliant man. He perfected his art, his craft. He was skillful as a strategist and as a negotiator. He was just one man but he made a difference; he made his contribution. Adapted from Presiding Bishop Charles Edward Blake’s sermon commemorating the 50th anniversary of Dr. King’s Mountaintop Speech. April 3, 2018, Memphis, TN. WATCH the video below about the historic 1963 MARCH ON WASHINGTON, courtesy of The History Channel, below:	771	ENGLISH	1
Pass the popcorn — scientists are playing 3D movies to cuttlefish Researchers are outfitting cuttlefish with 3D glasses to learn how they hunt Strapping coloured glasses to a marine mollusc and showing it 3D movies of shrimp seems like a bizarre experiment. But it gave biologist Trevor Wardill a unique insight into how cuttlefish see, and how the cephalopods are able to use their vision to guide their precise strikes on moving prey. "I have to say most people thought this wouldn't work because the cuttlefish would just take the glasses off and not be very happy with me putting them on in the first place," Wardill told Quirks & Quarks host Bob McDonald. "And to be honest they were right." Cuttlefish are related to octopus and squid, and like squid, have eight arms and two longer tentacles. They hunt by rapidly shooting out their tentacles at unsuspecting prey and capturing them with the suckers attached at the end. "They're a bit like cats. They'll kind of sneak up very slowly and then they will move backwards and forwards to judge the depth," said Wardill. These cephalopods have to have very precise depth perception to know just how far away to shoot these tentacles. If they're off in any way, they miss out on a meal. Testing depth perception with 3D movies Wardill wanted to understand how they can see to act with such precision, and what mechanism they use to perceive distance. One possibility was that their depth perception was similar to ours, and depends on the brain quickly analyzing the small differences between the images each eye produces of an object in front of us — what's known as stereo vision. This is the system that is exploited by 3D movies which use special glasses so that each eye sees a slightly different version of the movie to produce the illusion of depth. Inspired by recent experiments studying praying mantis vision, he decided to build the cuttlefish an underwater 3D cinema to test their stereo vision in his lab at the University of Minnesota. That was the easy part. The hard part was fitting the cuttlefish with their own 3D glasses. "It was very tricky to convince them to wear the glasses, but we found some glue that worked relatively well and eventually falls off," said Wardill. "And then we could use that glue to attach some velcro. The idea here was that if the cuttlefish really didn't like its glasses, it could take them off." It wasn't just the design that was tricky. When they first tried handling the cuttlefish, they would squirt ink at the researchers, contaminating the tank. "They use that as the defence mechanism but it's also a good demonstration that they're pretty annoyed with the situation," he said. Training cuttlefish to wear glasses — one shrimp at a time Over the span of a week he was able to train some of the cuttlefish to get comfortable wearing the glasses by rewarding them with their favourite snack. "I basically used the same strategies I do for looking after my daughter," he said. "Every time we did something — like I moved them from one tank to another tank — I would give them a shrimp as a reward. And then if we put the glue with the velcro on, we'd put them back in the tank, we'd give them a shrimp for a reward." Soon the cuttlefish were watching 3D movies starring a shrimp scurrying back and forth. Sure enough, they would alter their attack depending on how far they perceived the shrimp to be from them, proving that they do see in stereo, just like humans. "Like us watching Tyrannosaurus rex come out of the screen to attack us, and you know you lean back in the seat," said Wardill, "it'll back up — it'll swim backwards so that it can shoot out its tentacles at the appropriate distance," Wardill said. The results were published this week in the journal Science Advances. Going on the hunt may make the cuttlefish vulnerable While most hunters have stereo vision, cuttlefish are unique, in that they can also move their eyes independently from one another. "The surprising thing with cuttlefish is they can do this trick of stereopsis but they also can independently move their eyes, and that gives it almost a 360 degree view of the world," said Wardill. This is a valuable ability as it allows the cuttlefish a wide field of view to track potential predators. When it goes to hunt, the cuttlefish focuses on its target and loses some of that wide field of vision. "So it rotates its eyes the same as we would if we looked at something at a certain distance but here then it's losing receptive field behind it. So while it's busy hunting a shrimp something could sneak up on it because it can't see behind it right at that moment." Watch the Cuttlefish 3D movie experiment in action:	<urn:uuid:6aa4bc0d-657d-454b-8e8b-d07d802b69bf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cbc.ca/radio/quirks/jan-11-fires-in-australia-cuttlefish-watch-3d-movies-coal-pollution-harms-crops-and-more-1.5418816/pass-the-popcorn-scientists-are-playing-3d-movies-to-cuttlefish-1.5418836	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00364.warc.gz	en	0.983435	1,040	3.390625	3	[ -0.36920028924942017, -0.008106670342385769, 0.24674665927886963, -0.07080070674419403, 0.03824671730399132, -0.07788185775279999, 0.2834800183773041, 0.18780307471752167, -0.5847165584564209, 0.026197802275419235, 0.378024160861969, -0.5729482173919678, -0.030071863904595375, 0.1663043797...	5	Pass the popcorn — scientists are playing 3D movies to cuttlefish Researchers are outfitting cuttlefish with 3D glasses to learn how they hunt Strapping coloured glasses to a marine mollusc and showing it 3D movies of shrimp seems like a bizarre experiment. But it gave biologist Trevor Wardill a unique insight into how cuttlefish see, and how the cephalopods are able to use their vision to guide their precise strikes on moving prey. "I have to say most people thought this wouldn't work because the cuttlefish would just take the glasses off and not be very happy with me putting them on in the first place," Wardill told Quirks & Quarks host Bob McDonald. "And to be honest they were right." Cuttlefish are related to octopus and squid, and like squid, have eight arms and two longer tentacles. They hunt by rapidly shooting out their tentacles at unsuspecting prey and capturing them with the suckers attached at the end. "They're a bit like cats. They'll kind of sneak up very slowly and then they will move backwards and forwards to judge the depth," said Wardill. These cephalopods have to have very precise depth perception to know just how far away to shoot these tentacles. If they're off in any way, they miss out on a meal. Testing depth perception with 3D movies Wardill wanted to understand how they can see to act with such precision, and what mechanism they use to perceive distance. One possibility was that their depth perception was similar to ours, and depends on the brain quickly analyzing the small differences between the images each eye produces of an object in front of us — what's known as stereo vision. This is the system that is exploited by 3D movies which use special glasses so that each eye sees a slightly different version of the movie to produce the illusion of depth. Inspired by recent experiments studying praying mantis vision, he decided to build the cuttlefish an underwater 3D cinema to test their stereo vision in his lab at the University of Minnesota. That was the easy part. The hard part was fitting the cuttlefish with their own 3D glasses. "It was very tricky to convince them to wear the glasses, but we found some glue that worked relatively well and eventually falls off," said Wardill. "And then we could use that glue to attach some velcro. The idea here was that if the cuttlefish really didn't like its glasses, it could take them off." It wasn't just the design that was tricky. When they first tried handling the cuttlefish, they would squirt ink at the researchers, contaminating the tank. "They use that as the defence mechanism but it's also a good demonstration that they're pretty annoyed with the situation," he said. Training cuttlefish to wear glasses — one shrimp at a time Over the span of a week he was able to train some of the cuttlefish to get comfortable wearing the glasses by rewarding them with their favourite snack. "I basically used the same strategies I do for looking after my daughter," he said. "Every time we did something — like I moved them from one tank to another tank — I would give them a shrimp as a reward. And then if we put the glue with the velcro on, we'd put them back in the tank, we'd give them a shrimp for a reward." Soon the cuttlefish were watching 3D movies starring a shrimp scurrying back and forth. Sure enough, they would alter their attack depending on how far they perceived the shrimp to be from them, proving that they do see in stereo, just like humans. "Like us watching Tyrannosaurus rex come out of the screen to attack us, and you know you lean back in the seat," said Wardill, "it'll back up — it'll swim backwards so that it can shoot out its tentacles at the appropriate distance," Wardill said. The results were published this week in the journal Science Advances. Going on the hunt may make the cuttlefish vulnerable While most hunters have stereo vision, cuttlefish are unique, in that they can also move their eyes independently from one another. "The surprising thing with cuttlefish is they can do this trick of stereopsis but they also can independently move their eyes, and that gives it almost a 360 degree view of the world," said Wardill. This is a valuable ability as it allows the cuttlefish a wide field of view to track potential predators. When it goes to hunt, the cuttlefish focuses on its target and loses some of that wide field of vision. "So it rotates its eyes the same as we would if we looked at something at a certain distance but here then it's losing receptive field behind it. So while it's busy hunting a shrimp something could sneak up on it because it can't see behind it right at that moment." Watch the Cuttlefish 3D movie experiment in action:	1,021	ENGLISH	1
We are repeating last year’s series about Christmas carols. This was first published on December 4, 2018. TODAY’S choice is Silent Night. Originally written in German as Stille Nacht, it is widely believed to be one of the carols which was sung by German and British troops during the 1914 Christmas truce, a series of unofficial ceasefires along the Western Front in the week leading up to Christmas Day when soldiers laid down their arms and emerged from their trenches to mingle and talk. Some exchanged small gifts such as tobacco or souvenirs such as helmets, and there were football games in no-man’s land. Several of these meetings ended with carol-singing. I can’t find a definitive account that Silent Night was sung but it seems highly likely since both sides would have known it. It is used as the track to the truce scene in the 1969 film Oh! What a Lovely War. In December 1915, Allied commanders issued battle orders to forestall any repeat of the Christmas truce, but a small number of brief truces were recorded. By 1916 neither side was in the mood for fraternisation. Stille Nacht had its origins in Austria but over the years the original manuscript was lost and it was variously attributed to Haydn, Mozart or Beethoven. (The following account is repeated on umpteen websites but I could not find an original source for it, or where the manuscript was found.) A manuscript was discovered in 1995 in the handwriting of a young priest, Father Joseph Mohr, and dated by researchers at around 1820. It states that Mohr wrote the words of Stille Nacht in 1816 when he was assigned to a pilgrim church in Mariapfarr, Austria, and that shows that the music was composed by Franz Gruber, a schoolmaster and organist in the nearby village of Arnsdorf in 1818. Bing Crosby’s 1935 version is the third best-selling single of all time, with about 30million sold. Here he sings it live on TV. This performance is by the choir of Winchester Cathedral. The carol has been translated into about 140 languages and and this slightly less conventional version in French is recommended by our commenter ‘Bernard from Bucks’. You can read last year’s comments here.	<urn:uuid:cbf355eb-052d-4b01-a715-631366d5f159>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://conservativewoman.co.uk/a-carol-a-day-silent-night/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00074.warc.gz	en	0.983133	487	3.359375	3	[ -0.07035340368747711, 0.2825201153755188, -0.16468892991542816, -0.047418899834156036, 0.3022659420967102, 0.2722339928150177, -0.4739461839199066, 0.004088444635272026, 0.3293227553367615, -0.3717533349990845, -0.06125716492533684, -0.023959631100296974, 0.05281528830528259, 0.33485087752...	7	We are repeating last year’s series about Christmas carols. This was first published on December 4, 2018. TODAY’S choice is Silent Night. Originally written in German as Stille Nacht, it is widely believed to be one of the carols which was sung by German and British troops during the 1914 Christmas truce, a series of unofficial ceasefires along the Western Front in the week leading up to Christmas Day when soldiers laid down their arms and emerged from their trenches to mingle and talk. Some exchanged small gifts such as tobacco or souvenirs such as helmets, and there were football games in no-man’s land. Several of these meetings ended with carol-singing. I can’t find a definitive account that Silent Night was sung but it seems highly likely since both sides would have known it. It is used as the track to the truce scene in the 1969 film Oh! What a Lovely War. In December 1915, Allied commanders issued battle orders to forestall any repeat of the Christmas truce, but a small number of brief truces were recorded. By 1916 neither side was in the mood for fraternisation. Stille Nacht had its origins in Austria but over the years the original manuscript was lost and it was variously attributed to Haydn, Mozart or Beethoven. (The following account is repeated on umpteen websites but I could not find an original source for it, or where the manuscript was found.) A manuscript was discovered in 1995 in the handwriting of a young priest, Father Joseph Mohr, and dated by researchers at around 1820. It states that Mohr wrote the words of Stille Nacht in 1816 when he was assigned to a pilgrim church in Mariapfarr, Austria, and that shows that the music was composed by Franz Gruber, a schoolmaster and organist in the nearby village of Arnsdorf in 1818. Bing Crosby’s 1935 version is the third best-selling single of all time, with about 30million sold. Here he sings it live on TV. This performance is by the choir of Winchester Cathedral. The carol has been translated into about 140 languages and and this slightly less conventional version in French is recommended by our commenter ‘Bernard from Bucks’. You can read last year’s comments here.	503	ENGLISH	1
Like most towns in Ireland, Galway was used to food shortages; they had occurred here in 1816, 1817, 1822, 1831, and in 1842 there were food riots in the city. Nobody, however, was prepared for what happened in 1845 when the potato crop failed. As winter approached, the situation did not seem any worse than usual, though people were concerned about food being exported from the docks while there was a shortage locally. As the full extent of the crop failure became evident, the workhouse became overcrowded, the Fever Hospital on Beggar’s Bridge (which got its name from inmates begging on the bridge ) was full of destitutes, and people would commit crimes to get sent to the (overcrowded ) jail just so they could be fed. A relief committee was set up in March 1846, but as the year drew to a close, it was evident that many would not survive the winter, In December 1846 Rev John Darcy, a Protestant clergyman, set up the first soup kitchen which was located in Back Street. The Dominicans set one up in the Claddagh, and there were others in the Presentation Convent, the Convent of Mercy, St Vincent’s Convent, Merchants Road, Barna, and also in Lombard Street which was known as the Orphan’s Breakfast Institute, and was located in the Monastery School. These kitchens fed some 7,500 people per day. The winter of 1846/47 was the most severe in living memory, and the number of deaths from hunger in the city averaged between 25 and 30 a week. Auxiliary workhouses opened in Newtownsmyth, Merchants Road, Barna, and Dangan. Epidemics of cholera, typhoid fever, and dysentery broke out, and by May 1847, these fevers were accounting for 100 deaths a week. During 1847 and 1848, 11,000 inmates died in Galway workhouse. On the bitterly cold morning of January 26, 1848, two children were found naked and dead on High Street, and another on an adjoining street. For many, the only escape from all this misery and sickness and death was to emigrate in what became known as coffin ships. Many of these were merely freight ships which were converted to carry passengers. Our illustration today is of an 1849 advertisement in a Galway paper which tells us that “A truly lucky vessel, the Seabird” would be ready to take passengers on board as soon as the cargo of yellow corn had been unloaded. The advert tells us that this ship “will be fitted up in a most commodious manner for the accommodation of passengers”, but in truth, the accommodation consisted of hastily improvised bunks, the lower compartments were places of terrible misery, the ships were invariably overloaded, and the conditions were horrendous. The average journey was not 20 days but more like six weeks, and bad weather could make this 12. About 20 per cent of those who sailed perished en route, and sometimes the ships were refused permission to land because of the number of cases of fever on board, causing even more suffering. The Famine lasted until 1850, but its effects lasted much longer; in the aftermath the survivors were so numbed by the extent of the tragedy that for a long time, there was no music or singing or dancing, and of course the awful haemorrhage of emigration began. All of the horror and misery and pain of that time is captured in a new book entitled Famine, Galway’s Darkest Years. It is written by William Henry and published by Mercier Press. It is a must for anyone interested in the history of Galway. It gives us an idea of what our ancestors went through, is full of contemporary illustrations, and is very highly recommended. Available in good bookshops.	<urn:uuid:1e628ec7-9bc9-4209-9d59-cc7ee0b758b5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.advertiser.ie/galway/article/40780/the-great-famine-in-galway?utm_source=related&utm_medium=web&utm_campaign=readrelated	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00163.warc.gz	en	0.989155	804	3.375	3	[ -0.15318557620048523, -0.09987030923366547, 0.19435149431228638, 0.035418473184108734, 0.47130298614501953, -0.20514564216136932, 0.052624158561229706, -0.4088505208492279, -0.504294753074646, -0.45496225357055664, 0.2651624083518982, -0.2835400104522705, 0.2508673071861267, 0.169449388980...	1	Like most towns in Ireland, Galway was used to food shortages; they had occurred here in 1816, 1817, 1822, 1831, and in 1842 there were food riots in the city. Nobody, however, was prepared for what happened in 1845 when the potato crop failed. As winter approached, the situation did not seem any worse than usual, though people were concerned about food being exported from the docks while there was a shortage locally. As the full extent of the crop failure became evident, the workhouse became overcrowded, the Fever Hospital on Beggar’s Bridge (which got its name from inmates begging on the bridge ) was full of destitutes, and people would commit crimes to get sent to the (overcrowded ) jail just so they could be fed. A relief committee was set up in March 1846, but as the year drew to a close, it was evident that many would not survive the winter, In December 1846 Rev John Darcy, a Protestant clergyman, set up the first soup kitchen which was located in Back Street. The Dominicans set one up in the Claddagh, and there were others in the Presentation Convent, the Convent of Mercy, St Vincent’s Convent, Merchants Road, Barna, and also in Lombard Street which was known as the Orphan’s Breakfast Institute, and was located in the Monastery School. These kitchens fed some 7,500 people per day. The winter of 1846/47 was the most severe in living memory, and the number of deaths from hunger in the city averaged between 25 and 30 a week. Auxiliary workhouses opened in Newtownsmyth, Merchants Road, Barna, and Dangan. Epidemics of cholera, typhoid fever, and dysentery broke out, and by May 1847, these fevers were accounting for 100 deaths a week. During 1847 and 1848, 11,000 inmates died in Galway workhouse. On the bitterly cold morning of January 26, 1848, two children were found naked and dead on High Street, and another on an adjoining street. For many, the only escape from all this misery and sickness and death was to emigrate in what became known as coffin ships. Many of these were merely freight ships which were converted to carry passengers. Our illustration today is of an 1849 advertisement in a Galway paper which tells us that “A truly lucky vessel, the Seabird” would be ready to take passengers on board as soon as the cargo of yellow corn had been unloaded. The advert tells us that this ship “will be fitted up in a most commodious manner for the accommodation of passengers”, but in truth, the accommodation consisted of hastily improvised bunks, the lower compartments were places of terrible misery, the ships were invariably overloaded, and the conditions were horrendous. The average journey was not 20 days but more like six weeks, and bad weather could make this 12. About 20 per cent of those who sailed perished en route, and sometimes the ships were refused permission to land because of the number of cases of fever on board, causing even more suffering. The Famine lasted until 1850, but its effects lasted much longer; in the aftermath the survivors were so numbed by the extent of the tragedy that for a long time, there was no music or singing or dancing, and of course the awful haemorrhage of emigration began. All of the horror and misery and pain of that time is captured in a new book entitled Famine, Galway’s Darkest Years. It is written by William Henry and published by Mercier Press. It is a must for anyone interested in the history of Galway. It gives us an idea of what our ancestors went through, is full of contemporary illustrations, and is very highly recommended. Available in good bookshops.	853	ENGLISH	1
Beyond Evolution, About Charles Darwin & His ‘Fool’s Experiments’ Even if you were a back-bencher in Science class, you’re probably familiar with ‘The Theory of Evolution’ and Charles Darwin, the man credited with the life-changing (literally) explanation on how human beings evolved from apes… although it may seem like some of us are stuck mid-way! Terrible jokes apart, the truth is that Darwin’s Theory of Evolution is one of the most universally-accepted theories on how humanity came to be – and has remained the most popular since. This, until recently, when a certain Minister of State for Human Development, Satyapal, suggested that Darwin’s theory was “scientifically wrong” and that, in fact, there was no evidence to prove his theory! He went a step further and suggested it be removed from school textbooks – luckily, the Education Ministry hasn’t deemed that one fit to implement… yet. However, the outburst surrounding his statement has certainly brought Darwin back into the spotlight – and just in time for his 209th birthday, which is today! To honour the man, though, let’s examine Darwin beyond the realm of his ‘Theory of Evolution’. Here’s taking a look at his lesser-known experiments from a few centuries ago – some of them just downright wacky. He tried everything, from feeding toenails to carnivorous flowers to gauge their diet, throwing iguanas off the coast-line to see if they could swim back and even played the piano to an unsuspecting bunch of earthworms to see how they’d react to the music. Strangely enough, even Darwin called these his “fool’s experiments” on most occasions. 1. Duck-feet Experiment James Costa, author of Darwin's Backyard: How Small Experiments Led to a Big Theory has studied some of Darwin’s strangest, earliest experiments in great detail. In his book, he describes how, in an experiment that soon became popularly known as the ‘duck-feet experiment’, Darwin had strived to prove that fresh-water snails often took lifts from other aquatic animals, like ducks, to travel long distances and reach remote areas. In a nutshell, Darwin was convinced that the fresh-water snails he’d seen on remote islands couldn’t possibly have swam their way there, since they were not known to survive long in salt water. To confirm his theory, he took a severed foot of a duck and dangled it atop an aquarium full of fresh-water snails – and sure enough, the snails happily climbed on board and even managed to stick it out for the next 12 to 24 hours! 2. Sundews Experiment In his book, Costa says that one day Darwin was walking by a field, when he noticed a scattering of Sundews, one of the largest genera of carnivorous flowers. Out of sheer boredom, he fed them a few of his toe-nails and a good few strands of his hair to, er, gauge their diet. Understandably, the Sundews did not like the taste of his toe-nails and spat them out, even while they digested his hair satisfactorily. In a sense, then, Darwin had started examining the diet of these carnivorous flowers long before books about researchers had examined its toxicity levels and the adverse effects of humans – ironically – consuming them. 3. ‘Expression of Emotion’ Experiment The French neurologist Duchenne, known for his work in Muscular Dystrophy, had put forth a theory that humans were ‘unique’ in emotion, and in fact, experienced 60 different emotions – an idea which was extremely popular during Darwin’s time. But a true rebel by nature, he strongly disagreed and carried out yet another experiment to suggest otherwise. In a podcast interview conducted by Science Friday, Peter Snider, Neurologist and Professor at Brown University, said that Darwin then invited a group of 24 people to his house and presented them with a subset of Duchenne’s 60 human-muscle function images and asked them – “What do you see in this image? How does it make you feel?” He noted down the responses and stated that the most common among the emotions – happy, sad, angry – were the ones which were the most un-layered, basic human emotions. These, he said, were uniform to all human beings among ages and races, and also in line with the ones experienced by other animals. 4. Earthworm-Music Experiment So apparently, Darwin’s wife and kids were musical connoisseurs and he figured he should use those expensive piano lessons to the advantage of his scientific experiments. He did... with earthworms. According to Costa’s book, Darwin wanted to see if earthworms responded to musical vibrations. So he put them in a pot and placed them on the ground next to the piano, and asked his kids to play a number. But as it turned out, they weren’t very big fans of his family musical, because they didn’t move an inch. But when he put the same pot containing the earthworms inside another instrument and struck a chord, they frantically dug deeper into their makeshift burrows. So through this seemingly bizarre experiment, he managed to prove that while earthworms were tone-deaf (didn’t respond to sound), they were highly sensitive to vibrations. It seems even someone as revered in science as Darwin had his fair share of crazy experimenting! (The Quint is now available on Telegram. For handpicked stories every day, subscribe to us on Telegram)	<urn:uuid:d0be31f0-d3b2-45ab-be3a-914ea0b6a36b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thequint.com/voices/blogs/beyond-evolution-charles-darwin-and-his-fools-experiments	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00215.warc.gz	en	0.981727	1,211	3.359375	3	[ -0.21412944793701172, 0.41408854722976685, 0.32342058420181274, 0.11652186512947083, 0.16992175579071045, -0.19793367385864258, 0.34791964292526245, 0.30421411991119385, -0.09822278469800949, -0.07804977893829346, 0.3022819459438324, -0.4776025414466858, -0.0546075813472271, 0.079503573477...	1	Beyond Evolution, About Charles Darwin & His ‘Fool’s Experiments’ Even if you were a back-bencher in Science class, you’re probably familiar with ‘The Theory of Evolution’ and Charles Darwin, the man credited with the life-changing (literally) explanation on how human beings evolved from apes… although it may seem like some of us are stuck mid-way! Terrible jokes apart, the truth is that Darwin’s Theory of Evolution is one of the most universally-accepted theories on how humanity came to be – and has remained the most popular since. This, until recently, when a certain Minister of State for Human Development, Satyapal, suggested that Darwin’s theory was “scientifically wrong” and that, in fact, there was no evidence to prove his theory! He went a step further and suggested it be removed from school textbooks – luckily, the Education Ministry hasn’t deemed that one fit to implement… yet. However, the outburst surrounding his statement has certainly brought Darwin back into the spotlight – and just in time for his 209th birthday, which is today! To honour the man, though, let’s examine Darwin beyond the realm of his ‘Theory of Evolution’. Here’s taking a look at his lesser-known experiments from a few centuries ago – some of them just downright wacky. He tried everything, from feeding toenails to carnivorous flowers to gauge their diet, throwing iguanas off the coast-line to see if they could swim back and even played the piano to an unsuspecting bunch of earthworms to see how they’d react to the music. Strangely enough, even Darwin called these his “fool’s experiments” on most occasions. 1. Duck-feet Experiment James Costa, author of Darwin's Backyard: How Small Experiments Led to a Big Theory has studied some of Darwin’s strangest, earliest experiments in great detail. In his book, he describes how, in an experiment that soon became popularly known as the ‘duck-feet experiment’, Darwin had strived to prove that fresh-water snails often took lifts from other aquatic animals, like ducks, to travel long distances and reach remote areas. In a nutshell, Darwin was convinced that the fresh-water snails he’d seen on remote islands couldn’t possibly have swam their way there, since they were not known to survive long in salt water. To confirm his theory, he took a severed foot of a duck and dangled it atop an aquarium full of fresh-water snails – and sure enough, the snails happily climbed on board and even managed to stick it out for the next 12 to 24 hours! 2. Sundews Experiment In his book, Costa says that one day Darwin was walking by a field, when he noticed a scattering of Sundews, one of the largest genera of carnivorous flowers. Out of sheer boredom, he fed them a few of his toe-nails and a good few strands of his hair to, er, gauge their diet. Understandably, the Sundews did not like the taste of his toe-nails and spat them out, even while they digested his hair satisfactorily. In a sense, then, Darwin had started examining the diet of these carnivorous flowers long before books about researchers had examined its toxicity levels and the adverse effects of humans – ironically – consuming them. 3. ‘Expression of Emotion’ Experiment The French neurologist Duchenne, known for his work in Muscular Dystrophy, had put forth a theory that humans were ‘unique’ in emotion, and in fact, experienced 60 different emotions – an idea which was extremely popular during Darwin’s time. But a true rebel by nature, he strongly disagreed and carried out yet another experiment to suggest otherwise. In a podcast interview conducted by Science Friday, Peter Snider, Neurologist and Professor at Brown University, said that Darwin then invited a group of 24 people to his house and presented them with a subset of Duchenne’s 60 human-muscle function images and asked them – “What do you see in this image? How does it make you feel?” He noted down the responses and stated that the most common among the emotions – happy, sad, angry – were the ones which were the most un-layered, basic human emotions. These, he said, were uniform to all human beings among ages and races, and also in line with the ones experienced by other animals. 4. Earthworm-Music Experiment So apparently, Darwin’s wife and kids were musical connoisseurs and he figured he should use those expensive piano lessons to the advantage of his scientific experiments. He did... with earthworms. According to Costa’s book, Darwin wanted to see if earthworms responded to musical vibrations. So he put them in a pot and placed them on the ground next to the piano, and asked his kids to play a number. But as it turned out, they weren’t very big fans of his family musical, because they didn’t move an inch. But when he put the same pot containing the earthworms inside another instrument and struck a chord, they frantically dug deeper into their makeshift burrows. So through this seemingly bizarre experiment, he managed to prove that while earthworms were tone-deaf (didn’t respond to sound), they were highly sensitive to vibrations. It seems even someone as revered in science as Darwin had his fair share of crazy experimenting! (The Quint is now available on Telegram. For handpicked stories every day, subscribe to us on Telegram)	1,136	ENGLISH	1
IT WAS an act of bravery and courage in a battle during the First World War that has gone largely untold for almost 100 years. Lance Corporal William Fuller became the first Welshman to be awarded the Victoria Cross medal during the war – the highest military award – after he risked his life in a bid to save his commanding officer. The soldier braved heavy gunfire to carry the mortally wounded man to safety. His act of heroism happened during The Battle of Aisne – a turning point which brought about the beginning of the conflict’s gruelling trench warfare. Now, as we approach the battle’s 100th anniversary, what is thought to be the first ever book about this key moment in the war is set to be published. Author Paul Kendall praised the military service given by L/Cpl Fuller. The 41-year-old said: “The reason why Fuller won the Victoria Cross was his act of courage and compassion. He stuck his neck on the line to save his commanding officer. “He sees his wounded captain and he puts the needs of his wounded captain over his own safety, and I think that’s astonishing. “War is an indecent act, but decent acts are there – war brings out the worst in people, but also the best.” The Battle of Aisne occurred in France between September 12 and 15, 1914. A total of 13,541 British soldiers lost their lives in futile attempts to break through German lines entrenched along the Chemin des Dames ridge, north of the River Aisne. At this point, the war movement became a test of endurance as both sides were unable to breach each other’s lines due to heavy artillery and machine guns. The conflict brought about the dawn of trench warfare and a stalemate which would last for the next four years. It was during this battle that the first trenches of the Western Front were formed, creating the start of line that would stretch across Europe from the Swiss frontier to the North Sea. The 1st South Wales Borderers and the 2nd Welsh (COR) Regiment fought side by side during the Battle of the Aisne on September 14. They helped oppose an assault by three battalions and two machine gun companies from the German side, and prevented a collapse in the line. Mr Kendall said the Welsh regiments would have spent weeks marching through Belgium to take part in the battle. He said: “They would have been tired and hungry before they got to the River Aisne. There was no opportunity for eating or washing – goodness knows what their mental state would be.” L/Cpl Fuller, part of the 2nd Welsh Regiment, was born in 1884 in Newbridge, Carmarthen, before his family moved to Swansea. He worked as a caretaker at the city’s Elysium Cinema before enlisting to serve in the Welsh Regiment on New Year’s Eve 1902. Upon the outbreak of World War One, L/Cpl Fuller was recalled from the reserve list to serve and went to France with the 2nd Welsh Regiment in August 1914. The soldier risked his life in an attempt to save Captain Mark Haggard, who was mortally wounded, carrying him back to cover under an onslaught of heavy rifle and machine gun fire. L/Cpl Fuller carried Haggard to shelter 100 yards away, removed his kit and dressed his wounds while waiting for the gunfire to subside. He then carried the man three quarters of a mile to a farmhouse, which was being used as a dressing station, where the commanding officer died the following day. L/Cpl Fuller’s bravery was rewarded in September 1914, when he became the first Welshman serving in World War One to be awarded the Victoria Cross. He was modest when he told a South Wales Daily Post reporter at the time: “What I did anyone else would have done in my place, I know I risked my life, but others would have done the same under the circumstances.”	<urn:uuid:88ab8b1a-3b0b-4013-a78a-05b831868d69>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/lance-corporal-william-fuller---2030213	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00041.warc.gz	en	0.986237	844	3.53125	4	[ -0.5824956893920898, 0.785984992980957, 0.29442089796066284, 0.0073426091112196445, -0.32219791412353516, 0.20098498463630676, -0.09545598924160004, 0.26800820231437683, 0.08688601106405258, -0.2610989511013031, 0.09179005771875381, -0.21048663556575775, 0.06678523123264313, 0.676751494407...	4	IT WAS an act of bravery and courage in a battle during the First World War that has gone largely untold for almost 100 years. Lance Corporal William Fuller became the first Welshman to be awarded the Victoria Cross medal during the war – the highest military award – after he risked his life in a bid to save his commanding officer. The soldier braved heavy gunfire to carry the mortally wounded man to safety. His act of heroism happened during The Battle of Aisne – a turning point which brought about the beginning of the conflict’s gruelling trench warfare. Now, as we approach the battle’s 100th anniversary, what is thought to be the first ever book about this key moment in the war is set to be published. Author Paul Kendall praised the military service given by L/Cpl Fuller. The 41-year-old said: “The reason why Fuller won the Victoria Cross was his act of courage and compassion. He stuck his neck on the line to save his commanding officer. “He sees his wounded captain and he puts the needs of his wounded captain over his own safety, and I think that’s astonishing. “War is an indecent act, but decent acts are there – war brings out the worst in people, but also the best.” The Battle of Aisne occurred in France between September 12 and 15, 1914. A total of 13,541 British soldiers lost their lives in futile attempts to break through German lines entrenched along the Chemin des Dames ridge, north of the River Aisne. At this point, the war movement became a test of endurance as both sides were unable to breach each other’s lines due to heavy artillery and machine guns. The conflict brought about the dawn of trench warfare and a stalemate which would last for the next four years. It was during this battle that the first trenches of the Western Front were formed, creating the start of line that would stretch across Europe from the Swiss frontier to the North Sea. The 1st South Wales Borderers and the 2nd Welsh (COR) Regiment fought side by side during the Battle of the Aisne on September 14. They helped oppose an assault by three battalions and two machine gun companies from the German side, and prevented a collapse in the line. Mr Kendall said the Welsh regiments would have spent weeks marching through Belgium to take part in the battle. He said: “They would have been tired and hungry before they got to the River Aisne. There was no opportunity for eating or washing – goodness knows what their mental state would be.” L/Cpl Fuller, part of the 2nd Welsh Regiment, was born in 1884 in Newbridge, Carmarthen, before his family moved to Swansea. He worked as a caretaker at the city’s Elysium Cinema before enlisting to serve in the Welsh Regiment on New Year’s Eve 1902. Upon the outbreak of World War One, L/Cpl Fuller was recalled from the reserve list to serve and went to France with the 2nd Welsh Regiment in August 1914. The soldier risked his life in an attempt to save Captain Mark Haggard, who was mortally wounded, carrying him back to cover under an onslaught of heavy rifle and machine gun fire. L/Cpl Fuller carried Haggard to shelter 100 yards away, removed his kit and dressed his wounds while waiting for the gunfire to subside. He then carried the man three quarters of a mile to a farmhouse, which was being used as a dressing station, where the commanding officer died the following day. L/Cpl Fuller’s bravery was rewarded in September 1914, when he became the first Welshman serving in World War One to be awarded the Victoria Cross. He was modest when he told a South Wales Daily Post reporter at the time: “What I did anyone else would have done in my place, I know I risked my life, but others would have done the same under the circumstances.”	837	ENGLISH	1
Most auto history experts date the birth of the modern vehicle and automotive industry to the invention and production of Karl Benz’s Benz Patent-Motorwagen in 1886. Archeologists and historians have found mentions and evidence of chariots and other horse-drawn, spoke-wheeled vehicles dating back more than 4,000 years. Pedestrians have been dealing with the challenge of contesting with some sort of vehicular traffic for a long time, so it stands to reason even ancient societies with potentially heavy animal-powered cart traffic would have some mechanism to allow people to cross a thoroughfare without risking harm. Surprisingly, that’s not really the case. There were novel pedestrian crossings built into some heavily trafficked Roman roads, and although these may have functioned in part as a speed break, they were pretty much just a series of separated raised stones that allowed people to cross a street without getting their feet wet while still leaving space between the stones for cart wheels and horses to pass through. That was in large part because Roman roads at the time did double duty as drainage for rain and sewage, and people understandably didn’t want to get their feet wet. Auto accidents were actually a noted and growing societal problem decades before the first crossing signals and crosswalks were developed and implemented in Western countries. English inventor and railway engineer John Peake Knight took inspiration from railway signals and invented a crossing signal for pedestrian traffic. The first and only Knight signal was installed in 1868, and consisted of manually operated arms that would raise or lower depending on whether pedestrian traffic had the go ahead or vehicle traffic had the right of way. The signal had a gas light on the top that would turn green or red for improved visibility at night. It only took about two months for the manually operated signal to combust due to a gas leak, injuring the police officer manning the signal and effectively ending the experiment. Auto accident injuries and deaths have been around for as long as motor vehicles. One reader’s letter to London newspaper “The Times” noted the danger of crossing streets and roads due to ever-increasing motor vehicle traffic and what the writer viewed as the reckless way in which those drivers operated these early vehicles. That letter was written in 1911, approximately 25 years after the invention of the modern automobile and more than 40 years after the first crossing signal was implemented and quickly discarded. The writing was on the wall for governments around the world, at least in countries were automobiles were quickly becoming a popular means of transportation. Zebra crossings, the first iteration of what we think of as a delineated pedestrian crossing zone, were first popularized in the United Kingdom in 1949, and became mandated by law at crossings in 1951. They were preceded in 1934 by flashing amber lights affixed to black and white posts on either side of a road were pedestrian crossing was allowed. Many variations of zebra crossings have come into existence since its introduction. In the United States the early zebra style is less common than two parallel, horizontal lines that delineate a pedestrian crossing zone. Pedestrians are required by law to abide by traffic control devices, just like automobile operators. Pedestrian crossing must be done in delineated crosswalks and pedestrians are required to heed all traffic control signals. Pedestrians are also required to use sidewalks where able. It’s also illegal to walk or run in front of a vehicle that doesn’t have adequate time to stop. These laws, and many other pedestrian-specific laws, may sound a little silly, but they are very important when it comes to personal injury cases involving pedestrians. If the injured party was acting recklessly, such as running in front of a car, they can’t accuse the driver of the vehicle of being negligent as defined by Florida law. The driver in that scenario may have been operating the vehicle safely, in accordance with state law, and simply didn’t have the room to stop when a pedestrian leaped out in front of their vehicle. In some scenarios, the person who inflicted the injury and the victim themselves may both have been negligent, a concept known in personal injury law as contributory negligence. This may have an effect on some personal injury settlements. For example, if a pedestrian is walking on the wrong side of the road where there isn’t a sidewalk and is hit by a driver acting negligently, that pedestrian may be allotted a degree of contributory negligence in their injury, and as a result, won’t be awarded the full settlement.	<urn:uuid:ed2f6c15-08a6-4f55-954b-c28cd15167c2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kpattorney.com/modern-pedestrians-in-the-auto-age/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00532.warc.gz	en	0.981422	925	3.453125	3	[ -0.3647918105125427, -0.019222134724259377, 0.5410573482513428, 0.25367385149002075, -0.6694777011871338, 0.26850947737693787, 0.129327654838562, 0.4132821559906006, -0.10846655070781708, -0.009099896065890789, 0.0033714626915752888, 0.3178669512271881, -0.07267190515995026, 0.050885878503...	9	Most auto history experts date the birth of the modern vehicle and automotive industry to the invention and production of Karl Benz’s Benz Patent-Motorwagen in 1886. Archeologists and historians have found mentions and evidence of chariots and other horse-drawn, spoke-wheeled vehicles dating back more than 4,000 years. Pedestrians have been dealing with the challenge of contesting with some sort of vehicular traffic for a long time, so it stands to reason even ancient societies with potentially heavy animal-powered cart traffic would have some mechanism to allow people to cross a thoroughfare without risking harm. Surprisingly, that’s not really the case. There were novel pedestrian crossings built into some heavily trafficked Roman roads, and although these may have functioned in part as a speed break, they were pretty much just a series of separated raised stones that allowed people to cross a street without getting their feet wet while still leaving space between the stones for cart wheels and horses to pass through. That was in large part because Roman roads at the time did double duty as drainage for rain and sewage, and people understandably didn’t want to get their feet wet. Auto accidents were actually a noted and growing societal problem decades before the first crossing signals and crosswalks were developed and implemented in Western countries. English inventor and railway engineer John Peake Knight took inspiration from railway signals and invented a crossing signal for pedestrian traffic. The first and only Knight signal was installed in 1868, and consisted of manually operated arms that would raise or lower depending on whether pedestrian traffic had the go ahead or vehicle traffic had the right of way. The signal had a gas light on the top that would turn green or red for improved visibility at night. It only took about two months for the manually operated signal to combust due to a gas leak, injuring the police officer manning the signal and effectively ending the experiment. Auto accident injuries and deaths have been around for as long as motor vehicles. One reader’s letter to London newspaper “The Times” noted the danger of crossing streets and roads due to ever-increasing motor vehicle traffic and what the writer viewed as the reckless way in which those drivers operated these early vehicles. That letter was written in 1911, approximately 25 years after the invention of the modern automobile and more than 40 years after the first crossing signal was implemented and quickly discarded. The writing was on the wall for governments around the world, at least in countries were automobiles were quickly becoming a popular means of transportation. Zebra crossings, the first iteration of what we think of as a delineated pedestrian crossing zone, were first popularized in the United Kingdom in 1949, and became mandated by law at crossings in 1951. They were preceded in 1934 by flashing amber lights affixed to black and white posts on either side of a road were pedestrian crossing was allowed. Many variations of zebra crossings have come into existence since its introduction. In the United States the early zebra style is less common than two parallel, horizontal lines that delineate a pedestrian crossing zone. Pedestrians are required by law to abide by traffic control devices, just like automobile operators. Pedestrian crossing must be done in delineated crosswalks and pedestrians are required to heed all traffic control signals. Pedestrians are also required to use sidewalks where able. It’s also illegal to walk or run in front of a vehicle that doesn’t have adequate time to stop. These laws, and many other pedestrian-specific laws, may sound a little silly, but they are very important when it comes to personal injury cases involving pedestrians. If the injured party was acting recklessly, such as running in front of a car, they can’t accuse the driver of the vehicle of being negligent as defined by Florida law. The driver in that scenario may have been operating the vehicle safely, in accordance with state law, and simply didn’t have the room to stop when a pedestrian leaped out in front of their vehicle. In some scenarios, the person who inflicted the injury and the victim themselves may both have been negligent, a concept known in personal injury law as contributory negligence. This may have an effect on some personal injury settlements. For example, if a pedestrian is walking on the wrong side of the road where there isn’t a sidewalk and is hit by a driver acting negligently, that pedestrian may be allotted a degree of contributory negligence in their injury, and as a result, won’t be awarded the full settlement.	922	ENGLISH	1
Pittsburgh has a rich history. During the 1940’s, the country was embroiled in the largest global conflict in history. Pittsburgh played a very important role in America’s industrial endeavors, especially during this time. Here is a look at just a few of the important historic Pittsburgh moments in America during the 1940’s. - United Steelworkers were headquartered in the city in May, making them 77 years old in 2019. They are a general trade union with 860,294 members across North America. They represent workers in a large array of industries including chemicals, glass, rubber and more. - Due to manning shortages in relation to WWII, the Steelers merged with the Eagles. Over 600 players were drafted into the war, so the Steelers and Eagles became the Steagles for the 1943 season. - The Homestead Grays win the 1943 Negro World Series baseball contest. They beat the Birmingham Black Barons four games to three with one tie. The games were played in seven cities across the U.S. - Once again, due to manning shortages, the Steelers merge with the Chicago Cardinals for the season. Their team was known as Card-Pitt for the year. The change was due to keeping professional football alive during World War II. - The Pittsburgh Civic Light Opera was established on February 20th. It premiered at Pitt Stadium in June where outdoor performances were featured until 1958. In 1961, the Civic Arena was built to house the operation. It was the world’s first retractable roof designed so guests could enjoy theater under the stars. In 1973, the company headed to Penn Theatre, which is now Heinz Hall. Finally, they moved to the Benedum Center in 1988. - On September 9th, the riverboat Island Queen was destroyed when it exploded while docked along the Monongahela River. It had just come from Cincinnati three days earlier for a week of moonlight dance nights. Around 1 p.m., over half of the boat’s crew was ashore. Others were working on the decks or napping in bunks when an explosion rattled the boat. It was one of the most chaotic days in 1940s Pittsburgh.	<urn:uuid:f3d25193-b62e-4463-9141-82fd394547a2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.pittsburghbeautiful.com/2019/12/26/memorable-pittsburgh-moments-the-1940s/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00196.warc.gz	en	0.983588	445	3.265625	3	[ -0.3489021956920624, 0.24479247629642487, -0.16551265120506287, -0.2070828229188919, -0.1950792670249939, 0.28616976737976074, -0.033340755850076675, 0.3011143207550049, -0.3624277412891388, 0.154046893119812, 0.033423710614442825, 0.11583437770605087, 0.19934333860874176, 0.25237596035003...	11	Pittsburgh has a rich history. During the 1940’s, the country was embroiled in the largest global conflict in history. Pittsburgh played a very important role in America’s industrial endeavors, especially during this time. Here is a look at just a few of the important historic Pittsburgh moments in America during the 1940’s. - United Steelworkers were headquartered in the city in May, making them 77 years old in 2019. They are a general trade union with 860,294 members across North America. They represent workers in a large array of industries including chemicals, glass, rubber and more. - Due to manning shortages in relation to WWII, the Steelers merged with the Eagles. Over 600 players were drafted into the war, so the Steelers and Eagles became the Steagles for the 1943 season. - The Homestead Grays win the 1943 Negro World Series baseball contest. They beat the Birmingham Black Barons four games to three with one tie. The games were played in seven cities across the U.S. - Once again, due to manning shortages, the Steelers merge with the Chicago Cardinals for the season. Their team was known as Card-Pitt for the year. The change was due to keeping professional football alive during World War II. - The Pittsburgh Civic Light Opera was established on February 20th. It premiered at Pitt Stadium in June where outdoor performances were featured until 1958. In 1961, the Civic Arena was built to house the operation. It was the world’s first retractable roof designed so guests could enjoy theater under the stars. In 1973, the company headed to Penn Theatre, which is now Heinz Hall. Finally, they moved to the Benedum Center in 1988. - On September 9th, the riverboat Island Queen was destroyed when it exploded while docked along the Monongahela River. It had just come from Cincinnati three days earlier for a week of moonlight dance nights. Around 1 p.m., over half of the boat’s crew was ashore. Others were working on the decks or napping in bunks when an explosion rattled the boat. It was one of the most chaotic days in 1940s Pittsburgh.	486	ENGLISH	1
“Many senior officials at the Treasury regarded the rising defence estimates and the Liberals’ social policies as dangerous because they required a constantly rising level of expenditure.” It soon became clear, however, that such approach was not appropriate. The outcome of the war became fully dependent on state action and not merely on the economy. It was of a crucial importance for the Cabinet to step in, allocate manpower, and organize the industry so as to avoid an inefficient use of resources (capital and people). Hence, Lloyd George stepped in and decided to initiate Reconstruction by restructuring the Cabinet and introducing various Committees, Ministries, and Commissions which were to assume extended powers and responsibilities within the private sphere of civil activities. It was, however, unclear whether this change in faith would pertain over the post-war period as well. Furthermore, the aftermath of the war was not a pleasant sight for any politician taking office at the time. The situation awaiting Lloyd George, who had already been assuming the role of a Prime Minister during the war, had been even more damaging partially due to his party’s increasingly severe internal struggles which began with the social reforms of 1906. Even before the climax of the war, it became apparent that the Liberal Party was most likely unable to restore its significance or even secure its survival in the post-war government. Liberals led by Lloyd George became increasingly	<urn:uuid:488c6d0e-210d-4bc2-a2db-13b63bc31ea6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Treasury-and-Liberals-Social-Poilicies-P3TM5N4CDBRA	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00150.warc.gz	en	0.98353	276	3.703125	4	[ -0.5613189935684204, 0.2724681794643402, 0.3629378378391266, -0.5249141454696655, 0.2759075462818146, 0.23140980303287506, -0.1801520437002182, 0.1882644146680832, -0.10237473249435425, 0.24417844414710999, 0.30078965425491333, 0.2281620055437088, 0.14781518280506134, 0.37737709283828735, ...	2	“Many senior officials at the Treasury regarded the rising defence estimates and the Liberals’ social policies as dangerous because they required a constantly rising level of expenditure.” It soon became clear, however, that such approach was not appropriate. The outcome of the war became fully dependent on state action and not merely on the economy. It was of a crucial importance for the Cabinet to step in, allocate manpower, and organize the industry so as to avoid an inefficient use of resources (capital and people). Hence, Lloyd George stepped in and decided to initiate Reconstruction by restructuring the Cabinet and introducing various Committees, Ministries, and Commissions which were to assume extended powers and responsibilities within the private sphere of civil activities. It was, however, unclear whether this change in faith would pertain over the post-war period as well. Furthermore, the aftermath of the war was not a pleasant sight for any politician taking office at the time. The situation awaiting Lloyd George, who had already been assuming the role of a Prime Minister during the war, had been even more damaging partially due to his party’s increasingly severe internal struggles which began with the social reforms of 1906. Even before the climax of the war, it became apparent that the Liberal Party was most likely unable to restore its significance or even secure its survival in the post-war government. Liberals led by Lloyd George became increasingly	271	ENGLISH	1
Antigone is a tragedy by Sophocles written in or before 441 BC. Of the three Theban plays Antigone is the third in order of the events depicted in the plays, but it is the first that was written. The play expands on the Theban legend that predates it, and it picks up where Aeschylus' Seven Against Thebes ends. The ancient Greek drama was a theatrical culture that flourished in ancient Greece from 700 BC. The city-state of Athens, which became a significant cultural, political, and military power during this period, was its center, where it was institutionalised as part of a festival called the Dionysia, which honored the god Dionysus. Tragedy (late 500 BC), comedy (490 BC), and the satyr play were the three dramatic genres to emerge there. Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies.	<urn:uuid:b5bd5903-580f-48c2-aaa1-d68b658a615a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.englishandartsolutions.com/2019/02/antigoneananalysis.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00068.warc.gz	en	0.982793	183	3.65625	4	[ 0.298788458108902, 0.1626879721879959, 0.12421919405460358, -0.2654639482498169, 0.0023071751929819584, -0.1423475295305252, 0.29346632957458496, 0.10916044563055038, -0.464638352394104, 0.1742498129606247, -0.4702920615673065, -0.04218315705657005, 0.002593117766082287, 0.3596938550472259...	2	Antigone is a tragedy by Sophocles written in or before 441 BC. Of the three Theban plays Antigone is the third in order of the events depicted in the plays, but it is the first that was written. The play expands on the Theban legend that predates it, and it picks up where Aeschylus' Seven Against Thebes ends. The ancient Greek drama was a theatrical culture that flourished in ancient Greece from 700 BC. The city-state of Athens, which became a significant cultural, political, and military power during this period, was its center, where it was institutionalised as part of a festival called the Dionysia, which honored the god Dionysus. Tragedy (late 500 BC), comedy (490 BC), and the satyr play were the three dramatic genres to emerge there. Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies.	191	ENGLISH	1
Some time before the 10th of October 1868, thirty Police Constables signed a petition which was submitted to the Inspector of Police. He in turn forwarded it to the Lt Governor, who in the absence of the Governor, was the head of the Government in St. Kitts at the time. This petition and the accompanying letter have yet to be found. We hope that they still exist in copy form in one of the volumes of Correspondence. The Constables asked for two things – that they be allowed two days a month with their family and that they be allowed to rest in the country if they were there on patrol in the evening. The second request was granted but they had to be back in town the following morning by 7.00am. Sounds fairly easy today but in those days people walked or hitched rides on carts. Both could be quite slow which meant that somebody caught out in St. Paul’s had to leave wherever he was very early in the morning. The first request was rejected outright because the perception of the people at the time was that the constables lacked zeal for their work and that too many robberies were happening with impunity. One has to note that the people complaining were merchants. Without excusing robberies, one has to keep in mind the big social disparity of the time and the fact that people often had difficulties making ends meet. There were few alternatives to plantation work and no minimum wage at the time. Planters wanted the working population dependent on the meager wages that they paid so that they would show up regularly. And then we have the constables! This letter suggests that more research about the history of the Police force needs to be done. Meanwhile we will take a brief look at the implications. The Lt Governor considered the one day a month to visit family enough. This raises the question, what kind of home life did they have, and where were they living? It is obvious that the Inspector of Police understood the men’s request or he would have discouraged them from writing the petition. The rebuke he received about discipline in the Force confirms this. In the 19th century, police constables were often despised because of the role they played in keeping order. They were often called in, under the Masters and Servants Act. to arrest tired workers who put down tools. For these men to be deprived of a semblance of family life could not have made them better persons. Credit: National Archives	<urn:uuid:d9b5f930-6515-4bc3-beb6-b5a72399bd5e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.myvuenews.com/29367-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00292.warc.gz	en	0.990419	496	3.328125	3	[ -0.7574443817138672, 0.10747691988945007, 0.23491576313972473, -0.22734467685222626, 0.1806023120880127, 0.038615766912698746, 0.04906003549695015, -0.2277275025844574, -0.27993693947792053, 0.14422167837619781, 0.3803446292877197, 0.2701108455657959, 0.03066674992442131, 0.013233045116066...	2	Some time before the 10th of October 1868, thirty Police Constables signed a petition which was submitted to the Inspector of Police. He in turn forwarded it to the Lt Governor, who in the absence of the Governor, was the head of the Government in St. Kitts at the time. This petition and the accompanying letter have yet to be found. We hope that they still exist in copy form in one of the volumes of Correspondence. The Constables asked for two things – that they be allowed two days a month with their family and that they be allowed to rest in the country if they were there on patrol in the evening. The second request was granted but they had to be back in town the following morning by 7.00am. Sounds fairly easy today but in those days people walked or hitched rides on carts. Both could be quite slow which meant that somebody caught out in St. Paul’s had to leave wherever he was very early in the morning. The first request was rejected outright because the perception of the people at the time was that the constables lacked zeal for their work and that too many robberies were happening with impunity. One has to note that the people complaining were merchants. Without excusing robberies, one has to keep in mind the big social disparity of the time and the fact that people often had difficulties making ends meet. There were few alternatives to plantation work and no minimum wage at the time. Planters wanted the working population dependent on the meager wages that they paid so that they would show up regularly. And then we have the constables! This letter suggests that more research about the history of the Police force needs to be done. Meanwhile we will take a brief look at the implications. The Lt Governor considered the one day a month to visit family enough. This raises the question, what kind of home life did they have, and where were they living? It is obvious that the Inspector of Police understood the men’s request or he would have discouraged them from writing the petition. The rebuke he received about discipline in the Force confirms this. In the 19th century, police constables were often despised because of the role they played in keeping order. They were often called in, under the Masters and Servants Act. to arrest tired workers who put down tools. For these men to be deprived of a semblance of family life could not have made them better persons. Credit: National Archives	500	ENGLISH	1
\|Date(s):\|\|February 6, 1839\| \|Tag(s):\|\|Slavery, Slave Living Conditions\| \|Course:\|\|“U.S. History from 1812 - 1914,” Foothill College\| \|Rating:\|\|4.08 (362 votes)\| The experience of slavery for men, women, and children was equally horrible. The amount of labor on the plantation farms was the same for both genders. The differences between the genders were the jobs appointed to them. Men were usually appointed jobs that included certain skill like carpentry and blacksmith. Women were usually working in the fields or as house servants. Accordening to Hallam, “For black men and women, slavery was an equally devastating experience. Both were torn from homeland and family. Both were forced to perform grueling labor, subjected to mental and physical degradation, and denied their most basic rights. Enslaved men and women were beaten mercilessly, separated from loved ones arbitrarily, and, regardless of sex, treated as property in the eyes of the law." When both genders worked in the fields, men were assigned to do the more physical tasks of plowing the fields and the women had the less physical job of hoeing the crops. Slaves were allowed to have families, but the owners ultimately had control on what the families did with their lives. Mothers and their young were often separated. Ebenezer Davies observed many horrors, “She had at her breast an infant boy three months old. The slaver did not want the child on any terms. The master sold the mother, and retained the child." Usually, babies that were born on the farms became the property of the masters. Hallam explained, “The average enslaved woman at this time gave birth to her first child at nineteen years old, and thereafter, bore one child every two and a half years. This cycle, encouraged by the master, was not without benefits to the mother" The pregnancies of the slaves insured their masters an efficient production cycle of slaves. When men and women were auctioned, they were both treated like animals. During Olmstead's travels, he observed slaves being auctioned: “The clear black skin, back and front, was viewed all over for sores from disease; and there was no part of his body left unexamined. The man was told to open and shut his hands, asked if he could pick cotton, and every tooth in his head was scrupulously looked at. The investigation being at an end, he was ordered to dress himself; and having done so, was requested to walk to the block."	<urn:uuid:956f2e09-28ef-4812-9f86-281124a3c5e0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://historyengine.richmond.edu/episodes/view/5372	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00390.warc.gz	en	0.992185	540	3.640625	4	[ 0.015025153756141663, 0.5996764898300171, 0.5068795680999756, 0.1811811625957489, -0.07570137083530426, 0.0702357143163681, 0.057479411363601685, -0.42890092730522156, -0.2500477433204651, -0.01780998334288597, 0.15370777249336243, -0.15742002427577972, -0.25986772775650024, 0.250396549701...	1	\|Date(s):\|\|February 6, 1839\| \|Tag(s):\|\|Slavery, Slave Living Conditions\| \|Course:\|\|“U.S. History from 1812 - 1914,” Foothill College\| \|Rating:\|\|4.08 (362 votes)\| The experience of slavery for men, women, and children was equally horrible. The amount of labor on the plantation farms was the same for both genders. The differences between the genders were the jobs appointed to them. Men were usually appointed jobs that included certain skill like carpentry and blacksmith. Women were usually working in the fields or as house servants. Accordening to Hallam, “For black men and women, slavery was an equally devastating experience. Both were torn from homeland and family. Both were forced to perform grueling labor, subjected to mental and physical degradation, and denied their most basic rights. Enslaved men and women were beaten mercilessly, separated from loved ones arbitrarily, and, regardless of sex, treated as property in the eyes of the law." When both genders worked in the fields, men were assigned to do the more physical tasks of plowing the fields and the women had the less physical job of hoeing the crops. Slaves were allowed to have families, but the owners ultimately had control on what the families did with their lives. Mothers and their young were often separated. Ebenezer Davies observed many horrors, “She had at her breast an infant boy three months old. The slaver did not want the child on any terms. The master sold the mother, and retained the child." Usually, babies that were born on the farms became the property of the masters. Hallam explained, “The average enslaved woman at this time gave birth to her first child at nineteen years old, and thereafter, bore one child every two and a half years. This cycle, encouraged by the master, was not without benefits to the mother" The pregnancies of the slaves insured their masters an efficient production cycle of slaves. When men and women were auctioned, they were both treated like animals. During Olmstead's travels, he observed slaves being auctioned: “The clear black skin, back and front, was viewed all over for sores from disease; and there was no part of his body left unexamined. The man was told to open and shut his hands, asked if he could pick cotton, and every tooth in his head was scrupulously looked at. The investigation being at an end, he was ordered to dress himself; and having done so, was requested to walk to the block."	537	ENGLISH	1
New issues and interests have emerged, but religion's role in many Americans' lives remains undiminished. Perhaps the one characteristic that distinguishes late-twentieth-century religious life from the rest of America's history, however, is diversity. This is Rich Kleinfeldt. Today, we tell the story about some social and cultural issues of the s and s. An economics professor from the United States was teaching in Britain in the early s. One of his students asked this question: Still, many observers would agree that great numbers of Americans in the s were concerned with money. These people wanted the good life that they believed money could buy. In some ways, the s were the opposite of the s. The s were years of protest and reform. Young Americans demonstrated against the Vietnam War. African Americans demonstrated for civil rights. Women demonstrated for equal treatment. For many, society's hero was the person who helped others. For many in the s, society's hero was the person who helped himself. Success seemed to be measured only by how much money a person made. The period of change came during the s. For a while, these years remained tied to the social experiments and struggles of the s. Then they showed signs of what American would be like in the s. There were a number of reasons for the change. One reason was that the United States ended its military involvement in Vietnam. Another was that the civil rights movement and women's movements reached many of their goals. A third reason was the economy. During the s, the United States suffered an economic recession. Interest rates and inflation were high. There was a shortage of imported oil. As the s moved toward the s, Americans became tired of social struggle. They became tired of losing money. They had been working together for common interests. Now, many wanted to spend more time on their own personal interests. This change appeared in many parts of American society. It affected popular culture, education, and politics. For example, one of the most popular television programs of that time was about serious social issues. It was called "All in the Family". It was about a factory worker who hates black people and opposes equal rights for women. His family slowly helps him to accept and value different kinds of people. Other television programs, however, were beginning to present an escape from serious issues. These included "Happy Days" and "Three's Company. In the s, folk music was very popular. Many folk songs were about social problems. In the s, groups played hard rock and punk music, instead. Self-help books were another sign that Americans were becoming more concerned about their own lives. These books described ways to make people happier with themselves. One of the most popular was called I'm Okay, You're Okay. It was published in It led the way for many similar books throughout the s. The s also saw a change in education.Watch video · John Steinbeck was an American novelist whose Pulitzer Prize-winning novel, The Grapes of Wrath, portrayed the plight of migrant workers during the Great Depression. People Nostalgia. Long Island in the s A Visual Essay By Joshua Ruff and The Long Island Museum of American Art, History & Carriages, Stony Brook, NY American life. y the late s, even the region [s suburban identity ruptures and clashes that characterized the country during these years, from Civil Rights to public discussions over the Vietnam War. The s term papers available at metin2sell.com, the largest free term paper community. I support BLM's cause, but not its approach. I was a civil rights activist in the s. But it's hard for me to get behind Black Lives Matter. Bell-bottoms and incense, long hair, free love and psychedelic rock—the s are commonly reduced to a set of easy-to-replicate images, phrases, and styles. Once branded as immoral, anarchistic, and revolutionary, the counterculture of the s is now playfully imitated. Its sounds, styles. The Church was established in , during an era of great racial division in the United States. At the time, many people of African descent lived in slavery, and racial distinctions and prejudice were not just common but customary among white Americans.	<urn:uuid:948ac2ba-27b2-4374-a2ea-40f93cd1702a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lebofug.metin2sell.com/life-during-the-1960s-essay-3859sa.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00434.warc.gz	en	0.985149	877	3.640625	4	[ -0.05913056433200836, 0.03169121965765953, -0.10416832566261292, -0.3170054256916046, 0.08881556987762451, 0.41563472151756287, -0.3123702108860016, -0.034446366131305695, -0.0999554917216301, 0.07904446125030518, 0.32461482286453247, 0.6550284624099731, 0.28130096197128296, -0.02336503937...	1	New issues and interests have emerged, but religion's role in many Americans' lives remains undiminished. Perhaps the one characteristic that distinguishes late-twentieth-century religious life from the rest of America's history, however, is diversity. This is Rich Kleinfeldt. Today, we tell the story about some social and cultural issues of the s and s. An economics professor from the United States was teaching in Britain in the early s. One of his students asked this question: Still, many observers would agree that great numbers of Americans in the s were concerned with money. These people wanted the good life that they believed money could buy. In some ways, the s were the opposite of the s. The s were years of protest and reform. Young Americans demonstrated against the Vietnam War. African Americans demonstrated for civil rights. Women demonstrated for equal treatment. For many, society's hero was the person who helped others. For many in the s, society's hero was the person who helped himself. Success seemed to be measured only by how much money a person made. The period of change came during the s. For a while, these years remained tied to the social experiments and struggles of the s. Then they showed signs of what American would be like in the s. There were a number of reasons for the change. One reason was that the United States ended its military involvement in Vietnam. Another was that the civil rights movement and women's movements reached many of their goals. A third reason was the economy. During the s, the United States suffered an economic recession. Interest rates and inflation were high. There was a shortage of imported oil. As the s moved toward the s, Americans became tired of social struggle. They became tired of losing money. They had been working together for common interests. Now, many wanted to spend more time on their own personal interests. This change appeared in many parts of American society. It affected popular culture, education, and politics. For example, one of the most popular television programs of that time was about serious social issues. It was called "All in the Family". It was about a factory worker who hates black people and opposes equal rights for women. His family slowly helps him to accept and value different kinds of people. Other television programs, however, were beginning to present an escape from serious issues. These included "Happy Days" and "Three's Company. In the s, folk music was very popular. Many folk songs were about social problems. In the s, groups played hard rock and punk music, instead. Self-help books were another sign that Americans were becoming more concerned about their own lives. These books described ways to make people happier with themselves. One of the most popular was called I'm Okay, You're Okay. It was published in It led the way for many similar books throughout the s. The s also saw a change in education.Watch video · John Steinbeck was an American novelist whose Pulitzer Prize-winning novel, The Grapes of Wrath, portrayed the plight of migrant workers during the Great Depression. People Nostalgia. Long Island in the s A Visual Essay By Joshua Ruff and The Long Island Museum of American Art, History & Carriages, Stony Brook, NY American life. y the late s, even the region [s suburban identity ruptures and clashes that characterized the country during these years, from Civil Rights to public discussions over the Vietnam War. The s term papers available at metin2sell.com, the largest free term paper community. I support BLM's cause, but not its approach. I was a civil rights activist in the s. But it's hard for me to get behind Black Lives Matter. Bell-bottoms and incense, long hair, free love and psychedelic rock—the s are commonly reduced to a set of easy-to-replicate images, phrases, and styles. Once branded as immoral, anarchistic, and revolutionary, the counterculture of the s is now playfully imitated. Its sounds, styles. The Church was established in , during an era of great racial division in the United States. At the time, many people of African descent lived in slavery, and racial distinctions and prejudice were not just common but customary among white Americans.	857	ENGLISH	1
Did you know that sword-fighting is an Olympic sport? At the Olympics it is called fencing. Fencers fight one-on-one indoors on what is called the Strip. The Strip is 14 metres long and 2 metres wide. Competitors have to stay within this boundary. A fencing challenge is called a bout. Fencers fight in bouts of 3, which last 3 minutes each. Competitors fight with three different kinds of swords: foils, epees and sabres. Medals are given for the winners in each competition for each kind of sword. Each sword has its own rules, but generally a competitor scores one point each time they touch the other person with the tip of their sword. To win they must score 15 hits on their opponent, or the highest number of hits in a bout. Fencers dress all in white. So that the competitors do not get hurt for real they wear gloves, padded jackets and pants, and wire masks to protect their faces. Most importantly, the swords have blunt tips! Sword-fighting is a very old sport. Many soldiers in ancient cultures fought with swords, including the Greeks and Romans. Fencing schools were founded in Medieval England, and the rules of fencing were set up by the end of the 1400s. The foil sword was invented in the 1600s, as well as the mesh face mask. Fencing was first part of the Olympics in 1896, and has been included in every Olympic Games ever since. France, Italy and Hungary have had a strong tradition of fencing since the 1800s. They frequently win the individual men, women and team events, along with Germany and Russia.	<urn:uuid:d1d5d56d-ecb8-4d7b-8929-81e9dfa0765d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.wcl.govt.nz/blogs/kids/index.php/tag/swords/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00478.warc.gz	en	0.985333	332	3.296875	3	[ -0.34216392040252686, 0.3367423415184021, -0.010541355237364769, 0.48896968364715576, -0.0795665755867958, -0.0501851961016655, 0.44758614897727966, 0.04927878826856613, 0.3059416115283966, 0.2840721905231476, -0.12048283219337463, -0.6239145398139954, -0.08527405560016632, 0.5356899499893...	2	Did you know that sword-fighting is an Olympic sport? At the Olympics it is called fencing. Fencers fight one-on-one indoors on what is called the Strip. The Strip is 14 metres long and 2 metres wide. Competitors have to stay within this boundary. A fencing challenge is called a bout. Fencers fight in bouts of 3, which last 3 minutes each. Competitors fight with three different kinds of swords: foils, epees and sabres. Medals are given for the winners in each competition for each kind of sword. Each sword has its own rules, but generally a competitor scores one point each time they touch the other person with the tip of their sword. To win they must score 15 hits on their opponent, or the highest number of hits in a bout. Fencers dress all in white. So that the competitors do not get hurt for real they wear gloves, padded jackets and pants, and wire masks to protect their faces. Most importantly, the swords have blunt tips! Sword-fighting is a very old sport. Many soldiers in ancient cultures fought with swords, including the Greeks and Romans. Fencing schools were founded in Medieval England, and the rules of fencing were set up by the end of the 1400s. The foil sword was invented in the 1600s, as well as the mesh face mask. Fencing was first part of the Olympics in 1896, and has been included in every Olympic Games ever since. France, Italy and Hungary have had a strong tradition of fencing since the 1800s. They frequently win the individual men, women and team events, along with Germany and Russia.	351	ENGLISH	1
Essay on Comparing Malcolm X and Martin Luther King During the twentieth century Black people faced a huge amount of discrimination from the whites and found it very difficult to achieve civil rights. They were at one stage deprived of voting, being entitled the same things as blacks and going to a white school. In order for blacks to achieve civil rights they really needed someone to follow, they needed a leader. Many black leaders did emerge for the fight for civil rights, such as, Malcolm X, James Baldwin, Martin Luther King, Marcus Garvey, some had some ways of thinking some had others. Two of the most powerful and influential leaders of the twentieth century were Malcolm X and Martin Luther King. These two leaders had different approaches, …show more content… Not all of the whites involved in the problem of racism supported it. Some were actually trying to help fight for the blacks. Unfortunately, it took Malcolm X a long time to figure that out. He is constantly criticizing whites as a whole. He does not consider, even for a moment, that a white could actually support equality for all men. "Usually, it's the white man who grins at you the most, and pats you on the back, and is supposed to be your friend. He may be friendly, but he's not your friend". However, in a later work of his, "1965"(1), one can see that Malcolm X was learning to accept whites as possible allies. Yet, while Malcolm learned over a period of time that not all whites are evil, Martin Luther King entered the scene already fully aware that "good" whites existed. In fact, where Malcolm underestimated the goodness in whites, King seems to have overestimated it. Yet, even after he found that he did not receive as much white support as he had hoped for, Martin Luther King never lost faith in the white community. Altogether, these views of white society as expressed by Malcolm X and Martin Luther King are reflected in their methods of fighting racism. Malcolm X, who supported the use of violence to achieve equality, most likely reached the conclusion that this was the only	<urn:uuid:aeb6c341-f6cd-43e2-96e8-35da9d7043ba>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cram.com/essay/comparing-malcolm-x-and-martin-luther-king/F3C6UHE2SC	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00013.warc.gz	en	0.982914	429	3.515625	4	[ -0.5294053554534912, 0.2276681512594223, -0.07754301279783249, 0.010859926231205463, -0.24369366466999054, 0.2916252315044403, -0.06610192358493805, 0.09779085218906403, 0.047452591359615326, -0.11133040487766266, 0.04889598861336708, 0.13804449141025543, 0.24654293060302734, -0.0008700070...	1	Essay on Comparing Malcolm X and Martin Luther King During the twentieth century Black people faced a huge amount of discrimination from the whites and found it very difficult to achieve civil rights. They were at one stage deprived of voting, being entitled the same things as blacks and going to a white school. In order for blacks to achieve civil rights they really needed someone to follow, they needed a leader. Many black leaders did emerge for the fight for civil rights, such as, Malcolm X, James Baldwin, Martin Luther King, Marcus Garvey, some had some ways of thinking some had others. Two of the most powerful and influential leaders of the twentieth century were Malcolm X and Martin Luther King. These two leaders had different approaches, …show more content… Not all of the whites involved in the problem of racism supported it. Some were actually trying to help fight for the blacks. Unfortunately, it took Malcolm X a long time to figure that out. He is constantly criticizing whites as a whole. He does not consider, even for a moment, that a white could actually support equality for all men. "Usually, it's the white man who grins at you the most, and pats you on the back, and is supposed to be your friend. He may be friendly, but he's not your friend". However, in a later work of his, "1965"(1), one can see that Malcolm X was learning to accept whites as possible allies. Yet, while Malcolm learned over a period of time that not all whites are evil, Martin Luther King entered the scene already fully aware that "good" whites existed. In fact, where Malcolm underestimated the goodness in whites, King seems to have overestimated it. Yet, even after he found that he did not receive as much white support as he had hoped for, Martin Luther King never lost faith in the white community. Altogether, these views of white society as expressed by Malcolm X and Martin Luther King are reflected in their methods of fighting racism. Malcolm X, who supported the use of violence to achieve equality, most likely reached the conclusion that this was the only	429	ENGLISH	1
Born in Florence to a family of Jewish moneylenders in the mid-15th century, Salomone de Sesso by the 1480s had become one of Italy’s most sought-after goldsmiths, having as his primary patrons the duke and duchess of Ferrara and their daughter Isabella. Ariel David, drawing on a new biography of Sesso and his family, describes his success. (Registration may be required.) Isabella, in particular, was a refined patron and collector who supported artists of the caliber of Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea Mantegna, and Titian. Authoritative and ambitious, she was also a fashion icon of her time: her choices in clothes, style, and jewelry were copied by women of the ruling classes across Europe. Many of her prized jewels were designed by Salomone, whom she praised in one of her letters as “molto virtuoso.” Working between Ferrara and Mantua, [where Isabella was married to the duke], Salomone arguably became the most renowned Jewish artist of his period—and his patrons seemingly respected his devotion to Judaism. For example, they granted his requests when he interceded on behalf of Jews who were persecuted in other northern Italian cities. And records from Ferrara show that the duke even paid for his kosher meals at a Jewish hostelry in the city. But then he experienced a rapid fall from grace: Salomone’s problems began in August 1491, when he was arrested in Ferrara for as-yet unspecified crimes. It appears that the artist had suddenly made an enemy of one of his powerful patrons: Francesco Gonzaga, Isabella’s husband. In a letter to his mother-in-law Eleonora of Aragon, Gonzaga accused the goldsmith of committing “very enormous errors,” including cheating him of some gold when forging a chain for him a few months earlier, but especially of “upsetting all the Jews” of Mantua. Gonzaga did not clarify what Salomone had done to anger the city’s Jews, but insisted that the goldsmith be punished for this particular transgression. If Salomone had been a wealthy Christian, he would have been able to escape with a hefty fine, . . . or he could have bribed his way to avoid prosecution altogether. But as a Jew, and one with few if any financial means at his disposal, Salomone’s fate appeared to be sealed. Fortunately, the duchess and duke of Ferrara had other plans. [They] were zealously religious—or at least desired to display their piety to their subjects—and they saw an opportunity for a high-profile victory in Christianity’s long-standing battle to convert the Jews. Thus Salomone and his children converted to Catholicism—his daughter became a nun—and he expanded his repertoire to religious art.	<urn:uuid:36de99d1-c0ce-4609-a77c-c712d5d27263>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mosaicmagazine.com/picks/history-ideas/2019/12/how-renaissance-italys-great-jewish-artist-was-forced-into-conversion/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00472.warc.gz	en	0.986547	614	3.296875	3	[ -0.18525972962379456, 0.4343712329864502, -0.054888613522052765, -0.033661648631095886, -0.6627112627029419, -0.08466836810112, 0.43983620405197144, 0.18865303695201874, -0.1132780909538269, -0.1091390922665596, -0.09060336649417877, 0.08638076484203339, 0.022943874821066856, 0.14735668897...	2	Born in Florence to a family of Jewish moneylenders in the mid-15th century, Salomone de Sesso by the 1480s had become one of Italy’s most sought-after goldsmiths, having as his primary patrons the duke and duchess of Ferrara and their daughter Isabella. Ariel David, drawing on a new biography of Sesso and his family, describes his success. (Registration may be required.) Isabella, in particular, was a refined patron and collector who supported artists of the caliber of Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea Mantegna, and Titian. Authoritative and ambitious, she was also a fashion icon of her time: her choices in clothes, style, and jewelry were copied by women of the ruling classes across Europe. Many of her prized jewels were designed by Salomone, whom she praised in one of her letters as “molto virtuoso.” Working between Ferrara and Mantua, [where Isabella was married to the duke], Salomone arguably became the most renowned Jewish artist of his period—and his patrons seemingly respected his devotion to Judaism. For example, they granted his requests when he interceded on behalf of Jews who were persecuted in other northern Italian cities. And records from Ferrara show that the duke even paid for his kosher meals at a Jewish hostelry in the city. But then he experienced a rapid fall from grace: Salomone’s problems began in August 1491, when he was arrested in Ferrara for as-yet unspecified crimes. It appears that the artist had suddenly made an enemy of one of his powerful patrons: Francesco Gonzaga, Isabella’s husband. In a letter to his mother-in-law Eleonora of Aragon, Gonzaga accused the goldsmith of committing “very enormous errors,” including cheating him of some gold when forging a chain for him a few months earlier, but especially of “upsetting all the Jews” of Mantua. Gonzaga did not clarify what Salomone had done to anger the city’s Jews, but insisted that the goldsmith be punished for this particular transgression. If Salomone had been a wealthy Christian, he would have been able to escape with a hefty fine, . . . or he could have bribed his way to avoid prosecution altogether. But as a Jew, and one with few if any financial means at his disposal, Salomone’s fate appeared to be sealed. Fortunately, the duchess and duke of Ferrara had other plans. [They] were zealously religious—or at least desired to display their piety to their subjects—and they saw an opportunity for a high-profile victory in Christianity’s long-standing battle to convert the Jews. Thus Salomone and his children converted to Catholicism—his daughter became a nun—and he expanded his repertoire to religious art.	576	ENGLISH	1
Remains of a wall (W1; Figs. 4, 5) were exposed in Sq D4. It was built of a single course of fieldstones and roughly hewn stones and founded on the natural ground. Pottery from the Byzantine period (fourth–eighth centuries CE), dating the wall to this period, was discovered in its vicinity. The wall was covered with a layer of travertine, erosion and small pebbles. Four stones arranged in two rows on the natural ground were uncovered in Sq E1. A habitation level and remains of a wall (W6; Figs. 6, 7) that consisted of a single course set close to pavement remains (L115) were exposed in Squares G6, H5 and H6. The wall and floor were founded on a layer of alluvium and small light colored stream pebbles. This layer was deposited on travertine sediment. In addition, meager sections of walls and numerous potsherds, all dating to the Roman period (first–fourth centuries CE), were exposed. Remains of three fieldstone-built walls (W3–W5, Figs. 8, 9), preserved a single course high, were exposed; these were set on white alluvium layer that contained small stream pebbles and was founded on travertine deposits. The upper part of the walls might have been built of mud bricks that did not survive. The walls delineated a room that was probably part of a building. Several potsherds from the Ottoman period and modern era were found in their vicinity. Remains of a wall (W2; length 34 m; Figs. 10–12) were uncovered in Squares G1 and G2, which were expanded. A single course, built of fieldstones and roughly hewn stones, was founded on brown soil that was overlain with a layer of white alluvium with small stream pebbles. The wall was excavated in several places, but no finds that can date the time of its construction were recovered. Pottery from the Roman and Byzantine periods was found in its vicinity. The wall might have served as a dam in a water system until it went out of use and was flooded, or it may possibly have functioned as a foundation of a built water channel. A layer of alluvium and white travertine deposits with small stream pebbles was found in the other squares (excavated depth 0.4–2.7 m). Numerous processes of erosion and deposition occurred in the excavation area and therefore a scant amount of potsherds from the Chalcolithic period and the Middle Bronze Age was found. Most of the finds dated to the Roman and Byzantine periods and some can be ascribed to the water, irrigation and agricultural systems. Similar finds from these periods were uncovered in the Bet She’an Valley. The building remains in Sq H6 might be related to these agricultural works. The recovered pottery included bowls (Fig. 13:1–5), kraters (Fig. 13:6, 7), cooking pots (Fig. 13:8–17) and jars (Fig. 13:18–24). The rich ceramic finds from the Roman and Byzantine periods might be related to the potter’s workshop that was discovered at Horbat Parva. Presumably, the ancient settlement, a small part of which was excavated and is today referred to as the Synagogue of Rehov, extended as far as the current excavation area or the excavation area was within the farmland adjacent to this settlement.	<urn:uuid:a9fb86b4-6b90-4218-bbd7-da75a663e5e9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=2257&mag_id=120	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00083.warc.gz	en	0.980263	740	3.53125	4	[ -0.14164534211158752, 0.04713383689522743, 0.46400633454322815, 0.05156863480806351, -0.4207178056240082, 0.053848542273044586, -0.4741694927215576, -0.01168158557265997, -0.2029297649860382, -0.13580898940563202, -0.380607008934021, -0.7685330510139465, -0.02042580209672451, 0.39138624072...	12	Remains of a wall (W1; Figs. 4, 5) were exposed in Sq D4. It was built of a single course of fieldstones and roughly hewn stones and founded on the natural ground. Pottery from the Byzantine period (fourth–eighth centuries CE), dating the wall to this period, was discovered in its vicinity. The wall was covered with a layer of travertine, erosion and small pebbles. Four stones arranged in two rows on the natural ground were uncovered in Sq E1. A habitation level and remains of a wall (W6; Figs. 6, 7) that consisted of a single course set close to pavement remains (L115) were exposed in Squares G6, H5 and H6. The wall and floor were founded on a layer of alluvium and small light colored stream pebbles. This layer was deposited on travertine sediment. In addition, meager sections of walls and numerous potsherds, all dating to the Roman period (first–fourth centuries CE), were exposed. Remains of three fieldstone-built walls (W3–W5, Figs. 8, 9), preserved a single course high, were exposed; these were set on white alluvium layer that contained small stream pebbles and was founded on travertine deposits. The upper part of the walls might have been built of mud bricks that did not survive. The walls delineated a room that was probably part of a building. Several potsherds from the Ottoman period and modern era were found in their vicinity. Remains of a wall (W2; length 34 m; Figs. 10–12) were uncovered in Squares G1 and G2, which were expanded. A single course, built of fieldstones and roughly hewn stones, was founded on brown soil that was overlain with a layer of white alluvium with small stream pebbles. The wall was excavated in several places, but no finds that can date the time of its construction were recovered. Pottery from the Roman and Byzantine periods was found in its vicinity. The wall might have served as a dam in a water system until it went out of use and was flooded, or it may possibly have functioned as a foundation of a built water channel. A layer of alluvium and white travertine deposits with small stream pebbles was found in the other squares (excavated depth 0.4–2.7 m). Numerous processes of erosion and deposition occurred in the excavation area and therefore a scant amount of potsherds from the Chalcolithic period and the Middle Bronze Age was found. Most of the finds dated to the Roman and Byzantine periods and some can be ascribed to the water, irrigation and agricultural systems. Similar finds from these periods were uncovered in the Bet She’an Valley. The building remains in Sq H6 might be related to these agricultural works. The recovered pottery included bowls (Fig. 13:1–5), kraters (Fig. 13:6, 7), cooking pots (Fig. 13:8–17) and jars (Fig. 13:18–24). The rich ceramic finds from the Roman and Byzantine periods might be related to the potter’s workshop that was discovered at Horbat Parva. Presumably, the ancient settlement, a small part of which was excavated and is today referred to as the Synagogue of Rehov, extended as far as the current excavation area or the excavation area was within the farmland adjacent to this settlement.	760	ENGLISH	1
Presentation on theme: "Problems Caused By Agriculture In MEDC’s. The Common Agricultural Policy The Common Agricultural Policy, whilst guaranteeing to farmers that there would."— Presentation transcript: The Common Agricultural Policy The Common Agricultural Policy, whilst guaranteeing to farmers that there would be someone to buy their produce also produced some serious environmental problems. Farmers knew they could produce as much as they possibly could and it would definitely be bought so they tried to use every inch of their land, and often changed from pastoral farming to arable farming. This caused serious environmental problems. Hedgerow Removal Between the end of the war in 1945 and 1995 over 60% of hedgerows in England and Wales were removed. Hedgerows are important wildlife habitats but they limit the amount of land a farmer can use, and many wanted to merge small pastoral fields into huge arable fields due to the increased money they could make from that form of farming. The loss of hedgerows also increased the chance of soil erosion occurring as they sheltered the land from wind, helping the soil to bind together. Pollution The increased use of pesticides and fertilisers has led to air and water pollution. Chemicals used on the fields, are easily washed into rivers by rainwater and can seriously affect the fish, birds and plants of the river. They can also leach through the ground and into rivers. Fertilisers in water can cause rapid algae growth. This then can lead to the water being starved of oxygen so there is not enough for other plants, and especially fish. This process is called eutrophication. Soil Erosion The removal of hedgerows and the change from pasture to arable farming has led to many cases of increased soil erosion. The hedges protected the soil from wind erosion, and their removal created huge fields across which the wind could race. Arable crops do not bind the soil together as well as grass and so more soil was eroded by rainwater run-off. Also the crops did not cover the ground all year round and when the fields were ploughed they were even more susceptible to rapid erosion, and flooding.	<urn:uuid:8253b11b-5eff-4923-879e-5470c74527ee>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://slideplayer.com/slide/5775300/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00292.warc.gz	en	0.980357	437	3.78125	4	[ -0.14414501190185547, -0.03349260985851288, 0.12855887413024902, 0.20907779037952423, 0.46796876192092896, -0.222291499376297, -0.13456453382968903, 0.03461526706814766, -0.14308322966098785, 0.3568241596221924, -0.02983299270272255, -0.5259747505187988, 0.38034123182296753, 0.181483894586...	2	Presentation on theme: "Problems Caused By Agriculture In MEDC’s. The Common Agricultural Policy The Common Agricultural Policy, whilst guaranteeing to farmers that there would."— Presentation transcript: The Common Agricultural Policy The Common Agricultural Policy, whilst guaranteeing to farmers that there would be someone to buy their produce also produced some serious environmental problems. Farmers knew they could produce as much as they possibly could and it would definitely be bought so they tried to use every inch of their land, and often changed from pastoral farming to arable farming. This caused serious environmental problems. Hedgerow Removal Between the end of the war in 1945 and 1995 over 60% of hedgerows in England and Wales were removed. Hedgerows are important wildlife habitats but they limit the amount of land a farmer can use, and many wanted to merge small pastoral fields into huge arable fields due to the increased money they could make from that form of farming. The loss of hedgerows also increased the chance of soil erosion occurring as they sheltered the land from wind, helping the soil to bind together. Pollution The increased use of pesticides and fertilisers has led to air and water pollution. Chemicals used on the fields, are easily washed into rivers by rainwater and can seriously affect the fish, birds and plants of the river. They can also leach through the ground and into rivers. Fertilisers in water can cause rapid algae growth. This then can lead to the water being starved of oxygen so there is not enough for other plants, and especially fish. This process is called eutrophication. Soil Erosion The removal of hedgerows and the change from pasture to arable farming has led to many cases of increased soil erosion. The hedges protected the soil from wind erosion, and their removal created huge fields across which the wind could race. Arable crops do not bind the soil together as well as grass and so more soil was eroded by rainwater run-off. Also the crops did not cover the ground all year round and when the fields were ploughed they were even more susceptible to rapid erosion, and flooding.	442	ENGLISH	1
I was giving a reading assessment to a 3rd grade ELL student this week. He was reading a book called Hang On Baby Monkey by Donna Latham from the Fountas and Pinnell Benchmark Assessment System. The book is about how baby monkeys survive and are taken care of by the whole troop they live with, not just their mother. After the student read the book and we were having our comprehension conversation, I asked the student, Why is a baby monkey’s tail is important? The student responded with information he knew about how a monkey uses its tail. He really got “hung up” on (pun intended 🙂 ) how monkeys can use their tail to hang upside down. All which might be true information, but not in the book. This information was not related to what the writer was trying to get readers to consider and understand about baby monkeys. This student was getting too caught up in what he knew or could make connections with. Sometimes connections or what we know or think we know can get in the way of new understandings. We have to be careful of this, especially when reading nonfiction. We have to make sure our readers notice knew information as they read, and not just dismiss it, without consideration. I have found the coding strategy to be a very good equalizer for students who do this. I have these students focus on information the writer shares that is new, compared to information the writers shares that the students already knew. I do not always have them do this on a paper copy of the text, we do it orally as well. When students stop and consider what information was new to them and code it with a (+) or what they already knew and code it with (*), it makes them fully consider and interpret what the writer is saying. Do you have readers that do not want to give up on false information? This coding helps with that as well. This could be information they read and interpreted wrong, misinformation that was given to them, or information they only heard part of. So please give the decoding strategy a try. I know I am not the only one with students like this. Let me know how it goes. What else have you tried to help this type of reader?	<urn:uuid:658427f9-c30c-4fda-837c-e9f75c548996>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://troyafredde.blog/2019/12/21/how-do-you-get-students-to-consider-new-information/?shared=email&msg=fail	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00129.warc.gz	en	0.98129	458	3.515625	4	[ -0.3405856192111969, 0.2028885930776596, -0.18359778821468353, 0.03619341179728508, 0.32631492614746094, 0.18283171951770782, 0.4721393883228302, 0.45971423387527466, -0.06036432459950447, 0.10050280392169952, 0.2643687129020691, -0.23990631103515625, 0.09392289072275162, 0.206991493701934...	14	I was giving a reading assessment to a 3rd grade ELL student this week. He was reading a book called Hang On Baby Monkey by Donna Latham from the Fountas and Pinnell Benchmark Assessment System. The book is about how baby monkeys survive and are taken care of by the whole troop they live with, not just their mother. After the student read the book and we were having our comprehension conversation, I asked the student, Why is a baby monkey’s tail is important? The student responded with information he knew about how a monkey uses its tail. He really got “hung up” on (pun intended 🙂 ) how monkeys can use their tail to hang upside down. All which might be true information, but not in the book. This information was not related to what the writer was trying to get readers to consider and understand about baby monkeys. This student was getting too caught up in what he knew or could make connections with. Sometimes connections or what we know or think we know can get in the way of new understandings. We have to be careful of this, especially when reading nonfiction. We have to make sure our readers notice knew information as they read, and not just dismiss it, without consideration. I have found the coding strategy to be a very good equalizer for students who do this. I have these students focus on information the writer shares that is new, compared to information the writers shares that the students already knew. I do not always have them do this on a paper copy of the text, we do it orally as well. When students stop and consider what information was new to them and code it with a (+) or what they already knew and code it with (*), it makes them fully consider and interpret what the writer is saying. Do you have readers that do not want to give up on false information? This coding helps with that as well. This could be information they read and interpreted wrong, misinformation that was given to them, or information they only heard part of. So please give the decoding strategy a try. I know I am not the only one with students like this. Let me know how it goes. What else have you tried to help this type of reader?	447	ENGLISH	1
We don't know their names, but two people who lived and died in Bronze Age Greece 3,500 years ago were obviously hugely important to the people around them. Archaeologists have just found their tombs, so opulent they were once lined with gold leaf, and filled with exquisite grave goods. It is, the researchers say, a deeply important discovery for our understanding of early Greek culture. The two tombs were found in a place called Pylos, overlooking the Mediterranean Sea, close to another important grave - that of the Griffin Warrior, discovered in 2015, and brimming with over 3,000 pieces of treasure, including jewellery, beads, weapons and carvings. The newly found tombs - beehive-shaped structures called tholi that were hidden underground - are likewise sumptuous, even in spite of past looting, according to archaeologists Jack Davis and Sharon Stocker of the University of Cincinnati. The team found thousands of fragments of gold leaf, as well as beads, jewellery and a carved sealstone. "Like with the Griffin Warrior grave, by the end of the first week we knew we had something that was really important," Stocker said of the discovery. "It soon became clear to us that lightning had struck again." The tombs - named Tholos VI and Tholos VII, and measuring 12 metres (39 feet) and 8.5 metres (28 feet) respectively - were not easy to find. Both domes had collapsed long ago, and the rubble covered over by vegetation. You can see them pictured above, in the middle and on the right; the tomb on the far left, Tholus IV, was discovered in 1939. Excavating the graves and documenting the items therein was quite the chore; the process took over 18 months. But if not for the collapsed domes, the tombs may not have retained their secrets. Although they had both been looted long ago, their collapse and concealment kept them from further robbery. The treasures that remained - dating to the Mycenaean period between 1600 and 1100 BCE - are breathtaking. There were treasures that had to have been imported - red carnelian, Baltic amber and Egyptian amethyst. And there was so much gold. One gold ring is a unique find, showing two bulls and ears of what has been identified as barley, an important grain crop in use for millennia for, among other things, animal feed. "It's an interesting scene of animal husbandry - cattle mixed with grain production. It's the foundation of agriculture," Davis said. "As far as we know, it's the only representation of grain in the art of Crete or Minoan civilisation." A gold pendant found in the tombs features the Egyptian sky goddess Hathor, as a divine mother, and a guide to souls as they make their transition into the afterlife. And another unusual object is a sealstone carved from agate, pictured below. It depicts two mythological creatures called Minoan Genii, with lion-like heads. As with many depictions of these creatures, they are standing on their hind feet, bearing offering vessels - a libation jug and an incense burner. What is more unusual is a 16-pointed star - a symbol quite common in Greece from the 6th century BCE onward, but much less common as far back as the artefacts in the graves. It made an appearance on a second, unspecified bronze-and-gold artefact in the tombs too, the archaeologists said. "It's rare," Stocker said. "There aren't many 16-pointed stars in Mycenaean iconography. The fact that we have two objects with 16 points in two different media (agate and gold) is noteworthy." The richness of the graves suggests that the people buried therein had wealth and status; and that Pylos, hard to reach by land because of mountainous terrain, was likely an important and thriving port on the Bronze Age trade route. "I think these are probably people who were very sophisticated for their time. They have come out of a place in history where there were few luxury items and imported goods. And all of a sudden at the time of the first tholos tombs, luxury items appear in Greece," Stocker said. "You have this explosion of wealth. People are vying for power. It's the formative years that will give rise to the Classic Age of Greece."	<urn:uuid:8b16a31b-0ab3-4ac1-b2da-0c6e4d07c124>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sciencealert.com/breathtaking-ancient-greek-tombs-from-3-500-years-ago-were-once-lined-with-gold	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00322.warc.gz	en	0.983931	918	3.640625	4	[ -0.04234357178211212, 0.22848579287528992, 0.34576380252838135, -0.06110526993870735, -0.21699905395507812, -0.29836124181747437, 0.17979764938354492, 0.3204559087753296, -0.14086799323558807, 0.016564220190048218, 0.024474605917930603, -0.452714204788208, -0.1697949767112732, 0.3920332491...	10	We don't know their names, but two people who lived and died in Bronze Age Greece 3,500 years ago were obviously hugely important to the people around them. Archaeologists have just found their tombs, so opulent they were once lined with gold leaf, and filled with exquisite grave goods. It is, the researchers say, a deeply important discovery for our understanding of early Greek culture. The two tombs were found in a place called Pylos, overlooking the Mediterranean Sea, close to another important grave - that of the Griffin Warrior, discovered in 2015, and brimming with over 3,000 pieces of treasure, including jewellery, beads, weapons and carvings. The newly found tombs - beehive-shaped structures called tholi that were hidden underground - are likewise sumptuous, even in spite of past looting, according to archaeologists Jack Davis and Sharon Stocker of the University of Cincinnati. The team found thousands of fragments of gold leaf, as well as beads, jewellery and a carved sealstone. "Like with the Griffin Warrior grave, by the end of the first week we knew we had something that was really important," Stocker said of the discovery. "It soon became clear to us that lightning had struck again." The tombs - named Tholos VI and Tholos VII, and measuring 12 metres (39 feet) and 8.5 metres (28 feet) respectively - were not easy to find. Both domes had collapsed long ago, and the rubble covered over by vegetation. You can see them pictured above, in the middle and on the right; the tomb on the far left, Tholus IV, was discovered in 1939. Excavating the graves and documenting the items therein was quite the chore; the process took over 18 months. But if not for the collapsed domes, the tombs may not have retained their secrets. Although they had both been looted long ago, their collapse and concealment kept them from further robbery. The treasures that remained - dating to the Mycenaean period between 1600 and 1100 BCE - are breathtaking. There were treasures that had to have been imported - red carnelian, Baltic amber and Egyptian amethyst. And there was so much gold. One gold ring is a unique find, showing two bulls and ears of what has been identified as barley, an important grain crop in use for millennia for, among other things, animal feed. "It's an interesting scene of animal husbandry - cattle mixed with grain production. It's the foundation of agriculture," Davis said. "As far as we know, it's the only representation of grain in the art of Crete or Minoan civilisation." A gold pendant found in the tombs features the Egyptian sky goddess Hathor, as a divine mother, and a guide to souls as they make their transition into the afterlife. And another unusual object is a sealstone carved from agate, pictured below. It depicts two mythological creatures called Minoan Genii, with lion-like heads. As with many depictions of these creatures, they are standing on their hind feet, bearing offering vessels - a libation jug and an incense burner. What is more unusual is a 16-pointed star - a symbol quite common in Greece from the 6th century BCE onward, but much less common as far back as the artefacts in the graves. It made an appearance on a second, unspecified bronze-and-gold artefact in the tombs too, the archaeologists said. "It's rare," Stocker said. "There aren't many 16-pointed stars in Mycenaean iconography. The fact that we have two objects with 16 points in two different media (agate and gold) is noteworthy." The richness of the graves suggests that the people buried therein had wealth and status; and that Pylos, hard to reach by land because of mountainous terrain, was likely an important and thriving port on the Bronze Age trade route. "I think these are probably people who were very sophisticated for their time. They have come out of a place in history where there were few luxury items and imported goods. And all of a sudden at the time of the first tholos tombs, luxury items appear in Greece," Stocker said. "You have this explosion of wealth. People are vying for power. It's the formative years that will give rise to the Classic Age of Greece."	930	ENGLISH	1
White dwarfs are cores of the stars, which were once very similar to the Sun. At some point, these stars simply used all of the lighter elements which fueled their existence and flared up into a bloated giant and then burned down into cores full of oxygen and carbon, which were much larger than the Earth. With their fusion ended, they radiated away from the remaining temperature, and our capability of detecting them was also fading out. We know that stars have planets around them. But what happens to a planet that’s orbiting a star, which blows on its way to becoming a white dwarf? Some say that these stars have the material similar to a rocky planet right on their surface. But there’s a new example out there, with gas, which has been drawn off from a planet that looks like Neptune. This white dwarf star presents sulfur on its surface The white dwarf star called WD J091405.30+191412.25 was found to have hydrogen on its surface. This is quite normal. It would have burned most of its hydrogen during its past life, and many white dwarfs get the material from nearby stars. But here there was no case of a nearby star. Also, there was sulfur on the surface of the white dwarf. We don’t really see much sulfur on stars, which shows that the material did not have a stellar origin. But the question is: how did it get there? They needed to take a look at the lines in the spectrum, which was produced by hydrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. All of these were split into two peaks. This was actually a sign of a rotating disk of material. On one side, the white dwarf rotates away from us, and it adds a red shift to the light. On the other hand, it rotates towards us, and it adds a blue shift to the light. Ethelene is the main editor on DualDove, she likes to write on the latest science news.	<urn:uuid:e8370bae-435f-4249-9634-6c09932dc545>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dualdove.com/white-dwarf-star-has-sulfur-on-its-surface-scientists-revealed/5553/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00369.warc.gz	en	0.98473	407	3.78125	4	[ -0.21830447018146515, -0.17322702705860138, -0.1611807942390442, -0.5055915117263794, 0.20546507835388184, 0.20765337347984314, 0.11154667288064957, 0.22557200491428375, -0.04858491197228432, 0.009137023240327835, 0.2088877260684967, -0.3126522898674011, 0.047047071158885956, 0.08252969384...	1	White dwarfs are cores of the stars, which were once very similar to the Sun. At some point, these stars simply used all of the lighter elements which fueled their existence and flared up into a bloated giant and then burned down into cores full of oxygen and carbon, which were much larger than the Earth. With their fusion ended, they radiated away from the remaining temperature, and our capability of detecting them was also fading out. We know that stars have planets around them. But what happens to a planet that’s orbiting a star, which blows on its way to becoming a white dwarf? Some say that these stars have the material similar to a rocky planet right on their surface. But there’s a new example out there, with gas, which has been drawn off from a planet that looks like Neptune. This white dwarf star presents sulfur on its surface The white dwarf star called WD J091405.30+191412.25 was found to have hydrogen on its surface. This is quite normal. It would have burned most of its hydrogen during its past life, and many white dwarfs get the material from nearby stars. But here there was no case of a nearby star. Also, there was sulfur on the surface of the white dwarf. We don’t really see much sulfur on stars, which shows that the material did not have a stellar origin. But the question is: how did it get there? They needed to take a look at the lines in the spectrum, which was produced by hydrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. All of these were split into two peaks. This was actually a sign of a rotating disk of material. On one side, the white dwarf rotates away from us, and it adds a red shift to the light. On the other hand, it rotates towards us, and it adds a blue shift to the light. Ethelene is the main editor on DualDove, she likes to write on the latest science news.	406	ENGLISH	1
Medieval Knight Standing with Sword and ShieldPN# 8562 During the Medieval times knights were soldiers. To become a knight you had to be a descendant of a knight. At the age of 8 is when a boy began his journey on becoming a knight. He was put through training including horse back riding, and how to fight with a sword. He was also taught how to fight and ride while wearing full armor. When the boy reached the age of 15 he became a squire. He would help a knight with his armor and with his horse and anything else the night needed. Once the boy proved he was worthy of becoming a night he was dubbed a night. Through the years knights have developed their armor. At first they used chain mail as their armor. It was heavy and expensive to fix. Often knights has to replace their armor. Then over the years knights discovered using metal sheets to cover their bodies. Chain mail was still used for some parts of the armor. The metal plates was more suitable for a knight rather than the chain mail. These suits of armor were designed by the knights and had elaborate detail all over the armor. Knights also covered their horses with armor as well. Usually, they would engrave their family names or emblems on their armor. We Also Recommend Confidence En L'Air Ballet Pose Porcelain Figurine in Yellow StatuePN# 8447 Medieval Knight Jousting with Lance on Horse StatuePN# 8555 Strong Man Facial Expression Weightlifter Portrait Bust by Messerschmidt 8HPN# ME02 Only 1 left	<urn:uuid:70e669ec-96ec-4a2b-816d-551d3c9c901c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.museumize.com/products/medieval-knight-standing-with-sword-and-shield-8562	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00171.warc.gz	en	0.985531	325	3.34375	3	[ -0.9549529552459717, 0.44951435923576355, 0.2910573184490204, -0.23041045665740967, -0.417701780796051, -0.3368239104747772, 0.06455373764038086, 0.25389379262924194, -0.3537832498550415, 0.03232317417860031, -0.1303410530090332, -0.1625899374485016, 0.16128946840763092, 0.0908278301358223...	1	Medieval Knight Standing with Sword and ShieldPN# 8562 During the Medieval times knights were soldiers. To become a knight you had to be a descendant of a knight. At the age of 8 is when a boy began his journey on becoming a knight. He was put through training including horse back riding, and how to fight with a sword. He was also taught how to fight and ride while wearing full armor. When the boy reached the age of 15 he became a squire. He would help a knight with his armor and with his horse and anything else the night needed. Once the boy proved he was worthy of becoming a night he was dubbed a night. Through the years knights have developed their armor. At first they used chain mail as their armor. It was heavy and expensive to fix. Often knights has to replace their armor. Then over the years knights discovered using metal sheets to cover their bodies. Chain mail was still used for some parts of the armor. The metal plates was more suitable for a knight rather than the chain mail. These suits of armor were designed by the knights and had elaborate detail all over the armor. Knights also covered their horses with armor as well. Usually, they would engrave their family names or emblems on their armor. We Also Recommend Confidence En L'Air Ballet Pose Porcelain Figurine in Yellow StatuePN# 8447 Medieval Knight Jousting with Lance on Horse StatuePN# 8555 Strong Man Facial Expression Weightlifter Portrait Bust by Messerschmidt 8HPN# ME02 Only 1 left	334	ENGLISH	1
During lunch, one afternoon at P.S. 36, an elementary school in Harlem, New York, a shy first-grader named Josiah plays with cards, action figures, and building blocks with his best friend. A scene like this, where Josiah is healthy and contently playing at school, is one his school’s administrators and teachers would like to see more of. Josiah has asthma and, in large part because of this illness, has been absent from school a lot in the past. Parents and schools are often unaware of how missed school days can add up, but both excused and unexcused absences can seriously hinder a child’s learning. At Josiah’s age, missing a lot of school time can lead to an increased risk for reading difficulties. Children who do not read at the appropriate age level by third grade are four times more likely to drop out of high school than proficient readers. Poor school performance and dropping out then increase a child’s risk for unhealthy behaviors and even long-term health issues. Missing just 15 or more days of the school year is considered ‘chronic absenteeism.’ Last year, Josiah had already missed 12 days of school by mid-October. Why Attendance Is Difficult for Some Students Why do some children have so much trouble with attendance? Some missed school days can be attributed to health-related issues like dental pain or asthma. But chronic absenteeism is also caused by other complex social issues facing families and children impacted by poverty, such as homelessness and mental health issues. Simply put, health conditions, including social conditions that impact health, have a strong impact on learning. These conditions are called health barriers to learning (HBLs): the physical and mental health issues that impact a child’s ability to attend school, pay attention, and to live up to their potential. The team at the Children’s Health Fund Healthy and Ready to Learn initiative (HRL) is dedicated to addressing health barriers to learning. The team works closely with students, parents, and administrators at schools in New York City, giving students individual interventions to help them thrive. Being Present for Josiah’s Success The HRL team at Josiah’s school saw his high absence rate and stepped in to help address the underlying factors that were keeping him from the classroom. Because he has missed so many school days in the past, the HRL program considers Josiah a “Rocket,” a student who receives the highest attention and interventions from the team. To help him be more present in school, HRL site manager at P.S. 36 connected with Josiah three times a week to encourage good attendance. She also met with his mother to discuss the importance of completing a medical consent form so that the school nurse could administer Josiah’s asthma medications, making it easier to manage his illness. Josiah’s parents had been unaware of the cost to their son of each missed day of class, and how poor health can jeopardize educational outcomes. They were eager to help Josiah succeed. The school team called his parents whenever Josiah was absent, offering them regular support to ensure that his asthma was controlled so that he was healthier and able to attend and be present in school. Josiah’s support from HRL has even included regular sessions with his school’s on-site mental health counselor, who gave him tools to better communicate his wants and needs. A Rocket Soars With the support of the HRL team, Josiah’s health and performance have started to take off. Josiah’s teacher, who was also his kindergarten teacher last year, has noticed him be more social and more comfortable speaking up for himself this year. His mother says that Josiah is also more communicative and cheerful outside of school. And his health habits have improved, too. Last year, getting Josiah to brush his teeth was a twice-daily battle at home. But after a visit to the school-based dental clinic for a cleaning, he’s now a tooth-brushing champ. As for his attendance? He’s only missed one day so far this year.	<urn:uuid:daf576f2-8006-4d70-ab50-4a46c0741231>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.childrenshealthfund.org/josiahs-asthma-was-keeping-him-from-school-this-intervention-is-safeguarding-his-future/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00323.warc.gz	en	0.984233	874	3.34375	3	[ 0.048929326236248016, -0.1298280656337738, 0.4309082329273224, -0.09163805842399597, -0.2715998888015747, -0.0067689986899495125, 0.20038896799087524, 0.18064504861831665, -0.5492615699768066, -0.373080313205719, 0.12016237527132034, 0.04743671044707298, 0.43439948558807373, 0.450425654649...	11	During lunch, one afternoon at P.S. 36, an elementary school in Harlem, New York, a shy first-grader named Josiah plays with cards, action figures, and building blocks with his best friend. A scene like this, where Josiah is healthy and contently playing at school, is one his school’s administrators and teachers would like to see more of. Josiah has asthma and, in large part because of this illness, has been absent from school a lot in the past. Parents and schools are often unaware of how missed school days can add up, but both excused and unexcused absences can seriously hinder a child’s learning. At Josiah’s age, missing a lot of school time can lead to an increased risk for reading difficulties. Children who do not read at the appropriate age level by third grade are four times more likely to drop out of high school than proficient readers. Poor school performance and dropping out then increase a child’s risk for unhealthy behaviors and even long-term health issues. Missing just 15 or more days of the school year is considered ‘chronic absenteeism.’ Last year, Josiah had already missed 12 days of school by mid-October. Why Attendance Is Difficult for Some Students Why do some children have so much trouble with attendance? Some missed school days can be attributed to health-related issues like dental pain or asthma. But chronic absenteeism is also caused by other complex social issues facing families and children impacted by poverty, such as homelessness and mental health issues. Simply put, health conditions, including social conditions that impact health, have a strong impact on learning. These conditions are called health barriers to learning (HBLs): the physical and mental health issues that impact a child’s ability to attend school, pay attention, and to live up to their potential. The team at the Children’s Health Fund Healthy and Ready to Learn initiative (HRL) is dedicated to addressing health barriers to learning. The team works closely with students, parents, and administrators at schools in New York City, giving students individual interventions to help them thrive. Being Present for Josiah’s Success The HRL team at Josiah’s school saw his high absence rate and stepped in to help address the underlying factors that were keeping him from the classroom. Because he has missed so many school days in the past, the HRL program considers Josiah a “Rocket,” a student who receives the highest attention and interventions from the team. To help him be more present in school, HRL site manager at P.S. 36 connected with Josiah three times a week to encourage good attendance. She also met with his mother to discuss the importance of completing a medical consent form so that the school nurse could administer Josiah’s asthma medications, making it easier to manage his illness. Josiah’s parents had been unaware of the cost to their son of each missed day of class, and how poor health can jeopardize educational outcomes. They were eager to help Josiah succeed. The school team called his parents whenever Josiah was absent, offering them regular support to ensure that his asthma was controlled so that he was healthier and able to attend and be present in school. Josiah’s support from HRL has even included regular sessions with his school’s on-site mental health counselor, who gave him tools to better communicate his wants and needs. A Rocket Soars With the support of the HRL team, Josiah’s health and performance have started to take off. Josiah’s teacher, who was also his kindergarten teacher last year, has noticed him be more social and more comfortable speaking up for himself this year. His mother says that Josiah is also more communicative and cheerful outside of school. And his health habits have improved, too. Last year, getting Josiah to brush his teeth was a twice-daily battle at home. But after a visit to the school-based dental clinic for a cleaning, he’s now a tooth-brushing champ. As for his attendance? He’s only missed one day so far this year.	821	ENGLISH	1
The Indus Valley was an agricultural society, but trade was very important. The Indus Valley did not have access to a lot of raw materials. Trade routes connected urban areas to share resources such as stones and metals. There were urban areas, but there also rural areas. Archaeologists have found tools and beads and such in rural areas, suggesting that even those living by hunting traded for such things. Indus Valley artifacts have been found as far as Afghanistan, Persia, and Mesopotamia. They can tell where the artifacts are from because they find things like clay seals that have Indus texts on them. Technology enabled advances in trade. The Indus Valley may have been the first place in the world to use wheels in transportation. They used carts, similar to what is still used around India and Pakistan today. Boats were also used in trade. Boats carried goods down rivers. They had a large trade network with Mesopotamia along water routes.	<urn:uuid:5f031ce7-1d96-4214-9852-84cebe1d24d4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://allinonehomeschool.com/indus-valley-trade-and-transportation/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00063.warc.gz	en	0.984811	196	4.09375	4	[ -0.34984076023101807, 0.027974173426628113, 0.3050660789012909, 0.09355679154396057, -0.06471461802721024, -0.5523271560668945, 0.44943681359291077, 0.27143004536628723, -0.4516783058643341, 0.023583224043250084, 0.134750634431839, -0.278641015291214, 0.07114092260599136, -0.00621129991486...	13	The Indus Valley was an agricultural society, but trade was very important. The Indus Valley did not have access to a lot of raw materials. Trade routes connected urban areas to share resources such as stones and metals. There were urban areas, but there also rural areas. Archaeologists have found tools and beads and such in rural areas, suggesting that even those living by hunting traded for such things. Indus Valley artifacts have been found as far as Afghanistan, Persia, and Mesopotamia. They can tell where the artifacts are from because they find things like clay seals that have Indus texts on them. Technology enabled advances in trade. The Indus Valley may have been the first place in the world to use wheels in transportation. They used carts, similar to what is still used around India and Pakistan today. Boats were also used in trade. Boats carried goods down rivers. They had a large trade network with Mesopotamia along water routes.	195	ENGLISH	1
Red Square is the main square of the city of Moscow and all of Russia. Its appearance is explained by the fact that by the fifteenth century, the walls of the Kremlin could no longer accommodate new, increasingly emerging objects, which there were many. The square is located at the eastern Kremlin wall. To date, the entire calculation of distances in all directions and along all routes that deviate from Moscow, starts from the Red Square. Initially, the place where the Red Square is located was called “Torg”, because here there was a posad, with a harbor for ships and barges. The second name she received after the fierce fire, as a result, which in the district all burnt out, since then the area began to be called “Fire” and lasted this name for a long time. The next name that received the square was “Troitskaya”. So it began to be called thanks to the Holy Trinity Church, which immediately settled down. Over time, the church was completely demolished, and in its place the church of St. Basil the Blessed was erected. By the end of the 16th century, two-story stone benches were built on the square, just across them was the eastern border of the square. Stalls formed three quarters, which were called the Lower, Upper and Middle trade rows. And then after that the time came when the square was called Red. But this is not because it was red, but because in those days in Russia “Red” – meant “beautiful”. No wonder they said – “red girl”. One of the most famous places was the Execution place, which appeared in the XVI century. It was a wooden elevation, intended for reading out all the significant and not very edicts of the Russian kings. A little later this construction was made of stone. Since 1918 on Red Square, there have been regular celebrations of various kinds, mostly parades and rallies, and in some cases simple folk festivities. In 1924, after the death of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, the Mausoleum was erected on Red Square. At first it was made of wood, and then rebuilt into stone.	<urn:uuid:829f5b51-41af-4d22-a2f5-eaea492544fa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://set-travel.com/en/blog/10786-red-square-the-main-square-of-russia	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00202.warc.gz	en	0.992364	451	3.296875	3	[ -0.2286810427904129, -0.453020304441452, -0.11683299392461777, 0.14934095740318298, -0.1872558295726776, -0.200561985373497, 0.243406742811203, 0.5589063763618469, -0.1794278472661972, -0.050818655639886856, -0.12827585637569427, -0.11789165437221527, 0.07826677709817886, 0.314018905162811...	2	Red Square is the main square of the city of Moscow and all of Russia. Its appearance is explained by the fact that by the fifteenth century, the walls of the Kremlin could no longer accommodate new, increasingly emerging objects, which there were many. The square is located at the eastern Kremlin wall. To date, the entire calculation of distances in all directions and along all routes that deviate from Moscow, starts from the Red Square. Initially, the place where the Red Square is located was called “Torg”, because here there was a posad, with a harbor for ships and barges. The second name she received after the fierce fire, as a result, which in the district all burnt out, since then the area began to be called “Fire” and lasted this name for a long time. The next name that received the square was “Troitskaya”. So it began to be called thanks to the Holy Trinity Church, which immediately settled down. Over time, the church was completely demolished, and in its place the church of St. Basil the Blessed was erected. By the end of the 16th century, two-story stone benches were built on the square, just across them was the eastern border of the square. Stalls formed three quarters, which were called the Lower, Upper and Middle trade rows. And then after that the time came when the square was called Red. But this is not because it was red, but because in those days in Russia “Red” – meant “beautiful”. No wonder they said – “red girl”. One of the most famous places was the Execution place, which appeared in the XVI century. It was a wooden elevation, intended for reading out all the significant and not very edicts of the Russian kings. A little later this construction was made of stone. Since 1918 on Red Square, there have been regular celebrations of various kinds, mostly parades and rallies, and in some cases simple folk festivities. In 1924, after the death of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, the Mausoleum was erected on Red Square. At first it was made of wood, and then rebuilt into stone.	441	ENGLISH	1
This battle occurred in May and June on 1863. This battle was the culmination of one of the most brilliant military campaigns of the war. Once Pemberton’s army was lost, the Confederacy war nearly split in half. Ulysses Grant’s success boosted his reputation and lead to his appointment as General-in-Chief of the Union army Battles of Fort Wagner These battles were fought on July 11th and 18th, 1863. General Quincy Gillmore sought to capture the Confederate fortifications on James and Morris Islands with the goal of establishing batteries to bombard Fort Sumter. Fort Wagner was defended by thirty-foot high sand and earth walls which were reinforced with palmetto logs on the first day of battle. Gillmore retreated and made preparations for a more substantial assault which would be heavily supported by artillery. During the second battle the Union was who opened fire first. As the afternoon progressed, several Union ironclads closed and continued the bombardment at close range. In deploying his men, Strong accorded Colonel Robert Gould Shaw's 54th Massachusetts the honor of leading the assault. One of the first regiments composed of African American troops, the 54th Massachusetts deployed in two lines of five companies each. They were followed by the remainder of Strong's brigade. As the end of the battle concluded Shaw raised his sword and encouraged an advance, while the Union was compressed to a small point. The assault on Fort Wagner brought great notoriety to the 54th Massachusetts and made a martyr of Shaw. Chickamauga and Chattanooga These battles occurred in September of 1863 and were known as the battles that destroyed the Confederacy. U.S. Maj. Gen. William S. Rosecrans' troops had maneuvered Gen. Braxton Bragg's Confederate troops out of Chattanooga without a fight by threatening his supply lines. In the summer of 1863 Major General William S. Rosecrans, commander of the Union's Army of the Cumberland, successfully forced Braxton Bragg's Army of Tennessee to retreat first from Middle Tennessee and then from Chattanooga. The federal forces occupied Chattanooga which led to elation in the north, and many shocked people in the south. The Confederates lost approximately 6,700 men to the Union's 5,000 casualties, but more importantly, the Confederates had lost a strategic transportation hub. The Battle of the Wilderness As soon as Lee detected that Grant had moved into the Wilderness, he set his own army in motion. The Army of Northern Virginia smashed into the Army of the Potomac broadside and launched the Battle of the Wilderness. It also launched a new kind of war — ceaseless war. For the next eleven months, the two armies were engaged almost continuously, and there were casualties practically every day. There were around 29,000 casualties. The Battle of Spotsylvania Grant set his army in motion on May 7 but discovered on May 8 that Lee had anticipated the move, so he barely won the race for the crossroads. Grant attacked, but Lee's men held on. Over the course of the next couple of days the Rebels built miles of blockades. Grant threw division after division against the Confederates over the next two weeks. He broke the Confederate line twice, but the Southerners managed to patch it enough to keep their army together. There were around 30,000 casualties. This battle occurred on June 3rd, 1864. The Union army launched a massive attack on the Confederates at Cold Harbor, Virginia. The Union’s intention was to break apart the Confederate Army and open a pathway to Richmond. The battle itself lasted a little less than an hour but the Union lost about 7,000 of their soldiers. Sherman’s March to the Sea General William Sherman left Atlanta late in 1864 to head towards the Atlantic Ocean. He moved through cities such as Macon and Augusta, but ended up in Savannah. There were few troops to stop him and his forces on the way and they left destruction in their wake. Sherman presented Lincoln in Savannah and struck the heart of the Confederacy. His victory, along with those of the other Union commanders, was the beginning of the end for the Confederacy. This was a win for the Union and there were about 3,100 casualties. The Battle of the Crater After weeks of preparation, on July 30 the Federals exploded a mine in Burnside’s IX Corps sector beneath Pegram’s Salient, blowing a gap in the Confederate defenses of Petersburg. From the beginning things began to diminish rapidly for the Union attackers. Unit after unit of Union attackers charged into and around the crater, but the Confederates made a quick recovery as they launched counterattacks. In the end, the break was sealed off and the Federals were affected by many casualties. This may have been Grant’s best chance to end the Siege of Petersburg. Instead, the soldiers settled in for another eight months of trench warfare. On November 8, 1864 Abraham Lincoln was reelected. With his re-election, any hope for a negotiated settlement with the Confederacy vanished. In 1864, Lincoln faced many problems, such as the war going on four years, and he had people in doubt about the Union not being able to defeat the Confederacy. The most important problem was the fact the election was going on through a war. This was the first time that had ever happened. Lincoln himself said, "We can not have free government without elections; and if the rebellion could force us to forego, or postpone a national election, it might fairly claim to have already conquered and ruined us." Five months after Lincoln's re-election, the collapse of the Confederacy was complete. Surrender at Appomattox On April 3, Richmond fell to Union troops as Robert E. Lee led his Army of Northern Virginia in retreat to the West pursued by Grant and the Army of the Potomac. A running battle ensued as each Army moved farther to the West in an effort to out flank, or prevent being out flanked by the enemy. Finally, on April 7, General Grant initiated a series of dispatches leading to a meeting between the two commanders. Lee’s army was exhausted and weak so they didn’t have much of a choice but to surrender his army to General Grant. After a series of notes between the two leaders, they agreed to meet on April 9, 1865, at the house of Wilmer McLean in the village of Appomattox Courthouse. The meeting lasted approximately two and a half hours and at its conclusion the bloodiest conflict in the nation's history neared its end. A New Nation Once the Civil war was finally over, everything still wasn’t settled. Everything that was started had now been destroyed by the war. When the war was ended, there was much to be done. The South had to rebuild houses, buildings, farms, and stores, while little of the North had been destroyed. The former slave owners now had to let blacks vote, run for office, and learn. The new country was beginning to reconstruct itself, but it was not easy. After the Civil War, it took over 100 years for blacks to have the same equal rights as whites. Three amendments to the U.S. Constitution helped blacks have the same opportunities as whites and have the same right to vote. Ulysses S. Grant Ulysses S. Grant was the General of the Union army. Later on in his career he defeats the Confederate Army. He is said to be one of the most influential Generals of the Union. Robert E. Lee Robert E. Lee was the General of the Confederate army during the time of the Civil War. He won many battles throughout his career, but eventually was defeated because of the loss of his right-hand-man, “Stonewall” Jackson. Stonewall Jackson was General of the Confederate side during the Civil War. He was said to have many outstanding plans for the Confederate Army. Unfortunately, he was accidentally shot by Pickett in the Battle of Chancellorsville. George Pickett was one of the Generals of the Confederate Army during the Civil war. He is most commonly known for his contribution in the Battle of Gettysburg. Also, because of Pickett’s Charge. This was a glorious assault of the Union Center that occurred on July 3, 1863. The assault was led by Confederate Major General George Pickett and a fresh group of troops because they had arrived at Gettysburg the night before and were fresh for battle. The Confederates had over 50% casualties while the Union had only 1,500 casualties total. General Lee rode up to meet his troops as they retreated and exclaimed that the failure "It was all my fault". When Lee, fearing a counterattack asked Pickett to take back his division, Pickett replied "General Lee, I have no division". Pickett would never forgive Lee for ordering the charge for the remainder of his life. The Confederates were forced to evacuate to Virginia and would never penetrate the north again for the remainder of the war which lasted another two years. Pickett's Charge will forever be regarded as one of the bravest assaults in military history.	<urn:uuid:219b3dd2-487c-4407-b767-67bec23c51d9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.studymode.com/essays/civil-war-44900824.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00103.warc.gz	en	0.98454	1,886	3.734375	4	[ -0.5403645038604736, 0.23533952236175537, 0.35769879817962646, 0.182118758559227, -0.35209694504737854, 0.07277780771255493, -0.01441891584545374, 0.126228928565979, -0.428604394197464, -0.1425347924232483, 0.16039934754371643, -0.2728114724159241, 0.3435940444469452, 0.3456064760684967, ...	1	This battle occurred in May and June on 1863. This battle was the culmination of one of the most brilliant military campaigns of the war. Once Pemberton’s army was lost, the Confederacy war nearly split in half. Ulysses Grant’s success boosted his reputation and lead to his appointment as General-in-Chief of the Union army Battles of Fort Wagner These battles were fought on July 11th and 18th, 1863. General Quincy Gillmore sought to capture the Confederate fortifications on James and Morris Islands with the goal of establishing batteries to bombard Fort Sumter. Fort Wagner was defended by thirty-foot high sand and earth walls which were reinforced with palmetto logs on the first day of battle. Gillmore retreated and made preparations for a more substantial assault which would be heavily supported by artillery. During the second battle the Union was who opened fire first. As the afternoon progressed, several Union ironclads closed and continued the bombardment at close range. In deploying his men, Strong accorded Colonel Robert Gould Shaw's 54th Massachusetts the honor of leading the assault. One of the first regiments composed of African American troops, the 54th Massachusetts deployed in two lines of five companies each. They were followed by the remainder of Strong's brigade. As the end of the battle concluded Shaw raised his sword and encouraged an advance, while the Union was compressed to a small point. The assault on Fort Wagner brought great notoriety to the 54th Massachusetts and made a martyr of Shaw. Chickamauga and Chattanooga These battles occurred in September of 1863 and were known as the battles that destroyed the Confederacy. U.S. Maj. Gen. William S. Rosecrans' troops had maneuvered Gen. Braxton Bragg's Confederate troops out of Chattanooga without a fight by threatening his supply lines. In the summer of 1863 Major General William S. Rosecrans, commander of the Union's Army of the Cumberland, successfully forced Braxton Bragg's Army of Tennessee to retreat first from Middle Tennessee and then from Chattanooga. The federal forces occupied Chattanooga which led to elation in the north, and many shocked people in the south. The Confederates lost approximately 6,700 men to the Union's 5,000 casualties, but more importantly, the Confederates had lost a strategic transportation hub. The Battle of the Wilderness As soon as Lee detected that Grant had moved into the Wilderness, he set his own army in motion. The Army of Northern Virginia smashed into the Army of the Potomac broadside and launched the Battle of the Wilderness. It also launched a new kind of war — ceaseless war. For the next eleven months, the two armies were engaged almost continuously, and there were casualties practically every day. There were around 29,000 casualties. The Battle of Spotsylvania Grant set his army in motion on May 7 but discovered on May 8 that Lee had anticipated the move, so he barely won the race for the crossroads. Grant attacked, but Lee's men held on. Over the course of the next couple of days the Rebels built miles of blockades. Grant threw division after division against the Confederates over the next two weeks. He broke the Confederate line twice, but the Southerners managed to patch it enough to keep their army together. There were around 30,000 casualties. This battle occurred on June 3rd, 1864. The Union army launched a massive attack on the Confederates at Cold Harbor, Virginia. The Union’s intention was to break apart the Confederate Army and open a pathway to Richmond. The battle itself lasted a little less than an hour but the Union lost about 7,000 of their soldiers. Sherman’s March to the Sea General William Sherman left Atlanta late in 1864 to head towards the Atlantic Ocean. He moved through cities such as Macon and Augusta, but ended up in Savannah. There were few troops to stop him and his forces on the way and they left destruction in their wake. Sherman presented Lincoln in Savannah and struck the heart of the Confederacy. His victory, along with those of the other Union commanders, was the beginning of the end for the Confederacy. This was a win for the Union and there were about 3,100 casualties. The Battle of the Crater After weeks of preparation, on July 30 the Federals exploded a mine in Burnside’s IX Corps sector beneath Pegram’s Salient, blowing a gap in the Confederate defenses of Petersburg. From the beginning things began to diminish rapidly for the Union attackers. Unit after unit of Union attackers charged into and around the crater, but the Confederates made a quick recovery as they launched counterattacks. In the end, the break was sealed off and the Federals were affected by many casualties. This may have been Grant’s best chance to end the Siege of Petersburg. Instead, the soldiers settled in for another eight months of trench warfare. On November 8, 1864 Abraham Lincoln was reelected. With his re-election, any hope for a negotiated settlement with the Confederacy vanished. In 1864, Lincoln faced many problems, such as the war going on four years, and he had people in doubt about the Union not being able to defeat the Confederacy. The most important problem was the fact the election was going on through a war. This was the first time that had ever happened. Lincoln himself said, "We can not have free government without elections; and if the rebellion could force us to forego, or postpone a national election, it might fairly claim to have already conquered and ruined us." Five months after Lincoln's re-election, the collapse of the Confederacy was complete. Surrender at Appomattox On April 3, Richmond fell to Union troops as Robert E. Lee led his Army of Northern Virginia in retreat to the West pursued by Grant and the Army of the Potomac. A running battle ensued as each Army moved farther to the West in an effort to out flank, or prevent being out flanked by the enemy. Finally, on April 7, General Grant initiated a series of dispatches leading to a meeting between the two commanders. Lee’s army was exhausted and weak so they didn’t have much of a choice but to surrender his army to General Grant. After a series of notes between the two leaders, they agreed to meet on April 9, 1865, at the house of Wilmer McLean in the village of Appomattox Courthouse. The meeting lasted approximately two and a half hours and at its conclusion the bloodiest conflict in the nation's history neared its end. A New Nation Once the Civil war was finally over, everything still wasn’t settled. Everything that was started had now been destroyed by the war. When the war was ended, there was much to be done. The South had to rebuild houses, buildings, farms, and stores, while little of the North had been destroyed. The former slave owners now had to let blacks vote, run for office, and learn. The new country was beginning to reconstruct itself, but it was not easy. After the Civil War, it took over 100 years for blacks to have the same equal rights as whites. Three amendments to the U.S. Constitution helped blacks have the same opportunities as whites and have the same right to vote. Ulysses S. Grant Ulysses S. Grant was the General of the Union army. Later on in his career he defeats the Confederate Army. He is said to be one of the most influential Generals of the Union. Robert E. Lee Robert E. Lee was the General of the Confederate army during the time of the Civil War. He won many battles throughout his career, but eventually was defeated because of the loss of his right-hand-man, “Stonewall” Jackson. Stonewall Jackson was General of the Confederate side during the Civil War. He was said to have many outstanding plans for the Confederate Army. Unfortunately, he was accidentally shot by Pickett in the Battle of Chancellorsville. George Pickett was one of the Generals of the Confederate Army during the Civil war. He is most commonly known for his contribution in the Battle of Gettysburg. Also, because of Pickett’s Charge. This was a glorious assault of the Union Center that occurred on July 3, 1863. The assault was led by Confederate Major General George Pickett and a fresh group of troops because they had arrived at Gettysburg the night before and were fresh for battle. The Confederates had over 50% casualties while the Union had only 1,500 casualties total. General Lee rode up to meet his troops as they retreated and exclaimed that the failure "It was all my fault". When Lee, fearing a counterattack asked Pickett to take back his division, Pickett replied "General Lee, I have no division". Pickett would never forgive Lee for ordering the charge for the remainder of his life. The Confederates were forced to evacuate to Virginia and would never penetrate the north again for the remainder of the war which lasted another two years. Pickett's Charge will forever be regarded as one of the bravest assaults in military history.	1,948	ENGLISH	1
In order to be a pirate throughout history, you needed to know more than just how to sail a pirate ship and drink rum. You needed to know how to conduct battle at sea as well as close combat. Pirate ships were war machines par excellence and the first rules of becoming a pirate captain was how to conduct your ship during times of battle. Pirate Ship Artillery Prepared for battle day and night, pirate ships were equipped with what was at the time cutting edge technology – cannons! In order to put these cannons into use, the pirate ship would need to swing to one side in order to target its enemy. Some ships would only have cannons on one side, while the meanest pirate ships and war ships were renowned for having cannons on both sides. A lot of physical strength was required to work the cannons, and the pirate captain would have to decide what kind of ammunition was required for his specific objective. For example, to best sink the enemy ship, round cannons were used for their greater accuracy, however, if the captain of the pirate ship wished to keep the enemy vessel as a prize, chain (split) shot would be used to destabilize the ship without too much irreparable damage. However, this kind of ammunition could only be used at close range. For maximum bloodshed at a greater distance, what was called carcass ammunition would be used. This ammunition burned poisonous fumes that would either kill of disorientate the enemy, burning on contact with the ship. It was also common for most of the crew and captain to leave their pirate ship in order to battle with their enemy in close combat. Pirates would swing on ropes to board the enemy ship where the battle would continue with cutlasses, daggers, swords and guns. Life on a pirate ship was rarely dull, but incredibly dangerous. The Marigalante pirate ship cruise, however, promises to be far from dull, with the only danger being that you will have the time of your life!	<urn:uuid:24bfd869-7810-4934-8b15-e9e8670cf0d9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.pirateshipvallarta.com/blog/pirate-ship/battle-tactics-on-a-pirate-ship	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00248.warc.gz	en	0.985038	401	3.265625	3	[ -0.37068021297454834, 0.18404093384742737, 0.21852026879787445, -0.8226544260978699, 0.08706771582365036, -0.39318370819091797, 0.34043893218040466, 0.3355417251586914, -0.5236358046531677, -0.03782983496785164, 0.259326308965683, -0.16878126561641693, -0.3310820162296295, 0.18424190580844...	4	In order to be a pirate throughout history, you needed to know more than just how to sail a pirate ship and drink rum. You needed to know how to conduct battle at sea as well as close combat. Pirate ships were war machines par excellence and the first rules of becoming a pirate captain was how to conduct your ship during times of battle. Pirate Ship Artillery Prepared for battle day and night, pirate ships were equipped with what was at the time cutting edge technology – cannons! In order to put these cannons into use, the pirate ship would need to swing to one side in order to target its enemy. Some ships would only have cannons on one side, while the meanest pirate ships and war ships were renowned for having cannons on both sides. A lot of physical strength was required to work the cannons, and the pirate captain would have to decide what kind of ammunition was required for his specific objective. For example, to best sink the enemy ship, round cannons were used for their greater accuracy, however, if the captain of the pirate ship wished to keep the enemy vessel as a prize, chain (split) shot would be used to destabilize the ship without too much irreparable damage. However, this kind of ammunition could only be used at close range. For maximum bloodshed at a greater distance, what was called carcass ammunition would be used. This ammunition burned poisonous fumes that would either kill of disorientate the enemy, burning on contact with the ship. It was also common for most of the crew and captain to leave their pirate ship in order to battle with their enemy in close combat. Pirates would swing on ropes to board the enemy ship where the battle would continue with cutlasses, daggers, swords and guns. Life on a pirate ship was rarely dull, but incredibly dangerous. The Marigalante pirate ship cruise, however, promises to be far from dull, with the only danger being that you will have the time of your life!	398	ENGLISH	1
Paper type: Essay Pages: 4 (891 words) Death Of A Salesman The Flute as a Motif A motif is anything that occurs several times in the course of a literary work. Because they are repeated so often, motifs tend to show what is permanent in a character, a society or even the human condition. Even so, they also serve to establish a tone, a way of feeling about what is happening. In the story of “Death of a Salesman,” the flute serves as a vital motif throughout the entire play. Firstly, the flute is used to show failure to the past which Willy lived and it then begins to live it on the present. Throughout the play, it is clear to see in many of the scenes, where Willy beings to drift off that the flute appears most of the time. This is a way to show that Willy is having a “regression” or a sort of failure. On page 18 of the novel, “He breaks off in amazement and fright as the flute is heard distantly (Miller, page18). ” This fact, that Willy breaks off, a sign of losing his temper and having one of his usual, but strange attacks, showing his sickness and the disturbance in his mind. The flute here is heard at a distance in order to show that Willy is slightly going out of his mind. Also, the flute is also a way for Willy to remember his father who was one of Willy’s most important role models. Throughout the play, it associates the playing of the flute with Willy remembering his father, who would make and sell flutes. So, while reminding him of his father, the flute takes him back in time to his young years and his childhood. “Father was a very great and a very wild-hearted man. We would start in Boston. And he’d toss the whole family into the wagon, and then he’d drive the team right across the country; through Ohio, and Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, and all the Western States. And we’d stop in the towns and sell the flutes that he’s made on the way (Miller, page 49). ” So, this reminds him of his father and he wishes he could be just like him as he was “free” and fulfilled his goals and dreams. He’s remembering his childhood as he talks about the different places that they traveled. Furthermore, the flute is used to show disturbance within the mind of a character or “sickness” which Willy is suffering. It’s used to show the audience that Willy is sick and that his mind is also sick. Each time he dreams or drifts off to imagination, the flute is heard in the background or at a distance. “From the right, Willy Loman, the Salesman enters, carrying two large sample cases. The flute plays on. He hears but is not aware of it (Miller, page 12). ” The connotation of the flute here is being used as a way to show disturbance within Willy’s mind because he is not aware of the flute although it is being played. “The flute has faded away. He sits on the bed beside her, a little numb (Miller, page 13). ” Since the flute stops playing, he seems numb and seems to be imagining things, which is his sickness. Moreover, the flute is also used as a characteristic of Willy because each time Willy appears, the flute is there with him. Even at his death, the flute seems to be there in the distance. “A melody is heard, playing upon a flute (Miller, page 11). ” The opening stage directions begin with the flute and it is connected with the character entering as Willy is the first character introduced to the audience. “Biff remains a slight distance up and left of Linda. She sits there, summoning herself. The flute begins, not far away playing behind her speech (Miller, page 139). ” Here, the flute is being used as a characteristic of the character because Willy has already passed away and Linda remembers Willy. In remembering him, the flute plays. Hence, it represents the flute as a motif associated with Willy Loman. Lastly, “Only the music of the flute is left on the darkening stage as over the house the hard towers of the apartment buildings rise into sharp focus, and the curtain falls (Miller, page 139). ” The play ends with the flute being heard in the background and once again Willy Loman is alone and dead while his family leaves. The flute still continues to play as the curtain falls. In conclusion, the flute is a vital motif in the novel “Death of a Salesman” because it represents many things. It is important in showing the failure to the past which Willy lived and it then begins to live it on the present. Also, the flute is also a way for Willy to remember his father who was one of Willy’s most important role models. Furthermore, the flute is used to show disturbance within the mind of a character or “sickness” which Willy is suffering. Lastly, the flute is also used as a characteristic of Willy because each time Willy appears, the flute is there with him. The flute has undeniably shown great importance and significance in “Death of a Salesman. ” Bibliography: Miller Arthur. Death of a Salesman, Penguin Books, 1976. Cite this page Death Of A Salesman-The Flute As A Motif. (2017, Oct 17). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/death-of-a-salesman-the-flute-as-a-motif-essay	<urn:uuid:4a0b8ca2-df42-4afa-8ee3-794ac2559e0b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studymoose.com/death-of-a-salesman-the-flute-as-a-motif-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00301.warc.gz	en	0.982209	1,254	3.328125	3	[ -0.09972897171974182, -0.08831287920475006, 0.36722731590270996, -0.07929137349128723, -0.4909888505935669, 0.3414914309978485, 0.9057146310806274, 0.10389187932014465, 0.12584149837493896, -0.30594396591186523, -0.16376546025276184, 0.18134705722332, 0.48176145553588867, 0.115730546414852...	1	Paper type: Essay Pages: 4 (891 words) Death Of A Salesman The Flute as a Motif A motif is anything that occurs several times in the course of a literary work. Because they are repeated so often, motifs tend to show what is permanent in a character, a society or even the human condition. Even so, they also serve to establish a tone, a way of feeling about what is happening. In the story of “Death of a Salesman,” the flute serves as a vital motif throughout the entire play. Firstly, the flute is used to show failure to the past which Willy lived and it then begins to live it on the present. Throughout the play, it is clear to see in many of the scenes, where Willy beings to drift off that the flute appears most of the time. This is a way to show that Willy is having a “regression” or a sort of failure. On page 18 of the novel, “He breaks off in amazement and fright as the flute is heard distantly (Miller, page18). ” This fact, that Willy breaks off, a sign of losing his temper and having one of his usual, but strange attacks, showing his sickness and the disturbance in his mind. The flute here is heard at a distance in order to show that Willy is slightly going out of his mind. Also, the flute is also a way for Willy to remember his father who was one of Willy’s most important role models. Throughout the play, it associates the playing of the flute with Willy remembering his father, who would make and sell flutes. So, while reminding him of his father, the flute takes him back in time to his young years and his childhood. “Father was a very great and a very wild-hearted man. We would start in Boston. And he’d toss the whole family into the wagon, and then he’d drive the team right across the country; through Ohio, and Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, and all the Western States. And we’d stop in the towns and sell the flutes that he’s made on the way (Miller, page 49). ” So, this reminds him of his father and he wishes he could be just like him as he was “free” and fulfilled his goals and dreams. He’s remembering his childhood as he talks about the different places that they traveled. Furthermore, the flute is used to show disturbance within the mind of a character or “sickness” which Willy is suffering. It’s used to show the audience that Willy is sick and that his mind is also sick. Each time he dreams or drifts off to imagination, the flute is heard in the background or at a distance. “From the right, Willy Loman, the Salesman enters, carrying two large sample cases. The flute plays on. He hears but is not aware of it (Miller, page 12). ” The connotation of the flute here is being used as a way to show disturbance within Willy’s mind because he is not aware of the flute although it is being played. “The flute has faded away. He sits on the bed beside her, a little numb (Miller, page 13). ” Since the flute stops playing, he seems numb and seems to be imagining things, which is his sickness. Moreover, the flute is also used as a characteristic of Willy because each time Willy appears, the flute is there with him. Even at his death, the flute seems to be there in the distance. “A melody is heard, playing upon a flute (Miller, page 11). ” The opening stage directions begin with the flute and it is connected with the character entering as Willy is the first character introduced to the audience. “Biff remains a slight distance up and left of Linda. She sits there, summoning herself. The flute begins, not far away playing behind her speech (Miller, page 139). ” Here, the flute is being used as a characteristic of the character because Willy has already passed away and Linda remembers Willy. In remembering him, the flute plays. Hence, it represents the flute as a motif associated with Willy Loman. Lastly, “Only the music of the flute is left on the darkening stage as over the house the hard towers of the apartment buildings rise into sharp focus, and the curtain falls (Miller, page 139). ” The play ends with the flute being heard in the background and once again Willy Loman is alone and dead while his family leaves. The flute still continues to play as the curtain falls. In conclusion, the flute is a vital motif in the novel “Death of a Salesman” because it represents many things. It is important in showing the failure to the past which Willy lived and it then begins to live it on the present. Also, the flute is also a way for Willy to remember his father who was one of Willy’s most important role models. Furthermore, the flute is used to show disturbance within the mind of a character or “sickness” which Willy is suffering. Lastly, the flute is also used as a characteristic of Willy because each time Willy appears, the flute is there with him. The flute has undeniably shown great importance and significance in “Death of a Salesman. ” Bibliography: Miller Arthur. Death of a Salesman, Penguin Books, 1976. Cite this page Death Of A Salesman-The Flute As A Motif. (2017, Oct 17). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/death-of-a-salesman-the-flute-as-a-motif-essay	1,180	ENGLISH	1
IT is strictly true to say that ivory has been a material used in the arts during the whole period of the artistic activity of man. The length of this period has been very great, and, indeed, is equal to that of man himself, at least as far as any records exist. It is no figure of speech to say that primitive man "followed the arts." He has left behind him in the caves be made his home pieces of mammoth ivory, as well as reindeer born, carved or engraved. The astonishing thing about this art of the dawn of the human race is that in it there is no hesitation and no conventionality. Take, for instance, the mammoth and the reindeer drawings from the eaves of Dordogne and Schaffhausen. It is no exaggeration to say that there have been no drawings so completely naturalistic in style till quite modern times. The method of the camera— that is, the recording of Nature without decorative bias and convention—seems to have been practised only in the earliest and latest periods of art. Very different was the condition of art when the ivory workers fashioned their carvings in Nineveh. The illustra- tions in Mr. Maskell's book show us that by the time the figures and patterns discovered by Layard were made mankind had developed a completely conventional way of looking at things. When these ivories were found age had reduced them to a very brittle condition. The ingenuity of the dis- coverer suggested boiling them in gelatine. This treatment proved highly successful, and restored to the substance of the ivory something analogous to what it had lost by desiccation. Although ivory has been such a favourite material for sculpture, there is danger, according to Mr. Maskell, of the supply coming to an end. The destruction of elephants has been enormous, and it is now no longer possible to get ivory the size of some of the old pieces. A very interesting series of ivories have come down to us from late Roman times known as Consular diptychs. These range from the third to the sixth century, and are of great value as representing the art of that period. A diptych consisted of two slabs of ivory hinged together. The surface of the inside was cut away to a shallow depth, leaving a protecting mould- ing round the edges. This space was filled with wax, coloured either red or black, and upon it the Romans wrote with a metal style. The writing would thus show white on a dark ground. Such were the memorandum-books of the Romans. It was the custom for a Consul on election to give away diptychs in great quantities. No doubt the quality varied greatly, and the fine works of sculpture were reserved for personages and intimate friends. The usual plan seems to have been to represent the Consul himself on one leaf. On the other was carved either decorative patterns and inscrip- tions, or else animals or scenes from the arena. There exists an early example in the Museum at Liverpool, very finely carved, showing a combat of men and stags. The Consul was often represented seated as he presided over the games, and holding in his hand the linen cloth which gave the signal for the actors to begin. Among these Consular ivories is one in the treasury of the Cathedra of Monza which is curious, and is described as being a palimpsest. The present form of the work is a cover to a gradual of St. Gregory, and one figure has the saint's name over it, while over the other is carved "David Rex." There seems little doubt that the figure of David was originally a Consular portrait, for in the uplifted hand is the linen cloth already alluded to. The work of alteration must have been done later than 633, the date of the Council of Toledo. Before that year, Mr. Maskell tells us, the tonsure, which is to be found on one of the figures, was practically unknown. Byzantine ivories exist of the same nature as those we have been considering. Some of these, as shown by the illustrations in the book before us, are of fine design and workmanship. There is a specially beautiful one of a winged figure, which seems the ancestor of the Renaissance angels. Mr. Maskell criticises a very curious carving which is in the South Ken- sington Museum, and doubts wAder which head it ought to be classed. Byzantine as well as Northern European influence * Ivories. By Alfred Maskell,F.S.A. "The Connoisseur's Library." London : Statham and Co. 125s. not.1 are both traceable in the work, which is very finely executed. but the forms are fantastic and wayward. Finally, the suggestion is made that this plaque may be Irish. This would seem a most reasonable idea, now that students are connecting the Irish characteristics in design with those of the Byzantines. How great the Byzantine influence was upon mediaeval Italian art may be gathered from looking at the early Christian ivories. In these the adaptation of the Roman style of sculpture is obvious. There is the classic naturalism to be seen in them, though hut rudely realised. But when the Italian artists of the thirteenth century turned their thoughts towards painting it was to Byzantine models that they looked. The sculptors seem to have carried on the classic style independently, as may be seen in the works of the early Pisani. Thus they kept alive a more natural treatment of the human form. The painters and mosaic workers learnt the secret of that new art which came from Byzantium, with its intoxicating and magical effects of light and colour. The traveller in Rome can best appreciate what the new art was. For after studying the classic sculptured monuments, he can go into the Church of St. Prassede and see in the little dark Byzantine chapel there how great and how radical was the change in artistic inspiration. Instead of clearness of outline and definition of form, these new artists invented strange effects of gold lights flashing out of deeply coloured gloom. Whereas the Roman figures had always aimed at recalling the actual form, the Byzantine designers searched for shapes which by their remoteness from life seemed to suggest a new world the mystery of which was but half known. But a great art could not come entirely out of such elements. Therefore when the painters had learnt these magical effects they turned to the sculptors, and by their help came to know the perfection of natural beauty. Mr. Maskell traces his subject into every land and in every period. Of European countries, Spain seems to have pro- duced the least in the way of sculptured ivory. France, on the other band, not only produced a great deal, but excelled in the quality of the work. The French mediaeval sculptors were second to none in their power of expression, and this is as true of ivory as it is of stone. There is a reproduction of two French fourteenth-century triptychs which are admirable examples of a certain lightness of touch that has always been found in French sculpture. We cannot follow the author into his studies of Japanese Netsukes, Flemish tankards, or eighteenth-century furniture, or the works of modern Belgian, French, and English sculptors. In all the departments of the subject the reader will find illuminating criticism. One of the excellent features of this learned book is the manner in which the information has been presented. Clearness of thought and arrangement is to be found throughout, and the text is abundantly illustrated with good reproductions of the objects described. Before taking leave of this book we should like to call attention to the curious mediaeval chessmen found in Lewis :— " The Island of Lewis, where they were found, is one of the group of the Outer Hebrides in the North Atlantic Ocean. The story of their discovery is that in the spring of 1831 a labourer digging a sandbank in the parish of Uig laid bare a large oven- like kind of building. A little later on, breaking into it and further exploring, he found these figures ranged upon the floor, and horrified and frightened at what he thought were elves or some other uncanny creatures, he threw down his tools and fled. He afterwards returned and collected some ninety-two pieces, which were nearly all acquired for the British Museum." Several of these chessmen are reproduced, and they show that their carver had a real grasp of character. The expression of the masterful King, with his naked sword held across his knees, and the dignified but immovable back of the Bishop seated in his chair, are admirable. There are many other things which we should like to notice, such as the Chinese puzzle-balls and the Runic caskets, but we must be content to refer our readers to the book itself, confident that in it they will find matter to interest them.	<urn:uuid:38ef5523-15c5-4d27-8f3a-957240a9d2ef>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/1st-july-1905/26/it-is-strictly-true-to-say-that-ivory-has-been	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00037.warc.gz	en	0.981765	1,836	3.296875	3	[ -0.013332461938261986, 0.35599297285079956, 0.2950144410133362, -0.006976093631237745, 0.05299808830022812, -0.11593350768089294, -0.018248021602630615, 0.06847383826971054, -0.01674749329686165, 0.23835936188697815, 0.07607241719961166, -0.602689802646637, 0.1304846853017807, 0.3941765129...	2	IT is strictly true to say that ivory has been a material used in the arts during the whole period of the artistic activity of man. The length of this period has been very great, and, indeed, is equal to that of man himself, at least as far as any records exist. It is no figure of speech to say that primitive man "followed the arts." He has left behind him in the caves be made his home pieces of mammoth ivory, as well as reindeer born, carved or engraved. The astonishing thing about this art of the dawn of the human race is that in it there is no hesitation and no conventionality. Take, for instance, the mammoth and the reindeer drawings from the eaves of Dordogne and Schaffhausen. It is no exaggeration to say that there have been no drawings so completely naturalistic in style till quite modern times. The method of the camera— that is, the recording of Nature without decorative bias and convention—seems to have been practised only in the earliest and latest periods of art. Very different was the condition of art when the ivory workers fashioned their carvings in Nineveh. The illustra- tions in Mr. Maskell's book show us that by the time the figures and patterns discovered by Layard were made mankind had developed a completely conventional way of looking at things. When these ivories were found age had reduced them to a very brittle condition. The ingenuity of the dis- coverer suggested boiling them in gelatine. This treatment proved highly successful, and restored to the substance of the ivory something analogous to what it had lost by desiccation. Although ivory has been such a favourite material for sculpture, there is danger, according to Mr. Maskell, of the supply coming to an end. The destruction of elephants has been enormous, and it is now no longer possible to get ivory the size of some of the old pieces. A very interesting series of ivories have come down to us from late Roman times known as Consular diptychs. These range from the third to the sixth century, and are of great value as representing the art of that period. A diptych consisted of two slabs of ivory hinged together. The surface of the inside was cut away to a shallow depth, leaving a protecting mould- ing round the edges. This space was filled with wax, coloured either red or black, and upon it the Romans wrote with a metal style. The writing would thus show white on a dark ground. Such were the memorandum-books of the Romans. It was the custom for a Consul on election to give away diptychs in great quantities. No doubt the quality varied greatly, and the fine works of sculpture were reserved for personages and intimate friends. The usual plan seems to have been to represent the Consul himself on one leaf. On the other was carved either decorative patterns and inscrip- tions, or else animals or scenes from the arena. There exists an early example in the Museum at Liverpool, very finely carved, showing a combat of men and stags. The Consul was often represented seated as he presided over the games, and holding in his hand the linen cloth which gave the signal for the actors to begin. Among these Consular ivories is one in the treasury of the Cathedra of Monza which is curious, and is described as being a palimpsest. The present form of the work is a cover to a gradual of St. Gregory, and one figure has the saint's name over it, while over the other is carved "David Rex." There seems little doubt that the figure of David was originally a Consular portrait, for in the uplifted hand is the linen cloth already alluded to. The work of alteration must have been done later than 633, the date of the Council of Toledo. Before that year, Mr. Maskell tells us, the tonsure, which is to be found on one of the figures, was practically unknown. Byzantine ivories exist of the same nature as those we have been considering. Some of these, as shown by the illustrations in the book before us, are of fine design and workmanship. There is a specially beautiful one of a winged figure, which seems the ancestor of the Renaissance angels. Mr. Maskell criticises a very curious carving which is in the South Ken- sington Museum, and doubts wAder which head it ought to be classed. Byzantine as well as Northern European influence * Ivories. By Alfred Maskell,F.S.A. "The Connoisseur's Library." London : Statham and Co. 125s. not.1 are both traceable in the work, which is very finely executed. but the forms are fantastic and wayward. Finally, the suggestion is made that this plaque may be Irish. This would seem a most reasonable idea, now that students are connecting the Irish characteristics in design with those of the Byzantines. How great the Byzantine influence was upon mediaeval Italian art may be gathered from looking at the early Christian ivories. In these the adaptation of the Roman style of sculpture is obvious. There is the classic naturalism to be seen in them, though hut rudely realised. But when the Italian artists of the thirteenth century turned their thoughts towards painting it was to Byzantine models that they looked. The sculptors seem to have carried on the classic style independently, as may be seen in the works of the early Pisani. Thus they kept alive a more natural treatment of the human form. The painters and mosaic workers learnt the secret of that new art which came from Byzantium, with its intoxicating and magical effects of light and colour. The traveller in Rome can best appreciate what the new art was. For after studying the classic sculptured monuments, he can go into the Church of St. Prassede and see in the little dark Byzantine chapel there how great and how radical was the change in artistic inspiration. Instead of clearness of outline and definition of form, these new artists invented strange effects of gold lights flashing out of deeply coloured gloom. Whereas the Roman figures had always aimed at recalling the actual form, the Byzantine designers searched for shapes which by their remoteness from life seemed to suggest a new world the mystery of which was but half known. But a great art could not come entirely out of such elements. Therefore when the painters had learnt these magical effects they turned to the sculptors, and by their help came to know the perfection of natural beauty. Mr. Maskell traces his subject into every land and in every period. Of European countries, Spain seems to have pro- duced the least in the way of sculptured ivory. France, on the other band, not only produced a great deal, but excelled in the quality of the work. The French mediaeval sculptors were second to none in their power of expression, and this is as true of ivory as it is of stone. There is a reproduction of two French fourteenth-century triptychs which are admirable examples of a certain lightness of touch that has always been found in French sculpture. We cannot follow the author into his studies of Japanese Netsukes, Flemish tankards, or eighteenth-century furniture, or the works of modern Belgian, French, and English sculptors. In all the departments of the subject the reader will find illuminating criticism. One of the excellent features of this learned book is the manner in which the information has been presented. Clearness of thought and arrangement is to be found throughout, and the text is abundantly illustrated with good reproductions of the objects described. Before taking leave of this book we should like to call attention to the curious mediaeval chessmen found in Lewis :— " The Island of Lewis, where they were found, is one of the group of the Outer Hebrides in the North Atlantic Ocean. The story of their discovery is that in the spring of 1831 a labourer digging a sandbank in the parish of Uig laid bare a large oven- like kind of building. A little later on, breaking into it and further exploring, he found these figures ranged upon the floor, and horrified and frightened at what he thought were elves or some other uncanny creatures, he threw down his tools and fled. He afterwards returned and collected some ninety-two pieces, which were nearly all acquired for the British Museum." Several of these chessmen are reproduced, and they show that their carver had a real grasp of character. The expression of the masterful King, with his naked sword held across his knees, and the dignified but immovable back of the Bishop seated in his chair, are admirable. There are many other things which we should like to notice, such as the Chinese puzzle-balls and the Runic caskets, but we must be content to refer our readers to the book itself, confident that in it they will find matter to interest them.	1,834	ENGLISH	1
- SAVANNAH GHOST TOURS - 9PM NIGHTLY Savannah Ghost History A History of Ghosts and the Ghosts of History photographs by Rob Levin Compiled from reliable sources and Copyrighted by Haunting Tours, Inc Strangeness permeates Savannah; strangeness that may date back to its settlement and even perhaps before to the time when the coast was inhabited by Indians and pirates and a few Spanish missionaries. History hung in that limbo for a century with the British to the north and Spanish to the south engaged in a somewhat lackadaisical struggle for supremacy till General James Oglethorpe came with his colonists in 1733. The coastal waters and islands were often a refuge for pirates, outlaws and others who were not necessarily friends to authority. Much of Savannah’s haunted history is intertwined with recorded incidents. This tends to give credence to the many ghost stories. An 1830s townhouse at Bull and Perry Streets has sent at least one family packing, according to Margaret Wayt DeBolt’s book, Savannah Spectres. A family had just rented the house and on their first night they heard a scream upstairs followed by the sobbing cry “Oh, so much blood! So much blood!” The family spent the night in a hotel and moved their furnishings out of the house the next day. The city of Savannah is literally built on its dead. Cemeteries were built on the edge of the settlement. As the colony grew into a port city the cemeteries were absorbed and homes and businesses built on former burial sites. Some of the dead were moved, some probably weren’t. And some just turn up. A mummified body was found in the walls of the Foley House some years back. But, even before settlers arrived in Savannah this high ground known to the Creek and Choctaw peoples as Yamacraw Bluffs was probably a burial ground. Native Americans from this culture literally built their towns around their dead. When Oglethorpe arrived with his colonists new bodies were soon interred. By 1750 the original cemetery plot was full of Yellow Fever victims and other unfortunates and a new cemetery was established a few hundred yards to the south and east of the original burial plot. A cemetery for Savannah’s Jewish community had already been established at what is now the median ground of Oglethorpe avenue east of Bull street as well as under Independent Presbyterian church. The Revolutionary War saw a desperate battle fought on this ground. Chippewa Square did not then exist and this ground was occupied by fortifications. The bloody conflict of the siege of Savannah was contested from here to the west side of Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard. This struggle, after the Battle of Bunker Hill the second bloodiest battle of the war, left Savannah in British hands despite significant French assistance to the colonists in their attempt to capture the city. But, there may be more to Savannah’s strangeness than just the dead. After all, people die everywhere, every city has its share of graveyards that have been displaced by development. Few places have such a history of hauntings, of strange tales of the paranormal than Savannah. For one clue we can go back to the beginning of the colony. Oglethorpe’s founding of the city is famous in great part because of his venture into urban planning. But, what did his plan involve? What was its basis? Historians have speculated on its origins, perhaps in freemasonry or the Biblical design of Solomon’s Temple. Perhaps there is more to the city’s plan than we know or imagine. By one measurement – using cubits – the original city was a square 1000 cubits on a side. The square is an important pattern in occult lore, a magical square can be used to trace a talisman to achieve a purpose or set a tone or direction for an ongoing enterprise. Could this plan have been, in effect, a magical design of such power and persistence that spirits are trapped between two planes of existence? No one knows. One may assume that any purposes Oglethorpe might have incorporated in an occult dimension of the plan would be extensions of his dream of a utopian, commercially successful colony based on the efforts of free and industrious men – lawyers, slaves, Catholics, and whisky were banned. Oglethorpe’s bans did not stand. Any force the plan might have been intended to harness has not worked uniformly for the city’s good. Tragedy has followed Savannah as periods of good fortune have been stopped dead by wars, recessions, fires and plagues. Much of the city has been burned as close-packed wooden structures went up in flames that spread from block to block. That is why so many homes still standing are built of brick. In the early 19th Century the city was cursed by a departing newspaper publisher embittered by the poor reception of his weekly. “I leave you, Savannah, a curse that is far/The worst of all curses – to remain as you are!” John M. Harney wrote in 1820, shortly before his departure from the city to Charleston and thence Kentucky, where he died a few years later. Admittedly, 1820 was a bad year for the city with a major fire and a yellow fever epidemic. Whether Harney’s curse took hold is a matter of interpretation. The city’s still much like it was and some tragedies and changes have been avoided. Sherman did not burn Savannah but other conflagrations have destroyed large parts of the city as did 20th Century developers. Whatever Savannah’s mystical connections, there is one thing that is certain. A lot of people seem to believe they have had paranormal experiences in the city. There are hundreds of ghost stories. And strange occurrences connected to the paranormal still occur. Just recently a local woman who had organized “Psychic Fairs” was brutally murdered and dismembered, allegedly by her father. That should be enough to set another spirit adrift or at least fuel tales until well into the next century. Savannah’s ghosts have connections to history that stretch far beyond the boundaries of this sleepy coastal city. The story goes that when Girl Scout founder Juliette Gordon Low’s mother, Nellie Gordon, died February 22, 1917, the ghost of her husband, General William Gordon, was seen by one of the daughters-in-law waiting in a room next to the room where Nellie lay with her five living children. A servant reported seeing the man as well. The Gordon children reported “that when she died, her face took on the radiance of a bride, going to meet her bridegroom.,” according to her biography, Lady From Savannah, written by niece Daisy Gordon Lawrence with Gladys Denny Shultz. Mary Stewart Gordon Platt wrote that the servant who sighted the general said the general appeared well and happy. “I thought you lake to know de General come fetch her hisself, suh,” the servant is reported to have commented. However, according to reports, the general may not have actually taken Nellie Gordon completely away. There have been reports she is still walking the old Gordon home. Objects disappear and reappear in plain sight. Savannah Spectres quotes the home’s maintenance man saying he frequently caught glimpses of a Nellie “wearing a long blue robe, with flowers all over it,” sitting at the breakfast table when he would arrive early in the mornings. The faint sounds of a pianoforte, such as Mrs. Gordon loved and played, have been reported as well. An exorcism has been performed in at least one Savannah residence. On December 7, 1963 an Episcopal bishop conducted a 45 minute ceremony to cleanse the Hampton Lillibridge House on East Saint Julian Street of spirits. The house, which had been moved from another location, had a rollicking history of inexplicable incidents. One young man was found face down hugging the floor in an upstairs room when the house was undergoing renovation. The desperate man had been convinced that a force beyond nature was attempting to pull him through an opening in the floor – a drop of thirty or more feet. This incident was reportedly locally at the time and appeared in ghost hunter Hans Holzer’s book, The Phantoms of Dixie. Restoration work proceeded slowly because workers left the house due to strange occurrences or just paused to listen. Jim Williams, the Georgia antique dealer who owned and was restoring the home later was tried three times for the murder of his associate, Danny Hansford. These trials inspired the bestseller, Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil, in which Williams, now deceased, was the central character. Williams moved into the Mercer House on Monterey Square after completing the Hampton Lillibridge restoration and became well known for his fabulous parties. Some years after Williams death, reports surfaced that visitors had observed lights and festivities in the elegant mansion on the very same night of the year as Williams most opulent annual party – yet there had been no party. Nancy Roberts, a prolific South Carolina writer of tales of the supernatural reported in her book, Georgia Ghosts, that two New York visitors had witnessed this phenomena in 1994, five years to the day after Williams last big gala in 1989 that celebrated his acquittal in the Hansford shooting. According to tradition, not everyone sees ghosts. Sometimes they appear to special persons from their lives, sometimes they may appear to psychically gifted individuals or they may make apparently random appearances, driven by who knows what strange logic. A maid at the old City Hotel on Bay Street is reported to have been found in tears outside the gate of the Colonial Cemetery when she followed an interesting young man home from the hotel. He walked into the cemetery and disappeared, she told worried co-workers who discovered her. Some people are said to be gifted with psychic abilities while others do not have the appropriate sort of “energy.” Accomplished psychics may talk of being able to see, “The Other Side,” and tribes around the world were guided by medicine men or shamans who were often said to have received their wisdom from visions. In a certain way, tribal culture is very close to Savannah. In the 1930s a book was compiled by a Depression era federal writer’s project consisting of interviews with living persons who knew people who had been brought from Africa as slaves. The book, Drums and Shadows, was published in 1941. In Savannah’s urban neighborhoods old traditions were passed on as a sort of magic revolving around charms and “root doctors.” Porches and shutters were painted voodoo blue, also known as “haunt” blue because of the color’s apparent ability to dissuade visitors from the spirit world. The introduction to Drums and Shadows sums up the situation, “Today, sorcery is still practiced. Modern root doctors … perform mystic rites and promise to work miracles and cures. … Spirits of the departed are still believed to make frequent visitations to this earth and are as real … as his next door neighbor.” To the urban African American, even in the 1930s, spirits and people able to manipulate them, were parts of daily life. Illnesses were caused by curses and witches were said to “ride” men in their sleep, the torment eventually leading to physical degeneration and death. A broom, which a witch reputedly could not cross, would be laid to protect an entry. Salt was sprinkled in doorways and around beds to keep residents safe. As recently as a couple of years ago a published police report told of a woman throwing salt at another and accusing her of witchcraft. One story tells of a man who woke from tormented dreams to find a cat at the foot of his bed. He struck the cat violently and it ran away. He followed it out of the house and down the street to the home of a woman who sat gasping from the pain of three freshly broken ribs. She begged him not to kill her. Conjure was practiced by those with “the power,” according to interviews published in Drums and Shadows. Bad luck was blamed not on the vagaries of fate but upon the ill will of enemies as manifested through the work of a “root doctor” or “conjuh man.” Persons with power were reported to have escaped various dangers including scrapes with the law. Hexes were placed on individuals through the creation of a “hand” composed of a bit of the person’s hair, nail-clippings, spittle or clothing and other ingredients with the intent of doing harm, sometimes fatally. Belief that unexplained illness were due to such conjure and might involve the infestation of the afflicted body with snakes or worms was widespread. The belief in occult phenomena held by occupants of such Depression-era African American communities as Tin City to the east and Yamacraw, Frogtown and Currytown to the west, contributed to assumptions that the communities were inundated with ignorance and superstition although many learned persons in both England and the United States, including poet William Butler Yeats, were practicing ritual magic during roughly the same time period. Tradition from Africa and elsewhere around the world has it that a person born with a caul, the remnants of the placenta, over their face, is gifted with a special sight – the ability to perceive the spirit world. Many of the persons interviewed for Drums and Shadows recounted the experiences of relatives born with “the caul” and such persons were regarded with a certain amount of fear and respect. Some experts think a person’s attitude toward spectral presences is important as well. Those who believe see, doubters do not. In some cases the haunting of a home is related to the psychic energies of its occupants. Mrs. DeBolt tells of a ouija board séance in a frame townhouse at Price and Perry Streets that residents believed was inhabited by a spirit. Using the board on a stormy night, the psychic explorers asked for a sign that a spirit was present. The board made no response. The intensity of the storm increased. A freakish gust of wind sent a heavy branch crashing down just outside the window. Again they used the ouija board to ask for a sign. “I just did,” the board spelled out. Years later, Mrs. DeBolt reported a psychic visiting the house, totally unaware of the past sance, experienced discomfort at the window overlooking the gnarled old oak that had sent its limb crashing down. The Davenport House has a long history that includes appearances of a spectral cat that cannot be explained and other houses have given birth to even more amazing stories. The Kehoe House, built in 1892 by Irish immigrant William Kehoe, has gained a reputation as one of the nation’s most romantic bed and breakfasts. But that’s not the whole story. The brick mansion is well known for ghostly presences in rooms 201 and 203. These presences have manifest themselves in many ways. Mrs. Roberts reported seeing a female form in Room 201 and her husband was perplexed by the scent of roses that permeated the room. Others have noticed similar phenomena on the second floor of the mansion. A recent entry in the guest book mentioned “a pleasant ghostly experience,” and current staff have reported seeing apparitions on the second floor of the inn. The dedication of love is often speculated to be at the root of a haunting. The ghost of a servant girl named Anna is said to inhabit the 17Hundred90 Inn and Restaurant. As the story goes, Anna fell in love with a sailor and threw herself into the brick courtyard from a third floor balcony as the sails of his ship disappeared out of sight down the Savannah River, carrying her love back to the sea. Neighbors have reported seeing Anna on the porch. Unexplained chair rockings, window openings and noises on the stairs have been attributed to Anna as well. Shipbuilder Henry F. Willink also lost his love to sea. But in a different way. As a young shipwright he wanted a ship of his own and set out to build it, enlisting his wife’s assistance. She was helping him one day when she tripped and fell into the river and was swept away by the outgoing tide. Dragged down by her sodden heavy clothing she drowned despite Willink’s efforts to rescue her. After the loss of his wife, Willink’s sleep was troubled and he would often wake at night and unable to return to slumber, go back to work on his ship, slamming the door of his cottage behind him. Beginning to think of his work on the ship as a memorial to his wife, he decided to name the vessel in her honor. One night, while at work, he looked up and saw his wife standing on the deck, just where she had fallen to her death. He was so startled he stepped backward into the water. He was rescued but his wife had vanished by the time he returned to the deck. Years later, as his death, neighbors reported hearing the door slam and footsteps trudging off to the river, Henry off to work on his ship. The house has been moved from its original location south of Habersham to its present site on St. Julian Street and the sounds in the night are not reported so often, anymore. Other Savannah ghost stories are connected to the sea as well. The Pirate’s House, where Captain Flint of Treasure Island fame is said to have drunkenly died with the last words, bring aft more rum, me Darby,” is reported to be inhabited by spirits in the upstairs rooms where seamen once stayed. Strange sounds and goings on have kept employees from visiting those rooms after dark. Many believe that the bloodthirsty and rum-thirsty Flint still haunts the old frame building. Behind and below the Pirate’s House are what is left of the brick walls of Fort Wayne, named after Revolutionary War General “Mad Anthony” Wayne. Duels were sometimes fought below those walls in the early 19th Century. The Lafite brothers, Jean, famous for aiding General Andrew Jackson in his victory at the Battle of New Orleans, and Pierre are said to have visited Savannah and Jean is reported to have married a Savannah girl and moved to the Yucatan, “redeemed by the love of a noble woman.” Oglethorpe Avenue once marked the southern boundary of the city and was known as South Broad Street. Around the turn of the century Conrad Aiken, one of America’s most respected authors, was growing up on the tree-shaded avenue and he later immortalized the scenes of the time in verse. Here are some lines from Aiken’s poem, The Coming Forth by Day of Osiris Jones. “The house in Broad Street, red brick, with nine rooms the weedgrown graveyard with its row of tombs the jail from which imprisoned faces grinned at stiff palmettos flashing in the wind the engine-house, with engines and a tank in which young alligators swam and stank, the bell-tower, of red iron, where the bell gonged of the fires in a tone from hell.” And there certainly was a hellish aspect to young Aiken’s life in Savannah. His father, Dr. William F. Aiken, an intelligent, even brilliant and very intense man, manifested what Conrad Aiken later described as the family petit mal of mental instability. He behaved erratically and believed his wife and her family, whom, he thought, intended to put him into an asylum, were persecuting him. Obsessed with this fear, Dr. Aiken enclosed himself behind a wall of paranoid assumptions, amazing an associate, for example, by responding to a simple “How are you?” with avoidance and finally the response, “For an answer to that question I shall have to refer you to my lawyer.” Alexander Lawrence gives an excellent account of young Aiken’s ordeal in a 1968 article, “228 Habersham Street,” published in The Georgia Review, Fall, 1968. Dr. Aiken and his wife Anna quarreled tumultuously – a contrast to their previously gay lifestyle, according to Lawrence. Conrad found sanctuary in the cemetery, then enclosed by a brick wall, overgrown with vines and weeds and not so heavily shaded, referring to it in Ushant, An Essay published in 1952, as “that jungle graveyard.” He recalled that “one could pry loose the bricks of the ancient vaults and crawl down into the warm dust to find broken boards and an old brown bone or two.” On Christmas Eve, Conrad would accompany his father to the cemetery to shoot off Roman candles. Remembering his father in “The Blue Voyage,” Aiken recalled, “There was something angelic about him, later it became diabolic.” Dr. Aiken repeatedly tried to take his own life, self-administering a large dose of morphine and atropine on one occasion and on another turning the gas and telling her they “would now see who would emerge from the apartment alive,” according to the Morning News, February 28, 1901 account of the Aiken family tragedy. In the last week of February, 1901, Dr. Aiken quarrelled with his wife, keeping her locked in her room on Monday night. Tuesday morning the quarreling resumed. Conrad Aiken recalled a silence and he waited breathless till he heard his father’s voice counting “One! Two! Three!” a scream and then a pistol shot. The counting resumed and there came a second shot. Conrad rushed across the street to the police station where he told patrolman J. Harry Lange, “Papa has just shot mama and himself.” Returning to the house with the boy to investigate, the policeman found Mrs. Aiken on her bed in “an easy and natural position” and Dr. Aiken face down on the floor with a .32 caliber pistol in his hand. Colonial Park Cemetery is now home to a number of shooting victims, including Declaration of Independence signer Button Gwinnett who was killed in a duel by rival Lachlan McIntosh. As South Broad marked the southern boundary of the town for a time, duels were often fought in this area, both the cemetery proper and its surroundings, including a narrow lot at the rear of the cemetery, now a playground and park, where mass graves dug from 1820 onward held victims of epidemics. The year, 1820, was particularly bad for Savannah, with 464 buildings destroyed by fire in a hellish 48-hour conflagration and 666 people dying of Yellow Fever in a two-week period later in the year. Many of the fever victims found their way to a mass grave behind the cemetery. At least one resident of the cemetery who was shot has gained some fame because his assailant’s name has been stricken from his gravestone. Odrey Miller’s headstone originally bore the name of the person who shot him but it was chiseled away and research has been unable to cast any light on who might have fired the fatal shot, according to Savannah Spectres. Some ghosts may not even know they are dead, according to a psychic who accompanied Mrs. DeBolt on many of her fact-finding errands in the compilation of the stories that make up Savannah Spectres. These spirits may mindlessly repeat their last action such as tripping down stairs. There are reports of a number of haunted staircases in the city, often where a uneven step is accompanied by a psychic chill. This coldness pervades rooms and parts of rooms all over the historic district. The liquor room in an old cotton warehouse that now houses a seafood restaurant on River Street was both cool and depressing. Even the owner did not like to go there alone. The employees refused. Mrs. DeBolt’s psychic friend said he felt the presence of a slave dying of pneumonia or some other illness, left alone under a thin blanket. Wars, are of course, big contributors to the ghost population. At several locations in downtown Savannah and surrounding areas sightings of spectral Confederate soldiers have been reported. Or, perhaps there are different soldiers, inhabiting different areas, each walking their own patrol, so to speak. Other ghosts also seem intent on carrying out their duties in life. A faithful nurse is said to inhabit the old Pest House where seamen and immigrants may have been quarantined on entering the port. The house, now located off Highway 17 south of Savannah, was visited by Mrs. DeBolt who reported the owner told her she had seen a young woman, apparently a nurse, who announced, “You know I have to stay here, until they either get well, or they all die.” Perhaps the nurse became ill and died herself, remaining in the house even when it was moved several miles from its original location east of Savannah. Ghosts have been reported as inhabiting furnishings or other objects as well as homes. Sometimes these objects then take on a mind of their own. Two blue marbles that were found behind a baseboard in the top floor of a home at Lincoln and State Streets apparently sparked a string of odd occurrences, according to Mrs. DeBolt’s book. The house, completed in 1856, was originally occupied by Mary Ann Barnard, of the family which gave their name to Barnard Street. Other prominent occupants followed until the Willaim H. Daniel family moved in and remained till 1909. The Daniels had three sons, and it has been speculated that the marbles might have belonged to one of those boys. Whoever the owner of the marbles, they are reported to have had a link to weirdness. Once the marbles were discovered in the 1970s the owners of the house, a lawyer and his wife, began to experience the inexplicable. Things were moved, there were strange noises, a stack of napkins was found wet with the surroundings completely dry, doors opened by themselves. In her book Mrs. DeBolt reports a door opened by itself while she was interviewing the owner of the home. The haunted world is a democratic one. The spirits of people rich and poor, master and servant, are reported, often still about the task or agendas of their daily lives in the land of the living. Mary Telfair is said to enforce her ban on eating, drinking and amusements in the art museum bearing her name. In another house a old African American servant still makes her presence felt in the kitchen. James Habersham Jr. is reported to still make his presence felt in the Olde Pink House Restaurant and Planters Tavern where he made his home from 1779. A leading merchant and planter, young James took the cause of the Colonies against his loyalist father. James the younger’s presence is especially felt on quiet Sunday afternoons, checking in on his old home. One grand house is said to be blessed with the presence of a music-loving butler who appears from time to time at the door during musical entertainments, tapping a foot, continuing his life-long love of music beyond the grave. After a while, the tales of Savannah’s supernatural begin to take on a sort of concreteness, blending themselves with the stucco, brick and ironwork of the city. Stories of ghosts have become so interwoven with the city’s history that sometimes it is hard to separate the real from the unreal and one begins to doubt the difference. After a while it is easy to believe the shade of Lady Huntingdon still walks the grounds of the Bethesda orphanage she worked to support during her life two and a half centuries ago. This tendency toward acceptance from skepticism may be another aspect of Savannah’s sense of strangeness or it may only be the symptom of something even stranger. Who knows?	<urn:uuid:30985c0c-1f4a-4575-b0e0-12d9d0cce871>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.savannahghostlytours.com/history/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00241.warc.gz	en	0.982322	5,860	3.3125	3	[ 0.13441306352615356, -0.044464271515607834, 0.5105448961257935, -0.07694406807422638, 0.44924670457839966, 0.07968699932098389, 0.1933462768793106, -0.5292844772338867, -0.39460790157318115, 0.02197803556919098, -0.009251552633941174, 0.3752475380897522, -0.36067938804626465, 0.72857558727...	25	- SAVANNAH GHOST TOURS - 9PM NIGHTLY Savannah Ghost History A History of Ghosts and the Ghosts of History photographs by Rob Levin Compiled from reliable sources and Copyrighted by Haunting Tours, Inc Strangeness permeates Savannah; strangeness that may date back to its settlement and even perhaps before to the time when the coast was inhabited by Indians and pirates and a few Spanish missionaries. History hung in that limbo for a century with the British to the north and Spanish to the south engaged in a somewhat lackadaisical struggle for supremacy till General James Oglethorpe came with his colonists in 1733. The coastal waters and islands were often a refuge for pirates, outlaws and others who were not necessarily friends to authority. Much of Savannah’s haunted history is intertwined with recorded incidents. This tends to give credence to the many ghost stories. An 1830s townhouse at Bull and Perry Streets has sent at least one family packing, according to Margaret Wayt DeBolt’s book, Savannah Spectres. A family had just rented the house and on their first night they heard a scream upstairs followed by the sobbing cry “Oh, so much blood! So much blood!” The family spent the night in a hotel and moved their furnishings out of the house the next day. The city of Savannah is literally built on its dead. Cemeteries were built on the edge of the settlement. As the colony grew into a port city the cemeteries were absorbed and homes and businesses built on former burial sites. Some of the dead were moved, some probably weren’t. And some just turn up. A mummified body was found in the walls of the Foley House some years back. But, even before settlers arrived in Savannah this high ground known to the Creek and Choctaw peoples as Yamacraw Bluffs was probably a burial ground. Native Americans from this culture literally built their towns around their dead. When Oglethorpe arrived with his colonists new bodies were soon interred. By 1750 the original cemetery plot was full of Yellow Fever victims and other unfortunates and a new cemetery was established a few hundred yards to the south and east of the original burial plot. A cemetery for Savannah’s Jewish community had already been established at what is now the median ground of Oglethorpe avenue east of Bull street as well as under Independent Presbyterian church. The Revolutionary War saw a desperate battle fought on this ground. Chippewa Square did not then exist and this ground was occupied by fortifications. The bloody conflict of the siege of Savannah was contested from here to the west side of Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard. This struggle, after the Battle of Bunker Hill the second bloodiest battle of the war, left Savannah in British hands despite significant French assistance to the colonists in their attempt to capture the city. But, there may be more to Savannah’s strangeness than just the dead. After all, people die everywhere, every city has its share of graveyards that have been displaced by development. Few places have such a history of hauntings, of strange tales of the paranormal than Savannah. For one clue we can go back to the beginning of the colony. Oglethorpe’s founding of the city is famous in great part because of his venture into urban planning. But, what did his plan involve? What was its basis? Historians have speculated on its origins, perhaps in freemasonry or the Biblical design of Solomon’s Temple. Perhaps there is more to the city’s plan than we know or imagine. By one measurement – using cubits – the original city was a square 1000 cubits on a side. The square is an important pattern in occult lore, a magical square can be used to trace a talisman to achieve a purpose or set a tone or direction for an ongoing enterprise. Could this plan have been, in effect, a magical design of such power and persistence that spirits are trapped between two planes of existence? No one knows. One may assume that any purposes Oglethorpe might have incorporated in an occult dimension of the plan would be extensions of his dream of a utopian, commercially successful colony based on the efforts of free and industrious men – lawyers, slaves, Catholics, and whisky were banned. Oglethorpe’s bans did not stand. Any force the plan might have been intended to harness has not worked uniformly for the city’s good. Tragedy has followed Savannah as periods of good fortune have been stopped dead by wars, recessions, fires and plagues. Much of the city has been burned as close-packed wooden structures went up in flames that spread from block to block. That is why so many homes still standing are built of brick. In the early 19th Century the city was cursed by a departing newspaper publisher embittered by the poor reception of his weekly. “I leave you, Savannah, a curse that is far/The worst of all curses – to remain as you are!” John M. Harney wrote in 1820, shortly before his departure from the city to Charleston and thence Kentucky, where he died a few years later. Admittedly, 1820 was a bad year for the city with a major fire and a yellow fever epidemic. Whether Harney’s curse took hold is a matter of interpretation. The city’s still much like it was and some tragedies and changes have been avoided. Sherman did not burn Savannah but other conflagrations have destroyed large parts of the city as did 20th Century developers. Whatever Savannah’s mystical connections, there is one thing that is certain. A lot of people seem to believe they have had paranormal experiences in the city. There are hundreds of ghost stories. And strange occurrences connected to the paranormal still occur. Just recently a local woman who had organized “Psychic Fairs” was brutally murdered and dismembered, allegedly by her father. That should be enough to set another spirit adrift or at least fuel tales until well into the next century. Savannah’s ghosts have connections to history that stretch far beyond the boundaries of this sleepy coastal city. The story goes that when Girl Scout founder Juliette Gordon Low’s mother, Nellie Gordon, died February 22, 1917, the ghost of her husband, General William Gordon, was seen by one of the daughters-in-law waiting in a room next to the room where Nellie lay with her five living children. A servant reported seeing the man as well. The Gordon children reported “that when she died, her face took on the radiance of a bride, going to meet her bridegroom.,” according to her biography, Lady From Savannah, written by niece Daisy Gordon Lawrence with Gladys Denny Shultz. Mary Stewart Gordon Platt wrote that the servant who sighted the general said the general appeared well and happy. “I thought you lake to know de General come fetch her hisself, suh,” the servant is reported to have commented. However, according to reports, the general may not have actually taken Nellie Gordon completely away. There have been reports she is still walking the old Gordon home. Objects disappear and reappear in plain sight. Savannah Spectres quotes the home’s maintenance man saying he frequently caught glimpses of a Nellie “wearing a long blue robe, with flowers all over it,” sitting at the breakfast table when he would arrive early in the mornings. The faint sounds of a pianoforte, such as Mrs. Gordon loved and played, have been reported as well. An exorcism has been performed in at least one Savannah residence. On December 7, 1963 an Episcopal bishop conducted a 45 minute ceremony to cleanse the Hampton Lillibridge House on East Saint Julian Street of spirits. The house, which had been moved from another location, had a rollicking history of inexplicable incidents. One young man was found face down hugging the floor in an upstairs room when the house was undergoing renovation. The desperate man had been convinced that a force beyond nature was attempting to pull him through an opening in the floor – a drop of thirty or more feet. This incident was reportedly locally at the time and appeared in ghost hunter Hans Holzer’s book, The Phantoms of Dixie. Restoration work proceeded slowly because workers left the house due to strange occurrences or just paused to listen. Jim Williams, the Georgia antique dealer who owned and was restoring the home later was tried three times for the murder of his associate, Danny Hansford. These trials inspired the bestseller, Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil, in which Williams, now deceased, was the central character. Williams moved into the Mercer House on Monterey Square after completing the Hampton Lillibridge restoration and became well known for his fabulous parties. Some years after Williams death, reports surfaced that visitors had observed lights and festivities in the elegant mansion on the very same night of the year as Williams most opulent annual party – yet there had been no party. Nancy Roberts, a prolific South Carolina writer of tales of the supernatural reported in her book, Georgia Ghosts, that two New York visitors had witnessed this phenomena in 1994, five years to the day after Williams last big gala in 1989 that celebrated his acquittal in the Hansford shooting. According to tradition, not everyone sees ghosts. Sometimes they appear to special persons from their lives, sometimes they may appear to psychically gifted individuals or they may make apparently random appearances, driven by who knows what strange logic. A maid at the old City Hotel on Bay Street is reported to have been found in tears outside the gate of the Colonial Cemetery when she followed an interesting young man home from the hotel. He walked into the cemetery and disappeared, she told worried co-workers who discovered her. Some people are said to be gifted with psychic abilities while others do not have the appropriate sort of “energy.” Accomplished psychics may talk of being able to see, “The Other Side,” and tribes around the world were guided by medicine men or shamans who were often said to have received their wisdom from visions. In a certain way, tribal culture is very close to Savannah. In the 1930s a book was compiled by a Depression era federal writer’s project consisting of interviews with living persons who knew people who had been brought from Africa as slaves. The book, Drums and Shadows, was published in 1941. In Savannah’s urban neighborhoods old traditions were passed on as a sort of magic revolving around charms and “root doctors.” Porches and shutters were painted voodoo blue, also known as “haunt” blue because of the color’s apparent ability to dissuade visitors from the spirit world. The introduction to Drums and Shadows sums up the situation, “Today, sorcery is still practiced. Modern root doctors … perform mystic rites and promise to work miracles and cures. … Spirits of the departed are still believed to make frequent visitations to this earth and are as real … as his next door neighbor.” To the urban African American, even in the 1930s, spirits and people able to manipulate them, were parts of daily life. Illnesses were caused by curses and witches were said to “ride” men in their sleep, the torment eventually leading to physical degeneration and death. A broom, which a witch reputedly could not cross, would be laid to protect an entry. Salt was sprinkled in doorways and around beds to keep residents safe. As recently as a couple of years ago a published police report told of a woman throwing salt at another and accusing her of witchcraft. One story tells of a man who woke from tormented dreams to find a cat at the foot of his bed. He struck the cat violently and it ran away. He followed it out of the house and down the street to the home of a woman who sat gasping from the pain of three freshly broken ribs. She begged him not to kill her. Conjure was practiced by those with “the power,” according to interviews published in Drums and Shadows. Bad luck was blamed not on the vagaries of fate but upon the ill will of enemies as manifested through the work of a “root doctor” or “conjuh man.” Persons with power were reported to have escaped various dangers including scrapes with the law. Hexes were placed on individuals through the creation of a “hand” composed of a bit of the person’s hair, nail-clippings, spittle or clothing and other ingredients with the intent of doing harm, sometimes fatally. Belief that unexplained illness were due to such conjure and might involve the infestation of the afflicted body with snakes or worms was widespread. The belief in occult phenomena held by occupants of such Depression-era African American communities as Tin City to the east and Yamacraw, Frogtown and Currytown to the west, contributed to assumptions that the communities were inundated with ignorance and superstition although many learned persons in both England and the United States, including poet William Butler Yeats, were practicing ritual magic during roughly the same time period. Tradition from Africa and elsewhere around the world has it that a person born with a caul, the remnants of the placenta, over their face, is gifted with a special sight – the ability to perceive the spirit world. Many of the persons interviewed for Drums and Shadows recounted the experiences of relatives born with “the caul” and such persons were regarded with a certain amount of fear and respect. Some experts think a person’s attitude toward spectral presences is important as well. Those who believe see, doubters do not. In some cases the haunting of a home is related to the psychic energies of its occupants. Mrs. DeBolt tells of a ouija board séance in a frame townhouse at Price and Perry Streets that residents believed was inhabited by a spirit. Using the board on a stormy night, the psychic explorers asked for a sign that a spirit was present. The board made no response. The intensity of the storm increased. A freakish gust of wind sent a heavy branch crashing down just outside the window. Again they used the ouija board to ask for a sign. “I just did,” the board spelled out. Years later, Mrs. DeBolt reported a psychic visiting the house, totally unaware of the past sance, experienced discomfort at the window overlooking the gnarled old oak that had sent its limb crashing down. The Davenport House has a long history that includes appearances of a spectral cat that cannot be explained and other houses have given birth to even more amazing stories. The Kehoe House, built in 1892 by Irish immigrant William Kehoe, has gained a reputation as one of the nation’s most romantic bed and breakfasts. But that’s not the whole story. The brick mansion is well known for ghostly presences in rooms 201 and 203. These presences have manifest themselves in many ways. Mrs. Roberts reported seeing a female form in Room 201 and her husband was perplexed by the scent of roses that permeated the room. Others have noticed similar phenomena on the second floor of the mansion. A recent entry in the guest book mentioned “a pleasant ghostly experience,” and current staff have reported seeing apparitions on the second floor of the inn. The dedication of love is often speculated to be at the root of a haunting. The ghost of a servant girl named Anna is said to inhabit the 17Hundred90 Inn and Restaurant. As the story goes, Anna fell in love with a sailor and threw herself into the brick courtyard from a third floor balcony as the sails of his ship disappeared out of sight down the Savannah River, carrying her love back to the sea. Neighbors have reported seeing Anna on the porch. Unexplained chair rockings, window openings and noises on the stairs have been attributed to Anna as well. Shipbuilder Henry F. Willink also lost his love to sea. But in a different way. As a young shipwright he wanted a ship of his own and set out to build it, enlisting his wife’s assistance. She was helping him one day when she tripped and fell into the river and was swept away by the outgoing tide. Dragged down by her sodden heavy clothing she drowned despite Willink’s efforts to rescue her. After the loss of his wife, Willink’s sleep was troubled and he would often wake at night and unable to return to slumber, go back to work on his ship, slamming the door of his cottage behind him. Beginning to think of his work on the ship as a memorial to his wife, he decided to name the vessel in her honor. One night, while at work, he looked up and saw his wife standing on the deck, just where she had fallen to her death. He was so startled he stepped backward into the water. He was rescued but his wife had vanished by the time he returned to the deck. Years later, as his death, neighbors reported hearing the door slam and footsteps trudging off to the river, Henry off to work on his ship. The house has been moved from its original location south of Habersham to its present site on St. Julian Street and the sounds in the night are not reported so often, anymore. Other Savannah ghost stories are connected to the sea as well. The Pirate’s House, where Captain Flint of Treasure Island fame is said to have drunkenly died with the last words, bring aft more rum, me Darby,” is reported to be inhabited by spirits in the upstairs rooms where seamen once stayed. Strange sounds and goings on have kept employees from visiting those rooms after dark. Many believe that the bloodthirsty and rum-thirsty Flint still haunts the old frame building. Behind and below the Pirate’s House are what is left of the brick walls of Fort Wayne, named after Revolutionary War General “Mad Anthony” Wayne. Duels were sometimes fought below those walls in the early 19th Century. The Lafite brothers, Jean, famous for aiding General Andrew Jackson in his victory at the Battle of New Orleans, and Pierre are said to have visited Savannah and Jean is reported to have married a Savannah girl and moved to the Yucatan, “redeemed by the love of a noble woman.” Oglethorpe Avenue once marked the southern boundary of the city and was known as South Broad Street. Around the turn of the century Conrad Aiken, one of America’s most respected authors, was growing up on the tree-shaded avenue and he later immortalized the scenes of the time in verse. Here are some lines from Aiken’s poem, The Coming Forth by Day of Osiris Jones. “The house in Broad Street, red brick, with nine rooms the weedgrown graveyard with its row of tombs the jail from which imprisoned faces grinned at stiff palmettos flashing in the wind the engine-house, with engines and a tank in which young alligators swam and stank, the bell-tower, of red iron, where the bell gonged of the fires in a tone from hell.” And there certainly was a hellish aspect to young Aiken’s life in Savannah. His father, Dr. William F. Aiken, an intelligent, even brilliant and very intense man, manifested what Conrad Aiken later described as the family petit mal of mental instability. He behaved erratically and believed his wife and her family, whom, he thought, intended to put him into an asylum, were persecuting him. Obsessed with this fear, Dr. Aiken enclosed himself behind a wall of paranoid assumptions, amazing an associate, for example, by responding to a simple “How are you?” with avoidance and finally the response, “For an answer to that question I shall have to refer you to my lawyer.” Alexander Lawrence gives an excellent account of young Aiken’s ordeal in a 1968 article, “228 Habersham Street,” published in The Georgia Review, Fall, 1968. Dr. Aiken and his wife Anna quarreled tumultuously – a contrast to their previously gay lifestyle, according to Lawrence. Conrad found sanctuary in the cemetery, then enclosed by a brick wall, overgrown with vines and weeds and not so heavily shaded, referring to it in Ushant, An Essay published in 1952, as “that jungle graveyard.” He recalled that “one could pry loose the bricks of the ancient vaults and crawl down into the warm dust to find broken boards and an old brown bone or two.” On Christmas Eve, Conrad would accompany his father to the cemetery to shoot off Roman candles. Remembering his father in “The Blue Voyage,” Aiken recalled, “There was something angelic about him, later it became diabolic.” Dr. Aiken repeatedly tried to take his own life, self-administering a large dose of morphine and atropine on one occasion and on another turning the gas and telling her they “would now see who would emerge from the apartment alive,” according to the Morning News, February 28, 1901 account of the Aiken family tragedy. In the last week of February, 1901, Dr. Aiken quarrelled with his wife, keeping her locked in her room on Monday night. Tuesday morning the quarreling resumed. Conrad Aiken recalled a silence and he waited breathless till he heard his father’s voice counting “One! Two! Three!” a scream and then a pistol shot. The counting resumed and there came a second shot. Conrad rushed across the street to the police station where he told patrolman J. Harry Lange, “Papa has just shot mama and himself.” Returning to the house with the boy to investigate, the policeman found Mrs. Aiken on her bed in “an easy and natural position” and Dr. Aiken face down on the floor with a .32 caliber pistol in his hand. Colonial Park Cemetery is now home to a number of shooting victims, including Declaration of Independence signer Button Gwinnett who was killed in a duel by rival Lachlan McIntosh. As South Broad marked the southern boundary of the town for a time, duels were often fought in this area, both the cemetery proper and its surroundings, including a narrow lot at the rear of the cemetery, now a playground and park, where mass graves dug from 1820 onward held victims of epidemics. The year, 1820, was particularly bad for Savannah, with 464 buildings destroyed by fire in a hellish 48-hour conflagration and 666 people dying of Yellow Fever in a two-week period later in the year. Many of the fever victims found their way to a mass grave behind the cemetery. At least one resident of the cemetery who was shot has gained some fame because his assailant’s name has been stricken from his gravestone. Odrey Miller’s headstone originally bore the name of the person who shot him but it was chiseled away and research has been unable to cast any light on who might have fired the fatal shot, according to Savannah Spectres. Some ghosts may not even know they are dead, according to a psychic who accompanied Mrs. DeBolt on many of her fact-finding errands in the compilation of the stories that make up Savannah Spectres. These spirits may mindlessly repeat their last action such as tripping down stairs. There are reports of a number of haunted staircases in the city, often where a uneven step is accompanied by a psychic chill. This coldness pervades rooms and parts of rooms all over the historic district. The liquor room in an old cotton warehouse that now houses a seafood restaurant on River Street was both cool and depressing. Even the owner did not like to go there alone. The employees refused. Mrs. DeBolt’s psychic friend said he felt the presence of a slave dying of pneumonia or some other illness, left alone under a thin blanket. Wars, are of course, big contributors to the ghost population. At several locations in downtown Savannah and surrounding areas sightings of spectral Confederate soldiers have been reported. Or, perhaps there are different soldiers, inhabiting different areas, each walking their own patrol, so to speak. Other ghosts also seem intent on carrying out their duties in life. A faithful nurse is said to inhabit the old Pest House where seamen and immigrants may have been quarantined on entering the port. The house, now located off Highway 17 south of Savannah, was visited by Mrs. DeBolt who reported the owner told her she had seen a young woman, apparently a nurse, who announced, “You know I have to stay here, until they either get well, or they all die.” Perhaps the nurse became ill and died herself, remaining in the house even when it was moved several miles from its original location east of Savannah. Ghosts have been reported as inhabiting furnishings or other objects as well as homes. Sometimes these objects then take on a mind of their own. Two blue marbles that were found behind a baseboard in the top floor of a home at Lincoln and State Streets apparently sparked a string of odd occurrences, according to Mrs. DeBolt’s book. The house, completed in 1856, was originally occupied by Mary Ann Barnard, of the family which gave their name to Barnard Street. Other prominent occupants followed until the Willaim H. Daniel family moved in and remained till 1909. The Daniels had three sons, and it has been speculated that the marbles might have belonged to one of those boys. Whoever the owner of the marbles, they are reported to have had a link to weirdness. Once the marbles were discovered in the 1970s the owners of the house, a lawyer and his wife, began to experience the inexplicable. Things were moved, there were strange noises, a stack of napkins was found wet with the surroundings completely dry, doors opened by themselves. In her book Mrs. DeBolt reports a door opened by itself while she was interviewing the owner of the home. The haunted world is a democratic one. The spirits of people rich and poor, master and servant, are reported, often still about the task or agendas of their daily lives in the land of the living. Mary Telfair is said to enforce her ban on eating, drinking and amusements in the art museum bearing her name. In another house a old African American servant still makes her presence felt in the kitchen. James Habersham Jr. is reported to still make his presence felt in the Olde Pink House Restaurant and Planters Tavern where he made his home from 1779. A leading merchant and planter, young James took the cause of the Colonies against his loyalist father. James the younger’s presence is especially felt on quiet Sunday afternoons, checking in on his old home. One grand house is said to be blessed with the presence of a music-loving butler who appears from time to time at the door during musical entertainments, tapping a foot, continuing his life-long love of music beyond the grave. After a while, the tales of Savannah’s supernatural begin to take on a sort of concreteness, blending themselves with the stucco, brick and ironwork of the city. Stories of ghosts have become so interwoven with the city’s history that sometimes it is hard to separate the real from the unreal and one begins to doubt the difference. After a while it is easy to believe the shade of Lady Huntingdon still walks the grounds of the Bethesda orphanage she worked to support during her life two and a half centuries ago. This tendency toward acceptance from skepticism may be another aspect of Savannah’s sense of strangeness or it may only be the symptom of something even stranger. Who knows?	5,750	ENGLISH	1
Schindler - Not a Natural Rebel Oskar Schindler was a socialite and industrialist, but he began his relationship with the Nazi regime as a spy in Moravia. After the German invasion of Poland, he was given control of the enamel factory in Krakow. After his factory was assigned a workforce of forced Jewish laborers, he gradually began to protect them from further violence and persecution by arranging for his factory to be classified as essential for the war effort. Later he was able to leverage his good relationship with the SS in order to maintain a separate sub-camp for his workers, with better living conditions and away from the direct control of SS officers. Together with his wife Emilie, he is considered responsible for saving the lives of about 1,200 Jews. Initially, the Yad Vashem memorial in Israel was conflicted about whether Schindler should be granted the status of Righteous Among the Nations. The status was granted to him posthumously in 1993.	<urn:uuid:f3c3083a-125d-4e7e-8d6e-f43f22a86dcb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ticketlens.com/en/p969505/krakow/schindlers-factory	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00248.warc.gz	en	0.986978	200	3.40625	3	[ -0.02649114467203617, 0.8460536003112793, 0.04245857521891594, -0.2079036384820938, -0.020655065774917603, 0.04880505055189133, 0.7789466977119446, 0.24636907875537872, -0.30907538533210754, -0.10051082074642181, 0.12760590016841888, -0.13070255517959595, 0.6199180483818054, 0.343087345361...	13	Schindler - Not a Natural Rebel Oskar Schindler was a socialite and industrialist, but he began his relationship with the Nazi regime as a spy in Moravia. After the German invasion of Poland, he was given control of the enamel factory in Krakow. After his factory was assigned a workforce of forced Jewish laborers, he gradually began to protect them from further violence and persecution by arranging for his factory to be classified as essential for the war effort. Later he was able to leverage his good relationship with the SS in order to maintain a separate sub-camp for his workers, with better living conditions and away from the direct control of SS officers. Together with his wife Emilie, he is considered responsible for saving the lives of about 1,200 Jews. Initially, the Yad Vashem memorial in Israel was conflicted about whether Schindler should be granted the status of Righteous Among the Nations. The status was granted to him posthumously in 1993.	207	ENGLISH	1
Lyndon B. Johnson “A President’s hardest task is not to do what is right, but to know what is right.” Johnson grew up in Texas, where his parents worked as teachers and farmers. He learned to read before he was four-years-old and was a good student. After graduating from high school, he moved to California where he worked odd jobs. Two years later, he decided that he’d had enough of hard physical labor and went to college. Johnson was a teacher but later served in Washington as secretary to Congressman, Robert Kleberg. Both his father and grandfather had held public office and politics was in his blood. He served six terms in the House of Representatives and won a Silver Star during World War II. Kennedy asked Johnson to be his vice-president. Three years later, Johnson became President when Kennedy was assassinated. - Lyndon B. Johnson was born August 27, 1908 in Stonewall, Texas. - He married Claudia Alta Taylor in 1934. She was nicknamed Lady Bird. - The couple had two daughters, Lynda and Luci. Every member of Johnson’s family, including his dogs, had the same initials, LBJ. - Johnson was sworn in as President two hours after Kennedy’s assassination as he flew back to Washington D.C. aboard Air Force One (the presidential airplane). His wife stood on one side of him. Jacqueline Kennedy stood on the other side, still wearing clothing stained with Kennedy’s blood. - Johnson declared a “War on Poverty” and promised a “Great Society.” He worked with Congress to fund public education, battle poverty, and end crime. He started Medicare, which helped elderly people pay their medical bills. He was also the founder of the Public Broadcasting Service. - Johnson worked hard for minorities, guaranteeing blacks the right to vote. - Johnson’s biggest challenge during his Presidency was the Vietnam War. North Vietnam, a Communist ally to Russia, had invaded South Vietnam. Johnson – and many others – believed it was important to prevent the spread of Communism. He sent U.S. troops and weapons to Vietnam. The war went on for a long time and many Americans disagreed with it. Johnson was heavily criticized, especially by young Americans, who held protests and even burned the American flag. - Johnson had a larger-than-life personality. He loved to eat and ate large quantities of barbecue and ice cream. He gave his friends and family generous gifts, but could be ruthless and aggressive with opponents. He often took a break to swim nude during the day and demanded that his workers do the same. He loved to talk and even had phones installed in the bathroom. - Johnson completed Kennedy’s term and won a second term in office. He was very unpopular by the end of the second term and did not run again. He retired to Texas to manage his ranch and oil fields. - Johnson died of a heart attack four years later in 1973. Questions and Answers Question: What was Lady Bird Johnson’s role in the White House? Answer: Lady Bird Johnson loved nature. She worked to beautify the parks and avenues in Washington D.C. and served on the National Parks board. Visit Whitehouse.gov to learn more about Lydon B. Johnson, 36th U.S. President. Cite This Page You may cut-and-paste the below MLA and APA citation examples: MLA Style Citation Declan, Tobin. " Lyndon B. Johnson Facts for Kids ." Easy Science for Kids, Jan 2020. Web. 17 Jan 2020. < https://easyscienceforkids.com/lyndon-b-johnson/ >. APA Style Citation Tobin, Declan. (2020). Lyndon B. Johnson Facts for Kids. Easy Science for Kids. Retrieved from https://easyscienceforkids.com/lyndon-b-johnson/ Sponsored Links :	<urn:uuid:5bca8ee9-fa97-41a3-8a0e-fa448a46bf5c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://easyscienceforkids.com/lyndon-b-johnson/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00422.warc.gz	en	0.984543	835	3.546875	4	[ -0.12732677161693573, 0.1801718771457672, -0.058036718517541885, -0.20038238167762756, 0.22103720903396606, 0.5467761754989624, 0.46927356719970703, 0.021892298012971878, -0.346059650182724, -0.4089221954345703, 0.07341960817575455, 0.5596846342086792, 0.23372933268547058, 0.40845844149589...	1	Lyndon B. Johnson “A President’s hardest task is not to do what is right, but to know what is right.” Johnson grew up in Texas, where his parents worked as teachers and farmers. He learned to read before he was four-years-old and was a good student. After graduating from high school, he moved to California where he worked odd jobs. Two years later, he decided that he’d had enough of hard physical labor and went to college. Johnson was a teacher but later served in Washington as secretary to Congressman, Robert Kleberg. Both his father and grandfather had held public office and politics was in his blood. He served six terms in the House of Representatives and won a Silver Star during World War II. Kennedy asked Johnson to be his vice-president. Three years later, Johnson became President when Kennedy was assassinated. - Lyndon B. Johnson was born August 27, 1908 in Stonewall, Texas. - He married Claudia Alta Taylor in 1934. She was nicknamed Lady Bird. - The couple had two daughters, Lynda and Luci. Every member of Johnson’s family, including his dogs, had the same initials, LBJ. - Johnson was sworn in as President two hours after Kennedy’s assassination as he flew back to Washington D.C. aboard Air Force One (the presidential airplane). His wife stood on one side of him. Jacqueline Kennedy stood on the other side, still wearing clothing stained with Kennedy’s blood. - Johnson declared a “War on Poverty” and promised a “Great Society.” He worked with Congress to fund public education, battle poverty, and end crime. He started Medicare, which helped elderly people pay their medical bills. He was also the founder of the Public Broadcasting Service. - Johnson worked hard for minorities, guaranteeing blacks the right to vote. - Johnson’s biggest challenge during his Presidency was the Vietnam War. North Vietnam, a Communist ally to Russia, had invaded South Vietnam. Johnson – and many others – believed it was important to prevent the spread of Communism. He sent U.S. troops and weapons to Vietnam. The war went on for a long time and many Americans disagreed with it. Johnson was heavily criticized, especially by young Americans, who held protests and even burned the American flag. - Johnson had a larger-than-life personality. He loved to eat and ate large quantities of barbecue and ice cream. He gave his friends and family generous gifts, but could be ruthless and aggressive with opponents. He often took a break to swim nude during the day and demanded that his workers do the same. He loved to talk and even had phones installed in the bathroom. - Johnson completed Kennedy’s term and won a second term in office. He was very unpopular by the end of the second term and did not run again. He retired to Texas to manage his ranch and oil fields. - Johnson died of a heart attack four years later in 1973. Questions and Answers Question: What was Lady Bird Johnson’s role in the White House? Answer: Lady Bird Johnson loved nature. She worked to beautify the parks and avenues in Washington D.C. and served on the National Parks board. Visit Whitehouse.gov to learn more about Lydon B. Johnson, 36th U.S. President. Cite This Page You may cut-and-paste the below MLA and APA citation examples: MLA Style Citation Declan, Tobin. " Lyndon B. Johnson Facts for Kids ." Easy Science for Kids, Jan 2020. Web. 17 Jan 2020. < https://easyscienceforkids.com/lyndon-b-johnson/ >. APA Style Citation Tobin, Declan. (2020). Lyndon B. Johnson Facts for Kids. Easy Science for Kids. Retrieved from https://easyscienceforkids.com/lyndon-b-johnson/ Sponsored Links :	808	ENGLISH	1
During the All-Night Vigil before major holidays, the clergy in most parishes and monasteries come out of the altar and march through the entire church to pray in the narthex. Are not the altar or the central part of the church better suited to prayer? What does this ritual mean? Litya (Greek: Λιτή – fervent prayer) is a special rite of Orthodox worship that has ancient roots. At present, there are several kinds of worship rites called litya, which are different in their purpose. For example, a short commemoration of the deceased at home, in a cemetery or in a church is also called a litya. Initially, litya or litany meant special prayer processions or prayerful intercession to God to end wars, natural disasters, and civil unrest. Such prayers were known to both the Western and Eastern Churches. Lityas were popular, and a large number of believers were involved, because they were mainly performed outside the church walls, often on the streets, squares and even out of the city walls. Saint Symeon of Thessalonica explains this by saying that the city is desecrated because of our transgressions, so it must be purified by prayer. Lityas in the countryside mean our unworthiness to call upon God in the city: “In this city, where we were created, or rather, re-created and endowed with the gifts of God, we, deceived by the serpent, became madly corrupt and turned ourselves into nothing; we desecrated the sacred place, and, coming out of God’s sight, wander in places that are unprotected” (Wisdom of Our Salvation). Over time, the litya became an integral part of the festive divine services and secured its place in the All-Night Vigil. After the litany of supplication and prayer of head bowing, the priest and the deacon together with the lamp-bearer come out of the altar and, with the singing of special litya verses, walk through the church and stop in the narthex or, for lack of a narthex, in the westernmost part of the church. In ancient times, the narthex was bigger and more functional than it is now. There were people who had not yet received the Holy Baptism, as well as some who had been excommunicated for serious sins and had no access to the Lord’s Supper for disciplinary reasons. The Church, represented by the clergy leaving the altar and going to the narthex, sides with the sinners and calls God have mercy on their behalf, repeating this plea many times. “The whole Church is the Church of the Penitent… The whole Church is the Church of the Perishing,” Saint Ephraim the Syrian, a great saint and preacher of repentance, states. We are all unworthy to look at the throne of God, the place of His glory, so we remind ourselves of it over and over again, proceeding to the narthex and praying diligently for God’s pardon. That is why litya prayers have a penitential tone, as well as contain prayers to the saints for their powerful intercession. Litya also reminds us of the expulsion of Adam and Eve from Eden to the fallen world. In ancient times, this meaning was more obvious, as the doors separating the narthex from the nave (the central section of the temple) were called “Red” and “Royal” and were often painted red. Such doors can still be seen in the monasteries of Athos. Those doors symbolized the gates of Eden, locked by our sin and reopened by the Sacrifice of Christ. By performing a solemn prayer in the narthex, we reconsider our fall and yearn for the Living God, who is always ready to accept and nourish us with His divine food. The logical conclusion of the ritual is the solemn entry of the priest back into the temple through the Red Gate and the offering of earthly gifts to God, as well as their subsequent eating by the faithful. This liturgical meal is a remote echo of the ancient Christian agapes, which were held together with the Eucharist. We are forgiven by God and have returned to the church, which is heaven on earth, and have approached the altar of Christ. The oil that will soon anoint us is the divine response to our Kyrie eleison and signifies peace and healing of our sins, while the bread and the wine remind us of the main Sacrament of the Divine Atonement and the restoration of our fallen nature, the Holy Eucharist. Orthodox worship is highly didactic and instructive in nature, which was particularly useful in the times of widespread illiteracy. Whereas in antiquity all these meanings were easily comprehended by Christians, who were used to dealing with symbols and rituals, the modern secular society considers all this as archaic. However, the Church is the life in the mystery of the Risen Christ, concealed in biblical stories. All sacraments and prayers slightly open this veil for us and allow us to enjoy the Kingdom of Heaven here on this earth.	<urn:uuid:14a27aeb-9fc7-4817-8052-a27fa6c87015>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blog.obitel-minsk.com/2019/12/what-does-litya-during-the-all-night-vigil-mean-2.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00300.warc.gz	en	0.980108	1,071	3.4375	3	[ 0.31806984543800354, 0.13313308358192444, -0.14999741315841675, 0.014882276766002178, 0.02731315791606903, 0.0855027288198471, 0.27990788221359253, 0.19555902481079102, 0.2587290108203888, -0.08792951703071594, -0.33603018522262573, 0.15872445702552795, -0.2118610292673111, 0.2780098319053...	8	During the All-Night Vigil before major holidays, the clergy in most parishes and monasteries come out of the altar and march through the entire church to pray in the narthex. Are not the altar or the central part of the church better suited to prayer? What does this ritual mean? Litya (Greek: Λιτή – fervent prayer) is a special rite of Orthodox worship that has ancient roots. At present, there are several kinds of worship rites called litya, which are different in their purpose. For example, a short commemoration of the deceased at home, in a cemetery or in a church is also called a litya. Initially, litya or litany meant special prayer processions or prayerful intercession to God to end wars, natural disasters, and civil unrest. Such prayers were known to both the Western and Eastern Churches. Lityas were popular, and a large number of believers were involved, because they were mainly performed outside the church walls, often on the streets, squares and even out of the city walls. Saint Symeon of Thessalonica explains this by saying that the city is desecrated because of our transgressions, so it must be purified by prayer. Lityas in the countryside mean our unworthiness to call upon God in the city: “In this city, where we were created, or rather, re-created and endowed with the gifts of God, we, deceived by the serpent, became madly corrupt and turned ourselves into nothing; we desecrated the sacred place, and, coming out of God’s sight, wander in places that are unprotected” (Wisdom of Our Salvation). Over time, the litya became an integral part of the festive divine services and secured its place in the All-Night Vigil. After the litany of supplication and prayer of head bowing, the priest and the deacon together with the lamp-bearer come out of the altar and, with the singing of special litya verses, walk through the church and stop in the narthex or, for lack of a narthex, in the westernmost part of the church. In ancient times, the narthex was bigger and more functional than it is now. There were people who had not yet received the Holy Baptism, as well as some who had been excommunicated for serious sins and had no access to the Lord’s Supper for disciplinary reasons. The Church, represented by the clergy leaving the altar and going to the narthex, sides with the sinners and calls God have mercy on their behalf, repeating this plea many times. “The whole Church is the Church of the Penitent… The whole Church is the Church of the Perishing,” Saint Ephraim the Syrian, a great saint and preacher of repentance, states. We are all unworthy to look at the throne of God, the place of His glory, so we remind ourselves of it over and over again, proceeding to the narthex and praying diligently for God’s pardon. That is why litya prayers have a penitential tone, as well as contain prayers to the saints for their powerful intercession. Litya also reminds us of the expulsion of Adam and Eve from Eden to the fallen world. In ancient times, this meaning was more obvious, as the doors separating the narthex from the nave (the central section of the temple) were called “Red” and “Royal” and were often painted red. Such doors can still be seen in the monasteries of Athos. Those doors symbolized the gates of Eden, locked by our sin and reopened by the Sacrifice of Christ. By performing a solemn prayer in the narthex, we reconsider our fall and yearn for the Living God, who is always ready to accept and nourish us with His divine food. The logical conclusion of the ritual is the solemn entry of the priest back into the temple through the Red Gate and the offering of earthly gifts to God, as well as their subsequent eating by the faithful. This liturgical meal is a remote echo of the ancient Christian agapes, which were held together with the Eucharist. We are forgiven by God and have returned to the church, which is heaven on earth, and have approached the altar of Christ. The oil that will soon anoint us is the divine response to our Kyrie eleison and signifies peace and healing of our sins, while the bread and the wine remind us of the main Sacrament of the Divine Atonement and the restoration of our fallen nature, the Holy Eucharist. Orthodox worship is highly didactic and instructive in nature, which was particularly useful in the times of widespread illiteracy. Whereas in antiquity all these meanings were easily comprehended by Christians, who were used to dealing with symbols and rituals, the modern secular society considers all this as archaic. However, the Church is the life in the mystery of the Risen Christ, concealed in biblical stories. All sacraments and prayers slightly open this veil for us and allow us to enjoy the Kingdom of Heaven here on this earth.	1,056	ENGLISH	1
People - Ancient Egypt: Thutmose I (Akheperkare) NEW KINGDOM 18th Dynasty (1493-1481) Extreme prosperity and renaissance in art and building projects mark the beginning of this period. Towards the end of the 19th Dynasty the increasing power of the priesthood corrupts the central government. During the 20th Dynasty tomb robbing is done by officials. The priesthood becomes hereditary and begins to assume secular power. The government breaks down. Thutmose I (Akheperkare) in Tour Egypt TUTHMOSIS I, 3RD KING OF EGYPT'S 18TH DYNASTY by Jimmy Dunn - The third king of the 18th Dynasty was a commoner by birth and a military man by training. We do not know his fathers name, but his mother was Semiseneb, a rather common name during the Second Intermediate Period and the early 18th Dynasty. He had married Ahmose, who may have been a sister of Amenhotep I and daughter of Ahmose I and Queen Ahmose Nefertary (who still held the title, "God's Wife of Amun during her grandson's rule) and thus legitimized his rule. However, others have suggested that Ahmose was in fact Tuthmosis I's own sister. He may have also served as a co-regent under Amenhotep I, and was most certainly an important military commander under his predecessor. His birth name we are told was Tuthmosis, meaning "Born of the god Thoth", though this is a Greek version. His actual Egyptian name was Djehutymes I, but he is also sometimes referred to as Thutmose I, or Thutmosis I. His thrown name was A-Kheper-ka-re (Aakheperkara). He gained the thrown at a fairly late age, and may have ruled for about six years. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt gives his reign lasting from 1504-1492 BC, while Peter Clayton indicates 1524-1518 and Monarchs of the Nile as 1503-1491. Nevertheless, he staged a series of brilliant military campaigns that were to establish Egypt's 18th Dynasty. So effective were these efforts that we believe he must have started preparations the the military operations during the last years of Amenhotep I's rule. Ahmose son of Ebana, an admiral during Tuthmosis I's reign, tells us that a campaign into Nubia where he penetrated beyond the Third Cataract was highly successful. Tuthmosis may have defeated the Nubian chief in hand to hand combat and returned to Thebes with the body of the fallen chief hanging on the prow of his ship. His greatest campaigns were in the Delta and his battles against the Syrians as he finally reached the Euphrates River. This expedition opened new horizons that led later to Egypt's important role in he trade and diplomacy of the Late Bronze Age Near East. Tuthmosis I brought Egypt a sense of stability and his military campaigns healed the wounds of Thebians. We learn from his Abydos stele of his building works at Thebes. His architect, Ineni, built an extension to the temple of Amun at Karnak, adding pylons (the fourth and fifth), courts, statues and one of Egypt's largest standing Obelisks. To commemorate his victory he built a hypostyle hall made entirely of cedar wood columns. He also expanded "the Treasury" begun by his predecessor at the northeast corner of the complex. The Abydos stele also tells us that Tuthmosis I he made contributions to the temple of Osiris, including cult objects and statues. Further, he apparently did some substantial work at Giza. In fact, he was responsible for a number of building projects within Egypt proper, where he left indications of structures at Elephantine, Armant, Ombos (near the late 17th to early 18th Dynasty palace center at Deir el-Ballas), el-Hiba, Memphis and probably at Edfu. However, there are also a number of monuments in Upper and Lower Nubia left by Tuthmosis I and his viceroy, Turi. We believe that there are several structures that may date from his reign near Kenisa at the fourth cataract and at Napata. Traces of ruins also exist at Semna, Buhen, Aniba, Quban and Qasr Ibrim, though most of these were probably small, or additions to earlier buildings. We also find a few votive objects dedicated in his name in the Sinai at the temple of Serabit el-Khadim. Ahmose bore him two sons named Wadjmose and Amenmose (though their parentage is a bit uncertain), but they apparently preceded their father to the grave. So it was by Mutnofret (Mutnefert), a minor queen who was the sister of his principle wife, Ahmose, that his heir, Tuthmosis II was born. However, his more famous offspring was Queen Hatshepsut, a daughter by Ahmose who would rule after her husband and brother's death. After the death of Ahmose, he probably even took Hatshepsut as his own wife until his death. Ahmose may have also provided him with another daughter by the name of Nefrubity who is depicted with Tuthmosis I and Ahmose in the temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri. We think that Tuthmosis I buried in two different tombs in the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank at Luxor (ancient Thebes). It appears that he may have first been buried in KV 20, which may have been intended as a tomb for both him and his daughter, Hatshepsut. It contained two yellow quartzite sarcophagi, one inscribed for him and the other for his daughter, as well as a canopic chest for her. However, when KV 38 was investigated by Victor Loret in 1899, he found a sarcophagus for the king in that tomb as well. It is possible that his grandson, Tuthmosis III had his grandfather's body removed from the tomb of his despised stepmother's burial and relocated it to KV 38. However, his remains were found in the cache, with others, at Deir el Bahri. Thutmose I in Wikipedia Thutmose I (sometimes read as Thothmes, Thutmosis or Tuthmosis I) was the third Pharaoh of the 18th dynasty of Egypt. He was given the throne after the death of the previous king Amenhotep I. During his reign, he campaigned deep into the Levant and Nubia, pushing the borders of Egypt further than ever before. He also built many temples in Egypt and built a tomb for himself in the Valley of the Kings; he is the first king confirmed to have done this (though Amenhotep I may have preceded him). He was succeeded by his son Thutmose II, who in turn was succeeded by Thutmose II's sister, Hatshepsut. His reign is generally dated from 1506 to 1493 BCE. Thutmose's father was Amenhotep I, while his mother, Senseneb, is believed to have been a concubine. Queen Ahmose, who held the title of Great Royal Wife of Thutmose, was probably the daughter of Ahmose I and the sister of Amenhotep I; however, she was never called "king's daughter," so there is some doubt about this, and some historians believe that she was Thutmose's own sister. Assuming she was related to Amenhotep, it could be thought that she was married to Thutmose in order to guarantee succession. However, this is known not to be the case for two reasons. Firstly, Amenhotep's alabaster bark built at Karnak associates Amenhotep's name with Thutmose's name well before Amenhotep's death. Secondly, Thutmose's first born son with Ahmose, Amenmose, was apparently born long before Thutmose's coronation. He can be seen on a stela from Thutmose's fourth regnal year hunting near Memphis, and he became the "great army-commander of his father" sometime before his death, which was no later than Thutmose's own death in his 12th regnal year. Thutmose had another son, Wadjmose, and two daughters, Hatshepsut and Nefrubity, by Ahmose. Wadjmose died before his father, and Nefrubity died as an infant. Thutmose had one son by another wife, Mutnofret. This son succeeded him as Thutmose II, whom Thutmose I married to his daughter, Hatshepsut. It was later recorded by Hatshepsut that Thutmose willed the kingship to both Thutmose II and Hatshepsut. However, this is considered to be propaganda by Hatshepsut's supporters to legitimise her claim to the throne when she later assumed power. Dates and length of reign A heliacal rising of Sothis was recorded in the reign of Thutmose's predecessor, Amenhotep I, which has been dated to 1517 BC, assuming the observation was made at either Heliopolis or Memphis. The year of Amenhotep's death and Thutmose's subsequent coronation can be accordingly derived, and is dated to 1506 BC by most modern scholars. However, if the observation were made at Thebes, as a minority of scholars promote, Thutmose would have been crowned in 1526 BC. Manetho records that Thutmose I's reign lasted 12 Years and 9 Months (or 13 Years) as a certain Mephres in his Epitome. This data is supported by two dated inscriptions from Years 8 and 9 of his reign bearing his cartouche found inscribed on a stone block in Karnak. Accordingly, Thutmose is usually given a reign from 1506 BC to 1493 BC in the low chronology, but a minority of scholars would date him from 1526 BC to 1513 BC Upon Thutmose's coronation, Nubia rebelled against Egyptian rule. According to the tomb autobiography of Ahmose, son of Ebana, Thutmose travelled down the Nile and fought in the battle, personally killing the Nubian king. Upon victory, he had the Nubian king's body hung from the prow of his ship, before he returned to Thebes. After that campaign, he led a second expedition against Nubia in his third year in the course of which he ordered the canal at the first cataract-which had been built under Sesostris III of the 12th Dynasty-to be dredged in order to facilitate easier travel upstream from Egypt to Nubia. This helped integrate Nubia into the Egyptian empire. This expedition is mentioned in two separate inscriptions by the king's son Thure: " Year 3, first month of the third season, day 22, under the majesty of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Aakheperre who is given life. His Majesty commanded to dig this canal after he found it stopped up with stones [so that] no [ship sailed upon it]; Year 3, first month of the third season, day 22. His Majesty sailed this canal in victory and in the power of his return from overthrowing the wretched Kush. In the second year of Thutmose's reign, the king cut a stele at Tombos, which records that he built a fortress at Tombos, near the third cataract, thus permanently extending the Egyptian military presence, which had previously stopped at Buhen, at the second cataract. This indicates that he already fought a campaign in Syria; hence, his Syrian campaign may be placed at the beginning of his second regnal year. This second campaign was the farthest north any Egyptian ruler had ever campaigned. Although it has not been found in modern times, he apparently set up a stele when he crossed the Euphrates River. During this campaign, the Syrian princes declared allegiance to Thutmose. However, after he returned, they discontinued tribute and began fortifying against future incursions. Thutmose celebrated his victories with an elephant hunt in the area of Niy, near Apamea in Syria, and returned to Egypt with strange tales of the Euphrates, "that inverted water which flows upstream when it ought to be flowing downstream." The Euphrates was the first major river which the Egyptians had ever encountered which flowed from the north, which was downstream on the Nile, to the south, which was upstream on the Nile. Thus the river became known in Egypt as simply, "inverted water." Thutmose had to face one more military threat, another rebellion by Nubia in his fourth year. His influence accordingly expanded even farther south, as an inscription dated to his reign has been found as far south as Kurgus, which was south of the fourth cataract. During his reign, he initiated a number of projects which effectively ended Nubian independence for the next 500 years. He enlarged a temple to Sesostris III and Khnum, opposite the Nile from Semna. There are also records of specific religious rites which the viceroy of El-Kab was to have performed in the temples in Nubia in proxy for the king. He also appointed a man called Turi to the position of viceroy of Cush, also known as the "King's Son of Cush." With a civilian representative of the king permanently established in Nubia itself, Nubia did not dare to revolt as often as it had and was easily controlled by future Egyptian	<urn:uuid:f6a80a5a-4b52-4da4-bf66-080e1c2c4a8d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bible-history.com/links.php?cat=46&sub=3427&cat_name=People+-+Ancient+Egypt&subcat_name=Thutmose+I+%28Akheperkare%29+	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00407.warc.gz	en	0.983961	2,994	3.265625	3	[ -0.5283883810043335, 0.9501409530639648, 0.3782530426979065, -0.30145975947380066, -0.5165234804153442, -0.3141457438468933, 0.06649914383888245, -0.22065183520317078, -0.09896834194660187, 0.1470681130886078, -0.23534318804740906, -0.6889930963516235, 0.03882277384400368, -0.1724579632282...	2	People - Ancient Egypt: Thutmose I (Akheperkare) NEW KINGDOM 18th Dynasty (1493-1481) Extreme prosperity and renaissance in art and building projects mark the beginning of this period. Towards the end of the 19th Dynasty the increasing power of the priesthood corrupts the central government. During the 20th Dynasty tomb robbing is done by officials. The priesthood becomes hereditary and begins to assume secular power. The government breaks down. Thutmose I (Akheperkare) in Tour Egypt TUTHMOSIS I, 3RD KING OF EGYPT'S 18TH DYNASTY by Jimmy Dunn - The third king of the 18th Dynasty was a commoner by birth and a military man by training. We do not know his fathers name, but his mother was Semiseneb, a rather common name during the Second Intermediate Period and the early 18th Dynasty. He had married Ahmose, who may have been a sister of Amenhotep I and daughter of Ahmose I and Queen Ahmose Nefertary (who still held the title, "God's Wife of Amun during her grandson's rule) and thus legitimized his rule. However, others have suggested that Ahmose was in fact Tuthmosis I's own sister. He may have also served as a co-regent under Amenhotep I, and was most certainly an important military commander under his predecessor. His birth name we are told was Tuthmosis, meaning "Born of the god Thoth", though this is a Greek version. His actual Egyptian name was Djehutymes I, but he is also sometimes referred to as Thutmose I, or Thutmosis I. His thrown name was A-Kheper-ka-re (Aakheperkara). He gained the thrown at a fairly late age, and may have ruled for about six years. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt gives his reign lasting from 1504-1492 BC, while Peter Clayton indicates 1524-1518 and Monarchs of the Nile as 1503-1491. Nevertheless, he staged a series of brilliant military campaigns that were to establish Egypt's 18th Dynasty. So effective were these efforts that we believe he must have started preparations the the military operations during the last years of Amenhotep I's rule. Ahmose son of Ebana, an admiral during Tuthmosis I's reign, tells us that a campaign into Nubia where he penetrated beyond the Third Cataract was highly successful. Tuthmosis may have defeated the Nubian chief in hand to hand combat and returned to Thebes with the body of the fallen chief hanging on the prow of his ship. His greatest campaigns were in the Delta and his battles against the Syrians as he finally reached the Euphrates River. This expedition opened new horizons that led later to Egypt's important role in he trade and diplomacy of the Late Bronze Age Near East. Tuthmosis I brought Egypt a sense of stability and his military campaigns healed the wounds of Thebians. We learn from his Abydos stele of his building works at Thebes. His architect, Ineni, built an extension to the temple of Amun at Karnak, adding pylons (the fourth and fifth), courts, statues and one of Egypt's largest standing Obelisks. To commemorate his victory he built a hypostyle hall made entirely of cedar wood columns. He also expanded "the Treasury" begun by his predecessor at the northeast corner of the complex. The Abydos stele also tells us that Tuthmosis I he made contributions to the temple of Osiris, including cult objects and statues. Further, he apparently did some substantial work at Giza. In fact, he was responsible for a number of building projects within Egypt proper, where he left indications of structures at Elephantine, Armant, Ombos (near the late 17th to early 18th Dynasty palace center at Deir el-Ballas), el-Hiba, Memphis and probably at Edfu. However, there are also a number of monuments in Upper and Lower Nubia left by Tuthmosis I and his viceroy, Turi. We believe that there are several structures that may date from his reign near Kenisa at the fourth cataract and at Napata. Traces of ruins also exist at Semna, Buhen, Aniba, Quban and Qasr Ibrim, though most of these were probably small, or additions to earlier buildings. We also find a few votive objects dedicated in his name in the Sinai at the temple of Serabit el-Khadim. Ahmose bore him two sons named Wadjmose and Amenmose (though their parentage is a bit uncertain), but they apparently preceded their father to the grave. So it was by Mutnofret (Mutnefert), a minor queen who was the sister of his principle wife, Ahmose, that his heir, Tuthmosis II was born. However, his more famous offspring was Queen Hatshepsut, a daughter by Ahmose who would rule after her husband and brother's death. After the death of Ahmose, he probably even took Hatshepsut as his own wife until his death. Ahmose may have also provided him with another daughter by the name of Nefrubity who is depicted with Tuthmosis I and Ahmose in the temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri. We think that Tuthmosis I buried in two different tombs in the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank at Luxor (ancient Thebes). It appears that he may have first been buried in KV 20, which may have been intended as a tomb for both him and his daughter, Hatshepsut. It contained two yellow quartzite sarcophagi, one inscribed for him and the other for his daughter, as well as a canopic chest for her. However, when KV 38 was investigated by Victor Loret in 1899, he found a sarcophagus for the king in that tomb as well. It is possible that his grandson, Tuthmosis III had his grandfather's body removed from the tomb of his despised stepmother's burial and relocated it to KV 38. However, his remains were found in the cache, with others, at Deir el Bahri. Thutmose I in Wikipedia Thutmose I (sometimes read as Thothmes, Thutmosis or Tuthmosis I) was the third Pharaoh of the 18th dynasty of Egypt. He was given the throne after the death of the previous king Amenhotep I. During his reign, he campaigned deep into the Levant and Nubia, pushing the borders of Egypt further than ever before. He also built many temples in Egypt and built a tomb for himself in the Valley of the Kings; he is the first king confirmed to have done this (though Amenhotep I may have preceded him). He was succeeded by his son Thutmose II, who in turn was succeeded by Thutmose II's sister, Hatshepsut. His reign is generally dated from 1506 to 1493 BCE. Thutmose's father was Amenhotep I, while his mother, Senseneb, is believed to have been a concubine. Queen Ahmose, who held the title of Great Royal Wife of Thutmose, was probably the daughter of Ahmose I and the sister of Amenhotep I; however, she was never called "king's daughter," so there is some doubt about this, and some historians believe that she was Thutmose's own sister. Assuming she was related to Amenhotep, it could be thought that she was married to Thutmose in order to guarantee succession. However, this is known not to be the case for two reasons. Firstly, Amenhotep's alabaster bark built at Karnak associates Amenhotep's name with Thutmose's name well before Amenhotep's death. Secondly, Thutmose's first born son with Ahmose, Amenmose, was apparently born long before Thutmose's coronation. He can be seen on a stela from Thutmose's fourth regnal year hunting near Memphis, and he became the "great army-commander of his father" sometime before his death, which was no later than Thutmose's own death in his 12th regnal year. Thutmose had another son, Wadjmose, and two daughters, Hatshepsut and Nefrubity, by Ahmose. Wadjmose died before his father, and Nefrubity died as an infant. Thutmose had one son by another wife, Mutnofret. This son succeeded him as Thutmose II, whom Thutmose I married to his daughter, Hatshepsut. It was later recorded by Hatshepsut that Thutmose willed the kingship to both Thutmose II and Hatshepsut. However, this is considered to be propaganda by Hatshepsut's supporters to legitimise her claim to the throne when she later assumed power. Dates and length of reign A heliacal rising of Sothis was recorded in the reign of Thutmose's predecessor, Amenhotep I, which has been dated to 1517 BC, assuming the observation was made at either Heliopolis or Memphis. The year of Amenhotep's death and Thutmose's subsequent coronation can be accordingly derived, and is dated to 1506 BC by most modern scholars. However, if the observation were made at Thebes, as a minority of scholars promote, Thutmose would have been crowned in 1526 BC. Manetho records that Thutmose I's reign lasted 12 Years and 9 Months (or 13 Years) as a certain Mephres in his Epitome. This data is supported by two dated inscriptions from Years 8 and 9 of his reign bearing his cartouche found inscribed on a stone block in Karnak. Accordingly, Thutmose is usually given a reign from 1506 BC to 1493 BC in the low chronology, but a minority of scholars would date him from 1526 BC to 1513 BC Upon Thutmose's coronation, Nubia rebelled against Egyptian rule. According to the tomb autobiography of Ahmose, son of Ebana, Thutmose travelled down the Nile and fought in the battle, personally killing the Nubian king. Upon victory, he had the Nubian king's body hung from the prow of his ship, before he returned to Thebes. After that campaign, he led a second expedition against Nubia in his third year in the course of which he ordered the canal at the first cataract-which had been built under Sesostris III of the 12th Dynasty-to be dredged in order to facilitate easier travel upstream from Egypt to Nubia. This helped integrate Nubia into the Egyptian empire. This expedition is mentioned in two separate inscriptions by the king's son Thure: " Year 3, first month of the third season, day 22, under the majesty of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Aakheperre who is given life. His Majesty commanded to dig this canal after he found it stopped up with stones [so that] no [ship sailed upon it]; Year 3, first month of the third season, day 22. His Majesty sailed this canal in victory and in the power of his return from overthrowing the wretched Kush. In the second year of Thutmose's reign, the king cut a stele at Tombos, which records that he built a fortress at Tombos, near the third cataract, thus permanently extending the Egyptian military presence, which had previously stopped at Buhen, at the second cataract. This indicates that he already fought a campaign in Syria; hence, his Syrian campaign may be placed at the beginning of his second regnal year. This second campaign was the farthest north any Egyptian ruler had ever campaigned. Although it has not been found in modern times, he apparently set up a stele when he crossed the Euphrates River. During this campaign, the Syrian princes declared allegiance to Thutmose. However, after he returned, they discontinued tribute and began fortifying against future incursions. Thutmose celebrated his victories with an elephant hunt in the area of Niy, near Apamea in Syria, and returned to Egypt with strange tales of the Euphrates, "that inverted water which flows upstream when it ought to be flowing downstream." The Euphrates was the first major river which the Egyptians had ever encountered which flowed from the north, which was downstream on the Nile, to the south, which was upstream on the Nile. Thus the river became known in Egypt as simply, "inverted water." Thutmose had to face one more military threat, another rebellion by Nubia in his fourth year. His influence accordingly expanded even farther south, as an inscription dated to his reign has been found as far south as Kurgus, which was south of the fourth cataract. During his reign, he initiated a number of projects which effectively ended Nubian independence for the next 500 years. He enlarged a temple to Sesostris III and Khnum, opposite the Nile from Semna. There are also records of specific religious rites which the viceroy of El-Kab was to have performed in the temples in Nubia in proxy for the king. He also appointed a man called Turi to the position of viceroy of Cush, also known as the "King's Son of Cush." With a civilian representative of the king permanently established in Nubia itself, Nubia did not dare to revolt as often as it had and was easily controlled by future Egyptian	3,066	ENGLISH	1
The Christburg castle, intended for the seat of the Teutonic convent, was built in 1247, and around 1250 a commandry was established in Dzierzgoń. According to the chronicler Peter of Dusburg, the name of the castle referred to Christmas 1242, in which the Teutonic Knights captured the Prussian hillfort, on which they later erected the stronghold. In the fourth quarter of the 13th century, after the destructions of the war during the first Prussian uprising, the castle was rebuilt. Initial timber and earth fortifications were then replaced with brick ones, erected on a new, more defensive place. The settlement created next to the old stronghold was called Alt Christburg, or Stary Dzierzgoń. In 1249 at the new castle, a settlement was concluded between the Order and the Prussian tribes, which sanctioned the reign of the new rulers. The stronghold soon became the headquarters of the Teutonic commander, the first of which was Henry Stange in 1250-1254. From 1309, the castle was occupied by an obersttrappier, a Teutonic dignitary responsible for equipping the Order with clothing. This meant that in the fourteenth century, the Dzierzgoń Castle was regarded as the largest armory alongside Malbork and the second food warehouse, after Brodnica Castle. In its fourteen farms large quantities of cattle were raised, especially horses, of which there were more than a thousand. The castle was also a strategically important point, the center of power in the densely populated Pomezania and the starting point for further conquests. The nearby Dzierzgoń river, which led the water route to the Vistula Lagoon and Baltic, was of significant importance. In 1410, in the battle of Grunwald, the obersttrappier and the great commander of Dzierzgoń, Albrecht von Schwarzburg, were killed and the castle was captured without a fight by the army of king Jagiełło, who was going to Malbork. Describing the event, chronicler Jan Długosz, emphasized the richness of the castle pantries and the obersttrappier’s chamber, full of beautiful and expensive fabrics. The king supposedly liked the castle chapel, from which he ordered timber sculptures to be transported to the Kingdom of Poland. A garrison was left at the castle under the command of Zbigniew from Brzezie, but after the unsuccessful siege of Malbork, the Teutonic Knights began to recapture the lost castles. Leaving Dzierzgoń, after taking as much as possible, the army set fire to the castle, which then returned to the hands of the Order. In 1414, the castle burned down again after it was captured by the Polish army during the so-called Hunger War. Due to major damage and perhaps the problem of the fell of steep slope on which the fortress was built, it was decided in 1437 to transfer the commandry from Dzierzgoń to nearby Przezmark. Despite this, the castle was still used, and three years before moving, it was quite well stocked. At that time, among others, 129 crossbows, 73 handguns, 12,000 belts and half a dozen spears were recorded in warehouses. In addition, protective equipment, 42 shields, barrels with nails, horseshoes, iron bars, girths, traveling beds, ropes, and Hungarian leathers were kept in the armory. The artillery consisted of 15 bombards for stone and metal balls with a supply of 11 gunpowder and two saltpeter barrels. At the beginning of the Polish-Teutonic Thirteen Years’ War, in February 1454, the stronghold was burned at the hands of the rebellious burghers from the anti-Teutonic Prussian Union. However, no total destruction was carried out, because in June the same year the mercenary army in exchange for unpaid pay demanded, among others, the Dzierzgoń castle. A few months later, in September, the Teutonic Knights captured it again and kept until the end of the war, which ended in 1466 with the signing of the Second Peace of Toruń. Under it, Dzierzgoń was taken over by the Polish kingdom, and the seat of the starosty and the town court were located in the preserved chambers of the castle. In 1520, during the last Polish-Teutonic war, there were direct clashes between the crews of the former Dzierzgoń commandry castles. The Teutonic forces from Przezmark came to Dzierzgoń, burned the farm, suburbs, barns, and then the town. The castle has survived, but its weak garrison was unable to protect the townspeople. In the 17th century, offices still operated in the castle, but the building declined, especially in the second half of the century after the Swedish wars. Some of the buildings were demolished in order to obtain material for the construction of the nearby monastery and the associated smithy. At the end of the 18th century, the Prussian authorities decided to finally leave the castle, which was completely demolished during the 19th century and its areas intended for the park. The castle was built on top of a hill with very good defense conditions. Access to the peak, flattened during construction, was defended from the north, east and south by steep and 30-meter high slopes. In addition, on the southern side at the foot of the hill the Dzierzgoń River flowed rapidly, originally washing its slopes (which in the future became the cause of landslides and probably construction disasters). The more convenient approach was only from the west, from the narrowing side of the hill, which was cut by the ditch at the narrowest point. An unfavorable element for defensive values could be a slightly lower hill called St. Anna, located on the north-east side and separated from the castle by a ravine. At the foot of both hills, on the east and partly south side, along the riverbed extended the buildings of a medieval settlement, changed in 1288 to the town. Its defense was made of earth ramparts with a wooden palisade and brick gatehouses. The castle was built on the top of a hill with very good defensive conditions. It consisted of two separate parts: a conventual upper ward and an outer ward, joined by a string of perimeter walls, reinforced with towers. The castle was irregular, built of brick on a foundation of stones. It did not yet had the form of regular, Teutonic, conventual castle, with three or four ranges closing the inner courtyard. It was surrounded by a defensive wall with a width of 3.2 meters, probably topped with battlement and a wall-walk for defenders. The castle had at least two ranges similar to rectangles, placed perpendicular to each other. The northern wing was shorter, about 20 meters long, while the eastern wing was over 40 meters, both had a basement. From the side of the courtyard to both parts also had brick, likely two-story cloisters. Probably the representative rooms, such as the refectory or chapel, were on the first floor of a larger building. Medieval inventories also mention warehouses, armory, warehouses of robes, cloths and canvases, pantries, commander and convent cellars. It probably lay at the upper ward, though certainly not on the representative – residential first floor. At the ground floor level of one of the wings, you can locate the convent’s kitchen and the kitchen where dishes were prepared for the commander’s table. The main castle tower was built next to the northern, smaller wing of the castle. It was several-storey (with basement) and erected on a quadrangle plan with dimensions of 5.2 x 6.6 meters. It flanked the entrance to the courtyard, which was located in the gatehouse placed next to it. In its vicinity, relics of further walls have been found indicating the existence of an extensive, long gate neck. The courtyard was paved; a well was located in its southern part, and an unusual, interesting pentagonal building nearby, connected by an arcade passage with a tower in the defensive wall. Perhaps it was a bathhouse with a porch to the toilet tower, as chutes for water or impurities were discovered there. The outer ward, to which two entrances led, was located in the north-west part of the hill, where the slope was gentler. There were brick, free-standing buildings without basements, but with stone and ceramic tile floors. It probably housed the workshops mentioned in the sources: footwear, saddle shop, forge, granary, as well as brewery, malt house and bakery. On the opposite side on the smaller hill of St. Anna, in the 13th century a Teutonic cemetery was founded and a chapel was erected. This place was probably connected to the castle with a wooden footbridge over the ravine. Outside the castle there were also Teutonic granges, mills and a garden. The castle has not survived to this day. Only the fragments of the foundations and the pavement of the castle courtyard are left. During the excavation works, some architectural details were also unveiled in the form of sculptures, bosses, fragments of vault ribs and floor tiles. The area of the castle hill is accessible to visitors. Leksykon zamków w Polsce, L.Kajzer, S.Kołodziejski, J.Salm, Warszawa 2003. Garniec M., Garniec-Jackiewicz M., Zamki państwa krzyżackiego w dawnych Prusach, Olsztyn 2006. Haftka M., Zamki krzyżackie. Dzierźgoń-Przezmark-Sztum, Gdańsk 2010.	<urn:uuid:b7dbb02d-1548-47cc-a8b2-bf75d89df193>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://medievalheritage.eu/en/main-page/heritage/poland/dzierzgon-teutonic-castle/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00306.warc.gz	en	0.980558	2,107	3.296875	3	[ 0.048824116587638855, 0.5298709273338318, 0.2154327780008316, 0.19989743828773499, -0.3090690076351166, -0.14975914359092712, -0.013755246065557003, 0.28200462460517883, -0.21894699335098267, -0.24746280908584595, -0.04482237994670868, -0.45349130034446716, -0.08807775378227234, 0.09584756...	1	The Christburg castle, intended for the seat of the Teutonic convent, was built in 1247, and around 1250 a commandry was established in Dzierzgoń. According to the chronicler Peter of Dusburg, the name of the castle referred to Christmas 1242, in which the Teutonic Knights captured the Prussian hillfort, on which they later erected the stronghold. In the fourth quarter of the 13th century, after the destructions of the war during the first Prussian uprising, the castle was rebuilt. Initial timber and earth fortifications were then replaced with brick ones, erected on a new, more defensive place. The settlement created next to the old stronghold was called Alt Christburg, or Stary Dzierzgoń. In 1249 at the new castle, a settlement was concluded between the Order and the Prussian tribes, which sanctioned the reign of the new rulers. The stronghold soon became the headquarters of the Teutonic commander, the first of which was Henry Stange in 1250-1254. From 1309, the castle was occupied by an obersttrappier, a Teutonic dignitary responsible for equipping the Order with clothing. This meant that in the fourteenth century, the Dzierzgoń Castle was regarded as the largest armory alongside Malbork and the second food warehouse, after Brodnica Castle. In its fourteen farms large quantities of cattle were raised, especially horses, of which there were more than a thousand. The castle was also a strategically important point, the center of power in the densely populated Pomezania and the starting point for further conquests. The nearby Dzierzgoń river, which led the water route to the Vistula Lagoon and Baltic, was of significant importance. In 1410, in the battle of Grunwald, the obersttrappier and the great commander of Dzierzgoń, Albrecht von Schwarzburg, were killed and the castle was captured without a fight by the army of king Jagiełło, who was going to Malbork. Describing the event, chronicler Jan Długosz, emphasized the richness of the castle pantries and the obersttrappier’s chamber, full of beautiful and expensive fabrics. The king supposedly liked the castle chapel, from which he ordered timber sculptures to be transported to the Kingdom of Poland. A garrison was left at the castle under the command of Zbigniew from Brzezie, but after the unsuccessful siege of Malbork, the Teutonic Knights began to recapture the lost castles. Leaving Dzierzgoń, after taking as much as possible, the army set fire to the castle, which then returned to the hands of the Order. In 1414, the castle burned down again after it was captured by the Polish army during the so-called Hunger War. Due to major damage and perhaps the problem of the fell of steep slope on which the fortress was built, it was decided in 1437 to transfer the commandry from Dzierzgoń to nearby Przezmark. Despite this, the castle was still used, and three years before moving, it was quite well stocked. At that time, among others, 129 crossbows, 73 handguns, 12,000 belts and half a dozen spears were recorded in warehouses. In addition, protective equipment, 42 shields, barrels with nails, horseshoes, iron bars, girths, traveling beds, ropes, and Hungarian leathers were kept in the armory. The artillery consisted of 15 bombards for stone and metal balls with a supply of 11 gunpowder and two saltpeter barrels. At the beginning of the Polish-Teutonic Thirteen Years’ War, in February 1454, the stronghold was burned at the hands of the rebellious burghers from the anti-Teutonic Prussian Union. However, no total destruction was carried out, because in June the same year the mercenary army in exchange for unpaid pay demanded, among others, the Dzierzgoń castle. A few months later, in September, the Teutonic Knights captured it again and kept until the end of the war, which ended in 1466 with the signing of the Second Peace of Toruń. Under it, Dzierzgoń was taken over by the Polish kingdom, and the seat of the starosty and the town court were located in the preserved chambers of the castle. In 1520, during the last Polish-Teutonic war, there were direct clashes between the crews of the former Dzierzgoń commandry castles. The Teutonic forces from Przezmark came to Dzierzgoń, burned the farm, suburbs, barns, and then the town. The castle has survived, but its weak garrison was unable to protect the townspeople. In the 17th century, offices still operated in the castle, but the building declined, especially in the second half of the century after the Swedish wars. Some of the buildings were demolished in order to obtain material for the construction of the nearby monastery and the associated smithy. At the end of the 18th century, the Prussian authorities decided to finally leave the castle, which was completely demolished during the 19th century and its areas intended for the park. The castle was built on top of a hill with very good defense conditions. Access to the peak, flattened during construction, was defended from the north, east and south by steep and 30-meter high slopes. In addition, on the southern side at the foot of the hill the Dzierzgoń River flowed rapidly, originally washing its slopes (which in the future became the cause of landslides and probably construction disasters). The more convenient approach was only from the west, from the narrowing side of the hill, which was cut by the ditch at the narrowest point. An unfavorable element for defensive values could be a slightly lower hill called St. Anna, located on the north-east side and separated from the castle by a ravine. At the foot of both hills, on the east and partly south side, along the riverbed extended the buildings of a medieval settlement, changed in 1288 to the town. Its defense was made of earth ramparts with a wooden palisade and brick gatehouses. The castle was built on the top of a hill with very good defensive conditions. It consisted of two separate parts: a conventual upper ward and an outer ward, joined by a string of perimeter walls, reinforced with towers. The castle was irregular, built of brick on a foundation of stones. It did not yet had the form of regular, Teutonic, conventual castle, with three or four ranges closing the inner courtyard. It was surrounded by a defensive wall with a width of 3.2 meters, probably topped with battlement and a wall-walk for defenders. The castle had at least two ranges similar to rectangles, placed perpendicular to each other. The northern wing was shorter, about 20 meters long, while the eastern wing was over 40 meters, both had a basement. From the side of the courtyard to both parts also had brick, likely two-story cloisters. Probably the representative rooms, such as the refectory or chapel, were on the first floor of a larger building. Medieval inventories also mention warehouses, armory, warehouses of robes, cloths and canvases, pantries, commander and convent cellars. It probably lay at the upper ward, though certainly not on the representative – residential first floor. At the ground floor level of one of the wings, you can locate the convent’s kitchen and the kitchen where dishes were prepared for the commander’s table. The main castle tower was built next to the northern, smaller wing of the castle. It was several-storey (with basement) and erected on a quadrangle plan with dimensions of 5.2 x 6.6 meters. It flanked the entrance to the courtyard, which was located in the gatehouse placed next to it. In its vicinity, relics of further walls have been found indicating the existence of an extensive, long gate neck. The courtyard was paved; a well was located in its southern part, and an unusual, interesting pentagonal building nearby, connected by an arcade passage with a tower in the defensive wall. Perhaps it was a bathhouse with a porch to the toilet tower, as chutes for water or impurities were discovered there. The outer ward, to which two entrances led, was located in the north-west part of the hill, where the slope was gentler. There were brick, free-standing buildings without basements, but with stone and ceramic tile floors. It probably housed the workshops mentioned in the sources: footwear, saddle shop, forge, granary, as well as brewery, malt house and bakery. On the opposite side on the smaller hill of St. Anna, in the 13th century a Teutonic cemetery was founded and a chapel was erected. This place was probably connected to the castle with a wooden footbridge over the ravine. Outside the castle there were also Teutonic granges, mills and a garden. The castle has not survived to this day. Only the fragments of the foundations and the pavement of the castle courtyard are left. During the excavation works, some architectural details were also unveiled in the form of sculptures, bosses, fragments of vault ribs and floor tiles. The area of the castle hill is accessible to visitors. Leksykon zamków w Polsce, L.Kajzer, S.Kołodziejski, J.Salm, Warszawa 2003. Garniec M., Garniec-Jackiewicz M., Zamki państwa krzyżackiego w dawnych Prusach, Olsztyn 2006. Haftka M., Zamki krzyżackie. Dzierźgoń-Przezmark-Sztum, Gdańsk 2010.	2,117	ENGLISH	1
The office had its origins in the position of veldwachtmeester in the Dutch Cape colony, and was regarded as being equivalent to a sergeant. The British administration enhanced its importance with the term field cornet, making it equivalent to an officer’s rank. The term was used for a civilian official in a local government district (drostdy) of the Cape Colony, acting as and invested with the authority of a military officer and empowered to act as a magistrate. The field cornet was subject to the landdrost of the district and acted as his representative. As such, a field cornet performed important functions in administrative, judicial and police matters. In addition, in peacetime the field cornet was the head of the militia, was responsible for maintaining law and order in his area, and was tasked with supervising the handover of postal items on arrival in his district. The term later came to denote a military rank equivalent to that of a lieutenant in the Boer armies as well as in the South African Army between 1960 and 1968. A second lieutenant was referred to as an assistant field cornet. The term field cornet replaced the word adjutant in the commando organisation in 1968.	<urn:uuid:5008fa23-d6d1-4270-81df-df6635605a52>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://everything.explained.today/Field_cornet/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00083.warc.gz	en	0.985256	249	3.375	3	[ -0.2164115309715271, 0.8474500775337219, 0.4022819697856903, -0.457573264837265, 0.19942693412303925, -0.2082587480545044, 0.9996843338012695, -0.18689043819904327, -0.4997033476829529, -0.16375832259655, 0.23705263435840607, -0.1598883718252182, -0.04534269869327545, 0.17884016036987305, ...	1	The office had its origins in the position of veldwachtmeester in the Dutch Cape colony, and was regarded as being equivalent to a sergeant. The British administration enhanced its importance with the term field cornet, making it equivalent to an officer’s rank. The term was used for a civilian official in a local government district (drostdy) of the Cape Colony, acting as and invested with the authority of a military officer and empowered to act as a magistrate. The field cornet was subject to the landdrost of the district and acted as his representative. As such, a field cornet performed important functions in administrative, judicial and police matters. In addition, in peacetime the field cornet was the head of the militia, was responsible for maintaining law and order in his area, and was tasked with supervising the handover of postal items on arrival in his district. The term later came to denote a military rank equivalent to that of a lieutenant in the Boer armies as well as in the South African Army between 1960 and 1968. A second lieutenant was referred to as an assistant field cornet. The term field cornet replaced the word adjutant in the commando organisation in 1968.	257	ENGLISH	1
This video is sponsored by Brilliant. More on that later. Hi, I’m Griffin Johnson. The Armchair Historian. Today’s video – “How did Italy Lose Against Ethiopia?” During the scramble for Africa every indigenous nation that was invaded by European powers felt within a matter of decades, all except one The Ancient empire of Ethiopia also known as Abyssinia as a world watched the supposedly primitive Ethiopians were able to repel a modern European army. This defeat was grave and humiliating and many were puzzled as to how it could have occurred. Before we start analyzing this defeat let’s get some background on the cause of invasion In 1869, not long after Italy was unified into one kingdom, the Italians who felt that they were fall behind in this scramble for Africa, purchased a small port on the Red Sea from the local eretrians and began expanding outwards. In approximately 20 years they control a significant portion of East Africa and as this was occurring the nearby Ethiopian empire which have existed in the region for over 600 years suddenly found itself cut-off from the sea and by 1887, skirmishers were occurring between the Italians and local Ethiopian warlords. This culminated in the Battle of the Galley in which an Italian column was ambushed and destroyed by the Ethiopians. After this the Italians were determined to pacify Ethiopia and they saw their chance when its emperor died and the throne was claimed by the Italian supported Menelik II Italy signed a treaty with Menelik that promised backing to his claim as well as financial and military aid in exchange for recognition of Italy’s colonial territories. However, there were 2 versions of the treaty One was written in the Italian and the other Amharic, the language of Ethiopia and each have different terms. The contentious clause which eventually would lead to the outbreak of war was in the Italian version of the treaty which stated that Ethiopia was effectively a colonial protectorate of Italy a provision that did not exist in Amharic draft. After Menelik tried to establish diplomatic relations with other European countries, it was only a matter of time before the Italians accused him of breaching the treaty. Although all other European nations refused to recognized Ethiopia’s independence Russia was supportive of Menelik’s ambitions as they were both Orthodox Christian countries. War finally came in December of 1894 when a group of Ethiopian insurgences under the leadership of a local king attacked an Italian Court in the colony of Victoria. In response to this, the Italian sent expeditions into Ethiopia, an act which served as a declaration of war. The leader of this expedition General Oreste Baratieri had previous military experience in the Wars of Italian Unification and in Eritrea, Baratieri’s expedition of 20000 men was composed to both Italian soldiers and local Eritrean auxiliaries who are mostly equipped with the nearly outdated vetterli rifle which used a black powder cartridge Although Baratieri’s expedition encountered initial success against some of the local kings, things would change after Menelik assembled a massive army of 200000 men in September of 1895 Though they were armed with spears and swords, about half of them were armed with modern rifles which had been purchased from the Russians. Interestingly, the Ethiopians all things considered were better equipped than their Italian counterparts who were unaware of this due to Menelik scumming He let the Italians to believe that Ethiopia was a completely primitive country on the brink of collapse The Italian government therefore ordered Baratieri to make a drive straight for Addis Ababa, the Ethiopian capital. Although the Italian were successful in their initial movements, the first omen of what would come of their ambitions in Ethiopia came at the Battle of Amba Alagi on December the 7th of 1895. Only a few months into the new year, the Italian campaign abruptly ended when Baratieri finally encountered Menelik’s army in the mountain near the town of Adwa General Baratieri’s expediton was already beginning to run low on water, amunitions and morale And when the huge Ethiopian army of aproximately 120,000 men was spotted, he was understandably planning to retreat but this was not an option as he was ordered by Italian prime minister Crispi, no I’m not making that name up to attack Menelik’s force. On the of February 29th, Baratieri divided his expedition into three prongs and began marching into the mountains near Menelik’s encampment When sun rose, the three Italian brigades stood miles away from each other due to outdated maps. To make matters worse for Baratieri, his men had been spotted by the enemy and were in no position to create the crossfire situation that they had originally planned. Rather, the left brigade found itself under heavy rifle and artillery fire and the Ethiopians had positioned themselves at higher elevation. The other brigades did not arrive in time to support and the Italian left was annihilated in a series of charges. Similarly, the center brigade which was now dangerously isolated was consumed by mass infantry assaults And when the final Italian brigade attempted to retreat, it was funneled into a narrow ravine and was utterly destroyed by Menelik’s cavalry. During all of this, the Ethiopians lost 10% of their men while the Italians lost nearly 60%. After this decisive defeat, Baratieri retreated back into Eritrea but was not pursued by Menelik, who wanted to preserve his strength. When news of the disaster at Adwa reached Italy, there were mass riots and protests against Crispi’s administration. Italy was forced to sue for peace and after some negotiation, the two nations signed the Treaty of Addis Ababa, which demanded little from the Italians except the recognition of Ethiopian independence. In conclusion we can see that the Italians lost due to a combination of factors, the biggest being that they were unprepared for a remote war, especially against a state as well organized and well-equipped as Ethiopia. The Battle of Adwa serves as a perfect microcosm through which to view the First Italo-Ethiopian War. Adwa was a feisty ill-conceived operation undertaken by a force with inadequate planning against numerically superior enemy that was incorrectly perceived, at least by the Italian government. A secondary reason for the Ethiopian victory was Menelik’s foresight, as he had been stockpiling modern weaponry for years after Ethiopia had been devastated by a British invasion in 1868. In the long term Ethiopian hegemony would not last, as the rise of fascism and revanchist rhetoric after the First World War made it clear that Italian affairs in East Africa were not over. King Menelik II has gone down in history as one of the most innovative leaders in Africa. His methodical approach to solving strategic and bureaucratic issues allowed him to conduct the war against Italy successfully and develop Ethiopia into a modern state with electricity, infrastructure and financial institutions. It is the same methodical approach that our sponsor Brilliant along with mathematics, science and physics. The stem field may sound extremely daunting, especially for an armchair historian like yourself but Brilliant allows you to learn these concepts through bit-size problems. In all of Brilliant’s lessons they are both visuals and thorough explanations. If you’re currently a student or just a lifelong learner, we highly recommend starting your free trial at brilliant.org/armchairhistorian. The first 98 users the same amount of artillery pieces that were used in the Battle of Adwa will get 20% off of their first annual subscription.	<urn:uuid:8efd4c4a-886c-4e99-8b53-2257f63ce7e2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://diyarbakirayder.com/how-did-italy-lose-to-ethiopia-1895-animated-history/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00477.warc.gz	en	0.985522	1,543	3.671875	4	[ -0.6610966324806213, 0.37866097688674927, 0.2519490718841553, 0.005867946892976761, -0.1532168984413147, -0.2678004503250122, -0.08946165442466736, 0.3905543386936188, -0.1824333369731903, 0.2773399353027344, 0.02680596150457859, -0.49054256081581116, 0.14056162536144257, 0.195822060108184...	1	This video is sponsored by Brilliant. More on that later. Hi, I’m Griffin Johnson. The Armchair Historian. Today’s video – “How did Italy Lose Against Ethiopia?” During the scramble for Africa every indigenous nation that was invaded by European powers felt within a matter of decades, all except one The Ancient empire of Ethiopia also known as Abyssinia as a world watched the supposedly primitive Ethiopians were able to repel a modern European army. This defeat was grave and humiliating and many were puzzled as to how it could have occurred. Before we start analyzing this defeat let’s get some background on the cause of invasion In 1869, not long after Italy was unified into one kingdom, the Italians who felt that they were fall behind in this scramble for Africa, purchased a small port on the Red Sea from the local eretrians and began expanding outwards. In approximately 20 years they control a significant portion of East Africa and as this was occurring the nearby Ethiopian empire which have existed in the region for over 600 years suddenly found itself cut-off from the sea and by 1887, skirmishers were occurring between the Italians and local Ethiopian warlords. This culminated in the Battle of the Galley in which an Italian column was ambushed and destroyed by the Ethiopians. After this the Italians were determined to pacify Ethiopia and they saw their chance when its emperor died and the throne was claimed by the Italian supported Menelik II Italy signed a treaty with Menelik that promised backing to his claim as well as financial and military aid in exchange for recognition of Italy’s colonial territories. However, there were 2 versions of the treaty One was written in the Italian and the other Amharic, the language of Ethiopia and each have different terms. The contentious clause which eventually would lead to the outbreak of war was in the Italian version of the treaty which stated that Ethiopia was effectively a colonial protectorate of Italy a provision that did not exist in Amharic draft. After Menelik tried to establish diplomatic relations with other European countries, it was only a matter of time before the Italians accused him of breaching the treaty. Although all other European nations refused to recognized Ethiopia’s independence Russia was supportive of Menelik’s ambitions as they were both Orthodox Christian countries. War finally came in December of 1894 when a group of Ethiopian insurgences under the leadership of a local king attacked an Italian Court in the colony of Victoria. In response to this, the Italian sent expeditions into Ethiopia, an act which served as a declaration of war. The leader of this expedition General Oreste Baratieri had previous military experience in the Wars of Italian Unification and in Eritrea, Baratieri’s expedition of 20000 men was composed to both Italian soldiers and local Eritrean auxiliaries who are mostly equipped with the nearly outdated vetterli rifle which used a black powder cartridge Although Baratieri’s expedition encountered initial success against some of the local kings, things would change after Menelik assembled a massive army of 200000 men in September of 1895 Though they were armed with spears and swords, about half of them were armed with modern rifles which had been purchased from the Russians. Interestingly, the Ethiopians all things considered were better equipped than their Italian counterparts who were unaware of this due to Menelik scumming He let the Italians to believe that Ethiopia was a completely primitive country on the brink of collapse The Italian government therefore ordered Baratieri to make a drive straight for Addis Ababa, the Ethiopian capital. Although the Italian were successful in their initial movements, the first omen of what would come of their ambitions in Ethiopia came at the Battle of Amba Alagi on December the 7th of 1895. Only a few months into the new year, the Italian campaign abruptly ended when Baratieri finally encountered Menelik’s army in the mountain near the town of Adwa General Baratieri’s expediton was already beginning to run low on water, amunitions and morale And when the huge Ethiopian army of aproximately 120,000 men was spotted, he was understandably planning to retreat but this was not an option as he was ordered by Italian prime minister Crispi, no I’m not making that name up to attack Menelik’s force. On the of February 29th, Baratieri divided his expedition into three prongs and began marching into the mountains near Menelik’s encampment When sun rose, the three Italian brigades stood miles away from each other due to outdated maps. To make matters worse for Baratieri, his men had been spotted by the enemy and were in no position to create the crossfire situation that they had originally planned. Rather, the left brigade found itself under heavy rifle and artillery fire and the Ethiopians had positioned themselves at higher elevation. The other brigades did not arrive in time to support and the Italian left was annihilated in a series of charges. Similarly, the center brigade which was now dangerously isolated was consumed by mass infantry assaults And when the final Italian brigade attempted to retreat, it was funneled into a narrow ravine and was utterly destroyed by Menelik’s cavalry. During all of this, the Ethiopians lost 10% of their men while the Italians lost nearly 60%. After this decisive defeat, Baratieri retreated back into Eritrea but was not pursued by Menelik, who wanted to preserve his strength. When news of the disaster at Adwa reached Italy, there were mass riots and protests against Crispi’s administration. Italy was forced to sue for peace and after some negotiation, the two nations signed the Treaty of Addis Ababa, which demanded little from the Italians except the recognition of Ethiopian independence. In conclusion we can see that the Italians lost due to a combination of factors, the biggest being that they were unprepared for a remote war, especially against a state as well organized and well-equipped as Ethiopia. The Battle of Adwa serves as a perfect microcosm through which to view the First Italo-Ethiopian War. Adwa was a feisty ill-conceived operation undertaken by a force with inadequate planning against numerically superior enemy that was incorrectly perceived, at least by the Italian government. A secondary reason for the Ethiopian victory was Menelik’s foresight, as he had been stockpiling modern weaponry for years after Ethiopia had been devastated by a British invasion in 1868. In the long term Ethiopian hegemony would not last, as the rise of fascism and revanchist rhetoric after the First World War made it clear that Italian affairs in East Africa were not over. King Menelik II has gone down in history as one of the most innovative leaders in Africa. His methodical approach to solving strategic and bureaucratic issues allowed him to conduct the war against Italy successfully and develop Ethiopia into a modern state with electricity, infrastructure and financial institutions. It is the same methodical approach that our sponsor Brilliant along with mathematics, science and physics. The stem field may sound extremely daunting, especially for an armchair historian like yourself but Brilliant allows you to learn these concepts through bit-size problems. In all of Brilliant’s lessons they are both visuals and thorough explanations. If you’re currently a student or just a lifelong learner, we highly recommend starting your free trial at brilliant.org/armchairhistorian. The first 98 users the same amount of artillery pieces that were used in the Battle of Adwa will get 20% off of their first annual subscription.	1,564	ENGLISH	1
Neanderthals are often portrayed in pop culture as a far less intelligent species of human, to put it mildly. Our notions and portrayals of Neanderthals are often filled with ancient humans who acted almost as non-verbal, brutish, cartoon characters. Geologist, William King who first introduced this species of human in 1865 didn’t think too highly of them in regards to their intelligence either. Since then, researchers have changed their tune in regards to the brain power of the Neanderthal. Discoveries in recent years are showing that our distant cousins may have been more like us that we thought. Although our ideas of Neanderthals haven’t changed much, we may be misspeaking when we call someone who’s acting brutish or unintelligent by the term. Here’s a little history on this fascinating species and new discoveries about their capabilities and accomplishments. The History Of The Neanderthal Geologist William King first introduced the species of human in 1864. The species was actually first discovered in the Neander Valley in Germany almost ten years before. This led way to their name, Homo neanderthalensis. Early thoughts from anthropologists were that one’s intelligence could be measured by the shape and size of a skull. This was a racist ideology of the time that evolution was more about progress. Neanderthals were thought to be much more primitive than the humans alive at the same time and especially modern humans today. The earliest fossils of Neanderthals were actually discovered 430,000-450,000 years ago in Europe. Some eventually migrated into Southwest and Central Asia. In addition to fossils, tools were also discovered that were made out of stone. Physically, Neanderthals resembled humans but they were much stockier. They had short legs with big bodies to keep them warm outdoors in the cold. Men averaged around 65 inches or 5.4 feet in height while females were around 60 inches or five feet tall. Ancestry suggests mating between humans alive during this time and Neanderthals. Anthropologists discovered that Eastern Neanderthals had shared anatomic ancestry with humans who migrated from Africa around 100,000 years ago. There are still a number of people today who actually have one to two percent Neanderthal DNA. Because of recent scientific discoveries, it’s now known that Neanderthals were actually a lot more like us than we previously thought. Neanderthals, They’re Just Like Us Although it was once widely believed by the science community and pop culture that Neanderthals were far less intelligent than modern humans, recent findings have since proved otherwise. Similar to the humans who inhabited the world at the same time the Neanderthals did, they used tools and ornaments made of stones. The stones were worked into tools along with bones. Using tar from the bark of birch trees, they also invented glue. The glue was able to attach wood handles to the stones to be used similarly to a hammer. Using Eagle talons, many were able to adorn themselves with necklaces. Food was able to be prepared using fire and contrary to popular belief, they were able to spark a fire with their tools. Archaeologist, Shannon McPherron at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany has done intensive research on the differences in tools made by Neanderthals and humans during the same time in an effort to show their abilities. Early research was thought to show that Neanderthals didn’t make tools out of bone and stone differently despite their different properties. With new tools being found, scientists have actually seen that the tools were used for different purposes and were shaped for different users based on their materials. Some of these tool shapes are still even used today. This shows a complex understanding of tool creation, uses, and materials that Neanderthals weren’t thought to possess previously. With the discovery of tombs in southwestern France, it’s believed that Neanderthals also had some form of ritual or spiritual practices. Within the tombs, it was found that Neanderthals buried their dead. Also in France, caves were discovered which held stone circles made of stalagmites nearly 176,000 years ago. There is still some debate over the symbolic abilities of the Neanderthals. The humans who were alive at the same time were creating cave art using figures and abstract symbols while there are very few works of art found to be created by Neanderthals. The artwork that has been discovered dates back almost 65,000 years ago and was found by researchers in caves in Spain. Scientists can assume that the works were created by Neanderthals since the first modern humans weren’t believed to have made it to Western Europe until 42,000 years ago. In terms of language and communication, Neanderthals were able to make complex sounds at the very least. By studying their bones, it was discovered that they were capable of communicating in some ways through sounds. Without any writings, it’s hard to determine if a formal language was used. Interestingly, humans during this same time also didn’t leave writings or signs of language for this same time period. Some important takeaways from the recent studies of Neanderthals are that they may not have been that far behind from the first humans alive during the same time period. We now know that Neanderthals were capable of creating fire, cooked food, communicated using complex sounds, and were able to create tools suing stones, bones, and a glue of their own invention. We’ve also learned that humans mated with Neanderthals and some of us still even share the same DNA. Although it will be hard to debunk the stereotypes we have of our ancient cousins, these recent findings prove that there was a lot more to them than we may have originally believed.	<urn:uuid:d1210024-adef-417c-a9f5-11ffd826a6ce>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.science101.com/orig/neanderthals-may-have-been-a-lot-smarter-than-we-thought/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00315.warc.gz	en	0.982558	1,192	3.65625	4	[ -0.27310147881507874, 0.32680511474609375, 0.14173391461372375, 0.4259144365787506, -0.11254899203777313, 0.06626880168914795, 0.33154797554016113, 0.21505913138389587, -0.08828723430633545, 0.051254089921712875, 0.361280232667923, -0.3452001214027405, 0.4089518189430237, 0.334366858005523...	4	Neanderthals are often portrayed in pop culture as a far less intelligent species of human, to put it mildly. Our notions and portrayals of Neanderthals are often filled with ancient humans who acted almost as non-verbal, brutish, cartoon characters. Geologist, William King who first introduced this species of human in 1865 didn’t think too highly of them in regards to their intelligence either. Since then, researchers have changed their tune in regards to the brain power of the Neanderthal. Discoveries in recent years are showing that our distant cousins may have been more like us that we thought. Although our ideas of Neanderthals haven’t changed much, we may be misspeaking when we call someone who’s acting brutish or unintelligent by the term. Here’s a little history on this fascinating species and new discoveries about their capabilities and accomplishments. The History Of The Neanderthal Geologist William King first introduced the species of human in 1864. The species was actually first discovered in the Neander Valley in Germany almost ten years before. This led way to their name, Homo neanderthalensis. Early thoughts from anthropologists were that one’s intelligence could be measured by the shape and size of a skull. This was a racist ideology of the time that evolution was more about progress. Neanderthals were thought to be much more primitive than the humans alive at the same time and especially modern humans today. The earliest fossils of Neanderthals were actually discovered 430,000-450,000 years ago in Europe. Some eventually migrated into Southwest and Central Asia. In addition to fossils, tools were also discovered that were made out of stone. Physically, Neanderthals resembled humans but they were much stockier. They had short legs with big bodies to keep them warm outdoors in the cold. Men averaged around 65 inches or 5.4 feet in height while females were around 60 inches or five feet tall. Ancestry suggests mating between humans alive during this time and Neanderthals. Anthropologists discovered that Eastern Neanderthals had shared anatomic ancestry with humans who migrated from Africa around 100,000 years ago. There are still a number of people today who actually have one to two percent Neanderthal DNA. Because of recent scientific discoveries, it’s now known that Neanderthals were actually a lot more like us than we previously thought. Neanderthals, They’re Just Like Us Although it was once widely believed by the science community and pop culture that Neanderthals were far less intelligent than modern humans, recent findings have since proved otherwise. Similar to the humans who inhabited the world at the same time the Neanderthals did, they used tools and ornaments made of stones. The stones were worked into tools along with bones. Using tar from the bark of birch trees, they also invented glue. The glue was able to attach wood handles to the stones to be used similarly to a hammer. Using Eagle talons, many were able to adorn themselves with necklaces. Food was able to be prepared using fire and contrary to popular belief, they were able to spark a fire with their tools. Archaeologist, Shannon McPherron at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany has done intensive research on the differences in tools made by Neanderthals and humans during the same time in an effort to show their abilities. Early research was thought to show that Neanderthals didn’t make tools out of bone and stone differently despite their different properties. With new tools being found, scientists have actually seen that the tools were used for different purposes and were shaped for different users based on their materials. Some of these tool shapes are still even used today. This shows a complex understanding of tool creation, uses, and materials that Neanderthals weren’t thought to possess previously. With the discovery of tombs in southwestern France, it’s believed that Neanderthals also had some form of ritual or spiritual practices. Within the tombs, it was found that Neanderthals buried their dead. Also in France, caves were discovered which held stone circles made of stalagmites nearly 176,000 years ago. There is still some debate over the symbolic abilities of the Neanderthals. The humans who were alive at the same time were creating cave art using figures and abstract symbols while there are very few works of art found to be created by Neanderthals. The artwork that has been discovered dates back almost 65,000 years ago and was found by researchers in caves in Spain. Scientists can assume that the works were created by Neanderthals since the first modern humans weren’t believed to have made it to Western Europe until 42,000 years ago. In terms of language and communication, Neanderthals were able to make complex sounds at the very least. By studying their bones, it was discovered that they were capable of communicating in some ways through sounds. Without any writings, it’s hard to determine if a formal language was used. Interestingly, humans during this same time also didn’t leave writings or signs of language for this same time period. Some important takeaways from the recent studies of Neanderthals are that they may not have been that far behind from the first humans alive during the same time period. We now know that Neanderthals were capable of creating fire, cooked food, communicated using complex sounds, and were able to create tools suing stones, bones, and a glue of their own invention. We’ve also learned that humans mated with Neanderthals and some of us still even share the same DNA. Although it will be hard to debunk the stereotypes we have of our ancient cousins, these recent findings prove that there was a lot more to them than we may have originally believed.	1,215	ENGLISH	1
A very traditional style of fabric in several countries, tweed and the various patterns that it can comprise of, have been an essential part of local culture for centuries. Tweed itself is a woollen fabric which typically feels rough to the touch and is woven into specific patterns. Tweeds are a traditional icon of clothing for Ireland, Scotland, as well as some of the more northern parts of England. This is both for fashion and practical reasons, as the material is both moisture-resistant and durable. This can be further increased during manufacturing with the inclusion of various oils, although this is not as common today. In Scotland, tweed was originally named tweel, as the material was woven in a twilled pattern rather than a plain pattern. The name tweed came around because of a mistake, when a textile merchant misinterpreted handwriting, thinking that the request for tweel actually read ‘tweed’, assuming it to be the name of a company based near the river Tweed in Scotland. The goods were advertised as tweed, and the name has stuck since then. Traditionally, tweed has been the symbol of the upper-class, with the fabric being expensive to manufacture limiting its audience. Tweed was often worn for outdoor activities, thanks to its useful weather-resistant properties, particularly when hunting. Tweed later went on to become highly fashionable in any leisure activity outdoors, eventually leading to manufacturers producing lower-priced tweed to meet the demand for products at a lower price. Although lower priced tweed is still considered to be a high-quality product, it is often claimed that cheaper tweeds do not have the longevity which the more expensive and traditionally made tweed clothes do. Tweed has also been part of popular culture, particularly with any character who is created to be a part of the upper-class. One of the most important figures who was well known for his wearing of tweed, was Sherlock Holmes, often paired with a deerstalker hat, although the hat has been lost from more modern interpretations of Sherlock Holmes adaptations, particularly American versions. Harris Tweed is one of the most well-known of all types of tweed; the cloth is specifically made by the islanders of the Outer Hebrides, where it has been established for over a century.	<urn:uuid:67214d48-3355-4e6f-bb75-cfd5a5796d79>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://cornishorganicwool.co.uk/tweed/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00345.warc.gz	en	0.983529	468	3.515625	4	[ -0.0773133859038353, 0.2904351055622101, 0.06171497702598572, 0.09853324294090271, 0.3818041980266571, 0.185647651553154, 0.3959033489227295, 0.1420157104730606, -0.23635336756706238, -0.2112254649400711, 0.035906773060560226, -0.1310630887746811, -0.05057455599308014, -0.0340832881629467,...	1	A very traditional style of fabric in several countries, tweed and the various patterns that it can comprise of, have been an essential part of local culture for centuries. Tweed itself is a woollen fabric which typically feels rough to the touch and is woven into specific patterns. Tweeds are a traditional icon of clothing for Ireland, Scotland, as well as some of the more northern parts of England. This is both for fashion and practical reasons, as the material is both moisture-resistant and durable. This can be further increased during manufacturing with the inclusion of various oils, although this is not as common today. In Scotland, tweed was originally named tweel, as the material was woven in a twilled pattern rather than a plain pattern. The name tweed came around because of a mistake, when a textile merchant misinterpreted handwriting, thinking that the request for tweel actually read ‘tweed’, assuming it to be the name of a company based near the river Tweed in Scotland. The goods were advertised as tweed, and the name has stuck since then. Traditionally, tweed has been the symbol of the upper-class, with the fabric being expensive to manufacture limiting its audience. Tweed was often worn for outdoor activities, thanks to its useful weather-resistant properties, particularly when hunting. Tweed later went on to become highly fashionable in any leisure activity outdoors, eventually leading to manufacturers producing lower-priced tweed to meet the demand for products at a lower price. Although lower priced tweed is still considered to be a high-quality product, it is often claimed that cheaper tweeds do not have the longevity which the more expensive and traditionally made tweed clothes do. Tweed has also been part of popular culture, particularly with any character who is created to be a part of the upper-class. One of the most important figures who was well known for his wearing of tweed, was Sherlock Holmes, often paired with a deerstalker hat, although the hat has been lost from more modern interpretations of Sherlock Holmes adaptations, particularly American versions. Harris Tweed is one of the most well-known of all types of tweed; the cloth is specifically made by the islanders of the Outer Hebrides, where it has been established for over a century.	454	ENGLISH	1
One theory which western liberal nations and organizations push about Africa is that we do not allow women to hold key positions and influence. There is a an audible stigma that portrays African society as one that subjugates and silences women. African near-and-far history has been able to prove the above theory wrong. No other race in the world has given free will and power to their women more than the Black race. We have had women rule empires and kingdoms. We have had women control the affairs of large families, organizations, and neo-nations. And they do this with much admiration and respect from their men. Queen Nzinga’s story and bravery, is one African story that should make every Black woman and man proud. Her ability to stand against the Europeans for so long is a testament to the tenacity of the spirit of the African woman. Queen Nzinga, a renowned African legend, is considered as the greatest figure of African resistance against the European slave trade, she is also the second greatest African heroine after Kandake Amanirenas of Sudan. She lived in the 17th century and for 40 years of her existence, was able to resist the European slave trade. The Portuguese, sent by the Vatican, arrived in Africa to begin the European slave trade in the 15th century. This led to the destruction of the illustrious Kongo Empire, however, its submissive kingdoms, which includes the Ndongo kingdom were allowed to gain independence. In 1560, the Portuguese and missionaries sailed towards the South, arrived the banks of River Kwanza and gained entry into Ndongo kingdom which was then ruled by Ngola (King) Kiluanji kbiia Ndambi. The king had doubts, but still received them in his territory, this gave them the chance to study the territory, identify its resources and later come back with an army to destroy it. Luanda Island was a locality in Ndongo where cowrie shells with which the entire Kongo Empire traded was gotten. Massive raids were conducted by the Europeans, those who survived the raids were chained, made to walk long distances, many who couldn’t bear the sufferings committed suicide with their children, those who arrived the ports alive were practically stacked on boats and ship to lands where they were made to labor, enriching the Europeans by producing sugar, cotton, coffee under the most inhuman conditions. Luanda Island became an important port through which Africans were deported to these unknown lands. Queen Nzinga was born in 1581 amidst all the turmoil. She was the daughter of Ngola Kiluanji Mbandi and was trained and raised for battle as her father perceived the strength of leadership his daughter possessed on time. She started going to battles with her father as a teenager. She experienced several battles led by her father against the Europeans, the Mbundu people of Ndongo kingdom withdrew as they couldn’t stand the ferocious weapons of the Europeans. Prince Mbandi who was the only son of four children took over kingdom affairs after the king’s demise and immediately took an offensive stance against the enemy army. Nzinga found his decision hasty, unknown to her, her brother harbored envy against her as he was scared of her influence. Nzinga left the kingdom in despair after Mbandi had her son killed for fear that he would take over the kingdom someday. Mbandi carried out several attacks against the Portuguese, who ended up defeating him methodically. He had 15,000 of his men killed, his wife was killed and subsequently, in 1618, the Portuguese had 94 of his officers executed. Following the losses, the council of elders persuaded Mbandi to save what they had left and negotiate a peace treaty. Constrained by the situation, he apologized to Nzinga for the pain he had caused her and assigned her with meeting the Portuguese because she was respected for her strength of character. In 1622, at 41 years old, she set out on the journey that would forever change history. Sylvia Serbin, a fine African- Carribean historian gave an account of the Angolan princess’ voyage in her book “Reines de l’Afrique et héroïnes de la diaspora noire” She said: “Carried on a bed by a brigade of swift servants, Zingha, accompanied by an escort of courtiers and an armed detachment, made the trip for a few days. Luanda! What transformations on this territory, snatched from the kingdom of her Fathers! With its European city looks and its churches, the first of which was built in 1505, it was dotted with imposing wooden mansions, housing the new colonial elites, and slave hangars facing the Atlantic. A twenty-one run of cannon shots thundered, saluting the arrival of the delegation at the city doorstep. The convoy then appeared and triggered enthusiasm clamor among the African crowd, restrained by two columns of Portuguese militia. Zingha was dressed in a thin velvet raffia loin cloth. A bright colored stole, placed as a scarf on her shoulders, barely covered her chest. Her massive gold crown, set with precious stones, and surmounted by a tuft of multi-colored feathers, formed a small helmet on her head. Everything about her reflected the pride of a great lineage woman” Princess Nzinga met with the Portuguese government, and wanting to demean her, the governor, sitting on a chair, had a rug placed in front of him for the Princess to seat, on the floor. She would not be intimidated, she cast an authoritative glance at one of her maids, who immediately went on all fours, for the princess to seat to the amazement of the Portuguese. Nzinga made a spirited defense against the Portuguese, she was able to get them to retreat from Ambaca, and Ndongo was no longer obliged to pay taxes to the settlers. The Princess seized the opportunity to study the Portuguese, their system, even converted to Christianity and was baptized and renamed Ana. A few months later, the Portuguese government would no longer comply with the agreement, they attacked and this time King Mbadi was defeated. He fled but was assailed by Nzinga’s men, who forced him to commit suicide by self-poisoning, Nzinga avenged her son’s death. In 5859 of African era, that would be 1623 AD, Nzinga ascended the throne and became the Queen of Ndongo with the title“Ngola Mbandi Nzinga Bandi Kia Ngola” (the queen whose arrow always hit the target). She ascended the throne at 42 years old. Nzinga was a warrior to be reckoned with, she assaulted the Portuguese with guerilla methods, and with great charisma, she energized her troops, conquering Matamba, which she made the capital city. She was able to penetrate the Portuguese army, by calling the Africans who had been enrolled into the Portuguese army, slaves and convincing them to join her. Through her network, she got information, weapons as well as grew her art of war. She joined forces with other African kingdoms to fight for the liberation of her people, and in the process, her sister Kifunji was captured and beheaded by the Portuguese army. At age 66, to the dismay of the missionaries who thought she had been bridled when she converted to Christianity years before, with her army, she confronted 20,000 Portuguese soldiers at the battle of Senga. When she realized that Portuguese and Dutch settlers were struggling for the control of the slave trade, she formed a coalition with the Dutch, with the intention of attacking them later, and they fell for it. Through this coalition, she seized the port of Luanda, though it was later taken by the Portuguese from Brazil, she again defeated the Portuguese at the battle of Ilamba at age 67. At 73, she still walked the forests and savannahs, armed with her rifle. She convinced African soldiers in the Portuguese army to join her by giving them plots of land and strategically attacked the Portuguese in seasons when malaria spreads, having that the Portuguese were not yet accustomed to the seasons. By the time Nzinga turned 76, the Portuguese were weary of fighting. They finally accepted negotiations and recognized the independence of Matamba and the parts of Ndongo where Nzinga governed. Ngola Mbandi Nzinga Bandi Kia Ngola is today called the mother of the nation by the Angolan people because she lived a life consecrated to fighting for the liberation of her people from slavery. She died in 1663 at age 82, and Ndongo was only entirely conquered, 8 years after her demise. Angola continued to suffer enslavement thereafter until 1975 when the country attained independence. Of several legendary African royals who fought against African slavery, Ngola Mbandi Nzinga Bandi Kia Ngola is unique because of the lastingness of her fight and her ability to subdue the cataclysm that hunted Africa. The achievements of Queen Nzinga and other icons in Africa should be taught to every age grade of Africa. Children, youths and adults all have lessons to learn from the bravery of our ancestors. We must read, and learn this history, so we know where and when the rain started to beat us. We must learn and know this, so we are aware of those who seek to dominate us, even in this modern era of diplomatic aids and political trickery. Help Us Share This To Your Followers On Twitter. Thanks! Click To Tweet	<urn:uuid:96395b1e-47af-4ede-b476-0a83c5693c87>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://libertywritersafrica.com/the-african-queen-who-fought-the-european-colonizers-for-40-years-queen-nzinga/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00328.warc.gz	en	0.984745	1,996	3.671875	4	[ -0.4309840202331543, 0.7842305898666382, 0.07018027454614639, 0.41156965494155884, 0.04713480547070503, 0.009419089183211327, 0.23895135521888733, -0.0734473466873169, -0.043853916227817535, 0.23698407411575317, 0.2831619381904602, -0.4438669979572296, 0.009566635824739933, 0.1574809253215...	1	One theory which western liberal nations and organizations push about Africa is that we do not allow women to hold key positions and influence. There is a an audible stigma that portrays African society as one that subjugates and silences women. African near-and-far history has been able to prove the above theory wrong. No other race in the world has given free will and power to their women more than the Black race. We have had women rule empires and kingdoms. We have had women control the affairs of large families, organizations, and neo-nations. And they do this with much admiration and respect from their men. Queen Nzinga’s story and bravery, is one African story that should make every Black woman and man proud. Her ability to stand against the Europeans for so long is a testament to the tenacity of the spirit of the African woman. Queen Nzinga, a renowned African legend, is considered as the greatest figure of African resistance against the European slave trade, she is also the second greatest African heroine after Kandake Amanirenas of Sudan. She lived in the 17th century and for 40 years of her existence, was able to resist the European slave trade. The Portuguese, sent by the Vatican, arrived in Africa to begin the European slave trade in the 15th century. This led to the destruction of the illustrious Kongo Empire, however, its submissive kingdoms, which includes the Ndongo kingdom were allowed to gain independence. In 1560, the Portuguese and missionaries sailed towards the South, arrived the banks of River Kwanza and gained entry into Ndongo kingdom which was then ruled by Ngola (King) Kiluanji kbiia Ndambi. The king had doubts, but still received them in his territory, this gave them the chance to study the territory, identify its resources and later come back with an army to destroy it. Luanda Island was a locality in Ndongo where cowrie shells with which the entire Kongo Empire traded was gotten. Massive raids were conducted by the Europeans, those who survived the raids were chained, made to walk long distances, many who couldn’t bear the sufferings committed suicide with their children, those who arrived the ports alive were practically stacked on boats and ship to lands where they were made to labor, enriching the Europeans by producing sugar, cotton, coffee under the most inhuman conditions. Luanda Island became an important port through which Africans were deported to these unknown lands. Queen Nzinga was born in 1581 amidst all the turmoil. She was the daughter of Ngola Kiluanji Mbandi and was trained and raised for battle as her father perceived the strength of leadership his daughter possessed on time. She started going to battles with her father as a teenager. She experienced several battles led by her father against the Europeans, the Mbundu people of Ndongo kingdom withdrew as they couldn’t stand the ferocious weapons of the Europeans. Prince Mbandi who was the only son of four children took over kingdom affairs after the king’s demise and immediately took an offensive stance against the enemy army. Nzinga found his decision hasty, unknown to her, her brother harbored envy against her as he was scared of her influence. Nzinga left the kingdom in despair after Mbandi had her son killed for fear that he would take over the kingdom someday. Mbandi carried out several attacks against the Portuguese, who ended up defeating him methodically. He had 15,000 of his men killed, his wife was killed and subsequently, in 1618, the Portuguese had 94 of his officers executed. Following the losses, the council of elders persuaded Mbandi to save what they had left and negotiate a peace treaty. Constrained by the situation, he apologized to Nzinga for the pain he had caused her and assigned her with meeting the Portuguese because she was respected for her strength of character. In 1622, at 41 years old, she set out on the journey that would forever change history. Sylvia Serbin, a fine African- Carribean historian gave an account of the Angolan princess’ voyage in her book “Reines de l’Afrique et héroïnes de la diaspora noire” She said: “Carried on a bed by a brigade of swift servants, Zingha, accompanied by an escort of courtiers and an armed detachment, made the trip for a few days. Luanda! What transformations on this territory, snatched from the kingdom of her Fathers! With its European city looks and its churches, the first of which was built in 1505, it was dotted with imposing wooden mansions, housing the new colonial elites, and slave hangars facing the Atlantic. A twenty-one run of cannon shots thundered, saluting the arrival of the delegation at the city doorstep. The convoy then appeared and triggered enthusiasm clamor among the African crowd, restrained by two columns of Portuguese militia. Zingha was dressed in a thin velvet raffia loin cloth. A bright colored stole, placed as a scarf on her shoulders, barely covered her chest. Her massive gold crown, set with precious stones, and surmounted by a tuft of multi-colored feathers, formed a small helmet on her head. Everything about her reflected the pride of a great lineage woman” Princess Nzinga met with the Portuguese government, and wanting to demean her, the governor, sitting on a chair, had a rug placed in front of him for the Princess to seat, on the floor. She would not be intimidated, she cast an authoritative glance at one of her maids, who immediately went on all fours, for the princess to seat to the amazement of the Portuguese. Nzinga made a spirited defense against the Portuguese, she was able to get them to retreat from Ambaca, and Ndongo was no longer obliged to pay taxes to the settlers. The Princess seized the opportunity to study the Portuguese, their system, even converted to Christianity and was baptized and renamed Ana. A few months later, the Portuguese government would no longer comply with the agreement, they attacked and this time King Mbadi was defeated. He fled but was assailed by Nzinga’s men, who forced him to commit suicide by self-poisoning, Nzinga avenged her son’s death. In 5859 of African era, that would be 1623 AD, Nzinga ascended the throne and became the Queen of Ndongo with the title“Ngola Mbandi Nzinga Bandi Kia Ngola” (the queen whose arrow always hit the target). She ascended the throne at 42 years old. Nzinga was a warrior to be reckoned with, she assaulted the Portuguese with guerilla methods, and with great charisma, she energized her troops, conquering Matamba, which she made the capital city. She was able to penetrate the Portuguese army, by calling the Africans who had been enrolled into the Portuguese army, slaves and convincing them to join her. Through her network, she got information, weapons as well as grew her art of war. She joined forces with other African kingdoms to fight for the liberation of her people, and in the process, her sister Kifunji was captured and beheaded by the Portuguese army. At age 66, to the dismay of the missionaries who thought she had been bridled when she converted to Christianity years before, with her army, she confronted 20,000 Portuguese soldiers at the battle of Senga. When she realized that Portuguese and Dutch settlers were struggling for the control of the slave trade, she formed a coalition with the Dutch, with the intention of attacking them later, and they fell for it. Through this coalition, she seized the port of Luanda, though it was later taken by the Portuguese from Brazil, she again defeated the Portuguese at the battle of Ilamba at age 67. At 73, she still walked the forests and savannahs, armed with her rifle. She convinced African soldiers in the Portuguese army to join her by giving them plots of land and strategically attacked the Portuguese in seasons when malaria spreads, having that the Portuguese were not yet accustomed to the seasons. By the time Nzinga turned 76, the Portuguese were weary of fighting. They finally accepted negotiations and recognized the independence of Matamba and the parts of Ndongo where Nzinga governed. Ngola Mbandi Nzinga Bandi Kia Ngola is today called the mother of the nation by the Angolan people because she lived a life consecrated to fighting for the liberation of her people from slavery. She died in 1663 at age 82, and Ndongo was only entirely conquered, 8 years after her demise. Angola continued to suffer enslavement thereafter until 1975 when the country attained independence. Of several legendary African royals who fought against African slavery, Ngola Mbandi Nzinga Bandi Kia Ngola is unique because of the lastingness of her fight and her ability to subdue the cataclysm that hunted Africa. The achievements of Queen Nzinga and other icons in Africa should be taught to every age grade of Africa. Children, youths and adults all have lessons to learn from the bravery of our ancestors. We must read, and learn this history, so we know where and when the rain started to beat us. We must learn and know this, so we are aware of those who seek to dominate us, even in this modern era of diplomatic aids and political trickery. Help Us Share This To Your Followers On Twitter. Thanks! Click To Tweet	1,993	ENGLISH	1
Schoenberg came from a strict Jewish family who had moved to Austria from Hungary. They were quite poor and Schoenberg taught himself about music. When he was grown up he had to do a lot of teaching to try and earn enough money to live. In later life he went to live in the United States. It took a long time before he was recognized world-wide as a great composer. His two most famous pupils were Alban Berg (1885-1935) and Anton Webern (1883-1945). He taught them how to write twelve-tone music and they became famous composers. When Arnold Schoenberg was a young man he was living in the late 19th century. If you look at the way composers wrote music at this time you will find that their compositions became more and more chromatic. This means that more and more sharps and flats were used during the piece, and the music went from one key to another (modulated) very quickly. Richard Wagner wrote very chromatic music, especially in his opera Tristan and Isolde. In 1898 Schoenberg converted to Christianity in the Lutheran church. According to MacDonald, this was partly to connect with Western European cultural traditions, and partly as a means of self-defence "in a time of resurgent anti-Semitism". In 1933, after long thought, he returned to Judaism, because he realised that "his racial and religious heritage was inescapable", and to take up an unmistakable position on the side opposing Nazism. He would self-identify as a member of the Jewish religion later in life. Schoenberg’s early works are mostly Late Romantic. His piece Verklärte Nacht (which can be played by six string instruments or by a whole orchestra) has very beautiful harmonies which go quickly from one key to another. Gradually Schoenberg’s music changed. It became so chromatic that it was no longer in any key at all. Music like this (called “atonal”) is much harder to understand. His Five Orchestral Pieces were played by the conductor Sir Henry Wood at a Promenade Concert in 1912. The audience did not like it at first and took some time to get used to the sound. In 1923 Schoenberg developed the twelve-tone system for which he is famous. This is music which is based on a particular row of notes. Twelve-tone music is atonal because there is no feeling of being in any key, because of the equal use of every pitch.	<urn:uuid:9bb34efb-2dd2-4965-93da-5df03c62d8a0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schonberg	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00111.warc.gz	en	0.988834	527	4	4	[ -0.023116687312722206, 0.270357221364975, -0.3401588201522827, -0.22897376120090485, -0.24643222987651825, 0.4199434220790863, -0.19920410215854645, -0.1498471051454544, 0.086824931204319, -0.2527185082435608, 0.15936051309108734, 0.1880703568458557, 0.20823773741722107, 0.1452496200799942...	7	Schoenberg came from a strict Jewish family who had moved to Austria from Hungary. They were quite poor and Schoenberg taught himself about music. When he was grown up he had to do a lot of teaching to try and earn enough money to live. In later life he went to live in the United States. It took a long time before he was recognized world-wide as a great composer. His two most famous pupils were Alban Berg (1885-1935) and Anton Webern (1883-1945). He taught them how to write twelve-tone music and they became famous composers. When Arnold Schoenberg was a young man he was living in the late 19th century. If you look at the way composers wrote music at this time you will find that their compositions became more and more chromatic. This means that more and more sharps and flats were used during the piece, and the music went from one key to another (modulated) very quickly. Richard Wagner wrote very chromatic music, especially in his opera Tristan and Isolde. In 1898 Schoenberg converted to Christianity in the Lutheran church. According to MacDonald, this was partly to connect with Western European cultural traditions, and partly as a means of self-defence "in a time of resurgent anti-Semitism". In 1933, after long thought, he returned to Judaism, because he realised that "his racial and religious heritage was inescapable", and to take up an unmistakable position on the side opposing Nazism. He would self-identify as a member of the Jewish religion later in life. Schoenberg’s early works are mostly Late Romantic. His piece Verklärte Nacht (which can be played by six string instruments or by a whole orchestra) has very beautiful harmonies which go quickly from one key to another. Gradually Schoenberg’s music changed. It became so chromatic that it was no longer in any key at all. Music like this (called “atonal”) is much harder to understand. His Five Orchestral Pieces were played by the conductor Sir Henry Wood at a Promenade Concert in 1912. The audience did not like it at first and took some time to get used to the sound. In 1923 Schoenberg developed the twelve-tone system for which he is famous. This is music which is based on a particular row of notes. Twelve-tone music is atonal because there is no feeling of being in any key, because of the equal use of every pitch.	524	ENGLISH	1
Edgar Allan Poe- the Similarities Between Life and Poetry Poetry is the manner one would express very complex feelings or emotions. Many poets who connect with their audiences are able to describe, in writing, the emotion of a certain situation. These poems become autobiographical in the sense that the poem is drawn from the poets own situation and observations. Often, in classical poetry, a poet is able to capture the emotion of the situation so that the reader can make a connection. One of the greatest exponents of this was Edgar Allan Poe. He was able to captivate an audience and almost hypnotise them with his use of language and rhythm. However, his tragic life affected the themes behind his poems, which have been described as early gothic literature. His ‘weapon of choice,’ was the theme of lost love and loneliness. These themes are perhaps best reflected in his two most famous poems ‘The Raven’ and ‘Annabel Lee. ’ Tragedy is the theme which governed most of Edgar Allan Poe’s life. Born in 1809, he was abandoned by his father before his mother died of tuberculosis when he was two years old. He was then raised, but never adopted, by Frances and John Allan. Poe had a normal, albeit strict, childhood up until the age of 17. Poe had become engaged to a woman, Elmira Royster, but the two lost touch when he attended university. She became engaged to another man as Poe was forced to drop out of university due to the fact that he had incurred a sizeable gambling debt. The loss of his fiance hurt Poe deeply. One of Poe’s early biographers, Arthur Hobson Quinn, described Poe’s relationships with women: ‘Poe seems to prize the spiritual love over the earthly, and in this fashion creates a stronger, and often more morbid bond between his characters, with the spiritual and sensual winning out over the sexual. Poe joined the military but was discharged to attend the funeral of his foster mother, Frances Allan in 1829. Poe was released from military duty in 1831 and went to live in Baltimore with his aunt and her children. It was there that Poe first met his wife and cousin, Virginia Clemm and where he received the news that his brother had died after suffering from tuberculosis. Poe struggled to hold down a job but continued to survive off of publishing numerous essays, poems and short stories. In 1835, Poe married his then 13 year old cousin Virginia. The two moved around America for several years as Poe struggled to find work until in 1842, Virginia was diagnosed with tuberculosis. Poe’s worked underwent a great change at this stage as he continued to be fascinated with the finality of death and the feelings of being left behind. He published his most famous work, ‘The Raven’, in 1845 and became instantly famous. However, the slow death of his wife consumed most of his time. Poe loved his wife deeply and in an article he published during her illness, he said: “My darling wife you are my greatest and only stimulus now to battle with this uncongenial, unsatisfactory and ungrateful life. Virginia Clemm-Poe died of tuberculosis in 1847. She was said to be Poe’s greatest inspiration. Her death drove Poe into a deep depression. He attempted suicide in 1848, on the first anniversary of his wife’s death. Poe published very little between this period and his mysterious death in 1849; however, his famous ballad, Annabel Lee (published after his death), corresponds directly with comments made about him by his friend, Charles Burr; therefore proving that his wife was the sole inspiration behind his later works. Poe’s most famous and critically acclaimed poem, The Raven, documents the narrator’s slow descent into madness following the death of his lost love, Lenore. It was published in 1845, which corresponds with Virginia’s illness. Poe himself described the poems’ main theme in an essay he wrote shortly after the poem was published. He describes the Raven as ‘a poem that reveals the human penchant for self-torture. ’ Essentially, Poe’s life was centred around self-torture. He was a self-confessed alcoholic and a known user of substances such as absinthe and opium. It is possible that Poe wrote the Raven as a response to the emotions he was experiencing regarding his wife’s illness. The feelings of loneliness, madness and frustration experienced by the narrator could quite possibly have been those felt by Poe at the time. The narrators’ undying devotion to his lost love reflects that seen by Poe during his wife’s illness. Poe, faced with his wife’s mortality, would have been reflecting on the future and on when, if ever, he could forget her. It’s possible that Poe wrote the Raven so that his wife’s memory would never be forgotten and the fact that every aspect of the poem has been considered could reflect his desire for his wife’s memory to not be tarnished. However, this was a form of self-torture in itself, seeing as it would cause him to confront those same feelings every time he came across his poem, even after his wife’s death. Poe’s love for his wife could not be forgotten, as expressed in his poem, Annabel Lee. Annabel Lee was published after Poe’s death in 1949. The poem is a ballad but contains a very loose structure, and almost could be classified as a reflective text. The narrator of the poem is similar to that of the Raven, a male who has lost his love (Annabel). He describes their love for each other, which in turn made the angels in heaven jealous. They killed her but the narrator believes she still lives in his heart and in his mind. Every night, the narrator visits his Annabel Lee in her tomb by the sea, where they are together. The woman thought to represent Annabel Lee is most definitely Virginia Clemm as Poe’s friend Charles Chauncey Burr wrote, ‘Many times, after the death of his beloved wife, was he found at the dead hour of a winter night, sitting beside her tomb almost frozen in the snow’. This corresponds directly with the fact that the narrator of the poem spends his nights at his beloveds’ tomb by the sea. It is obvious that Poe could not forget or control the emotions that the death of his wife caused him to feel. He felt frustration that the ‘angels’ had taken his wife from him so soon (at the age of 24). His time spent with Virginia is something of which he could not or didn’t want to forget. Edgar Allan Poe has been able to entertain and captivate audiences from well beyond the grave. The haunting tone and themes confronted in his poems reflect the experiences of his life. Possibly the greatest inspiration for him was his wife and the love he felt for her. Ultimately, it was the fact that she was taken from him that inspired his greatest work. However, born out of his tragedy, is a hope in many others that they will be able to capture the same level of brilliance that is reflected in his works. Bibliography W. C. Bryant, Poe, Edgar Allan, viewed 12th May 2011, http://classiclit. about. com/od/poeedgarallan/Poe_Edgar_Allan. htm B. Gascoigne, Edgar Allan Poe, viewed 11th May 2011, http://www. kirjasto. sci. fi/eapoe. htm D. , Grantz, Women in Poe, viewed 18th May 2011, http://www. helpfulresearch. com/edgar. html A. , Hobson Quinn, 1941, Edgar Allan Poe: A Critical Biography, edn. 1, Appleton-Century Crofts, New York J. Hubbell, 1866, Charles Chauncey Burr: A Friend of Poe, Edn. 4, Old Guard Publishers, New York C. D. Merriman, Edgar Allan Poe, viewed 12th May 2011, http://www. online-literature. com/poe/ E. Poe, Edgar Allan Poe- Quotes on Inspiration, viewed 18th May 2011, http://thinkexist. com/quotes/edgar_allan_poe/ E. Poe, The Raven Comments, viewed 19th may 2011, http://www. heise. de/ix/raven/Literature/Lore/TheRaven. html Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore, Edgar Allan Poe, viewed 11th May 2011, http://www. eapoe. org/geninfo/poerelig. htm Poe Museum, Edgar Allan Poe, viewed 12th May 2011, http://www. poemuseum. org/index/life. php	<urn:uuid:3a53a111-cce4-4e14-92c6-9d1acb5eebec>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://newyorkessays.com/essay-edgar-allan-poe-the-similarities-between-life-and-poetry/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00487.warc.gz	en	0.989873	1,866	3.375	3	[ -0.08786436915397644, 0.14284822344779968, 0.034508608281612396, 0.5102542042732239, -0.16266372799873352, 0.04865444451570511, 0.4869997501373291, -0.3651684820652008, -0.10397444665431976, -0.6172343492507935, 0.2770501375198364, 0.1240292489528656, 0.2528321146965027, 0.0172339025884866...	2	Edgar Allan Poe- the Similarities Between Life and Poetry Poetry is the manner one would express very complex feelings or emotions. Many poets who connect with their audiences are able to describe, in writing, the emotion of a certain situation. These poems become autobiographical in the sense that the poem is drawn from the poets own situation and observations. Often, in classical poetry, a poet is able to capture the emotion of the situation so that the reader can make a connection. One of the greatest exponents of this was Edgar Allan Poe. He was able to captivate an audience and almost hypnotise them with his use of language and rhythm. However, his tragic life affected the themes behind his poems, which have been described as early gothic literature. His ‘weapon of choice,’ was the theme of lost love and loneliness. These themes are perhaps best reflected in his two most famous poems ‘The Raven’ and ‘Annabel Lee. ’ Tragedy is the theme which governed most of Edgar Allan Poe’s life. Born in 1809, he was abandoned by his father before his mother died of tuberculosis when he was two years old. He was then raised, but never adopted, by Frances and John Allan. Poe had a normal, albeit strict, childhood up until the age of 17. Poe had become engaged to a woman, Elmira Royster, but the two lost touch when he attended university. She became engaged to another man as Poe was forced to drop out of university due to the fact that he had incurred a sizeable gambling debt. The loss of his fiance hurt Poe deeply. One of Poe’s early biographers, Arthur Hobson Quinn, described Poe’s relationships with women: ‘Poe seems to prize the spiritual love over the earthly, and in this fashion creates a stronger, and often more morbid bond between his characters, with the spiritual and sensual winning out over the sexual. Poe joined the military but was discharged to attend the funeral of his foster mother, Frances Allan in 1829. Poe was released from military duty in 1831 and went to live in Baltimore with his aunt and her children. It was there that Poe first met his wife and cousin, Virginia Clemm and where he received the news that his brother had died after suffering from tuberculosis. Poe struggled to hold down a job but continued to survive off of publishing numerous essays, poems and short stories. In 1835, Poe married his then 13 year old cousin Virginia. The two moved around America for several years as Poe struggled to find work until in 1842, Virginia was diagnosed with tuberculosis. Poe’s worked underwent a great change at this stage as he continued to be fascinated with the finality of death and the feelings of being left behind. He published his most famous work, ‘The Raven’, in 1845 and became instantly famous. However, the slow death of his wife consumed most of his time. Poe loved his wife deeply and in an article he published during her illness, he said: “My darling wife you are my greatest and only stimulus now to battle with this uncongenial, unsatisfactory and ungrateful life. Virginia Clemm-Poe died of tuberculosis in 1847. She was said to be Poe’s greatest inspiration. Her death drove Poe into a deep depression. He attempted suicide in 1848, on the first anniversary of his wife’s death. Poe published very little between this period and his mysterious death in 1849; however, his famous ballad, Annabel Lee (published after his death), corresponds directly with comments made about him by his friend, Charles Burr; therefore proving that his wife was the sole inspiration behind his later works. Poe’s most famous and critically acclaimed poem, The Raven, documents the narrator’s slow descent into madness following the death of his lost love, Lenore. It was published in 1845, which corresponds with Virginia’s illness. Poe himself described the poems’ main theme in an essay he wrote shortly after the poem was published. He describes the Raven as ‘a poem that reveals the human penchant for self-torture. ’ Essentially, Poe’s life was centred around self-torture. He was a self-confessed alcoholic and a known user of substances such as absinthe and opium. It is possible that Poe wrote the Raven as a response to the emotions he was experiencing regarding his wife’s illness. The feelings of loneliness, madness and frustration experienced by the narrator could quite possibly have been those felt by Poe at the time. The narrators’ undying devotion to his lost love reflects that seen by Poe during his wife’s illness. Poe, faced with his wife’s mortality, would have been reflecting on the future and on when, if ever, he could forget her. It’s possible that Poe wrote the Raven so that his wife’s memory would never be forgotten and the fact that every aspect of the poem has been considered could reflect his desire for his wife’s memory to not be tarnished. However, this was a form of self-torture in itself, seeing as it would cause him to confront those same feelings every time he came across his poem, even after his wife’s death. Poe’s love for his wife could not be forgotten, as expressed in his poem, Annabel Lee. Annabel Lee was published after Poe’s death in 1949. The poem is a ballad but contains a very loose structure, and almost could be classified as a reflective text. The narrator of the poem is similar to that of the Raven, a male who has lost his love (Annabel). He describes their love for each other, which in turn made the angels in heaven jealous. They killed her but the narrator believes she still lives in his heart and in his mind. Every night, the narrator visits his Annabel Lee in her tomb by the sea, where they are together. The woman thought to represent Annabel Lee is most definitely Virginia Clemm as Poe’s friend Charles Chauncey Burr wrote, ‘Many times, after the death of his beloved wife, was he found at the dead hour of a winter night, sitting beside her tomb almost frozen in the snow’. This corresponds directly with the fact that the narrator of the poem spends his nights at his beloveds’ tomb by the sea. It is obvious that Poe could not forget or control the emotions that the death of his wife caused him to feel. He felt frustration that the ‘angels’ had taken his wife from him so soon (at the age of 24). His time spent with Virginia is something of which he could not or didn’t want to forget. Edgar Allan Poe has been able to entertain and captivate audiences from well beyond the grave. The haunting tone and themes confronted in his poems reflect the experiences of his life. Possibly the greatest inspiration for him was his wife and the love he felt for her. Ultimately, it was the fact that she was taken from him that inspired his greatest work. However, born out of his tragedy, is a hope in many others that they will be able to capture the same level of brilliance that is reflected in his works. Bibliography W. C. Bryant, Poe, Edgar Allan, viewed 12th May 2011, http://classiclit. about. com/od/poeedgarallan/Poe_Edgar_Allan. htm B. Gascoigne, Edgar Allan Poe, viewed 11th May 2011, http://www. kirjasto. sci. fi/eapoe. htm D. , Grantz, Women in Poe, viewed 18th May 2011, http://www. helpfulresearch. com/edgar. html A. , Hobson Quinn, 1941, Edgar Allan Poe: A Critical Biography, edn. 1, Appleton-Century Crofts, New York J. Hubbell, 1866, Charles Chauncey Burr: A Friend of Poe, Edn. 4, Old Guard Publishers, New York C. D. Merriman, Edgar Allan Poe, viewed 12th May 2011, http://www. online-literature. com/poe/ E. Poe, Edgar Allan Poe- Quotes on Inspiration, viewed 18th May 2011, http://thinkexist. com/quotes/edgar_allan_poe/ E. Poe, The Raven Comments, viewed 19th may 2011, http://www. heise. de/ix/raven/Literature/Lore/TheRaven. html Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore, Edgar Allan Poe, viewed 11th May 2011, http://www. eapoe. org/geninfo/poerelig. htm Poe Museum, Edgar Allan Poe, viewed 12th May 2011, http://www. poemuseum. org/index/life. php	1,861	ENGLISH	1
SULLA’S REFORMS AS DICTATOR: LUCIUS Cornelius Sulla (l. 138 – 78 BCE) enacted his constitutional reforms (81 BCE) as dictator to strengthen the Roman Senate’s power. Sulla was born in a very turbulent era of Rome’s history, which has often been described as the beginning of the fall of the Roman Republic. The political climate was marked by civil discord and rampant political violence where voting in the Assembly was sometimes settled by armed gangs. There were two primary opposing factions in Roman politics: the Optimates who emphasized the leadership and prominent role of the Senate, and the Populares who generally advocated for the rights of the people. During this era, senatorial power was curbed and significant progress was made for the rights of the common folk, particularly the magistracy of tribune of the plebs, which was specifically created to be a guardian of the people. Sulla was an Optimate and after his rise to power, he declared himself dictator and passed several reforms to the constitution to revitalize and restore senatorial power to what it once was. Although his reforms did not last very long, his legacy greatly influenced Roman politics in the final years of the Republic until it fell in 27 BCE.	<urn:uuid:fb08b92e-f905-4205-b4af-1b300cac480e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://history.blogberth.com/2020/01/08/sullas-reforms-as-dictator-lucius-cornelius/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00014.warc.gz	en	0.985822	263	4.375	4	[ -0.5319879055023193, 0.38164976239204407, 0.4433608949184418, -0.1600964367389679, -0.5860831141471863, 0.2724453806877136, -0.1019771546125412, 0.10292650759220123, -0.1512879729270935, 0.23989371955394745, 0.22936348617076874, -0.3000783920288086, 0.20482365787029266, 0.1635785698890686,...	1	SULLA’S REFORMS AS DICTATOR: LUCIUS Cornelius Sulla (l. 138 – 78 BCE) enacted his constitutional reforms (81 BCE) as dictator to strengthen the Roman Senate’s power. Sulla was born in a very turbulent era of Rome’s history, which has often been described as the beginning of the fall of the Roman Republic. The political climate was marked by civil discord and rampant political violence where voting in the Assembly was sometimes settled by armed gangs. There were two primary opposing factions in Roman politics: the Optimates who emphasized the leadership and prominent role of the Senate, and the Populares who generally advocated for the rights of the people. During this era, senatorial power was curbed and significant progress was made for the rights of the common folk, particularly the magistracy of tribune of the plebs, which was specifically created to be a guardian of the people. Sulla was an Optimate and after his rise to power, he declared himself dictator and passed several reforms to the constitution to revitalize and restore senatorial power to what it once was. Although his reforms did not last very long, his legacy greatly influenced Roman politics in the final years of the Republic until it fell in 27 BCE.	261	ENGLISH	1
Fate or destiny is the idea that the future is already planned even if people do not know what their fate is (what is going to happen to them). Humans in nearly all cultures have had ideas about their fate being “predetermined” (fixed in advance). People who live unhappy lives may believe that their misery is because of their fate and that they can do nothing about it. This is called being “fatalistic”. Other people may believe that they can control their fate by being brave and trying to “overcome” fate by improving themselves and their lives. In Greek mythology there were three Fates. They were three goddesses who determined when every person was going to be born, how they would live and when and how they would die. Human beings in many cultures had lots of ways in which they would try to “read” their fate (know what would happen to them). Sometimes they would try to read their fate in the stars (this is called astrology). In other cultures they might ask a person with powers of magic like a shaman. The Ancient Greeks often went to Delphi to ask the oracle. Fate Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.	<urn:uuid:c0bfa3be-84b6-434f-b7e1-f8a6e8bad49f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kids.kiddle.co/Destiny	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00325.warc.gz	en	0.992396	249	3.28125	3	[ -0.38803738355636597, 0.13489152491092682, -0.012208307161927223, -0.1784803420305252, -0.26090681552886963, -0.1426806002855301, 0.31245654821395874, 0.3166046142578125, 0.1373782753944397, 0.20442384481430054, -0.14467068016529083, 0.03145411238074303, -0.018477657809853554, 0.0189667958...	1	Fate or destiny is the idea that the future is already planned even if people do not know what their fate is (what is going to happen to them). Humans in nearly all cultures have had ideas about their fate being “predetermined” (fixed in advance). People who live unhappy lives may believe that their misery is because of their fate and that they can do nothing about it. This is called being “fatalistic”. Other people may believe that they can control their fate by being brave and trying to “overcome” fate by improving themselves and their lives. In Greek mythology there were three Fates. They were three goddesses who determined when every person was going to be born, how they would live and when and how they would die. Human beings in many cultures had lots of ways in which they would try to “read” their fate (know what would happen to them). Sometimes they would try to read their fate in the stars (this is called astrology). In other cultures they might ask a person with powers of magic like a shaman. The Ancient Greeks often went to Delphi to ask the oracle. Fate Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.	235	ENGLISH	1
By Zoeth Skinner Eldredge in 1912 Years before the discovery of gold on the American River, gold placers had been worked in California with varying degrees of success. But little attention was paid to this industry and it was not considered of much importance by either the Californians or the foreigners residing in their midst. The priests discouraged mining, the rancheros were indifferent to it, and neither class wished to see the country filled with a mining population. On March 2, 1844, the deputy for California to the Mexican Congress, Don Manuel Castañares, reported to his government the discovery of gold in the vicinity of Los Angeles the previous year. These mines had produced from about the middle of the year to December 1843, 2,000 ounces, most of which had been sent to the United States. He said the placers extended a distance of nearly thirty leagues (78 miles). William H. Thomes, writing from San Pedro where the ship Admittance was taking cargo on June 30, 1843, says: “Here we also received 10 iron flasks of gold dust, although where the latter came from no one knew, but it was reported that the merchants of the Pueblo Los Angeles traded for it with the Indians and the latter would not reveal the source whence it came. When Alfred Robinson went to the United States in 1843, he carried to the mint in Philadelphia a package of gold dust from Abel Stearns of Los Angeles, the assay of which showed it to be .906 fine. The placers from which this gold came were on the San Francisco rancho, near the mission of San Fernando. The rancho had formerly belonged to the mission, but at this time was in possession of the Del Valle family. The discovery was made in March 1842 and in the following May, Ignacio Del Valle was appointed encargo de justicias to preserve order in the mining district. William H. Davis says that from eighty to one hundred thousand dollars of gold was taken from these places in two years. Colonel Mason in his report of August 17, 1848, on the gold fields of California says: “The gold placer near the mission of San Fernando has long been known but has been but little wrought for want of water.” But the event that was to set the world ablaze and create an empire on the shores of the Pacific was the discovery by James W. Marshall of gold on the American River January 24, 1848. It may seem strange that in a community where the somewhat extensive placers of the San Fernando Valley received so little attention a discovery of gold placers in the Sacramento valley should have created such intense excitement. It may be that the reason for this was that the discovery on the American River was so quickly followed by reports of the great extent of the gold region and the astonishing richness of the placers. The gold deposits were on or near the surface, no capital was required to work them, and a laboring man with nothing but his pick, shovel, and pan could obtain from one to two or more ounces per day, with the possibility, always, of acquiring a fortune in a few weeks. In the foothills of the Sierras about 45 miles northeast of the Embarcadero of the Sacramento, on the south fork of the American River, Captain John Sutter was building a sawmill in the fall and winter of 1847 and employed James W. Marshall to superintend the work. In digging a tailrace for the mill, Marshall was in the habit of turning the water into the ditch at night to wash out the dirt loosened by the workmen during the day. On the morning of January 24, 1848, Marshall saw and picked up in the mill race a glittering piece of gold weighing about half an ounce. The men picked up other particles and, satisfied with the importance of the find, Marshall went to Sutter with it. Sutter was anxious to complete his mill and also a grist mill he was erecting on the American River, and he and Marshall agreed to keep the discovery quiet. The attempt was useless; the men soon quit work and went to digging gold. Sutter, who was a sub-Indian agent for the Sacramento Valley, obtained from the Indians of the Yalesumi tribe a lease of twelve square miles on the American fork and sent it to Governor Mason for confirmation. This Mason refused, saying that the United States did not recognize the right of Indians to sell or lease to private individuals land on which they resided. The news of the discovery spread like magic. Remarkable success attended the labors of the first explorers and in a few weeks, hundreds were engaged in the placers. By August 1st it was estimated that four thousand men were working in the gold district, of whom more than one-half were Indians, and that from 30,000 to 50,000 dollars worth of gold was daily obtained. Colonel Mason reported that no thefts or robberies had been committed in the gold region, and it was a matter of surprise to him that so peaceful and quiet state of things should continue to exist. The discovery changed the whole character of California. Its people, before engaged in agriculture and in cattle raising, had gone to the mines or were on their way there. Laborers left their workbenches and tradesmen their shops; sailors deserted their ships as fast as they arrived on the coast. Mason reported that 76 soldiers had deserted from the posts of Sonoma, San Francisco, and Monterey, and for a few days. he feared that garrisons would desert in a body. As a laborer, a soldier could earn in one day at the mines double a soldier’s pay and allowances for a month; while a carpenter or mechanic would not listen to an offer of less than $15 or $20 a day. “Could any combination of affairs try a man’s fidelity more than this?” writes the governor, “I really think some extraordinary mark of favor should be given to those soldiers who remain faithful to their flag throughout this tempting crisis.” In July 1848 Colonel Mason made a tour of the mining region. “Many private letters have gone to the United States,” he says, “giving accounts of the vast quantity of gold recently discovered, and it may be a matter of surprise why I have made no report on this subject at an earlier date. The reason is that I could not bring myself to believe the reports that I heard of the wealth of the gold district until I visited it myself. I have no hesitation now in saying that there is more gold in the country drained by the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers than will pay the cost of the present war with Mexico a hundred times over.” In November he writes: “Gold continues to be found in increased quantities and over an increased extent of country. I stated to you in my letter, No. 37, that there was more gold in the country drained by the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers than would pay all the cost of the war with Mexico one hundred times over; if I had said five hundred times over, I should have been nearer the mark. Any reports that may reach you of the vast quantities of gold in California can scarcely be too exaggerated for belief.” San Francisco was not inclined to accept the reports of gold discoveries. However, a few men slipped out of town to investigate for themselves, keeping their movements quiet as if fearing ridicule. Presently, several well-laden diggers arrived bringing bottles, tin cans, and buckskin bags filled with the precious metal. “Sam Brannan, holding in one hand a bottle of gold dust and swinging his hat with the other, passed along the street shouting: “Gold! Gold! Gold from the American River.” The excitement was prodigious and in a few days, the exodus had begun. By boat, by mule and horse, or on foot they went, all eager to reach the mines, fearful that the gold would be gone before they could get there and receive their share. Business houses closed their doors. There was no service in the little church on the plaza and a padlock was on the door of the alcalde’s office. The ships in the harbor were deserted alike by masters and sailors. Soldiers deserted their posts and fled, taking their arms, horses, blankets, etc., with them; others were sent after them to force them back to duty and all, pursuers and pursued, went to the mines together. General Sherman, then lieutenant of 3d artillery, tells how he organized a force of seven officers to pursue and bring back 28 men of the 2d Infantry who had deserted in a body taking their arms and accouterments. They captured and brought in 27 of them. On July 25, 1848, Governor Mason issued a proclamation which recited the fact that many citizens had gone to the gold mines without making proper provision for the families they had left behind; that many soldiers, tempted by the flattering prospects of sudden wealth had deserted their colors to go to the same region, regardless of their oaths and obligations to the government, thus endangering the safety of the garrison; and he declared that unless families were guarded and provided for by their natural protectors, and unless citizens lent their aid to prevent desertions, the military force in California would concentrate in the gold region, take military possession of the mining district, and exclude therefrom all unlicensed persons. All citizens employing or harboring deserters would be arrested, tried by military commissions, and punished according to the articles of war. Twelve days after issuing the foregoing proclamation the governor received notice of the ratification of the treaty of peace between the United States and Mexico and he at once ordered the New York volunteers — Stevenson’s regiment — mustered out, their term of service ending with the war. The Mormon Battalion had been previously mustered out on expiration of their term of service. This left the commander but two companies of regular troops — F company, 3d artillery, numbering 62 officers and men, and C company, 1st dragoons comprised of 83 men, a total in California of 145 soldiers, with the ranks being depleted daily by desertions, and not a warship on the coast of the province. The governor, without the machinery of civil government, with no civil officers, save the few alcades he had appointed, and unsustained by adequate military force, was compelled to exercise control and maintain order in a country extending over 600 miles in length by 200 in width, over a community composed of about equal numbers of Californians and foreigners, the latter largely made up of runaway sailors and men accustomed to a lawless life, jealous of each other and of the Californians, all wrought up to an intensity of excitement by the gold discoveries, and now increased by a thousand soldiers discharged without pay. It was a case requiring skill, judgment, and determination. All the complex responsibilities of a civil administration thrust upon a military commander, without council or legislative support, were to be met and the honor of the United States government maintained. The trial of criminals, the establishment of port duties, the registration of vessels, the making of custom-house regulations, the examination of ship’s papers, the collection of duties, the appointment of collectors, alcades, judges, etc., the prevention of smuggling, represent a few of the responsibilities of the governor. On August 14, 1848, Major Hardie wrote the governor from San Francisco that the deficiency of force to support the civil organization at that place was likely to be productive of the most serious consequences. That the lower classes of the community were of the most lawless kind, and when their ranks were swelled by disbanded volunteers, freed from the restraints of discipline, there would be no security for life or property. Captain Folsom, assistant quartermaster, wrote the same day that acts of disgraceful violence were of almost daily occurrence on board the shipping in the harbor and the officials had no power to preserve order; that his “office is left with a large amount of money and gold dust in it, and the volunteers are discharged without pay.” “We collect port charges, etc.,” he writes, “from both foreign and American vessels, and in return, we are under the most imperative obligation to protect trade.” It is not to be wondered at that Mason, as colonel of 1st dragoons, applied to the War Department November 24, 1848, to be ordered home, having been absent from the United States for two years. In addition to the outrages committed by lawless men, the disbanding of the Mormon Battalion and the Stevenson regiment, together with the absence at the mines of a large portion of the citizens, left the country defenseless against inroads of hostile Indians. In the attempt to stay the desertion of his men Colonel Mason granted furloughs permitting them to go to the goldfields for periods of two or three months. These soldiers met with varying degrees of success. One of them, private John K. Haggerty, of F Company, 3d artillery, came back from the mines with 60 pounds of gold ($15,000). Throughout the Americas and Europe, the most astonishing reports were received from the goldfields of California. General Smith writing from Panama January 7, 1849, says that none of the accounts received were exaggerated; that there had been brought to Valparaiso and Lima before the end of 1848, gold valued at $1,800,000; that the British consul at Panama had forwarded 15,000 ounces. ($240,000) across the isthmus, and that the commander of the Pandora, Royal Navy, informed him that the truth was beyond the accounts he had heard. General Smith was also informed that hundreds of people from the west coast of South America were embarking for the goldfields. In a subsequent letter, he says that he has learned from many sources that there was a great emigration of people of all nations to California and that many are going off with large quantities of gold. He says that on his arrival there he shall consider everyone, not a citizen of the United States, who enters on public land and digs for gold, as a trespasser and shall so treat him. On April 12, 1848, the Pacific Mail was incorporated with a capital of $500,000, and contracts were entered into for the building of three steamers; the California, the Oregon, and the Panama. The California was completed first and sailed from New York on October 6, 1848, under command of Cleveland Forbes. Meanwhile, the reports from California of the extent of the goldfields, and the marvelous quantities of the metal obtained by men unskilled in mining and without capital were received in the eastern states and in Europe. In November 1848 came Lieutenant Loeser of the 3d artillery, with dispatches from the military governor of California, confirming the most extravagant reports from the goldfields, and bringing tangible evidence in the shape of a box filled with gold dust. The gold was placed on exhibition at the war office and the president embodied Mason’s report in his message to Congress on December 5th. The entire community went wild with excitement. Mason’s report with the president’s endorsement was published in the principal newspapers throughout the world. The “gold fever” was on and from all parts of the world companies were fitting out for California. From Sonora in Mexico, thousands of men came overland, while from the coasts of Chile and Peru as many more came by sea. Thousands started from the Atlantic ports of the United States for Panama, for Vera Cruz, and for Nicaragua. The steamer Falcon from New Orleans landed at Chagres the first adventurers for California, several hundred in number, all determined to board the steamer California at Panama, if possible. The route across the isthmus was a fearful one; by canoe up the Chagres River to Cruces, the head of navigation, then by mule, if one was to be had, or on foot to Panama. There was an insufficient number of boats to carry the adventurers up the river — a journey of several days — and consequently, people had to wait at Chagres. From Cruces to Panama the baggage had to be carried on the backs of men. The excessive rains, the trouble, vexation, and exposure caused a vast amount of sickness and few escaped the “Chagres fever.” To augment their troubles, cholera made its appearance followed by a number of deaths. This caused a stampede when all baggage and property of every description was abandoned and left on the route while the panic-stricken emigrants fled to Panama. Their belongings were afterward brought in by natives who were satisfied with reasonable compensation for their faithful services. The Falcon brought to Chagres Major-general Persifer F. Smith appointed to command the Third (Pacific) Division. Captain Elliott and Major Fitzgerald of his staff were taken with cholera, and Elliott died and was buried in the churchyard at Cruces. Arriving at Panama there was a long wait for the steamer, while the numbers of emigrants increased daily and the inhabitants of the city became alarmed at the prospect of pestilence and famine. Provisions rose to famine prices and there was much distress and suffering among the emigrants. At length, the long looked for steamer was sighted and anchored in the harbor on January 17th. All was excitement and many hurried off to the ship thinking to secure passage, but they were not permitted to board and were obliged to return. The ship had accommodation for seventy-five, cabin and steerage, and fifteen hundred clamored for passage. She had stopped at Callao and had taken on fifty passengers for San Francisco, although it was understood that none were to be accepted until Panama was reached. It was decided that the New York passengers holding through tickets should be first provided for; afterward those from South America, and finally as many as possible from among the first applicants for passage at the office in Panama. On February 1st, the California sailed for San Francisco with 350 passengers. The ship was so crowded it was difficult to move about, either on deck or in the cabin. On February 28, the California steamed past the rugged cliffs of the Golden Gate into the warm sunshine of a California spring, past the green slopes of Marin and the purple heights of Tamalpais, past the islands of the bay and Alta Loma, and cast anchor before a most disreputable collection of adobe houses, wooden shacks, and tents — the outpost of this new Colchis — with its background of windswept dunes, bleak and desolate. The weary Argonauts were joyfully welcomed. The ships in the harbor donned their gayest bunting; the guns of the Pacific squadron boomed while the yards of the warships were manned with blue jackets. The rains of winter had driven the miners to cover and the town was full. Gold dust was plenty and the gambling houses ran day and night. The people were rough and uncouth but they gave the newcomers a hearty welcome and celebrated with ardor the establishment of steam communication with the world. There was nothing lofty in the motive that brought this band of adventurers to these shores and nothing particularly remarkable about the men who composed it. They were strong, courageous, undaunted. They came to make a fortune and return; they remained to create an empire. It was the part the Argonauts played in the founding and building a great commonwealth on the Pacific coast that gives significance to their coming. When the California sailed away from Panama, she left behind a multitude of emigrants, all disappointed, some filled with rage, some with despair. A few sailing vessels were chartered to carry the adventurers to California and it is said that a few tried in log canoes to follow the coast only to perish or be driven back after futile struggles with winds and currents. The Oregon, second steamer of the Pacific Mail, arrived at Panama about the middle of March. The crowd had doubled. The Oregon took on about 500 and reached San Francisco on April 1st. Profiting by the experience of the California, the captain took the precaution to anchor his ship under the guns of a man-of-war and placed the most rebellious of his crew under arrest. With barely enough coal to carry him to San Blas, he sailed April 12th, carrying back the first mail, treasure, and passengers. On May 1st, the California, having obtained a crew sailed for Panama. The Panama, the third steamer of the Pacific Mail, arrived at San Francisco on June 4th, 16 days from Panama. The Oregon brought several other important men, some of whom would leave their mark on the Golden State. Ships now began to arrive from all parts of the world, crowded with treasure seekers, and by the middle of November upwards of six hundred vessels had entered the harbor and the larger part of these were left swinging at their anchors while their crews rushed to the gold mines. Colonel Mason advises the adjutant general of the arrival of a ship at Monterey loaded with ordnance stores and says that it will cost more to unload the ship than the total freight from New York to Monterey. The sufferings of the emigrants who came by sea, great as they were, were as nothing compared with those who came by land. Not since the crusades of the Middle Ages, has there been anything approaching the overland emigration in magnitude, peril, and endurance. It is estimated that during the year 1849, 42,000 emigrants came overland to California, of whom 9,000 were from Mexico. Eight thousand Americans came by the Santa Fé Route and 25,000 by the South pass and the Humboldt River. Bayard Taylor wrote: “The emigrants we took on board at San Diego were objects of general interest. The stories of adventures, by the way, sounded more marvelous than anything I had heard or read since my boyish acquaintance with Robinson Crusoe, Captain Cook, and John Ledyard. The emigrants by the Gila route gave a terrible account of the crossing of the great desert lying west of the Colorado River. They describe this region as scorching and sterile — a country of burning salt plains and shifting hills of sand, whose only signs of human visitation are the bones of animals and men scattered along the trails that cross it. The corpses of several emigrants, out of companies who passed before them, lay half-buried in sand, and the hot air was made stifling by the effluvia that rose from the dry carcasses of hundreds of mules. There, if a man faltered, he was gone; no one could stop to lend him a hand without a likelihood of sharing his fate.” The rendezvous for overland emigrants was usually Independence, Missouri for both the Oregon and Santa Fe Trails. Throughout the eastern states, the winter of 1848-49 was one of preparation. Emigration parties were formed in almost every town, each member contributing a fixed amount for the outfit. These were as elaborate as the taste of the members suggested or their means permitted. Provisions for the journey and for one or two years in California with every known implement for digging and washing gold, arms, ammunition, large supplies of clothing, blankets, etc., and in some cases, goods for barter or sale, characterized the equipment of the emigration of 1849. Vehicles of every conceivable kind and quality were seen, from the ponderous “prairie schooner” drawn by three yokes of oxen to the light spring wagon; riding horses and pack mules; together with relays of animals for heavy hauls. Arriving at the rendezvous the small parties were joined in a large party together with such individuals and families as came in singly, a captain was selected and the caravan set out on its two thousand mile journey. The northern route was by the so-called Oregon Trail, up the north fork of the Platte to the Sweetwater, up the Sweetwater, through the South pass, to the Green River, down the Bear to Soda Springs, to Fort Hall on the Snake River, to the Humboldt, down the Humboldt to the sink, across the desert to the Truckee River, over the Sierra Nevada to the headwaters of the Bear River, then down the river to the Sacramento and to Sutter’s Fort. From the sink of the Humboldt, three routes offered themselves: northerly to the Pitt River pass; west, across the desert to the Truckee, and southerly to Carson Valley, where grass and water were, and then over the Sierra to the south fork of the American River. It is estimated that by the end of April 1849, twenty thousand emigrants were in camp on the Missouri River waiting for the grass on the plains to be high enough to feed. Many companies had started earlier and by the middle of May, the trail from the Missouri River to Fort Laramie presented a continuous line of wagons and pack trains. Through the valley of the Platte, cholera broke out, claiming many victims and spreading terror through the ranks of the emigrants. This began to disappear as they approached the Rocky mountains. At last, after some days of travel through a rugged and broken country where high bluffs force them from the river to make long detours, Fort Laramie is reached and the first stage of the journey is completed. For the next 300 miles the country is a desert, with little grass and less water, through the forbidding Black Hills, up the Sweetwater River, across the continental divide by the South Pass, at an elevation of 7,085 feet; then through a somewhat better country, the Green River Valley, to Bear River, which here flows northward, making a horseshoe around the mountains. Down the Bear River, they traveled for a distance of about 90 miles to Soda Springs. Here, the Bear turns southward and the emigrants proceed westerly to the Portneuf River down which they travel to Fort Hall, Idaho on the Snake River. The route is now down the Snake to Raft River, then over the hills to Goose Creek and up Goose Creek to the headwaters of the Mary, or Humboldt, as the river now began to be called. This was the regular route. There were a number of short cuts which saved the travelers from one to two hundred miles of distance, but cost them weeks of extra time to get through; short cuts which were all right for pack-trains, but all wrong for wagons. On reaching the Humboldt the traveler has two-thirds of the whole distance behind him and is on the last stage of his journey. And what a journey it has been, and how changed he is from the one who set out so blithely from Independence three months ago. How bright the anticipations then! how cozy the snug family retreat within the great canvas-covered “prairie schooner!” how jolly the conversation and the stories around the campfire! the song and music after the day’s toil was over.	<urn:uuid:091ebdda-6493-4d98-95f1-1375e806c410>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.legendsofamerica.com/ca-argonauts/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00482.warc.gz	en	0.980581	5,633	3.703125	4	[ 0.2188306450843811, 0.02728184126317501, 0.2643679976463318, 0.43007901310920715, -0.038982369005680084, -0.3966347277164459, 0.009396810084581375, 0.27615320682525635, -0.3231600522994995, 0.10943782329559326, 0.5728710293769836, -0.014998039230704308, -0.10246501117944717, 0.313687294721...	4	By Zoeth Skinner Eldredge in 1912 Years before the discovery of gold on the American River, gold placers had been worked in California with varying degrees of success. But little attention was paid to this industry and it was not considered of much importance by either the Californians or the foreigners residing in their midst. The priests discouraged mining, the rancheros were indifferent to it, and neither class wished to see the country filled with a mining population. On March 2, 1844, the deputy for California to the Mexican Congress, Don Manuel Castañares, reported to his government the discovery of gold in the vicinity of Los Angeles the previous year. These mines had produced from about the middle of the year to December 1843, 2,000 ounces, most of which had been sent to the United States. He said the placers extended a distance of nearly thirty leagues (78 miles). William H. Thomes, writing from San Pedro where the ship Admittance was taking cargo on June 30, 1843, says: “Here we also received 10 iron flasks of gold dust, although where the latter came from no one knew, but it was reported that the merchants of the Pueblo Los Angeles traded for it with the Indians and the latter would not reveal the source whence it came. When Alfred Robinson went to the United States in 1843, he carried to the mint in Philadelphia a package of gold dust from Abel Stearns of Los Angeles, the assay of which showed it to be .906 fine. The placers from which this gold came were on the San Francisco rancho, near the mission of San Fernando. The rancho had formerly belonged to the mission, but at this time was in possession of the Del Valle family. The discovery was made in March 1842 and in the following May, Ignacio Del Valle was appointed encargo de justicias to preserve order in the mining district. William H. Davis says that from eighty to one hundred thousand dollars of gold was taken from these places in two years. Colonel Mason in his report of August 17, 1848, on the gold fields of California says: “The gold placer near the mission of San Fernando has long been known but has been but little wrought for want of water.” But the event that was to set the world ablaze and create an empire on the shores of the Pacific was the discovery by James W. Marshall of gold on the American River January 24, 1848. It may seem strange that in a community where the somewhat extensive placers of the San Fernando Valley received so little attention a discovery of gold placers in the Sacramento valley should have created such intense excitement. It may be that the reason for this was that the discovery on the American River was so quickly followed by reports of the great extent of the gold region and the astonishing richness of the placers. The gold deposits were on or near the surface, no capital was required to work them, and a laboring man with nothing but his pick, shovel, and pan could obtain from one to two or more ounces per day, with the possibility, always, of acquiring a fortune in a few weeks. In the foothills of the Sierras about 45 miles northeast of the Embarcadero of the Sacramento, on the south fork of the American River, Captain John Sutter was building a sawmill in the fall and winter of 1847 and employed James W. Marshall to superintend the work. In digging a tailrace for the mill, Marshall was in the habit of turning the water into the ditch at night to wash out the dirt loosened by the workmen during the day. On the morning of January 24, 1848, Marshall saw and picked up in the mill race a glittering piece of gold weighing about half an ounce. The men picked up other particles and, satisfied with the importance of the find, Marshall went to Sutter with it. Sutter was anxious to complete his mill and also a grist mill he was erecting on the American River, and he and Marshall agreed to keep the discovery quiet. The attempt was useless; the men soon quit work and went to digging gold. Sutter, who was a sub-Indian agent for the Sacramento Valley, obtained from the Indians of the Yalesumi tribe a lease of twelve square miles on the American fork and sent it to Governor Mason for confirmation. This Mason refused, saying that the United States did not recognize the right of Indians to sell or lease to private individuals land on which they resided. The news of the discovery spread like magic. Remarkable success attended the labors of the first explorers and in a few weeks, hundreds were engaged in the placers. By August 1st it was estimated that four thousand men were working in the gold district, of whom more than one-half were Indians, and that from 30,000 to 50,000 dollars worth of gold was daily obtained. Colonel Mason reported that no thefts or robberies had been committed in the gold region, and it was a matter of surprise to him that so peaceful and quiet state of things should continue to exist. The discovery changed the whole character of California. Its people, before engaged in agriculture and in cattle raising, had gone to the mines or were on their way there. Laborers left their workbenches and tradesmen their shops; sailors deserted their ships as fast as they arrived on the coast. Mason reported that 76 soldiers had deserted from the posts of Sonoma, San Francisco, and Monterey, and for a few days. he feared that garrisons would desert in a body. As a laborer, a soldier could earn in one day at the mines double a soldier’s pay and allowances for a month; while a carpenter or mechanic would not listen to an offer of less than $15 or $20 a day. “Could any combination of affairs try a man’s fidelity more than this?” writes the governor, “I really think some extraordinary mark of favor should be given to those soldiers who remain faithful to their flag throughout this tempting crisis.” In July 1848 Colonel Mason made a tour of the mining region. “Many private letters have gone to the United States,” he says, “giving accounts of the vast quantity of gold recently discovered, and it may be a matter of surprise why I have made no report on this subject at an earlier date. The reason is that I could not bring myself to believe the reports that I heard of the wealth of the gold district until I visited it myself. I have no hesitation now in saying that there is more gold in the country drained by the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers than will pay the cost of the present war with Mexico a hundred times over.” In November he writes: “Gold continues to be found in increased quantities and over an increased extent of country. I stated to you in my letter, No. 37, that there was more gold in the country drained by the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers than would pay all the cost of the war with Mexico one hundred times over; if I had said five hundred times over, I should have been nearer the mark. Any reports that may reach you of the vast quantities of gold in California can scarcely be too exaggerated for belief.” San Francisco was not inclined to accept the reports of gold discoveries. However, a few men slipped out of town to investigate for themselves, keeping their movements quiet as if fearing ridicule. Presently, several well-laden diggers arrived bringing bottles, tin cans, and buckskin bags filled with the precious metal. “Sam Brannan, holding in one hand a bottle of gold dust and swinging his hat with the other, passed along the street shouting: “Gold! Gold! Gold from the American River.” The excitement was prodigious and in a few days, the exodus had begun. By boat, by mule and horse, or on foot they went, all eager to reach the mines, fearful that the gold would be gone before they could get there and receive their share. Business houses closed their doors. There was no service in the little church on the plaza and a padlock was on the door of the alcalde’s office. The ships in the harbor were deserted alike by masters and sailors. Soldiers deserted their posts and fled, taking their arms, horses, blankets, etc., with them; others were sent after them to force them back to duty and all, pursuers and pursued, went to the mines together. General Sherman, then lieutenant of 3d artillery, tells how he organized a force of seven officers to pursue and bring back 28 men of the 2d Infantry who had deserted in a body taking their arms and accouterments. They captured and brought in 27 of them. On July 25, 1848, Governor Mason issued a proclamation which recited the fact that many citizens had gone to the gold mines without making proper provision for the families they had left behind; that many soldiers, tempted by the flattering prospects of sudden wealth had deserted their colors to go to the same region, regardless of their oaths and obligations to the government, thus endangering the safety of the garrison; and he declared that unless families were guarded and provided for by their natural protectors, and unless citizens lent their aid to prevent desertions, the military force in California would concentrate in the gold region, take military possession of the mining district, and exclude therefrom all unlicensed persons. All citizens employing or harboring deserters would be arrested, tried by military commissions, and punished according to the articles of war. Twelve days after issuing the foregoing proclamation the governor received notice of the ratification of the treaty of peace between the United States and Mexico and he at once ordered the New York volunteers — Stevenson’s regiment — mustered out, their term of service ending with the war. The Mormon Battalion had been previously mustered out on expiration of their term of service. This left the commander but two companies of regular troops — F company, 3d artillery, numbering 62 officers and men, and C company, 1st dragoons comprised of 83 men, a total in California of 145 soldiers, with the ranks being depleted daily by desertions, and not a warship on the coast of the province. The governor, without the machinery of civil government, with no civil officers, save the few alcades he had appointed, and unsustained by adequate military force, was compelled to exercise control and maintain order in a country extending over 600 miles in length by 200 in width, over a community composed of about equal numbers of Californians and foreigners, the latter largely made up of runaway sailors and men accustomed to a lawless life, jealous of each other and of the Californians, all wrought up to an intensity of excitement by the gold discoveries, and now increased by a thousand soldiers discharged without pay. It was a case requiring skill, judgment, and determination. All the complex responsibilities of a civil administration thrust upon a military commander, without council or legislative support, were to be met and the honor of the United States government maintained. The trial of criminals, the establishment of port duties, the registration of vessels, the making of custom-house regulations, the examination of ship’s papers, the collection of duties, the appointment of collectors, alcades, judges, etc., the prevention of smuggling, represent a few of the responsibilities of the governor. On August 14, 1848, Major Hardie wrote the governor from San Francisco that the deficiency of force to support the civil organization at that place was likely to be productive of the most serious consequences. That the lower classes of the community were of the most lawless kind, and when their ranks were swelled by disbanded volunteers, freed from the restraints of discipline, there would be no security for life or property. Captain Folsom, assistant quartermaster, wrote the same day that acts of disgraceful violence were of almost daily occurrence on board the shipping in the harbor and the officials had no power to preserve order; that his “office is left with a large amount of money and gold dust in it, and the volunteers are discharged without pay.” “We collect port charges, etc.,” he writes, “from both foreign and American vessels, and in return, we are under the most imperative obligation to protect trade.” It is not to be wondered at that Mason, as colonel of 1st dragoons, applied to the War Department November 24, 1848, to be ordered home, having been absent from the United States for two years. In addition to the outrages committed by lawless men, the disbanding of the Mormon Battalion and the Stevenson regiment, together with the absence at the mines of a large portion of the citizens, left the country defenseless against inroads of hostile Indians. In the attempt to stay the desertion of his men Colonel Mason granted furloughs permitting them to go to the goldfields for periods of two or three months. These soldiers met with varying degrees of success. One of them, private John K. Haggerty, of F Company, 3d artillery, came back from the mines with 60 pounds of gold ($15,000). Throughout the Americas and Europe, the most astonishing reports were received from the goldfields of California. General Smith writing from Panama January 7, 1849, says that none of the accounts received were exaggerated; that there had been brought to Valparaiso and Lima before the end of 1848, gold valued at $1,800,000; that the British consul at Panama had forwarded 15,000 ounces. ($240,000) across the isthmus, and that the commander of the Pandora, Royal Navy, informed him that the truth was beyond the accounts he had heard. General Smith was also informed that hundreds of people from the west coast of South America were embarking for the goldfields. In a subsequent letter, he says that he has learned from many sources that there was a great emigration of people of all nations to California and that many are going off with large quantities of gold. He says that on his arrival there he shall consider everyone, not a citizen of the United States, who enters on public land and digs for gold, as a trespasser and shall so treat him. On April 12, 1848, the Pacific Mail was incorporated with a capital of $500,000, and contracts were entered into for the building of three steamers; the California, the Oregon, and the Panama. The California was completed first and sailed from New York on October 6, 1848, under command of Cleveland Forbes. Meanwhile, the reports from California of the extent of the goldfields, and the marvelous quantities of the metal obtained by men unskilled in mining and without capital were received in the eastern states and in Europe. In November 1848 came Lieutenant Loeser of the 3d artillery, with dispatches from the military governor of California, confirming the most extravagant reports from the goldfields, and bringing tangible evidence in the shape of a box filled with gold dust. The gold was placed on exhibition at the war office and the president embodied Mason’s report in his message to Congress on December 5th. The entire community went wild with excitement. Mason’s report with the president’s endorsement was published in the principal newspapers throughout the world. The “gold fever” was on and from all parts of the world companies were fitting out for California. From Sonora in Mexico, thousands of men came overland, while from the coasts of Chile and Peru as many more came by sea. Thousands started from the Atlantic ports of the United States for Panama, for Vera Cruz, and for Nicaragua. The steamer Falcon from New Orleans landed at Chagres the first adventurers for California, several hundred in number, all determined to board the steamer California at Panama, if possible. The route across the isthmus was a fearful one; by canoe up the Chagres River to Cruces, the head of navigation, then by mule, if one was to be had, or on foot to Panama. There was an insufficient number of boats to carry the adventurers up the river — a journey of several days — and consequently, people had to wait at Chagres. From Cruces to Panama the baggage had to be carried on the backs of men. The excessive rains, the trouble, vexation, and exposure caused a vast amount of sickness and few escaped the “Chagres fever.” To augment their troubles, cholera made its appearance followed by a number of deaths. This caused a stampede when all baggage and property of every description was abandoned and left on the route while the panic-stricken emigrants fled to Panama. Their belongings were afterward brought in by natives who were satisfied with reasonable compensation for their faithful services. The Falcon brought to Chagres Major-general Persifer F. Smith appointed to command the Third (Pacific) Division. Captain Elliott and Major Fitzgerald of his staff were taken with cholera, and Elliott died and was buried in the churchyard at Cruces. Arriving at Panama there was a long wait for the steamer, while the numbers of emigrants increased daily and the inhabitants of the city became alarmed at the prospect of pestilence and famine. Provisions rose to famine prices and there was much distress and suffering among the emigrants. At length, the long looked for steamer was sighted and anchored in the harbor on January 17th. All was excitement and many hurried off to the ship thinking to secure passage, but they were not permitted to board and were obliged to return. The ship had accommodation for seventy-five, cabin and steerage, and fifteen hundred clamored for passage. She had stopped at Callao and had taken on fifty passengers for San Francisco, although it was understood that none were to be accepted until Panama was reached. It was decided that the New York passengers holding through tickets should be first provided for; afterward those from South America, and finally as many as possible from among the first applicants for passage at the office in Panama. On February 1st, the California sailed for San Francisco with 350 passengers. The ship was so crowded it was difficult to move about, either on deck or in the cabin. On February 28, the California steamed past the rugged cliffs of the Golden Gate into the warm sunshine of a California spring, past the green slopes of Marin and the purple heights of Tamalpais, past the islands of the bay and Alta Loma, and cast anchor before a most disreputable collection of adobe houses, wooden shacks, and tents — the outpost of this new Colchis — with its background of windswept dunes, bleak and desolate. The weary Argonauts were joyfully welcomed. The ships in the harbor donned their gayest bunting; the guns of the Pacific squadron boomed while the yards of the warships were manned with blue jackets. The rains of winter had driven the miners to cover and the town was full. Gold dust was plenty and the gambling houses ran day and night. The people were rough and uncouth but they gave the newcomers a hearty welcome and celebrated with ardor the establishment of steam communication with the world. There was nothing lofty in the motive that brought this band of adventurers to these shores and nothing particularly remarkable about the men who composed it. They were strong, courageous, undaunted. They came to make a fortune and return; they remained to create an empire. It was the part the Argonauts played in the founding and building a great commonwealth on the Pacific coast that gives significance to their coming. When the California sailed away from Panama, she left behind a multitude of emigrants, all disappointed, some filled with rage, some with despair. A few sailing vessels were chartered to carry the adventurers to California and it is said that a few tried in log canoes to follow the coast only to perish or be driven back after futile struggles with winds and currents. The Oregon, second steamer of the Pacific Mail, arrived at Panama about the middle of March. The crowd had doubled. The Oregon took on about 500 and reached San Francisco on April 1st. Profiting by the experience of the California, the captain took the precaution to anchor his ship under the guns of a man-of-war and placed the most rebellious of his crew under arrest. With barely enough coal to carry him to San Blas, he sailed April 12th, carrying back the first mail, treasure, and passengers. On May 1st, the California, having obtained a crew sailed for Panama. The Panama, the third steamer of the Pacific Mail, arrived at San Francisco on June 4th, 16 days from Panama. The Oregon brought several other important men, some of whom would leave their mark on the Golden State. Ships now began to arrive from all parts of the world, crowded with treasure seekers, and by the middle of November upwards of six hundred vessels had entered the harbor and the larger part of these were left swinging at their anchors while their crews rushed to the gold mines. Colonel Mason advises the adjutant general of the arrival of a ship at Monterey loaded with ordnance stores and says that it will cost more to unload the ship than the total freight from New York to Monterey. The sufferings of the emigrants who came by sea, great as they were, were as nothing compared with those who came by land. Not since the crusades of the Middle Ages, has there been anything approaching the overland emigration in magnitude, peril, and endurance. It is estimated that during the year 1849, 42,000 emigrants came overland to California, of whom 9,000 were from Mexico. Eight thousand Americans came by the Santa Fé Route and 25,000 by the South pass and the Humboldt River. Bayard Taylor wrote: “The emigrants we took on board at San Diego were objects of general interest. The stories of adventures, by the way, sounded more marvelous than anything I had heard or read since my boyish acquaintance with Robinson Crusoe, Captain Cook, and John Ledyard. The emigrants by the Gila route gave a terrible account of the crossing of the great desert lying west of the Colorado River. They describe this region as scorching and sterile — a country of burning salt plains and shifting hills of sand, whose only signs of human visitation are the bones of animals and men scattered along the trails that cross it. The corpses of several emigrants, out of companies who passed before them, lay half-buried in sand, and the hot air was made stifling by the effluvia that rose from the dry carcasses of hundreds of mules. There, if a man faltered, he was gone; no one could stop to lend him a hand without a likelihood of sharing his fate.” The rendezvous for overland emigrants was usually Independence, Missouri for both the Oregon and Santa Fe Trails. Throughout the eastern states, the winter of 1848-49 was one of preparation. Emigration parties were formed in almost every town, each member contributing a fixed amount for the outfit. These were as elaborate as the taste of the members suggested or their means permitted. Provisions for the journey and for one or two years in California with every known implement for digging and washing gold, arms, ammunition, large supplies of clothing, blankets, etc., and in some cases, goods for barter or sale, characterized the equipment of the emigration of 1849. Vehicles of every conceivable kind and quality were seen, from the ponderous “prairie schooner” drawn by three yokes of oxen to the light spring wagon; riding horses and pack mules; together with relays of animals for heavy hauls. Arriving at the rendezvous the small parties were joined in a large party together with such individuals and families as came in singly, a captain was selected and the caravan set out on its two thousand mile journey. The northern route was by the so-called Oregon Trail, up the north fork of the Platte to the Sweetwater, up the Sweetwater, through the South pass, to the Green River, down the Bear to Soda Springs, to Fort Hall on the Snake River, to the Humboldt, down the Humboldt to the sink, across the desert to the Truckee River, over the Sierra Nevada to the headwaters of the Bear River, then down the river to the Sacramento and to Sutter’s Fort. From the sink of the Humboldt, three routes offered themselves: northerly to the Pitt River pass; west, across the desert to the Truckee, and southerly to Carson Valley, where grass and water were, and then over the Sierra to the south fork of the American River. It is estimated that by the end of April 1849, twenty thousand emigrants were in camp on the Missouri River waiting for the grass on the plains to be high enough to feed. Many companies had started earlier and by the middle of May, the trail from the Missouri River to Fort Laramie presented a continuous line of wagons and pack trains. Through the valley of the Platte, cholera broke out, claiming many victims and spreading terror through the ranks of the emigrants. This began to disappear as they approached the Rocky mountains. At last, after some days of travel through a rugged and broken country where high bluffs force them from the river to make long detours, Fort Laramie is reached and the first stage of the journey is completed. For the next 300 miles the country is a desert, with little grass and less water, through the forbidding Black Hills, up the Sweetwater River, across the continental divide by the South Pass, at an elevation of 7,085 feet; then through a somewhat better country, the Green River Valley, to Bear River, which here flows northward, making a horseshoe around the mountains. Down the Bear River, they traveled for a distance of about 90 miles to Soda Springs. Here, the Bear turns southward and the emigrants proceed westerly to the Portneuf River down which they travel to Fort Hall, Idaho on the Snake River. The route is now down the Snake to Raft River, then over the hills to Goose Creek and up Goose Creek to the headwaters of the Mary, or Humboldt, as the river now began to be called. This was the regular route. There were a number of short cuts which saved the travelers from one to two hundred miles of distance, but cost them weeks of extra time to get through; short cuts which were all right for pack-trains, but all wrong for wagons. On reaching the Humboldt the traveler has two-thirds of the whole distance behind him and is on the last stage of his journey. And what a journey it has been, and how changed he is from the one who set out so blithely from Independence three months ago. How bright the anticipations then! how cozy the snug family retreat within the great canvas-covered “prairie schooner!” how jolly the conversation and the stories around the campfire! the song and music after the day’s toil was over.	5,704	ENGLISH	1
She was first raised from her underwater resting place more than 30 years ago and has been prized as an archaeological gem, but it appears the she still has some secrets to surrender. Scientists studying Henry VIII’s naval flagship, which sank 468 years ago off the south coast of England in a battle with the French, are making new discoveries about the vessel that will change our understanding of history. New finds will be among 19,000 artefacts going on show in a new £23 million museum, built around the skeleton of the vessel, due to open later this year. Archaeologists have found the remains of a dog that lived on board, and longbows found on board have revealed a great deal about archery at the time. Among the items most exciting archaeologists are cannonballs believed to be early examples of armour-piercing rounds. Such shells were thought to have been developed during the late 1800s, before the technology was refined during the world wars. But the new findings by experts working with the Mary Rose Trust, which has been preserving the ship, now suggest the technology was being used several centuries earlier — although it could also have been a money-saving strategy, using cheaper iron inside the lead balls. Powerful imaging technology has revealed cubic-shaped lumps of iron encased in the soft, lead cannonballs, which would have allowed guns to punch through the sides of enemy vessels.	<urn:uuid:c607d84b-2b23-420c-a3a3-b4a22898b18a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.oceantreasures.org/blog/do/tag/henry-viii/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00496.warc.gz	en	0.98454	289	3.296875	3	[ -0.4079102873802185, 0.22477298974990845, 0.27623119950294495, -0.28206318616867065, -0.0031461690086871386, -0.2702180743217468, -0.13026957213878632, 0.12329526990652084, -0.25927549600601196, -0.054139815270900726, 0.26093071699142456, -0.5168281197547913, -0.03205327317118645, 0.438855...	8	She was first raised from her underwater resting place more than 30 years ago and has been prized as an archaeological gem, but it appears the she still has some secrets to surrender. Scientists studying Henry VIII’s naval flagship, which sank 468 years ago off the south coast of England in a battle with the French, are making new discoveries about the vessel that will change our understanding of history. New finds will be among 19,000 artefacts going on show in a new £23 million museum, built around the skeleton of the vessel, due to open later this year. Archaeologists have found the remains of a dog that lived on board, and longbows found on board have revealed a great deal about archery at the time. Among the items most exciting archaeologists are cannonballs believed to be early examples of armour-piercing rounds. Such shells were thought to have been developed during the late 1800s, before the technology was refined during the world wars. But the new findings by experts working with the Mary Rose Trust, which has been preserving the ship, now suggest the technology was being used several centuries earlier — although it could also have been a money-saving strategy, using cheaper iron inside the lead balls. Powerful imaging technology has revealed cubic-shaped lumps of iron encased in the soft, lead cannonballs, which would have allowed guns to punch through the sides of enemy vessels.	291	ENGLISH	1
The month of August has a special meaning for the Turkish nation. When the Ottoman Empire was defeated at the end of the First World War, the 622-year existence of this once vast and glorious Empire came to an end on August 10, 1920, with the signing of the notorious Treaty of Sevres with the acquiescence of the Sultan’s Istanbul government. The fledgeling nationalist government in Ankara under Mustafa Kemal did not recognize this cruel Treaty, and the Grand National Assembly in its session of August 19, 1920, proclaimed all those who signed the Treaty of Sevres as well as those who took part in the Council of the Sultan, as “traitors.” This Treaty was never ratified. This was an ominous August. In Anatolia, Mustafa Kemal emerged in the national scene. His agenda was full of insurmountable challenges, and he had to steer the nation through untold treacherous obstacles. This task required a military genius, a sharp vision, virtuosity in diplomacy, and ultimate statesmanship. And above all, such prerequisites as selfless devotion to the country and utter love for his people. Mustafa Kemal combined all these qualities in his person. The country was defeated, and every corner was occupied by the invading enemies. Furthermore, the sultan in Istanbul was a lackey of the British, and he was in collusion with the occupation forces; his only concern was to save his throne. In unprecedented treason to his nation, the Sultan was busy to undermine the nascent nationalist resistance movement generated in the Turkish heartland. The Greek Army had landed in Izmir on 15 May 1919, and the Armenian forces attacked in the East on September 24, 1920. The Turkish Army under the command of General Kazim Karabekir defeated the Armenians and The Treaty of Gumru was signed on December 2, 1920. All these victories concluded the first round of Mustafa Kemal’s Master Plan. The Sultan’s government was as yet “de jure” in existence claiming jurisdiction over the entire country. Furthermore, it formed a so-called “Khilafat Army” to battle the nationalists. Encouraged by this, several other bands and private irregular armies were formed by the local popular chieftains seeking power for themselves. The most notorious guerilla bands were Cerkez Ethem, The Circassian Aznavour, the Green Army and the Capanoglu irregulars. Then, there was Enver Pasha to deal with. A protégé of the Sultan as he was married to one of his daughters. He had a limited capacity yet a gigantic ego, and he had caused untold harm to the country. The foreigners called him disparagingly “Generalissimo”. He was charmed with the German militarism and slavishly followed Germany to World War I, which was a disaster for Turkey as well as Germany. Enver Pasha was an incurable adventurer; he fled to Russia and involved in farfetched plans. Now, this adventurer was seeking partnership in the nationalist venture. All the mess he created still haunts the country. The Eastern Front thus subdued and secured; now it was time to deal with the Western Front. The Turkish Army held off the Greek offensives twice in Inonu on January 11, 1921, and March 31, 1921. To make up for these setbacks the Greeks launched a major offensive on July 10, 1921, and pushed the Turkish Army back to the East of the Sakarya River. The Greek Army was poised to capture Ankara. The despair in the Turkish side was palpable, and speculations ran wild about the Turkish cause being lost. On August 4, 1921, Mustafa Kemal accepted the post of commander-in-chief with extraordinary power to exercise the full authority of the Grand National Assembly. This was an unparalleled democratic spirit and civility. A rising star, a victorious army general with epic victories in his record could easily be a despot, a dictator; yet, he put his nation’s interest above his glory. With this act, he proclaimed to the world that he was but a humble servant of his country; the people were the real master. The latest Greek aggression brought the Nationalists to a faithful August. The Turkish Army, under the command of Mustafa Kemal, fought the Greek forces in a pitch-battle along a front of 60 miles. In a life-and-death struggle that lasted 22 days, the Greek Army was routed on August 24, 1921, and forced to retreat. The Grand National Assembly, recognizing the extraordinary leadership of Mustafa Kemal conferred upon him the title of Marshal and “Gazi.” The victory of Sakarya demonstrated to the world the strength and the will of the Nationalist government and its army. Thereupon, first, the French government recognized the Nationalists as a legitimate power and signed an agreement on October 20, 1921, in Ankara whereby the hostility between the two countries ceased, and they evacuated the territory under their occupation. The ultimate goal of Mustafa Kemal was to free the whole country from the enemy occupation. He knew that this required a decisive victory. The world public opinion, including some Turkish intellectuals in Istanbul, and even some deputies in Ankara were doubtful of such a victory. They believed that the Turkish Army had the only defensive capability but no offensive competency. They argued that the liberation of the country was a utopia, and could not be won by force of arms; it must be secured by negotiation or accepting the mandate of a powerful country. Mustafa Kemal strongly felt that no favors would be granted to any nation if that nation has neither power nor ability to take it by force. Only those nations endowed with those qualities can appeal to the standards of humanity and justice. He said, “The world is a field of trial. After long centuries the Turkish nation is being subjected yet to another trial – the hardest ever! How can we expect a just and kind treatment without proving ourselves in this trial?” These words reflected the determinism of the Great leader for a decisive victory to support his demands. At that time Mustafa Kemal was a very lonely person, a one-man minority, yet with a strong conviction and a long vision. He calculated that an ultimate reckoning with the invading Greek Army was inevitable. After the victory of Sakarya, his Army had gained a considerable amount of self-confidence. On the other hand, the Greek High command had become complacent. The Greek Army had lost its appetite, this campaign in the hardscrabble Anatolian heartland seemed to be an endless adventure; furthermore, the Turks had proven much tougher than they had been made to believe. In all these lulls, the Turkish side prepared feverishly for the ultimate reckoning. Mustafa Kemal had set the date of the final engagement with the Greeks as August 26, 1922! On August 26, 1922, Saturday before dawn the Turkish Army began its offensive. The major Greek defence positions were overrun swiftly, and on August 30 the enemy was defeated decisively in Dumlupinar, with half of its troops captured or slain. This decisive victory has come to be known in Turkish history as “The Great Offensive” or “The Pitched – battle of the Commander-in-chief in Dumlupinar.” The western front had been opened by the landing of the Greek Army in Izmir on May 15, 1919. The last Greek troop left the Turkish soil on September 17, 1922. That makes 3 years, 4 months and 2 days, or 1218 days of Greek occupation of the western Anatolia. The Turks had not won only a victory, but their country and their dignity as well. The victory of August 30th can be described aptly as the rebirth of a nation. It was a love affair between an ultimate leader who devoted himself selflessly to his nation, and a grateful nation itself. This year the Turkish nation is celebrating the 89th anniversary of this momentous victory. We remember with gratitude and pray for our fallen heroes who gave their lives generously and with altruism so that the future generations may live on that anointed soil of the Turkish land happily and prosperously.	<urn:uuid:0ab9bf3e-f12f-4211-8572-7ccdaea3dd79>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://nationofturks.com/30-august-rebirth-of-a-nation-by-ayhan-ozer/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00401.warc.gz	en	0.981291	1,688	3.53125	4	[ -0.43800994753837585, 0.5081197023391724, 0.5673730373382568, 0.2122044712305069, -0.3154781460762024, -0.3334161639213562, 0.4486914873123169, 0.16609255969524384, -0.1688067466020584, -0.22017745673656464, 0.09190242737531662, -0.5139323472976685, 0.11039727926254272, 0.19250038266181946...	14	The month of August has a special meaning for the Turkish nation. When the Ottoman Empire was defeated at the end of the First World War, the 622-year existence of this once vast and glorious Empire came to an end on August 10, 1920, with the signing of the notorious Treaty of Sevres with the acquiescence of the Sultan’s Istanbul government. The fledgeling nationalist government in Ankara under Mustafa Kemal did not recognize this cruel Treaty, and the Grand National Assembly in its session of August 19, 1920, proclaimed all those who signed the Treaty of Sevres as well as those who took part in the Council of the Sultan, as “traitors.” This Treaty was never ratified. This was an ominous August. In Anatolia, Mustafa Kemal emerged in the national scene. His agenda was full of insurmountable challenges, and he had to steer the nation through untold treacherous obstacles. This task required a military genius, a sharp vision, virtuosity in diplomacy, and ultimate statesmanship. And above all, such prerequisites as selfless devotion to the country and utter love for his people. Mustafa Kemal combined all these qualities in his person. The country was defeated, and every corner was occupied by the invading enemies. Furthermore, the sultan in Istanbul was a lackey of the British, and he was in collusion with the occupation forces; his only concern was to save his throne. In unprecedented treason to his nation, the Sultan was busy to undermine the nascent nationalist resistance movement generated in the Turkish heartland. The Greek Army had landed in Izmir on 15 May 1919, and the Armenian forces attacked in the East on September 24, 1920. The Turkish Army under the command of General Kazim Karabekir defeated the Armenians and The Treaty of Gumru was signed on December 2, 1920. All these victories concluded the first round of Mustafa Kemal’s Master Plan. The Sultan’s government was as yet “de jure” in existence claiming jurisdiction over the entire country. Furthermore, it formed a so-called “Khilafat Army” to battle the nationalists. Encouraged by this, several other bands and private irregular armies were formed by the local popular chieftains seeking power for themselves. The most notorious guerilla bands were Cerkez Ethem, The Circassian Aznavour, the Green Army and the Capanoglu irregulars. Then, there was Enver Pasha to deal with. A protégé of the Sultan as he was married to one of his daughters. He had a limited capacity yet a gigantic ego, and he had caused untold harm to the country. The foreigners called him disparagingly “Generalissimo”. He was charmed with the German militarism and slavishly followed Germany to World War I, which was a disaster for Turkey as well as Germany. Enver Pasha was an incurable adventurer; he fled to Russia and involved in farfetched plans. Now, this adventurer was seeking partnership in the nationalist venture. All the mess he created still haunts the country. The Eastern Front thus subdued and secured; now it was time to deal with the Western Front. The Turkish Army held off the Greek offensives twice in Inonu on January 11, 1921, and March 31, 1921. To make up for these setbacks the Greeks launched a major offensive on July 10, 1921, and pushed the Turkish Army back to the East of the Sakarya River. The Greek Army was poised to capture Ankara. The despair in the Turkish side was palpable, and speculations ran wild about the Turkish cause being lost. On August 4, 1921, Mustafa Kemal accepted the post of commander-in-chief with extraordinary power to exercise the full authority of the Grand National Assembly. This was an unparalleled democratic spirit and civility. A rising star, a victorious army general with epic victories in his record could easily be a despot, a dictator; yet, he put his nation’s interest above his glory. With this act, he proclaimed to the world that he was but a humble servant of his country; the people were the real master. The latest Greek aggression brought the Nationalists to a faithful August. The Turkish Army, under the command of Mustafa Kemal, fought the Greek forces in a pitch-battle along a front of 60 miles. In a life-and-death struggle that lasted 22 days, the Greek Army was routed on August 24, 1921, and forced to retreat. The Grand National Assembly, recognizing the extraordinary leadership of Mustafa Kemal conferred upon him the title of Marshal and “Gazi.” The victory of Sakarya demonstrated to the world the strength and the will of the Nationalist government and its army. Thereupon, first, the French government recognized the Nationalists as a legitimate power and signed an agreement on October 20, 1921, in Ankara whereby the hostility between the two countries ceased, and they evacuated the territory under their occupation. The ultimate goal of Mustafa Kemal was to free the whole country from the enemy occupation. He knew that this required a decisive victory. The world public opinion, including some Turkish intellectuals in Istanbul, and even some deputies in Ankara were doubtful of such a victory. They believed that the Turkish Army had the only defensive capability but no offensive competency. They argued that the liberation of the country was a utopia, and could not be won by force of arms; it must be secured by negotiation or accepting the mandate of a powerful country. Mustafa Kemal strongly felt that no favors would be granted to any nation if that nation has neither power nor ability to take it by force. Only those nations endowed with those qualities can appeal to the standards of humanity and justice. He said, “The world is a field of trial. After long centuries the Turkish nation is being subjected yet to another trial – the hardest ever! How can we expect a just and kind treatment without proving ourselves in this trial?” These words reflected the determinism of the Great leader for a decisive victory to support his demands. At that time Mustafa Kemal was a very lonely person, a one-man minority, yet with a strong conviction and a long vision. He calculated that an ultimate reckoning with the invading Greek Army was inevitable. After the victory of Sakarya, his Army had gained a considerable amount of self-confidence. On the other hand, the Greek High command had become complacent. The Greek Army had lost its appetite, this campaign in the hardscrabble Anatolian heartland seemed to be an endless adventure; furthermore, the Turks had proven much tougher than they had been made to believe. In all these lulls, the Turkish side prepared feverishly for the ultimate reckoning. Mustafa Kemal had set the date of the final engagement with the Greeks as August 26, 1922! On August 26, 1922, Saturday before dawn the Turkish Army began its offensive. The major Greek defence positions were overrun swiftly, and on August 30 the enemy was defeated decisively in Dumlupinar, with half of its troops captured or slain. This decisive victory has come to be known in Turkish history as “The Great Offensive” or “The Pitched – battle of the Commander-in-chief in Dumlupinar.” The western front had been opened by the landing of the Greek Army in Izmir on May 15, 1919. The last Greek troop left the Turkish soil on September 17, 1922. That makes 3 years, 4 months and 2 days, or 1218 days of Greek occupation of the western Anatolia. The Turks had not won only a victory, but their country and their dignity as well. The victory of August 30th can be described aptly as the rebirth of a nation. It was a love affair between an ultimate leader who devoted himself selflessly to his nation, and a grateful nation itself. This year the Turkish nation is celebrating the 89th anniversary of this momentous victory. We remember with gratitude and pray for our fallen heroes who gave their lives generously and with altruism so that the future generations may live on that anointed soil of the Turkish land happily and prosperously.	1,755	ENGLISH	1
southwards to Central Africa. These people shaved their heads and wore simple tunic-like garments of wool. They settled first on the lower courses of the great river and not very far from the Persian Gulf, which in those days ran up for a hundred and thirty miles and more beyond its present head. They fertilized their fields by letting water run through irrigation trenches, and they gradually became very skilful hydraulic engineers; they had cattle, asses, sheep, and goats, but no horses; their collections of mud huts grew into towns, and their religion raised up towerlike temple buildings. Clay, dried in the sun, was a very great fact in the lives of these people. This lower country of the Euphrates-Tigris valleys had little or no stone. They built of brick, they made pottery and earthenware images, and they drew and presently wrote upon thin tile-like cakes of clay. They do not seem to have had paper or to have used parchment. Their books and memoranda, even their letters, were potsherds. At Nippur they built a great tower of brick to their chief god, El-lil (Enlil), the memory of which is supposed to be preserved in the story of the Tower of Babel. They seem to have been divided up into city states, which warred among themselves and maintained for many centuries their military capacity. Their soldiers carried long spears and shields, and fought in close formation. Sumerians conquered Sumerians. Sumeria remained unconquered by any stranger race for a very long period of time indeed. They developed their civilization, their writing, and their shipping, through a period that may be twice as long as the whole period from the Christian era to the present time. The first of all known empires was that founded by the high priest of the god of the Sumerian city of Erech. It reached, says an inscription at Nippur, from the Lower (Persian Gulf) to the Upper (Mediterranean or Red?) Sea. Among the mud heaps of the Euphrates-Tigris valley the record of that vast period of history, that first half of the Age of Cultivation, is buried. There flourished the first temples and the first priest-rulers that we know of among mankind. - Sayce, in Babylonian and Assyrian Life, estimates that in 6500 b.c. Eridu was on the seacoast.	<urn:uuid:d8f764d2-67df-4d5c-992e-67eaf4854642>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/214	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00167.warc.gz	en	0.982336	509	3.296875	3	[ 0.029118752107024193, 0.9132434725761414, 0.4260111153125763, -0.035582032054662704, -0.2960110008716583, -0.10464493185281754, -0.004411485977470875, 0.11764892935752869, -0.21908563375473022, 0.25888583064079285, -0.06042387709021568, -0.6954417824745178, 0.28794267773628235, 0.045920439...	1	southwards to Central Africa. These people shaved their heads and wore simple tunic-like garments of wool. They settled first on the lower courses of the great river and not very far from the Persian Gulf, which in those days ran up for a hundred and thirty miles and more beyond its present head. They fertilized their fields by letting water run through irrigation trenches, and they gradually became very skilful hydraulic engineers; they had cattle, asses, sheep, and goats, but no horses; their collections of mud huts grew into towns, and their religion raised up towerlike temple buildings. Clay, dried in the sun, was a very great fact in the lives of these people. This lower country of the Euphrates-Tigris valleys had little or no stone. They built of brick, they made pottery and earthenware images, and they drew and presently wrote upon thin tile-like cakes of clay. They do not seem to have had paper or to have used parchment. Their books and memoranda, even their letters, were potsherds. At Nippur they built a great tower of brick to their chief god, El-lil (Enlil), the memory of which is supposed to be preserved in the story of the Tower of Babel. They seem to have been divided up into city states, which warred among themselves and maintained for many centuries their military capacity. Their soldiers carried long spears and shields, and fought in close formation. Sumerians conquered Sumerians. Sumeria remained unconquered by any stranger race for a very long period of time indeed. They developed their civilization, their writing, and their shipping, through a period that may be twice as long as the whole period from the Christian era to the present time. The first of all known empires was that founded by the high priest of the god of the Sumerian city of Erech. It reached, says an inscription at Nippur, from the Lower (Persian Gulf) to the Upper (Mediterranean or Red?) Sea. Among the mud heaps of the Euphrates-Tigris valley the record of that vast period of history, that first half of the Age of Cultivation, is buried. There flourished the first temples and the first priest-rulers that we know of among mankind. - Sayce, in Babylonian and Assyrian Life, estimates that in 6500 b.c. Eridu was on the seacoast.	507	ENGLISH	1
Have you ever been discriminated against or treated unfairly for an unjust reason? The 54th “Glory” Regiment definitely was during the Civil War. All the soldiers in this regiment were Black, but even though their desire to serve their country burned bright in their hearts, they were heavily discriminated against because of their skin color. During the time of the Civil War, Black people were often treated unfairly because the whites thought they were superior. Even at the beginning of their career, when they were not even officially in the army, the 54th Regiment was treated unfairly. They were not given a bounty, which is the money that you get when you join the army, and their pay was very low compared to the whites. They weren’t given extra money to buy clothes like the whites, and every rank of Black soldiers got the same pay, whereas the higher ranking white soldiers in the army got a higher salary as they were promoted. It was only until nearly the end of the war that the regiment’s pay was raised, and even then, it was only for the soldiers that had been free before the war started and alive at the time the pay was given, which was still only a fraction of the number of Black people that had enlisted. Also, even when the 54th Regiment was hard at work storming Wagner and Charleston, an anti-Black riot spread throughout the Union. It was a devastating experience; many Black people were killed, and many others were forced into asylum. It is not the typical civil rights protest, where people hold up signs with big, bold, words displaying a motto or opinion; it was an all-out, kill or destroy the first thing or person that you see that is related to African-Americans. It was like Doomsday for the Blacks. Keep in mind that when the 54th Regiment departed to fight, they were treated like heroes. What happened to the Black people’s reputation? Finally, toward the end of the war, they wanted to promote Sergeant Swails, a member of the 54th Regiment that had served faithfully with his leadership, to an officer. However, their request was denied by someone that had previously warned people to treat Black and white people equally. How hypocritical for him to go against his own word when the choice fell into his hands! Finally, after much persuasion and pressure, Stanton, the Secretary of War, finally approved his becoming an officer. Now you ask, why did the whites think they had a reason to treat the Blacks differently? According to President Lincoln, if they enlisted Black men, the slave states in the Union, which included Illinois, Alabama and other states, would join the Confederacy. However, the whites’ enlistment rate was dropping, yet the Blacks were still willing to join. The government had to grudgingly admit that if they kept holding back the Blacks, they would have no soldiers at all. But, even though Black men were finally allowed to join the army, they were still seen as dirty and unclean, simply because their skin was darker than the Americans. Ironically, the Black camps were much cleaner and well-maintained than the whites’. Even though racism is not as liberal and outspoken in America anymore, let this be a lesson to you to never bully, tease, or judge someone because of what they are. One of the most common types of discrimination is pitying someone. When you see someone that is disabled, is your first reaction, “I feel so bad for him/her?” Know this; the pitied are often ashamed of themselves. So, instead of just standing there, reach out for him if you really do pity him. Prejudice is in human nature; it’s natural. As Mark Twain said, “The very ink with which history is written is merely fluid prejudice.” So why not just change the ink, and make the world a better place? Undying Glory: The Story of the Massachusetts 54th Regiment by Clinton Cox. Scholastic Biography, 1993. Buy the book here and support Stone Soup in the process! Have you read this book? Or do you plan on reading it? Let us know in the comments below!	<urn:uuid:9ef28cb6-7c8b-4ea4-a7f9-9898ad9d6b05>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://stonesoup.com/post/undying-glory-reviewed-by-daniel-10	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00073.warc.gz	en	0.992743	862	3.6875	4	[ -0.2871788442134857, 0.4683597981929779, 0.005378788337111473, 0.23935770988464355, 0.24780265986919403, -0.07368047535419464, 0.40749090909957886, 0.001175137236714363, 0.12127353250980377, 0.08107248693704605, 0.6084367036819458, 0.001958268927410245, 0.015023894608020782, 0.298192203044...	2	Have you ever been discriminated against or treated unfairly for an unjust reason? The 54th “Glory” Regiment definitely was during the Civil War. All the soldiers in this regiment were Black, but even though their desire to serve their country burned bright in their hearts, they were heavily discriminated against because of their skin color. During the time of the Civil War, Black people were often treated unfairly because the whites thought they were superior. Even at the beginning of their career, when they were not even officially in the army, the 54th Regiment was treated unfairly. They were not given a bounty, which is the money that you get when you join the army, and their pay was very low compared to the whites. They weren’t given extra money to buy clothes like the whites, and every rank of Black soldiers got the same pay, whereas the higher ranking white soldiers in the army got a higher salary as they were promoted. It was only until nearly the end of the war that the regiment’s pay was raised, and even then, it was only for the soldiers that had been free before the war started and alive at the time the pay was given, which was still only a fraction of the number of Black people that had enlisted. Also, even when the 54th Regiment was hard at work storming Wagner and Charleston, an anti-Black riot spread throughout the Union. It was a devastating experience; many Black people were killed, and many others were forced into asylum. It is not the typical civil rights protest, where people hold up signs with big, bold, words displaying a motto or opinion; it was an all-out, kill or destroy the first thing or person that you see that is related to African-Americans. It was like Doomsday for the Blacks. Keep in mind that when the 54th Regiment departed to fight, they were treated like heroes. What happened to the Black people’s reputation? Finally, toward the end of the war, they wanted to promote Sergeant Swails, a member of the 54th Regiment that had served faithfully with his leadership, to an officer. However, their request was denied by someone that had previously warned people to treat Black and white people equally. How hypocritical for him to go against his own word when the choice fell into his hands! Finally, after much persuasion and pressure, Stanton, the Secretary of War, finally approved his becoming an officer. Now you ask, why did the whites think they had a reason to treat the Blacks differently? According to President Lincoln, if they enlisted Black men, the slave states in the Union, which included Illinois, Alabama and other states, would join the Confederacy. However, the whites’ enlistment rate was dropping, yet the Blacks were still willing to join. The government had to grudgingly admit that if they kept holding back the Blacks, they would have no soldiers at all. But, even though Black men were finally allowed to join the army, they were still seen as dirty and unclean, simply because their skin was darker than the Americans. Ironically, the Black camps were much cleaner and well-maintained than the whites’. Even though racism is not as liberal and outspoken in America anymore, let this be a lesson to you to never bully, tease, or judge someone because of what they are. One of the most common types of discrimination is pitying someone. When you see someone that is disabled, is your first reaction, “I feel so bad for him/her?” Know this; the pitied are often ashamed of themselves. So, instead of just standing there, reach out for him if you really do pity him. Prejudice is in human nature; it’s natural. As Mark Twain said, “The very ink with which history is written is merely fluid prejudice.” So why not just change the ink, and make the world a better place? Undying Glory: The Story of the Massachusetts 54th Regiment by Clinton Cox. Scholastic Biography, 1993. Buy the book here and support Stone Soup in the process! Have you read this book? Or do you plan on reading it? Let us know in the comments below!	854	ENGLISH	1
`` If I Can 't Have Her, No One Else Can `` Written By Sonya Lipsett Rivera 869 WordsDec 10, 20144 Pages Throughout Latin American history there has been unlimited accounts on battles, wars, and political conflicts that made up a vast majority of their colonial history. However, there has been limited sources on the emotions that people went through during this time period. Emotions in fact were a major reason that ended up shaping up most of their laws and history. The articles given heavily focuses on the emotions one feels, the actions some take and the consequences some face due to their actions. In the article “If I Can’t Have Her, No One Else Can” written by Sonya Lipsett-Rivera, the author focuses on the emotion of jealously and how it influenced violence in Mexico. The emotion of jealously is not as simple as any other emotion like sadness or anger. Psychologist have said that the emotion of jealousy is considered to be such a complex emotion since there is great difficulty trying to study this emotion. Jealousy cannot be associated with a physical appearance, as well as not being able to measure it accurately by heart rates. Which is why some consider jealousy to be more of a flaw then an actual emotion. During the time period 1750 through 1856 both Mexican men and women had their own ways of dealing with the jealousy they felt by committing violent acts towards one another, but mainly women were the ones that faced the consequences that followed this emotion. The main question is, what makes men and women feel jealousy? Both men and women feel jealousy since they	<urn:uuid:95af557e-7a61-4699-9cb7-19c0fb47a3d2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bartleby.com/essay/If-I-Can-t-Have-Her-F3DS553VU5YQ	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00320.warc.gz	en	0.981488	333	3.78125	4	[ -0.2722231447696686, 0.2279593050479889, 0.47701266407966614, 0.30420634150505066, -0.44462040066719055, 0.36225685477256775, 0.2220621556043625, 0.05714280158281326, 0.3515918254852295, -0.5216597318649292, 0.2919384241104126, 0.01848439686000347, 0.11351501196622849, 0.38724443316459656,...	1	`` If I Can 't Have Her, No One Else Can `` Written By Sonya Lipsett Rivera 869 WordsDec 10, 20144 Pages Throughout Latin American history there has been unlimited accounts on battles, wars, and political conflicts that made up a vast majority of their colonial history. However, there has been limited sources on the emotions that people went through during this time period. Emotions in fact were a major reason that ended up shaping up most of their laws and history. The articles given heavily focuses on the emotions one feels, the actions some take and the consequences some face due to their actions. In the article “If I Can’t Have Her, No One Else Can” written by Sonya Lipsett-Rivera, the author focuses on the emotion of jealously and how it influenced violence in Mexico. The emotion of jealously is not as simple as any other emotion like sadness or anger. Psychologist have said that the emotion of jealousy is considered to be such a complex emotion since there is great difficulty trying to study this emotion. Jealousy cannot be associated with a physical appearance, as well as not being able to measure it accurately by heart rates. Which is why some consider jealousy to be more of a flaw then an actual emotion. During the time period 1750 through 1856 both Mexican men and women had their own ways of dealing with the jealousy they felt by committing violent acts towards one another, but mainly women were the ones that faced the consequences that followed this emotion. The main question is, what makes men and women feel jealousy? Both men and women feel jealousy since they	339	ENGLISH	1
Wooden folk toys In the past wood was the basic material used to manufacture toys, just like plastic is nowadays. Children were able to acquire toys in one of three ways: they could make them by themselves (among the exhibits from Małopolska’s Virtual Museums there is a bicycle made by a 12-year-old boy); they could be carved by adults or older siblings, a member of the family or a craftsman; or they could be bought on market days during local church fairs and from middlemen. Among the most popular toys were wheeled horses and tiny tools, carts or wheelbarrows, horses pulling carts (see the cart from the collection in Małopolska’s Virtual Museums), hens pecking grain, carousels, cradles and various types of pinwheels and birds. The imagination of children was activated by toys made of several linked wooden slats that could be assembled and disassembled. They often had some carved figures of soldiers and dolls mounted on them (see the march of Lajkonik from the collection in Małopolska’s Virtual Museums). Such sophisticated constructions with driving mechanisms and the beautifully carved and painted figures were often made by folk sculptors and handymen. Kraków was one of the toy manufacturing centres — toys were sold here during traditional church fairs of Emaus and Rękawka that took place on the Monday and Tuesday after Easter. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Poland License.	<urn:uuid:2695e59d-8dfe-49aa-90a8-dc7819c94588>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://muzea.malopolska.pl/en/czy-wiesz-ze/-/a/drewniane-zabawki-ludowe?view=full	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00065.warc.gz	en	0.984092	323	3.375	3	[ 0.003519149962812662, 0.1803615689277649, 0.6157885193824768, -0.32977646589279175, -0.20079141855239868, 0.11653265357017517, -0.1837281733751297, 0.17001712322235107, -0.38018184900283813, 0.21957919001579285, -0.13291357457637787, -0.048553138971328735, -0.19237112998962402, 0.345030337...	3	Wooden folk toys In the past wood was the basic material used to manufacture toys, just like plastic is nowadays. Children were able to acquire toys in one of three ways: they could make them by themselves (among the exhibits from Małopolska’s Virtual Museums there is a bicycle made by a 12-year-old boy); they could be carved by adults or older siblings, a member of the family or a craftsman; or they could be bought on market days during local church fairs and from middlemen. Among the most popular toys were wheeled horses and tiny tools, carts or wheelbarrows, horses pulling carts (see the cart from the collection in Małopolska’s Virtual Museums), hens pecking grain, carousels, cradles and various types of pinwheels and birds. The imagination of children was activated by toys made of several linked wooden slats that could be assembled and disassembled. They often had some carved figures of soldiers and dolls mounted on them (see the march of Lajkonik from the collection in Małopolska’s Virtual Museums). Such sophisticated constructions with driving mechanisms and the beautifully carved and painted figures were often made by folk sculptors and handymen. Kraków was one of the toy manufacturing centres — toys were sold here during traditional church fairs of Emaus and Rękawka that took place on the Monday and Tuesday after Easter. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Poland License.	313	ENGLISH	1
Marcus Aurelius was Roman Emperor from 161 C.E. to his death in 180 C.E. He was destined to be a leader, having been born into a prominent family—one related by blood and marriage to rulers and bankers. During his era, Romans who inherited power and vast fortunes were expected to set an example. Marcus shouldered his responsibilities with a clear sense of honor. He was history's first ombudsman, and if his role as a legislator or conqueror was not great, he did set high standards for emulation. Written in the form of confessions, his meditations provide a window into his insights on duty, virtue, and humility. He was the last of the "Five Good Emperors," and is also considered one of the most important stoic philosophers. The Meditations, written on campaign between 170 and 180 C.E., are still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty, and have been praised for their "exquisite accent and…infinite tenderness." In fact, John Stuart Mill, in his Utility of Religion, compared the Meditations to the "Sermon on the Mount."	<urn:uuid:c5d128c6-f33d-46b2-b306-93b00d63010d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www2.barnesandnoble.com/w/meditations-of-marcus-aurelius-marcus-aurelius/1100593802?ean=9781491545560	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00044.warc.gz	en	0.990755	235	3.5625	4	[ -0.10833422094583511, 0.5090396404266357, 0.1649351418018341, -0.3514445424079895, -0.4177824556827545, 0.029638363048434258, 0.059330061078071594, 0.2328268438577652, 0.0008979158010333776, -0.3335932493209839, 0.08150019496679306, -0.20266789197921753, 0.005133727099746466, 0.32517835497...	2	Marcus Aurelius was Roman Emperor from 161 C.E. to his death in 180 C.E. He was destined to be a leader, having been born into a prominent family—one related by blood and marriage to rulers and bankers. During his era, Romans who inherited power and vast fortunes were expected to set an example. Marcus shouldered his responsibilities with a clear sense of honor. He was history's first ombudsman, and if his role as a legislator or conqueror was not great, he did set high standards for emulation. Written in the form of confessions, his meditations provide a window into his insights on duty, virtue, and humility. He was the last of the "Five Good Emperors," and is also considered one of the most important stoic philosophers. The Meditations, written on campaign between 170 and 180 C.E., are still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty, and have been praised for their "exquisite accent and…infinite tenderness." In fact, John Stuart Mill, in his Utility of Religion, compared the Meditations to the "Sermon on the Mount."	243	ENGLISH	1
Abstract Expressionism started in America as a post World War II art movement. It was the first art movement that arose from America and put New York at the center of the art world. The term Abstract Expressionism was first applied to American art in 1946 by art critic Robert Coates. It is most commanly said that Surealism is it’s predecessor because of the use of spontaneous, automatic and subconscious creations. Abstract Expressionism gets its name from the combining of emotional intensity and self-expression of German Expressionists and the anti-figurative aesthetics of abstract schools where Futurism, Bauhaus and Synthetic Cubism came from. The term Abstract Expressionism was applied to any number of the artists in New York who each had quite different styles, such as Pollock’s “action paintings” which had a very busy feel to it, which was different both technically and aesthetically to Willem de Kooning’s grotesque “women’s series”, which was rather violent and not particularly abstract, and Mark Rothko’s block work which was not very expressionistic, but yet all three were classified as Abstract Expressionists. Still although different in many ways they still share many similar aspects such as the use of large canvases, an “all over approach” in which the whole canvas is treated equally, every part of the canvas is important, quality of brushstrokes and textures, the use of accidents that play an important role to the entire work and the attempt to express pure emotion directly onto a canvas. The early Abstract Expressionists went in seek for a timeless and powerful subject matter, and started looking at primitive myth and archaic art for inspiration. Most of the early Abstract Expressionists looked at ancient and primitive cultures for inspiration. The earliest works included pictographic and biomorphic elements referred into personal code. In a famous letter published in the New York Times in June 1943 by Gottlieb and Rothko which was assisted by Newman, said “To us, art is an adventure into an unknown world of the imagination which is fancy- free and violently opposed to comman sense. There is no such thing as a good painting about nothing. We assert that the subject is critical.”. This just says that there is basically always a deeper meaning to a painting and if there is none then it is not a good painting. They draw away from comman sense and subject matter is very important. This also adds emphasis on how art relates to a specific period in time, and what inspires it, or what reaction art has against or for an event that is happening at that time. Mark Rothko born September 25 1903 and died in February 25 1970. He was an Abstract Expressionist but denies that his work is abstract. He was born as Marcus Rothkowitz in Russia and the emigrated to the United States in 1916. His work was based on basic emotions and mainly filling his canvases with few but intense colours using...	<urn:uuid:12ed6636-4cca-450a-ba82-97283a0913c2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/abstract-expressionism-4	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00308.warc.gz	en	0.981141	612	3.421875	3	[ -0.1629008650779724, 0.1874893307685852, 0.03370186686515808, 0.049234241247177124, -0.46220284700393677, 0.401906818151474, -0.13882571458816528, 0.01439427025616169, 0.0024253856390714645, 0.10804209113121033, 0.09933091700077057, 0.06740444153547287, -0.08485282957553864, 0.080203674733...	1	Abstract Expressionism started in America as a post World War II art movement. It was the first art movement that arose from America and put New York at the center of the art world. The term Abstract Expressionism was first applied to American art in 1946 by art critic Robert Coates. It is most commanly said that Surealism is it’s predecessor because of the use of spontaneous, automatic and subconscious creations. Abstract Expressionism gets its name from the combining of emotional intensity and self-expression of German Expressionists and the anti-figurative aesthetics of abstract schools where Futurism, Bauhaus and Synthetic Cubism came from. The term Abstract Expressionism was applied to any number of the artists in New York who each had quite different styles, such as Pollock’s “action paintings” which had a very busy feel to it, which was different both technically and aesthetically to Willem de Kooning’s grotesque “women’s series”, which was rather violent and not particularly abstract, and Mark Rothko’s block work which was not very expressionistic, but yet all three were classified as Abstract Expressionists. Still although different in many ways they still share many similar aspects such as the use of large canvases, an “all over approach” in which the whole canvas is treated equally, every part of the canvas is important, quality of brushstrokes and textures, the use of accidents that play an important role to the entire work and the attempt to express pure emotion directly onto a canvas. The early Abstract Expressionists went in seek for a timeless and powerful subject matter, and started looking at primitive myth and archaic art for inspiration. Most of the early Abstract Expressionists looked at ancient and primitive cultures for inspiration. The earliest works included pictographic and biomorphic elements referred into personal code. In a famous letter published in the New York Times in June 1943 by Gottlieb and Rothko which was assisted by Newman, said “To us, art is an adventure into an unknown world of the imagination which is fancy- free and violently opposed to comman sense. There is no such thing as a good painting about nothing. We assert that the subject is critical.”. This just says that there is basically always a deeper meaning to a painting and if there is none then it is not a good painting. They draw away from comman sense and subject matter is very important. This also adds emphasis on how art relates to a specific period in time, and what inspires it, or what reaction art has against or for an event that is happening at that time. Mark Rothko born September 25 1903 and died in February 25 1970. He was an Abstract Expressionist but denies that his work is abstract. He was born as Marcus Rothkowitz in Russia and the emigrated to the United States in 1916. His work was based on basic emotions and mainly filling his canvases with few but intense colours using...	611	ENGLISH	1
Julius Caesar, the ”dictator for life” of the Roman Empire, is murdered by his own senators at a meeting in a hall next to Pompey’s Theatre. The conspiracy against Caesar encompassed as many as sixty noblemen, including Caesar’s own protege, Marcus Brutus. The assassination of Caesar was the result of a conspiracy by many Roman senators led by Gaius Cassius Longinus, Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, and Marcus Junius Brutus. They stabbed Caesar (23 times) to death in a location adjacent to the Theatre of Pompey on the Ides of March on the 15th of March 44 BC. Caesar was scheduled to leave Rome to fight in a war on March 18 and had appointed loyal members of his army to rule the Empire in his absence. The Republican senators, already chafing at having to abide by Caesar’s decrees, were particularly angry about the prospect of taking orders from Caesar’s underlings. Cassius Longinus started the plot against the dictator, quickly getting his brother-in-law Marcus Brutus to join. Caesar should have been well aware that many of the senators hated him, but he dismissed his security force not long before his assassination. Reportedly, Caesar was handed a warning note as he entered the senate meeting that day but did not read it. After he entered the hall, Caesar was surrounded by senators holding daggers. Servilius Casca struck the first blow, hitting Caesar in the neck and drawing blood. The other senators all joined in, stabbing him repeatedly about the head. Marcus Brutus wounded Caesar in the groin and Caesar is said to have remarked in Greek, “You, too, my child?” In the aftermath of the assassination, Antony attempted to carry out Caesar’s legacy. However, Caesar’s will left Octavian in charge as his adopted son. Cassius and Brutus tried to rally a Republican army and Brutus even issued coins celebrating the assassination, known as the Ides of March. Octavian vowed revenge against the assassins, two years later Cassius and Brutus committed suicide after learning that Octavian’s forces had defeated theirs at the Battle of Philippa in Greece. Antony took his armies east, where he hooked up with Caesar’s old paramour, Cleopatra. Octavian and Antony fought for many years until Octavian prevailed. In 30 B.C., Antony committed suicide. Octavian, later known as Augustus, ruled the Roman Empire for many more years.	<urn:uuid:cfb72874-dd74-457a-9b39-7ce1ebdb7b3f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://samoaglobalnews.com/the-ides-of-march-julius-caesar-murder-march-15/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00337.warc.gz	en	0.980024	541	3.484375	3	[ -0.14998745918273926, 0.1528867930173874, 0.3047887086868286, 0.19799283146858215, -0.21949276328086853, -0.2481580376625061, 0.45717498660087585, 0.29232484102249146, 0.24062436819076538, -0.012499435804784298, 0.24728333950042725, -0.28654250502586365, -0.10298416018486023, 0.33585214614...	6	Julius Caesar, the ”dictator for life” of the Roman Empire, is murdered by his own senators at a meeting in a hall next to Pompey’s Theatre. The conspiracy against Caesar encompassed as many as sixty noblemen, including Caesar’s own protege, Marcus Brutus. The assassination of Caesar was the result of a conspiracy by many Roman senators led by Gaius Cassius Longinus, Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, and Marcus Junius Brutus. They stabbed Caesar (23 times) to death in a location adjacent to the Theatre of Pompey on the Ides of March on the 15th of March 44 BC. Caesar was scheduled to leave Rome to fight in a war on March 18 and had appointed loyal members of his army to rule the Empire in his absence. The Republican senators, already chafing at having to abide by Caesar’s decrees, were particularly angry about the prospect of taking orders from Caesar’s underlings. Cassius Longinus started the plot against the dictator, quickly getting his brother-in-law Marcus Brutus to join. Caesar should have been well aware that many of the senators hated him, but he dismissed his security force not long before his assassination. Reportedly, Caesar was handed a warning note as he entered the senate meeting that day but did not read it. After he entered the hall, Caesar was surrounded by senators holding daggers. Servilius Casca struck the first blow, hitting Caesar in the neck and drawing blood. The other senators all joined in, stabbing him repeatedly about the head. Marcus Brutus wounded Caesar in the groin and Caesar is said to have remarked in Greek, “You, too, my child?” In the aftermath of the assassination, Antony attempted to carry out Caesar’s legacy. However, Caesar’s will left Octavian in charge as his adopted son. Cassius and Brutus tried to rally a Republican army and Brutus even issued coins celebrating the assassination, known as the Ides of March. Octavian vowed revenge against the assassins, two years later Cassius and Brutus committed suicide after learning that Octavian’s forces had defeated theirs at the Battle of Philippa in Greece. Antony took his armies east, where he hooked up with Caesar’s old paramour, Cleopatra. Octavian and Antony fought for many years until Octavian prevailed. In 30 B.C., Antony committed suicide. Octavian, later known as Augustus, ruled the Roman Empire for many more years.	514	ENGLISH	1
We have been learning all about fall. In the fall, the weather gets cooler and the leaves on the trees change color and fall down. There are also special foods that grow in fall, like apples and pumpkins. We went outside on a nature walk so that we could observe all of the changes. We each got a special card with two pictures on it. The pictures were of different leaves or other things that we find outside during fall, like pinecones and acorns. We had so much fun searching for these materials and loved being outside and seeing and hearing all of the sounds in the forest. When we got into the forest, Mira said “I can hear something with my ears! I can hear birds!” We looked around but did not see any birds, we could only hear them. We walked all the way down to the river and then took a quiet minute to listen carefully. We could hear the water flowing. We also could see leaves and sticks floating in the river. Some friends were wondering why there were leaves in the river. Levi said, “because it’s fall and leaves come down in the fall.” It was so nice to be outside and experience this new season. We had fun using some of the materials that we collected as different kinds of paint brushes to create a new kind of picture. We used sticks, leaves and pinecones in order to make our paintings. When we were outside, we saw many different color leaves, both in the trees and on the ground. We had fun painting our own fall trees. We used a brush to paint the trunk and branches and then used q-tips to dot leaves onto the branches, falling through the air and on the ground. One kind of food that is ready to be picked in the fall are pumpkins. We got to cut open a pumpkin and see what was inside. There were so many seeds! We each got to feel the insides; many of us did not like the slimy texture of the pumpkin guts, but some of us had fun taking out as many seeds as we could find. Once the seeds were dry, we put them into bags with food coloring and had fun shaking them until all of the seeds were different colors. We then worked on our letter recognition and fine motor skills by picking out the first letter of our name and very carefully putting glue on the letter. Once we were done putting glue, we put pumpkin seeds on the letter. These letters are hanging in our classroom and we are so proud of how they came out. We also worked on our sorting skills and sorted all of the different colored seeds in separate containers. We got to use the pumpkin seeds to create art! We each got two small jars and had to put glue all around the outside. Then we placed pumpkin seeds carefully around the outside. We were excited to learn that we will take these jars home for Thanksgiving so that they can be centerpieces on our Thanksgiving table. One day, we walked into our classroom and saw a pumpkin with nails in it. We got a hammer and used our hand eye coordination to hit the nails and push them into the pumpkin. This was so much fun! We worked on our descriptive language skills by playing a pumpkin themed game. We talked about what we noticed about a real pumpkin. Then, we played pass the pumpkin. We sang a song and when the song ended, we had to think of something to say about the pumpkin. These were the things that we noticed: the pumpkin is orange, round, bumpy, heavy, hard, and has a stem. We also used pumpkin seeds to practice one to one correspondence. There were five pumpkins, each labeled with a different number from 1-5. We had to place the correct amount of seeds inside the pumpkin. Our class loves playing with playdough! We made fall play dough all together. We measured, poured, and mixed all of the ingredients together. At the end, we added the special ingredient: pumpkin pie spice. It made our play dough smell delicious! After it was ready, we used our fine motor and shape recognition skills to roll our play dough into a ball, just like a pumpkin. Then we added a stem and placed our “pumpkins” in the classroom as fall decorations. When it is fall, the weather gets cooler. We learned about how some animals prepare for the cooler weather. Hibernation is when an animal goes to sleep for the whole winter. We learned about different animals that hibernate and the different places that they sleep. Then we played a sorting game, where we matched the animals to the place that they hibernate (for example, a bear sleeps in a cave, while a frog hibernates in the dirt). Morah brought special, colorful corn into our classroom. We strengthened our fine motor skills by picking off the kernels. Although this was hard work, it has been one of our favorite activities this week. Come see how many kernels we have collected since this picture was taken! We have also been learning about Thanksgiving. Thanksgiving is a holiday when we think about the people that help us and are important to us, and we say thank you for all that you do. We have been working on a special project that will be showcased at our school Thanksgiving event next week. We can’t wait to show it to you!	<urn:uuid:ae20cffa-35f7-4442-8fcd-27ed9460a047>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://zimmerthrees.wordpress.com/2017/11/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00212.warc.gz	en	0.982309	1,102	3.375	3	[ -0.15713618695735931, -0.27821314334869385, 0.3474862575531006, 0.03181818127632141, 0.35563772916793823, 0.09345858544111252, 0.2728821635246277, 0.13508176803588867, -0.015111228451132774, 0.08362792432308197, 0.016406303271651268, -0.2726347744464874, 0.020590202882885933, 0.04803482815...	2	We have been learning all about fall. In the fall, the weather gets cooler and the leaves on the trees change color and fall down. There are also special foods that grow in fall, like apples and pumpkins. We went outside on a nature walk so that we could observe all of the changes. We each got a special card with two pictures on it. The pictures were of different leaves or other things that we find outside during fall, like pinecones and acorns. We had so much fun searching for these materials and loved being outside and seeing and hearing all of the sounds in the forest. When we got into the forest, Mira said “I can hear something with my ears! I can hear birds!” We looked around but did not see any birds, we could only hear them. We walked all the way down to the river and then took a quiet minute to listen carefully. We could hear the water flowing. We also could see leaves and sticks floating in the river. Some friends were wondering why there were leaves in the river. Levi said, “because it’s fall and leaves come down in the fall.” It was so nice to be outside and experience this new season. We had fun using some of the materials that we collected as different kinds of paint brushes to create a new kind of picture. We used sticks, leaves and pinecones in order to make our paintings. When we were outside, we saw many different color leaves, both in the trees and on the ground. We had fun painting our own fall trees. We used a brush to paint the trunk and branches and then used q-tips to dot leaves onto the branches, falling through the air and on the ground. One kind of food that is ready to be picked in the fall are pumpkins. We got to cut open a pumpkin and see what was inside. There were so many seeds! We each got to feel the insides; many of us did not like the slimy texture of the pumpkin guts, but some of us had fun taking out as many seeds as we could find. Once the seeds were dry, we put them into bags with food coloring and had fun shaking them until all of the seeds were different colors. We then worked on our letter recognition and fine motor skills by picking out the first letter of our name and very carefully putting glue on the letter. Once we were done putting glue, we put pumpkin seeds on the letter. These letters are hanging in our classroom and we are so proud of how they came out. We also worked on our sorting skills and sorted all of the different colored seeds in separate containers. We got to use the pumpkin seeds to create art! We each got two small jars and had to put glue all around the outside. Then we placed pumpkin seeds carefully around the outside. We were excited to learn that we will take these jars home for Thanksgiving so that they can be centerpieces on our Thanksgiving table. One day, we walked into our classroom and saw a pumpkin with nails in it. We got a hammer and used our hand eye coordination to hit the nails and push them into the pumpkin. This was so much fun! We worked on our descriptive language skills by playing a pumpkin themed game. We talked about what we noticed about a real pumpkin. Then, we played pass the pumpkin. We sang a song and when the song ended, we had to think of something to say about the pumpkin. These were the things that we noticed: the pumpkin is orange, round, bumpy, heavy, hard, and has a stem. We also used pumpkin seeds to practice one to one correspondence. There were five pumpkins, each labeled with a different number from 1-5. We had to place the correct amount of seeds inside the pumpkin. Our class loves playing with playdough! We made fall play dough all together. We measured, poured, and mixed all of the ingredients together. At the end, we added the special ingredient: pumpkin pie spice. It made our play dough smell delicious! After it was ready, we used our fine motor and shape recognition skills to roll our play dough into a ball, just like a pumpkin. Then we added a stem and placed our “pumpkins” in the classroom as fall decorations. When it is fall, the weather gets cooler. We learned about how some animals prepare for the cooler weather. Hibernation is when an animal goes to sleep for the whole winter. We learned about different animals that hibernate and the different places that they sleep. Then we played a sorting game, where we matched the animals to the place that they hibernate (for example, a bear sleeps in a cave, while a frog hibernates in the dirt). Morah brought special, colorful corn into our classroom. We strengthened our fine motor skills by picking off the kernels. Although this was hard work, it has been one of our favorite activities this week. Come see how many kernels we have collected since this picture was taken! We have also been learning about Thanksgiving. Thanksgiving is a holiday when we think about the people that help us and are important to us, and we say thank you for all that you do. We have been working on a special project that will be showcased at our school Thanksgiving event next week. We can’t wait to show it to you!	1,076	ENGLISH	1
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian physician who is known all over the world as the founder of psychoanalysis, a method to treat mental illnesses, usually involving dialogue between patient and doctor. He developed several innovative therapeutic techniques to cure his patients and delved into the subconscious thereby formulating many theories which remain popular even today. Know more about this revolutionary thinker through these 10 interesting facts. #1 Sigmund Freud was a William Shakespeare fan Sigmund Freud was born on May 6, 1856 in the Austrian town of Freiberg to Jewish Galician parents. Although his family was struggling financially, they favoured Sigmund over his 7 siblings and supported his education. Sigmund was an outstanding pupil and was proficient in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, Hebrew, Latin and Greek. Freud loved literature and read William Shakespeare throughout his life. It has been suggested that his understanding of human psychology was derived from Shakespeare’s plays. #2 He got engaged to Martha Bernays secretly Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17 and in 1881 he received his medical degree. The same year Freud met Martha Bernays, who was the sister of one of his University friends; and they fell in love. Although they were too poor to marry and start their own life, they got secretly engaged in 1882. Freud was torn between his passion for research and for Martha. Ultimately, in 1886, Freud resigned from his hospital post and entered private practice so that he could support Martha. They married the same year. #3 His daughter Anna Freud also went on to become a renowned psychologist Sigmund had six children with Martha. Their youngest child, Anna, followed the footsteps of her father and also became renowned for her contributions to psychoanalysis. She co-founded child psychoanalysis and summarized the ego’s defence mechanisms in her book The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence (1936). #4 He was an advocate of cocaine and this damaged his reputation In 1880s refined cocaine became widely available in Europe for the first time. Freud was one of the first researchers to study the effects of cocaine on the mind and body. His initial assessment of the drug was optimistic. In 1884, he published a paper in which he claimed that cocaine might be useful in treating low mood and morphine addiction. Freud went on to publish two more papers on cocaine which were more skeptical on its usage. In 1885, Freud tried to treat a friend’s morphine addiction by giving him cocaine. His friend immediately gave up morphine but instead developed a voracious appetite for cocaine, which ultimately caused his death in 1891. This incident damaged Freud’s reputation and he stopped advocating the use of cocaine. However he didn’t stop using it personally for a few more years. Cocaine made Freud talk about memories and experiences he previously thought were locked in his brain for no one to hear and this made it difficult for him to let go of cocaine. #5 Along with Josef Breuer he developed ‘taking cure’ therapy Early in his career, Freud was influenced by the methods of his friend Josef Breuer, who used hypnosis to treat his patients. Freud and Breuer frequently discussed their cases. One prominent case was that of Bertha Pappenheim (usually referred to by pseudonym Anna O), who suffered from many classic symptoms of hysteria. Breuer made Anna talk about her symptoms while under hypnosis and these symptoms became reduced in severity as she retrieved memories of traumatic incidents associated with their onset. This verbal therapy came to be known as ‘talking cure’, a term coined by Anna herself. Freud and Breuer documented their discussions of Anna O. and other case studies in their 1895 book, Studies on Hysteria. Freud believed that the “repressed” memories that lay behind hysterical symptoms were always of a sexual nature. Breuer did not hold this belief, which led to a split between the two men soon after the publication of the Studies. #6 Sigmund Freud’s most famous theory is the ‘Oedipus complex’ Between 1897 and 1899, Freud dedicated himself to recording his dreams and analysing them to determine the roots of his own neuroses, which he linked to the death of his father in 1886. During this self-analysis, Freud came to the conclusion that his problems were due to a repressed desire for his mother and his feelings of hostility towards his father because of jealousy over his mother’s affections. This formed the basis for his famous ‘Oedipus complex’ which became the key theory in determining the origin of neurosis in all of his patients. The dreams he had during this period provided much of the raw material for The Interpretation of Dreams, which was published in November 1899. Although the book received lukewarm response initially, it gained popularity as Freud did and is now considered one of the most important works in psychoanalysis. #7 His books were burned in Nazi Germany In 1930, Freud was awarded the Goethe Prize in recognition for his contributions to psychology and to German literary culture. However when the Nazis took control of Germany his books were burned and destroyed. Freud quipped: “What progress we are making. In the middle Ages they would have burned me. Now, they are content with burning my books.“ #8 Marie Bonaparte helped Freud escape from Germany In 1938, Nazi Germany annexed Austria and there were outbursts of anti-Semitism. However Freud underestimated the Nazi threat and remained determined to stay in Vienna. But when his home was raided several times and his daughter Anna Freud was arrested and questioned by the Gestapo, he became convinced that it was time to leave. The Nazis controlled emigration but with the help of his former patient Marie Bonaparte, princess of Greece and Denmark, exit permits were obtained for Freud and his immediate family. However Marie’s subsequent attempts to get exit visas for Freud’s four sisters failed and they all died in Nazi concentration camps during the course of the war. #9 Sigmund Freud’s death was by euthanasia Freud was a heavy smoker. He started smoking cigarettes when he was 24 and later he switched to cigars. He believed that smoking enhanced his working capacity and said that addictions, including that to tobacco, were substitutes for masturbation, “the one great habit”. Despite warnings, Freud continued smoking which eventually caused him to suffer from oral cancer. By September 1939, Freud’s cancer was causing him severe pain and was termed as inoperable. On September 21, Freud asked his doctor, Max Schur, to administer a dose of morphine large enough to ease him out of life. Anna Freud wanted to postpone her father’s death but Schur convinced her that it was pointless. On 21 and 22 September Schur administered doses of morphine that resulted in Freud’s death on 23 September 1939. Freud’s ashes rest in an ancient Greek urn that Freud had received as a gift from Princess Bonaparte. After his wife Martha died in 1951, her ashes were also placed in that urn. #10 Freud was among TIME’s 100 Most Important People of the Century Major contributions of Freud towards psychology include: development of therapeutic techniques like free association (in which patients report their thoughts without reservation, in whichever order they spontaneously occur and without suggestions from the psychoanalyst), discovering transference (unconscious redirection of feelings of patients, especially those derived from the sexual experiences and fantasies of their childhood, towards another person, like their analyst), formulating the Oedipus complex, Interpretation of Dreams and postulating the existence of libido. Sigmund Freud’s work has been both passionately praised and heavily criticized but no one has influenced psychology as much as Freud. In 2001, Time Magazine featured Sigmund Freud as one of their 100 most important people of the 20th century. “To us he is no more a person / now but a whole climate of opinion / under whom we conduct our different lives”. W. H. Auden in a poem dedicated to Sigmund Freud.	<urn:uuid:424ace83-0886-4e3b-96f8-8ba77197c7df>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://learnodo-newtonic.com/sigmund-freud-facts	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00412.warc.gz	en	0.988943	1,684	3.75	4	[ -0.1401749849319458, 0.5044143795967102, 0.43068361282348633, -0.04119349271059036, -0.3617590069770813, 0.2700978219509125, 0.6481444239616394, 0.24823403358459473, 0.04794324189424515, -0.3074124753475189, 0.29681074619293213, -0.38462746143341064, -0.38786205649375916, 0.685990095138549...	14	Sigmund Freud was an Austrian physician who is known all over the world as the founder of psychoanalysis, a method to treat mental illnesses, usually involving dialogue between patient and doctor. He developed several innovative therapeutic techniques to cure his patients and delved into the subconscious thereby formulating many theories which remain popular even today. Know more about this revolutionary thinker through these 10 interesting facts. #1 Sigmund Freud was a William Shakespeare fan Sigmund Freud was born on May 6, 1856 in the Austrian town of Freiberg to Jewish Galician parents. Although his family was struggling financially, they favoured Sigmund over his 7 siblings and supported his education. Sigmund was an outstanding pupil and was proficient in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, Hebrew, Latin and Greek. Freud loved literature and read William Shakespeare throughout his life. It has been suggested that his understanding of human psychology was derived from Shakespeare’s plays. #2 He got engaged to Martha Bernays secretly Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17 and in 1881 he received his medical degree. The same year Freud met Martha Bernays, who was the sister of one of his University friends; and they fell in love. Although they were too poor to marry and start their own life, they got secretly engaged in 1882. Freud was torn between his passion for research and for Martha. Ultimately, in 1886, Freud resigned from his hospital post and entered private practice so that he could support Martha. They married the same year. #3 His daughter Anna Freud also went on to become a renowned psychologist Sigmund had six children with Martha. Their youngest child, Anna, followed the footsteps of her father and also became renowned for her contributions to psychoanalysis. She co-founded child psychoanalysis and summarized the ego’s defence mechanisms in her book The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence (1936). #4 He was an advocate of cocaine and this damaged his reputation In 1880s refined cocaine became widely available in Europe for the first time. Freud was one of the first researchers to study the effects of cocaine on the mind and body. His initial assessment of the drug was optimistic. In 1884, he published a paper in which he claimed that cocaine might be useful in treating low mood and morphine addiction. Freud went on to publish two more papers on cocaine which were more skeptical on its usage. In 1885, Freud tried to treat a friend’s morphine addiction by giving him cocaine. His friend immediately gave up morphine but instead developed a voracious appetite for cocaine, which ultimately caused his death in 1891. This incident damaged Freud’s reputation and he stopped advocating the use of cocaine. However he didn’t stop using it personally for a few more years. Cocaine made Freud talk about memories and experiences he previously thought were locked in his brain for no one to hear and this made it difficult for him to let go of cocaine. #5 Along with Josef Breuer he developed ‘taking cure’ therapy Early in his career, Freud was influenced by the methods of his friend Josef Breuer, who used hypnosis to treat his patients. Freud and Breuer frequently discussed their cases. One prominent case was that of Bertha Pappenheim (usually referred to by pseudonym Anna O), who suffered from many classic symptoms of hysteria. Breuer made Anna talk about her symptoms while under hypnosis and these symptoms became reduced in severity as she retrieved memories of traumatic incidents associated with their onset. This verbal therapy came to be known as ‘talking cure’, a term coined by Anna herself. Freud and Breuer documented their discussions of Anna O. and other case studies in their 1895 book, Studies on Hysteria. Freud believed that the “repressed” memories that lay behind hysterical symptoms were always of a sexual nature. Breuer did not hold this belief, which led to a split between the two men soon after the publication of the Studies. #6 Sigmund Freud’s most famous theory is the ‘Oedipus complex’ Between 1897 and 1899, Freud dedicated himself to recording his dreams and analysing them to determine the roots of his own neuroses, which he linked to the death of his father in 1886. During this self-analysis, Freud came to the conclusion that his problems were due to a repressed desire for his mother and his feelings of hostility towards his father because of jealousy over his mother’s affections. This formed the basis for his famous ‘Oedipus complex’ which became the key theory in determining the origin of neurosis in all of his patients. The dreams he had during this period provided much of the raw material for The Interpretation of Dreams, which was published in November 1899. Although the book received lukewarm response initially, it gained popularity as Freud did and is now considered one of the most important works in psychoanalysis. #7 His books were burned in Nazi Germany In 1930, Freud was awarded the Goethe Prize in recognition for his contributions to psychology and to German literary culture. However when the Nazis took control of Germany his books were burned and destroyed. Freud quipped: “What progress we are making. In the middle Ages they would have burned me. Now, they are content with burning my books.“ #8 Marie Bonaparte helped Freud escape from Germany In 1938, Nazi Germany annexed Austria and there were outbursts of anti-Semitism. However Freud underestimated the Nazi threat and remained determined to stay in Vienna. But when his home was raided several times and his daughter Anna Freud was arrested and questioned by the Gestapo, he became convinced that it was time to leave. The Nazis controlled emigration but with the help of his former patient Marie Bonaparte, princess of Greece and Denmark, exit permits were obtained for Freud and his immediate family. However Marie’s subsequent attempts to get exit visas for Freud’s four sisters failed and they all died in Nazi concentration camps during the course of the war. #9 Sigmund Freud’s death was by euthanasia Freud was a heavy smoker. He started smoking cigarettes when he was 24 and later he switched to cigars. He believed that smoking enhanced his working capacity and said that addictions, including that to tobacco, were substitutes for masturbation, “the one great habit”. Despite warnings, Freud continued smoking which eventually caused him to suffer from oral cancer. By September 1939, Freud’s cancer was causing him severe pain and was termed as inoperable. On September 21, Freud asked his doctor, Max Schur, to administer a dose of morphine large enough to ease him out of life. Anna Freud wanted to postpone her father’s death but Schur convinced her that it was pointless. On 21 and 22 September Schur administered doses of morphine that resulted in Freud’s death on 23 September 1939. Freud’s ashes rest in an ancient Greek urn that Freud had received as a gift from Princess Bonaparte. After his wife Martha died in 1951, her ashes were also placed in that urn. #10 Freud was among TIME’s 100 Most Important People of the Century Major contributions of Freud towards psychology include: development of therapeutic techniques like free association (in which patients report their thoughts without reservation, in whichever order they spontaneously occur and without suggestions from the psychoanalyst), discovering transference (unconscious redirection of feelings of patients, especially those derived from the sexual experiences and fantasies of their childhood, towards another person, like their analyst), formulating the Oedipus complex, Interpretation of Dreams and postulating the existence of libido. Sigmund Freud’s work has been both passionately praised and heavily criticized but no one has influenced psychology as much as Freud. In 2001, Time Magazine featured Sigmund Freud as one of their 100 most important people of the 20th century. “To us he is no more a person / now but a whole climate of opinion / under whom we conduct our different lives”. W. H. Auden in a poem dedicated to Sigmund Freud.	1,717	ENGLISH	1
Poetic Form of the Bhagavad Gita Bhagavad-Gita is a very special narrative poem that was originally written in Epic- Puranic Sanskrit, an ancient Indo-European that developed in what is now known as India around 1600 B. C. E. This Poem is a very interesting and complex set of verses that introduces lot to us in such a short read. It asks many of the most difficult questions and we are left mind boggled thinking “What would I do if I were in Arjuna’s place? ” There are many things that are entwined in Bhagavad- Gita that is interesting, repetitive, and complex that help us to understand a culture and life much different from ours today. The First thing that I noticed when I first began reading Bhagavad- Gita wasn’t that it was complex, interesting or enlightening. It was the format of the poem, it’s a very specific format and that’s what caught my eye right when I looked at the first chapter. So in a way I guess it was very interesting to me. Firstly, I saw that it was a four line poem and after I read all the way through the end I noticed that this didn’t change at all and that it was absolute. It’s a very specific formation where the text appears to be very disciplined and shaped almost into nice little rectangles. In a way this could relate to the context of Bhagavad- Gita, everything is very disciplined and absolute but it could just be how the translator decided to format the poem. Even so, the translator chose a nice look for the poem and the disciplined look is pretty clean. Lastly, although the line structure didn’t change I found one other thing in the structure of the poem to be interesting. I went through thinking that it would stay eight syllables to the end but in some places there are instances where the syllables change and include more numbers of syllables per line. I will be talking about chapter eleven verses forty three through fifty, whether this odd inconsistency is just the translator’s interpretation or if it really plays a role in this play, I will try I bring my analysis of it to the table. I can’t be sure if this happens before forty three in chapter eleven because lines fourteen through forty two from chapter eleven aren’t included in our reading, but this is my observation anyways. In rectangle forty five there are eleven syllables per line and all of the other lines from forty three through fifty begin with eleven syllables. During these verses a very important thing happens between Arjuna and Krsna. Krsna shows Arjuna his divine thousand- armed form as a way to let him know how small of a matter he is involved in, that there’s a much bigger universe out there. Arjuna thanks him for allowing him to see this but the human mind isn’t capable of seeing nor processing something as divine as a Gods true form, so he pleads him to go back to his human form. This is where from lines fifty two through fifty five it goes straight back to eight syllables. I believe that I can understand why the translator chose to change the foundation in such an odd place in the poem. Krsna unveiling his true form to Arjuna is a big deal, the translator wants you to know this. Even if you can’t fathom the importance of this God doing something of this nature, you can understand and even visually see that it’s not easy for a human to experience something like what Krsna showed Arjuna. He begs for mercy and asks, pleads for Krsna to turn back into a lower form, Krsna tells him he is the only one that has ever seen his true form. So the question was why did Krsna decide to show Arjuna out of all the people in the world and how does this relate to the chaotic form of syllables? Like I stated earlier he showed Arjuna so that he could see with his own eyes that there’s a much bigger universe out there and that his squabble with his relatives is tiny in comparison. Also I believe that the weird abrupt form of syllables is the translator’s way of letting us experience the chaos and off balance that Arjuna felt in a small way then it goes back to normal just as Krsna goes back to human form. Yoga is a strong theme that is introduced in Bhagavad- Gita and it sort of gives us an inside look at the yoga that some of us aren’t used to. I took Yoga a few semesters ago and although it is a very disciplined act, I didn’t find it as bad as the picture that Bhagavad- Gita paints for us. Chapter six really gives you a peak into the discipline and hardcore training of Yoga. You get to see that it’s not just extra credit that the people needed for a college course, but instead it’s a lifestyle that they lived and breathed by. Firstly a yogi is a person that practices yoga and they should be in solitude, alone, controlled in thought and self without desires or possessions. When I took yoga it did have some of the same principles, where we should be aware of ourselves at all times and we should cast out thoughts of desire but oddly enough we should still be aware of them and understand them. The text goes on to tell us more about a true yogi, how and what they should do, all while giving us strict imagery to picture the discipline that they are very proud of. “Yoga is not greedy, nor yet for the abstemious; not for one too used to sleeping nor for the sleepless. So from this you can retrieve the idea that Yoga isn’t for everyone, not everyone can be a yogi for you have to have a lot of patience and persistence to even begin. When Arjuna sees Krsna’s true form there is a sort of link between them and you can see how yoga could play a part in this. Yoga is an action to unite oneself with divinity, Arjuna is the only human to get to see Krsna’s true form through this act and he also gets to see ideas of yoga scrambled in his vision. Like of how yoga is always changing and evolving and that the different poses of yoga could relate to the many forms of Krsna. There are many poses and positions of yoga and Krsna also has thousands of various forms of different shapes and colors. Yoga can be done in many different approaches depending on the yogi and there experience. The thing that I find interesting to the text is that even though Krsna’s definition of yoga is strict, it still seems as if it’s an everyday thing in everyone’s life. Yoga is rich, colorful and just as diverse as Arjuna’s vision of Krsna and it shows us how yoga engages much of our human existence as does Krsna’s divinity form includes us, as a whole inside of the universe. Krsna makes it understandable that Yoga isn’t just philosophy, but philosophy in action and it requires physical active participation from the whole. This is his way of telling Arjuna that it’s his duty in life to play his part in his whole in which he was born into. Arjuna must fight his family and friends in order to give forth his active participation because it’s who he is and yoga is who he is, it’s part of him also. Arjuna tells Arjuna that the same yoga that he is giving him is the same yoga is yoga he game Vivasan and here we see how is connected to light, divinity and transition. He shows Arjuna the divine light of his being that no other human has seen and this is to teach him a lesson, as well as give him much needed knowledge. The Caste system plays a huge part in “Bhagavad Gita” and although it isn’t really thrown at you and you don’t really have to know about it to read the text, it’s not the easiest to comprehend until you do know about it. The Caste system was a system, now said to be illegal, of social stratification which historically separated communities into different groups. The caste system is made of four principle castes where each person is put in their caste depending on their social class, age, sex and occupation. The one most important to “Bhagavad Gita” are the Kshatriya and they study the ancient Hindu scriptures under the watchful eye of the Brahman and they are expected to follow many of the same rules and ritual purity as the Brahman. But most importantly and how this caste system specifically ties into the text, is that this is the caste that Arjuna was born into. It is a warrior’s class where the people fight for a righteous cause or they are political leaders. Arjuna is told by Krsna that he should not throw down his weapons and refuse to fight because this is who he is and what he was born to do. Arjuna’s vision of Krsna’s divine form is so that Arjuna can remember that he is a Kshatriya and that he could see the entire universe, with the people dedicated to each of their destined castes. When Arjuna throws down his weapons and refuses to fight because the enemy is family and friends he believes that this will upset the caste system thus destroying or causing chaos in society. But Krsna tells him that his views aren’t right and that instead of doing the right thing, Arjuna is doing wrong because he is going against his caste system. Arjuna is a Kshatriya and there is just cause to fight and he must do as the universe wields him. Arjuna’s vision from Krsna is helpful because he is shown so much more than he could ever imagine and he sees how his small part to play must be completed because of how everyone else is doing their duty. There is order in the universe and Krsna shows Arjuna the right order of the universe and enlightens him in many areas of life.	<urn:uuid:dd3af13a-ddad-455a-b4c2-b5e582adecb6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://freebooksummary.com/poetic-form-of-the-bhagavad-gita-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00437.warc.gz	en	0.981423	2,180	3.5	4	[ -0.061427295207977295, -0.37241214513778687, 0.10398237407207489, 0.3760787844657898, -0.4545517861843109, -0.12843570113182068, 0.16332006454467773, 0.21875761449337006, -0.11236031353473663, -0.33872222900390625, -0.31907665729522705, -0.0709555372595787, -0.01446232944726944, 0.22431120...	1	Poetic Form of the Bhagavad Gita Bhagavad-Gita is a very special narrative poem that was originally written in Epic- Puranic Sanskrit, an ancient Indo-European that developed in what is now known as India around 1600 B. C. E. This Poem is a very interesting and complex set of verses that introduces lot to us in such a short read. It asks many of the most difficult questions and we are left mind boggled thinking “What would I do if I were in Arjuna’s place? ” There are many things that are entwined in Bhagavad- Gita that is interesting, repetitive, and complex that help us to understand a culture and life much different from ours today. The First thing that I noticed when I first began reading Bhagavad- Gita wasn’t that it was complex, interesting or enlightening. It was the format of the poem, it’s a very specific format and that’s what caught my eye right when I looked at the first chapter. So in a way I guess it was very interesting to me. Firstly, I saw that it was a four line poem and after I read all the way through the end I noticed that this didn’t change at all and that it was absolute. It’s a very specific formation where the text appears to be very disciplined and shaped almost into nice little rectangles. In a way this could relate to the context of Bhagavad- Gita, everything is very disciplined and absolute but it could just be how the translator decided to format the poem. Even so, the translator chose a nice look for the poem and the disciplined look is pretty clean. Lastly, although the line structure didn’t change I found one other thing in the structure of the poem to be interesting. I went through thinking that it would stay eight syllables to the end but in some places there are instances where the syllables change and include more numbers of syllables per line. I will be talking about chapter eleven verses forty three through fifty, whether this odd inconsistency is just the translator’s interpretation or if it really plays a role in this play, I will try I bring my analysis of it to the table. I can’t be sure if this happens before forty three in chapter eleven because lines fourteen through forty two from chapter eleven aren’t included in our reading, but this is my observation anyways. In rectangle forty five there are eleven syllables per line and all of the other lines from forty three through fifty begin with eleven syllables. During these verses a very important thing happens between Arjuna and Krsna. Krsna shows Arjuna his divine thousand- armed form as a way to let him know how small of a matter he is involved in, that there’s a much bigger universe out there. Arjuna thanks him for allowing him to see this but the human mind isn’t capable of seeing nor processing something as divine as a Gods true form, so he pleads him to go back to his human form. This is where from lines fifty two through fifty five it goes straight back to eight syllables. I believe that I can understand why the translator chose to change the foundation in such an odd place in the poem. Krsna unveiling his true form to Arjuna is a big deal, the translator wants you to know this. Even if you can’t fathom the importance of this God doing something of this nature, you can understand and even visually see that it’s not easy for a human to experience something like what Krsna showed Arjuna. He begs for mercy and asks, pleads for Krsna to turn back into a lower form, Krsna tells him he is the only one that has ever seen his true form. So the question was why did Krsna decide to show Arjuna out of all the people in the world and how does this relate to the chaotic form of syllables? Like I stated earlier he showed Arjuna so that he could see with his own eyes that there’s a much bigger universe out there and that his squabble with his relatives is tiny in comparison. Also I believe that the weird abrupt form of syllables is the translator’s way of letting us experience the chaos and off balance that Arjuna felt in a small way then it goes back to normal just as Krsna goes back to human form. Yoga is a strong theme that is introduced in Bhagavad- Gita and it sort of gives us an inside look at the yoga that some of us aren’t used to. I took Yoga a few semesters ago and although it is a very disciplined act, I didn’t find it as bad as the picture that Bhagavad- Gita paints for us. Chapter six really gives you a peak into the discipline and hardcore training of Yoga. You get to see that it’s not just extra credit that the people needed for a college course, but instead it’s a lifestyle that they lived and breathed by. Firstly a yogi is a person that practices yoga and they should be in solitude, alone, controlled in thought and self without desires or possessions. When I took yoga it did have some of the same principles, where we should be aware of ourselves at all times and we should cast out thoughts of desire but oddly enough we should still be aware of them and understand them. The text goes on to tell us more about a true yogi, how and what they should do, all while giving us strict imagery to picture the discipline that they are very proud of. “Yoga is not greedy, nor yet for the abstemious; not for one too used to sleeping nor for the sleepless. So from this you can retrieve the idea that Yoga isn’t for everyone, not everyone can be a yogi for you have to have a lot of patience and persistence to even begin. When Arjuna sees Krsna’s true form there is a sort of link between them and you can see how yoga could play a part in this. Yoga is an action to unite oneself with divinity, Arjuna is the only human to get to see Krsna’s true form through this act and he also gets to see ideas of yoga scrambled in his vision. Like of how yoga is always changing and evolving and that the different poses of yoga could relate to the many forms of Krsna. There are many poses and positions of yoga and Krsna also has thousands of various forms of different shapes and colors. Yoga can be done in many different approaches depending on the yogi and there experience. The thing that I find interesting to the text is that even though Krsna’s definition of yoga is strict, it still seems as if it’s an everyday thing in everyone’s life. Yoga is rich, colorful and just as diverse as Arjuna’s vision of Krsna and it shows us how yoga engages much of our human existence as does Krsna’s divinity form includes us, as a whole inside of the universe. Krsna makes it understandable that Yoga isn’t just philosophy, but philosophy in action and it requires physical active participation from the whole. This is his way of telling Arjuna that it’s his duty in life to play his part in his whole in which he was born into. Arjuna must fight his family and friends in order to give forth his active participation because it’s who he is and yoga is who he is, it’s part of him also. Arjuna tells Arjuna that the same yoga that he is giving him is the same yoga is yoga he game Vivasan and here we see how is connected to light, divinity and transition. He shows Arjuna the divine light of his being that no other human has seen and this is to teach him a lesson, as well as give him much needed knowledge. The Caste system plays a huge part in “Bhagavad Gita” and although it isn’t really thrown at you and you don’t really have to know about it to read the text, it’s not the easiest to comprehend until you do know about it. The Caste system was a system, now said to be illegal, of social stratification which historically separated communities into different groups. The caste system is made of four principle castes where each person is put in their caste depending on their social class, age, sex and occupation. The one most important to “Bhagavad Gita” are the Kshatriya and they study the ancient Hindu scriptures under the watchful eye of the Brahman and they are expected to follow many of the same rules and ritual purity as the Brahman. But most importantly and how this caste system specifically ties into the text, is that this is the caste that Arjuna was born into. It is a warrior’s class where the people fight for a righteous cause or they are political leaders. Arjuna is told by Krsna that he should not throw down his weapons and refuse to fight because this is who he is and what he was born to do. Arjuna’s vision of Krsna’s divine form is so that Arjuna can remember that he is a Kshatriya and that he could see the entire universe, with the people dedicated to each of their destined castes. When Arjuna throws down his weapons and refuses to fight because the enemy is family and friends he believes that this will upset the caste system thus destroying or causing chaos in society. But Krsna tells him that his views aren’t right and that instead of doing the right thing, Arjuna is doing wrong because he is going against his caste system. Arjuna is a Kshatriya and there is just cause to fight and he must do as the universe wields him. Arjuna’s vision from Krsna is helpful because he is shown so much more than he could ever imagine and he sees how his small part to play must be completed because of how everyone else is doing their duty. There is order in the universe and Krsna shows Arjuna the right order of the universe and enlightens him in many areas of life.	2,070	ENGLISH	1
While antisemitism was by no means a new phenomenon in Yugoslavia—as a matter of fact, especially since World War I, the entire political spectrum found reasons to attack Jews—under the impact of events in Germany, the situation deteriorated in the 1930s. Fritz Schwed from Nuremberg was under no illusions regarding his and his family’s temporary refuge. In this lengthy letter to his old friend from Nuremberg days, Fritz Dittmann, who had fled to New York, Schwed describes the dismal situation of emigrants in Yugoslavia, who are routinely expelled with just 24 hours’ notice. Even older people who have resided in the country for decades are not exempt from this cruel policy. Emigrants are forbidden to work, and when they are caught flouting the prohibition, they have to be prepared for immediate expulsion. Concluding that “There no longer is room for German Jews in Yugoslavia, and it seems to me, nowhere else in Europe, either,” Schwed explores possibilities to immigrate to Australia or South America. One of the tools in the hands of the Nazis to terrorize Jews was arbitrary incarceration: the Enabling Act of March 24th, 1933, handed the regime the legal basis for the perfidious institution of “protective custody”: persons deemed to “endanger the security of the people” could be detained without concrete charges. Ostensibly, the policy was aimed at political adversaries. In fact, however, it was frequently used against Jews. The salesman Hans Wilk was among its first victims: in 1933, at 24 years of age, he spent over four months at the Lichtenburg concentration camp. During the November pogroms of 1938, he was among the roughly 30,000 Jewish men incarcerated in concentration camps. On December 16th, he was released from the Sachsenhausen concentration camp in Oranienburg near Berlin. The requirement to report immediately to the State Police in his home town of Potsdam indicated that the harassment was not yet over. With the Enabling Act (Ermächtigungsgesetz) of March 24, 1933, the newly installed government of Adolf Hitler left little doubt about how it viewed the rule of law. The act allowed the government to suspend the constitution whenever it saw fit, to formulate laws and decrees without the involvement of parliament, and even to create treaties between Germany and other countries without parliamentary consent or compliance with the constitution. The arbitrariness and randomness of the legal system this created were intensified by the frequent evocation of the Gesundes Volksempfinden (“healthy popular sentiment”), a term that implied that the people’s putatively uncorrupted, natural instincts should be the basis of Germany’s jurisprudence. One such case was the “Law on the Creation of Testaments and Contracts of Inheritance” (§48) of July 31. Invoking “the needs of the Volksgemeinschaft“—code for racially conceived German national community—the law invalidated contracts through which a deceased person’s property was bequeathed to a Jew. More than two weeks had passed since the Nazi takeover in Austria. The initial shock and disbelief among Jews had given way to despair and panic. Many reacted by seeking information about visa requirements for countries like the United States, Great Britain and Australia, which promised a safe haven and sufficient distance from the dramatic new situation in Austria. Between March 24 and 28, the Australian consulate alone received 6,000 applications for immigration—a number which considerably exceeded the country’s official immigration quota. The passage in July 1933 of a law allowing the government to revoke the citizenship of those naturalized after the end of WWI had given Nazi officials a tool to deprive “undesirables” of their citizenship. The law targeted the Nazis’ political adversaries as well as Jews; 16,000 Eastern European Jews had gained German citizenship between the proclamation of the republic on November 9, 1918 and the Nazi rise to power in January 1933. Among those whose names appear on the expatriation list dated March 26, 1938 are Otto Wilhelm, his wife Katharina and the couple’s three children, residents of Worms and all five of them natives of Germany. Soma Morgenstern held a doctorate in law, but he preferred making a living as a writer, authoring feuilletons on music and theater. Born in Eastern Galicia and fluent in several languages, including Ukrainian and Yiddish, he chose German for his journalistic and literary endeavors. After his dismissal in 1933 from the Frankurter Zeitung, whose culture correspondent he had been while based in Vienna, he barely managed to stay afloat with occasional journalistic work. The annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany made his situation entirely untenable. He was forced into emigration, leaving behind his wife, a child, and many manuscripts. By March 23 he had made his way to safety in Paris, where he stayed at the Hôtel de la Poste with another famous Galician exile, his old friend, the author Joseph Roth. Since its founding in 1904, the League of Jewish Women had worked to ensure the dignity and independence of Jewish women and especially to protect them from sexual exploitation by facilitating professional training. By 1938, another issue had come to the fore: emigration. On March 22, 1938, the Group of Professional Women within the League, represented by Dr. Käthe Mende, hosted a discussion for “female youth” about questions of career and emigration. The guest speaker was Lotte Landau-Türk, and the discussion was moderated by Prof. Cora Berliner, a former employee in the German Department of Commerce and a professor of economics who had been dismissed from public service after the Nazi rise to power in 1933. Unwelcome in Nazi Germany as a Jew, a socialist, and a composer of music considered “degenerate” by the regime, Kurt Weill was able to celebrate his 38th birthday on March 2 in safety. After attacks in the Nazi press and targeted protests, Weill had already emigrated to France in 1933. Rehearsals for the premiere of his opera “The Eternal Road” (libretto: Franz Werfel) provided him with an opportunity to travel to the United States in 1935. Due to numerous technical difficulties, the premiere was postponed until 1937. Weill seized the opportunity and remained in America. The large-scale arrests of Jewish men during the November Pogroms – around 30,000 were incarcerated at the Sachsenhausen, Buchenwald and Dachau concentration camps – fulfilled its purpose: it served to blackmail Jews into giving up on their remaining assets and emigrating. Among the 10,911 Jews held in Dachau alone were Georg Friedmann, owner of a fashion shop in Schwandorf (Bavaria) and his son, Bruno. Lillian Friedman, his wife, lost no time. Already in November, with her husband and son still incarcerated, she went to the travel agency of the Hamburg-America-Line in Munich for a consultation, which was followed by an intensive correspondence. Thanks to a wealthy relative in New York (who had heard about them for the first time in this context), they had received an affidavit. The plan was to travel to New York via Cuba. On December 29th, the Hamburg-America-Line issued a receipt to Mrs. Friedmann for the passage from Hamburg to Havanna of her son, Bruno, and her mother-in-law, Amanda Friedmann. Stella was not thrilled about the idea of living in Palestine. Like her friend, Annemarie Riess, with whom she shared her feelings on December 28th, she had fled to Italy. But as a Jew, she was no longer welcome there, either. According to the fascist regime’s new racial laws, non-native Jews were to leave the country within six months. 2,000 of the 10,000 foreign Jews who had settled down in Italy before 1919 were exempt from the provision. At least Stella had an immigration certificate for Palestine, issued by the Mandatory Government, and at a Tel Aviv clinic, an unpaid position that came with free room and board was waiting for her. Nevertheless, she continued to try to get permission to enter the US or England. Actually, even the offer on an unpaid position was more than many immigrant physicians could expect in Palestine. Since 1936, there was a surplus of physicians in the land, and a new wave of immigration after the annexation of Austria in February 1938 (“Anschluss”) had aggravated the situation even more. At 16, Heinz Ludwig Katscher was among the older German-Jewish children the British government had agreed to accept as temporary asylees. His parents, the engineer Alfred Katscher and his wife, Leopoldine, as well as his younger sister, Liane, had stayed behind in Vienna. The boy, traveling with a group of youngsters all of whom were too young to go to an unknown place on their own, had clearly expressed feelings of homesickness in his first letters home, since his father refers to the topic lovingly and reassuringly. Even though Mr. Katscher obviously misses his beloved son, he comes across as upbeat: allegedly, the “American permits” are on their way, thanks to which the family is feeling “more determined and secure.” He is exuberant in his praise for his son’s accomplishment in traveling to England without his family and expresses his confidence in the teenager’s ability to make the right decisions regarding his future in England. Due to the perception prevalent since the middle of the 19th century that immigrants, preferably from Europe, were needed to populate the vast expanses of Argentina, the country’s immigration policy was comparatively generous. But already following WWI, the country’s needs for manpower were perceived as saturated, and by the 20s, administrative barriers to immigration were put up. With victims of Nazi persecution seeking refuge, immigration policy was tightened even more. Nevertheless, many thousands of German Jews as well as political adversaries of the regime found refuge in Argentina. Among them was Max Busse. His sister, Anna Nachtlicht, had heard about plans of the Argentine government to ease immigration and make it possible to request permits for siblings. Max immediately went to make inquiries, but the results were sobering. In this December 26th letter, he is forced to tell her that no such plans seem to exist. Relatives in France had offered the Nachtlichts to stay with them to wait for their visas for a third country. Perhaps, Max suggests, it would be easier to apply from there. Jewish furriers began to do business at the Leipzig Trade Fair in the middle of the 16th century. For hundreds of years, Jewish traders were allowed into Leipzig only during the fair, but even so, they significantly contributed to the city’s wealth. In the wake of the legal equalization of the Jews in the 19th century, Jewish furriers began to settle in Leipzig, concentrating on a street known as Brühl. Over time, Jews helped to turn the city into an international center of the fur trade. After 1933, many Jewish furriers fled to centers of the trade abroad. Siegmund Fein, born in Leipzig in 1880, was still in Leipzig in 1938. His and his wife’s ordeal under the Nazis culminated during the November pogroms. Siegmund Fein was incarcerated at the Buchenwald concentration camp from November 11th to 30th and badly maltreated. After his release, he was refused appropriate medical care. On December 20th, he fled to Brussels. The painting displayed here, “Head of a Girl” by the German classicist painter Anselm Feuerbach was confiscated by the Nazis – along with other works of art from the Feins’ collection. Not long after power was handed to the Nazis, the motto “Police – your friends and helpers,” which already during the Weimar Republic often reflected a hope rather than reality, lost any hint of meaning for opponents of the regime and for the country’s Jews. A law introduced as early as February 1933 stipulated that police officers who resorted to the use of firearms against people perceived as enemies of the regime were to go unpunished. As part of an unholy trinity, in tandem with the SA and SS, the police quickly became an instrument of Nazi terror. Therefore, obtaining a police clearance certificate was probably not the easiest of the requirements of would-be immigrants applying for US visas. On December 24th, 1938, this important document was issued to Ernst Aldor, a resident of Vienna. America was struggling with economic difficulties, and an unfavorable attitude towards “aliens” prevailed in Congress. Among much of the populace, the idea of admitting large numbers of Jewish immigrants was not popular, and President Roosevelt was not inclined to relax America’s immigration restrictions. Thus, when Alice Rice of Virginia Beach tried to facilitate the immigration of her Czech relatives, she received the standard answer from the acting chief of the Foreign Office’s visa division, Eliot B. Coulter. He emphasized the importance of proving that the applicants were not likely to become “public charges” and pointed to the provisions of the 1917 Immigration Act, which, in addition to economic prerequisites, made immigration dependent on a host of conditions grounded in considerations of a political, racial, moral and health-related nature, as well as stating that a person 16 or more years of age was eligible for immigration only if literate. Despite the valiant efforts of Frances Perkins, Secretary of Labor, whose department was in charge of immigration and naturalization issues at the time, US policy was not revised to accommodate the needs created by the wave of refugees coming out of Nazi Germany. Interestingly, one of the justifications for this was that the German quota was actually never filled – without mentioning, of course, that this was a result of the “public charge” provision, which made it impossible for many German Jews, who had been systematically driven into poverty by the Nazis, to successfully apply for visas. Already in the late 19th century, hostility towards Jews was common in German spas, some of which advertised themselves as “free of Jews.” In the Baltic and North Seas, entire islands presented themselves as anti-Semitic. Nevertheless, some had a small Jewish population. On the beaches of the North Sea health resort of Wangerooge, swastika flags were displayed as early as 1920, just after becoming the symbol of the Nazi party. When the Nazis had been voted into power, the situation became even harder for the island’s Jews. On December 22nd, 1938, Fritz Jacoby, himself a beneficiary of the work of the Boston Committee for Refugees and a recent arrival to the United States, turned to Willy Nordwind, its co-chair, on behalf of Marga Levy, a 24-year-old native of Wangerooge. In the wake of the pogrom of November 9-10, all of her male relatives had been incarcerated, there was no money and no way to make a living. Thus, the grateful Mr. Jacoby implores the Committee to provide the young woman with a “domestic affidavit” which would enable her to “work day and night to feed her parents.” On August 17th, a provision was added to the Law on Alteration of Family and Personal Names, forcing German Jews to identify themselves as Jews by adding the name “Sara” or “Israel” to their given names. This provision was slated to come into effect on January 1st, 1939. The registry office in charge and local police were to be notified of the implementation of the provision until the end of January. This notification by the Friedmann family, dated December 21st, 1938, to the local police authorities in Schwandorf, Bavaria, falls into this context. It also communicates that the registry offices in charge have been notified of the imminent name changes of Amalie, Bruno, Lillian and Georg Friedmann. On November 10th, in the course of the pogroms sweeping the entire Reich, Ernst Aldor, an electrical engineer, was arrested in his own home in Vienna for the crime of being a Jew. He was deported to the Dachau concentration camp 366 kilometers west of his home town. On December 9th, he was released. During the period of his incarceration, his wife Renée received an entry permit for Bolivia and a telegram from her cousin, Emil Deutsch, in America, confirming that an affidavit was being prepared. Australia was a third option the couple had considered as a place of refuge. To prepare for emigration, Renée Aldor, a native of Hungary, procured this document from the registry office at police headquarters in Vienna, dated December 20th, listing all her residences in the city since 1920. The banishment of Jews from public spaces was far advanced by now. Already in 1933, Jewish creative artists had been dismissed from state-sponsored cultural life. Since November 12th, 1938, Jews were no longer admitted even as audience members at “presentations of German culture” and were banished from concert halls, opera houses, libraries and museums. More and more restaurants and shops denied access to Jews. On Dec. 12th, 1938, the Jewish Telegraphic Agency pointed out a striking discrepancy: while abroad, the “German News Bureau,” the central news agency of the Reich which followed the directives of the Propaganda Ministry, spread the information that from January 1st, 1939, certain anti-Semitic measures would be relaxed, quite the opposite had been communicated to Jews inside the Reich. One fact, however, was not hidden: the goal was to prompt all Jews to emigrate, “also in the interest of the Jews themselves,” as the Bureau put it. Following the November Pogroms, individuals and groups in England, among them faith-based organizations, demonstrated through their relentless refugee advocacy and organizing how effective determined action by citizens can be. Among those who lobbied the British government specifically on behalf of Jewish children was the Society of Friends (Quakers). After initial rejection by Prime Minister Chamberlain, a delegation composed of Jews and Quakers met with Home Secretary Hoare, following which the government gave permission to issue visas and facilitate the children’s entry into the country. Within the shortest time, host families were recruited, donations solicited, tickets booked, transit visas organized (the children traveled via Hoek van Holland). The network of Jewish and non-Jewish helpers included Dutch volunteers who welcomed the children at the border, gave them food and drink and accompanied them all the way to the ship in Hoek van Holland. The first group arrived at Harwich on December 2. The organized efforts to rescue Jewish children from Nazi Germany later came to be known as “Kindertransport.” In 1903, in the wake of the Kishinev pogrom, the British government agreed to allow European Jewish settlement in a territory then known as the “East Africa Protectorate,” today’s Kenya. Due to massive opposition from within the Zionist movement, the plan, known by the misleading name “Uganda Scheme,” did not come to fruition. 35 years later, Paul Egon Cahn, most recently a resident of Cologne, found himself in Rongai, Kenya. After the November pogroms, the 20-year-old car mechanic began to try to get his parents out of Germany. While European settlers and members of the local Indian community in Kenya opposed the immigration of Jewish refugees, the “Kenya Jewish Refugee Committee,” which had facilitated his immigration, was supportive. Thus, the young man turned to its secretary, Israel Somen, for help: he urgently needed the £100 the British Colonial Office charged for two entry permits. Willy Nordwind, co-chair of the Boston Committee for Refugees, tirelessly endeavored to save Jews from the grip of the Nazis by helping them immigrate to the United States. Himself an immigrant from Germany and familiar with the requirements, he helped organize affidavits and saw to it that newcomers with fields of expertise as heterogeneous as “tobacco and clothing retail business,” “tourism,” “expert buyer and salesman of hosiery,” and “wholesale fish dealer” found employment in America. Most of the people he helped were total strangers to him, but some of his beneficiaries were personal acquaintances. On November 28th, 1938, his friend Seppel pleads with Nordwind to find a special arrangement for him that would speed things up. Requests for visas had risen sharply since the pogrom night of November 9th to 10th (later known as “Kristallnacht” or “Night of Broken Glass”), and the usual waiting period for the processing of affidavits was far too long. Thanks to his thriving practice in the Steinbühl neighborhood of Nuremberg, Dr. Adolf Dessauer had achieved a certain prosperity. His generous apartment offered a children’s room for his sons, Heinz and Rolf, maid’s quarters, space for his practice and a waiting room, a living and dining room, and, not least, a bedroom with furniture made of cherry wood. In 1937, due to the effects of anti-Semitic legislation targeting doctors, Dr. Dessauer was forced to give up his practice. Emigration was the only solution. But how to take the beautiful bedroom furniture abroad? The Nazis rendered this concern obsolete: During the November pogroms, in the night of November 9 to 10 (later known as “Kristallnacht” or “Night of Broken Glass”), the furniture was smashed to pieces and a portrait of the Nobel laureate, Paul Ehrlich, slashed and ruined. Only a few days after the shock of the brutal destruction, the Dessauers experienced a rare gesture of decency. A total stranger returned the portrait, which was by now perfectly restored. No one reading the November issue of the Aufbau could have missed the front-page editorial message in bold print: under the heading “The Great Trial,” forceful language is employed to decry the abject failure of “the heads of state of the so-called democracies,” who have sacrificed Czechoslovakia to Nazi Germany. Jewish refugees are left stranded in no man’s land in Bohemia, in Germany, the Nazis are dealing an “economic death blow” to the Jews, the British are jeopardizing the Zionist project, and “little more than a faint memory” remains of the Evian Conference, summoned in July to tackle the problem of resettling Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany. Surely, this is “an era of complete sinfulness.” Will those under threat finally brace up? The news of the brutal acts of violence perpetrated against German and Austrian Jews during the November pogroms sent shockwaves through Jewish communities. On November 15, a group of Jewish leaders in Britain requested that their government grant temporary shelter to Jewish youngsters who were to be returned to their countries later on. On November 25, the Jewish Telegraphic Agency reported on the planned opening of a camp for 600 child refugees from Germany on the east coast of England. The British chapter of the World Movement for the Care of Children from Germany was to recruit families to offer foster homes for 5,000 children. The plan had government approval – provided the children were under 17 years of age and the costs of their support would not be a burden to the public. Had Austria’s history taken a normal course, Hanna Spitzer, a private teacher, would probably have stayed in Vienna and grown old there as a respected member of society. As a daughter of the late jurist and patron of the arts, Dr. Alfred Spitzer, she was co-heir to a major art collection comprising works by such greats as Kokoschka and Slevogt. Egon Schiele was represented too – among other works, with a portrait of Alfred Spitzer, who had been his sponsor and lawyer, and later his estate trustee. But the flood of anti-Semitic measures which had been unleashed by the “Anschluss” (the annexation of Austria to Nazi Germany) made it unbearable and dangerous to stay: this copy of a tax clearance certificate dated November 24, 1938 testifies to Hanna Spitzer’s efforts to gather the papers required for emigration. Already in January, she had arranged for the shipping of 11 containers of household effects and paintings to Melbourne and a delivery to the address of her sister, Edith Naumann, in Haifa. Could Willy Nordwind of the Boston Committee for Refugees—an organization not dealing specifically with unaccompanied child immigrants—be entrusted with the well-being of a 16-year-old girl? The Relief Organization of Jews in Germany was not ready to take chances: rather than just sending Frieda Diamont on her way, the organization turned to the National Council of Jewish Women in New York to ascertain Mr. Norwind’s integrity. The Council’s Merle Henoch passed on the case to Jewish Family Welfare in Boston, Mass., where Nordwind, too, was based. For her there was no doubt: as generous a helper as Willy Norwind must be a trustworthy ally. The works of the Expressionist painter and graphic artist Bruno Gimpel were classified as “degenerate” during the Third Reich. Neither his voluntary service as an aide in a military hospital during World War I nor his “mixed marriage” with an “Aryan” woman spared him the usual repressive measures. On November 22nd, 1938 he received a letter from the Reichskammer der Bildenden Künste, the Nazi authority in charge of the visual arts, which yet again denied him membership and banned him from all branches of his profession. In 1935, this institution of the Third Reich had once before rejected a request for admission by the Dresden artist. Since 1937, he had no choice but to make a living by giving drawing lessons to Jewish children. Among the over 1,400 German synagogues destroyed on and around the pogrom night of November 9th to 10th (later known as “Kristallnacht” or “Night of Broken Glass”) was the Semper Synagogue in Dresden, named after its architect. While neo-Romanesque on the outside, the building featured an interior in Moorish Revival Style – a design imitated by numerous other architects of synagogues in Germany. When the building was burnt down by both the SA and SS, 98 years had passed since its festive opening in 1840, at which Rabbi Zacharias Frankel had consecrated it to the service of God “for all eternity” and extolled the “respect for religious freedom inspiring this people.” For 19 years, Fritz Feldstein had been working at a bank in Vienna to the full satisfaction of his superiors. But, in 1938, after Nazi Germany annexed neighboring Austria, he lost his position. On July 5th, the family registered with the US consulate in Vienna, but for immigration, affidavits were needed. After months of deeply upsetting political changes, Fritz Feldstein ventured an unusual step. On Oct. 16th, he turned to a Julius Feldstein in Los Angeles who, he hoped, might be a relative, appealing to “the well-known American readiness to help.” Soon, a correspondence developed, also involving Fritz’s wife, Martha, and their daughter, Gerda. The 11-year-old was not only a skillful piano player, she obviously also had a knack for languages. On November 20th, she writes to the Feldsteins in California for the first time – in English. Harry Kranner was a boy of 12 when the Nazis staged a wave of anti-Jewish violence unprecedented in scope and intensity – purportedly a “spontaneous outburst of popular rage” in reaction to the murder of an employee of the German embassy in Paris at the hand of a young Jew. However, Harry’s diary entries show that he was keenly aware of the events around him. In the early morning of November 10th, when the violent events of the night spilled over from Germany into Austria, two Gestapo officers had come to the family’s home in Vienna – ostensibly in search of weapons. Harry understood how extraordinarily lucky he was to have gotten away with nothing more than a scare. He had heard about Jews being locked into or out of their apartments. But one big worry remained: by November 12th, there was still no trace of his uncle Arthur, who had been arrested along with thousands of other Jews. Following a news report that all arrestees were to be deported to the Dachau and Mauthausen concentration camps from the Vienna Westbahnhof, Harry’s father and aunt rushed there, hoping to find uncle Arthur, but to no avail. Meanwhile, it was reported that the Jews were going to be charged a hefty penalty for the violence to which they themselves had fallen victim.	<urn:uuid:61ed72e5-241c-4bd2-8a8b-a7d09cdb2ddd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.lbi.org/1938projekt/?s=March%202	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00449.warc.gz	en	0.981852	6,096	3.3125	3	[ -0.3212388753890991, 0.454641193151474, -0.20346282422542572, -0.07314565777778625, 0.23900723457336426, 0.08056479692459106, 0.15714409947395325, 0.2215689867734909, -0.1259836107492447, 0.0911073312163353, 0.5364927053451538, 0.31468966603279114, 0.03156830370426178, 0.5115305185317993, ...	4	While antisemitism was by no means a new phenomenon in Yugoslavia—as a matter of fact, especially since World War I, the entire political spectrum found reasons to attack Jews—under the impact of events in Germany, the situation deteriorated in the 1930s. Fritz Schwed from Nuremberg was under no illusions regarding his and his family’s temporary refuge. In this lengthy letter to his old friend from Nuremberg days, Fritz Dittmann, who had fled to New York, Schwed describes the dismal situation of emigrants in Yugoslavia, who are routinely expelled with just 24 hours’ notice. Even older people who have resided in the country for decades are not exempt from this cruel policy. Emigrants are forbidden to work, and when they are caught flouting the prohibition, they have to be prepared for immediate expulsion. Concluding that “There no longer is room for German Jews in Yugoslavia, and it seems to me, nowhere else in Europe, either,” Schwed explores possibilities to immigrate to Australia or South America. One of the tools in the hands of the Nazis to terrorize Jews was arbitrary incarceration: the Enabling Act of March 24th, 1933, handed the regime the legal basis for the perfidious institution of “protective custody”: persons deemed to “endanger the security of the people” could be detained without concrete charges. Ostensibly, the policy was aimed at political adversaries. In fact, however, it was frequently used against Jews. The salesman Hans Wilk was among its first victims: in 1933, at 24 years of age, he spent over four months at the Lichtenburg concentration camp. During the November pogroms of 1938, he was among the roughly 30,000 Jewish men incarcerated in concentration camps. On December 16th, he was released from the Sachsenhausen concentration camp in Oranienburg near Berlin. The requirement to report immediately to the State Police in his home town of Potsdam indicated that the harassment was not yet over. With the Enabling Act (Ermächtigungsgesetz) of March 24, 1933, the newly installed government of Adolf Hitler left little doubt about how it viewed the rule of law. The act allowed the government to suspend the constitution whenever it saw fit, to formulate laws and decrees without the involvement of parliament, and even to create treaties between Germany and other countries without parliamentary consent or compliance with the constitution. The arbitrariness and randomness of the legal system this created were intensified by the frequent evocation of the Gesundes Volksempfinden (“healthy popular sentiment”), a term that implied that the people’s putatively uncorrupted, natural instincts should be the basis of Germany’s jurisprudence. One such case was the “Law on the Creation of Testaments and Contracts of Inheritance” (§48) of July 31. Invoking “the needs of the Volksgemeinschaft“—code for racially conceived German national community—the law invalidated contracts through which a deceased person’s property was bequeathed to a Jew. More than two weeks had passed since the Nazi takeover in Austria. The initial shock and disbelief among Jews had given way to despair and panic. Many reacted by seeking information about visa requirements for countries like the United States, Great Britain and Australia, which promised a safe haven and sufficient distance from the dramatic new situation in Austria. Between March 24 and 28, the Australian consulate alone received 6,000 applications for immigration—a number which considerably exceeded the country’s official immigration quota. The passage in July 1933 of a law allowing the government to revoke the citizenship of those naturalized after the end of WWI had given Nazi officials a tool to deprive “undesirables” of their citizenship. The law targeted the Nazis’ political adversaries as well as Jews; 16,000 Eastern European Jews had gained German citizenship between the proclamation of the republic on November 9, 1918 and the Nazi rise to power in January 1933. Among those whose names appear on the expatriation list dated March 26, 1938 are Otto Wilhelm, his wife Katharina and the couple’s three children, residents of Worms and all five of them natives of Germany. Soma Morgenstern held a doctorate in law, but he preferred making a living as a writer, authoring feuilletons on music and theater. Born in Eastern Galicia and fluent in several languages, including Ukrainian and Yiddish, he chose German for his journalistic and literary endeavors. After his dismissal in 1933 from the Frankurter Zeitung, whose culture correspondent he had been while based in Vienna, he barely managed to stay afloat with occasional journalistic work. The annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany made his situation entirely untenable. He was forced into emigration, leaving behind his wife, a child, and many manuscripts. By March 23 he had made his way to safety in Paris, where he stayed at the Hôtel de la Poste with another famous Galician exile, his old friend, the author Joseph Roth. Since its founding in 1904, the League of Jewish Women had worked to ensure the dignity and independence of Jewish women and especially to protect them from sexual exploitation by facilitating professional training. By 1938, another issue had come to the fore: emigration. On March 22, 1938, the Group of Professional Women within the League, represented by Dr. Käthe Mende, hosted a discussion for “female youth” about questions of career and emigration. The guest speaker was Lotte Landau-Türk, and the discussion was moderated by Prof. Cora Berliner, a former employee in the German Department of Commerce and a professor of economics who had been dismissed from public service after the Nazi rise to power in 1933. Unwelcome in Nazi Germany as a Jew, a socialist, and a composer of music considered “degenerate” by the regime, Kurt Weill was able to celebrate his 38th birthday on March 2 in safety. After attacks in the Nazi press and targeted protests, Weill had already emigrated to France in 1933. Rehearsals for the premiere of his opera “The Eternal Road” (libretto: Franz Werfel) provided him with an opportunity to travel to the United States in 1935. Due to numerous technical difficulties, the premiere was postponed until 1937. Weill seized the opportunity and remained in America. The large-scale arrests of Jewish men during the November Pogroms – around 30,000 were incarcerated at the Sachsenhausen, Buchenwald and Dachau concentration camps – fulfilled its purpose: it served to blackmail Jews into giving up on their remaining assets and emigrating. Among the 10,911 Jews held in Dachau alone were Georg Friedmann, owner of a fashion shop in Schwandorf (Bavaria) and his son, Bruno. Lillian Friedman, his wife, lost no time. Already in November, with her husband and son still incarcerated, she went to the travel agency of the Hamburg-America-Line in Munich for a consultation, which was followed by an intensive correspondence. Thanks to a wealthy relative in New York (who had heard about them for the first time in this context), they had received an affidavit. The plan was to travel to New York via Cuba. On December 29th, the Hamburg-America-Line issued a receipt to Mrs. Friedmann for the passage from Hamburg to Havanna of her son, Bruno, and her mother-in-law, Amanda Friedmann. Stella was not thrilled about the idea of living in Palestine. Like her friend, Annemarie Riess, with whom she shared her feelings on December 28th, she had fled to Italy. But as a Jew, she was no longer welcome there, either. According to the fascist regime’s new racial laws, non-native Jews were to leave the country within six months. 2,000 of the 10,000 foreign Jews who had settled down in Italy before 1919 were exempt from the provision. At least Stella had an immigration certificate for Palestine, issued by the Mandatory Government, and at a Tel Aviv clinic, an unpaid position that came with free room and board was waiting for her. Nevertheless, she continued to try to get permission to enter the US or England. Actually, even the offer on an unpaid position was more than many immigrant physicians could expect in Palestine. Since 1936, there was a surplus of physicians in the land, and a new wave of immigration after the annexation of Austria in February 1938 (“Anschluss”) had aggravated the situation even more. At 16, Heinz Ludwig Katscher was among the older German-Jewish children the British government had agreed to accept as temporary asylees. His parents, the engineer Alfred Katscher and his wife, Leopoldine, as well as his younger sister, Liane, had stayed behind in Vienna. The boy, traveling with a group of youngsters all of whom were too young to go to an unknown place on their own, had clearly expressed feelings of homesickness in his first letters home, since his father refers to the topic lovingly and reassuringly. Even though Mr. Katscher obviously misses his beloved son, he comes across as upbeat: allegedly, the “American permits” are on their way, thanks to which the family is feeling “more determined and secure.” He is exuberant in his praise for his son’s accomplishment in traveling to England without his family and expresses his confidence in the teenager’s ability to make the right decisions regarding his future in England. Due to the perception prevalent since the middle of the 19th century that immigrants, preferably from Europe, were needed to populate the vast expanses of Argentina, the country’s immigration policy was comparatively generous. But already following WWI, the country’s needs for manpower were perceived as saturated, and by the 20s, administrative barriers to immigration were put up. With victims of Nazi persecution seeking refuge, immigration policy was tightened even more. Nevertheless, many thousands of German Jews as well as political adversaries of the regime found refuge in Argentina. Among them was Max Busse. His sister, Anna Nachtlicht, had heard about plans of the Argentine government to ease immigration and make it possible to request permits for siblings. Max immediately went to make inquiries, but the results were sobering. In this December 26th letter, he is forced to tell her that no such plans seem to exist. Relatives in France had offered the Nachtlichts to stay with them to wait for their visas for a third country. Perhaps, Max suggests, it would be easier to apply from there. Jewish furriers began to do business at the Leipzig Trade Fair in the middle of the 16th century. For hundreds of years, Jewish traders were allowed into Leipzig only during the fair, but even so, they significantly contributed to the city’s wealth. In the wake of the legal equalization of the Jews in the 19th century, Jewish furriers began to settle in Leipzig, concentrating on a street known as Brühl. Over time, Jews helped to turn the city into an international center of the fur trade. After 1933, many Jewish furriers fled to centers of the trade abroad. Siegmund Fein, born in Leipzig in 1880, was still in Leipzig in 1938. His and his wife’s ordeal under the Nazis culminated during the November pogroms. Siegmund Fein was incarcerated at the Buchenwald concentration camp from November 11th to 30th and badly maltreated. After his release, he was refused appropriate medical care. On December 20th, he fled to Brussels. The painting displayed here, “Head of a Girl” by the German classicist painter Anselm Feuerbach was confiscated by the Nazis – along with other works of art from the Feins’ collection. Not long after power was handed to the Nazis, the motto “Police – your friends and helpers,” which already during the Weimar Republic often reflected a hope rather than reality, lost any hint of meaning for opponents of the regime and for the country’s Jews. A law introduced as early as February 1933 stipulated that police officers who resorted to the use of firearms against people perceived as enemies of the regime were to go unpunished. As part of an unholy trinity, in tandem with the SA and SS, the police quickly became an instrument of Nazi terror. Therefore, obtaining a police clearance certificate was probably not the easiest of the requirements of would-be immigrants applying for US visas. On December 24th, 1938, this important document was issued to Ernst Aldor, a resident of Vienna. America was struggling with economic difficulties, and an unfavorable attitude towards “aliens” prevailed in Congress. Among much of the populace, the idea of admitting large numbers of Jewish immigrants was not popular, and President Roosevelt was not inclined to relax America’s immigration restrictions. Thus, when Alice Rice of Virginia Beach tried to facilitate the immigration of her Czech relatives, she received the standard answer from the acting chief of the Foreign Office’s visa division, Eliot B. Coulter. He emphasized the importance of proving that the applicants were not likely to become “public charges” and pointed to the provisions of the 1917 Immigration Act, which, in addition to economic prerequisites, made immigration dependent on a host of conditions grounded in considerations of a political, racial, moral and health-related nature, as well as stating that a person 16 or more years of age was eligible for immigration only if literate. Despite the valiant efforts of Frances Perkins, Secretary of Labor, whose department was in charge of immigration and naturalization issues at the time, US policy was not revised to accommodate the needs created by the wave of refugees coming out of Nazi Germany. Interestingly, one of the justifications for this was that the German quota was actually never filled – without mentioning, of course, that this was a result of the “public charge” provision, which made it impossible for many German Jews, who had been systematically driven into poverty by the Nazis, to successfully apply for visas. Already in the late 19th century, hostility towards Jews was common in German spas, some of which advertised themselves as “free of Jews.” In the Baltic and North Seas, entire islands presented themselves as anti-Semitic. Nevertheless, some had a small Jewish population. On the beaches of the North Sea health resort of Wangerooge, swastika flags were displayed as early as 1920, just after becoming the symbol of the Nazi party. When the Nazis had been voted into power, the situation became even harder for the island’s Jews. On December 22nd, 1938, Fritz Jacoby, himself a beneficiary of the work of the Boston Committee for Refugees and a recent arrival to the United States, turned to Willy Nordwind, its co-chair, on behalf of Marga Levy, a 24-year-old native of Wangerooge. In the wake of the pogrom of November 9-10, all of her male relatives had been incarcerated, there was no money and no way to make a living. Thus, the grateful Mr. Jacoby implores the Committee to provide the young woman with a “domestic affidavit” which would enable her to “work day and night to feed her parents.” On August 17th, a provision was added to the Law on Alteration of Family and Personal Names, forcing German Jews to identify themselves as Jews by adding the name “Sara” or “Israel” to their given names. This provision was slated to come into effect on January 1st, 1939. The registry office in charge and local police were to be notified of the implementation of the provision until the end of January. This notification by the Friedmann family, dated December 21st, 1938, to the local police authorities in Schwandorf, Bavaria, falls into this context. It also communicates that the registry offices in charge have been notified of the imminent name changes of Amalie, Bruno, Lillian and Georg Friedmann. On November 10th, in the course of the pogroms sweeping the entire Reich, Ernst Aldor, an electrical engineer, was arrested in his own home in Vienna for the crime of being a Jew. He was deported to the Dachau concentration camp 366 kilometers west of his home town. On December 9th, he was released. During the period of his incarceration, his wife Renée received an entry permit for Bolivia and a telegram from her cousin, Emil Deutsch, in America, confirming that an affidavit was being prepared. Australia was a third option the couple had considered as a place of refuge. To prepare for emigration, Renée Aldor, a native of Hungary, procured this document from the registry office at police headquarters in Vienna, dated December 20th, listing all her residences in the city since 1920. The banishment of Jews from public spaces was far advanced by now. Already in 1933, Jewish creative artists had been dismissed from state-sponsored cultural life. Since November 12th, 1938, Jews were no longer admitted even as audience members at “presentations of German culture” and were banished from concert halls, opera houses, libraries and museums. More and more restaurants and shops denied access to Jews. On Dec. 12th, 1938, the Jewish Telegraphic Agency pointed out a striking discrepancy: while abroad, the “German News Bureau,” the central news agency of the Reich which followed the directives of the Propaganda Ministry, spread the information that from January 1st, 1939, certain anti-Semitic measures would be relaxed, quite the opposite had been communicated to Jews inside the Reich. One fact, however, was not hidden: the goal was to prompt all Jews to emigrate, “also in the interest of the Jews themselves,” as the Bureau put it. Following the November Pogroms, individuals and groups in England, among them faith-based organizations, demonstrated through their relentless refugee advocacy and organizing how effective determined action by citizens can be. Among those who lobbied the British government specifically on behalf of Jewish children was the Society of Friends (Quakers). After initial rejection by Prime Minister Chamberlain, a delegation composed of Jews and Quakers met with Home Secretary Hoare, following which the government gave permission to issue visas and facilitate the children’s entry into the country. Within the shortest time, host families were recruited, donations solicited, tickets booked, transit visas organized (the children traveled via Hoek van Holland). The network of Jewish and non-Jewish helpers included Dutch volunteers who welcomed the children at the border, gave them food and drink and accompanied them all the way to the ship in Hoek van Holland. The first group arrived at Harwich on December 2. The organized efforts to rescue Jewish children from Nazi Germany later came to be known as “Kindertransport.” In 1903, in the wake of the Kishinev pogrom, the British government agreed to allow European Jewish settlement in a territory then known as the “East Africa Protectorate,” today’s Kenya. Due to massive opposition from within the Zionist movement, the plan, known by the misleading name “Uganda Scheme,” did not come to fruition. 35 years later, Paul Egon Cahn, most recently a resident of Cologne, found himself in Rongai, Kenya. After the November pogroms, the 20-year-old car mechanic began to try to get his parents out of Germany. While European settlers and members of the local Indian community in Kenya opposed the immigration of Jewish refugees, the “Kenya Jewish Refugee Committee,” which had facilitated his immigration, was supportive. Thus, the young man turned to its secretary, Israel Somen, for help: he urgently needed the £100 the British Colonial Office charged for two entry permits. Willy Nordwind, co-chair of the Boston Committee for Refugees, tirelessly endeavored to save Jews from the grip of the Nazis by helping them immigrate to the United States. Himself an immigrant from Germany and familiar with the requirements, he helped organize affidavits and saw to it that newcomers with fields of expertise as heterogeneous as “tobacco and clothing retail business,” “tourism,” “expert buyer and salesman of hosiery,” and “wholesale fish dealer” found employment in America. Most of the people he helped were total strangers to him, but some of his beneficiaries were personal acquaintances. On November 28th, 1938, his friend Seppel pleads with Nordwind to find a special arrangement for him that would speed things up. Requests for visas had risen sharply since the pogrom night of November 9th to 10th (later known as “Kristallnacht” or “Night of Broken Glass”), and the usual waiting period for the processing of affidavits was far too long. Thanks to his thriving practice in the Steinbühl neighborhood of Nuremberg, Dr. Adolf Dessauer had achieved a certain prosperity. His generous apartment offered a children’s room for his sons, Heinz and Rolf, maid’s quarters, space for his practice and a waiting room, a living and dining room, and, not least, a bedroom with furniture made of cherry wood. In 1937, due to the effects of anti-Semitic legislation targeting doctors, Dr. Dessauer was forced to give up his practice. Emigration was the only solution. But how to take the beautiful bedroom furniture abroad? The Nazis rendered this concern obsolete: During the November pogroms, in the night of November 9 to 10 (later known as “Kristallnacht” or “Night of Broken Glass”), the furniture was smashed to pieces and a portrait of the Nobel laureate, Paul Ehrlich, slashed and ruined. Only a few days after the shock of the brutal destruction, the Dessauers experienced a rare gesture of decency. A total stranger returned the portrait, which was by now perfectly restored. No one reading the November issue of the Aufbau could have missed the front-page editorial message in bold print: under the heading “The Great Trial,” forceful language is employed to decry the abject failure of “the heads of state of the so-called democracies,” who have sacrificed Czechoslovakia to Nazi Germany. Jewish refugees are left stranded in no man’s land in Bohemia, in Germany, the Nazis are dealing an “economic death blow” to the Jews, the British are jeopardizing the Zionist project, and “little more than a faint memory” remains of the Evian Conference, summoned in July to tackle the problem of resettling Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany. Surely, this is “an era of complete sinfulness.” Will those under threat finally brace up? The news of the brutal acts of violence perpetrated against German and Austrian Jews during the November pogroms sent shockwaves through Jewish communities. On November 15, a group of Jewish leaders in Britain requested that their government grant temporary shelter to Jewish youngsters who were to be returned to their countries later on. On November 25, the Jewish Telegraphic Agency reported on the planned opening of a camp for 600 child refugees from Germany on the east coast of England. The British chapter of the World Movement for the Care of Children from Germany was to recruit families to offer foster homes for 5,000 children. The plan had government approval – provided the children were under 17 years of age and the costs of their support would not be a burden to the public. Had Austria’s history taken a normal course, Hanna Spitzer, a private teacher, would probably have stayed in Vienna and grown old there as a respected member of society. As a daughter of the late jurist and patron of the arts, Dr. Alfred Spitzer, she was co-heir to a major art collection comprising works by such greats as Kokoschka and Slevogt. Egon Schiele was represented too – among other works, with a portrait of Alfred Spitzer, who had been his sponsor and lawyer, and later his estate trustee. But the flood of anti-Semitic measures which had been unleashed by the “Anschluss” (the annexation of Austria to Nazi Germany) made it unbearable and dangerous to stay: this copy of a tax clearance certificate dated November 24, 1938 testifies to Hanna Spitzer’s efforts to gather the papers required for emigration. Already in January, she had arranged for the shipping of 11 containers of household effects and paintings to Melbourne and a delivery to the address of her sister, Edith Naumann, in Haifa. Could Willy Nordwind of the Boston Committee for Refugees—an organization not dealing specifically with unaccompanied child immigrants—be entrusted with the well-being of a 16-year-old girl? The Relief Organization of Jews in Germany was not ready to take chances: rather than just sending Frieda Diamont on her way, the organization turned to the National Council of Jewish Women in New York to ascertain Mr. Norwind’s integrity. The Council’s Merle Henoch passed on the case to Jewish Family Welfare in Boston, Mass., where Nordwind, too, was based. For her there was no doubt: as generous a helper as Willy Norwind must be a trustworthy ally. The works of the Expressionist painter and graphic artist Bruno Gimpel were classified as “degenerate” during the Third Reich. Neither his voluntary service as an aide in a military hospital during World War I nor his “mixed marriage” with an “Aryan” woman spared him the usual repressive measures. On November 22nd, 1938 he received a letter from the Reichskammer der Bildenden Künste, the Nazi authority in charge of the visual arts, which yet again denied him membership and banned him from all branches of his profession. In 1935, this institution of the Third Reich had once before rejected a request for admission by the Dresden artist. Since 1937, he had no choice but to make a living by giving drawing lessons to Jewish children. Among the over 1,400 German synagogues destroyed on and around the pogrom night of November 9th to 10th (later known as “Kristallnacht” or “Night of Broken Glass”) was the Semper Synagogue in Dresden, named after its architect. While neo-Romanesque on the outside, the building featured an interior in Moorish Revival Style – a design imitated by numerous other architects of synagogues in Germany. When the building was burnt down by both the SA and SS, 98 years had passed since its festive opening in 1840, at which Rabbi Zacharias Frankel had consecrated it to the service of God “for all eternity” and extolled the “respect for religious freedom inspiring this people.” For 19 years, Fritz Feldstein had been working at a bank in Vienna to the full satisfaction of his superiors. But, in 1938, after Nazi Germany annexed neighboring Austria, he lost his position. On July 5th, the family registered with the US consulate in Vienna, but for immigration, affidavits were needed. After months of deeply upsetting political changes, Fritz Feldstein ventured an unusual step. On Oct. 16th, he turned to a Julius Feldstein in Los Angeles who, he hoped, might be a relative, appealing to “the well-known American readiness to help.” Soon, a correspondence developed, also involving Fritz’s wife, Martha, and their daughter, Gerda. The 11-year-old was not only a skillful piano player, she obviously also had a knack for languages. On November 20th, she writes to the Feldsteins in California for the first time – in English. Harry Kranner was a boy of 12 when the Nazis staged a wave of anti-Jewish violence unprecedented in scope and intensity – purportedly a “spontaneous outburst of popular rage” in reaction to the murder of an employee of the German embassy in Paris at the hand of a young Jew. However, Harry’s diary entries show that he was keenly aware of the events around him. In the early morning of November 10th, when the violent events of the night spilled over from Germany into Austria, two Gestapo officers had come to the family’s home in Vienna – ostensibly in search of weapons. Harry understood how extraordinarily lucky he was to have gotten away with nothing more than a scare. He had heard about Jews being locked into or out of their apartments. But one big worry remained: by November 12th, there was still no trace of his uncle Arthur, who had been arrested along with thousands of other Jews. Following a news report that all arrestees were to be deported to the Dachau and Mauthausen concentration camps from the Vienna Westbahnhof, Harry’s father and aunt rushed there, hoping to find uncle Arthur, but to no avail. Meanwhile, it was reported that the Jews were going to be charged a hefty penalty for the violence to which they themselves had fallen victim.	6,158	ENGLISH	1
Life on sugar plantations in the 1600s more bitter than sweet Looking at a spoonful of sugar, you would never expect that is has a dark and ugly history. However, it was through the exploitation and brutality of human slavery, that sugar became a highly sought after and profitable crop. Maybe Marry Poppins had it wrong after all, as sugar’s history can be a bitter pill to swallow. A bittersweet treat Sugar was predominantly enjoyed by wealthier people as the ultimate status symbol, for candies, and baked goods. People would love to show off their wealth and power by displaying giant piles of sugar. A sweet tooth was indeed its weight in gold. Eventually, the increase of slave labor helped drive down the costs, making it more accessible to classes other than the ultra-rich. However, sugar was not as pure as it seemed. Production of sugar cane was dangerous, and often the blood, sweat, and tears of slaves often were unintended ingredients. Oh sugar sugar The sugar cane plant needed precise conditions to thrive, as the plant was a native of Southeast Asia. Brazil and countries in the Caribbean made prime real estate to grow the crop. European nations would race to scoop up land and set up colonies, all in a rush to dominate the sugar market. The demand for sugar surged between the years 1600 and 1650, causing the African slave population to explode from 200,000 slaves to 800,000. The love for sugary confections and rum were high, as was the production costs for growing and producing sugar. Amassing more African slave labor helped drive down the costs, in a not-so-sweet economic recipe for success at the cost of human lives. Before the rise of banana republics Harry Belafonte may have swayed the world with his rendition of ‘Day O.’ But, before banana republics worked their labor force on plantations from sun up to sun down, sugar plantations were the first experts at cracking the whip. Slaves of all ages would be forced to work on sugar plantations, raising cane without a fuss, until it was time to eat or sleep. Life on sugarcane plantations was most certainly less than sweet during the 1600s. Unfortunately, today’s modern sugarcane plantations and production still enjoy a less than savory reputation, compliments of persistent labor practices.	<urn:uuid:291a84d4-6f7d-4790-ad72-9e5b6991313d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.history101.com/life-sugar-plantations-1600s/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00486.warc.gz	en	0.980335	482	3.390625	3	[ -0.051296431571245193, 0.35540324449539185, 0.4439980685710907, -0.05237068980932236, 0.3493431806564331, -0.08071278035640717, -0.11751101911067963, -0.134368434548378, -0.17842134833335876, 0.24205833673477173, 0.3631814420223236, -0.2827702760696411, -0.06353048235177994, 0.249076560139...	3	Life on sugar plantations in the 1600s more bitter than sweet Looking at a spoonful of sugar, you would never expect that is has a dark and ugly history. However, it was through the exploitation and brutality of human slavery, that sugar became a highly sought after and profitable crop. Maybe Marry Poppins had it wrong after all, as sugar’s history can be a bitter pill to swallow. A bittersweet treat Sugar was predominantly enjoyed by wealthier people as the ultimate status symbol, for candies, and baked goods. People would love to show off their wealth and power by displaying giant piles of sugar. A sweet tooth was indeed its weight in gold. Eventually, the increase of slave labor helped drive down the costs, making it more accessible to classes other than the ultra-rich. However, sugar was not as pure as it seemed. Production of sugar cane was dangerous, and often the blood, sweat, and tears of slaves often were unintended ingredients. Oh sugar sugar The sugar cane plant needed precise conditions to thrive, as the plant was a native of Southeast Asia. Brazil and countries in the Caribbean made prime real estate to grow the crop. European nations would race to scoop up land and set up colonies, all in a rush to dominate the sugar market. The demand for sugar surged between the years 1600 and 1650, causing the African slave population to explode from 200,000 slaves to 800,000. The love for sugary confections and rum were high, as was the production costs for growing and producing sugar. Amassing more African slave labor helped drive down the costs, in a not-so-sweet economic recipe for success at the cost of human lives. Before the rise of banana republics Harry Belafonte may have swayed the world with his rendition of ‘Day O.’ But, before banana republics worked their labor force on plantations from sun up to sun down, sugar plantations were the first experts at cracking the whip. Slaves of all ages would be forced to work on sugar plantations, raising cane without a fuss, until it was time to eat or sleep. Life on sugarcane plantations was most certainly less than sweet during the 1600s. Unfortunately, today’s modern sugarcane plantations and production still enjoy a less than savory reputation, compliments of persistent labor practices.	496	ENGLISH	1
Strom Thurmond was a Democrat? George Bush was a strong opposer of black voting rights? Times have certainly changed. Key events in US history; have led to moderate desegregation that encompasses our nation today. One must thoroughly investigate dates, and legislation between 1948 and 1980 to fully comprehend the nature of racism today. When investigating periods of African American history one must not only look at the superficial data, but undermining factors, which may have gone unnoticed by the public eye. These events are equally important to the legislation, which passed that will forever change the history of the United States. 48 will be inscribed in time as the year that changed presidential politics, as we know it. Blacks had recently returned from WWII, were they fought to preserve human rights. When blacks fought over seas they came to the realization that they did not have equal rights in the country, which they called home. The NAACP and other black civil rights organizations were platforms where blacks could voice their disapproval with racism. The NAACP’s membership grew 900% from 1941-45(Tyson, Oct. 13). Separate was not equal, and blacks were going to tell the world of the atrocities which were going on in the United States. Gergely 2 The World began to learn the deficiency of equality when rivals throughout WWII began dropping leaflets throughout Africa. These leaflets showed newspapers where African Americans rights were being clearly abused. “As long as the United States sanctioned racial discrimination, it remained vulnerable to charges from the Soviet Union that while preaching freedom and democracy in foreign affairs, it did not practice either at home (Lawson, 9). ” The United States countered this action by applying the Mingus Briefs. These Briefs were actions taken by the govt. o convinced allied nations that racism was not a part of American culture. Truman, the President re-elect hopeful, responded to the growing importance of race by issuing the Presidents Committee on Civil Rights. Truman reacted, not only for the reason that he had a strong opposition of racism, but because by 1948 4 northern states out numbered the electoral votes of the South. A. Phillip Randolph was another main contributor to the birth of the Committee on Civil Rights. Randolph pressured President Roosevelt to desegregate the military in the early 40’s. His demands were not met, and Truman knew he must do something on the issue or else the worlds eye would once again be laced on the United States. Truman addressed the concern by addressing the nation that there shall be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed forces. During the 1948 election Truman was not fearful of losing conservative votes; Truman was frightened because he knew the black vote was needed to win the election. The only reason Truman could lose the 1948 election would be because of a man named Henry Wallace, who ran a completely un-segregated campaign. Truman knew Wallace had to be eliminated in the minds of blacks, so he chose to identify him with the communist party (Tyson, 64). The Gergely 3 Red Scare” of this time instilled fear in black organizations. Black associations wanted to be known as nationalistic organizations. Anything that resembled communism would set the equal rights movement back several years. Dixie Crats such, as Strom Thurmond and Jesse Helms were appauled regarding how their Democratic associates were now treating race. These conservatives parted with the Democratic Party and created the States Rights Party. Later they joined forces with the Republican Party. Truman won the 1948 election, and African Americans fulfilled a goal of letting the world know of the happenings in the United States. In 1948 the NAACP used the platform which was the United Nations to inform the world of segregation. By December of 1948, the United Nations released a Declaration, stating the given rights of every man. Segregation was on the front of every politician’s agenda. The year was 1954. Brown vs. Board of Education was the reason why nobody could escape racial tribulations in the United States. The Supreme Court ruled that separate, but equal has no place in the field of public education. ” Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal (Lawson, 11). ” This caused several reactions that would be prevalent for ears to come. First, white racist southerners could not simply be indifferent on issues regarding race. With the Brown decision, there was a strong possibility that a poor white child may actually be in the same classroom as an African American. White southerners made their anger present by staging demonstrations. The most famous being the murder of a 14-year-old boy named Emmitt Till. Southerners assured they would never abide by these rules and they even carved out a Manifesto. The Manifesto gained such great Gergely 4 notoriety that 101 members of congress signed the bill (Lawson, 12). For blacks and white liberals the Brown decision had several different effects. In the eyes of many the decision was a breakthrough in American racial politics. Others, like Robert F. Williams, thought the decision was a mistake. Williams believed that there would be a backlash towards the decision. While the Brown decision encouraged black aspirations, it also fueled a volatile and far-reaching white reaction against the NAACP (Tyson, 79). The main consequence of the Brown decision was it put racial politics into everyone’s house. Whether one was white or black, actions needed to be done to support ones cause. 956 was an election year and the nominees were President Dwight D. Eisenhower of the Republican Party, and Adalai Stevenson of the Democratic Party. Eisenhower had become the President of the United States in 1953. “The president sent mixed signals to southern authorities that encouraged their resistance (Lawson, 12). Eisenhower even told southerners that it wasn’t their responsibility to uphold the Brown decision. However, Eisenhower recognized that racial events that occurred in Montgomery and Little Rock were extremely important to American politics, and could not be ignored. In Little Rock Arkansas the National Govt. was being attacked, so Eisenhower was forced to send troops to protect black students. This was significant because for the first time since the Civil War, federal troops were in the South. The event showed power that the federal Govt. actually had in stopping racial segregation. As a Republican, Eisenhower knew that unless some action was taken blacks would vote for the Democratic nominee. Taking into consideration the hopes of Nixon to become President, Eisenhower signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957. This Act was the first of its Gergely 5 kind since Reconstruction. The Act guaranteed blacks freedom from persecution regarding voting. If anybody were using violence to disrupt blacks from voting, they would be arrested. Although, Attorney General Herbet Brownell wrote the proposal for the Act, Eisenhower received much of the credit and won the election (Lawson, 17). Eisenhower is recognized as being one of the few Republicans who took positive measures to end segregation. The Presidential election of 1960 was between Democratic nominee John F. Kennedy and Vice-President Richard Nixon. When the race for president began it was clear Nixon was the front-runner. Nixon served s Vice-President and was widely publicized throughout the United States. Nixon was a staunch Republican, and was known as “Tricky Dick” for his endless attack on liberals (Marable, 59) Kennedy, a Senator from Massachusetts, assumed Trumans’ strategy in 48′ by appealing to black voters (Marable, 59). Kennedy began doing this with his denouncement of Republicans for perpetuating segregation in public housing. As his running mate, Kennedy chose Lyndon B. Johnson. This came as a surprise to blacks because Johnson was not a strong supporter of the civil rights movement. Johnson answered questions of is racial turn-around by saying he had changed his platform because he didn’t need to run in Texas anymore (Tyson, Oct. 25). Kennedy continued to urge blacks to vote by campaigning in urban areas. Two weeks before the election, King was sentenced to four months in prison for uprisings in Atlanta. Kennedy, who knew this was a great campaigning ploy, called Coretta Scott King and offered his support. Robert F. Kennedy later convinced Atlanta officials to release King. This lead to the blue bomb, which told all the black Gergely 6 churches what Kennedy did for King (Tyson, Oct. 25). In the end, Kennedy’s campaign was a success, nd he won the election by merely 100,000 votes. Kennedy’s 2 year reign, as President was not a complete accomplishment for African American race relations. Kennedy did name Thurgood Marshall to the Supreme Court, but many of the objectives which Kennedy promised to fulfill, never came to light. The Kennedy staff actually helped stop the civil rights movement by standing on the sideline and not taking action during the demonstrations in Albany. However, Kennedy did make several important strides for the civil rights movement. One of Kennedy’s accomplishments was sending federal troops to Alabama to eliminate George Wallace’s intervention of chool desegregation. Kennedy’s finest performance came in a national address, to the American people. On June 11, Kennedy spoke of the ethical imperative of providing African Americans with first class citizenship (Lawson, 28). Kennedy also played an integral role in the passing of the Civil Rights Bill of 1964. Along with A. Phillip Randolph, Kennedy made it clear to the American public that legislation needed to be passed to eliminate Jim Crow. Overall Kennedy’s short term as president did not accomplish what it promised to do, but it played an essential role for legislation to pass in the future. The 1964 election was a strong indication of how far or how short civil rights had come in the United States. Johnson had just passed the civil rights act of 1964 so he had overwhelming support of African Americans. Johnson’s re-election was not an easy task. The first obstacle he had to get around was George Wallace. Wallace never planned to run for President, but decided to run after receiving great acclaim for his gubernatorial Gergely 7 inauguration speech. Wallace was one of the few remaining racists in the Democratic Party, and was a stern believer in state rights. Wallace believed that the federal govt. ad no place in telling states how to mandate racism. “Segregation now! Segregation tomorrow! Segregation forever! (Carter, 1)” Wallace had a strong following, but had insufficient funds to win the Democratic ticket. However, Wallaces’ support was scary, as he received 34 percent of the vote in Wisconsin and 43% in Maryland (Marable, 83). The next obstacle Johnson had to overcome was Barry Goldwater, a Republican from Arizona. Goldwater had similar stances to those of George Wallace regarding states rights. He was supported by many racists including Strom Thurmond. Goldwater even neglected to sign the civil rights bill of 1964. His platform on race made him lose the election. The South had very few electoral votes and a blatantly racist person could not be elected. On the other hand, it was frightening how much support these segregationists had all over the country. The 1968 election was the last where conservative segregationists were part of the Democratic Party. Richard Nixon, George Wallace, and Hubert Humphery were the three main players of the 1968 election. Nixon had presently been Governor of California, and once again was opposed to federal govt. interfering with state-run policies regarding race. Nixon, though knew one could not win an election by being a “foam-at-the-mouth segregationist”(Carter, 27). This was the main reason for choosing Spiro Agnew as his running mate. Nixon would win over the moderates and Agnew, “deployed as s surrogate Wallace” would win over the Southern racists (Carter, 28). Nixon took a big lead early in the campaign, and there was only one person who could possibley lead him Gergely 8 to suffer defeat. George Wallace was that man. “At least as early as 1966, Nixon had grasped the threat that George Wallace posed to his personal political future and the fortunes of the Republican Party (Carter, 1)” Nixon knew he had to concentrate on the South or else Humphery would take the election. Nixon did this by making it apparent he did not agree with forced bussing and protection of state rights was important for the preservation of individual freedom. By the end of 1968 election, Nixon again saw his lead shrink to about ten percent. In actuality, the segregationists were shooting themselves in the foot by running against each other in different campaigns. Due to a terrible campaign by the Democrats, Nixon won the election of 1968, but he would never forget how the presence of Wallace almost caused him defeat. The election of 1968 was a clear image of how much racial tension there was in the United States. The final polls gave Wallace a tremendous total of 13. 5 of the popular vote, and this is reason enough to believe that racial hatred was still prevalent in the United States (Multied. com). “Richard Nixon began to plan his reelection campaign in the first weeks after his inauguration (Carter, 35). ” Nixon believed Wallace would once again pose a tremendous threat to the election in 1972. Nixon planned out conniving tactics to ensure Wallace would never make it on the ballot. The most notable being, giving money to Wallaces’ opposition so that Wallace would not win his Gubernatorial election. This did not work. Wallace ran for President in 1972, but this time he went under the Democratic ticket. Wallace was never able to make a run for the nomination because he was shot during the democratic primaries. The Democratic nomination went to George Mcgovern. A man with strong beliefs, against segregation. Throughout Nixon’s first tenure as President, he Gergely 9 sent mixed messages on his racial stance. Out of necessity Nixon was forced to take action on the increasing polarization of the American society” (Carter, 36). Nixon was influenced by Daniel Patrick Moynihan, a young liberal, who; “skillfully mixed race relations into the Presidents contempt for welfare beauracracy by scathingly attacking social workers, urban planners, and a welfare establishment that he characterized as a grasping corps of middle-class apparatchiks who, intent on survival, nurtured the politics of resentment” (Carter, 37). This, along with appointing several liberals, confused voters who generally knew Nixon as a man who was opposed to forced busing and Affirmative Action. Nixon was in-fact using a strategy to bring in the lower class white vote. Nixon took these measures, not to help black America, but to convince white blue-collar voters. People who were close to Nixon knew he was a racist. This is proven on several occasions, the most obvious being the “hardhat incident”. During this incident, Nixon sported a hardhat when he visited construction workers who hit black demonstrators. Nothing during his administration was centered on helping the advancement of African Americans. The election of Ronald Reagan brought back an individual who was ignorant in regards to race. The previous four years under the Carter administration was a disaster for the United States, so many felt a Republican needed to be in office. The Carter administration promised much advancement for African Americans, none of which came into light. Due to factors regarding race, and lack of control with the economy, Carter lost the 1980 election to Ronald Reagan. Reagans platform was based on massive military build up and the opposition of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Carter, 59). He Gergely 10 even called the act an embarrassment to the South. Reagan’s politics were strictly against social spending. He canceled several plans, which the Democrats put in during their short term in power. Reagan had no regards for the lower class society, which was mostly black. Reagan began a tax plan that the lower 50% of Americans would receive an increase in taxes, the top 50-90% would receive little change, and the top 1% would actually receive a 60% increase in net income (Tyson, Dec. 13). Reagan told the public he did not differentiate between races. “I have black friends (Tyson, Dec. 13)”. His platform shows he had total disregard for the betterment of African American’s in regards to their economic well being. Disgust with the Reagan campaign was apparent in 1984, when 89% of African Americans voted for Walter Mondale (Tyson, Dec. 13). Racism is still apparent in the United States in this year of 1999. We have made several strides, but it is clear ghettos are filled with African Americans and other minorities. Until an integrated middle class is established the battle for racial equality will not end. Programs such as Affirmative Action and Welfare are making significant differences, but more needs to be done. We must do everything in our power to heal the scars, which slavery and racism created.	<urn:uuid:fb4c9c40-ccfd-422d-876d-5a9f60f5fa4e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mypaynetapps.com/racism-in-the-not-so-distant-past/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00425.warc.gz	en	0.982044	3,487	3.84375	4	[ -0.43579524755477905, 0.1724303960800171, -0.09866690635681152, -0.056589774787425995, 0.08665250241756439, 0.3081647455692291, -0.06701114773750305, -0.05694183334708214, -0.14215770363807678, 0.48002487421035767, 0.33630630373954773, 0.36052626371383667, -0.10788537561893463, 0.324993818...	3	Strom Thurmond was a Democrat? George Bush was a strong opposer of black voting rights? Times have certainly changed. Key events in US history; have led to moderate desegregation that encompasses our nation today. One must thoroughly investigate dates, and legislation between 1948 and 1980 to fully comprehend the nature of racism today. When investigating periods of African American history one must not only look at the superficial data, but undermining factors, which may have gone unnoticed by the public eye. These events are equally important to the legislation, which passed that will forever change the history of the United States. 48 will be inscribed in time as the year that changed presidential politics, as we know it. Blacks had recently returned from WWII, were they fought to preserve human rights. When blacks fought over seas they came to the realization that they did not have equal rights in the country, which they called home. The NAACP and other black civil rights organizations were platforms where blacks could voice their disapproval with racism. The NAACP’s membership grew 900% from 1941-45(Tyson, Oct. 13). Separate was not equal, and blacks were going to tell the world of the atrocities which were going on in the United States. Gergely 2 The World began to learn the deficiency of equality when rivals throughout WWII began dropping leaflets throughout Africa. These leaflets showed newspapers where African Americans rights were being clearly abused. “As long as the United States sanctioned racial discrimination, it remained vulnerable to charges from the Soviet Union that while preaching freedom and democracy in foreign affairs, it did not practice either at home (Lawson, 9). ” The United States countered this action by applying the Mingus Briefs. These Briefs were actions taken by the govt. o convinced allied nations that racism was not a part of American culture. Truman, the President re-elect hopeful, responded to the growing importance of race by issuing the Presidents Committee on Civil Rights. Truman reacted, not only for the reason that he had a strong opposition of racism, but because by 1948 4 northern states out numbered the electoral votes of the South. A. Phillip Randolph was another main contributor to the birth of the Committee on Civil Rights. Randolph pressured President Roosevelt to desegregate the military in the early 40’s. His demands were not met, and Truman knew he must do something on the issue or else the worlds eye would once again be laced on the United States. Truman addressed the concern by addressing the nation that there shall be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed forces. During the 1948 election Truman was not fearful of losing conservative votes; Truman was frightened because he knew the black vote was needed to win the election. The only reason Truman could lose the 1948 election would be because of a man named Henry Wallace, who ran a completely un-segregated campaign. Truman knew Wallace had to be eliminated in the minds of blacks, so he chose to identify him with the communist party (Tyson, 64). The Gergely 3 Red Scare” of this time instilled fear in black organizations. Black associations wanted to be known as nationalistic organizations. Anything that resembled communism would set the equal rights movement back several years. Dixie Crats such, as Strom Thurmond and Jesse Helms were appauled regarding how their Democratic associates were now treating race. These conservatives parted with the Democratic Party and created the States Rights Party. Later they joined forces with the Republican Party. Truman won the 1948 election, and African Americans fulfilled a goal of letting the world know of the happenings in the United States. In 1948 the NAACP used the platform which was the United Nations to inform the world of segregation. By December of 1948, the United Nations released a Declaration, stating the given rights of every man. Segregation was on the front of every politician’s agenda. The year was 1954. Brown vs. Board of Education was the reason why nobody could escape racial tribulations in the United States. The Supreme Court ruled that separate, but equal has no place in the field of public education. ” Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal (Lawson, 11). ” This caused several reactions that would be prevalent for ears to come. First, white racist southerners could not simply be indifferent on issues regarding race. With the Brown decision, there was a strong possibility that a poor white child may actually be in the same classroom as an African American. White southerners made their anger present by staging demonstrations. The most famous being the murder of a 14-year-old boy named Emmitt Till. Southerners assured they would never abide by these rules and they even carved out a Manifesto. The Manifesto gained such great Gergely 4 notoriety that 101 members of congress signed the bill (Lawson, 12). For blacks and white liberals the Brown decision had several different effects. In the eyes of many the decision was a breakthrough in American racial politics. Others, like Robert F. Williams, thought the decision was a mistake. Williams believed that there would be a backlash towards the decision. While the Brown decision encouraged black aspirations, it also fueled a volatile and far-reaching white reaction against the NAACP (Tyson, 79). The main consequence of the Brown decision was it put racial politics into everyone’s house. Whether one was white or black, actions needed to be done to support ones cause. 956 was an election year and the nominees were President Dwight D. Eisenhower of the Republican Party, and Adalai Stevenson of the Democratic Party. Eisenhower had become the President of the United States in 1953. “The president sent mixed signals to southern authorities that encouraged their resistance (Lawson, 12). Eisenhower even told southerners that it wasn’t their responsibility to uphold the Brown decision. However, Eisenhower recognized that racial events that occurred in Montgomery and Little Rock were extremely important to American politics, and could not be ignored. In Little Rock Arkansas the National Govt. was being attacked, so Eisenhower was forced to send troops to protect black students. This was significant because for the first time since the Civil War, federal troops were in the South. The event showed power that the federal Govt. actually had in stopping racial segregation. As a Republican, Eisenhower knew that unless some action was taken blacks would vote for the Democratic nominee. Taking into consideration the hopes of Nixon to become President, Eisenhower signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957. This Act was the first of its Gergely 5 kind since Reconstruction. The Act guaranteed blacks freedom from persecution regarding voting. If anybody were using violence to disrupt blacks from voting, they would be arrested. Although, Attorney General Herbet Brownell wrote the proposal for the Act, Eisenhower received much of the credit and won the election (Lawson, 17). Eisenhower is recognized as being one of the few Republicans who took positive measures to end segregation. The Presidential election of 1960 was between Democratic nominee John F. Kennedy and Vice-President Richard Nixon. When the race for president began it was clear Nixon was the front-runner. Nixon served s Vice-President and was widely publicized throughout the United States. Nixon was a staunch Republican, and was known as “Tricky Dick” for his endless attack on liberals (Marable, 59) Kennedy, a Senator from Massachusetts, assumed Trumans’ strategy in 48′ by appealing to black voters (Marable, 59). Kennedy began doing this with his denouncement of Republicans for perpetuating segregation in public housing. As his running mate, Kennedy chose Lyndon B. Johnson. This came as a surprise to blacks because Johnson was not a strong supporter of the civil rights movement. Johnson answered questions of is racial turn-around by saying he had changed his platform because he didn’t need to run in Texas anymore (Tyson, Oct. 25). Kennedy continued to urge blacks to vote by campaigning in urban areas. Two weeks before the election, King was sentenced to four months in prison for uprisings in Atlanta. Kennedy, who knew this was a great campaigning ploy, called Coretta Scott King and offered his support. Robert F. Kennedy later convinced Atlanta officials to release King. This lead to the blue bomb, which told all the black Gergely 6 churches what Kennedy did for King (Tyson, Oct. 25). In the end, Kennedy’s campaign was a success, nd he won the election by merely 100,000 votes. Kennedy’s 2 year reign, as President was not a complete accomplishment for African American race relations. Kennedy did name Thurgood Marshall to the Supreme Court, but many of the objectives which Kennedy promised to fulfill, never came to light. The Kennedy staff actually helped stop the civil rights movement by standing on the sideline and not taking action during the demonstrations in Albany. However, Kennedy did make several important strides for the civil rights movement. One of Kennedy’s accomplishments was sending federal troops to Alabama to eliminate George Wallace’s intervention of chool desegregation. Kennedy’s finest performance came in a national address, to the American people. On June 11, Kennedy spoke of the ethical imperative of providing African Americans with first class citizenship (Lawson, 28). Kennedy also played an integral role in the passing of the Civil Rights Bill of 1964. Along with A. Phillip Randolph, Kennedy made it clear to the American public that legislation needed to be passed to eliminate Jim Crow. Overall Kennedy’s short term as president did not accomplish what it promised to do, but it played an essential role for legislation to pass in the future. The 1964 election was a strong indication of how far or how short civil rights had come in the United States. Johnson had just passed the civil rights act of 1964 so he had overwhelming support of African Americans. Johnson’s re-election was not an easy task. The first obstacle he had to get around was George Wallace. Wallace never planned to run for President, but decided to run after receiving great acclaim for his gubernatorial Gergely 7 inauguration speech. Wallace was one of the few remaining racists in the Democratic Party, and was a stern believer in state rights. Wallace believed that the federal govt. ad no place in telling states how to mandate racism. “Segregation now! Segregation tomorrow! Segregation forever! (Carter, 1)” Wallace had a strong following, but had insufficient funds to win the Democratic ticket. However, Wallaces’ support was scary, as he received 34 percent of the vote in Wisconsin and 43% in Maryland (Marable, 83). The next obstacle Johnson had to overcome was Barry Goldwater, a Republican from Arizona. Goldwater had similar stances to those of George Wallace regarding states rights. He was supported by many racists including Strom Thurmond. Goldwater even neglected to sign the civil rights bill of 1964. His platform on race made him lose the election. The South had very few electoral votes and a blatantly racist person could not be elected. On the other hand, it was frightening how much support these segregationists had all over the country. The 1968 election was the last where conservative segregationists were part of the Democratic Party. Richard Nixon, George Wallace, and Hubert Humphery were the three main players of the 1968 election. Nixon had presently been Governor of California, and once again was opposed to federal govt. interfering with state-run policies regarding race. Nixon, though knew one could not win an election by being a “foam-at-the-mouth segregationist”(Carter, 27). This was the main reason for choosing Spiro Agnew as his running mate. Nixon would win over the moderates and Agnew, “deployed as s surrogate Wallace” would win over the Southern racists (Carter, 28). Nixon took a big lead early in the campaign, and there was only one person who could possibley lead him Gergely 8 to suffer defeat. George Wallace was that man. “At least as early as 1966, Nixon had grasped the threat that George Wallace posed to his personal political future and the fortunes of the Republican Party (Carter, 1)” Nixon knew he had to concentrate on the South or else Humphery would take the election. Nixon did this by making it apparent he did not agree with forced bussing and protection of state rights was important for the preservation of individual freedom. By the end of 1968 election, Nixon again saw his lead shrink to about ten percent. In actuality, the segregationists were shooting themselves in the foot by running against each other in different campaigns. Due to a terrible campaign by the Democrats, Nixon won the election of 1968, but he would never forget how the presence of Wallace almost caused him defeat. The election of 1968 was a clear image of how much racial tension there was in the United States. The final polls gave Wallace a tremendous total of 13. 5 of the popular vote, and this is reason enough to believe that racial hatred was still prevalent in the United States (Multied. com). “Richard Nixon began to plan his reelection campaign in the first weeks after his inauguration (Carter, 35). ” Nixon believed Wallace would once again pose a tremendous threat to the election in 1972. Nixon planned out conniving tactics to ensure Wallace would never make it on the ballot. The most notable being, giving money to Wallaces’ opposition so that Wallace would not win his Gubernatorial election. This did not work. Wallace ran for President in 1972, but this time he went under the Democratic ticket. Wallace was never able to make a run for the nomination because he was shot during the democratic primaries. The Democratic nomination went to George Mcgovern. A man with strong beliefs, against segregation. Throughout Nixon’s first tenure as President, he Gergely 9 sent mixed messages on his racial stance. Out of necessity Nixon was forced to take action on the increasing polarization of the American society” (Carter, 36). Nixon was influenced by Daniel Patrick Moynihan, a young liberal, who; “skillfully mixed race relations into the Presidents contempt for welfare beauracracy by scathingly attacking social workers, urban planners, and a welfare establishment that he characterized as a grasping corps of middle-class apparatchiks who, intent on survival, nurtured the politics of resentment” (Carter, 37). This, along with appointing several liberals, confused voters who generally knew Nixon as a man who was opposed to forced busing and Affirmative Action. Nixon was in-fact using a strategy to bring in the lower class white vote. Nixon took these measures, not to help black America, but to convince white blue-collar voters. People who were close to Nixon knew he was a racist. This is proven on several occasions, the most obvious being the “hardhat incident”. During this incident, Nixon sported a hardhat when he visited construction workers who hit black demonstrators. Nothing during his administration was centered on helping the advancement of African Americans. The election of Ronald Reagan brought back an individual who was ignorant in regards to race. The previous four years under the Carter administration was a disaster for the United States, so many felt a Republican needed to be in office. The Carter administration promised much advancement for African Americans, none of which came into light. Due to factors regarding race, and lack of control with the economy, Carter lost the 1980 election to Ronald Reagan. Reagans platform was based on massive military build up and the opposition of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Carter, 59). He Gergely 10 even called the act an embarrassment to the South. Reagan’s politics were strictly against social spending. He canceled several plans, which the Democrats put in during their short term in power. Reagan had no regards for the lower class society, which was mostly black. Reagan began a tax plan that the lower 50% of Americans would receive an increase in taxes, the top 50-90% would receive little change, and the top 1% would actually receive a 60% increase in net income (Tyson, Dec. 13). Reagan told the public he did not differentiate between races. “I have black friends (Tyson, Dec. 13)”. His platform shows he had total disregard for the betterment of African American’s in regards to their economic well being. Disgust with the Reagan campaign was apparent in 1984, when 89% of African Americans voted for Walter Mondale (Tyson, Dec. 13). Racism is still apparent in the United States in this year of 1999. We have made several strides, but it is clear ghettos are filled with African Americans and other minorities. Until an integrated middle class is established the battle for racial equality will not end. Programs such as Affirmative Action and Welfare are making significant differences, but more needs to be done. We must do everything in our power to heal the scars, which slavery and racism created.	3,619	ENGLISH	1
Where did England and Scotland come from? The short answer is that these nations were forged out of the fire of the Viking invasions that engulfed Britain in the 9th and 10th centuries. By the time it was over, the seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms had become England and what became Scotland was emerging from the wreckage of the kingdom of the Picts, Dál Riata and the British kingdom of Strathclyde. We’ve already seen how the Vikings conquered Northumbria, East Anglia and eastern Mercia which became the Danelaw in England. Ivar the Boneless also conquered the British kingdom of Alt Clut and the Norse overran Dál Riata and created the Kingdom of the Isles in its place. The Orkney Islands and northern Scotland were conquered and ruled for centuries by the descendants of the Norse. The Picts disappeared and were absorbed by the Gaelic Scots. It is easy to see how history could have taken a different course. Suppose that Guthrum had defeated Alfred and England had become Daneland. If the Vikings had never invaded Britain, would the Kingdom of the Picts have survived? What if the Old North had survived intact like Wales as a British kingdom between England and Scotland?	<urn:uuid:90b152d4-f8de-43bb-910d-0de51683955f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.occidentaldissent.com/2020/01/14/878-a-tour-of-viking-age-britain/comment-page-1/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00401.warc.gz	en	0.987929	255	3.8125	4	[ -0.22822050750255585, 0.0447324775159359, 0.34860286116600037, -0.15624873340129852, 0.24930895864963531, -0.3080447316169739, -0.3406125605106354, 0.206851527094841, -0.17965510487556458, 0.044806238263845444, -0.05897231772542, -0.7443581819534302, 0.19721956551074982, -0.013721382245421...	7	Where did England and Scotland come from? The short answer is that these nations were forged out of the fire of the Viking invasions that engulfed Britain in the 9th and 10th centuries. By the time it was over, the seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms had become England and what became Scotland was emerging from the wreckage of the kingdom of the Picts, Dál Riata and the British kingdom of Strathclyde. We’ve already seen how the Vikings conquered Northumbria, East Anglia and eastern Mercia which became the Danelaw in England. Ivar the Boneless also conquered the British kingdom of Alt Clut and the Norse overran Dál Riata and created the Kingdom of the Isles in its place. The Orkney Islands and northern Scotland were conquered and ruled for centuries by the descendants of the Norse. The Picts disappeared and were absorbed by the Gaelic Scots. It is easy to see how history could have taken a different course. Suppose that Guthrum had defeated Alfred and England had become Daneland. If the Vikings had never invaded Britain, would the Kingdom of the Picts have survived? What if the Old North had survived intact like Wales as a British kingdom between England and Scotland?	251	ENGLISH	1
Everyone who speaks the English language, does not speak it the same way. It is rare to find people that speak English the exact same way word for word, because there are so many ways to speak English. Amy Tan uses a name to describe the English she grew up with, “Mother Tongue.” Tan uses emotion to tell her audience, how her experiences with her mother and the Chinese language shaped the way she speaks and writes today. In “Mother Tongue”, Tan describes the many situations where the language that she was taught impacted her life. Throughout the story, she explains her relationship with her mother, who speaks “broken” English, and how the way she perceives language has changed due to her mother. When Tan was younger, she was always embarrassed of the way her mother spoke because it didn’t sound right or sounded weird and other people who were not familiar with the way she spoke and found it very difficult to understand her. Tan said that when her and her mother would go stores people would treat them differently because they did not speak “proper” English. She said that the people “did not take her seriously, did not give her good service, pretended not to understand her, or even acted as if they did not hear her”. So with that being said Tan would have to sometimes pretend to be her mother, and she would call people to yell at them while her mother stood behind her telling her what to say. The language formed a barrier between Tan and her mother but as Tan grew older she started to embrace this “broken” English, because it reminded her of home. She no longer saw anything wrong with her mother’s tongue, instead she found comfort, it had become a part of her family. In the essay “Mother Tongue,” Tan talks about the power of language. She says, “it can evoke an emotion, a visual image, a complex idea, or simple truth.” One of the many main points of her story was that words are more than just words, sometimes you have to look deeper and beyond the words. For example, her mother did not speak perfect English, but it was the point her mother was trying to make or get across are what’s important. Amy Tan also felt that standardized tests could not determine any one person’s intelligence. She supports this argument by using rhetorical statements like, “I wanted to capture what language ability tests could never reveal: her intent, her passion, her imagery, the rhythms of her speech and the nature of her thoughts”. When she said that standard tests cannot determine a person’s true intelligence, she was really saying how people don’t think the same and have different ways of thinking and different types of intelligence, and these standard tests only measure one kind of many intelligence. It is rather unfair, for lack of a better term. Overall, I want to say that the main idea of Tan’s story is to stress the idea that just because someone cannot speak English “properly”, does not mean they are less intelligent than someone who is born in this country that understands and speaks proper English. Tan has been judged by her language, and has seen people disrespect her mother, because of how she speaks, but it was because of that she was able to see through the different languages and become who she is today. Everyone has a message to say, it may be different from yours and it might be grammatically incorrect but it does not make the message wrong, it just makes it unique.	<urn:uuid:cf1e3a24-2f4c-46cc-8423-c80c022d4429>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://shakespearecomputer.com/everyone-to-her-mother-when-tan-was-younger/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00506.warc.gz	en	0.990086	738	3.328125	3	[ -0.13876712322235107, -0.009079826064407825, 0.22288739681243896, 0.02631361410021782, -0.719762921333313, 0.015655675902962685, 0.7179436683654785, -0.1834670901298523, -0.085568368434906, -0.41840046644210815, 0.06193786859512329, -0.3949137330055237, 0.058047063648700714, 0.203499019145...	4	Everyone who speaks the English language, does not speak it the same way. It is rare to find people that speak English the exact same way word for word, because there are so many ways to speak English. Amy Tan uses a name to describe the English she grew up with, “Mother Tongue.” Tan uses emotion to tell her audience, how her experiences with her mother and the Chinese language shaped the way she speaks and writes today. In “Mother Tongue”, Tan describes the many situations where the language that she was taught impacted her life. Throughout the story, she explains her relationship with her mother, who speaks “broken” English, and how the way she perceives language has changed due to her mother. When Tan was younger, she was always embarrassed of the way her mother spoke because it didn’t sound right or sounded weird and other people who were not familiar with the way she spoke and found it very difficult to understand her. Tan said that when her and her mother would go stores people would treat them differently because they did not speak “proper” English. She said that the people “did not take her seriously, did not give her good service, pretended not to understand her, or even acted as if they did not hear her”. So with that being said Tan would have to sometimes pretend to be her mother, and she would call people to yell at them while her mother stood behind her telling her what to say. The language formed a barrier between Tan and her mother but as Tan grew older she started to embrace this “broken” English, because it reminded her of home. She no longer saw anything wrong with her mother’s tongue, instead she found comfort, it had become a part of her family. In the essay “Mother Tongue,” Tan talks about the power of language. She says, “it can evoke an emotion, a visual image, a complex idea, or simple truth.” One of the many main points of her story was that words are more than just words, sometimes you have to look deeper and beyond the words. For example, her mother did not speak perfect English, but it was the point her mother was trying to make or get across are what’s important. Amy Tan also felt that standardized tests could not determine any one person’s intelligence. She supports this argument by using rhetorical statements like, “I wanted to capture what language ability tests could never reveal: her intent, her passion, her imagery, the rhythms of her speech and the nature of her thoughts”. When she said that standard tests cannot determine a person’s true intelligence, she was really saying how people don’t think the same and have different ways of thinking and different types of intelligence, and these standard tests only measure one kind of many intelligence. It is rather unfair, for lack of a better term. Overall, I want to say that the main idea of Tan’s story is to stress the idea that just because someone cannot speak English “properly”, does not mean they are less intelligent than someone who is born in this country that understands and speaks proper English. Tan has been judged by her language, and has seen people disrespect her mother, because of how she speaks, but it was because of that she was able to see through the different languages and become who she is today. Everyone has a message to say, it may be different from yours and it might be grammatically incorrect but it does not make the message wrong, it just makes it unique.	695	ENGLISH	1
"In thee, O lord, is my trust, let me never be confounded: if God be for us, who can be against us?" was what Mary Tudor, queen of England from 1553-1558, frequently exclaimed according to Anna Whitlock, author of Mary Tudor: England’s First Queen (429). Mary was a very devout Catholic, and because of her beliefs, she attempted to convert England from Protestantism to Catholicism, which resulted in the killing of 284 Protestants during her reign (Maurer 2). Although she performed many cruel acts, a closer examination of history revealed that Mary faced many hardships during her life that resulted in her spiteful retaliation toward Protestants with cruelty that was not uncommon during that time. Therefore, she is not deserving of her nickname “Bloody Mary.” Mary grew up with the Catholic faith being very close to her heart. Overtime, it became a part of her identity, especially during hardships. When Mary was born, her father, King Henry VIII, said she was the “pearl of the world” (Maurer 3). She was well educated, with a gift for music and language (Whitlock). It seemed like a happy life, but all of that would change when her father attempted to divorce her mother, Catherine of Aragon, because she could not produce a heir. At this time, the Catholic faith was the main faith of England and the Pope was seen as the true ruler of the European countries (Maurer 3). Because the Pope would not allow him to divorce Catherine, Henry banished her. The years that followed only became more treacherous for Mary. She was sent away to become a servant to Anne and Henry’s daughter, Elizabeth, and was not permitted to see her mother, even on her deathbed (Maurer 7). Mary wrote her father countless letters asking for an exp... ... middle of paper ... ...testines, but he is called “Buff King Hal” (Maurer 27). History has recorded the many horrible things that occurred during Mary’s reign, but the positive outcomes are often ignored. For example, she was the first female monarch in England and allowed many others to follow (Noel). She became queen to a torn country in debt (Fabel). Nevertheless, she was able to create a stronger Parliament, build grammar schools and hospitals, and create new laws to improve trade opportunities and prevent unemployment (Maurer 28). Yet, people only remember her for the horrid acts she inflicted upon the Protestants, as if there had not been countless other rulers who had performed in similar ways. Mary Tudor was, sadly, one example of how history is often written to portray those with opposing views in a negative light. Because of this, she will always be remembered as “Bloody Mary” Need Writing Help? Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper » - Mary Tudor or Queen Mary I of England was infamously known as Bloody Mary. While many believe Bloody Mary was an evil monster, others believe she was a great queen because of her many accomplishments. Mary was actually a good devoted Catholic others still to this day believe she was an evil woman, but with these interesting facts it will be determined that Mary was a good queen. Mary Tudor of England, Born on February 18, 1516, was always a precious lady.(Gairdner) According to the article “Queen Mary”: “Mary wanted to restore the catholic faith, and reunite England with Rome.” Queen Mary I was quite successful, she managed to rearrange “the royal household, and it was thought right to give... [tags: Queen Mary of England] 948 words (2.7 pages) - or “Bloody Mary” was the first queen of England to gain the throne. During her life she faced a lot of obstacles that came about from her family, her faith, and her position in the royal line up. Mary did not gain the throne because she was the next heir. She had fought her way to the throne ever since she was a young adult. Mary’s nickname “Bloody Mary” has tarnished her reputation for many centuries. Many would argue that she did not deserve such repugnance because of the decisions she had to make during her reign.... [tags: Henry VIII of England, Anne Boleyn] 1300 words (3.7 pages) - Mary's father, Henry VIII, and her mother, Catherine of Argon, (“Mary Tudor”) had been trying to have children for years. Through several miscarriages, still-borns, and child deaths (“Childhood”), they finally gave birth to a precious baby girl on February 18, 1516 (“Mary Tudor”). She had a very fair complexion with grey eyes and red hair (Childhood). Henry VIII decided to name her Mary after his younger sister (“Childhood”). When Mary was born, she was quickly baptized catholic (“Mary Tudor”). As a child, Mary was outstanding.... [tags: henry VIII, miscarriages, divorce] 883 words (2.5 pages) - Mary Tudor was a very powerful and influential Queen, although her reign was short lived. She did many things to impact the future of England. Some people say she was a crazy lunatic, but others would say she was very brilliant. Recently, historians found a letter that Mary Tudor wrote a few days before her death. This is what it contained… Dearest Friends, I, Mary Tudor, was designated Queen in 1553 when I had to fight for my title from Jane Grey. “Fearing Mary would return the country to the Catholic faith, powerful men in the realm, such as John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland and Henry, Duke of Suffolk began to make their plans” (Eakins).... [tags: mary tudor, england queen, phillip II] 538 words (1.5 pages) - ... Mary did spend a majority of her time and effort looking for a husband but at the same time Mary was smart enough to use her constant traveling from place to place for different things. She knows that her traveling all around Scotland will take time away from doing other things so she decides to multi-task, Mary uses her trips to meet and greet many of the Scottish people and increase the relationship she has with the Scottish population (Itinerary). Her education allowed her to make intelligent decisions which made her a good queen on paper but not in real life even though she had many events to help the bond between the people and her.... [tags: notorious monarchs] 1119 words (3.2 pages) - Queen Elizabeth I of England, was an iconic ruler during the Golden Age of England, and arguably one of the most well known and successful rulers of her time. Elizabeth, daughter of King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, reigned over England from 1558 until her death in 1603. When Elizabeth took the throne after the death of her half sister, Mary I, England was in a poor economic state. Throughout her time as Queen, Elizabeth was able to repair the economic debt held by England, as well as mend relations within society, caused by many things including religious wars.... [tags: Mary I of England, Elizabeth I of England] 1964 words (5.6 pages) - Queen Elizabeth was born on September 7, 1533 in Greenwich, United Kingdom. (Bio.com) The queen was recognized most by her nickname “The Virgin Queen.” Elizabeth I was the long filling queen of England, the Elizabethan era is actually named after her. Elizabeth governed with relative stability and prosperity for 44 years. (Bio.com) In Elizabeth 's early life she was a princess, but declared illegitimate through political machinations. She was perhaps England 's most famous monarch, but grew up in complex and sometimes difficult circumstances.... [tags: Elizabeth I of England, Mary I of England] 1086 words (3.1 pages) - Queen Elizabeth I of England is perhaps the greatest example of a woman ruling in her own right that history has to offer as she successfully ruled over all of England for almost half a century, without marrying and surrendering her power to any man or foreign nation. Elizabeth’s two predecessors Lady Jane Grey and Mary Tudor were both terrible rulers –although Lady Jane only “ruled” for nine days- they left England with the impression that a woman could not rule the country effectively. As a result when Elizabeth came into power she was counseled to marry as quickly as possible and to simply rely to do the actual ruling.... [tags: Mary I of England, Elizabeth I of England, Gender] 1054 words (3 pages) - Christopher Hibbert’s “The Virgin Queen: Elizabeth I, Genius of the Golden Age”, approaches the life of Queen Elizabeth I with a novelistic tone, although initially introduced as a biography, it reads differently. It begins with a prelude to allow the reader to familiarize oneself with a brief history of the county’s royal standing, and conflicts within said family. There is a useful family tree-style chart which could prove useful if you knew little to nothing of her father, King Henry VIIII of England, or the Tudors in general.... [tags: Mary I of England, Henry VIII of England] 1662 words (4.7 pages) - During the 1500’s war and sickness were common. War alone took many men including Mary Stuarts father, James V, who was unable to accept the humiliation of his defeat against England and underwent a complete nervous breakdown (Fraser, 11). Previously two of Mary’s older brothers died in infancy only adding to James V’s sorrow which Mary’s birth did not even begin to alleviate (Fraser, 11). Five days following Mary’s birth King James V of Scotland died. Mary Stuart Was crowned as the Queen of Scotland within a year of her birth and though she tried her hardest to be a great leader, many things obstructed her path.... [tags: War, England, English History] 905 words (2.6 pages)	<urn:uuid:c1079819-5f66-4638-89aa-9336f62e0346>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.123helpme.com/queen-mary-i-of-england-preview.asp?id=659373	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00321.warc.gz	en	0.980652	2,143	3.75	4	[ -0.13637903332710266, -0.1620434820652008, 0.33176398277282715, -0.1142088770866394, -0.06483455747365952, -0.09178054332733154, 0.11359905451536179, -0.18351301550865173, 0.3847392797470093, -0.004626333247870207, -0.4950255751609802, -0.6688293218612671, -0.1803528517484665, -0.000630521...	1	"In thee, O lord, is my trust, let me never be confounded: if God be for us, who can be against us?" was what Mary Tudor, queen of England from 1553-1558, frequently exclaimed according to Anna Whitlock, author of Mary Tudor: England’s First Queen (429). Mary was a very devout Catholic, and because of her beliefs, she attempted to convert England from Protestantism to Catholicism, which resulted in the killing of 284 Protestants during her reign (Maurer 2). Although she performed many cruel acts, a closer examination of history revealed that Mary faced many hardships during her life that resulted in her spiteful retaliation toward Protestants with cruelty that was not uncommon during that time. Therefore, she is not deserving of her nickname “Bloody Mary.” Mary grew up with the Catholic faith being very close to her heart. Overtime, it became a part of her identity, especially during hardships. When Mary was born, her father, King Henry VIII, said she was the “pearl of the world” (Maurer 3). She was well educated, with a gift for music and language (Whitlock). It seemed like a happy life, but all of that would change when her father attempted to divorce her mother, Catherine of Aragon, because she could not produce a heir. At this time, the Catholic faith was the main faith of England and the Pope was seen as the true ruler of the European countries (Maurer 3). Because the Pope would not allow him to divorce Catherine, Henry banished her. The years that followed only became more treacherous for Mary. She was sent away to become a servant to Anne and Henry’s daughter, Elizabeth, and was not permitted to see her mother, even on her deathbed (Maurer 7). Mary wrote her father countless letters asking for an exp... ... middle of paper ... ...testines, but he is called “Buff King Hal” (Maurer 27). History has recorded the many horrible things that occurred during Mary’s reign, but the positive outcomes are often ignored. For example, she was the first female monarch in England and allowed many others to follow (Noel). She became queen to a torn country in debt (Fabel). Nevertheless, she was able to create a stronger Parliament, build grammar schools and hospitals, and create new laws to improve trade opportunities and prevent unemployment (Maurer 28). Yet, people only remember her for the horrid acts she inflicted upon the Protestants, as if there had not been countless other rulers who had performed in similar ways. Mary Tudor was, sadly, one example of how history is often written to portray those with opposing views in a negative light. Because of this, she will always be remembered as “Bloody Mary” Need Writing Help? Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper » - Mary Tudor or Queen Mary I of England was infamously known as Bloody Mary. While many believe Bloody Mary was an evil monster, others believe she was a great queen because of her many accomplishments. Mary was actually a good devoted Catholic others still to this day believe she was an evil woman, but with these interesting facts it will be determined that Mary was a good queen. Mary Tudor of England, Born on February 18, 1516, was always a precious lady.(Gairdner) According to the article “Queen Mary”: “Mary wanted to restore the catholic faith, and reunite England with Rome.” Queen Mary I was quite successful, she managed to rearrange “the royal household, and it was thought right to give... [tags: Queen Mary of England] 948 words (2.7 pages) - or “Bloody Mary” was the first queen of England to gain the throne. During her life she faced a lot of obstacles that came about from her family, her faith, and her position in the royal line up. Mary did not gain the throne because she was the next heir. She had fought her way to the throne ever since she was a young adult. Mary’s nickname “Bloody Mary” has tarnished her reputation for many centuries. Many would argue that she did not deserve such repugnance because of the decisions she had to make during her reign.... [tags: Henry VIII of England, Anne Boleyn] 1300 words (3.7 pages) - Mary's father, Henry VIII, and her mother, Catherine of Argon, (“Mary Tudor”) had been trying to have children for years. Through several miscarriages, still-borns, and child deaths (“Childhood”), they finally gave birth to a precious baby girl on February 18, 1516 (“Mary Tudor”). She had a very fair complexion with grey eyes and red hair (Childhood). Henry VIII decided to name her Mary after his younger sister (“Childhood”). When Mary was born, she was quickly baptized catholic (“Mary Tudor”). As a child, Mary was outstanding.... [tags: henry VIII, miscarriages, divorce] 883 words (2.5 pages) - Mary Tudor was a very powerful and influential Queen, although her reign was short lived. She did many things to impact the future of England. Some people say she was a crazy lunatic, but others would say she was very brilliant. Recently, historians found a letter that Mary Tudor wrote a few days before her death. This is what it contained… Dearest Friends, I, Mary Tudor, was designated Queen in 1553 when I had to fight for my title from Jane Grey. “Fearing Mary would return the country to the Catholic faith, powerful men in the realm, such as John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland and Henry, Duke of Suffolk began to make their plans” (Eakins).... [tags: mary tudor, england queen, phillip II] 538 words (1.5 pages) - ... Mary did spend a majority of her time and effort looking for a husband but at the same time Mary was smart enough to use her constant traveling from place to place for different things. She knows that her traveling all around Scotland will take time away from doing other things so she decides to multi-task, Mary uses her trips to meet and greet many of the Scottish people and increase the relationship she has with the Scottish population (Itinerary). Her education allowed her to make intelligent decisions which made her a good queen on paper but not in real life even though she had many events to help the bond between the people and her.... [tags: notorious monarchs] 1119 words (3.2 pages) - Queen Elizabeth I of England, was an iconic ruler during the Golden Age of England, and arguably one of the most well known and successful rulers of her time. Elizabeth, daughter of King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, reigned over England from 1558 until her death in 1603. When Elizabeth took the throne after the death of her half sister, Mary I, England was in a poor economic state. Throughout her time as Queen, Elizabeth was able to repair the economic debt held by England, as well as mend relations within society, caused by many things including religious wars.... [tags: Mary I of England, Elizabeth I of England] 1964 words (5.6 pages) - Queen Elizabeth was born on September 7, 1533 in Greenwich, United Kingdom. (Bio.com) The queen was recognized most by her nickname “The Virgin Queen.” Elizabeth I was the long filling queen of England, the Elizabethan era is actually named after her. Elizabeth governed with relative stability and prosperity for 44 years. (Bio.com) In Elizabeth 's early life she was a princess, but declared illegitimate through political machinations. She was perhaps England 's most famous monarch, but grew up in complex and sometimes difficult circumstances.... [tags: Elizabeth I of England, Mary I of England] 1086 words (3.1 pages) - Queen Elizabeth I of England is perhaps the greatest example of a woman ruling in her own right that history has to offer as she successfully ruled over all of England for almost half a century, without marrying and surrendering her power to any man or foreign nation. Elizabeth’s two predecessors Lady Jane Grey and Mary Tudor were both terrible rulers –although Lady Jane only “ruled” for nine days- they left England with the impression that a woman could not rule the country effectively. As a result when Elizabeth came into power she was counseled to marry as quickly as possible and to simply rely to do the actual ruling.... [tags: Mary I of England, Elizabeth I of England, Gender] 1054 words (3 pages) - Christopher Hibbert’s “The Virgin Queen: Elizabeth I, Genius of the Golden Age”, approaches the life of Queen Elizabeth I with a novelistic tone, although initially introduced as a biography, it reads differently. It begins with a prelude to allow the reader to familiarize oneself with a brief history of the county’s royal standing, and conflicts within said family. There is a useful family tree-style chart which could prove useful if you knew little to nothing of her father, King Henry VIIII of England, or the Tudors in general.... [tags: Mary I of England, Henry VIII of England] 1662 words (4.7 pages) - During the 1500’s war and sickness were common. War alone took many men including Mary Stuarts father, James V, who was unable to accept the humiliation of his defeat against England and underwent a complete nervous breakdown (Fraser, 11). Previously two of Mary’s older brothers died in infancy only adding to James V’s sorrow which Mary’s birth did not even begin to alleviate (Fraser, 11). Five days following Mary’s birth King James V of Scotland died. Mary Stuart Was crowned as the Queen of Scotland within a year of her birth and though she tried her hardest to be a great leader, many things obstructed her path.... [tags: War, England, English History] 905 words (2.6 pages)	2,121	ENGLISH	1
In the play Macbeth, by William Shakespeare, Macbeth alerts the audience to the quandary of knowing one's destiny and wanting to control the future. Through the setting, plot, and characterization, Shakespeare displays the theme of foul is fair and fair is foul. The setting helps demonstrate the theme in many ways. In act one the witches help reveal the atmosphere of the play. The witches are speaking about when to meet again, "in thunder, lighting, or in rain" which are all foul weather. The witches go on and say, "Fair is foul, and foul is fair. Hover through the fog and filthy air." They are saying whatever is fair will look to Macbeth as foul and whatever is foul will look fair. Macbeth sees the witches as fair because of this and continues to see them thought the play. The witches make him see that he will become king but only if he was to kill Duncan and Banquo, because Banquo's children will become king first. . The plot gives the theme, of foul is fair and fair is foul, more meaning. Macbeth sees murder as a dreadful thing but because of the theme of foul is fair and fair is foul Macbeth sees this as something he must do to become king and he accepts it as something he must do. Macbeth's plot to be able to kill anyone that gets in his way of becoming king fails in part because of the theme. Macbeth, knowing his future and his destiny gave him a slight edge in becoming king but did not benefit him in the long run. Macbeth's character supports the theme of foul is fair and fair is foul. Macbeth's ambition also assists in presenting the theme. Because of Macbeth's ambition he killed Duncan because of his wanting to become king after hearing from the witches. Because of his plethora of ambition Macbeth continued to kill anyone who got in his way of being king or anyone who had any amount of knowledge of the murders or the plot. Because of his knowledge of the future and his destiny he led himself to his own destruction.	<urn:uuid:f566a835-15f5-47e8-851f-54a83e07a511>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/64626.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00248.warc.gz	en	0.983746	434	3.671875	4	[ -0.31469014286994934, -0.12291834503412247, 0.33902525901794434, -0.024383459240198135, -0.17487211525440216, 0.0890701562166214, 0.7277799248695374, 0.014849446713924408, 0.08577488362789154, -0.15766163170337677, -0.3271285593509674, -0.2788773775100708, -0.41963428258895874, 0.117266461...	8	In the play Macbeth, by William Shakespeare, Macbeth alerts the audience to the quandary of knowing one's destiny and wanting to control the future. Through the setting, plot, and characterization, Shakespeare displays the theme of foul is fair and fair is foul. The setting helps demonstrate the theme in many ways. In act one the witches help reveal the atmosphere of the play. The witches are speaking about when to meet again, "in thunder, lighting, or in rain" which are all foul weather. The witches go on and say, "Fair is foul, and foul is fair. Hover through the fog and filthy air." They are saying whatever is fair will look to Macbeth as foul and whatever is foul will look fair. Macbeth sees the witches as fair because of this and continues to see them thought the play. The witches make him see that he will become king but only if he was to kill Duncan and Banquo, because Banquo's children will become king first. . The plot gives the theme, of foul is fair and fair is foul, more meaning. Macbeth sees murder as a dreadful thing but because of the theme of foul is fair and fair is foul Macbeth sees this as something he must do to become king and he accepts it as something he must do. Macbeth's plot to be able to kill anyone that gets in his way of becoming king fails in part because of the theme. Macbeth, knowing his future and his destiny gave him a slight edge in becoming king but did not benefit him in the long run. Macbeth's character supports the theme of foul is fair and fair is foul. Macbeth's ambition also assists in presenting the theme. Because of Macbeth's ambition he killed Duncan because of his wanting to become king after hearing from the witches. Because of his plethora of ambition Macbeth continued to kill anyone who got in his way of being king or anyone who had any amount of knowledge of the murders or the plot. Because of his knowledge of the future and his destiny he led himself to his own destruction.	416	ENGLISH	1
History of Mumbai City The name ‘Mumbai’ was derived by the colloquial pronunciation of a local protective deity, Goddess MumbaDevi. Mumbai is not one region, to begin with. It is a combination of seven different islands on the Arabian Sea namely, Bombay Island, Mazagaon Island, Colaba Island, Parel Island, Worli Island, Old Woman’s Island and Mahim Island. There are no details about who ruled these regions for the first time. However, we have evidence in the Kandivali region of Mumbai that this region was inhabited since the Stone Age of South Asia. Before 3rdBC, the region was occupied by small fishing communities of Koli. In the 3rd century BC, these seven islands along with a huge area of mainland India came under the control of Emperor Ashoka, a famous Buddhist ruler of the country. It was during his time when the caves of Kanheri were excavated. There are literature indications about this region in Greek literature. This region was called as Heptanesia in ancient Greek. Mahakali caves were also built during the Maurya Empire of Ashoka. After the demise of the king, his reign did not stay long under the Maurya Empire. During 2nd BC, the reign came under the control of many dynasties like Rashtrakutas, Abhira, Satavahanas, Kalachuris, and others before falling into the Silahara Dynasty. Silahara Dynasty ruled the region from the 8th century to the 13th century. Many monuments including Elephanta Caves, Jogeshwari Caves, and others were built during this reign. They were out-numbered by the strong Kingdom of Gujarat, who ruled the seven islands along with many regions of Gujarat for around two centuries from mid of the 14th century to the mid of 16th century. In the mid of 16th century, Portuguese took over the islands and many parts of Gujarat from the Bahadur Shah, who ruled Gujarat during the time of Portugal invasion. It was under the control of Portuguese until 1661. During a royal political marriage between Catherine de Braganza of Portugal and Charles II of Britain, the regions of these seven islands were given to Britain as dowry. Charles leased out his area to the then-successful East India Company and it was named Bombay and the name stuck for a very long time, even after independence. Bombay was a large port area allowing the British to perform trade and other businesses with ease. Thus, The East India Company shifted its headquarters to Bombay from Surat. In the mid 19th century, Bombay came under the direct control of the Queen and stayed so until independence.Thus started the flourishing time for Bombay. Later, after the Suez Canal opening, Bombay became a world-wide known area. It remained under British until Independence and the last troops of Britain walked out of the Gateway of India, as a symbol of leaving the control in the country. At the beginning of the 1960s, Bombay started to bloom into an industrial giant and became the capital of Maharashtra. It was later named Mumbai and it is still growing as we speak.	<urn:uuid:ffb3ddb9-b44c-419a-ab18-00b257f4a5de>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.travelogyindia.com/mumbai/history-of-mumbai.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00492.warc.gz	en	0.980879	656	3.4375	3	[ 0.18136626482009888, 0.06678546965122223, 0.10823711007833481, -0.4556204080581665, -0.43448612093925476, 0.09059955179691315, 0.5622439384460449, 0.09118375182151794, 0.3700868487358093, 0.0753374993801117, 0.09241338074207306, -0.6213300228118896, -0.14337009191513062, 0.4285019636154175...	1	History of Mumbai City The name ‘Mumbai’ was derived by the colloquial pronunciation of a local protective deity, Goddess MumbaDevi. Mumbai is not one region, to begin with. It is a combination of seven different islands on the Arabian Sea namely, Bombay Island, Mazagaon Island, Colaba Island, Parel Island, Worli Island, Old Woman’s Island and Mahim Island. There are no details about who ruled these regions for the first time. However, we have evidence in the Kandivali region of Mumbai that this region was inhabited since the Stone Age of South Asia. Before 3rdBC, the region was occupied by small fishing communities of Koli. In the 3rd century BC, these seven islands along with a huge area of mainland India came under the control of Emperor Ashoka, a famous Buddhist ruler of the country. It was during his time when the caves of Kanheri were excavated. There are literature indications about this region in Greek literature. This region was called as Heptanesia in ancient Greek. Mahakali caves were also built during the Maurya Empire of Ashoka. After the demise of the king, his reign did not stay long under the Maurya Empire. During 2nd BC, the reign came under the control of many dynasties like Rashtrakutas, Abhira, Satavahanas, Kalachuris, and others before falling into the Silahara Dynasty. Silahara Dynasty ruled the region from the 8th century to the 13th century. Many monuments including Elephanta Caves, Jogeshwari Caves, and others were built during this reign. They were out-numbered by the strong Kingdom of Gujarat, who ruled the seven islands along with many regions of Gujarat for around two centuries from mid of the 14th century to the mid of 16th century. In the mid of 16th century, Portuguese took over the islands and many parts of Gujarat from the Bahadur Shah, who ruled Gujarat during the time of Portugal invasion. It was under the control of Portuguese until 1661. During a royal political marriage between Catherine de Braganza of Portugal and Charles II of Britain, the regions of these seven islands were given to Britain as dowry. Charles leased out his area to the then-successful East India Company and it was named Bombay and the name stuck for a very long time, even after independence. Bombay was a large port area allowing the British to perform trade and other businesses with ease. Thus, The East India Company shifted its headquarters to Bombay from Surat. In the mid 19th century, Bombay came under the direct control of the Queen and stayed so until independence.Thus started the flourishing time for Bombay. Later, after the Suez Canal opening, Bombay became a world-wide known area. It remained under British until Independence and the last troops of Britain walked out of the Gateway of India, as a symbol of leaving the control in the country. At the beginning of the 1960s, Bombay started to bloom into an industrial giant and became the capital of Maharashtra. It was later named Mumbai and it is still growing as we speak.	665	ENGLISH	1
It was previously believed, that although those vaccinated against measles can still get measles, they are not able to infect others (the authors clearly did not read the previous article, and dozens of other articles about measles outbreaks in fully vaccinated schools). And so it turned out that they could. A twenty-two-year-old girl, vaccinated twice, infected with measles four people, three of which were employees of a medical institution. All four were either vaccinated with two doses, or had measles antibodies. Here are a few articles about measles outbreaks in fully or almost fully vaccinated groups: , , , , , , , , , , , , , . In New York, vitamin A levels were measured in 89 children under 2 years old with measles, and were compared with a control group. Almost all the children were Latin and African Americans. 22% had a low vitamin level (less than 0.7). 26% had a borderline level (0.7-0.87). Children with vitamin deficiency had fever (above 40) more often, for longer time, and they were hospitalized 2 times more often. Children with borderline vitamin levels were also hospitalized more often. Children in the control group did not have vitamin A deficiency, and their average vitamin level was 2 times higher than in the group of measles patients (0.92 vs. 1.9 umol/l). 6 of the children with measles had proof of vaccination. Measles symptoms, vitamin levels and the antibodies levels were exactly the same as in those with no vaccination record. Vitamin A deficiency weakens cellular immunity and reduces antibody production. The authors conclude that half of children with measles in New York have low or borderline vitamin A levels, which leads to more severe symptoms. They suggest supplementing vitamin A to children in the United States, and not just in third world countries. A similar study conducted in Milwaukee.	<urn:uuid:1c7db36c-4a98-4ce5-87be-e705cc063471>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.scibook.org/browse/geo/vaccines:New_York	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00451.warc.gz	en	0.981809	382	3.546875	4	[ -0.0824480652809143, -0.15600712597370148, 0.1510341912508011, -0.2367801070213318, 0.019505880773067474, 0.04703446105122566, -0.028438549488782883, 0.5725356936454773, -0.17267704010009766, 0.1117250919342041, 0.3983067274093628, -0.38375458121299744, 0.4662802517414093, -0.0559575930237...	13	It was previously believed, that although those vaccinated against measles can still get measles, they are not able to infect others (the authors clearly did not read the previous article, and dozens of other articles about measles outbreaks in fully vaccinated schools). And so it turned out that they could. A twenty-two-year-old girl, vaccinated twice, infected with measles four people, three of which were employees of a medical institution. All four were either vaccinated with two doses, or had measles antibodies. Here are a few articles about measles outbreaks in fully or almost fully vaccinated groups: , , , , , , , , , , , , , . In New York, vitamin A levels were measured in 89 children under 2 years old with measles, and were compared with a control group. Almost all the children were Latin and African Americans. 22% had a low vitamin level (less than 0.7). 26% had a borderline level (0.7-0.87). Children with vitamin deficiency had fever (above 40) more often, for longer time, and they were hospitalized 2 times more often. Children with borderline vitamin levels were also hospitalized more often. Children in the control group did not have vitamin A deficiency, and their average vitamin level was 2 times higher than in the group of measles patients (0.92 vs. 1.9 umol/l). 6 of the children with measles had proof of vaccination. Measles symptoms, vitamin levels and the antibodies levels were exactly the same as in those with no vaccination record. Vitamin A deficiency weakens cellular immunity and reduces antibody production. The authors conclude that half of children with measles in New York have low or borderline vitamin A levels, which leads to more severe symptoms. They suggest supplementing vitamin A to children in the United States, and not just in third world countries. A similar study conducted in Milwaukee.	387	ENGLISH	1
by James Michener "Hawaii", by James A. Michener, is a novel which covers, on both a fictional and a non-fictional level, the total history of Hawaii from its beginning until approximately 1954. The work traces Hawaiian history from the geological creation of the islands ("From the Boundless Deeps) to the arrival of its first inhabitants, ("From the Sun-Swept Lagoon"), then to the settlement of the islands by the American missionaries, ("From the Farm of Bitterness"). In the novel, as the island's agricultural treasures in pineapple and sugar cane were discovered, the Chinese were brought as plantation workers to Hawaii ("From The Starving Village"). Years later, when it was realized by the island plantation owners that the Japanese were more dedicated workers, and did not feel the need to own their own lands as the Chinese did, they too were shipped in vast amounts to Hawaii, ("From The Inland Sea"). The final chapter deals with what Michener refers to as "The Golden Men": Those who lived in Hawaii (not necessarily Hawaiians) who contributed a great deal to the islands and their people. Since Hawaii covers such a huge time span, there are a great many plots and sub-plots, all of which show the different situations with which each of the many "types" of Hawaiians are confronted. Michener uses mostly specific, fictional details to support the general ideas of the islands and their various people, that he conveys through Hawaii. Michener's Hawaii is a superb example of a great work of literature. He paints vivid literal pictures of various scenes throughout the novel. For example, in the first chapter, the Pacific Ocean is described: "Scores of millions of years before man had risen from the shores of the ocean to perceive its grandeur and to venture forth upon its turbulent waves, this eternal sea existed, larger than any other of the earth's features, vaster than the sister oceans combined, wild, terrifying in its immensity and imperative in its universal role." Many other stylistic devices are employed; most of them fall into the category of figurative language, (i.e. metaphors, similes, etc.). As Abner Hale, a missionary, was teaching Malama Kanakoa, a Hawaiian ruler, to rebuild a fish pond for the survival of the village, Malama "ordered her handmaidens to help, and the three huge women plunged into the fish pond, pulling the back hems of their new dresses forward and up between their legs like giant diapers." Although it is not the most pleasant example of a simile in Hawaii, it is used. James Michener tells the story of Hawaii in the language of Hawaii; he mixes, at times, English with Hawaiian, Japanese, and Chinese. As readers may encounter these foreign words, the meanings of the words usually become evident to them as they read. Not only does Michener explain Hawaii to a reader in highly descriptive detail, he also makes the reader part of Hawaii, aware that the story lines are just small examples of how life in Hawaii really was for so many people of diverse ethnic backgrounds. The major events that take place in Michener's Hawaii follow history closely, however, the characters, except for one, are fictional. Likewise, most of the historical events which Michener writes about did take place under the circumstances that he included; however, the people involved and some of the events that take place may only resemble what actually happened. For example, a comparison of Hawaii to actual history can be made through selected events in each chapter of the novel. In order to compare the events in Michener's Hawaii, it is necessary to recap the events of the novel. The following selected events from each chapter will serve this purpose. The first chapter of Hawaii, "From the Boundless Deep", describes the formation of the islands, very descriptively. It states that the creation of Hawaii took place "millions upon millions of years ago, when the continents were already formed, and the principal features of the Earth had been decided." Although the creation is a purely fictional account, it is known that the Hawaiian Islands are volcanic islands, and it is possible that they were created in the way that Michener describes. Next, in the second chapter entitled "From the Sun-Swept Lagoon", Michener describes, once again in great detail, who the first settlers of Hawaii were, and how and why they went there. According to Michener, they were from the island of Bora, which is near the island of Hawaii, and northwest of Tahiti. It is known for a fact that the first people to arrive in Hawaii were from the South Pacific. The Bora-Borans, according to the novel, on their trip to Hawaii, sailed in a long double canoe, with a platform between and a small hut in the center. According to historians, "...on voyages of exploration, the courageous sea men used double canoes - from 60 to 80 feet long and three to five feet wide, joined with several pieces of bamboo. They built a platform, 16 to 18 feet wide, straddling the large canoes and, on top of it, constructed a crude shelter." Although the second chapter is mainly about a pre-historical time period, historians have made some inferences and come to some conclusions about how life may have been before and after the settlement of Hawaii by the various people that planted their roots there. In the novel, there was only one race that arrived; however, historians feel that, because of linguistic reasons, the first people to arrive were Negroids. Next were Polynesians, and finally, Caucasians. In the third chapter, "From the Farm of Bitterness", the reader is introduced to the New England Missionaries before they depart for Hawaii. A Hawaiian named Keoki Kanakoa gave a sermon at Yale University, which had great impact upon many people who attended. He stated that in his "father's islands immortal souls go every night to everlasting hell because... there has not been any missionaries to Hawaii to bring the word of Jesus Christ." Abner Hale, who attended the sermon, was deeply moved; so moved that he went to apply to the mission, along with his friend and classmate, John Whipple. Similarly, in 1809, in truth, history records that a certain Henry Obookiah stirred the emotions of religious New Englanders. He was sent to school, for he was a promising candidate to return to Hawaii and preach Christianity. Unfortunately, in 1818, he died of typhus or pneumonia. His death caused much grief, and among those who felt the impact were Reverend Hiram Bingham, and Reverend Asa Thurston. It is possible that Abner Hale and John Whipple represent Bingham and Thurston in Hawaii. In the novel, eleven missionary couples and Keoki Kanakoa went to Hawaii on the brig the Thetis. They left on September 1, 1821, after prayers . In fact, there were seven missionary couples, and three Hawaiians, who were trained as teachers, that went to Hawaii on the Thaddeus, also after prayers. All of the missionaries, in fact and in the novel, were selected by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. After the missionaries arrived in both cases, they targeted their efforts on introducing Christianity to the King, Queen , and the High Priests. After a while, both Kaahumanu, the real Queen, and Malama, the Queen in the novel, became interested in learning to read. Next, the missionaries built churches built churches; but membership was difficult to attain. In both cases, one had to have been truly converted in order to become s member through a long and grueling process. After establishing themselves in Hawaii, the missionaries tried to keep control of the islanders and help them break from old customs, such as the system of tabus and the worshipping of idols and the ancient system of gods. In chapter IV, "From the Starving Village", Michener gives a quick history of a Chinese village. The farmers, in the early 800's AD, due to a famine, had to travel and find food. Eventually, they decided to sell a daughter for food and double-cross the buyer. They killed the rich man, took all of his food, and fled to the mountains. A village was established there and then the time shifts back to the late 1800s. Next the Kee family is introduced. They were from a Chinese clan, in the Punti village. Three hundred Chinese were selected to go to Hawaii to work on plantations. They were put in the hold of a ship, and were treated like livestock, not human beings. The captain of the ship feared a mutiny by the "Chinese pirates" he was transporting. "Compared to the brightness of the day on the deck, all was gloom and shadowy darkness in the hold." After they arrived, most of the Chinese were sent to work on plantations; however, Kee Mun Ki and his wife, Char Nyuk Tsin, were offered jobs as cooks by Dr. Whipple, a former missionary. Dr. Whipple was the man who arranged the experiment of bringing the Chinese to work on the plantations. The pay was lower, but Kee Mun Ki would learn English and become skilled. History notes that in 1852, the labor problems in the fields in Hawaii had become serious. "In desperation, the owners turned to oriental labor and, as an experiment, in 1852, brought a total of 280 coolies from China, to work under contract for five years." With the Chinese came the mai Pake - the Chinese sickness - otherwise known as leprosy. Kee Mun Ki began to get sores, and eventually, was shipped off to the leper island. Char Nyuk Tsin accompanied him as a kokua, or helper, and after he died she later returned to Hawaii. The description of the island was a fairly accurate one, comparing it to the historical leper colony of Molokai. Conditions were terrible. When a leper died, his or her body would either remain where it was or be thrown into a lake by other lepers. Those who had a kokua were sometimes buried. When leprosy actually came to Hawaii is not known; some say about 1840. However, 1863 was the first public concern over the disease. The Board of Health set up the colony at Molokai. Those sent, were confirmed lepers. Since conditions were so bad, "attempts were made to improve the situation, but most of them proved ineffectual." This was partly because not many people realized the mental as well as physical anguish that the lepers suffered from. The next problem that confronted the characters in Hawaii dealt with the sugar and agricultural industries. Whipple Hoxworth, the grandson of Dr. John Whipple, decided to utilize a large area of the Hawaiian islands. But they were barren, with no water to support the produce he wished to grow. He thought of boring miles through the neighboring mountains, but instead took a more practical approach. He found a man named Mr. Overpeck, who had studied Artesian water - fresh water that was trapped under pressure in the earth. He proposed to build a well (which he designed), and as he predicted, he found millions of gallons of water. Factually, before Artesian wells were bored, huge ditches were dug to carry the water to the plantations. "The first Artesian well was bored in July, 1879, at Ewa Plantation, and thereafter, with the aid of great pumps, the underground water supply of Oahu was made available for use." After whip had succeeded in buying up more than six thousand acres of land, he turned the management of his sugar lands to Janders and Whipple, and set out, once again, to see more of the world. When he did so, he usually brought back various fruits. The first time he had mangoes. The next time, he returned with orange trees, coffee beans, and ginger flower. He did so in order to try to introduce new agricultural goods to Hawaii, thereby gaining entrance in to new markets. It was very important to Char Nyuk Tsin that one of her five boys be educated at an American college or university. Since each one was well rounded (spoke four languages, were above high school level in some subjects, etc.), her decision was a difficult one. She consulted Uliassutai Karakoram Blake, the only character who "is founded upon a historical person who accomplished much in Hawaii." Blake was a teacher at the school that the Kee children attended. Char Nyuk Tsin finally decided, after a lot of debate, to send Africa, one of her sons, to Michigan to become a lawyer. The importance of an education was not underemphasized in Hawaii. "Among the people of oriental or mixed background, most of whose parents or grandparents were plantation workers, education [was] a cherished privilege." The reason why the Orientals worked so hard was because they did not want to revert to the "ko-hana," hard physical work, of their parents and grandparents. Meanwhile, in the novel, Wild Whip Hoxworth, as he was now called, was concentrating on getting the United States to annex Hawaii. His motive was that he, and the eight other prominent men who owned sugar plantations in Hawaii, were losing money to the New Orleans, Colorado, and Nebraska sugar tycoons. Pretty soon they would all be bankrupt. The McKinley Tariff protected the United States sugar producers by penalizing those who imported Hawaiian sugar, and subsidized those who sold American sugar. So Whip and the eight others devised a plan to begin a revolution, seize control of the government, and turn the islands over to the United States. Queen Liliuokalani was the new queen, succeeding her brother after he died. She wished that the non-Hawaiian enterprises would leave; this included Whip and his companions. The coalition planned to begin a revolution, with the help of their friend and relative Micah Hale - a minister. There were two problems, though. First, would the Rican warship at Honolulu send US troops ashore to fight the revolutionaries, and second, if they seized control of the government, would the United States recognize them as the legal government of Hawaii? Both questions were answered at the same time: The ships men would have the simple orders to "protect American lives" (the revolutionaries were Americans also), and if they seized control of the government, they would be the de facto government, and the American Minister would immediately recognize them. Whip fooled Micah into wanting to get the United States to annex Hawaii, because he scared him with stories that Japan, England, or Germany might want to take over the islands. When the revolution began, the troops marched ashore. The sugar plantation owners immobilized the queens troops, and Liliuokalani abdicated the throne. But before the Treaty of Annexation could get through the Senate in February, 1893, Cleveland was President: A Democrat protecting the sugar companies of the United States. He dropped the discussion of the Annexation of Hawaii, and sent investigators to see how Liliukalani would like her government restored. She said she would have to behead the sixty or more Americans that aided in the revolution if her government was restored. This outraged everyone. Despite Whips own many outrages to Hawaii and America, on July 6, 1898, the American Senate finally accepted Hawaii by a vote of 42 to 21. Supposedly, in history, an underground organization which included many well known business men, under the title of "Committee for Safety," acquired ammunition, rifles, and other arms. On January 16, 1893, with help from the marines on the USS Boston, who were "protecting American property"), the revolution was started. Since most of the Queen's cabinet was made up of Americans, she was helpless, and decided to abdicate the throne until the Americans reinstated her position. The revolutionaries went under the title of the Provisional Government, and had Judge Sanford Dole as their President. President Grover Cleveland denied the request for annexation because he was alarmed by the events at Honolulu. Secretary of State John Gresham declared that "it would lower our national standards to endorse a selfish and dishonorable scheme of a lot of adventurers." When Albert S. Willis, the new Secretary of State, informed Liliukalani that Cleveland would restore her throne, she said that according to Hawaiian law, Thurston, the leader of the revolution should be beheaded. Unlike the novel, she was willing to forgive and forget, but the Provisional government refused the idea of abdicating. On July 4, 1894, the Provisional government established a minority government, the Republic of Hawaii because hopes for annexation in the near future were crushed. However, when the strategic importance of Hawaii in the Spanish American war was recognized, annexation occurred on August 12, 1898. Once again the novel turns to the Kee Hui and the Chinese community. A hui is a large family, bonded together for economic interests. On December 12, 1899, an old man died of the bubonic plague. Others began to catch it. If nothing was done it would quickly become an epidemic. The four houses of the victims were ordered burned after much controversy. But there were still many hiding from the quarantine of thousands of Chinese. It was proposed that the fire department should burn half of Chinatown, to save the other half and the rest of the islands. Unfortunately, when the blaze was started, the wind threw it in the wrong direction and All of Chinatown was quickly engulfed in a great conflagration. The hardest hit out of all were the Kees - they had the most to lose. Again the novel is fairly accurate in its account of history. In 1899, Bubonic plague did break out in Hawaii. "A strict quarantine was placed around the area, and military guards were stationed at the boundaries of Chinatown. All schools were closed, and no Oriental was permitted to leave the city." Suspicion was roused when the Chinese found that the precautions taken for them were not taken for the few haole (Caucasian) cases. The houses of five plague victims were ordered burned. As in the novel, the fire began under control. But when the wind shifted, it turned toward Chinatown. There was a riot when people rushed to their houses to get their belongings. A total of 38 acres were burned, and 4500 people were left homeless. Once again, when the Chinese could not be convinced that the Board of Health had not purposely destroyed their homes, it is seen that Michener follows history closely. The Chinese took it personally, and would not forget the cruel act. The fifth chapter, "From the Inland Sea," involves the arrival of the Japanese plantation workers, the introduction of a good breed of pineapples to Hawaii, the bombing of Pearl Harbor, and the Japanese-Americans from Hawaii in World War II. Kamejiro Sakagawa was the Japanese immigrant to Hawaii that Michener followed most closely. In 1902 his family decided he would go to Hawaii for five years on a work contract. Before he left he fell in love and swore that he would return. Like most of the other 1850 Japanese laborers how left that day, in September, 1902, Kamejiro would not return. After arriving, the Japanese were sent to their new houses on the plantations. They were told to obey the lunas (the plantation officials). A few days later Kamejiro approached Whip Hoxworth to get some corrugated iron for a hot bath. After a long, tense period of time, Hoxworth gave him the metal. The Japanese needed to take daily hot baths. But they were better workers, so Whip did not mind. Historically, in 1868, 148 Japanese went to Hawaii. Various misunderstandings occurred, as they did in the novel. For example, whenever a language barrier or a misunderstanding was reached, the lunas, usually Germans, violently subdued the Japanese workers. Whip once again turned to his agricultural fancies. He had a theory that pineapple and sugar were natural partners - sugar needs a lot of water (one ton for one pound of water), and pineapples do not. Sugar thrives on low fields, and pineapples thrive on the higher lands. Since he had tried to grow pineapples unsuccessfully many times before, and was having problems importing a special breed of pineapples (Cayennes, from French New Guinea), he decided to enlist the help of a certain botanist, Dr. Schilling. Schilling sold him 2000 prime Cayenne crowns that he would grow in Hawaii. The Cayennes grew beautifully, and Whip was pleased. Nobody actually knows who brought the first pineapple to Hawaii. "After annexation, when the American customs duties were no longer charged on Hawaiian fruit, a band of farmers from southern California settled around the town of Wahaiwa, in the middle of the island of Oahu. They grew several kinds of crops, including pineapples." James D. Dole later started the Hawaiian Pineapple Company. The next major event in Hawaii was the bombing of Pearl Harbor by the Japanese. It took everyone totally by surprise - no one knew that the Japanese fleet was moving in, and they were now bombing. Shigeo Sakagawa, on of Kamejiro's sons, was delivering a telegraph cable when it happened. The announcements on the radio that he heard at the house of one of his deliveries went as follows: "I repeat. This is not a military exercise. Japanese planes are bombing Honolulu. I repeat. This is not a joke. This is war." In truth, at 7:55 in the morning (Hawaiian time), on Sunday, December 7, 1941, "366 Japanese bombers and fighters struck at the American warships lying at their moorings at Pearl Harbor. Four of the American battleships were blown up, or sank where they lay at anchor." Four battleships and eleven other ships were badly damaged or sunk. The damage was phenomenal: 2330 Americans were dead or heavily wounded. The Japanese only lost 29 airplanes, five small submarines, and 64 men. One Japanese was captured by the Americans. "With Hawaii under martial law, the army and navy could do as they pleased. Japanese language radio programs were ordered off the air, and Japanese newspapers were forbidden to publish." Both in the novel and in history lies the fact that many Japanese Americans were persecuted. It is said that only one percent of the Japanese Americans were detained for security reasons. One of those, in the novel, was Kamejiro Sakagawa. He was taken because he refused citizenship (he still intended to return to Japan) and had worked with dynamite. Later on, however, Hoxworth Hale persuaded the authorities to let Kamejiro and other Japanese that he knew, go free. Many of the Japanese Americans, to prove their loyalty to America, joined the armed forces. At first they were not welcomed; later on, when they had won a great victory in Italy by saving 300 trapped soldiers from Texas, they won back their pride. But it cost them over 800 men to save 300. The Sakagawa children proved to be heroes in the battle - two of them died in combat. History tells us that after the bombing, the ROTC units were activated. Over 300 Japanese Americans, though, were discharged without explanation. 150 of them wrote a complaint to Washington, and on June 5, 1300 Japanese Americans went to the mainland for training. They were stationed at Camp McCoy in Wisconsin, where many fights broke out when people called them Japs. Two Japanese battalions joined forces and went to Italy to aid in the cause. They quickly built a good fighting reputation for themselves. There actually was a Texan regiment that needed saving and the Japanese battalion did so. When they returned, "President Harry Truman reviewed the men and attached the Seventh Presidential Citation to their colors. 'You fought not only the enemy, but you fought prejudice - and you have won,' Truman said" The price for winning was 650 dead." The sixth and final chapter of Hawaii, "The Golden Men", deals with the characters in the novel who had made the most contributions to Hawaii, and were good, well rounded people. Because there are many events in this final chapter that have no historical bearing, (and due to the lengthiness of this section - it is, after all, only an injustice to compare a thousand page novel to history in so few pages - I have chosen not to compare the events with the actual events in history. Conclusions Michener's Hawaii gives a total history of Hawaii until just before statehood. Reading Hawaii gives a historical view of the islands; something other than the pomp and splendor most commonly seen on the popular travel guides. Hawaii gives a fictional account of the true story. Never before had I realized that so much transpired in the years that Hawaii was inhabited by Americans. The pain and suffering of the immigrants, both Chinese and Japanese, was unknown to me. The novel cast a whole new light on the subject of the Hawaiian islands. Hawaii will probably last a long time as a work of literature. Lorrin A. Thurston, a grandson of the missionary Asa Thurston, condemned Jack Londons depiction of Hawaii because of the poor account of history. He wrote that, of the impressions given, most of them are false. They are also given as facts. "Thurston charged London with the same general crimes which James Michener would be charged with after publication of Hawaii nearly a half a century later." Even though, I feel that, with my research as a basis, Michener created a fairly accurate representation of Hawaii, given the understanding that it is a fictional novel. Hawaii serves in history possibly to educate those who read it on the subject of Hawaii. It is especially important because the novel shows history not from the general public's point of view, but rather from the diverse ethnic groups that it is about. The story is told through the natives, missionaries, Chinese, Japanese, and the large land holders. This total spectrum of the social class sheds light on all of the views in Hawaii. For this reason, Hawaii is very important in American history. If truly accurate in some areas that are difficult to research, Hawaii could even become part of history: A history of all of the nations involved.	<urn:uuid:572e2195-d5fa-4e19-ae8d-c238183c6485>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://ww.novelguide.com/reportessay/literature/novels/hawaii	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00354.warc.gz	en	0.984522	5,473	3.34375	3	[ -0.10175532102584839, 0.44757091999053955, 0.11004714667797089, -0.08716895431280136, -0.13284358382225037, 0.2253454476594925, -0.008354023098945618, -0.2878217101097107, -0.06433330476284027, 0.5016140341758728, 0.129042848944664, -0.21231907606124878, 0.20110128819942474, 0.290334016084...	5	by James Michener "Hawaii", by James A. Michener, is a novel which covers, on both a fictional and a non-fictional level, the total history of Hawaii from its beginning until approximately 1954. The work traces Hawaiian history from the geological creation of the islands ("From the Boundless Deeps) to the arrival of its first inhabitants, ("From the Sun-Swept Lagoon"), then to the settlement of the islands by the American missionaries, ("From the Farm of Bitterness"). In the novel, as the island's agricultural treasures in pineapple and sugar cane were discovered, the Chinese were brought as plantation workers to Hawaii ("From The Starving Village"). Years later, when it was realized by the island plantation owners that the Japanese were more dedicated workers, and did not feel the need to own their own lands as the Chinese did, they too were shipped in vast amounts to Hawaii, ("From The Inland Sea"). The final chapter deals with what Michener refers to as "The Golden Men": Those who lived in Hawaii (not necessarily Hawaiians) who contributed a great deal to the islands and their people. Since Hawaii covers such a huge time span, there are a great many plots and sub-plots, all of which show the different situations with which each of the many "types" of Hawaiians are confronted. Michener uses mostly specific, fictional details to support the general ideas of the islands and their various people, that he conveys through Hawaii. Michener's Hawaii is a superb example of a great work of literature. He paints vivid literal pictures of various scenes throughout the novel. For example, in the first chapter, the Pacific Ocean is described: "Scores of millions of years before man had risen from the shores of the ocean to perceive its grandeur and to venture forth upon its turbulent waves, this eternal sea existed, larger than any other of the earth's features, vaster than the sister oceans combined, wild, terrifying in its immensity and imperative in its universal role." Many other stylistic devices are employed; most of them fall into the category of figurative language, (i.e. metaphors, similes, etc.). As Abner Hale, a missionary, was teaching Malama Kanakoa, a Hawaiian ruler, to rebuild a fish pond for the survival of the village, Malama "ordered her handmaidens to help, and the three huge women plunged into the fish pond, pulling the back hems of their new dresses forward and up between their legs like giant diapers." Although it is not the most pleasant example of a simile in Hawaii, it is used. James Michener tells the story of Hawaii in the language of Hawaii; he mixes, at times, English with Hawaiian, Japanese, and Chinese. As readers may encounter these foreign words, the meanings of the words usually become evident to them as they read. Not only does Michener explain Hawaii to a reader in highly descriptive detail, he also makes the reader part of Hawaii, aware that the story lines are just small examples of how life in Hawaii really was for so many people of diverse ethnic backgrounds. The major events that take place in Michener's Hawaii follow history closely, however, the characters, except for one, are fictional. Likewise, most of the historical events which Michener writes about did take place under the circumstances that he included; however, the people involved and some of the events that take place may only resemble what actually happened. For example, a comparison of Hawaii to actual history can be made through selected events in each chapter of the novel. In order to compare the events in Michener's Hawaii, it is necessary to recap the events of the novel. The following selected events from each chapter will serve this purpose. The first chapter of Hawaii, "From the Boundless Deep", describes the formation of the islands, very descriptively. It states that the creation of Hawaii took place "millions upon millions of years ago, when the continents were already formed, and the principal features of the Earth had been decided." Although the creation is a purely fictional account, it is known that the Hawaiian Islands are volcanic islands, and it is possible that they were created in the way that Michener describes. Next, in the second chapter entitled "From the Sun-Swept Lagoon", Michener describes, once again in great detail, who the first settlers of Hawaii were, and how and why they went there. According to Michener, they were from the island of Bora, which is near the island of Hawaii, and northwest of Tahiti. It is known for a fact that the first people to arrive in Hawaii were from the South Pacific. The Bora-Borans, according to the novel, on their trip to Hawaii, sailed in a long double canoe, with a platform between and a small hut in the center. According to historians, "...on voyages of exploration, the courageous sea men used double canoes - from 60 to 80 feet long and three to five feet wide, joined with several pieces of bamboo. They built a platform, 16 to 18 feet wide, straddling the large canoes and, on top of it, constructed a crude shelter." Although the second chapter is mainly about a pre-historical time period, historians have made some inferences and come to some conclusions about how life may have been before and after the settlement of Hawaii by the various people that planted their roots there. In the novel, there was only one race that arrived; however, historians feel that, because of linguistic reasons, the first people to arrive were Negroids. Next were Polynesians, and finally, Caucasians. In the third chapter, "From the Farm of Bitterness", the reader is introduced to the New England Missionaries before they depart for Hawaii. A Hawaiian named Keoki Kanakoa gave a sermon at Yale University, which had great impact upon many people who attended. He stated that in his "father's islands immortal souls go every night to everlasting hell because... there has not been any missionaries to Hawaii to bring the word of Jesus Christ." Abner Hale, who attended the sermon, was deeply moved; so moved that he went to apply to the mission, along with his friend and classmate, John Whipple. Similarly, in 1809, in truth, history records that a certain Henry Obookiah stirred the emotions of religious New Englanders. He was sent to school, for he was a promising candidate to return to Hawaii and preach Christianity. Unfortunately, in 1818, he died of typhus or pneumonia. His death caused much grief, and among those who felt the impact were Reverend Hiram Bingham, and Reverend Asa Thurston. It is possible that Abner Hale and John Whipple represent Bingham and Thurston in Hawaii. In the novel, eleven missionary couples and Keoki Kanakoa went to Hawaii on the brig the Thetis. They left on September 1, 1821, after prayers . In fact, there were seven missionary couples, and three Hawaiians, who were trained as teachers, that went to Hawaii on the Thaddeus, also after prayers. All of the missionaries, in fact and in the novel, were selected by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. After the missionaries arrived in both cases, they targeted their efforts on introducing Christianity to the King, Queen , and the High Priests. After a while, both Kaahumanu, the real Queen, and Malama, the Queen in the novel, became interested in learning to read. Next, the missionaries built churches built churches; but membership was difficult to attain. In both cases, one had to have been truly converted in order to become s member through a long and grueling process. After establishing themselves in Hawaii, the missionaries tried to keep control of the islanders and help them break from old customs, such as the system of tabus and the worshipping of idols and the ancient system of gods. In chapter IV, "From the Starving Village", Michener gives a quick history of a Chinese village. The farmers, in the early 800's AD, due to a famine, had to travel and find food. Eventually, they decided to sell a daughter for food and double-cross the buyer. They killed the rich man, took all of his food, and fled to the mountains. A village was established there and then the time shifts back to the late 1800s. Next the Kee family is introduced. They were from a Chinese clan, in the Punti village. Three hundred Chinese were selected to go to Hawaii to work on plantations. They were put in the hold of a ship, and were treated like livestock, not human beings. The captain of the ship feared a mutiny by the "Chinese pirates" he was transporting. "Compared to the brightness of the day on the deck, all was gloom and shadowy darkness in the hold." After they arrived, most of the Chinese were sent to work on plantations; however, Kee Mun Ki and his wife, Char Nyuk Tsin, were offered jobs as cooks by Dr. Whipple, a former missionary. Dr. Whipple was the man who arranged the experiment of bringing the Chinese to work on the plantations. The pay was lower, but Kee Mun Ki would learn English and become skilled. History notes that in 1852, the labor problems in the fields in Hawaii had become serious. "In desperation, the owners turned to oriental labor and, as an experiment, in 1852, brought a total of 280 coolies from China, to work under contract for five years." With the Chinese came the mai Pake - the Chinese sickness - otherwise known as leprosy. Kee Mun Ki began to get sores, and eventually, was shipped off to the leper island. Char Nyuk Tsin accompanied him as a kokua, or helper, and after he died she later returned to Hawaii. The description of the island was a fairly accurate one, comparing it to the historical leper colony of Molokai. Conditions were terrible. When a leper died, his or her body would either remain where it was or be thrown into a lake by other lepers. Those who had a kokua were sometimes buried. When leprosy actually came to Hawaii is not known; some say about 1840. However, 1863 was the first public concern over the disease. The Board of Health set up the colony at Molokai. Those sent, were confirmed lepers. Since conditions were so bad, "attempts were made to improve the situation, but most of them proved ineffectual." This was partly because not many people realized the mental as well as physical anguish that the lepers suffered from. The next problem that confronted the characters in Hawaii dealt with the sugar and agricultural industries. Whipple Hoxworth, the grandson of Dr. John Whipple, decided to utilize a large area of the Hawaiian islands. But they were barren, with no water to support the produce he wished to grow. He thought of boring miles through the neighboring mountains, but instead took a more practical approach. He found a man named Mr. Overpeck, who had studied Artesian water - fresh water that was trapped under pressure in the earth. He proposed to build a well (which he designed), and as he predicted, he found millions of gallons of water. Factually, before Artesian wells were bored, huge ditches were dug to carry the water to the plantations. "The first Artesian well was bored in July, 1879, at Ewa Plantation, and thereafter, with the aid of great pumps, the underground water supply of Oahu was made available for use." After whip had succeeded in buying up more than six thousand acres of land, he turned the management of his sugar lands to Janders and Whipple, and set out, once again, to see more of the world. When he did so, he usually brought back various fruits. The first time he had mangoes. The next time, he returned with orange trees, coffee beans, and ginger flower. He did so in order to try to introduce new agricultural goods to Hawaii, thereby gaining entrance in to new markets. It was very important to Char Nyuk Tsin that one of her five boys be educated at an American college or university. Since each one was well rounded (spoke four languages, were above high school level in some subjects, etc.), her decision was a difficult one. She consulted Uliassutai Karakoram Blake, the only character who "is founded upon a historical person who accomplished much in Hawaii." Blake was a teacher at the school that the Kee children attended. Char Nyuk Tsin finally decided, after a lot of debate, to send Africa, one of her sons, to Michigan to become a lawyer. The importance of an education was not underemphasized in Hawaii. "Among the people of oriental or mixed background, most of whose parents or grandparents were plantation workers, education [was] a cherished privilege." The reason why the Orientals worked so hard was because they did not want to revert to the "ko-hana," hard physical work, of their parents and grandparents. Meanwhile, in the novel, Wild Whip Hoxworth, as he was now called, was concentrating on getting the United States to annex Hawaii. His motive was that he, and the eight other prominent men who owned sugar plantations in Hawaii, were losing money to the New Orleans, Colorado, and Nebraska sugar tycoons. Pretty soon they would all be bankrupt. The McKinley Tariff protected the United States sugar producers by penalizing those who imported Hawaiian sugar, and subsidized those who sold American sugar. So Whip and the eight others devised a plan to begin a revolution, seize control of the government, and turn the islands over to the United States. Queen Liliuokalani was the new queen, succeeding her brother after he died. She wished that the non-Hawaiian enterprises would leave; this included Whip and his companions. The coalition planned to begin a revolution, with the help of their friend and relative Micah Hale - a minister. There were two problems, though. First, would the Rican warship at Honolulu send US troops ashore to fight the revolutionaries, and second, if they seized control of the government, would the United States recognize them as the legal government of Hawaii? Both questions were answered at the same time: The ships men would have the simple orders to "protect American lives" (the revolutionaries were Americans also), and if they seized control of the government, they would be the de facto government, and the American Minister would immediately recognize them. Whip fooled Micah into wanting to get the United States to annex Hawaii, because he scared him with stories that Japan, England, or Germany might want to take over the islands. When the revolution began, the troops marched ashore. The sugar plantation owners immobilized the queens troops, and Liliuokalani abdicated the throne. But before the Treaty of Annexation could get through the Senate in February, 1893, Cleveland was President: A Democrat protecting the sugar companies of the United States. He dropped the discussion of the Annexation of Hawaii, and sent investigators to see how Liliukalani would like her government restored. She said she would have to behead the sixty or more Americans that aided in the revolution if her government was restored. This outraged everyone. Despite Whips own many outrages to Hawaii and America, on July 6, 1898, the American Senate finally accepted Hawaii by a vote of 42 to 21. Supposedly, in history, an underground organization which included many well known business men, under the title of "Committee for Safety," acquired ammunition, rifles, and other arms. On January 16, 1893, with help from the marines on the USS Boston, who were "protecting American property"), the revolution was started. Since most of the Queen's cabinet was made up of Americans, she was helpless, and decided to abdicate the throne until the Americans reinstated her position. The revolutionaries went under the title of the Provisional Government, and had Judge Sanford Dole as their President. President Grover Cleveland denied the request for annexation because he was alarmed by the events at Honolulu. Secretary of State John Gresham declared that "it would lower our national standards to endorse a selfish and dishonorable scheme of a lot of adventurers." When Albert S. Willis, the new Secretary of State, informed Liliukalani that Cleveland would restore her throne, she said that according to Hawaiian law, Thurston, the leader of the revolution should be beheaded. Unlike the novel, she was willing to forgive and forget, but the Provisional government refused the idea of abdicating. On July 4, 1894, the Provisional government established a minority government, the Republic of Hawaii because hopes for annexation in the near future were crushed. However, when the strategic importance of Hawaii in the Spanish American war was recognized, annexation occurred on August 12, 1898. Once again the novel turns to the Kee Hui and the Chinese community. A hui is a large family, bonded together for economic interests. On December 12, 1899, an old man died of the bubonic plague. Others began to catch it. If nothing was done it would quickly become an epidemic. The four houses of the victims were ordered burned after much controversy. But there were still many hiding from the quarantine of thousands of Chinese. It was proposed that the fire department should burn half of Chinatown, to save the other half and the rest of the islands. Unfortunately, when the blaze was started, the wind threw it in the wrong direction and All of Chinatown was quickly engulfed in a great conflagration. The hardest hit out of all were the Kees - they had the most to lose. Again the novel is fairly accurate in its account of history. In 1899, Bubonic plague did break out in Hawaii. "A strict quarantine was placed around the area, and military guards were stationed at the boundaries of Chinatown. All schools were closed, and no Oriental was permitted to leave the city." Suspicion was roused when the Chinese found that the precautions taken for them were not taken for the few haole (Caucasian) cases. The houses of five plague victims were ordered burned. As in the novel, the fire began under control. But when the wind shifted, it turned toward Chinatown. There was a riot when people rushed to their houses to get their belongings. A total of 38 acres were burned, and 4500 people were left homeless. Once again, when the Chinese could not be convinced that the Board of Health had not purposely destroyed their homes, it is seen that Michener follows history closely. The Chinese took it personally, and would not forget the cruel act. The fifth chapter, "From the Inland Sea," involves the arrival of the Japanese plantation workers, the introduction of a good breed of pineapples to Hawaii, the bombing of Pearl Harbor, and the Japanese-Americans from Hawaii in World War II. Kamejiro Sakagawa was the Japanese immigrant to Hawaii that Michener followed most closely. In 1902 his family decided he would go to Hawaii for five years on a work contract. Before he left he fell in love and swore that he would return. Like most of the other 1850 Japanese laborers how left that day, in September, 1902, Kamejiro would not return. After arriving, the Japanese were sent to their new houses on the plantations. They were told to obey the lunas (the plantation officials). A few days later Kamejiro approached Whip Hoxworth to get some corrugated iron for a hot bath. After a long, tense period of time, Hoxworth gave him the metal. The Japanese needed to take daily hot baths. But they were better workers, so Whip did not mind. Historically, in 1868, 148 Japanese went to Hawaii. Various misunderstandings occurred, as they did in the novel. For example, whenever a language barrier or a misunderstanding was reached, the lunas, usually Germans, violently subdued the Japanese workers. Whip once again turned to his agricultural fancies. He had a theory that pineapple and sugar were natural partners - sugar needs a lot of water (one ton for one pound of water), and pineapples do not. Sugar thrives on low fields, and pineapples thrive on the higher lands. Since he had tried to grow pineapples unsuccessfully many times before, and was having problems importing a special breed of pineapples (Cayennes, from French New Guinea), he decided to enlist the help of a certain botanist, Dr. Schilling. Schilling sold him 2000 prime Cayenne crowns that he would grow in Hawaii. The Cayennes grew beautifully, and Whip was pleased. Nobody actually knows who brought the first pineapple to Hawaii. "After annexation, when the American customs duties were no longer charged on Hawaiian fruit, a band of farmers from southern California settled around the town of Wahaiwa, in the middle of the island of Oahu. They grew several kinds of crops, including pineapples." James D. Dole later started the Hawaiian Pineapple Company. The next major event in Hawaii was the bombing of Pearl Harbor by the Japanese. It took everyone totally by surprise - no one knew that the Japanese fleet was moving in, and they were now bombing. Shigeo Sakagawa, on of Kamejiro's sons, was delivering a telegraph cable when it happened. The announcements on the radio that he heard at the house of one of his deliveries went as follows: "I repeat. This is not a military exercise. Japanese planes are bombing Honolulu. I repeat. This is not a joke. This is war." In truth, at 7:55 in the morning (Hawaiian time), on Sunday, December 7, 1941, "366 Japanese bombers and fighters struck at the American warships lying at their moorings at Pearl Harbor. Four of the American battleships were blown up, or sank where they lay at anchor." Four battleships and eleven other ships were badly damaged or sunk. The damage was phenomenal: 2330 Americans were dead or heavily wounded. The Japanese only lost 29 airplanes, five small submarines, and 64 men. One Japanese was captured by the Americans. "With Hawaii under martial law, the army and navy could do as they pleased. Japanese language radio programs were ordered off the air, and Japanese newspapers were forbidden to publish." Both in the novel and in history lies the fact that many Japanese Americans were persecuted. It is said that only one percent of the Japanese Americans were detained for security reasons. One of those, in the novel, was Kamejiro Sakagawa. He was taken because he refused citizenship (he still intended to return to Japan) and had worked with dynamite. Later on, however, Hoxworth Hale persuaded the authorities to let Kamejiro and other Japanese that he knew, go free. Many of the Japanese Americans, to prove their loyalty to America, joined the armed forces. At first they were not welcomed; later on, when they had won a great victory in Italy by saving 300 trapped soldiers from Texas, they won back their pride. But it cost them over 800 men to save 300. The Sakagawa children proved to be heroes in the battle - two of them died in combat. History tells us that after the bombing, the ROTC units were activated. Over 300 Japanese Americans, though, were discharged without explanation. 150 of them wrote a complaint to Washington, and on June 5, 1300 Japanese Americans went to the mainland for training. They were stationed at Camp McCoy in Wisconsin, where many fights broke out when people called them Japs. Two Japanese battalions joined forces and went to Italy to aid in the cause. They quickly built a good fighting reputation for themselves. There actually was a Texan regiment that needed saving and the Japanese battalion did so. When they returned, "President Harry Truman reviewed the men and attached the Seventh Presidential Citation to their colors. 'You fought not only the enemy, but you fought prejudice - and you have won,' Truman said" The price for winning was 650 dead." The sixth and final chapter of Hawaii, "The Golden Men", deals with the characters in the novel who had made the most contributions to Hawaii, and were good, well rounded people. Because there are many events in this final chapter that have no historical bearing, (and due to the lengthiness of this section - it is, after all, only an injustice to compare a thousand page novel to history in so few pages - I have chosen not to compare the events with the actual events in history. Conclusions Michener's Hawaii gives a total history of Hawaii until just before statehood. Reading Hawaii gives a historical view of the islands; something other than the pomp and splendor most commonly seen on the popular travel guides. Hawaii gives a fictional account of the true story. Never before had I realized that so much transpired in the years that Hawaii was inhabited by Americans. The pain and suffering of the immigrants, both Chinese and Japanese, was unknown to me. The novel cast a whole new light on the subject of the Hawaiian islands. Hawaii will probably last a long time as a work of literature. Lorrin A. Thurston, a grandson of the missionary Asa Thurston, condemned Jack Londons depiction of Hawaii because of the poor account of history. He wrote that, of the impressions given, most of them are false. They are also given as facts. "Thurston charged London with the same general crimes which James Michener would be charged with after publication of Hawaii nearly a half a century later." Even though, I feel that, with my research as a basis, Michener created a fairly accurate representation of Hawaii, given the understanding that it is a fictional novel. Hawaii serves in history possibly to educate those who read it on the subject of Hawaii. It is especially important because the novel shows history not from the general public's point of view, but rather from the diverse ethnic groups that it is about. The story is told through the natives, missionaries, Chinese, Japanese, and the large land holders. This total spectrum of the social class sheds light on all of the views in Hawaii. For this reason, Hawaii is very important in American history. If truly accurate in some areas that are difficult to research, Hawaii could even become part of history: A history of all of the nations involved.	5,591	ENGLISH	1

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