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Founding Father: Patrick Henry
Patrick Henry’s Early Life
Patrick Henry was born on May 29, 1736, in Studley, Virginia. As a child, Patrick Henry was a little bit lazy, so his parents were worried about his future. They knew he would not be a farmer, so they tried to educate him at home. He would not pay attention to his studies as well, so when he was 21 years old, he father set up a business for him. Unfortunately Patrick Henry bankrupted the business. Patrick Henry had gotten married at the age of 18, so he needed to find a way to support his family. He decided to study for six weeks and then take an exam to become a lawyer. He passed the exam in 1760 and began working right away.
Patrick Henry’s Mission for Independence
In 1763, Patrick Henry argued a case that made him very famous. In the Parson’s Cause, Patrick Henry argued that any king who would veto laws that were passed by a local legislature was acting like a tyrant who gives up his loyalty of the people below him. This was the beginning of Patrick Henry’s struggle to get independence for the 13 American colonies.
Patrick Henry became a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1764. This was one of the first representative governments in the colonies. The next year, Patrick Henry made seven resolutions against the Stamp Act, which had been made by Great Britain. Patrick Henry convinced other members of the House to support his resolutions, which showed Great Britain that the colonists were not happy with “taxation without representation.”
Patrick Henry kept making speeches and working as a lawyer throughout all of this. He gave another speech in March 1775, asking the people of Virginia to take up arms to protect themselves. Because Great Britain placed too many taxes and restrictions on the colonies, Patrick Henry felt it was time for the American colonists to stand up for themselves. He ended his speech with the famous words “give me liberty or give me death.”
Patrick Henry speech was on the same day the British marched on Concord. This was where the first battle of the Revolutionary War happened. When Henry found out that the Governor of Virginia had taken the gunpowder from a storehouse in Williamsburg, Patrick Henry set up the militia and marched to demand the return of the gunpowder or money in exchange for the stolen gunpowder. The governor paid money, but then declared Patrick Henry an outlaw.
Representative and Governor
Patrick Henry continued the fight for the colony’s independence as a representative in the House of Burgesses. Patrick Henry attended the constitutional convention in Virginia and became the very first governor of Virginia after the colonies became independent. Patrick Henry was Governor for three terms until he decided to retire and go back home.
Patrick Henry did not go to the Constitutional Convention because he thought that the federal government should not be strong and that the states should have more power. However, Patrick Henry was very important movement to add the Bill of Rights to the United States Constitution.
Patrick Henry became very sick at the end of his life and because of it, he refused to be the Secretary of State under President George Washington as well as the Minister to France under President John Adams. Patrick Henry passed away on June 6, 1799 at the age of 62.
Fun Facts about Patrick Henry
• He was a member of first Continental Congress and the Second Continental Congress.
• He opposed the U.S. Constitution.
• He helped lead the movement for Virginia’s independence. | <urn:uuid:3b8e9114-24fc-4eff-98e2-b2b1da188d1d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kids.laws.com/patrick-henry?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=patrick-henry | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00227.warc.gz | en | 0.985221 | 727 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.27192348241806... | 3 | Founding Father: Patrick Henry
Patrick Henry’s Early Life
Patrick Henry was born on May 29, 1736, in Studley, Virginia. As a child, Patrick Henry was a little bit lazy, so his parents were worried about his future. They knew he would not be a farmer, so they tried to educate him at home. He would not pay attention to his studies as well, so when he was 21 years old, he father set up a business for him. Unfortunately Patrick Henry bankrupted the business. Patrick Henry had gotten married at the age of 18, so he needed to find a way to support his family. He decided to study for six weeks and then take an exam to become a lawyer. He passed the exam in 1760 and began working right away.
Patrick Henry’s Mission for Independence
In 1763, Patrick Henry argued a case that made him very famous. In the Parson’s Cause, Patrick Henry argued that any king who would veto laws that were passed by a local legislature was acting like a tyrant who gives up his loyalty of the people below him. This was the beginning of Patrick Henry’s struggle to get independence for the 13 American colonies.
Patrick Henry became a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1764. This was one of the first representative governments in the colonies. The next year, Patrick Henry made seven resolutions against the Stamp Act, which had been made by Great Britain. Patrick Henry convinced other members of the House to support his resolutions, which showed Great Britain that the colonists were not happy with “taxation without representation.”
Patrick Henry kept making speeches and working as a lawyer throughout all of this. He gave another speech in March 1775, asking the people of Virginia to take up arms to protect themselves. Because Great Britain placed too many taxes and restrictions on the colonies, Patrick Henry felt it was time for the American colonists to stand up for themselves. He ended his speech with the famous words “give me liberty or give me death.”
Patrick Henry speech was on the same day the British marched on Concord. This was where the first battle of the Revolutionary War happened. When Henry found out that the Governor of Virginia had taken the gunpowder from a storehouse in Williamsburg, Patrick Henry set up the militia and marched to demand the return of the gunpowder or money in exchange for the stolen gunpowder. The governor paid money, but then declared Patrick Henry an outlaw.
Representative and Governor
Patrick Henry continued the fight for the colony’s independence as a representative in the House of Burgesses. Patrick Henry attended the constitutional convention in Virginia and became the very first governor of Virginia after the colonies became independent. Patrick Henry was Governor for three terms until he decided to retire and go back home.
Patrick Henry did not go to the Constitutional Convention because he thought that the federal government should not be strong and that the states should have more power. However, Patrick Henry was very important movement to add the Bill of Rights to the United States Constitution.
Patrick Henry became very sick at the end of his life and because of it, he refused to be the Secretary of State under President George Washington as well as the Minister to France under President John Adams. Patrick Henry passed away on June 6, 1799 at the age of 62.
Fun Facts about Patrick Henry
• He was a member of first Continental Congress and the Second Continental Congress.
• He opposed the U.S. Constitution.
• He helped lead the movement for Virginia’s independence. | 733 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Explore more in our Mag
The tradition of duels came to Russia from Western Europe in the middle of the 17th-century, when two foreign officers had a duel in Moscow. However, the Russian duel had some differences from its Western analog. It duel was way tougher and fatal than the French duel, for example. If the French duelists often ended their dispute without bloodshed, Russians took more risk and sometimes pistol duels were held when the opponents took shots being just 10 steps away from each other. There were even cases when they stood face to face within a few step distance. It is easy to imagine what was the result in such cases…
The peak of duels in Russia was reached in the 19th-century when there were held several notable duels, including the one where the famous Russian poet Alexander Pushkin was fatally wounded by Georges-Charles d’Anthes. Duels were highly popular among the officers and in 1894, there was another rise in the number of duels due to its legalization. Until that year, the Russian monarchy saw duels as something highly disturbing and for centuries there were created various laws and punishments to decrease their numbers. However, the need to protect the honor became strongly embodied in the hearts of Russian nobility and military class that often ignored all the prohibitions and took the risk to participate in duels.
One of the popular ways to punish the officers, who took part in duels was to exile them to continue their service in the Caucasus and also demote them in the ranking. Nevertheless, well-qualified officers usually got their rankings back after some time and they could enjoy all their hard-earned privileges without any restrictions. Within a time, punishments became softer as the army always had an important role in the Empire and monarchy had no need to create extra tensions among the loyal officers. The need to keep the honor had to be respected.
The popularity of duels quickly decreased after The October Revolution when the Russian Empire ended its existence together with the nobility. Russians faced a difficult period of major changes and all the duel romanticism of the previous century quickly dissolved.
Unwritten rules of the duel
Usually, duels were held in the morning when the duelists, their seconds and a doctor arrived at the arranged location. Duelists could be late no more than 15 minutes, otherwise, it counted as avoidance of the duel. When both sides arrived, they greeted each other with a bow and duel started within the next 10 minutes. Before it started, there was the last chance for both sides to agree to a reconciliation. After the refusal, the steward told the rules to duelists and seconds had to set the barriers and load the guns of duelists.
If duelists agreed to saber/sword fight, then they had to duel in their shirts. They were obliged to take everything out of their pockets. After that, everyone took their place. Seconds stood in a parallel of the line of the duel and the doctor stood behind them. The duel continued until one of the duelists was no more able to continue to fight i.e., he was seriously wounded or dead. If one of the opponents fell, dropped or broke his saber – the other duelist was obliged to stop the fight after the command of steward until his opponent would be able to continue the duel.
The duel also had a break every time, when one of the duelists got wounded, so the doctor could look on the wound and give a verdict about the severity of the injury. In case, if one of the duelists stepped out of the borders of the duel, it counted as avoidance or refusal of a fair fight. The honor was lost.
Here are few variations of the pistol duel
1 – The most popular one was the duel when the opponents stood 30 steps from each other and after a command, they went towards the barriers that had at least a 10 step distance between them. In the process of walking, after a command, the first shot was made. Usually, it took about 30-60 seconds until the opponent shot back. It was forbidden to cross the line of barriers and misfire also counted as a shot. If one of the opponents fell after he got shot, he could continue the duel and make his shot while lying down. If in the course of such duel nobody from the opponents got injured, after four shots the duel had to end.
2 – The opponents stood in 15-40 feet distance from each other and without any movement alternately made their shots after the command. The gap between the command and the shot had to be no less than 3 seconds and no longer than 1 minute. If the insult was serious, the side that was the offended one could make the shot first from a distance no less than 40 steps. Otherwise, the right to shoot first was decided by a draw.
3 – In very rare cases opponents stood back to back 25 steps from each other and without any extra movement, they made shots over their shoulders.
4 – The duelists stood 25-35 steps from each other in a parallel line, so their opponent was on the right side. They moved by this line towards the barriers that had a distance of 15 steps between them and after a command, duelists stopped and made their shots.
5 – This was the most dangerous version of the duel and fatal outcomes were common because the opponents stood 25-35 steps from each other and after command shots were made simultaneously. After the end of the duel, opponents shook hands.
«Soul – to the God, heart – to a woman, duty – to the fatherland, honor – to nobody!» – Russian general Lavr Kornilov
Sources | Востриков А. Книга о русской дуэли (2004) | Гордин Я. Русская дуэль СПб (1993) | Дурасов В. Дуэльный кодекс (1912) | <urn:uuid:658178a6-c7f8-4302-bf66-e93398372326> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://latgale.academy/russian-duel/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00350.warc.gz | en | 0.986432 | 1,266 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.3604496717453003,... | 2 | Explore more in our Mag
The tradition of duels came to Russia from Western Europe in the middle of the 17th-century, when two foreign officers had a duel in Moscow. However, the Russian duel had some differences from its Western analog. It duel was way tougher and fatal than the French duel, for example. If the French duelists often ended their dispute without bloodshed, Russians took more risk and sometimes pistol duels were held when the opponents took shots being just 10 steps away from each other. There were even cases when they stood face to face within a few step distance. It is easy to imagine what was the result in such cases…
The peak of duels in Russia was reached in the 19th-century when there were held several notable duels, including the one where the famous Russian poet Alexander Pushkin was fatally wounded by Georges-Charles d’Anthes. Duels were highly popular among the officers and in 1894, there was another rise in the number of duels due to its legalization. Until that year, the Russian monarchy saw duels as something highly disturbing and for centuries there were created various laws and punishments to decrease their numbers. However, the need to protect the honor became strongly embodied in the hearts of Russian nobility and military class that often ignored all the prohibitions and took the risk to participate in duels.
One of the popular ways to punish the officers, who took part in duels was to exile them to continue their service in the Caucasus and also demote them in the ranking. Nevertheless, well-qualified officers usually got their rankings back after some time and they could enjoy all their hard-earned privileges without any restrictions. Within a time, punishments became softer as the army always had an important role in the Empire and monarchy had no need to create extra tensions among the loyal officers. The need to keep the honor had to be respected.
The popularity of duels quickly decreased after The October Revolution when the Russian Empire ended its existence together with the nobility. Russians faced a difficult period of major changes and all the duel romanticism of the previous century quickly dissolved.
Unwritten rules of the duel
Usually, duels were held in the morning when the duelists, their seconds and a doctor arrived at the arranged location. Duelists could be late no more than 15 minutes, otherwise, it counted as avoidance of the duel. When both sides arrived, they greeted each other with a bow and duel started within the next 10 minutes. Before it started, there was the last chance for both sides to agree to a reconciliation. After the refusal, the steward told the rules to duelists and seconds had to set the barriers and load the guns of duelists.
If duelists agreed to saber/sword fight, then they had to duel in their shirts. They were obliged to take everything out of their pockets. After that, everyone took their place. Seconds stood in a parallel of the line of the duel and the doctor stood behind them. The duel continued until one of the duelists was no more able to continue to fight i.e., he was seriously wounded or dead. If one of the opponents fell, dropped or broke his saber – the other duelist was obliged to stop the fight after the command of steward until his opponent would be able to continue the duel.
The duel also had a break every time, when one of the duelists got wounded, so the doctor could look on the wound and give a verdict about the severity of the injury. In case, if one of the duelists stepped out of the borders of the duel, it counted as avoidance or refusal of a fair fight. The honor was lost.
Here are few variations of the pistol duel
1 – The most popular one was the duel when the opponents stood 30 steps from each other and after a command, they went towards the barriers that had at least a 10 step distance between them. In the process of walking, after a command, the first shot was made. Usually, it took about 30-60 seconds until the opponent shot back. It was forbidden to cross the line of barriers and misfire also counted as a shot. If one of the opponents fell after he got shot, he could continue the duel and make his shot while lying down. If in the course of such duel nobody from the opponents got injured, after four shots the duel had to end.
2 – The opponents stood in 15-40 feet distance from each other and without any movement alternately made their shots after the command. The gap between the command and the shot had to be no less than 3 seconds and no longer than 1 minute. If the insult was serious, the side that was the offended one could make the shot first from a distance no less than 40 steps. Otherwise, the right to shoot first was decided by a draw.
3 – In very rare cases opponents stood back to back 25 steps from each other and without any extra movement, they made shots over their shoulders.
4 – The duelists stood 25-35 steps from each other in a parallel line, so their opponent was on the right side. They moved by this line towards the barriers that had a distance of 15 steps between them and after a command, duelists stopped and made their shots.
5 – This was the most dangerous version of the duel and fatal outcomes were common because the opponents stood 25-35 steps from each other and after command shots were made simultaneously. After the end of the duel, opponents shook hands.
«Soul – to the God, heart – to a woman, duty – to the fatherland, honor – to nobody!» – Russian general Lavr Kornilov
Sources | Востриков А. Книга о русской дуэли (2004) | Гордин Я. Русская дуэль СПб (1993) | Дурасов В. Дуэльный кодекс (1912) | 1,242 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Barrett Various Chinese titles have been translated into English as "empress", including "empress" in both the sense of empress consort and empress regnant. Upon the death of the emperor, the surviving empress consort could become empress dowagersometimes wielding considerable political power as regent during the minority of the male heir to the position of emperor. Wu Zetian was the only woman in the history of China to assume the title of Huangdi. Wu Zetian is said to be the only woman in Chinese history to wear the yellow robe as a monarch otherwise reserved for the sole use of the emperor, with the exception of empress dowager Liu of Song Dynasty.
Barrett Various Chinese titles have been translated into English as "empress", including "empress" in both the sense of empress consort Zhou case empress regnant.
Upon the death of the emperor, the surviving empress consort could become empress dowagersometimes wielding considerable political power as regent during the minority of the male heir to the position of emperor. Wu Zetian was the only woman in the history of China to assume the title of Huangdi.
Wu Zetian is said to be the only woman in Chinese history to wear the yellow robe as a monarch otherwise reserved for the sole use of the emperor, with the exception of empress dowager Liu of Song Dynasty.
The birthplace of Wu Zetian is not documented in preserved historical literature and remains controversial. She lived from 17 February [h] [i] — 16 December In the same year, a total eclipse of the sun was visible across China. Her father Wu Shihuo was engaged in the timber business and the family was relatively well off.
Her mother was from the powerful Yang family. After Li Yuan overthrew Emperor Yang, he was generous to the Wu family, providing them with money, grain, land, and clothing.
Wu Zetian was born into a rich family. She had servants at her disposal to perform routine tasks for her, so there were not many domestic jobs that Wu would ever have to learn. Because of this, Wu was encouraged by her father to read books and pursue her education.
He made sure that his daughter was well-educated, a trait that was not common among women, much less encouraged by their fathers. Wu did not seem to be the type of child who would want to sit quietly and do needlework or sip tea all day. So Wu read and learned about many different topics such as politics and other governmental affairs, writing, literature, and music.
Wu grew and continued to learn as much as she could, with her father backing her every step of the way. At age fourteen, she was taken to be an imperial concubine lesser wife of Emperor Taizong of Tang. It was there that she became a type of secretary. This opportunity allowed her to continue to pursue her education.
She was given the title of cairentitle for one of the consorts with the fifth rank in Tang's nine-rank system for imperial officials, nobles, and consorts. Consort Wu, however, did not appear to be much favoured by Emperor Taizong, although it appeared that she did have sexual relations with him at one point.
Emperor Taizong had a horse with the name "Lion Stallion", and it was so large and strong that no one could get on its back.
I was a lady in waiting attending Emperor Taizong, and I suggested to him, "I only need three things to subordinate it: I will whip it with the iron whip.
If it does not submit, I will hammer its head with the iron hammer. If it still does not submit, I will cut its throat with the dagger. Do you really believe that you are qualified to dirty my dagger?
Li and Wu had had an affair when Taizong was still alive. Taizong had fourteen sons, including three to his beloved Empress Zhangsun —but none with Consort Wu.
Wu was to defy expectations, however, and left the convent for an alternative life. After Taizong's death Li Zhi came to visit her and, finding her more beautiful, intelligent, and intriguing than before, decided to bring her back as his own concubine.
Wu progressively gained influence over the governance of the empire throughout Emperor Gaozong's reign, and eventually she effectively was making the major decisions. She was regarded as ruthless in her endeavours to grab power and was believed by traditional historians even to have killed her own daughter to frame Empress Wang and, later, her own eldest son Li Hongin a power struggle.
Inexperienced and frequently incapacitated with a sickness that caused him spells of dizziness, Gaozong was only made heir to the empire due to the disgrace of his two older brothers.Find great deals on eBay for zhou case leica.
Shop with confidence. Zhou primarily relies on three cases in which the Supreme Court held that other criminal statutes apply only to “knowing” actions. 1 In those statutes, “knowingly” is immediately followed by a series of verbs. The statutes in those cases are ambiguous because “it is not at all clear how far down the sentence the word ‘knowingly.
Praise for the First Edition " the book is a valuable addition to the literature in thefield, serving as a much-needed guide for both clinicians andadvanced students."—Zentralblatt MATH.
Important People / Authors: Texts / Events-According to the book Rites of Zhou, this period had an organized medical system in which court officials of the emperor had different specialties such as dietitians, disease and surgical doctors and leslutinsduphoenix.com book also recorded seasonal epidemics and relevant treatment drugs.
Yi He: He used the imbalance of six factors (yin, yang, wind, rain. The Asian American Achievement Paradox [Jennifer Lee, Min Zhou] on leslutinsduphoenix.com *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers.
Asian Americans are often stereotyped as the “model minority.” Their sizeable presence at elite universities and high household incomes have helped construct the narrative of Asian American “exceptionalism.” While many .
Seebeck effect: Seebeck effect,, production of an electromotive force (emf) and consequently an electric current in a loop of material consisting of at least two dissimilar conductors when two junctions are maintained at different temperatures.
The conductors are commonly metals, though they need not even be. | <urn:uuid:22cfa9e8-9add-4180-a1f9-e8e743d6b05f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://loguvygywiwivy.leslutinsduphoenix.com/zhou-case-45681mh.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00318.warc.gz | en | 0.982155 | 1,373 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.15946477651596... | 2 | Barrett Various Chinese titles have been translated into English as "empress", including "empress" in both the sense of empress consort and empress regnant. Upon the death of the emperor, the surviving empress consort could become empress dowagersometimes wielding considerable political power as regent during the minority of the male heir to the position of emperor. Wu Zetian was the only woman in the history of China to assume the title of Huangdi. Wu Zetian is said to be the only woman in Chinese history to wear the yellow robe as a monarch otherwise reserved for the sole use of the emperor, with the exception of empress dowager Liu of Song Dynasty.
Barrett Various Chinese titles have been translated into English as "empress", including "empress" in both the sense of empress consort Zhou case empress regnant.
Upon the death of the emperor, the surviving empress consort could become empress dowagersometimes wielding considerable political power as regent during the minority of the male heir to the position of emperor. Wu Zetian was the only woman in the history of China to assume the title of Huangdi.
Wu Zetian is said to be the only woman in Chinese history to wear the yellow robe as a monarch otherwise reserved for the sole use of the emperor, with the exception of empress dowager Liu of Song Dynasty.
The birthplace of Wu Zetian is not documented in preserved historical literature and remains controversial. She lived from 17 February [h] [i] — 16 December In the same year, a total eclipse of the sun was visible across China. Her father Wu Shihuo was engaged in the timber business and the family was relatively well off.
Her mother was from the powerful Yang family. After Li Yuan overthrew Emperor Yang, he was generous to the Wu family, providing them with money, grain, land, and clothing.
Wu Zetian was born into a rich family. She had servants at her disposal to perform routine tasks for her, so there were not many domestic jobs that Wu would ever have to learn. Because of this, Wu was encouraged by her father to read books and pursue her education.
He made sure that his daughter was well-educated, a trait that was not common among women, much less encouraged by their fathers. Wu did not seem to be the type of child who would want to sit quietly and do needlework or sip tea all day. So Wu read and learned about many different topics such as politics and other governmental affairs, writing, literature, and music.
Wu grew and continued to learn as much as she could, with her father backing her every step of the way. At age fourteen, she was taken to be an imperial concubine lesser wife of Emperor Taizong of Tang. It was there that she became a type of secretary. This opportunity allowed her to continue to pursue her education.
She was given the title of cairentitle for one of the consorts with the fifth rank in Tang's nine-rank system for imperial officials, nobles, and consorts. Consort Wu, however, did not appear to be much favoured by Emperor Taizong, although it appeared that she did have sexual relations with him at one point.
Emperor Taizong had a horse with the name "Lion Stallion", and it was so large and strong that no one could get on its back.
I was a lady in waiting attending Emperor Taizong, and I suggested to him, "I only need three things to subordinate it: I will whip it with the iron whip.
If it does not submit, I will hammer its head with the iron hammer. If it still does not submit, I will cut its throat with the dagger. Do you really believe that you are qualified to dirty my dagger?
Li and Wu had had an affair when Taizong was still alive. Taizong had fourteen sons, including three to his beloved Empress Zhangsun —but none with Consort Wu.
Wu was to defy expectations, however, and left the convent for an alternative life. After Taizong's death Li Zhi came to visit her and, finding her more beautiful, intelligent, and intriguing than before, decided to bring her back as his own concubine.
Wu progressively gained influence over the governance of the empire throughout Emperor Gaozong's reign, and eventually she effectively was making the major decisions. She was regarded as ruthless in her endeavours to grab power and was believed by traditional historians even to have killed her own daughter to frame Empress Wang and, later, her own eldest son Li Hongin a power struggle.
Inexperienced and frequently incapacitated with a sickness that caused him spells of dizziness, Gaozong was only made heir to the empire due to the disgrace of his two older brothers.Find great deals on eBay for zhou case leica.
Shop with confidence. Zhou primarily relies on three cases in which the Supreme Court held that other criminal statutes apply only to “knowing” actions. 1 In those statutes, “knowingly” is immediately followed by a series of verbs. The statutes in those cases are ambiguous because “it is not at all clear how far down the sentence the word ‘knowingly.
Praise for the First Edition " the book is a valuable addition to the literature in thefield, serving as a much-needed guide for both clinicians andadvanced students."—Zentralblatt MATH.
Important People / Authors: Texts / Events-According to the book Rites of Zhou, this period had an organized medical system in which court officials of the emperor had different specialties such as dietitians, disease and surgical doctors and leslutinsduphoenix.com book also recorded seasonal epidemics and relevant treatment drugs.
Yi He: He used the imbalance of six factors (yin, yang, wind, rain. The Asian American Achievement Paradox [Jennifer Lee, Min Zhou] on leslutinsduphoenix.com *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers.
Asian Americans are often stereotyped as the “model minority.” Their sizeable presence at elite universities and high household incomes have helped construct the narrative of Asian American “exceptionalism.” While many .
Seebeck effect: Seebeck effect,, production of an electromotive force (emf) and consequently an electric current in a loop of material consisting of at least two dissimilar conductors when two junctions are maintained at different temperatures.
The conductors are commonly metals, though they need not even be. | 1,338 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Titanic Construction: An Overview
The Titanic construction took place in Belfast by the shipbuilding company Harland and Wolff. The company was owned by Lord Pirrie, a friend of Bruce Ismay, managing director of the White Star Line (pictured below, left). The chief designer of the Titanic was his son-in-law, Thomas Andrews (pictured below right).
Construction of the Titanic began in 1909. Harland and Wolff had to make alterations to their shipyard (larger piers and gantries) to accommodate the giant liners, Titanic and her sister ship Olympic. The two ships were to be built side-by-side.
The giant gantries constructed by Harland and Wolff
Titanic Construction: Watertight Compartments
Titanic was constructed with sixteen watertight compartments. Each compartment had doors that were designed to close automatically if the water level rose above a certain height. The doors could also be electronically closed from the bridge. Titanic was able to stay afloat if any two compartments or the first four became flooded. Shortly after Titanic hit the iceberg it was revealed that the first six compartments were flooded.
Titanic Construction: Boilers
There were twenty-four double ended boilers and five single ended boilers which were housed in six boiler rooms. The double ended boilers were 20 feet long, had a diameter of 15 feet 9 inches and contained six coal burning furnaces. The single ended boilers were 11 feet 9 inches long with the same diameter and three furnaces. Smoke and waste gasses were expelled through three funnels.
Titanic Construction: Funnels
Titanic’s four funnels were constructed away from the site and were then transported to the shipyard for putting on the Titanic. Only three of the funnels were used to expel smoke and waste gasses. The fourth was added to make the ship look more powerful.
Titanic Construction: Propellers
Titanic had three propellers which were powered by steam. The rotation of the propellers powered the ship through the sea.
Titanic was launched in 1911.
The next ten months were spent completing the interior of the ship. Details and pictures of the interior can be viewed on the layout page of this site.
The total cost of the RMS Titanic was $7.5 million (1912).
This article is part of our larger selection of posts about the Titanic. To learn more, click here for our comprehensive guide to the Titanic.
Cite This Article"Titanic Construction: Building the “Unsinkable” Ship" History on the Net
© 2000-2020, Salem Media.
January 18, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-titanic-construction>
More Citation Information. | <urn:uuid:ef884dde-fcc2-43dc-9b3a-dea706e4e457> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-titanic-construction | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00184.warc.gz | en | 0.9829 | 585 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.068226873874... | 1 | Titanic Construction: An Overview
The Titanic construction took place in Belfast by the shipbuilding company Harland and Wolff. The company was owned by Lord Pirrie, a friend of Bruce Ismay, managing director of the White Star Line (pictured below, left). The chief designer of the Titanic was his son-in-law, Thomas Andrews (pictured below right).
Construction of the Titanic began in 1909. Harland and Wolff had to make alterations to their shipyard (larger piers and gantries) to accommodate the giant liners, Titanic and her sister ship Olympic. The two ships were to be built side-by-side.
The giant gantries constructed by Harland and Wolff
Titanic Construction: Watertight Compartments
Titanic was constructed with sixteen watertight compartments. Each compartment had doors that were designed to close automatically if the water level rose above a certain height. The doors could also be electronically closed from the bridge. Titanic was able to stay afloat if any two compartments or the first four became flooded. Shortly after Titanic hit the iceberg it was revealed that the first six compartments were flooded.
Titanic Construction: Boilers
There were twenty-four double ended boilers and five single ended boilers which were housed in six boiler rooms. The double ended boilers were 20 feet long, had a diameter of 15 feet 9 inches and contained six coal burning furnaces. The single ended boilers were 11 feet 9 inches long with the same diameter and three furnaces. Smoke and waste gasses were expelled through three funnels.
Titanic Construction: Funnels
Titanic’s four funnels were constructed away from the site and were then transported to the shipyard for putting on the Titanic. Only three of the funnels were used to expel smoke and waste gasses. The fourth was added to make the ship look more powerful.
Titanic Construction: Propellers
Titanic had three propellers which were powered by steam. The rotation of the propellers powered the ship through the sea.
Titanic was launched in 1911.
The next ten months were spent completing the interior of the ship. Details and pictures of the interior can be viewed on the layout page of this site.
The total cost of the RMS Titanic was $7.5 million (1912).
This article is part of our larger selection of posts about the Titanic. To learn more, click here for our comprehensive guide to the Titanic.
Cite This Article"Titanic Construction: Building the “Unsinkable” Ship" History on the Net
© 2000-2020, Salem Media.
January 18, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-titanic-construction>
More Citation Information. | 570 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Archaeologists in Corsica have just excavated an Etruscan tomb holding both a skeleton and a large number of rare artifacts, which they believe may help them to understand more about why the ancient civilization eventually disappeared.
As Reuters reports, the Etruscans were once a very wealthy and privileged society who lived in the north of Italy and gradually gave up their identity to become part of the Roman Empire.
The Etruscan tomb that was found in Corsica has been dated, and was found to have been built sometime during the 4th century B.C. This magnificent tomb was created out of rock, and was found within part of a much larger Roman cemetery that was only just discovered earlier this year, according to The Inquisitr.
As its name suggests, the Etruscan civilization first sprang up in Tuscany around 900 B.C. and slowly fell into a period of decline, after which it disappeared completely by 100 B.C.
Archaeologists are hoping that the new Etruscan tomb in Corsica will help them to learn more about how the society would have functioned on this island, along with its gradual demise, as head curator Franck Leandri explained.
“It’s the missing link which will allow us to piece together Etruscan funerary rites, but it also reinforces the hypothesis that before the Roman conquest (in 259 B.C), Aleria was a transit point in the Tyrrhenian Sea, blending Etruscan, Carthaginian and Phocaean interests.”
Archaeologists believe that the Etruscan tomb that was found in Corsica most likely held a very high-ranking official, as some of the artifacts found within it include 15 ceramic vases, along with either the lid or a mirror of a casing.
Anthropologist Catherine Rigeade has stated that while archaeologists do have some understanding of Etruscan artifacts, they are still very much in the dark about the subjects of this ancient civilization. Here on Corsica, however, multiple artifacts have now been found, which will allow archaeologists to examine Etruscan culture in much greater detail than ever before.
“We have some knowledge of Etruscan objects, but we know very little about Etruscan subjects; here we have both,” Rigeade explained.
Not far from the tomb, archaeologists unearthed a gold signet ring which was still in remarkably good condition despite the passing of thousands of years. The ring featured a dizzyingly beautiful face, which is believed to most likely be a depiction of the Greek goddess Aphrodite.
Archaeologists will be examining the skeleton that was found in the Etruscan tomb in Corsica, and are reportedly planning to consult with a forensic scientist to learn more about the human remains. | <urn:uuid:0ee50e71-7dcf-415b-a329-80b3ee4cc5ed> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.inquisitr.com/5369949/the-excavation-of-a-tomb-in-corsica-may-help-to-explain-why-the-etruscan-civilization-disappeared/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00432.warc.gz | en | 0.980632 | 587 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.517618298530578... | 1 | Archaeologists in Corsica have just excavated an Etruscan tomb holding both a skeleton and a large number of rare artifacts, which they believe may help them to understand more about why the ancient civilization eventually disappeared.
As Reuters reports, the Etruscans were once a very wealthy and privileged society who lived in the north of Italy and gradually gave up their identity to become part of the Roman Empire.
The Etruscan tomb that was found in Corsica has been dated, and was found to have been built sometime during the 4th century B.C. This magnificent tomb was created out of rock, and was found within part of a much larger Roman cemetery that was only just discovered earlier this year, according to The Inquisitr.
As its name suggests, the Etruscan civilization first sprang up in Tuscany around 900 B.C. and slowly fell into a period of decline, after which it disappeared completely by 100 B.C.
Archaeologists are hoping that the new Etruscan tomb in Corsica will help them to learn more about how the society would have functioned on this island, along with its gradual demise, as head curator Franck Leandri explained.
“It’s the missing link which will allow us to piece together Etruscan funerary rites, but it also reinforces the hypothesis that before the Roman conquest (in 259 B.C), Aleria was a transit point in the Tyrrhenian Sea, blending Etruscan, Carthaginian and Phocaean interests.”
Archaeologists believe that the Etruscan tomb that was found in Corsica most likely held a very high-ranking official, as some of the artifacts found within it include 15 ceramic vases, along with either the lid or a mirror of a casing.
Anthropologist Catherine Rigeade has stated that while archaeologists do have some understanding of Etruscan artifacts, they are still very much in the dark about the subjects of this ancient civilization. Here on Corsica, however, multiple artifacts have now been found, which will allow archaeologists to examine Etruscan culture in much greater detail than ever before.
“We have some knowledge of Etruscan objects, but we know very little about Etruscan subjects; here we have both,” Rigeade explained.
Not far from the tomb, archaeologists unearthed a gold signet ring which was still in remarkably good condition despite the passing of thousands of years. The ring featured a dizzyingly beautiful face, which is believed to most likely be a depiction of the Greek goddess Aphrodite.
Archaeologists will be examining the skeleton that was found in the Etruscan tomb in Corsica, and are reportedly planning to consult with a forensic scientist to learn more about the human remains. | 580 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Questions about Shakespeare’s authorship have been the subject of heated debate and controversy for the past three centuries. Most recently, computer algorithms have been used to compare the scenes from Henry VIII with other plays attributed to Shakespeare as well as work from other likely candidates. By analyzing the different word combinations and rhythm, it was determined that although Shakespeare did contribute to some of the scenes, most of Henry VIII was in fact written by John Fletcher, Shakespeare’s successor at the King’s Theater Company. This was not the first time that Fletcher’s name was linked to the play; the fact that he and not Shakespeare had written it was first proposed by James Spedding in 1850. Needless to say, the authorship question has been visited again and again by scholars and skeptics alike. Could the man born in Stratford upon Avon possibly have been the source of such genius? With no formal education past the age of 13 or evidence of travel beyond the borders of Stratford and London?
What is known for sure about the man who went by the name of William Shakespeare, was that he was born in Stratford, married Anne Hathaway, and had three children. He also left behind some business papers and a will, none of which mention any of the 37 plays under his name. To add to the mystery, a decade or so of his life, just before his emergence as a poet and playwright, is completely missing and is rightfully termed the “Lost Years” by scholars. These gaping holes in his biography have left room for skeptics to fill in with their own speculations and doubts. Perhaps the pieces don’t fit well because there is one missing. Could it be that a third party was involved? One that, for some reason, couldn’t write under their own name and borrowed Shakespeare’s instead. This is the main argument that “Anti-Stratfordians” use to back up their theory. Popular candidates include Edward de Vere, Francis Bacon, Charles Marlow, and Mary Sidney to name a few, with the strongest claims being for the first two. In his book “Contested Will”, James Shapiro noted that the authorship question arose at the around the same time that Shakespeare was beginning to be seen as a “literary god”. According to him, Shakespeare’s name used to be mentioned alongside contemporaries and it is only over time that his work began to occupy a category of its own. This grandiose image of a man can be difficult to maintain when all that is known about him is his humble origins, limited education, and scraps of documents that prove he led nothing more than an ordinary life.
Another important element to his words is their universality. Reading Sonnet 29, Maya Angelou felt as though his words were a direct translation of what she felt, as a victim of sexual abuse, racism, and exclusion. It’s almost as though he too had walked her path, which drove her to declare that “Shakespeare must be a black girl”. This was not meant literally of course but is a testament to how far-reaching Shakespeare’s prose is. Some have gone even farther to say that he must’ve been a woman. Who else could’ve written heroines with such insight? Not to mention the willfulness and defiance that seems to characterize most of them. So, could Shakespeare have been a woman? Or is that just a feminist’s fairytale? The argument shouldn’t be quickly dismissed as women’s work was undoubtedly unsigned at the time, considering the rules of propriety that governed them. A woman would have every reason to conceal her identity as a playwright in Elizabethan England.
Regardless of whether Shakespeare was or wasn’t the master of prose we know him to be, the unveiling of John fletcher’s identity as the author of Henry VIII does prove that a second look at the work of renaissance writers, like Shakespeare, is warranted.
Image Credit: The Guardian | <urn:uuid:70abb954-b944-4185-a7d9-4f9d1e55a5ea> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thegryphon.co.uk/2019/12/26/do-you-believe-in-shakespeare/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00312.warc.gz | en | 0.985588 | 833 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.018358... | 6 | Questions about Shakespeare’s authorship have been the subject of heated debate and controversy for the past three centuries. Most recently, computer algorithms have been used to compare the scenes from Henry VIII with other plays attributed to Shakespeare as well as work from other likely candidates. By analyzing the different word combinations and rhythm, it was determined that although Shakespeare did contribute to some of the scenes, most of Henry VIII was in fact written by John Fletcher, Shakespeare’s successor at the King’s Theater Company. This was not the first time that Fletcher’s name was linked to the play; the fact that he and not Shakespeare had written it was first proposed by James Spedding in 1850. Needless to say, the authorship question has been visited again and again by scholars and skeptics alike. Could the man born in Stratford upon Avon possibly have been the source of such genius? With no formal education past the age of 13 or evidence of travel beyond the borders of Stratford and London?
What is known for sure about the man who went by the name of William Shakespeare, was that he was born in Stratford, married Anne Hathaway, and had three children. He also left behind some business papers and a will, none of which mention any of the 37 plays under his name. To add to the mystery, a decade or so of his life, just before his emergence as a poet and playwright, is completely missing and is rightfully termed the “Lost Years” by scholars. These gaping holes in his biography have left room for skeptics to fill in with their own speculations and doubts. Perhaps the pieces don’t fit well because there is one missing. Could it be that a third party was involved? One that, for some reason, couldn’t write under their own name and borrowed Shakespeare’s instead. This is the main argument that “Anti-Stratfordians” use to back up their theory. Popular candidates include Edward de Vere, Francis Bacon, Charles Marlow, and Mary Sidney to name a few, with the strongest claims being for the first two. In his book “Contested Will”, James Shapiro noted that the authorship question arose at the around the same time that Shakespeare was beginning to be seen as a “literary god”. According to him, Shakespeare’s name used to be mentioned alongside contemporaries and it is only over time that his work began to occupy a category of its own. This grandiose image of a man can be difficult to maintain when all that is known about him is his humble origins, limited education, and scraps of documents that prove he led nothing more than an ordinary life.
Another important element to his words is their universality. Reading Sonnet 29, Maya Angelou felt as though his words were a direct translation of what she felt, as a victim of sexual abuse, racism, and exclusion. It’s almost as though he too had walked her path, which drove her to declare that “Shakespeare must be a black girl”. This was not meant literally of course but is a testament to how far-reaching Shakespeare’s prose is. Some have gone even farther to say that he must’ve been a woman. Who else could’ve written heroines with such insight? Not to mention the willfulness and defiance that seems to characterize most of them. So, could Shakespeare have been a woman? Or is that just a feminist’s fairytale? The argument shouldn’t be quickly dismissed as women’s work was undoubtedly unsigned at the time, considering the rules of propriety that governed them. A woman would have every reason to conceal her identity as a playwright in Elizabethan England.
Regardless of whether Shakespeare was or wasn’t the master of prose we know him to be, the unveiling of John fletcher’s identity as the author of Henry VIII does prove that a second look at the work of renaissance writers, like Shakespeare, is warranted.
Image Credit: The Guardian | 792 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Elisabeth Guttenberger (shown here with her cousins shortly before her deportation) grew up in a Stuttgart Sinti family. She and her three siblings had an idyllic childhood. Their father sold string instruments and antiques, and the family moved to Munich in 1936. The “Nuremberg Race Laws” drastically changed the family’s situation. Although Elisabeth Guttenberger was a good student, she was not allowed to attend high school. She also had to give up an apprenticeship in a pastry shop and was then made to perform forced labor in an ammunition factory. Elisabeth Guttenberger was deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau extermination camp along with her family in March of 1943. After six months she was put to work in the prisoner administration office, where she had to keep the “main book,” a register of all men imprisoned in the “gypsy camp.” These books later testified to the thousands of murders of Sinti and Roma. Elisabeth Guttenberger survived the end of the war. More than thirty of her relatives were murdered in Auschwitz-Birkenau extermination camp. | <urn:uuid:238f4c0f-0b3b-443a-8ddf-f3b7dfecce8d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gdw-berlin.de/en/recess/biographies/index_of_persons/biographie/view-bio/elisabeth-guttenberger/?no_cache=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00010.warc.gz | en | 0.98273 | 239 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.3194362521... | 5 | Elisabeth Guttenberger (shown here with her cousins shortly before her deportation) grew up in a Stuttgart Sinti family. She and her three siblings had an idyllic childhood. Their father sold string instruments and antiques, and the family moved to Munich in 1936. The “Nuremberg Race Laws” drastically changed the family’s situation. Although Elisabeth Guttenberger was a good student, she was not allowed to attend high school. She also had to give up an apprenticeship in a pastry shop and was then made to perform forced labor in an ammunition factory. Elisabeth Guttenberger was deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau extermination camp along with her family in March of 1943. After six months she was put to work in the prisoner administration office, where she had to keep the “main book,” a register of all men imprisoned in the “gypsy camp.” These books later testified to the thousands of murders of Sinti and Roma. Elisabeth Guttenberger survived the end of the war. More than thirty of her relatives were murdered in Auschwitz-Birkenau extermination camp. | 235 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano
Youth and slavery
According to the autobiography, Equiano was born in the Esaca region near the Niger River, which is currently populated by the Igbo nationality. His father was an influential elder in the village and helped to solve local disputes. While his parents were not at home, his relatives kidnapped him and sold him to domestic slavery in a neighboring village. Until then, he had not met white people. According to the memories of Equiano, he was resold several times before he crossed the Atlantic Ocean. He was reluctantly bought, because of his low growth, but at the same time strong people were needed to work on sugar plating.
After his arrival in America he was sent to Virginia, where he was bought by Michael Pascal, a lieutenant of the British Royal Navy. Among slavers there was a common custom of giving new names to slaves. Pascal decided to give the new slave the name Gustav Vaza – a Latinized form of the name of the Swedish king Gustav Vasa. This time, however, Equiano declined and said he preferred the name Jacob. Pascal punished him and declared, that Equiano would remain chained until he accepted a new name. According the memories of Equiano, he remained chained for a long time, but eventually agreed to take a new name. The reasons for choosing such an unusual name for a slave were unclear; probably earlier Pascal served on a ship called “Gustav Vasa” and was felling special to this name. However, the most famous ship named “Vaza” drowned in 1628, just in one mile from the port, where it came out for the first time and was unable to participate in the Thirty Years’ War, where the British and Swedes were allies. So, most likely, the name was given by a joke.
In his autobiography, Equiano wrote that the treatment of slaves, who worked in the slave-trade houses in Virginia, was extremely cruel and included such unusual forms of punishment as an iron middler, which was putting on the face of a slave in order that he could hardly speak or eat. He described his new impressions, especially the fear of what he saw, for example, it seemed to him that the eyes of people in pictures look at him, wherever he went, and the watch on the fireplace told the owner about all his mistakes.
Gutenberg Project, 2005. Olaudah Equiano The interesting narrative of the life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African.
Simon Shama Rough Crossings, 2006. Britain, the slaves and the American Revolution. Harper Collins, pp. 161–162. | <urn:uuid:5dc41652-9a49-488d-9e8e-788f8617b6df> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ug-gwc.de/the-interesting-narrative-of-the-life-of-olaudah-equiano/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00339.warc.gz | en | 0.988047 | 556 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.46196210384368... | 2 | The interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano
Youth and slavery
According to the autobiography, Equiano was born in the Esaca region near the Niger River, which is currently populated by the Igbo nationality. His father was an influential elder in the village and helped to solve local disputes. While his parents were not at home, his relatives kidnapped him and sold him to domestic slavery in a neighboring village. Until then, he had not met white people. According to the memories of Equiano, he was resold several times before he crossed the Atlantic Ocean. He was reluctantly bought, because of his low growth, but at the same time strong people were needed to work on sugar plating.
After his arrival in America he was sent to Virginia, where he was bought by Michael Pascal, a lieutenant of the British Royal Navy. Among slavers there was a common custom of giving new names to slaves. Pascal decided to give the new slave the name Gustav Vaza – a Latinized form of the name of the Swedish king Gustav Vasa. This time, however, Equiano declined and said he preferred the name Jacob. Pascal punished him and declared, that Equiano would remain chained until he accepted a new name. According the memories of Equiano, he remained chained for a long time, but eventually agreed to take a new name. The reasons for choosing such an unusual name for a slave were unclear; probably earlier Pascal served on a ship called “Gustav Vasa” and was felling special to this name. However, the most famous ship named “Vaza” drowned in 1628, just in one mile from the port, where it came out for the first time and was unable to participate in the Thirty Years’ War, where the British and Swedes were allies. So, most likely, the name was given by a joke.
In his autobiography, Equiano wrote that the treatment of slaves, who worked in the slave-trade houses in Virginia, was extremely cruel and included such unusual forms of punishment as an iron middler, which was putting on the face of a slave in order that he could hardly speak or eat. He described his new impressions, especially the fear of what he saw, for example, it seemed to him that the eyes of people in pictures look at him, wherever he went, and the watch on the fireplace told the owner about all his mistakes.
Gutenberg Project, 2005. Olaudah Equiano The interesting narrative of the life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African.
Simon Shama Rough Crossings, 2006. Britain, the slaves and the American Revolution. Harper Collins, pp. 161–162. | 566 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This article originally appeared on VICE US.
A small glacial lake nestled in the world’s highest mountain range is the site of hundreds of unexplained deaths spanning more than 1,000 years, according to a new study.
Roopkund Lake, also known as “Skeleton Lake” because it is cluttered with human bones, has perplexed visitors for decades. Located over 16,400 feet above sea level in the Indian Himalayas, it was rediscovered during the 1940s by a forest ranger. But the shallow lake was clearly known to ancient travelers, many of whom never made it out alive.
Nobody knows what killed all these people at such a remote location. Until now, the leading theory was that a brutal hailstorm pummelled all of the travelers to death at the same time around 800 CE in a single catastrophic event, which might explain the unhealed compression fractures found on some of the bones. While deadly hail may account for some of the fatalities, new evidence strongly suggests that these people met their deaths in multiple different events at the lake across the centuries.
In a study published on Tuesday in Nature Communications, a team led by Éadaoin Harney, a PhD student in evolutionary biology at Harvard University, analyzed DNA extracted from 38 skeletons. This analysis revealed that many different populations experienced mortal incidents at the lake, including one that occurred as late as the 19th century.
“We find that the Roopkund skeletons belong to three genetically distinct groups that were deposited during multiple events, separated in time by approximately 1,000 years,” Harney’s team said in the study. “These findings refute previous suggestions that the skeletons of Roopkund Lake were deposited in a single catastrophic event.”
The earliest group of deceased travellers identified by the researchers, called Roopkund_A, contained 23 men and women from a diverse range of South Asian ancestries. This population was already known to have perished some 1,200 years ago, but radiocarbon dating showed that their deaths were likely not caused by a single violent storm as previously proposed.
Some of the Roopkund_A individuals were dated to earlier ranges of about 675-769 CE, while others were dated to between 894-985 CE. The gap in time suggests “that even these individuals may not have died simultaneously,” the team said.
Even more astonishing is the discovery of a second population, called Roopkund_B, which died just centuries ago, around 1800. This group contained 14 men and women of eastern Mediterranean descent, who were most genetically similar to the people of present-day Crete, the largest of the Greek islands. The third population is comprised of a sole individual, called Roopkund_C, who was a man of East Asian descent that died at the same time as the Roopkund_B group.
“Our study deepens the Roopkund mystery in many ways,” said study co-author Niraj Rai, head of the Ancient DNA Lab at Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences in India, in an email. At the same time, the team was able to rule out common “speculations about the ancestry of Roopkund individuals,” Rai said.
For instance, since the 1950s, there has been a local theory that the skeletons were left by the fleeing army of general Zorawar Singh Kahluria, who was killed in an attempted invasion of Tibet in 1841. This explanation is challenged by the new discovery of several women at the site, who were unlikely to have been included in a military expedition.
The hailstorm theory is still plausible for some of the victims, and the team plans to examine the fractured skulls in their next study, Rai said.
Still, we don’t know how these groups ended up at such an inaccessible location in the first place. Roopkund Lake lies on the route of the Nanda Devi Raj Jat, a Hindu pilgrimage, which may have been observed as early as 1,200 years ago. For now, that is the most plausible explanation for the presence of at least some of the Roopkund_A individuals, the team said.
The remains of the other populations are much harder to explain. The study concludes that the Mediterranean individuals, who did not seem to have close familial ties to each other, were probably born under Ottoman rule.
“As suggested by their consumption of a predominantly terrestrial, rather than marine-based diet, they may have lived in an inland location, eventually traveling to and dying in the Himalayas,” the team said. “Whether they were participating in a pilgrimage, or were drawn to Roopkund Lake for other reasons, is a mystery.”
“Mystery” seems to be the operative word for anything to do with Roopkund Lake. While the site has become a destination for researchers and tourists—who have lived to tell the tale of their visits—the secrets of those who never left remain largely unknown. | <urn:uuid:e82ebcca-9541-4938-903a-ed4e87fab674> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.vice.com/en_uk/article/a35gd8/nobody-knows-why-hundreds-of-people-died-at-this-creepy-himalayan-lake | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00030.warc.gz | en | 0.980493 | 1,057 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | This article originally appeared on VICE US.
A small glacial lake nestled in the world’s highest mountain range is the site of hundreds of unexplained deaths spanning more than 1,000 years, according to a new study.
Roopkund Lake, also known as “Skeleton Lake” because it is cluttered with human bones, has perplexed visitors for decades. Located over 16,400 feet above sea level in the Indian Himalayas, it was rediscovered during the 1940s by a forest ranger. But the shallow lake was clearly known to ancient travelers, many of whom never made it out alive.
Nobody knows what killed all these people at such a remote location. Until now, the leading theory was that a brutal hailstorm pummelled all of the travelers to death at the same time around 800 CE in a single catastrophic event, which might explain the unhealed compression fractures found on some of the bones. While deadly hail may account for some of the fatalities, new evidence strongly suggests that these people met their deaths in multiple different events at the lake across the centuries.
In a study published on Tuesday in Nature Communications, a team led by Éadaoin Harney, a PhD student in evolutionary biology at Harvard University, analyzed DNA extracted from 38 skeletons. This analysis revealed that many different populations experienced mortal incidents at the lake, including one that occurred as late as the 19th century.
“We find that the Roopkund skeletons belong to three genetically distinct groups that were deposited during multiple events, separated in time by approximately 1,000 years,” Harney’s team said in the study. “These findings refute previous suggestions that the skeletons of Roopkund Lake were deposited in a single catastrophic event.”
The earliest group of deceased travellers identified by the researchers, called Roopkund_A, contained 23 men and women from a diverse range of South Asian ancestries. This population was already known to have perished some 1,200 years ago, but radiocarbon dating showed that their deaths were likely not caused by a single violent storm as previously proposed.
Some of the Roopkund_A individuals were dated to earlier ranges of about 675-769 CE, while others were dated to between 894-985 CE. The gap in time suggests “that even these individuals may not have died simultaneously,” the team said.
Even more astonishing is the discovery of a second population, called Roopkund_B, which died just centuries ago, around 1800. This group contained 14 men and women of eastern Mediterranean descent, who were most genetically similar to the people of present-day Crete, the largest of the Greek islands. The third population is comprised of a sole individual, called Roopkund_C, who was a man of East Asian descent that died at the same time as the Roopkund_B group.
“Our study deepens the Roopkund mystery in many ways,” said study co-author Niraj Rai, head of the Ancient DNA Lab at Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences in India, in an email. At the same time, the team was able to rule out common “speculations about the ancestry of Roopkund individuals,” Rai said.
For instance, since the 1950s, there has been a local theory that the skeletons were left by the fleeing army of general Zorawar Singh Kahluria, who was killed in an attempted invasion of Tibet in 1841. This explanation is challenged by the new discovery of several women at the site, who were unlikely to have been included in a military expedition.
The hailstorm theory is still plausible for some of the victims, and the team plans to examine the fractured skulls in their next study, Rai said.
Still, we don’t know how these groups ended up at such an inaccessible location in the first place. Roopkund Lake lies on the route of the Nanda Devi Raj Jat, a Hindu pilgrimage, which may have been observed as early as 1,200 years ago. For now, that is the most plausible explanation for the presence of at least some of the Roopkund_A individuals, the team said.
The remains of the other populations are much harder to explain. The study concludes that the Mediterranean individuals, who did not seem to have close familial ties to each other, were probably born under Ottoman rule.
“As suggested by their consumption of a predominantly terrestrial, rather than marine-based diet, they may have lived in an inland location, eventually traveling to and dying in the Himalayas,” the team said. “Whether they were participating in a pilgrimage, or were drawn to Roopkund Lake for other reasons, is a mystery.”
“Mystery” seems to be the operative word for anything to do with Roopkund Lake. While the site has become a destination for researchers and tourists—who have lived to tell the tale of their visits—the secrets of those who never left remain largely unknown. | 1,043 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This week’s readings were about teacher professionalism with there job. I feel that being professional is important to do a good job as an educator.
One of the things that I learned was that as teachers we are on the job all of the time and are expected to uphold the code of conduct at all times and be an example of a morally perfect life. However, that can vary between provinces, and the rules aren’t always crystal clear. For the most part, it seems that a teacher must honor and uphold the dignity of the profession. Furthermore, the teacher must not act in a way that affects there ability to do their job properly.
I also learned that each provincial teachers association has there own code of ethics but there are many similarities in all the codes. However, the code of ethics is only an outline of what it means to be professional. there are advantages to a code of ethics, gives confidence to the public that teachers are worthy of public support and trust. A code also provides reassurance that people will be treated in accordance with a standard. A code of conduct also offers a set of defined rules and standards that set a standard for teachers conduct.
In the teaching profession, there is a great importance for teachers to work together with other teachers to receive help and support to aid teachers to do the best that they can and to grow the teaching profession. This is what Hargreaves and Fullan referred to as social capital, which is professional experiences that allow teachers to learn together. This can extend beyond schools to other schools in the area and other places that teachers interact. social capital cannot exist if the teacher is in isolation during their workday. social capital can be beneficial in many ways, to help build relationships but also to help create a better teaching environment.
I made connections to the reading from this week. the collaboration process is important in any job, whether it is a group of writers for Saturday Night Live or a group of volunteer firefighters, all jobs can benefit from the effects of social capital. another connection was that the teacher must respect the opinions and the expertise of there colleagues. I also feel that this could apply to any job, it is important to give respect where respect is due.
One question that still remains for me is, the code(s) of ethics often have grey areas, so how does a teacher really know where the grey area is and how to know what is right? | <urn:uuid:5ae6ebd1-61cb-4d6d-a1e5-d033abbebc37> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tyrelbertram.wordpress.com/category/ecs200/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00525.warc.gz | en | 0.980891 | 491 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.4964074790... | 2 | This week’s readings were about teacher professionalism with there job. I feel that being professional is important to do a good job as an educator.
One of the things that I learned was that as teachers we are on the job all of the time and are expected to uphold the code of conduct at all times and be an example of a morally perfect life. However, that can vary between provinces, and the rules aren’t always crystal clear. For the most part, it seems that a teacher must honor and uphold the dignity of the profession. Furthermore, the teacher must not act in a way that affects there ability to do their job properly.
I also learned that each provincial teachers association has there own code of ethics but there are many similarities in all the codes. However, the code of ethics is only an outline of what it means to be professional. there are advantages to a code of ethics, gives confidence to the public that teachers are worthy of public support and trust. A code also provides reassurance that people will be treated in accordance with a standard. A code of conduct also offers a set of defined rules and standards that set a standard for teachers conduct.
In the teaching profession, there is a great importance for teachers to work together with other teachers to receive help and support to aid teachers to do the best that they can and to grow the teaching profession. This is what Hargreaves and Fullan referred to as social capital, which is professional experiences that allow teachers to learn together. This can extend beyond schools to other schools in the area and other places that teachers interact. social capital cannot exist if the teacher is in isolation during their workday. social capital can be beneficial in many ways, to help build relationships but also to help create a better teaching environment.
I made connections to the reading from this week. the collaboration process is important in any job, whether it is a group of writers for Saturday Night Live or a group of volunteer firefighters, all jobs can benefit from the effects of social capital. another connection was that the teacher must respect the opinions and the expertise of there colleagues. I also feel that this could apply to any job, it is important to give respect where respect is due.
One question that still remains for me is, the code(s) of ethics often have grey areas, so how does a teacher really know where the grey area is and how to know what is right? | 481 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dickens' The Christmas Carol is known as a cute exaltation of the Christmas spirit' of charity and love for our fellow man. Almost everyone growing up as a kid has read or seen some kind of version of The Christmas Carol during the holidays in the month of December. It is a story about a tightfisted lonely man known as Scrooge who learns to give and receive love which I think we would all agree is more than appropriate for the season.
But Dickens' story has more meaning and as you get deeper into the story you learn that there is a dark reflection on a changing society The economic theory embedded in The Christmas Carol by Dickens' is one of hardships and poor times like the British society in the 19th century. Life was hard in Dickens' England. The Poor Laws relegated debtors and the jobless to prisons or workhouses where families were separated. They were fed harsh diets designed to sustain them, barely. Children were 'apprenticed' to industries where they became a source of cheap labor. Examples of this, as the Cratchit family which was a poor family who could barely afford dinner for Christmas and the details in the story about how people lived during that time. There was basically a utilitarianism philosophy, which argued that people didn't enjoy basic rights, and so the object of the Poor Laws was to make the workhouses so awful that any kind of private menial labor would be an improvement. But many Englishmen chose begging or a life of crime instead. The economic theory of this time period is known to favor the views of Thomas Malthus, who a pessimist who described economics as the dismal science.
There were several economic/social relationships described in the story. Many of them related to Scrooge due to the fact that Scrooge was the man in the story who was very wealthy but didn't share his money with anyone in the society and had no Christmas spirit. An example of this in the story is when Scrooge refuses to assist the charitable businessmen, asking instead, 'Are there no prisons? And... workhouses? ' or when he comments to the businessman's reply that the poor would rather die than go to a workhouse, saying, 'If they would rather die... hey had better do it, and decrease the surplus population,' he is but reflecting the worst attitudes of a community that accepted only financial success as a good, and was blind to sympathy, fellow feeling, or attachment to humanity. As hard as life was then, the hearts of the well off were often harder. Self-help and hard work were seen as a universal cure for trouble, while failure was clearly sinful. I don't believe there is a tension between the old way of doing things and the new society embedded in this story.
In the story Scrooge saves himself because he examines his past, present, and likely future and doesn't like what he sees--the missed opportunities for love, friendship, and happiness. Scrooge takes responsibility for himself by taking care of others--and by seeing to the needs of those less advantaged than he, finds the connection to others that he's been missing. I feel like in the story that Scrooge and society learned there lesson and that the only way to fix their economic problems laid in their own hands and the way they lived their lives.
By having the rich help the poor like Scrooge did towards the end it makes everyone's outlook more positive and things start to get better. So comparing it to the 19th century in British Society I believe there is a huge comparison but it just took a lot longer for it to happen in that society and there is no tension between the old and new ways of doing things. A Christmas Carol reminds us that we are not alone unless we choose to be. Like Ebenezer Scrooge, we learn that when we help others, we help ourselves. | <urn:uuid:901d5383-7406-4347-b8b5-2eacfca6751b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jgdb.com/essays/dickens-the-christmas-carol-and-19th-century-british-society | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00453.warc.gz | en | 0.986887 | 791 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.15306489169597626,... | 2 | Dickens' The Christmas Carol is known as a cute exaltation of the Christmas spirit' of charity and love for our fellow man. Almost everyone growing up as a kid has read or seen some kind of version of The Christmas Carol during the holidays in the month of December. It is a story about a tightfisted lonely man known as Scrooge who learns to give and receive love which I think we would all agree is more than appropriate for the season.
But Dickens' story has more meaning and as you get deeper into the story you learn that there is a dark reflection on a changing society The economic theory embedded in The Christmas Carol by Dickens' is one of hardships and poor times like the British society in the 19th century. Life was hard in Dickens' England. The Poor Laws relegated debtors and the jobless to prisons or workhouses where families were separated. They were fed harsh diets designed to sustain them, barely. Children were 'apprenticed' to industries where they became a source of cheap labor. Examples of this, as the Cratchit family which was a poor family who could barely afford dinner for Christmas and the details in the story about how people lived during that time. There was basically a utilitarianism philosophy, which argued that people didn't enjoy basic rights, and so the object of the Poor Laws was to make the workhouses so awful that any kind of private menial labor would be an improvement. But many Englishmen chose begging or a life of crime instead. The economic theory of this time period is known to favor the views of Thomas Malthus, who a pessimist who described economics as the dismal science.
There were several economic/social relationships described in the story. Many of them related to Scrooge due to the fact that Scrooge was the man in the story who was very wealthy but didn't share his money with anyone in the society and had no Christmas spirit. An example of this in the story is when Scrooge refuses to assist the charitable businessmen, asking instead, 'Are there no prisons? And... workhouses? ' or when he comments to the businessman's reply that the poor would rather die than go to a workhouse, saying, 'If they would rather die... hey had better do it, and decrease the surplus population,' he is but reflecting the worst attitudes of a community that accepted only financial success as a good, and was blind to sympathy, fellow feeling, or attachment to humanity. As hard as life was then, the hearts of the well off were often harder. Self-help and hard work were seen as a universal cure for trouble, while failure was clearly sinful. I don't believe there is a tension between the old way of doing things and the new society embedded in this story.
In the story Scrooge saves himself because he examines his past, present, and likely future and doesn't like what he sees--the missed opportunities for love, friendship, and happiness. Scrooge takes responsibility for himself by taking care of others--and by seeing to the needs of those less advantaged than he, finds the connection to others that he's been missing. I feel like in the story that Scrooge and society learned there lesson and that the only way to fix their economic problems laid in their own hands and the way they lived their lives.
By having the rich help the poor like Scrooge did towards the end it makes everyone's outlook more positive and things start to get better. So comparing it to the 19th century in British Society I believe there is a huge comparison but it just took a lot longer for it to happen in that society and there is no tension between the old and new ways of doing things. A Christmas Carol reminds us that we are not alone unless we choose to be. Like Ebenezer Scrooge, we learn that when we help others, we help ourselves. | 790 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Finely executed map of a portion of Central America, extending from the East Coast of Nicaragua and Costa Rica in the northwest to Cartagena and Santa Martha in modern Columbia in the East, and centered on the Isthmus of Darien and Gulf of Panama.
Among the more interesting features on the map is New Edinburgh, a reference to the Darien Scheme, an unsuccessful attempt by the Kingdom of Scotland to establish a trading colony in the late 1690s.
At the end of the 17th Century, the Scottish crown perceived a need to expand its trading reach. Incapable of protecting itself from the effects of English competition, Scotland's once thriving industries such as shipbuilding were in deep decline. Goods which were in demand had to be bought from England for sterling, the Navigation Acts further increased economic dependence on England by limiting Scots' shipping, and the navy was tiny.
In response, a number of remedies were enacted by the Parliament of Scotland. In 1695 the Bank of Scotland was established; the Act for the Settling of Schools established a parish-based system of public education throughout Scotland and the Company of Scotland was chartered with capital to be raised by public subscription to trade with "Africa and the Indies". The Company of Scotland attempted to raise subscriptions in Amsterdam, Hamburg and London for the scheme, but was blocked by England. This left no source of finance but Scotland itself. The Company of Scotland for Trading to Africa raised £400,000 sterling in a few weeks, with investments from every level of society, totaling about a fifth of the wealth of Scotland.
Scottish-born trader and financier William Paterson had long been promoting a plan for a colony on the Isthmus of Panama to be used as a gateway between the Atlantic and Pacific. Paterson was instrumental in getting the company off the ground in London. He had failed to interest several European countries in his project but in the aftermath of the English reaction to the company he was able to get a respectful hearing for his ideas. The Scots' original aim of emulating the East India Company by breaking into the lucrative trading areas of the Indies and Africa was forgotten and the highly ambitious Darien scheme was adopted by the company. Paterson fell from grace when a subordinate embezzled from the Company. The company took back Paterson's stock and expelled him from the Court of Directors; he was to have little real influence on events after this point.
There were a large number of former officers and soldiers who joined the Darien project eagerly as they had little hope of any other employment. The first expedition of five ships set sail from the east coast port of Leith to avoid observation by English warships in July 1698, with around 1200 people on board. The journey round Scotland while kept below deck was so traumatic that some colonists thought it comparable to the worst parts of the whole Darien experience. After calling at Madeira and the West Indies, the fleet made landfall off the coast of Darien on November 2, 1698. The settlers christened their new home "Caledonia".
With Drummond in charge, they cut a ditch through the neck of land that divided one side of the harbour in Caledonia Bay from the ocean, and constructed Fort St Andrew, equipped with 50 cannon, on the peninsula behind the canal. The fort did not have a source of fresh water. On a mountain, at the opposite side of the harbour, they built a watchhouse. Close to the fort, they began to erect the huts of the main settlement, New Edinburgh, and to clear land for growing yams and maize. Letters sent home by the expedition created the misleading impression that everything was going according to plan. This seems to have been by agreement as certain optimistic phrases kept recurring, but it meant the Scottish public would be completely unprepared for the coming disaster.
Agriculture proved difficult and the local Indian tribes, although hostile to Spain, were unwilling to buy the combs and other trinkets offered by the colonists. Most serious was the almost total failure to sell any goods to the few passing traders that put in to the bay. With the onset of summer the following year the stifling atmosphere, along with other causes, led to a large number of deaths in the colony. Although local Indians brought gifts of fruit and plantains, these were appropriated by the leaders and sailors who largely remained on board ship. The only luck the settlers had was in giant turtle hunting, but fewer and fewer men were fit enough for such strenuous work. The situation was exacerbated by the lack of food mainly due to a high rate of spoilage caused by improper stowing. At the same time King William had instructed the Dutch and English colonies in America not to supply the Scots' settlement so as not to incur the wrath of the Spanish Empire.
The only reward the council had to give was alcohol, and drunkenness became common, even though it sped the deaths of many men weakened by dysentery, fever and the rotting, worm-infested food. After eight months the colony was abandoned in July 1699, apart from six men who were too weak to move. Deaths continued on the ships, and those who managed to survive the journey and return home found themselves regarded as a disgrace to their country and even disowned by their families.
Only 300 of the 1200 settlers survived and only one ship managed to return to Scotland. A desperate ship from the colony that called at the Jamaican city of Port Royal was refused assistance on the orders of the English government, which feared antagonizing the Spanish.
Word of the first expedition did not reach Scotland in time to prevent a second voyage of more than 1,000 people. The second expedition arrived on November 30, 1699 and found two sloops there; one with Thomas Drummond from the original expedition. Some men were sent ashore to rebuild huts, which caused others to complain that they had come to join a settlement, not build one. Morale was low and little progress was made. Drummond insisted that there could be no discussion, and that the fort must be rebuilt as the Spanish attack would surely come soon.
Drummond clashed with the merchant James Byres who maintained that the Counsellors of the first expedition had now lost that status, and consequently had Drummond arrested. Initially bellicose, Byres began to send away all those he suspected of being offensively minded - or of being allegiant to Drummond.
The colonists sank into apathy until the arrival of Alexander Campbell of Fonab, sent by the company to organize a defense. He provided the resolute leadership which had been lacking and took the initiative from the Spanish by driving them from their stockade at Toubacanti in January, 1700. However, Fonab was wounded in this daring frontal attack and became incapacitated with a fever. The Spanish force, which was also suffering serious losses from fever, closed in on Fort St Andrew and besieged it for a month. The Spanish commander called for the Scots to surrender and avoid a final assault, warning that if they did not no quarter would be given.
After negotiations the Scots were allowed to leave with their guns, and the colony was abandoned for the last time. Only a handful of those from the second expedition returned to Scotland. Of the total 2500 settlers that set off, just a few hundred survived.
Johannes Covens (1697-1774) was a Dutch geographic publisher based in Amsterdam. He is best known for his collaboration with fellow publisher Cornelis Mortier (1699-1783). Pierre Mortier the Elder (1661-1711) had obtained a privilege in 1690 to distribute the works of French geographers in the Netherlands. After his widow continued the business for several years, Cornelis took over in 1719.
In 1721, Mortier forged a partnership with Covens, who had recently married Cornelis’ sister. They published under the joint name of Covens & Mortier. In 1774, upon the death of his father, Johannes Covens II (1722-1794) took over his father’s share. In 1778, the company changed its name to J. Covens & Zoon, or J. Covens & son.
Covens II’s son, Cornelis (1764-1825), later inherited the business and brought Petrus Mortier IV back into the fold. Petrus was the great-grandson of Petrus Mortier I. From 1794, the business was called Mortier, Covens & Zoon, or Mortier, Covens, & Son.
The business specialized in publishing French geographers including Deslisle, Jaillot, and Sanson. They also published atlases, for example a 1725 reissue of Frederik de Wit’s Atlas Major and an atlas, with additions, from the works of Guillaume Delisle. There were also Covens & Mortier pocket atlases and town atlases. The company profited from acquiring plates from other geographers as well. For example, the purchased Pieter van der Aa’s plates in 1730. Finally, they also compiled a few maps in house. At their height, they had the largest collection of geographic prints ever assembled in Amsterdam.
Pierre, or Pieter, Mortier (1661-1711) was a Dutch engraver, son of a French refugee. He was born in Leiden. In 1690 he was granted a privilege to publish French maps in Dutch lands. In 1693 he released the first and accompanying volume of the Neptune Francois. The third followed in 1700. His son, Cornelis (1699-1783), would partner with Johannes Covens I, creating one of the most important map publishing companies of the eighteenth century. | <urn:uuid:fbf7a413-39a6-4160-b496-ad5281b97332> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/40876/carte-particuliere-de-isthmus-ou-darien-qui-comprend-le-golf-covens-mortier?q=0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00146.warc.gz | en | 0.980431 | 2,018 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.1082247793674... | 7 | Finely executed map of a portion of Central America, extending from the East Coast of Nicaragua and Costa Rica in the northwest to Cartagena and Santa Martha in modern Columbia in the East, and centered on the Isthmus of Darien and Gulf of Panama.
Among the more interesting features on the map is New Edinburgh, a reference to the Darien Scheme, an unsuccessful attempt by the Kingdom of Scotland to establish a trading colony in the late 1690s.
At the end of the 17th Century, the Scottish crown perceived a need to expand its trading reach. Incapable of protecting itself from the effects of English competition, Scotland's once thriving industries such as shipbuilding were in deep decline. Goods which were in demand had to be bought from England for sterling, the Navigation Acts further increased economic dependence on England by limiting Scots' shipping, and the navy was tiny.
In response, a number of remedies were enacted by the Parliament of Scotland. In 1695 the Bank of Scotland was established; the Act for the Settling of Schools established a parish-based system of public education throughout Scotland and the Company of Scotland was chartered with capital to be raised by public subscription to trade with "Africa and the Indies". The Company of Scotland attempted to raise subscriptions in Amsterdam, Hamburg and London for the scheme, but was blocked by England. This left no source of finance but Scotland itself. The Company of Scotland for Trading to Africa raised £400,000 sterling in a few weeks, with investments from every level of society, totaling about a fifth of the wealth of Scotland.
Scottish-born trader and financier William Paterson had long been promoting a plan for a colony on the Isthmus of Panama to be used as a gateway between the Atlantic and Pacific. Paterson was instrumental in getting the company off the ground in London. He had failed to interest several European countries in his project but in the aftermath of the English reaction to the company he was able to get a respectful hearing for his ideas. The Scots' original aim of emulating the East India Company by breaking into the lucrative trading areas of the Indies and Africa was forgotten and the highly ambitious Darien scheme was adopted by the company. Paterson fell from grace when a subordinate embezzled from the Company. The company took back Paterson's stock and expelled him from the Court of Directors; he was to have little real influence on events after this point.
There were a large number of former officers and soldiers who joined the Darien project eagerly as they had little hope of any other employment. The first expedition of five ships set sail from the east coast port of Leith to avoid observation by English warships in July 1698, with around 1200 people on board. The journey round Scotland while kept below deck was so traumatic that some colonists thought it comparable to the worst parts of the whole Darien experience. After calling at Madeira and the West Indies, the fleet made landfall off the coast of Darien on November 2, 1698. The settlers christened their new home "Caledonia".
With Drummond in charge, they cut a ditch through the neck of land that divided one side of the harbour in Caledonia Bay from the ocean, and constructed Fort St Andrew, equipped with 50 cannon, on the peninsula behind the canal. The fort did not have a source of fresh water. On a mountain, at the opposite side of the harbour, they built a watchhouse. Close to the fort, they began to erect the huts of the main settlement, New Edinburgh, and to clear land for growing yams and maize. Letters sent home by the expedition created the misleading impression that everything was going according to plan. This seems to have been by agreement as certain optimistic phrases kept recurring, but it meant the Scottish public would be completely unprepared for the coming disaster.
Agriculture proved difficult and the local Indian tribes, although hostile to Spain, were unwilling to buy the combs and other trinkets offered by the colonists. Most serious was the almost total failure to sell any goods to the few passing traders that put in to the bay. With the onset of summer the following year the stifling atmosphere, along with other causes, led to a large number of deaths in the colony. Although local Indians brought gifts of fruit and plantains, these were appropriated by the leaders and sailors who largely remained on board ship. The only luck the settlers had was in giant turtle hunting, but fewer and fewer men were fit enough for such strenuous work. The situation was exacerbated by the lack of food mainly due to a high rate of spoilage caused by improper stowing. At the same time King William had instructed the Dutch and English colonies in America not to supply the Scots' settlement so as not to incur the wrath of the Spanish Empire.
The only reward the council had to give was alcohol, and drunkenness became common, even though it sped the deaths of many men weakened by dysentery, fever and the rotting, worm-infested food. After eight months the colony was abandoned in July 1699, apart from six men who were too weak to move. Deaths continued on the ships, and those who managed to survive the journey and return home found themselves regarded as a disgrace to their country and even disowned by their families.
Only 300 of the 1200 settlers survived and only one ship managed to return to Scotland. A desperate ship from the colony that called at the Jamaican city of Port Royal was refused assistance on the orders of the English government, which feared antagonizing the Spanish.
Word of the first expedition did not reach Scotland in time to prevent a second voyage of more than 1,000 people. The second expedition arrived on November 30, 1699 and found two sloops there; one with Thomas Drummond from the original expedition. Some men were sent ashore to rebuild huts, which caused others to complain that they had come to join a settlement, not build one. Morale was low and little progress was made. Drummond insisted that there could be no discussion, and that the fort must be rebuilt as the Spanish attack would surely come soon.
Drummond clashed with the merchant James Byres who maintained that the Counsellors of the first expedition had now lost that status, and consequently had Drummond arrested. Initially bellicose, Byres began to send away all those he suspected of being offensively minded - or of being allegiant to Drummond.
The colonists sank into apathy until the arrival of Alexander Campbell of Fonab, sent by the company to organize a defense. He provided the resolute leadership which had been lacking and took the initiative from the Spanish by driving them from their stockade at Toubacanti in January, 1700. However, Fonab was wounded in this daring frontal attack and became incapacitated with a fever. The Spanish force, which was also suffering serious losses from fever, closed in on Fort St Andrew and besieged it for a month. The Spanish commander called for the Scots to surrender and avoid a final assault, warning that if they did not no quarter would be given.
After negotiations the Scots were allowed to leave with their guns, and the colony was abandoned for the last time. Only a handful of those from the second expedition returned to Scotland. Of the total 2500 settlers that set off, just a few hundred survived.
Johannes Covens (1697-1774) was a Dutch geographic publisher based in Amsterdam. He is best known for his collaboration with fellow publisher Cornelis Mortier (1699-1783). Pierre Mortier the Elder (1661-1711) had obtained a privilege in 1690 to distribute the works of French geographers in the Netherlands. After his widow continued the business for several years, Cornelis took over in 1719.
In 1721, Mortier forged a partnership with Covens, who had recently married Cornelis’ sister. They published under the joint name of Covens & Mortier. In 1774, upon the death of his father, Johannes Covens II (1722-1794) took over his father’s share. In 1778, the company changed its name to J. Covens & Zoon, or J. Covens & son.
Covens II’s son, Cornelis (1764-1825), later inherited the business and brought Petrus Mortier IV back into the fold. Petrus was the great-grandson of Petrus Mortier I. From 1794, the business was called Mortier, Covens & Zoon, or Mortier, Covens, & Son.
The business specialized in publishing French geographers including Deslisle, Jaillot, and Sanson. They also published atlases, for example a 1725 reissue of Frederik de Wit’s Atlas Major and an atlas, with additions, from the works of Guillaume Delisle. There were also Covens & Mortier pocket atlases and town atlases. The company profited from acquiring plates from other geographers as well. For example, the purchased Pieter van der Aa’s plates in 1730. Finally, they also compiled a few maps in house. At their height, they had the largest collection of geographic prints ever assembled in Amsterdam.
Pierre, or Pieter, Mortier (1661-1711) was a Dutch engraver, son of a French refugee. He was born in Leiden. In 1690 he was granted a privilege to publish French maps in Dutch lands. In 1693 he released the first and accompanying volume of the Neptune Francois. The third followed in 1700. His son, Cornelis (1699-1783), would partner with Johannes Covens I, creating one of the most important map publishing companies of the eighteenth century. | 2,097 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We know that one of the hardest things for a person to do is to see themselves as they are seen by others. There are two components to how we think of ourselves, and both start developing in early childhood. The first component stems from how valuable and lovable we perceive ourselves to be to others. Many believe that it’s determined by the emotional impact we think we have on the people who care for us in early childhood. And when I say “we think we have”, I’m really talking about our personal perception which is determined by so many different things: namely internal factors like personality, and external factors like family dynamics – it’s how we see the world. So our perception, coupled with our interactions with others, develops over our lifespan and makes up the first component.
The second component of self-esteem is how valuable, and worthy we believe we are. This is most often based on thing like our intelligence, our abilities, our physical characteristics, or whatever else we feel is important to being worthy. This starts being developed earlier on in a person’s life as well. Depending on your family of origin, you may have been praised and found acceptance by making good grades, or maybe you were told you were beautiful or handsome. In the same way, you may have been shamed by making bad grades, or told you were ugly or bad. All of these childhood experiences from people that we deeply desire unconditional love and acceptance from can cause us to feel worthy or unworthy. | <urn:uuid:f1d36f29-6355-446b-af8c-f32ce4dd2269> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://garrardconsulting.com/the-importance-of-developing-self-esteem/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00009.warc.gz | en | 0.981729 | 309 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.1397637277841568... | 2 | We know that one of the hardest things for a person to do is to see themselves as they are seen by others. There are two components to how we think of ourselves, and both start developing in early childhood. The first component stems from how valuable and lovable we perceive ourselves to be to others. Many believe that it’s determined by the emotional impact we think we have on the people who care for us in early childhood. And when I say “we think we have”, I’m really talking about our personal perception which is determined by so many different things: namely internal factors like personality, and external factors like family dynamics – it’s how we see the world. So our perception, coupled with our interactions with others, develops over our lifespan and makes up the first component.
The second component of self-esteem is how valuable, and worthy we believe we are. This is most often based on thing like our intelligence, our abilities, our physical characteristics, or whatever else we feel is important to being worthy. This starts being developed earlier on in a person’s life as well. Depending on your family of origin, you may have been praised and found acceptance by making good grades, or maybe you were told you were beautiful or handsome. In the same way, you may have been shamed by making bad grades, or told you were ugly or bad. All of these childhood experiences from people that we deeply desire unconditional love and acceptance from can cause us to feel worthy or unworthy. | 297 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Red Badge of Courage is a novel by Stephen Crane published in 1895. This novel was written during the age of realism. The story revolves around Henry Flemming, a young soldier who has just joined the Union forces during the Civil War. The readers get to witness how Henry grows as a man in result of the war. The Red Badge of Courage is a realistic novel because it shows the reality of death, war, and the struggle to survive. The Red Badge of Courage is a realistic novel because it shows the reality of death. The novel depicts several corpses in a grueling fashion. Henry comes across a body in which Crane describes, ".the eyes, staring at the youth, had changed to a dull hue to be seen on the side of a dead fish. The mouth was open. Its red had changed o an appalling yellow. Over the gray skin of the face ran little ants." (7, 35) Crane uses vivid descriptions to paint a gruesome picture of what death is actually like. He doesn't sugar-coat death by making slow and peaceful. There are no dramatic last words or philosophizing of death. The Red Badge of Courage shows the reality of death, making it a realistic novel. .
The Red Badge of Courage is a realistic novel because it shows the reality of war. Henry goes to war believing that it would be exciting and action-packed. However, when he joined he quickly realized that it wasn't as he thought. He was met with the fear of running from battle and the visual effects of the war on the other soldiers. During a battle, Crane describes a regiment as ,"breathless with horror.they shrank back and crouched as if compelled to await a flood." (4 22) Crane is credited with creating a scene that was realistic of the battlefield. Many veterans of the war he praised The Red Badge of Courage for its accurate recreation of the feelings and events of war even though Crane never went to battle. In fact, Crane was born six years after the war ended. | <urn:uuid:8fffb430-7ae8-4ca8-8515-57e62db5e105> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/216913.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00042.warc.gz | en | 0.980216 | 408 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.0371023043990135... | 6 | The Red Badge of Courage is a novel by Stephen Crane published in 1895. This novel was written during the age of realism. The story revolves around Henry Flemming, a young soldier who has just joined the Union forces during the Civil War. The readers get to witness how Henry grows as a man in result of the war. The Red Badge of Courage is a realistic novel because it shows the reality of death, war, and the struggle to survive. The Red Badge of Courage is a realistic novel because it shows the reality of death. The novel depicts several corpses in a grueling fashion. Henry comes across a body in which Crane describes, ".the eyes, staring at the youth, had changed to a dull hue to be seen on the side of a dead fish. The mouth was open. Its red had changed o an appalling yellow. Over the gray skin of the face ran little ants." (7, 35) Crane uses vivid descriptions to paint a gruesome picture of what death is actually like. He doesn't sugar-coat death by making slow and peaceful. There are no dramatic last words or philosophizing of death. The Red Badge of Courage shows the reality of death, making it a realistic novel. .
The Red Badge of Courage is a realistic novel because it shows the reality of war. Henry goes to war believing that it would be exciting and action-packed. However, when he joined he quickly realized that it wasn't as he thought. He was met with the fear of running from battle and the visual effects of the war on the other soldiers. During a battle, Crane describes a regiment as ,"breathless with horror.they shrank back and crouched as if compelled to await a flood." (4 22) Crane is credited with creating a scene that was realistic of the battlefield. Many veterans of the war he praised The Red Badge of Courage for its accurate recreation of the feelings and events of war even though Crane never went to battle. In fact, Crane was born six years after the war ended. | 414 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Aboriginal Melodies: a Look into the Music of Those Who Came Before
There were hundreds of different native communities, and with each, there was a distinct history, language, and musical culture. Musical culture played a vital role in the life of Native Americans. It was used for recreation, healing, expression, and ceremonial purposes.
Music was the foundation of Native American culture that worked its way into rituals, customs, and daily life. Much of the foundational personality and uniqueness of Native music that is known, originates from the instruments themselves, most notably, drums, rattles, and flutes/pipes.
Originating in the 1500's and ending in the 1700's Native Americans adopted and adapted many European instruments. However, before learning of the European instruments, the natives already had many of their own. Even though their instruments weren't as advanced as those of the Europeans, they had what they needed which were these beautiful percussive and woodland instruments. Still, when borrowing and adapting European instruments, the Native Americans managed to make these them their own by decorating them.
Decorations would often have some sort of spiritual significance, or could oftentimes refer to sacred narratives. However, it is not only the decorations that tell stories. Usually, the names of the instruments themselves reflected some sort of symbolic significance. Also, some instruments are thought to be sentient and require special treatment.
There are several techniques that are employed in making these instruments. One of the most abstract being the art that was often carved, painted or placed on these instruments. Some devices would take an hour or two to make and were able to be built by practically anyone in their tribe. However, some instruments were so complex that only certain tribe members could make them and it could take up to weeks to finish.
Unlike the Europeans, instruments were much more than just instruments to the Native Americans, they were spiritual symbols and carried a lot of cultural significance for their individual tribes.
Native Americans put a lot of work and effort into these devices, and even though they didn't have the modern tools and knowledge that we have today, they had what was necessary for their practices.Read More » | <urn:uuid:170972cf-9fa4-4571-bfc4-009c93767466> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://learninglab.si.edu/collections/aboriginal-melodies-a-look-into-the-music-of-those-who-came-before/3MbNFidE4LF44RGz | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00192.warc.gz | en | 0.988996 | 442 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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There were hundreds of different native communities, and with each, there was a distinct history, language, and musical culture. Musical culture played a vital role in the life of Native Americans. It was used for recreation, healing, expression, and ceremonial purposes.
Music was the foundation of Native American culture that worked its way into rituals, customs, and daily life. Much of the foundational personality and uniqueness of Native music that is known, originates from the instruments themselves, most notably, drums, rattles, and flutes/pipes.
Originating in the 1500's and ending in the 1700's Native Americans adopted and adapted many European instruments. However, before learning of the European instruments, the natives already had many of their own. Even though their instruments weren't as advanced as those of the Europeans, they had what they needed which were these beautiful percussive and woodland instruments. Still, when borrowing and adapting European instruments, the Native Americans managed to make these them their own by decorating them.
Decorations would often have some sort of spiritual significance, or could oftentimes refer to sacred narratives. However, it is not only the decorations that tell stories. Usually, the names of the instruments themselves reflected some sort of symbolic significance. Also, some instruments are thought to be sentient and require special treatment.
There are several techniques that are employed in making these instruments. One of the most abstract being the art that was often carved, painted or placed on these instruments. Some devices would take an hour or two to make and were able to be built by practically anyone in their tribe. However, some instruments were so complex that only certain tribe members could make them and it could take up to weeks to finish.
Unlike the Europeans, instruments were much more than just instruments to the Native Americans, they were spiritual symbols and carried a lot of cultural significance for their individual tribes.
Native Americans put a lot of work and effort into these devices, and even though they didn't have the modern tools and knowledge that we have today, they had what was necessary for their practices.Read More » | 436 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is it about uncles? They're always kind of funny and goofy. Even though Uncle Sam has his job, his home, and his freedom taken away from him, he never seems sad. Even though he dies a few pages into the novel, we get to know him as a diligent fisherman and boat builder who never let even the worst of situations get him down.
"'Umi no yo,' Uncle says, pointing to the grass. 'It's like the sea'" (1.4). These are the first words that we hear Uncle Sam say, and they're also the words that end the book. What you have to remember is that he's saying this about the tiniest trickle of a river in a valley in the middle of the prairies in British Columbia. In other words basically the furthest place you could be from the sea. That just shows you how much he misses it.
Uncle Sam's story is also the story of a huge community of Japanese fishermen who had their livelihoods taken away from them and were sent to places like Granton. Not only was he banned from being a fisherman, but to add insult to injury, his handcrafted boat was taken away from him. How messed up is this:
It wasn't a fishing vessel or an ordinary yacht, but a sleek boat designed by Father, made over many years and many winter evenings. A work of art. "What a beauty," the RCMP officer said in 1941 when he saw it. He shouted as he sliced back through the wake, "What a beauty! What a beauty!" (4.28)
Unfortunately, the boat isn't the only thing that was confiscated.
Just like many Japanese Canadian men, Uncle was also confiscated. Naomi says:
He had no provisions, nor did he have any idea where the gunboats were herding him and the other Japanese fishermen in the impounded fishing fleet. (4.30)
Whole communities lost their men along with their boats, and Uncle Sam represents them in Obasan.
Despite all of these sad times, Uncle isn't sad. It's not surprising, since his name (Isamu) means to cheer up or make happy. That's exactly what he does.
Think about his famous stone bread. Naomi says that it's so hard because he doesn't know how to bake properly, but stone bread has traditionally been a food made by people who have nothing else to eat. That's why he keeps adding random things to it:
Uncle had baked the bread too long. I refused to eat it, but Uncle kept making it that way over the years, "improving" the recipe with leftover oatmeal and barley. Sometimes he even added carrots and potatoes. But no matter what he put in it, it always ended up like a lump of granite on the counter. (3.26)
The stone bread is just an example of how Uncle tries to make the best out of even terrible situations. | <urn:uuid:7ded212e-e89e-4903-bada-0db5a0181ebe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.shmoop.com/study-guides/literature/obasan/uncle-sam | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00191.warc.gz | en | 0.991331 | 607 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.1338151246309280... | 1 | What is it about uncles? They're always kind of funny and goofy. Even though Uncle Sam has his job, his home, and his freedom taken away from him, he never seems sad. Even though he dies a few pages into the novel, we get to know him as a diligent fisherman and boat builder who never let even the worst of situations get him down.
"'Umi no yo,' Uncle says, pointing to the grass. 'It's like the sea'" (1.4). These are the first words that we hear Uncle Sam say, and they're also the words that end the book. What you have to remember is that he's saying this about the tiniest trickle of a river in a valley in the middle of the prairies in British Columbia. In other words basically the furthest place you could be from the sea. That just shows you how much he misses it.
Uncle Sam's story is also the story of a huge community of Japanese fishermen who had their livelihoods taken away from them and were sent to places like Granton. Not only was he banned from being a fisherman, but to add insult to injury, his handcrafted boat was taken away from him. How messed up is this:
It wasn't a fishing vessel or an ordinary yacht, but a sleek boat designed by Father, made over many years and many winter evenings. A work of art. "What a beauty," the RCMP officer said in 1941 when he saw it. He shouted as he sliced back through the wake, "What a beauty! What a beauty!" (4.28)
Unfortunately, the boat isn't the only thing that was confiscated.
Just like many Japanese Canadian men, Uncle was also confiscated. Naomi says:
He had no provisions, nor did he have any idea where the gunboats were herding him and the other Japanese fishermen in the impounded fishing fleet. (4.30)
Whole communities lost their men along with their boats, and Uncle Sam represents them in Obasan.
Despite all of these sad times, Uncle isn't sad. It's not surprising, since his name (Isamu) means to cheer up or make happy. That's exactly what he does.
Think about his famous stone bread. Naomi says that it's so hard because he doesn't know how to bake properly, but stone bread has traditionally been a food made by people who have nothing else to eat. That's why he keeps adding random things to it:
Uncle had baked the bread too long. I refused to eat it, but Uncle kept making it that way over the years, "improving" the recipe with leftover oatmeal and barley. Sometimes he even added carrots and potatoes. But no matter what he put in it, it always ended up like a lump of granite on the counter. (3.26)
The stone bread is just an example of how Uncle tries to make the best out of even terrible situations. | 604 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Compare & Contrast Essay: The Role of Women in Ancient Athens
The role of women has changed dramatically over the last few thousand years, and some things are now very different for women from what they were before.
However, there are also some similarities between the role of women in ancient Athens and the role of women today.The people of ancient Athens saw the importance of providing everyone with some level of education, so all women received an education of some sort. The main reason to educate women was so they could bring up and teach their children, the importance of the mother figure being recognized just as much as it is today. Similarly to today, many women got married and had a family, and this was the center of their lives. Furthermore, the people of ancient Greece worshiped female deities as well as male ones, so women did have some level of importance in society.
However, life for women was really tough, and much worse than it is in most civilized countries today. The education they did receive was very limited, and the pursuit of education was deemed unnecessary because a woman’s main role was to look after her husband and family. Nearly all women would marry because single life was just not really an option, and women generally married between the ages of 14-18. These marriages were arranged by the parents of the bride and groom, and wives were expected to obey their husbands. A man’s family would not fully accept his wife until she bore him a child, as serving her husband and raising his children were seen as the functions of a wife.
Furthermore, women had no rights and their husband defined their social status and place in society. They had no real legal status, being unable to even own a home, and their opinions didn’t matter. Many women were little more than domestic slaves to their husbands. And while being a married woman could be very miserable, being single could be even worse. There were very few occupations open to women, and the majority involved entertaining. This ‘entertaining’, in the majority of cases, involved at least some prostitution.
Even the hetaerae, who were trained in conversation and dancing, were expected to have sex with men some of the time. To conclude, women’s lives in Ancient Athens were much harder than the lives of those in America and Europe today, where we get an education, a career, and a say in who we marry. However, given that many women in certain places today don’t get an education and are forced into marriages by their families, and that the same was true all over the world just a couple of hundred years ago, Ancient Athens was, overall, quite progressive for the time. | <urn:uuid:86f42e27-8121-48bd-816d-23b1112dd09a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://acasestudy.com/compare-contrast-essay-the-role-of-women-in-ancient-athens/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00374.warc.gz | en | 0.995725 | 552 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.207836076617240... | 4 | Compare & Contrast Essay: The Role of Women in Ancient Athens
The role of women has changed dramatically over the last few thousand years, and some things are now very different for women from what they were before.
However, there are also some similarities between the role of women in ancient Athens and the role of women today.The people of ancient Athens saw the importance of providing everyone with some level of education, so all women received an education of some sort. The main reason to educate women was so they could bring up and teach their children, the importance of the mother figure being recognized just as much as it is today. Similarly to today, many women got married and had a family, and this was the center of their lives. Furthermore, the people of ancient Greece worshiped female deities as well as male ones, so women did have some level of importance in society.
However, life for women was really tough, and much worse than it is in most civilized countries today. The education they did receive was very limited, and the pursuit of education was deemed unnecessary because a woman’s main role was to look after her husband and family. Nearly all women would marry because single life was just not really an option, and women generally married between the ages of 14-18. These marriages were arranged by the parents of the bride and groom, and wives were expected to obey their husbands. A man’s family would not fully accept his wife until she bore him a child, as serving her husband and raising his children were seen as the functions of a wife.
Furthermore, women had no rights and their husband defined their social status and place in society. They had no real legal status, being unable to even own a home, and their opinions didn’t matter. Many women were little more than domestic slaves to their husbands. And while being a married woman could be very miserable, being single could be even worse. There were very few occupations open to women, and the majority involved entertaining. This ‘entertaining’, in the majority of cases, involved at least some prostitution.
Even the hetaerae, who were trained in conversation and dancing, were expected to have sex with men some of the time. To conclude, women’s lives in Ancient Athens were much harder than the lives of those in America and Europe today, where we get an education, a career, and a say in who we marry. However, given that many women in certain places today don’t get an education and are forced into marriages by their families, and that the same was true all over the world just a couple of hundred years ago, Ancient Athens was, overall, quite progressive for the time. | 537 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Torah portion, or parasha, this week is Shemot and is found in Exodus 1:1-6:1. As we start the book of Exodus, the Torah changes from being the story of a family to the story of a people. The Egyptian king fears and hates the Israelites and enslaves them. When this oppression fails to curb their growth, Pharaoh orders the midwives to kill all the newborn boys. The midwives refuse, so Pharaoh issues an order that every baby boy born to Hebrew parents is to be drowned in the Nile. When Moses’ mother can hide her baby son no longer, she places him in a basket in the river, hoping he might survive. Moses is discovered by Pharaoh’s daughter, who recognizes that he is a Hebrew child but adopts him as her son and raises him in the palace. After Moses has grown up, he goes out to see the state of his people. He comes upon an Egyptian beating a Hebrew slave and kills the Egyptian. He learns that his act is known, so he flees to Midian where he marries Zipporah and becomes a shepherd of his father-in-law’s flocks. One day, God speaks to Moses from a burning bush and tells him that he is being sent to Pharaoh to free the Israelites. Moses objects, insisting that he is neither worthy nor capable but God reassures him and gives him signs to show that he is God’s messenger. Moses goes to Egypt with his wife and sons. God sends his brother Aaron to meet him and together they assemble the Israelite elders and tell them that God has promised to end their servitude. Moses and Aaron then go to Pharaoh and ask that the Israelites be allowed to go into the wilderness to worship God. Pharaoh not only refuses but retaliates by increasing the severity of the Israelites’ oppression. The people blame Moses and Aaron for their punishment, but God tells Moses, “You shall soon see what I will do to Pharaoh.”
In this parasha, we see that the favorable conditions of Egypt have changed dramatically and the Israelite people are no longer welcome or supported like they were when Joseph was alive. It was easy in past generations for the people to praise God and to see how God had brought them to Egypt, when life was good there. However, when bad times took over, it was harder for the people to see God working in their lives. Although this layer of doubt and discouragement primarily sets the backdrop for the miracles that God performs in succeeding chapters, it is likewise a message for us. Often we travel through life believing that a certain decision or choice is right, it is where we need to be, and it is where God has led us. But when events change and no longer look favorable it is easy to blame ourselves, others, or ultimately, God, for the change. We may even doubt whether the original decision was good. What we need to remember from the Exodus story is that the God who brought us into Egypt, is also the God that was there in Egypt through our prosperity and pain, and is ultimately the God that brought us out of Egypt to a better life. We can trust God to be with us in both prosperous and painful times, and that good will ultimately prevail. | <urn:uuid:77674642-1d51-4c3d-b1d0-06fa5a450e43> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://southstreettemple.org/2020/01/15/torah-portion-for-january-18-2020-21-tevet-5780/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00329.warc.gz | en | 0.982804 | 671 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.369733095169067... | 17 | The Torah portion, or parasha, this week is Shemot and is found in Exodus 1:1-6:1. As we start the book of Exodus, the Torah changes from being the story of a family to the story of a people. The Egyptian king fears and hates the Israelites and enslaves them. When this oppression fails to curb their growth, Pharaoh orders the midwives to kill all the newborn boys. The midwives refuse, so Pharaoh issues an order that every baby boy born to Hebrew parents is to be drowned in the Nile. When Moses’ mother can hide her baby son no longer, she places him in a basket in the river, hoping he might survive. Moses is discovered by Pharaoh’s daughter, who recognizes that he is a Hebrew child but adopts him as her son and raises him in the palace. After Moses has grown up, he goes out to see the state of his people. He comes upon an Egyptian beating a Hebrew slave and kills the Egyptian. He learns that his act is known, so he flees to Midian where he marries Zipporah and becomes a shepherd of his father-in-law’s flocks. One day, God speaks to Moses from a burning bush and tells him that he is being sent to Pharaoh to free the Israelites. Moses objects, insisting that he is neither worthy nor capable but God reassures him and gives him signs to show that he is God’s messenger. Moses goes to Egypt with his wife and sons. God sends his brother Aaron to meet him and together they assemble the Israelite elders and tell them that God has promised to end their servitude. Moses and Aaron then go to Pharaoh and ask that the Israelites be allowed to go into the wilderness to worship God. Pharaoh not only refuses but retaliates by increasing the severity of the Israelites’ oppression. The people blame Moses and Aaron for their punishment, but God tells Moses, “You shall soon see what I will do to Pharaoh.”
In this parasha, we see that the favorable conditions of Egypt have changed dramatically and the Israelite people are no longer welcome or supported like they were when Joseph was alive. It was easy in past generations for the people to praise God and to see how God had brought them to Egypt, when life was good there. However, when bad times took over, it was harder for the people to see God working in their lives. Although this layer of doubt and discouragement primarily sets the backdrop for the miracles that God performs in succeeding chapters, it is likewise a message for us. Often we travel through life believing that a certain decision or choice is right, it is where we need to be, and it is where God has led us. But when events change and no longer look favorable it is easy to blame ourselves, others, or ultimately, God, for the change. We may even doubt whether the original decision was good. What we need to remember from the Exodus story is that the God who brought us into Egypt, is also the God that was there in Egypt through our prosperity and pain, and is ultimately the God that brought us out of Egypt to a better life. We can trust God to be with us in both prosperous and painful times, and that good will ultimately prevail. | 666 | ENGLISH | 1 |
July 15, 1806: Zebulon Pike begins his famous expedition
Have you ever heard of Zebulon Pike? While the answer is most likely “no,” he was actually a very important figure in the settlement of Kansas and Colorado. As a U.S. brigadier general, Pike charted previously unseen territory throughout the nation. Take a look at what took place on the day that Zebulon Pike began his famous expedition.
Army soldier Zebulon Pike first gained national attention in 1805. Back then, Pike served as the leader of a group of explorers who were searching for the mouth of the Mississippi River. On July 15, 1806, Zebulon led his men on a new journey: to survey the Southwestern United States. At that time, it was Pike’s mission to explore the sources of Arkansas River and Red River. Pike was also deadset on scoping out Spanish territories in New Mexico.
As Zebulon and his crew departed Missouri, they traveled through modern-day Kansas and Nebraska. That’s when they arrived in Colorado, and Pike laid his eyes on the mountainside that would eventually be called Pikes Peak. From then on, Zebulon and his fellow travelers journeyed to New Mexico. Once there, they were arrested by the Spaniards for entering their land without permission. It gets worse: Pike’s party was forced to venture through Santa Fe, Chihuahua, Texas, and Louisiana before they were set free.
Things got even crazier when Pike and his crew returned to the East Coast. Somehow, Zebulon got involved in a mysterious scheme to take over the American Southwest with ex-Vice President Aaron Burr. The plot was investigated by James Madison, the Secretary of State at the time. Luckily, Pike was let off the hook. Unfortunately, Zebulon met his end during the War of 1812 when he was the victim of a gunpowder bomb explosion. | <urn:uuid:53813964-882b-4c64-9cf0-0de70822fc29> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history101.com/july-15-1806-zebulon-pike-expedition/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00297.warc.gz | en | 0.984344 | 411 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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... | 3 | July 15, 1806: Zebulon Pike begins his famous expedition
Have you ever heard of Zebulon Pike? While the answer is most likely “no,” he was actually a very important figure in the settlement of Kansas and Colorado. As a U.S. brigadier general, Pike charted previously unseen territory throughout the nation. Take a look at what took place on the day that Zebulon Pike began his famous expedition.
Army soldier Zebulon Pike first gained national attention in 1805. Back then, Pike served as the leader of a group of explorers who were searching for the mouth of the Mississippi River. On July 15, 1806, Zebulon led his men on a new journey: to survey the Southwestern United States. At that time, it was Pike’s mission to explore the sources of Arkansas River and Red River. Pike was also deadset on scoping out Spanish territories in New Mexico.
As Zebulon and his crew departed Missouri, they traveled through modern-day Kansas and Nebraska. That’s when they arrived in Colorado, and Pike laid his eyes on the mountainside that would eventually be called Pikes Peak. From then on, Zebulon and his fellow travelers journeyed to New Mexico. Once there, they were arrested by the Spaniards for entering their land without permission. It gets worse: Pike’s party was forced to venture through Santa Fe, Chihuahua, Texas, and Louisiana before they were set free.
Things got even crazier when Pike and his crew returned to the East Coast. Somehow, Zebulon got involved in a mysterious scheme to take over the American Southwest with ex-Vice President Aaron Burr. The plot was investigated by James Madison, the Secretary of State at the time. Luckily, Pike was let off the hook. Unfortunately, Zebulon met his end during the War of 1812 when he was the victim of a gunpowder bomb explosion. | 415 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“Jim Crow” is a funny term that was used as a name of the laws that segregated people by their skin colors. The Jim Crow Laws emerged in southern states after the United States Civil War. It was first enacted in the 1880s by lawmakers who were bitter about their loss to the North, which was also the end of slavery. It statutes separated the races in all aspects of life; it created inequality between races that favored whites and repressed blacks. This inequality grew in the subsequent decades with the help of the United States Supreme Court. In the 1950s and after many attempts, the Court began to demolish segregation. The remaining of the Jim Crow systems was finally abolished in the 1960s through the efforts of the Civil Right Movement.
The term “Jim Crow” is originally from a minstrel show character developed during the mid-nineteenth century. A group of white entertainers applied black cork to their faces and imitated Negro dancing and singing routines. Such acts became popular in several Northern cities and the nickname Jim Crow later became the name of the segregation laws (Wormser). These laws were fundamentally created to detain people of color as an inferior class and Whites as a superior class. It legalized the practices of racist behaviors from White people against colored people. The laws were the root of racism that we have nowadays. After the Jim Crow Laws were declared, they had a direct impact on African Americans; they affected the lives of Black directly. Blacks were placed at the bottom of social classes, forced to live in segregated environments, and were treated differently regarding to their skin color. Merlino expresses the idea of Jim Crow Laws and says that they created segregations that restrained African Americans to be underneath White Americas in many figures of life.
Buy Segregation: Jim Crow Laws essay paper online
White Americans were better off, but African Americans were worse off from the existence of Jim Crow Laws. The laws were based on the philosophy of equal but separate, they favored White people and depressed the Black people. White Americans maintained their rights and power in politics. According to Dr. Devid Pilgrim, “The laws restricted the right to vote only to people who their ancestors had voted prior the Civil War. This automatically prohibited African Americans rights to vote due the slavery before the Civil War. White people gained benefits because they had absolute control over the politics of the country and even obstructed Black peoples’ involvement in politics. The laws also maintained the difference between social classes. They forbid any intimate relationships between White and African Americans. Merlino argues that under the laws, states passed laws that prohibited interracial marriage (16). Moreover, it implied that White people were the upper class citizens and people of color were lower class citizens; this created norms that allowed White people to command more respect in society than Black people. For instance, Black people were never allowed to assert that White people lied and to laugh derisively or curse at White people (Pilgrim).
The Jim Crow Laws allowed White people to preserve their control over Black people because they provided much more legal authorities to the white people. White people could physically abuse black people and simply get away simply through impunity (Alan). Black people had very few legal resources against the assaults because the criminal system was operated by white people under Jim Crow Laws (Pilgrim). The police, prosecutors, judges, juries, and prison officials were all biased against Blacks. The laws also promoted the establishment of segregated neighborhoods. They formed restrictions that forced African Americans to live in a certain areas such as the Center Area. Merlino states that in 1960, the Central Area was home to four out of five Blacks in Seattle. The majority of the remaining Blacks lived in public housing developments sprinkled throughout the city’s South End. The reality was that Black people had few options other than the Central Area.
From the late 1920s through 1948, many property deeds in other parts of the city included restrictive covenants that barred sale to Blacks, Asians, Native Americans, and Jews in some cases. The North End of Seattle was almost exclusively White. People who were non-White citizens had difficulties purchasing houses because most properties were attached with restrictive agreements that banned selling property to Blacks. Nevertheless, the areas that White people occupied were better developed because most Whites were richer than Black people. Merlino says that Willie McClain’s mom cautioned him against crossing the railroad track, the line that separated blacks from whites (23); the regions between Black people and Whites were clearly separated. People only lived in their own areas and were not allowed to trespass in the other areas that were occupied by people of different color.
There were double standards under Jim Crow registration. The laws separated every public facility in everyday lives; Whites had their facilities and Blacks had theirs (Pilgrim). The common and obvious examples included railroads, hotels, hospitals, restaurants, neighborhoods, and cemeteries. These public facilities were equipped with a sign reading “For Colored” or “We Serve White Only.” Merlino mentions, “Around town, signs went up on restaurants, hotels, and theaters reading “White only” and “We Don’t Serve Colored.” (22). However, White facilities were better built and equipped while Black facilities were inferior, older, or lacked maintenance. In particular, White schools were almost uniformly better in every respect, from buildings to educational materials. This led to lower literacy level of Black people. White people used this fact to determine that black people were below them because black people did not do well in intelligent tests.
The Jim Crow Laws made it legal for White people to discriminate against people of color through segregations. Black people were forced to stay separated from White people area, otherwise they might be arrested or physically abused. The example is shown in Merlino’s book as Willie McClain told his experience “he remembers walking down the street with his friends and White people yelling at them, “Go back to the projects!” and “You’re in the wrong part of town!” when the kids tried to walk to a big public park nearby, the police stopped them and told them to go back to High Point. “In Gulfport, you were liable to get hit, shot, killed, and disappeared.” McClain says. “Here, I guess you could say it was open and blatant, but not life-threatening. It was more of a threat: “You better get yourself back up there before we do something to you” (25). McClain clearly explained that he and his friends were not welcome by White people to the white neighborhoods even though it was a public park.
Much has changed the world over since the abolishment of Jim Crow’s laws. There have been positive strides towards ending racial discrimination in the world. The African Americans have started gaining respect from their White countrymen. This has been emphasized in American Elections where a Black man, Barack Obama, has been elected for two terms consecutively as the president of the United States. As the icing on the cake, he triumphed against white competitors who were both more politically experienced and richer than him. African Americans also dominate the celebrity circles in the United States. Many Blacks are successful sportsmen, athletes, musicians, models, and actors and command global recognition and adoration. Examples are Oprah Winfrey, a talk show host that was rated by the Phoebes magazine as one of the most influential women in the world. Sean Carter a.k.a Jay Zee and his celebrity wife, Beyonce are musicians of great repute that have an almost cult like fan base across the globe. There is considerable tolerance for Africans in the West nowadays as is proved by the many number of immigrants from Africa and the Caribbean highlands pursuing education in Western colleges and others landing lucrative jobs and business deals in Western countries.
Racial discrimination against Blacks is far from over, but the approach used for segregation has been redesigned to avoid conflicts with civil rights activists. The forms of racial discrimination have been altered in order to conform to the modern political order and standards (Alexander). This is meticulously done and has been successful since it is rarely noticed. The world focuses on successful African Americans like Barack Obama and in the process, becomes oblivious of what happens to the less privileged Black Americans living in slums and without formal employment. Racial discrimination in the contemporary world after Jim Crow is concealed in legal jargon and discriminates in social matters like acquiring employment, voter rights, education, religion, and housing to mention a few. According to Michelle, there are many African American young men languishing in American jails due to some minor criminal offences which relegate them permanently to a status of second class citizens with less to offer in the global economy.
The American government policy dubbed war on drugs that was initiated to nab drug users and traffickers especially those dealing with crack cocaine has caused great suffering and anguish to the African American society. This was a government initiative that was officially authorized in 1982 by President Ronald Reagan. It had been triggered by an upsurge of crack cocaine use in slums inhabited by African Americans, which are commonly referred to as ghettos. The government used a lot of force in the war on drugs campaign; the force was so severe that the American Black community suspected it was being unfairly targeted. This campaign was responsible for a sharp rise of prisoners in American jails from a humble figure of about 300,000 to an excess of two million. The majority of prisoners in the prisons were Black Americans charged with drug offences. America is said to have an unmatched record in the world of using its judicial process to oppress minority populations mainly Blacks. Statistics show that in most American cities, around 80 percent of African American men will attest to having had a brush with the law or even have served a stint in prison. This is the height of marginalization as statistics and research studies have shown that other races residing in America use drugs on a scale similar to that of the Black Americans. However, the rate at which the Whites are charged in courts for drug related offences are twenty times less than the Black men. (Michelle).
Social stigmatization and formal discrimination haunts prisoners once they are released from jail. This hinders the former convict from acceptance to the community and at most times the ex convict label is attached to the former prisoner for the rest of his life. The White public perceives former prisoners especially those of the Black race as people unworthy of respect in the society. This defeats the main purpose for prisons as correctional facilities meant to rehabilitate criminals and enable them to fit in the society after serving their terms in prison. The stigma has great detrimental limitations on an ex convict’s ambitions in life and his personal development. The former offenders are denied many government benefits, are slapped with numerous legal restrictions, which contributes to a cycle where the ex-prisoners may land in prison to serve another term for committing another crime. The ex-prisoner finds that he can only fit in the prison walls, where they are all equal, no sneering or jeering. This also contributes to their acceptance that they are “jailbirds” or their fate is to stay in jail where they do not strive to be accepted.
The first predicament that faces a released prisoner is housing. Ex-prisoners who had served sentences on charges of felony are disqualified from seeking public housing for a period of not less than five years. President Clinton complicated things further for former convicts. In the year 1996, his regime proposed the “one strike and you are out” rule. This is a law that led to the eviction of a tenant whose family members, guest, or even workers were engaged drug related crimes. The rule was extremely severe such that eviction took place even though the offence never took place in the tenant’s house. Eviction was also carried out if the said offender did the offence without the awareness of the tenant. Based on such strict laws, relatives and friends of former convicts are usually unwilling to accommodate them in their homes for the fear of being evicted. This policy has largely contributed to ex-offenders being homeless after prison and forces them to commit crime to go back to prison where they do not strive to be housed.
Finding employment is also cumbersome for a former offender since potential employers tend to reject them owing to their criminal records. There is common fear that the ex-convict would continue engaging in his activities at the workplace or even the fear of him recruiting other workers to his underworld. The only job opportunities available for them are in environments where they do not interact with customers, for example, in manufacturing plants or in the construction industry. Manufacturing jobs are hard to find in inner cities where they reside. The issue of financial burdens to be met by convicts compounds the problem further. The lucky ex-offender who gets employment has to pay various legal fees as well as a number of fiduciary penalties (Michelle). In the unfolding scenario, the small income the ex-prisoner makes is never enough to cater for his needs. It also kills his morale for work as he never realizes the fruits of his labor given the high expenses involved in daily operations.
Another predicament in the job market is the stereotype of criminality that is associated with Blacks. Most criminals tend to be Black Americans, and employers have a tendency of perceiving black workers even those without a criminal record as potential criminals waiting for an opportunity to commit crime. This means that even before they go to look for a job, they are already sentenced as criminals in the minds of an employer, and any slightest suspicion may land them another jail term.
Under President Bill Clinton’s regime, there was an act of legislation geared to welfare reforms which decentralized the uniform federal welfare programs. The Aid to Families with Dependent Children was at the time replaced by the Temporary Assistance for Needy families. Under the new legislation, families could only access aid from the program for a maximum of five years. It further made it mandatory for anyone receiving the benefits to work, with mother taking care of young children not being exempted. The legislation further barred permanently anybody with a history of felony conviction from receiving any aid from the federal program. This leaves convicts with very few options like working harder than others or committing a crime and return to the comfort of jail.
Former offenders are not allowed to vote in elections. This is a gross violation of human rights and it is seen as a ploy to trim the numbers of Black Americans participating in elections. It is also seen as a step behind in the quest for zero racial discrimination. This disparity targets African Americans just some years after they were accorded the right to vote in the United States’ elections. With these discriminations going on without anyone raising a voice, the marginalized often hold on to anything in order to restore lost self-esteem. This has led to a rise of violent gangs in Black American neighborhoods made of former inmates. This is what is commonly referred to as the gangster culture in America.
Unlike in the times of Jim Crow laws, the new order uses criminality to discriminate against Blacks. The former used forced labor, race, slavery, and color while the new system uses mass incarceration of Black men so that they are unable to use their talents and abilities to contribute to the global economy. The mass incarceration has also degenerated into a social quagmire due to the large number of missing fathers and husbands. As a result, there are many women without husbands, which make them adopt the role of husbands in their families, which comes with lots of difficulty (David). On the other hand, children without father figures in their lives lack mentors and often lack a direction in life. This causes a vicious circle where the children may unwittingly engage in drugs and other forms of crime, which will eventually lead them to the cells. This has been talked about in the public domain to Black American audiences. The speakers preach a message of personal responsibility and the increasing absence of Black fathers that leads to a neglect of fatherhood duties in the society examples of such speakers are Bill Cosby and Barack Obama who touched on the issue in a Chicago Church after being nominated by the Democratic Party as its presidential candidate.
Racial discrimination has also been perpetrated by the war on terror, which is mostly seen to target people of Arab origin and those who confess the Muslim religion. This has made life unbearable for Muslims in the United States as they are a target of police swoops and searches on suspicions of perpetrating terrorism (Random History). Some conservative Americans had perpetrated a smear campaign on Barack Obama when he announced that he was running for the United States presidency. The campaign was based on the premise that Obama had spent a part of his life in Indonesia, a Muslim country. They also had issues with his middle name, Hussein. To them his interaction with Muslims and Arabs was a perfect reason to deny him the opportunity of leading the most powerful country in the world. They thought he would compromise with the Arab world and derail Americans fight to combat terrorism.
There has been a lot of focus on political and economical segregation of African Americans to an extent that that cultural oppression is forgotten (Sciele). This form of discrimination degrades cultural and social beliefs of Blacks. There is also discrimination on the mode of dressing and architectural preferences. In all these areas, the common adage has been that the cultural ways of the Africans are primitive and inferior to those of the Whites. Cultural oppression hinders group affirmation and empowerment of African Americans, which consequently affects negatively the prosperity of Africans in the United States (Sciele)
In conclusion, racial oppression is still taking place against African Americans long after the Jim Crow’s laws were reviewed. The dimension the discrimination is taking in the modern world is complex; this makes it impossible for the common person to realize. This is a dangerous path since even activists cannot rise against the oppression through legal organs without sounding ridiculous. This phenomenon is compounded by the attention of the world shifting to a few famous Black Americans often concluding that all African Americans are high fliers and are doing great economically and socially. As a result, the poor African Americans living in the Ghetto continue facing hardships without the world noticing.
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-0.026802521198... | 1 | “Jim Crow” is a funny term that was used as a name of the laws that segregated people by their skin colors. The Jim Crow Laws emerged in southern states after the United States Civil War. It was first enacted in the 1880s by lawmakers who were bitter about their loss to the North, which was also the end of slavery. It statutes separated the races in all aspects of life; it created inequality between races that favored whites and repressed blacks. This inequality grew in the subsequent decades with the help of the United States Supreme Court. In the 1950s and after many attempts, the Court began to demolish segregation. The remaining of the Jim Crow systems was finally abolished in the 1960s through the efforts of the Civil Right Movement.
The term “Jim Crow” is originally from a minstrel show character developed during the mid-nineteenth century. A group of white entertainers applied black cork to their faces and imitated Negro dancing and singing routines. Such acts became popular in several Northern cities and the nickname Jim Crow later became the name of the segregation laws (Wormser). These laws were fundamentally created to detain people of color as an inferior class and Whites as a superior class. It legalized the practices of racist behaviors from White people against colored people. The laws were the root of racism that we have nowadays. After the Jim Crow Laws were declared, they had a direct impact on African Americans; they affected the lives of Black directly. Blacks were placed at the bottom of social classes, forced to live in segregated environments, and were treated differently regarding to their skin color. Merlino expresses the idea of Jim Crow Laws and says that they created segregations that restrained African Americans to be underneath White Americas in many figures of life.
Buy Segregation: Jim Crow Laws essay paper online
White Americans were better off, but African Americans were worse off from the existence of Jim Crow Laws. The laws were based on the philosophy of equal but separate, they favored White people and depressed the Black people. White Americans maintained their rights and power in politics. According to Dr. Devid Pilgrim, “The laws restricted the right to vote only to people who their ancestors had voted prior the Civil War. This automatically prohibited African Americans rights to vote due the slavery before the Civil War. White people gained benefits because they had absolute control over the politics of the country and even obstructed Black peoples’ involvement in politics. The laws also maintained the difference between social classes. They forbid any intimate relationships between White and African Americans. Merlino argues that under the laws, states passed laws that prohibited interracial marriage (16). Moreover, it implied that White people were the upper class citizens and people of color were lower class citizens; this created norms that allowed White people to command more respect in society than Black people. For instance, Black people were never allowed to assert that White people lied and to laugh derisively or curse at White people (Pilgrim).
The Jim Crow Laws allowed White people to preserve their control over Black people because they provided much more legal authorities to the white people. White people could physically abuse black people and simply get away simply through impunity (Alan). Black people had very few legal resources against the assaults because the criminal system was operated by white people under Jim Crow Laws (Pilgrim). The police, prosecutors, judges, juries, and prison officials were all biased against Blacks. The laws also promoted the establishment of segregated neighborhoods. They formed restrictions that forced African Americans to live in a certain areas such as the Center Area. Merlino states that in 1960, the Central Area was home to four out of five Blacks in Seattle. The majority of the remaining Blacks lived in public housing developments sprinkled throughout the city’s South End. The reality was that Black people had few options other than the Central Area.
From the late 1920s through 1948, many property deeds in other parts of the city included restrictive covenants that barred sale to Blacks, Asians, Native Americans, and Jews in some cases. The North End of Seattle was almost exclusively White. People who were non-White citizens had difficulties purchasing houses because most properties were attached with restrictive agreements that banned selling property to Blacks. Nevertheless, the areas that White people occupied were better developed because most Whites were richer than Black people. Merlino says that Willie McClain’s mom cautioned him against crossing the railroad track, the line that separated blacks from whites (23); the regions between Black people and Whites were clearly separated. People only lived in their own areas and were not allowed to trespass in the other areas that were occupied by people of different color.
There were double standards under Jim Crow registration. The laws separated every public facility in everyday lives; Whites had their facilities and Blacks had theirs (Pilgrim). The common and obvious examples included railroads, hotels, hospitals, restaurants, neighborhoods, and cemeteries. These public facilities were equipped with a sign reading “For Colored” or “We Serve White Only.” Merlino mentions, “Around town, signs went up on restaurants, hotels, and theaters reading “White only” and “We Don’t Serve Colored.” (22). However, White facilities were better built and equipped while Black facilities were inferior, older, or lacked maintenance. In particular, White schools were almost uniformly better in every respect, from buildings to educational materials. This led to lower literacy level of Black people. White people used this fact to determine that black people were below them because black people did not do well in intelligent tests.
The Jim Crow Laws made it legal for White people to discriminate against people of color through segregations. Black people were forced to stay separated from White people area, otherwise they might be arrested or physically abused. The example is shown in Merlino’s book as Willie McClain told his experience “he remembers walking down the street with his friends and White people yelling at them, “Go back to the projects!” and “You’re in the wrong part of town!” when the kids tried to walk to a big public park nearby, the police stopped them and told them to go back to High Point. “In Gulfport, you were liable to get hit, shot, killed, and disappeared.” McClain says. “Here, I guess you could say it was open and blatant, but not life-threatening. It was more of a threat: “You better get yourself back up there before we do something to you” (25). McClain clearly explained that he and his friends were not welcome by White people to the white neighborhoods even though it was a public park.
Much has changed the world over since the abolishment of Jim Crow’s laws. There have been positive strides towards ending racial discrimination in the world. The African Americans have started gaining respect from their White countrymen. This has been emphasized in American Elections where a Black man, Barack Obama, has been elected for two terms consecutively as the president of the United States. As the icing on the cake, he triumphed against white competitors who were both more politically experienced and richer than him. African Americans also dominate the celebrity circles in the United States. Many Blacks are successful sportsmen, athletes, musicians, models, and actors and command global recognition and adoration. Examples are Oprah Winfrey, a talk show host that was rated by the Phoebes magazine as one of the most influential women in the world. Sean Carter a.k.a Jay Zee and his celebrity wife, Beyonce are musicians of great repute that have an almost cult like fan base across the globe. There is considerable tolerance for Africans in the West nowadays as is proved by the many number of immigrants from Africa and the Caribbean highlands pursuing education in Western colleges and others landing lucrative jobs and business deals in Western countries.
Racial discrimination against Blacks is far from over, but the approach used for segregation has been redesigned to avoid conflicts with civil rights activists. The forms of racial discrimination have been altered in order to conform to the modern political order and standards (Alexander). This is meticulously done and has been successful since it is rarely noticed. The world focuses on successful African Americans like Barack Obama and in the process, becomes oblivious of what happens to the less privileged Black Americans living in slums and without formal employment. Racial discrimination in the contemporary world after Jim Crow is concealed in legal jargon and discriminates in social matters like acquiring employment, voter rights, education, religion, and housing to mention a few. According to Michelle, there are many African American young men languishing in American jails due to some minor criminal offences which relegate them permanently to a status of second class citizens with less to offer in the global economy.
The American government policy dubbed war on drugs that was initiated to nab drug users and traffickers especially those dealing with crack cocaine has caused great suffering and anguish to the African American society. This was a government initiative that was officially authorized in 1982 by President Ronald Reagan. It had been triggered by an upsurge of crack cocaine use in slums inhabited by African Americans, which are commonly referred to as ghettos. The government used a lot of force in the war on drugs campaign; the force was so severe that the American Black community suspected it was being unfairly targeted. This campaign was responsible for a sharp rise of prisoners in American jails from a humble figure of about 300,000 to an excess of two million. The majority of prisoners in the prisons were Black Americans charged with drug offences. America is said to have an unmatched record in the world of using its judicial process to oppress minority populations mainly Blacks. Statistics show that in most American cities, around 80 percent of African American men will attest to having had a brush with the law or even have served a stint in prison. This is the height of marginalization as statistics and research studies have shown that other races residing in America use drugs on a scale similar to that of the Black Americans. However, the rate at which the Whites are charged in courts for drug related offences are twenty times less than the Black men. (Michelle).
Social stigmatization and formal discrimination haunts prisoners once they are released from jail. This hinders the former convict from acceptance to the community and at most times the ex convict label is attached to the former prisoner for the rest of his life. The White public perceives former prisoners especially those of the Black race as people unworthy of respect in the society. This defeats the main purpose for prisons as correctional facilities meant to rehabilitate criminals and enable them to fit in the society after serving their terms in prison. The stigma has great detrimental limitations on an ex convict’s ambitions in life and his personal development. The former offenders are denied many government benefits, are slapped with numerous legal restrictions, which contributes to a cycle where the ex-prisoners may land in prison to serve another term for committing another crime. The ex-prisoner finds that he can only fit in the prison walls, where they are all equal, no sneering or jeering. This also contributes to their acceptance that they are “jailbirds” or their fate is to stay in jail where they do not strive to be accepted.
The first predicament that faces a released prisoner is housing. Ex-prisoners who had served sentences on charges of felony are disqualified from seeking public housing for a period of not less than five years. President Clinton complicated things further for former convicts. In the year 1996, his regime proposed the “one strike and you are out” rule. This is a law that led to the eviction of a tenant whose family members, guest, or even workers were engaged drug related crimes. The rule was extremely severe such that eviction took place even though the offence never took place in the tenant’s house. Eviction was also carried out if the said offender did the offence without the awareness of the tenant. Based on such strict laws, relatives and friends of former convicts are usually unwilling to accommodate them in their homes for the fear of being evicted. This policy has largely contributed to ex-offenders being homeless after prison and forces them to commit crime to go back to prison where they do not strive to be housed.
Finding employment is also cumbersome for a former offender since potential employers tend to reject them owing to their criminal records. There is common fear that the ex-convict would continue engaging in his activities at the workplace or even the fear of him recruiting other workers to his underworld. The only job opportunities available for them are in environments where they do not interact with customers, for example, in manufacturing plants or in the construction industry. Manufacturing jobs are hard to find in inner cities where they reside. The issue of financial burdens to be met by convicts compounds the problem further. The lucky ex-offender who gets employment has to pay various legal fees as well as a number of fiduciary penalties (Michelle). In the unfolding scenario, the small income the ex-prisoner makes is never enough to cater for his needs. It also kills his morale for work as he never realizes the fruits of his labor given the high expenses involved in daily operations.
Another predicament in the job market is the stereotype of criminality that is associated with Blacks. Most criminals tend to be Black Americans, and employers have a tendency of perceiving black workers even those without a criminal record as potential criminals waiting for an opportunity to commit crime. This means that even before they go to look for a job, they are already sentenced as criminals in the minds of an employer, and any slightest suspicion may land them another jail term.
Under President Bill Clinton’s regime, there was an act of legislation geared to welfare reforms which decentralized the uniform federal welfare programs. The Aid to Families with Dependent Children was at the time replaced by the Temporary Assistance for Needy families. Under the new legislation, families could only access aid from the program for a maximum of five years. It further made it mandatory for anyone receiving the benefits to work, with mother taking care of young children not being exempted. The legislation further barred permanently anybody with a history of felony conviction from receiving any aid from the federal program. This leaves convicts with very few options like working harder than others or committing a crime and return to the comfort of jail.
Former offenders are not allowed to vote in elections. This is a gross violation of human rights and it is seen as a ploy to trim the numbers of Black Americans participating in elections. It is also seen as a step behind in the quest for zero racial discrimination. This disparity targets African Americans just some years after they were accorded the right to vote in the United States’ elections. With these discriminations going on without anyone raising a voice, the marginalized often hold on to anything in order to restore lost self-esteem. This has led to a rise of violent gangs in Black American neighborhoods made of former inmates. This is what is commonly referred to as the gangster culture in America.
Unlike in the times of Jim Crow laws, the new order uses criminality to discriminate against Blacks. The former used forced labor, race, slavery, and color while the new system uses mass incarceration of Black men so that they are unable to use their talents and abilities to contribute to the global economy. The mass incarceration has also degenerated into a social quagmire due to the large number of missing fathers and husbands. As a result, there are many women without husbands, which make them adopt the role of husbands in their families, which comes with lots of difficulty (David). On the other hand, children without father figures in their lives lack mentors and often lack a direction in life. This causes a vicious circle where the children may unwittingly engage in drugs and other forms of crime, which will eventually lead them to the cells. This has been talked about in the public domain to Black American audiences. The speakers preach a message of personal responsibility and the increasing absence of Black fathers that leads to a neglect of fatherhood duties in the society examples of such speakers are Bill Cosby and Barack Obama who touched on the issue in a Chicago Church after being nominated by the Democratic Party as its presidential candidate.
Racial discrimination has also been perpetrated by the war on terror, which is mostly seen to target people of Arab origin and those who confess the Muslim religion. This has made life unbearable for Muslims in the United States as they are a target of police swoops and searches on suspicions of perpetrating terrorism (Random History). Some conservative Americans had perpetrated a smear campaign on Barack Obama when he announced that he was running for the United States presidency. The campaign was based on the premise that Obama had spent a part of his life in Indonesia, a Muslim country. They also had issues with his middle name, Hussein. To them his interaction with Muslims and Arabs was a perfect reason to deny him the opportunity of leading the most powerful country in the world. They thought he would compromise with the Arab world and derail Americans fight to combat terrorism.
There has been a lot of focus on political and economical segregation of African Americans to an extent that that cultural oppression is forgotten (Sciele). This form of discrimination degrades cultural and social beliefs of Blacks. There is also discrimination on the mode of dressing and architectural preferences. In all these areas, the common adage has been that the cultural ways of the Africans are primitive and inferior to those of the Whites. Cultural oppression hinders group affirmation and empowerment of African Americans, which consequently affects negatively the prosperity of Africans in the United States (Sciele)
In conclusion, racial oppression is still taking place against African Americans long after the Jim Crow’s laws were reviewed. The dimension the discrimination is taking in the modern world is complex; this makes it impossible for the common person to realize. This is a dangerous path since even activists cannot rise against the oppression through legal organs without sounding ridiculous. This phenomenon is compounded by the attention of the world shifting to a few famous Black Americans often concluding that all African Americans are high fliers and are doing great economically and socially. As a result, the poor African Americans living in the Ghetto continue facing hardships without the world noticing.
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Race Relations in the U.S. Southwest
In this excerpt from his book A Different Mirror, historian Ronald Takaki describes the relationships between Mexicans and white Americans in the Southwest. Using quotations from the period, Takaki shows how ordinary Mexicans and Americans understood the racial rules that governed their interactions with one another.
Included as laborers, Mexicans found themselves excluded socially, kept at a distance from Anglo society. Like Caliban, they were isolated by the borders of racial segregation. Their world was one of Anglo over Mexican. Even on the large cattle ranches of Texas where Mexicans and Anglos lived together and formed loyalties and sometimes even friendships, integration did not mean equality. J. Frank Dobie, for example, described one of the workers on his family's ranch. This "old, faithful Mexican" had been employed on the ranch for over twenty years and he was "almost the best friend" Dobie had. "Many a time 'out in the pasture' I have put my lips to the same water jug that he had drunk from," he remembered fondly. But Dobie added: "At the same time neither he nor I would think of his eating at the dining table with me."
Racial etiquette defined proper demeanor and behavior for Mexicans. In the presence of Anglos, they were expected to assume "a deferential body posture and respectful voice tone." They knew that public buildings were considered "Anglo territory," and that they were permitted to shop in the Anglo business section of town only on Saturdays. They could patronize Anglo cafés, but only the counter and carry-out service. "A group of us Mexican s who were well dressed once went to a restaurant in Amarillo," complained Wenceslao Iglesias in the 1920s, "and they told us that if we wanted to eat we should go to the special department where it said 'For Colored People.' I told my friend that I would rather die from starvation than to humiliate myself before the Americans by eating with the Negroes." At sunset, Mexicans had to retreat to their barrios.
In the morning, Mexican parents sent their children to segregated schools. "There would be a revolution in the community if the Mexicans wanted to come to the white schools," an educator said. "Sentiment is bitterly against it. It is based on racial inferiority. . . ." The wife of an Anglo ranch manager in Texas put it this way: "Let him [the Mexican] have as good an education but still let him know he is not as good as a white man. God did not intend him to be; He would have made them white if He had." For many Anglos, Mexicans also represented a threat to their daughters. "Why don't we let the Mexicans come to the white school?" an Anglo sharecropper angrily declared. "Because a damned greaser is not fit to sit side of a white girl."
In the segregated schools, Mexican children were trained to become obedient workers. Like the sugar planters in Hawaii who wanted to keep the American-born generation of Japanese on the plantations, Anglo farmers in Texas wanted the schools to help reproduce the labor force. "If every [Mexican] child has a high school education," sugar beet growers asked, "who will labor?" A farmer in Texas explained: "If I wanted a man I would want one of the more ignorant ones. . . . Educated Mexicans are the hardest to handle. . . . It is all right to educate them no higher than we educate them here in these little towns. I will be frank. They would make more desirable citizens if they would stop about the seventh grade."
Serving the interest of the growers, Anglo educators prepared Mexican children to take the place of their parents. "It isn't a matter of what is the best way to handle the education here to make citizens of them," a school trustee in Texas stated frankly. "It is politics." School policy was influenced by the needs of the local growers, he elaborated. "We don't need skilled or white-collared Mexicans. . . . The farmers are not interested in educating Mexicans. They know that then they can get better wages and conditions."
Creator | Ronald Takaki
Item Type | Book (excerpt)
Cite This document | Ronald Takaki, “Race Relations in the U.S. Southwest,” HERB: Resources for Teachers, accessed January 24, 2020, https://herb.ashp.cuny.edu/items/show/2191. | <urn:uuid:9c04d285-2d65-4510-a14b-77642565a89f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://herb.ashp.cuny.edu/items/show/2191 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00291.warc.gz | en | 0.982101 | 930 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.234613776206970... | 1 | Race Relations in the U.S. Southwest
In this excerpt from his book A Different Mirror, historian Ronald Takaki describes the relationships between Mexicans and white Americans in the Southwest. Using quotations from the period, Takaki shows how ordinary Mexicans and Americans understood the racial rules that governed their interactions with one another.
Included as laborers, Mexicans found themselves excluded socially, kept at a distance from Anglo society. Like Caliban, they were isolated by the borders of racial segregation. Their world was one of Anglo over Mexican. Even on the large cattle ranches of Texas where Mexicans and Anglos lived together and formed loyalties and sometimes even friendships, integration did not mean equality. J. Frank Dobie, for example, described one of the workers on his family's ranch. This "old, faithful Mexican" had been employed on the ranch for over twenty years and he was "almost the best friend" Dobie had. "Many a time 'out in the pasture' I have put my lips to the same water jug that he had drunk from," he remembered fondly. But Dobie added: "At the same time neither he nor I would think of his eating at the dining table with me."
Racial etiquette defined proper demeanor and behavior for Mexicans. In the presence of Anglos, they were expected to assume "a deferential body posture and respectful voice tone." They knew that public buildings were considered "Anglo territory," and that they were permitted to shop in the Anglo business section of town only on Saturdays. They could patronize Anglo cafés, but only the counter and carry-out service. "A group of us Mexican s who were well dressed once went to a restaurant in Amarillo," complained Wenceslao Iglesias in the 1920s, "and they told us that if we wanted to eat we should go to the special department where it said 'For Colored People.' I told my friend that I would rather die from starvation than to humiliate myself before the Americans by eating with the Negroes." At sunset, Mexicans had to retreat to their barrios.
In the morning, Mexican parents sent their children to segregated schools. "There would be a revolution in the community if the Mexicans wanted to come to the white schools," an educator said. "Sentiment is bitterly against it. It is based on racial inferiority. . . ." The wife of an Anglo ranch manager in Texas put it this way: "Let him [the Mexican] have as good an education but still let him know he is not as good as a white man. God did not intend him to be; He would have made them white if He had." For many Anglos, Mexicans also represented a threat to their daughters. "Why don't we let the Mexicans come to the white school?" an Anglo sharecropper angrily declared. "Because a damned greaser is not fit to sit side of a white girl."
In the segregated schools, Mexican children were trained to become obedient workers. Like the sugar planters in Hawaii who wanted to keep the American-born generation of Japanese on the plantations, Anglo farmers in Texas wanted the schools to help reproduce the labor force. "If every [Mexican] child has a high school education," sugar beet growers asked, "who will labor?" A farmer in Texas explained: "If I wanted a man I would want one of the more ignorant ones. . . . Educated Mexicans are the hardest to handle. . . . It is all right to educate them no higher than we educate them here in these little towns. I will be frank. They would make more desirable citizens if they would stop about the seventh grade."
Serving the interest of the growers, Anglo educators prepared Mexican children to take the place of their parents. "It isn't a matter of what is the best way to handle the education here to make citizens of them," a school trustee in Texas stated frankly. "It is politics." School policy was influenced by the needs of the local growers, he elaborated. "We don't need skilled or white-collared Mexicans. . . . The farmers are not interested in educating Mexicans. They know that then they can get better wages and conditions."
Creator | Ronald Takaki
Item Type | Book (excerpt)
Cite This document | Ronald Takaki, “Race Relations in the U.S. Southwest,” HERB: Resources for Teachers, accessed January 24, 2020, https://herb.ashp.cuny.edu/items/show/2191. | 923 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sandino Museum, Tourist Attractions, Culture
Likely by now you will have heard at least something about the Sandinista liberation movement which had such a huge impact on the history and economy of Nicaragua. As you makes your way through this intriguing country, it is easy to imagine the conflicts that were fought in order to gain independence from the harsh rule that was formerly imposed on the people of this country. But no matter how much the people of Nicaragua lamented over their situation, it took a true leader to help them rise above the oppression they were being faced with and take control of their future. That leader was Augusto César Sandino.
When little Augusto Nicolás Calderón Sandino was born to family of coffee growers in Niquinohomo, Masaya, in 1895, few people likely imagined that this tiny baby would grow up to become a revolutionary leader. He stayed with his mother on the plantation until he was nine years old, after which he moved into the plantation house belonging to his father. Things took a turn for the worse in 1921 when Sandino was forced to flee to Guatemala and later Mexico after attempting to assassinate someone in his home village. He continued to live in Mexico until the statute of limitations on his charges expired, whereupon he decided to return to Nicaragua. By now he’d been strongly influenced by several religious and political movements so when he returned to find his country on the verge of war, it didn’t take long for him to get involved. Backed by a makeshift army of gold miners, Sandino led an attack against the conservative garrison close to the San Albino mine where he was working. Though the attack failed, it opened the way for him to get more involved with the liberation front. Before long he was well backed and making his way from village to village inciting many local farmers and peasants to join his army. His attacks on government troops met with increasing amounts of success and his forces are today seen as playing a vital role in assisting the Liberal Army column’s advancement on Managua. Just when success seemed imminent, the United States army stepped in and a treaty was signed which resulted in a cease-fire.
It didn’t take long for Sandino to revolt against the treaty which he was not permitted to participate in. He declared war on the United States. His war against the United States met with some success and he soon renamed himself Augusto Cesar Sandino. His success in this regard had more to do with tactics and a superior knowledge of the local terrain, than with superior force or skill. Despite all their efforts, the American army was never able to catch Sandino. Eventually the great depression forced US soldiers to withdraw from the war, with only a few staying behind to assist the National Guard in managing local problems such as that of Sandino. Eventually the National Guard did manage to catch Sandino and he was executed in 1934. Several years later his legacy was drawn on by the Sandinista National Liberation Front who overthrew the Somoza government in 1979. Today you can find out more about this impressive revolutionary leader at the Sandino Museum in his home town of Niquinohomo.
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... | 1 | Sandino Museum, Tourist Attractions, Culture
Likely by now you will have heard at least something about the Sandinista liberation movement which had such a huge impact on the history and economy of Nicaragua. As you makes your way through this intriguing country, it is easy to imagine the conflicts that were fought in order to gain independence from the harsh rule that was formerly imposed on the people of this country. But no matter how much the people of Nicaragua lamented over their situation, it took a true leader to help them rise above the oppression they were being faced with and take control of their future. That leader was Augusto César Sandino.
When little Augusto Nicolás Calderón Sandino was born to family of coffee growers in Niquinohomo, Masaya, in 1895, few people likely imagined that this tiny baby would grow up to become a revolutionary leader. He stayed with his mother on the plantation until he was nine years old, after which he moved into the plantation house belonging to his father. Things took a turn for the worse in 1921 when Sandino was forced to flee to Guatemala and later Mexico after attempting to assassinate someone in his home village. He continued to live in Mexico until the statute of limitations on his charges expired, whereupon he decided to return to Nicaragua. By now he’d been strongly influenced by several religious and political movements so when he returned to find his country on the verge of war, it didn’t take long for him to get involved. Backed by a makeshift army of gold miners, Sandino led an attack against the conservative garrison close to the San Albino mine where he was working. Though the attack failed, it opened the way for him to get more involved with the liberation front. Before long he was well backed and making his way from village to village inciting many local farmers and peasants to join his army. His attacks on government troops met with increasing amounts of success and his forces are today seen as playing a vital role in assisting the Liberal Army column’s advancement on Managua. Just when success seemed imminent, the United States army stepped in and a treaty was signed which resulted in a cease-fire.
It didn’t take long for Sandino to revolt against the treaty which he was not permitted to participate in. He declared war on the United States. His war against the United States met with some success and he soon renamed himself Augusto Cesar Sandino. His success in this regard had more to do with tactics and a superior knowledge of the local terrain, than with superior force or skill. Despite all their efforts, the American army was never able to catch Sandino. Eventually the great depression forced US soldiers to withdraw from the war, with only a few staying behind to assist the National Guard in managing local problems such as that of Sandino. Eventually the National Guard did manage to catch Sandino and he was executed in 1934. Several years later his legacy was drawn on by the Sandinista National Liberation Front who overthrew the Somoza government in 1979. Today you can find out more about this impressive revolutionary leader at the Sandino Museum in his home town of Niquinohomo.
Last updated: January 17, 2020 | 670 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Nanjing Massacre committed by the Japanese invaders was one of the worst massacres which occurred during the Second World War. It was a brutal crime against humanity that cannot be forgotten. These events took place 78 years ago during the first phase of the Sino-Japanese War. It was the end of the autumn of 1937. Expeditionary force of the Empire of Japan landed on the coast of China. On November 11, 1937 after heavy fighting, the Japanese army invaded the city of Shanghai. After a desperate but unsuccessful defense, the Chinese army was defeated and retreated, leaving Shanghai. However, the victory of the Japanese army cost it a lot. A few weeks later, on December 9, Japanese troops carried out a massive attack on Nanjing, located two hundred kilometers inland from Shanghai. At that time, Nanjing was thae capital of the Republic of China (Chang, 25).
On December 13, 1937 the 6th and the 16th Division of the Japanese Army entered the city of Nanjing, the capital of the Republic of China. Japanese soldiers began to practice the popular policy of “three clean” – “burn clean”, “kill clean,” ” steal clean”. The Japanese began with what was taken from the city and bayoneted twenty thousand men of military age, thus in the future they “could not take up arms against Japan”. Then the Japanese started to kill women, old people, and children. Crazed samurai committed murder, squeezed eyes of their victims and pulled hearts of those still alive. The Japanese army widely practiced murder and rape of prisoners and civilians, but in Nanjing the number of those raped and killed reached unprecedented proportions. According to various sources, within six weeks approximately 100 – 500 thousand people had been killed. Most of them were murdered in the first five days of the occupation of the city (Chang, 48).
The murders were committed with extreme cruelty. The Japanese soldiers didn’t use firearms, instead victims were bayoneted, beheaded, buried alive or burned. Women were stabbed to death. A lot of children were killed as well. Not only adult women were raped, but also young girls and old women. According to some reports, from 20 to 80 thousand Chinese women were assaulted and killed. Many soldiers went beyond rape to disembowel women, cut off their breasts and nail them alive to walls. Fathers were forced to rape their daughters, and sons – their mothers. Moreover, this had to be done in front of other family members (Chang, 112).
The Japanese showed unprecedented cruelty. On December 16 the invaders brought about 5,000 civilians and captured soldiers and officers to the banks of the Yangtze River, shot them with machine guns, and their bodies were thrown into the water. On December 18 the Japanese committed another mass execution of several tens of thousands of people; those who survived were used for bayonet practice, or soaked with gasoline and burned alive. The Japanese used the Chinese as living scarecrows to practice bayonet techniques and to compete in beheading. The streets of Nanking were covered with the piles of corpses (Chang, 27).
In December 1937, a Japanese newspaper described the exploits of the army; moreover, it enthusiastically reported a valiant competition of two officers who argued who would manage to hack to death with his sword over one hundred Chinese people. The Japanese, as hereditary duelists, requested additional time. The winner was Mukai, a samurai who stabbed 106 people, as compared to his opponent who stabbed 105 people (Chang, 132).
The city turned into hell on earth. Even the Japanese cannot deny the facts, since there is eyewitness testimony, including foreigners. Some Europeans came to Nanjing trying to save the Chinese population. John Rabe organized an international committee. It helped to save nearly two hundred and fifty thousand people. Due to the presence of Europeans in Nanjing, including reporters, news regarding the slaughter spread around the world. The Japanese soldiers took a lot of photos and kept them as souvenirs (Chang, 150).
It is estimated that more than 300 000 Chinese civilians were killed dead and more than 20,000 women were raped (starting from seven-year old girls to old women). According to the post-war tribunals the number of the killed is more than two hundred thousand. One of the reasons for the difference in the figures is the fact that some researchers do not take into account those persons whose bodies were found outside the city (Chang, 96).
Despite the fact that some representatives of the Japanese military authorities were found guilty of manslaughter in Nanjing, the Japanese side keeps denying those terrible crimes. In history books, there is just one sentence about numerous people killed in Nanjing. Many young Japanese have no idea about the genocide of the Chinese people committed by the imperial army. For Chinese people Nanjing has become a symbol of deep national sorrow. The Chinese Army in Nanjing was ill-prepared and demoralized after the defeat at Shanghai and most soldiers fled in panic, without putting up significant opposition to the imperial troops. Of course, war is a dirty business, it can happen to anyone, but the Japanese didn`t have objective reasons to organize the genocide of the Chinese people.
That period of time was a complete nightmare, despite the fact that it was not a dream and it happened for real. Nothing can bring back all the people who were murdered, but if they are remembered they will at least have the possibility to remain in the minds of people all over the world. | <urn:uuid:e45b8d3c-a2dd-4c92-b444-d786d90500de> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://topwritingservice.com/essays/nightmare/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00411.warc.gz | en | 0.984359 | 1,133 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.7179645299911499... | 10 | Nanjing Massacre committed by the Japanese invaders was one of the worst massacres which occurred during the Second World War. It was a brutal crime against humanity that cannot be forgotten. These events took place 78 years ago during the first phase of the Sino-Japanese War. It was the end of the autumn of 1937. Expeditionary force of the Empire of Japan landed on the coast of China. On November 11, 1937 after heavy fighting, the Japanese army invaded the city of Shanghai. After a desperate but unsuccessful defense, the Chinese army was defeated and retreated, leaving Shanghai. However, the victory of the Japanese army cost it a lot. A few weeks later, on December 9, Japanese troops carried out a massive attack on Nanjing, located two hundred kilometers inland from Shanghai. At that time, Nanjing was thae capital of the Republic of China (Chang, 25).
On December 13, 1937 the 6th and the 16th Division of the Japanese Army entered the city of Nanjing, the capital of the Republic of China. Japanese soldiers began to practice the popular policy of “three clean” – “burn clean”, “kill clean,” ” steal clean”. The Japanese began with what was taken from the city and bayoneted twenty thousand men of military age, thus in the future they “could not take up arms against Japan”. Then the Japanese started to kill women, old people, and children. Crazed samurai committed murder, squeezed eyes of their victims and pulled hearts of those still alive. The Japanese army widely practiced murder and rape of prisoners and civilians, but in Nanjing the number of those raped and killed reached unprecedented proportions. According to various sources, within six weeks approximately 100 – 500 thousand people had been killed. Most of them were murdered in the first five days of the occupation of the city (Chang, 48).
The murders were committed with extreme cruelty. The Japanese soldiers didn’t use firearms, instead victims were bayoneted, beheaded, buried alive or burned. Women were stabbed to death. A lot of children were killed as well. Not only adult women were raped, but also young girls and old women. According to some reports, from 20 to 80 thousand Chinese women were assaulted and killed. Many soldiers went beyond rape to disembowel women, cut off their breasts and nail them alive to walls. Fathers were forced to rape their daughters, and sons – their mothers. Moreover, this had to be done in front of other family members (Chang, 112).
The Japanese showed unprecedented cruelty. On December 16 the invaders brought about 5,000 civilians and captured soldiers and officers to the banks of the Yangtze River, shot them with machine guns, and their bodies were thrown into the water. On December 18 the Japanese committed another mass execution of several tens of thousands of people; those who survived were used for bayonet practice, or soaked with gasoline and burned alive. The Japanese used the Chinese as living scarecrows to practice bayonet techniques and to compete in beheading. The streets of Nanking were covered with the piles of corpses (Chang, 27).
In December 1937, a Japanese newspaper described the exploits of the army; moreover, it enthusiastically reported a valiant competition of two officers who argued who would manage to hack to death with his sword over one hundred Chinese people. The Japanese, as hereditary duelists, requested additional time. The winner was Mukai, a samurai who stabbed 106 people, as compared to his opponent who stabbed 105 people (Chang, 132).
The city turned into hell on earth. Even the Japanese cannot deny the facts, since there is eyewitness testimony, including foreigners. Some Europeans came to Nanjing trying to save the Chinese population. John Rabe organized an international committee. It helped to save nearly two hundred and fifty thousand people. Due to the presence of Europeans in Nanjing, including reporters, news regarding the slaughter spread around the world. The Japanese soldiers took a lot of photos and kept them as souvenirs (Chang, 150).
It is estimated that more than 300 000 Chinese civilians were killed dead and more than 20,000 women were raped (starting from seven-year old girls to old women). According to the post-war tribunals the number of the killed is more than two hundred thousand. One of the reasons for the difference in the figures is the fact that some researchers do not take into account those persons whose bodies were found outside the city (Chang, 96).
Despite the fact that some representatives of the Japanese military authorities were found guilty of manslaughter in Nanjing, the Japanese side keeps denying those terrible crimes. In history books, there is just one sentence about numerous people killed in Nanjing. Many young Japanese have no idea about the genocide of the Chinese people committed by the imperial army. For Chinese people Nanjing has become a symbol of deep national sorrow. The Chinese Army in Nanjing was ill-prepared and demoralized after the defeat at Shanghai and most soldiers fled in panic, without putting up significant opposition to the imperial troops. Of course, war is a dirty business, it can happen to anyone, but the Japanese didn`t have objective reasons to organize the genocide of the Chinese people.
That period of time was a complete nightmare, despite the fact that it was not a dream and it happened for real. Nothing can bring back all the people who were murdered, but if they are remembered they will at least have the possibility to remain in the minds of people all over the world. | 1,187 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Babies don't start speaking clearly until they are around two years old, but they can apparently count earlier than previously thought.
That's according to new research from John Hopkins University, which found babies between 14 months and 18 months old were able to count toys during experiments with the researchers. The work was published in journal Developmental Science.
Babies can count way earlier than thought
"Although they are years away from understanding the exact meanings of number words, babies are already in the business of recognizing that counting is about number," said senior author Lisa Feigenson, a cognitive scientist at Johns Hopkins who specializes in the development of numeric ability in children said in a press release highlighting the results. "Research like ours shows that babies actually have a pretty sophisticated understanding of the world - they're already trying to make sense of what adults around them are saying, and that includes this domain of counting and numbers."
Feigenson and Jenny Wang, a former graduate student at John Hopkins and the first author of the study, set out to determine if its true babies don't fully understand how numbers work until around the age of four and were surprised by what they found.
The researchers had babies between the ages of 14 months and 18 months watch as toys, dogs and even cars were hidden in a box that they couldn't see inside of but were able to reach in to. When the babies didn't count the toys or objects being placed in the box they couldn't remember if the box held one or more things. But when the toys were counted as they went in the box, the babies expected more than one to emerge. While the babies couldn't remember the exact number of toys they did have a general idea of how many were supposed to be in the box.
More studies need to be done
"When we counted the toys for the babies before we hid them, the babies were much better at remembering how many toys there were," Wang said in the press release. "As a researcher these results were really surprising. And our results are the first to show that very young infants have a sense that when other people are counting it is tied to the rough dimension of quantity in the world." The team from John Hopkins is now running follow-up studies to determine if babies can react to counting in different languages. | <urn:uuid:d764ee68-282c-4d7c-a5bd-521c2cec9dcd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://interestingengineering.com/babies-can-count-way-earlier-than-thought | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00091.warc.gz | en | 0.98759 | 464 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.55026304721832... | 3 | Babies don't start speaking clearly until they are around two years old, but they can apparently count earlier than previously thought.
That's according to new research from John Hopkins University, which found babies between 14 months and 18 months old were able to count toys during experiments with the researchers. The work was published in journal Developmental Science.
Babies can count way earlier than thought
"Although they are years away from understanding the exact meanings of number words, babies are already in the business of recognizing that counting is about number," said senior author Lisa Feigenson, a cognitive scientist at Johns Hopkins who specializes in the development of numeric ability in children said in a press release highlighting the results. "Research like ours shows that babies actually have a pretty sophisticated understanding of the world - they're already trying to make sense of what adults around them are saying, and that includes this domain of counting and numbers."
Feigenson and Jenny Wang, a former graduate student at John Hopkins and the first author of the study, set out to determine if its true babies don't fully understand how numbers work until around the age of four and were surprised by what they found.
The researchers had babies between the ages of 14 months and 18 months watch as toys, dogs and even cars were hidden in a box that they couldn't see inside of but were able to reach in to. When the babies didn't count the toys or objects being placed in the box they couldn't remember if the box held one or more things. But when the toys were counted as they went in the box, the babies expected more than one to emerge. While the babies couldn't remember the exact number of toys they did have a general idea of how many were supposed to be in the box.
More studies need to be done
"When we counted the toys for the babies before we hid them, the babies were much better at remembering how many toys there were," Wang said in the press release. "As a researcher these results were really surprising. And our results are the first to show that very young infants have a sense that when other people are counting it is tied to the rough dimension of quantity in the world." The team from John Hopkins is now running follow-up studies to determine if babies can react to counting in different languages. | 465 | ENGLISH | 1 |
George Armstrong Custer
George Armstrong Custer (December 5, 1839 – June 25, 1876) was a United States Army officer and cavalry commander in the American Civil War and the American Indian Wars.
Custer graduated from West Point in 1861 at the bottom of his class, but as the Civil War was just starting, trained officers were in immediate demand. He worked closely with General McClellan and the future General Pleasonton, both of whom recognized his qualities as a cavalry leader, and he was brevetted brigadier general of volunteers at age 23. Only a few days after his promotion, he fought at Gettysburg, where he commanded the Michigan Cavalry Brigade and despite being outnumbered, defeated J. E. B. Stuart’s attack at what is now known as the East Cavalry Field. In 1864, Custer served in the Overland Campaign and in Sheridan’s army in the Shenandoah Valley, defeating Jubal Early at Cedar Creek. His division blocked the Army of Northern Virginia’s final retreat and received the first flag of truce from the Confederates, and Custer was present at Robert E. Lee’s surrender to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox.
After the war, Custer was appointed a lieutenant colonel in the Regular Army and was sent west to fight in the Indian Wars. On June 25, 1876, while leading the 7th Cavalry Regiment at the Battle of the Little Bighorn in Montana Territory against a coalition of Native American tribes, he was killed along with over one third of his command during an action later romanticized as “Custer’s Last Stand”.
His dramatic end was as controversial as the rest of his career, and reaction to his life and career remains deeply divided. Custer’s bold leadership in battle is unquestioned, but his legend was partly of his own fabrication through his extensive journalism, and perhaps more through the energetic lobbying of his wife Libbie Custer throughout her long widowhood. | <urn:uuid:7e9399b9-9650-41e8-8a4d-d5291058a476> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://goodquotes.me/authors/george-armstrong-custer/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00555.warc.gz | en | 0.990909 | 419 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.3803243935... | 2 | George Armstrong Custer
George Armstrong Custer (December 5, 1839 – June 25, 1876) was a United States Army officer and cavalry commander in the American Civil War and the American Indian Wars.
Custer graduated from West Point in 1861 at the bottom of his class, but as the Civil War was just starting, trained officers were in immediate demand. He worked closely with General McClellan and the future General Pleasonton, both of whom recognized his qualities as a cavalry leader, and he was brevetted brigadier general of volunteers at age 23. Only a few days after his promotion, he fought at Gettysburg, where he commanded the Michigan Cavalry Brigade and despite being outnumbered, defeated J. E. B. Stuart’s attack at what is now known as the East Cavalry Field. In 1864, Custer served in the Overland Campaign and in Sheridan’s army in the Shenandoah Valley, defeating Jubal Early at Cedar Creek. His division blocked the Army of Northern Virginia’s final retreat and received the first flag of truce from the Confederates, and Custer was present at Robert E. Lee’s surrender to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox.
After the war, Custer was appointed a lieutenant colonel in the Regular Army and was sent west to fight in the Indian Wars. On June 25, 1876, while leading the 7th Cavalry Regiment at the Battle of the Little Bighorn in Montana Territory against a coalition of Native American tribes, he was killed along with over one third of his command during an action later romanticized as “Custer’s Last Stand”.
His dramatic end was as controversial as the rest of his career, and reaction to his life and career remains deeply divided. Custer’s bold leadership in battle is unquestioned, but his legend was partly of his own fabrication through his extensive journalism, and perhaps more through the energetic lobbying of his wife Libbie Custer throughout her long widowhood. | 432 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cobb Plan (1898)
Henry Ives Cobb was first approached in 1895 about designing a new art building for the University of Michigan. However, after examining the layout of the existing campus Cobb determined that it would be impossible to design such a building without first knowing where the new building would be built. Additionally, Cobb felt that in order to determine the site of the building, he would need to take into consideration the entire campus (Mayer, p. 68). So a plan of the existing campus, seen below, was drawn up and sent to Cobb. He drew two different designs for the new art building, and the drawings were used to raise funds for the art building. In the process, though, Cobb was authorized by the regents to create a new proposal for the organization of campus (Mayer, p. 69).
When Cobb delivered his master plan to the regents, there were three distinct deviations from previous ones, including the most recent from 1840. Cobb’s plan was the first to deal with the entire 40 acres as a whole, rather than dividing it into zones, which had been done in the past. Secondly, Cobb introduced the idea of a central open square whose main access was via North University Avenue, much like Ingalls Mall today. Additionally, Cobb wanted all the buildings surrounding the central open space to have a second inward-facing orientation as well (Mayer, 70). Sadly, Cobb’s spaces were not well defined and the Diag became de-emphasized. His idea for a northern entrance to the Diag did eventually allow for the expansion and inclusion of Ingalls Mall as part of Central Campus.
Lorch Plan (1907) and the Diag | <urn:uuid:3aa1a994-e3a9-474d-8331-f353a188b2f7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.lib.umich.edu/online-exhibits/exhibits/show/creating-a-campus/growing-the-campus--1850s--186/cobb-plan | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00267.warc.gz | en | 0.981771 | 349 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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Henry Ives Cobb was first approached in 1895 about designing a new art building for the University of Michigan. However, after examining the layout of the existing campus Cobb determined that it would be impossible to design such a building without first knowing where the new building would be built. Additionally, Cobb felt that in order to determine the site of the building, he would need to take into consideration the entire campus (Mayer, p. 68). So a plan of the existing campus, seen below, was drawn up and sent to Cobb. He drew two different designs for the new art building, and the drawings were used to raise funds for the art building. In the process, though, Cobb was authorized by the regents to create a new proposal for the organization of campus (Mayer, p. 69).
When Cobb delivered his master plan to the regents, there were three distinct deviations from previous ones, including the most recent from 1840. Cobb’s plan was the first to deal with the entire 40 acres as a whole, rather than dividing it into zones, which had been done in the past. Secondly, Cobb introduced the idea of a central open square whose main access was via North University Avenue, much like Ingalls Mall today. Additionally, Cobb wanted all the buildings surrounding the central open space to have a second inward-facing orientation as well (Mayer, 70). Sadly, Cobb’s spaces were not well defined and the Diag became de-emphasized. His idea for a northern entrance to the Diag did eventually allow for the expansion and inclusion of Ingalls Mall as part of Central Campus.
Lorch Plan (1907) and the Diag | 359 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Before William Shakespeare and Geoffrey Chaucer, there was the man who both inspired and influenced much of their work: Giovanni Boccaccio. Boccaccio composed ground-breaking literary works during his lifetime that built the foundation for literature today. His poems and epics written in Italian and Latin became classics that would endure for hundreds of years and influence the path that literature would take in the years following his life.
Giovanni Boccaccio was born in midsummer in 1313. There are discrepancies concerning the exact place of his birth, but most historians believe Boccaccio’s birthplace was either Certaldo or Florence. Boccaccio was the illegitimate son of a wealthy Italian merchant, Boccaccino di Chellino, and was largely raised by his father. When Boccaccio was still young, his father married a noblewoman named Margherita de’Mardoli and subsequently, Boccaccio’s half-brother, Francesco, was born. By the time Boccaccio reached his teen years, he was traveling regularly with his father on business, and in 1327, he followed his father to Naples. There he studied accounting and then canon law, and then finally decided to focus on classical and scientific studies. From there, his interest in writing and poetry flourished, and Boccaccio became an active participant in the court of Robert d’Anjou, the king of Naples. It is believed that the king had an illegitimate daughter by the name of Maria de Conti d’Aquino, and that she became the mistress of Boccaccio. Perhaps it is Maria that became Boccaccio’s muse and inspired some of his most famed romantic lyrics in Filocolo and Filostrato, in which he spoke of a beautiful and desirable Fiammetta.
By 1340 Boccaccio felt it was time to return to Florence, and there he served the city by performing numerous diplomatic services for the local government. During this time, Boccaccio continued to compose works of literature, including Comedia Ninfe, Amorosa Visione, and Elegia di Madonna Fiammetta. In 1348, the plague spread to Florence and claimed the lives of Boccaccio’s father, step-mother, and many of his close friends. At this time, Florence and much of Europe was filled with agony over the tragedies caused by the plague, and Boccaccio found inspiration during this difficult time for one of his most famous works, Decameron. This masterpiece transcended much of the literature of the time, combining levels of comedy and drama for a very realistic and touching effect. Decameron tells the story of ten individuals who fled the plague in Florence and traveled into the countryside. There, the group exchanged various stories from their lives to help pass the time. Decameron is said to be the primary influence for Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales.
Boccaccio met one of his most admired influences in 1350, Francesco Petrarca, or Francis Petrarch. The two found that they had much in common and over their lifetimes became close friends, meeting often throughout Italy. Over the next few years, Boccaccio traveled through the major cities in Italy performing diplomatic services and composing more literary works. In 1359 in Milan, Boccaccio was named ambassador to Lombardy, possibly at the court of Bernabo` Visconti. Boccaccio became popular both in literary and diplomatic accomplishments, and he was noticed by even the most esteemed Italians. In 1360, Pope Innocent VI inducted Boccaccio into the clergy. Soon after the induction, Florence suffered much political turmoil, and many of Boccaccio’s friends were implicated and some were charged so far as to be executed. Following these controversial events, Boccaccio retreated to Certaldo and Ravenna, where he focused once again on writing. After several somewhat seclusive years, Boccaccio finally returned to the diplomatic scene in 1365 when he traveled to the papal court of Urban V in Avignon as Florentine ambassador. He continued to travel throughout Italy performing diplomatic services until 1372, when Boccaccio finally retired to Certaldo due to his weakening state of health. Obesity and frequent illnesses had greatly affected Boccaccio, and once again he put his focus into literary fields. He continued to compose new works and revise his previous ones. He proceeded to conduct a series of readings and lectures in Florence on the Divina Commedia. Learning of Petrarch’s death in 1374 led Boccaccio to compose a last sonnet of poetry. Boccaccio died on December 21, 1375 in his home in Certaldo.
Giovanni Boccaccio’s literary work was quite enlightened for his time. His portrayal of women was advanced compared to that of many other writers in that age. In Decameron, seven of the ten characters were women, and Boccaccio also wrote a series of biographies devoted entirely to women, Famous Women. These works paved the way for more enlightened portrayals of women in literature. His romantic prose would continue to inspire future writers for years to come. The profound influence of the work Boccaccio can be seen in many of the famous works composed in the centuries after his lifetime. | <urn:uuid:e6812fea-907d-4aa6-9670-abdb5091e290> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sumonova.com/a-biography-of-giovanni-boccaccio/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00237.warc.gz | en | 0.984624 | 1,112 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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Giovanni Boccaccio was born in midsummer in 1313. There are discrepancies concerning the exact place of his birth, but most historians believe Boccaccio’s birthplace was either Certaldo or Florence. Boccaccio was the illegitimate son of a wealthy Italian merchant, Boccaccino di Chellino, and was largely raised by his father. When Boccaccio was still young, his father married a noblewoman named Margherita de’Mardoli and subsequently, Boccaccio’s half-brother, Francesco, was born. By the time Boccaccio reached his teen years, he was traveling regularly with his father on business, and in 1327, he followed his father to Naples. There he studied accounting and then canon law, and then finally decided to focus on classical and scientific studies. From there, his interest in writing and poetry flourished, and Boccaccio became an active participant in the court of Robert d’Anjou, the king of Naples. It is believed that the king had an illegitimate daughter by the name of Maria de Conti d’Aquino, and that she became the mistress of Boccaccio. Perhaps it is Maria that became Boccaccio’s muse and inspired some of his most famed romantic lyrics in Filocolo and Filostrato, in which he spoke of a beautiful and desirable Fiammetta.
By 1340 Boccaccio felt it was time to return to Florence, and there he served the city by performing numerous diplomatic services for the local government. During this time, Boccaccio continued to compose works of literature, including Comedia Ninfe, Amorosa Visione, and Elegia di Madonna Fiammetta. In 1348, the plague spread to Florence and claimed the lives of Boccaccio’s father, step-mother, and many of his close friends. At this time, Florence and much of Europe was filled with agony over the tragedies caused by the plague, and Boccaccio found inspiration during this difficult time for one of his most famous works, Decameron. This masterpiece transcended much of the literature of the time, combining levels of comedy and drama for a very realistic and touching effect. Decameron tells the story of ten individuals who fled the plague in Florence and traveled into the countryside. There, the group exchanged various stories from their lives to help pass the time. Decameron is said to be the primary influence for Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales.
Boccaccio met one of his most admired influences in 1350, Francesco Petrarca, or Francis Petrarch. The two found that they had much in common and over their lifetimes became close friends, meeting often throughout Italy. Over the next few years, Boccaccio traveled through the major cities in Italy performing diplomatic services and composing more literary works. In 1359 in Milan, Boccaccio was named ambassador to Lombardy, possibly at the court of Bernabo` Visconti. Boccaccio became popular both in literary and diplomatic accomplishments, and he was noticed by even the most esteemed Italians. In 1360, Pope Innocent VI inducted Boccaccio into the clergy. Soon after the induction, Florence suffered much political turmoil, and many of Boccaccio’s friends were implicated and some were charged so far as to be executed. Following these controversial events, Boccaccio retreated to Certaldo and Ravenna, where he focused once again on writing. After several somewhat seclusive years, Boccaccio finally returned to the diplomatic scene in 1365 when he traveled to the papal court of Urban V in Avignon as Florentine ambassador. He continued to travel throughout Italy performing diplomatic services until 1372, when Boccaccio finally retired to Certaldo due to his weakening state of health. Obesity and frequent illnesses had greatly affected Boccaccio, and once again he put his focus into literary fields. He continued to compose new works and revise his previous ones. He proceeded to conduct a series of readings and lectures in Florence on the Divina Commedia. Learning of Petrarch’s death in 1374 led Boccaccio to compose a last sonnet of poetry. Boccaccio died on December 21, 1375 in his home in Certaldo.
Giovanni Boccaccio’s literary work was quite enlightened for his time. His portrayal of women was advanced compared to that of many other writers in that age. In Decameron, seven of the ten characters were women, and Boccaccio also wrote a series of biographies devoted entirely to women, Famous Women. These works paved the way for more enlightened portrayals of women in literature. His romantic prose would continue to inspire future writers for years to come. The profound influence of the work Boccaccio can be seen in many of the famous works composed in the centuries after his lifetime. | 1,125 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Normans and the Plantagenet’s Dynasties
William I was succeeded on the throne, first by his son William II (1087-1100), and later by his son Henry I (1100-1135). They both ensured political stability and thus economic prosperity to England. Henry I wanted his daughter Matilda to succeed him at his death, but some barons disagreed with this choice and a civil war broke out. The controversy was solved through a compromise, Matilda’s cousin Stephen (1135-1154), William II’s son, would reign till his death and her son would then become king as Henry II (1154-1189).
HENRY II (1154-1189)
Henry II was also son of Geoffrey Plantagenet of Anjou this made him the first king of the Plantagenet’s dynasty as king both of France and England. Henry reinforced order and stability in England and carried out several important reforms. The first one was meant to avoid future civil wars and, at the same time, reduce the baron’s power. The second one improved justice in his realm and the third had the purpose to keep in check the Church’s influence on English territories.
Professional Military and the “Scutage”
To achieve his first intent he decided to employ mercenaries (professional soldiers) for his military campaigns allowing the barons and knights to avoid the military service by paying a tax called the “scutage”, this opportunity was well welcomed by all those who weren’t very pleased to leave their properties for a long time to go fight in the Crusades and in other wars throughout Europe.
The second reform, as stated above, intended to solve the judicial problems and corruption issues that had risen at the time. Henry II sent out through the land royal judges, they travelled in pairs of two, each pair was assigned a “circuit” that they visited entirely once a year to ensure that there was no corruption among barons and that they didn’t keep the fines to themselves, or to guarantee that the feudal courts of the vassals did give proper justice and to administer Common Law, this is a law system based on the fact that it was implemented everywhere in England and referred to customs and comparisons of previous cases and decisions. This wise blend of experience and custom is the basis of English law as there is no such thing as a written constitution and, unlike other European legal practices, it does not follow the models set by the Civil Law of the Roman Empire and the Canon Law of the Church. Still in the field of the law, Henry II enforced trial by jury which was to replace the “trial by ordeal” (supplizio), meaning that tortures were no longer allowed to “encourage” prisoners to confess crimes, but rather a trial whose sentence was pronounced by a judge or jury.
Constitutions of Claredon (1164)
Finally, he wanted to reduce the Church’s power and to do so he introduced the Constitutions of Clarendon (1164) through which he claimed the right, as king, to choose the bishops, furthermore, it established that clergymen accused of a crime were to be judged by a civil court along with a religious one. Regarding this last reform he had hoped to be supported by Thomas Becket, his friend, who Henry II had appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. Becket, instead, opposed the king’s will and he was first exiled for five years then, upon his return to England he was murdered by four knights in Canterbury Cathedral and became a martyr and a saint whose shrine was visited by pilgrims from all over Europe.
The Magna Charta and the First Steps Towards Future Democracy
When Henry II died in 1189, his son Richard came to throne as Richard II (1189-1199), better known as “Richard-Lion-Heart”. He was not much interested in ruling England and in 1192 he left to fight in the third Crusade. Crusades were expensive but, the close contacts with the East also increased intellectual and commercial exchanges between Europe and Asia and therefore, were considered altogether useful. During Richard’s absence his brother John substituted him until he actually came to the throne after Richard’s Death.
King John (1199-1216) was also known as “Lackland” (Has-no-land) or “softsword” (Unsuccessful in war). King John’s main concern was to hold on to his French possessions therefore he had to raise money to finance his repeatedly unsuccessful wars by increasing the people’s taxes. This policy made him very unpopular among his subjects and eventually led to a widespread protest among the aristocracy claiming greater power. In 1215, after one more unsuccessful French campaign, King John could no longer contain the demands that came from the three most influential sections of society. In fact, the barons, the church leaders and the merchants of the big towns forced him to sign the Magna Charta which became law in 1225 and was written both in French and in English. Some of the most important changes brought about by the Magna Charta are that the king agreed not “…to levy taxes without the consent of the great council […], no free man shall be arrested, put in prison, or lose his property, or be outlawed, or banished, or harmed in any way […] unless he has been judged by his equals under the law of the land”. This document laid the foundations to a growing democratic system that gradually came about through progressive adjustments that the crown yielded to its society’s most important representatives. The Magna Charta was only the first of a long series of changes that deeply modified, in time, England’s monarchy and political system.
One more step towards those changes, above mentioned and underlining an adjustment to the changing times and to new political challenges, was reached by the special Great Council called by Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester as leader of the group of barons that ruled the land filling in for the nine year old king, Henry III (1216-1272), son of the late king John. For the first time these meetings, that came to be known as “parliaments” (from the French), were attended not only by nobles and high ranking clergy, but by two knights from every shire and two merchants from the big towns representing free men as well.
But, the real shift towards what was to become later on the two Houses of Parliament – the House of Lords and the House of Commons – was taken in 1295 when King Edward I (1272-1307), who had conquered Wales and tried to do the same with Scotland but unsuccessfully and who was fighting in France to recover his lands, needed money thus he called the “Model Parliament” to gain the consent of the Great Council to collect taxes from the people as the Magna Charta stated.
In the mean time the struggle for the French throne was an on-going issue even under the reign of Edward III (1327-1377) who claimed the throne of France because his mother was the French king’s sister and in 1337 the Hundred’s Year War broke out lasting until 1453 when England was defeated and lost all its French possession except for Calais.
The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453)
The actual issue at stake behind the dispute over the French throne was the Flanders whose independence was threatened by France and which represented England’s most important wool market, therefore it was basically a war over commercial supremacy. On the other hand Edward III is also historically relevant because he introduced in England “chivalry”, this was a concept that held together a set of values linked to the legends of the “Arthurian Cycles” and which were to be embodied by the perfect knight who was to personify bravery, loyalty, honesty and glory. For this purpose Edward founded the “Order of the Garter”, which was made up by a group of twenty-four knights appointed by the king just as many, as it was believed, were the knights of king Arthur who met once a year on St. George’s Day at Windsor Castle, where King Arthur’s Round Table was thought to have been.
Big Changes Ahead
The Social Background in the 14th Century
The Black Death and the End of Feudalism
Never the less the time of chivalry and feudalism was approaching its natural end. The 14th century was the beginning of new important developments both social and political. The fist important event that led to these changes was the great bubonic plague that broke out in 1348. It was also known as the Black Death because the bodies of the victims turned to a dark colour after death. It was caused by the fleas living on the black rats which infested the ships trading with Europe and it easily spread throughout the entire population all over England due to the lack of sanitation; a very common condition at the time. The mortality rate was extremely high and in a very short period of time villages were depopulated, meaning that very few people were available for farming causing food prices to double in a single year, but at the same time, this allowed labourers to being paid and even to claim increasing wages therefore, this virtually determined the end of Feudalism since agricultural labourers received salaries and peasants could also bargain their freedom and move to town. Thus, the past ties of loyalty that had secured old relationships no longer existed and a new social order was on its way.
The 14th century, then, is also the time of a new rising urban and agricultural middle class that can be grouped as follows: in the first place the merchants who had financed the king’s war debts to pay the mercenaries gained greater political power; secondly freeman, or “yeoman”, who owned land and became rich thanks to higher food prices; thirdly those who had chosen to turn their agricultural activity to sheep farming considering it more convenient in the first place because it needed less manual labour and in the second place since it produced more work for a greater number of people – such as spinners, weavers, dyers, those who transported the wool and cloth – giving life to the putting-out-system or proto-industry. Another consequence of the Black Death was the growth of towns that needed more artisans and tradesmen than in the past, such as butchers, bakers, smiths, shoemakers, tailors and carpenters. Eventually all these new tradesmen came together and organized “guilds”, these associations were paid by their members to check the quality of the goods, regulate prices and wages, set the rules for apprenticeship. They also arranged fairs where to sell their products and during feast days during which they improvised themselves as actors in “Miracle Plays”. In time they grew so large that they formed “trading companies”.
The Black Death and Divine Punishment
But the Black Death also changed the relationship between the Church and the people. It was largely believed, in fact, that the plague was a punishment from God and they felt the Church had failed to protect them because of its many privileges and of its worldliness so they turned against it. By the end of Edward III’s reign a religious reformist movement, called “Lollardy”, was supported by many. It was led by an Oxford professor, John Wycliffe, but among its supporters there were, not only academics but, also many merchants, lower clergy and even court members, they attacked the Church’s growing political power and condemned the doctrine of the substation of the bread and wine of the Eucharist and in many ways paved the way to the Reformation of the 16th century.
The Peasants’ Revolt (1381)
This period is also marked by social uprisings. When Edward III died his grandson, Richard II (1377-99) became king. He was only ten therefore, once more, a council of noblemen ruled the kingdom. The first Parliament of the reign raised the so-called “Poll tax” which had to be paid by every individual of both sex of over fourteen years of age and by all the members of the Church, except friars, who had to pay twice as much the rest of the people. This tax finally brought out into the open the underlying discontent of the population which was broadly manifested in the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381 during which the rebels attacked all those who exploited them and burned the papers that tied them to the lands and its lords. A group of them, led by Wat Tyler and John Ball, marched from Kent to London to explain to the king their problems and gain his support, unfortunately the meeting turned to violence and Tyler was killed and despite the fourteen year old king’s promises of help the barons still crushed the uprisings violently.
K. O. Morgan, The Illustrated History of Britain, Oxford University Press, Oxford-New York, 1984
Images taken from Google Search
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0.45013314485... | 7 | The Normans and the Plantagenet’s Dynasties
William I was succeeded on the throne, first by his son William II (1087-1100), and later by his son Henry I (1100-1135). They both ensured political stability and thus economic prosperity to England. Henry I wanted his daughter Matilda to succeed him at his death, but some barons disagreed with this choice and a civil war broke out. The controversy was solved through a compromise, Matilda’s cousin Stephen (1135-1154), William II’s son, would reign till his death and her son would then become king as Henry II (1154-1189).
HENRY II (1154-1189)
Henry II was also son of Geoffrey Plantagenet of Anjou this made him the first king of the Plantagenet’s dynasty as king both of France and England. Henry reinforced order and stability in England and carried out several important reforms. The first one was meant to avoid future civil wars and, at the same time, reduce the baron’s power. The second one improved justice in his realm and the third had the purpose to keep in check the Church’s influence on English territories.
Professional Military and the “Scutage”
To achieve his first intent he decided to employ mercenaries (professional soldiers) for his military campaigns allowing the barons and knights to avoid the military service by paying a tax called the “scutage”, this opportunity was well welcomed by all those who weren’t very pleased to leave their properties for a long time to go fight in the Crusades and in other wars throughout Europe.
The second reform, as stated above, intended to solve the judicial problems and corruption issues that had risen at the time. Henry II sent out through the land royal judges, they travelled in pairs of two, each pair was assigned a “circuit” that they visited entirely once a year to ensure that there was no corruption among barons and that they didn’t keep the fines to themselves, or to guarantee that the feudal courts of the vassals did give proper justice and to administer Common Law, this is a law system based on the fact that it was implemented everywhere in England and referred to customs and comparisons of previous cases and decisions. This wise blend of experience and custom is the basis of English law as there is no such thing as a written constitution and, unlike other European legal practices, it does not follow the models set by the Civil Law of the Roman Empire and the Canon Law of the Church. Still in the field of the law, Henry II enforced trial by jury which was to replace the “trial by ordeal” (supplizio), meaning that tortures were no longer allowed to “encourage” prisoners to confess crimes, but rather a trial whose sentence was pronounced by a judge or jury.
Constitutions of Claredon (1164)
Finally, he wanted to reduce the Church’s power and to do so he introduced the Constitutions of Clarendon (1164) through which he claimed the right, as king, to choose the bishops, furthermore, it established that clergymen accused of a crime were to be judged by a civil court along with a religious one. Regarding this last reform he had hoped to be supported by Thomas Becket, his friend, who Henry II had appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. Becket, instead, opposed the king’s will and he was first exiled for five years then, upon his return to England he was murdered by four knights in Canterbury Cathedral and became a martyr and a saint whose shrine was visited by pilgrims from all over Europe.
The Magna Charta and the First Steps Towards Future Democracy
When Henry II died in 1189, his son Richard came to throne as Richard II (1189-1199), better known as “Richard-Lion-Heart”. He was not much interested in ruling England and in 1192 he left to fight in the third Crusade. Crusades were expensive but, the close contacts with the East also increased intellectual and commercial exchanges between Europe and Asia and therefore, were considered altogether useful. During Richard’s absence his brother John substituted him until he actually came to the throne after Richard’s Death.
King John (1199-1216) was also known as “Lackland” (Has-no-land) or “softsword” (Unsuccessful in war). King John’s main concern was to hold on to his French possessions therefore he had to raise money to finance his repeatedly unsuccessful wars by increasing the people’s taxes. This policy made him very unpopular among his subjects and eventually led to a widespread protest among the aristocracy claiming greater power. In 1215, after one more unsuccessful French campaign, King John could no longer contain the demands that came from the three most influential sections of society. In fact, the barons, the church leaders and the merchants of the big towns forced him to sign the Magna Charta which became law in 1225 and was written both in French and in English. Some of the most important changes brought about by the Magna Charta are that the king agreed not “…to levy taxes without the consent of the great council […], no free man shall be arrested, put in prison, or lose his property, or be outlawed, or banished, or harmed in any way […] unless he has been judged by his equals under the law of the land”. This document laid the foundations to a growing democratic system that gradually came about through progressive adjustments that the crown yielded to its society’s most important representatives. The Magna Charta was only the first of a long series of changes that deeply modified, in time, England’s monarchy and political system.
One more step towards those changes, above mentioned and underlining an adjustment to the changing times and to new political challenges, was reached by the special Great Council called by Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester as leader of the group of barons that ruled the land filling in for the nine year old king, Henry III (1216-1272), son of the late king John. For the first time these meetings, that came to be known as “parliaments” (from the French), were attended not only by nobles and high ranking clergy, but by two knights from every shire and two merchants from the big towns representing free men as well.
But, the real shift towards what was to become later on the two Houses of Parliament – the House of Lords and the House of Commons – was taken in 1295 when King Edward I (1272-1307), who had conquered Wales and tried to do the same with Scotland but unsuccessfully and who was fighting in France to recover his lands, needed money thus he called the “Model Parliament” to gain the consent of the Great Council to collect taxes from the people as the Magna Charta stated.
In the mean time the struggle for the French throne was an on-going issue even under the reign of Edward III (1327-1377) who claimed the throne of France because his mother was the French king’s sister and in 1337 the Hundred’s Year War broke out lasting until 1453 when England was defeated and lost all its French possession except for Calais.
The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453)
The actual issue at stake behind the dispute over the French throne was the Flanders whose independence was threatened by France and which represented England’s most important wool market, therefore it was basically a war over commercial supremacy. On the other hand Edward III is also historically relevant because he introduced in England “chivalry”, this was a concept that held together a set of values linked to the legends of the “Arthurian Cycles” and which were to be embodied by the perfect knight who was to personify bravery, loyalty, honesty and glory. For this purpose Edward founded the “Order of the Garter”, which was made up by a group of twenty-four knights appointed by the king just as many, as it was believed, were the knights of king Arthur who met once a year on St. George’s Day at Windsor Castle, where King Arthur’s Round Table was thought to have been.
Big Changes Ahead
The Social Background in the 14th Century
The Black Death and the End of Feudalism
Never the less the time of chivalry and feudalism was approaching its natural end. The 14th century was the beginning of new important developments both social and political. The fist important event that led to these changes was the great bubonic plague that broke out in 1348. It was also known as the Black Death because the bodies of the victims turned to a dark colour after death. It was caused by the fleas living on the black rats which infested the ships trading with Europe and it easily spread throughout the entire population all over England due to the lack of sanitation; a very common condition at the time. The mortality rate was extremely high and in a very short period of time villages were depopulated, meaning that very few people were available for farming causing food prices to double in a single year, but at the same time, this allowed labourers to being paid and even to claim increasing wages therefore, this virtually determined the end of Feudalism since agricultural labourers received salaries and peasants could also bargain their freedom and move to town. Thus, the past ties of loyalty that had secured old relationships no longer existed and a new social order was on its way.
The 14th century, then, is also the time of a new rising urban and agricultural middle class that can be grouped as follows: in the first place the merchants who had financed the king’s war debts to pay the mercenaries gained greater political power; secondly freeman, or “yeoman”, who owned land and became rich thanks to higher food prices; thirdly those who had chosen to turn their agricultural activity to sheep farming considering it more convenient in the first place because it needed less manual labour and in the second place since it produced more work for a greater number of people – such as spinners, weavers, dyers, those who transported the wool and cloth – giving life to the putting-out-system or proto-industry. Another consequence of the Black Death was the growth of towns that needed more artisans and tradesmen than in the past, such as butchers, bakers, smiths, shoemakers, tailors and carpenters. Eventually all these new tradesmen came together and organized “guilds”, these associations were paid by their members to check the quality of the goods, regulate prices and wages, set the rules for apprenticeship. They also arranged fairs where to sell their products and during feast days during which they improvised themselves as actors in “Miracle Plays”. In time they grew so large that they formed “trading companies”.
The Black Death and Divine Punishment
But the Black Death also changed the relationship between the Church and the people. It was largely believed, in fact, that the plague was a punishment from God and they felt the Church had failed to protect them because of its many privileges and of its worldliness so they turned against it. By the end of Edward III’s reign a religious reformist movement, called “Lollardy”, was supported by many. It was led by an Oxford professor, John Wycliffe, but among its supporters there were, not only academics but, also many merchants, lower clergy and even court members, they attacked the Church’s growing political power and condemned the doctrine of the substation of the bread and wine of the Eucharist and in many ways paved the way to the Reformation of the 16th century.
The Peasants’ Revolt (1381)
This period is also marked by social uprisings. When Edward III died his grandson, Richard II (1377-99) became king. He was only ten therefore, once more, a council of noblemen ruled the kingdom. The first Parliament of the reign raised the so-called “Poll tax” which had to be paid by every individual of both sex of over fourteen years of age and by all the members of the Church, except friars, who had to pay twice as much the rest of the people. This tax finally brought out into the open the underlying discontent of the population which was broadly manifested in the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381 during which the rebels attacked all those who exploited them and burned the papers that tied them to the lands and its lords. A group of them, led by Wat Tyler and John Ball, marched from Kent to London to explain to the king their problems and gain his support, unfortunately the meeting turned to violence and Tyler was killed and despite the fourteen year old king’s promises of help the barons still crushed the uprisings violently.
K. O. Morgan, The Illustrated History of Britain, Oxford University Press, Oxford-New York, 1984
Images taken from Google Search
© L. R. Capuana | 2,716 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After Being Believed To Be Extinct For A Century Scientist Rediscovers A Giant Tortoise
The giant tortoise was a creature of legend and as of recently believed to be extinct. These massive creatures were known to inhabit the islands of Galapagos and were renowned for being a food source for numerous ships. These are some of the most complex creatures on the planet. Tourists on a 4 day cruise on board the Galapagos Legend often look out for these majestic creatures in their natural habitat.
They do not need to eat or even drink water for a year and still survive with ease. They can live over 100 years and have been on this planet for over 250 million years. Unfortunately, thanks to human intervention, these creatures reached the brink of extinction and then went over into hiding but recently one was found alive and safe.
1The Giant Tortoise
The legendary giant tortoise has been believed to extinct for over a century but a recent discovery has changed everything. Around the Galapagos Islands, researchers found a live giant tortoise for the first time in over 110 years. It was a female adult giant tortoise which was discovered on February 17th.
The tortoises are known to weigh around 417 kg and can grow to be 1.3m which is around 4ft 3inches. These were known to inhabit two groups of islands: One was the Aldabra Atoll and Fregate Islands in the Seychelles and second is the Galapagos Islands in Ecuador. These animals belong to the ancient group of reptiles as they appeared around 250 million years ago.
3Extinct or alive?
Since the last sighting of the giant tortoise was in 1906, people have long believed that the tortoises were extinct. The reason why these tortoises grow so large has been credited to the phenomenon called ‘island gigantism’. There was a rumored sighting in 2009 but no proof was provided for the sighting.
4How do they grow so big?
Island gigantism, also known as insular gigantism is what happens when animals on an isolated island grow larger and bigger than its counterparts on the mainland. There are many factors that influence this. For example, there is no fear about predators, the environment provides plentiful and a variety of food. One theory suggests that these animals were born to grow this large and is not an example of insular gigantism.
Belonging to the ancient group of reptiles as they were reported to be on the planet for over 250 million years, these tortoises were said to have become gigantic during the Late Cretaceous period, some 70-80 million years ago. It has been reported that there were around 20 different species of this tortoise. Most of the population of this tortoise began disappearing around 100,000 years ago. | <urn:uuid:4c2a60c5-03f5-4d31-aff2-33beeffd0b25> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://trendingposts.net/trending-animals/extinct-tortoise-rediscovered/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00388.warc.gz | en | 0.982331 | 578 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.25060421... | 5 | After Being Believed To Be Extinct For A Century Scientist Rediscovers A Giant Tortoise
The giant tortoise was a creature of legend and as of recently believed to be extinct. These massive creatures were known to inhabit the islands of Galapagos and were renowned for being a food source for numerous ships. These are some of the most complex creatures on the planet. Tourists on a 4 day cruise on board the Galapagos Legend often look out for these majestic creatures in their natural habitat.
They do not need to eat or even drink water for a year and still survive with ease. They can live over 100 years and have been on this planet for over 250 million years. Unfortunately, thanks to human intervention, these creatures reached the brink of extinction and then went over into hiding but recently one was found alive and safe.
1The Giant Tortoise
The legendary giant tortoise has been believed to extinct for over a century but a recent discovery has changed everything. Around the Galapagos Islands, researchers found a live giant tortoise for the first time in over 110 years. It was a female adult giant tortoise which was discovered on February 17th.
The tortoises are known to weigh around 417 kg and can grow to be 1.3m which is around 4ft 3inches. These were known to inhabit two groups of islands: One was the Aldabra Atoll and Fregate Islands in the Seychelles and second is the Galapagos Islands in Ecuador. These animals belong to the ancient group of reptiles as they appeared around 250 million years ago.
3Extinct or alive?
Since the last sighting of the giant tortoise was in 1906, people have long believed that the tortoises were extinct. The reason why these tortoises grow so large has been credited to the phenomenon called ‘island gigantism’. There was a rumored sighting in 2009 but no proof was provided for the sighting.
4How do they grow so big?
Island gigantism, also known as insular gigantism is what happens when animals on an isolated island grow larger and bigger than its counterparts on the mainland. There are many factors that influence this. For example, there is no fear about predators, the environment provides plentiful and a variety of food. One theory suggests that these animals were born to grow this large and is not an example of insular gigantism.
Belonging to the ancient group of reptiles as they were reported to be on the planet for over 250 million years, these tortoises were said to have become gigantic during the Late Cretaceous period, some 70-80 million years ago. It has been reported that there were around 20 different species of this tortoise. Most of the population of this tortoise began disappearing around 100,000 years ago. | 611 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Cold War is termed as a period where there was tension between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Cold War began after the end of the Second World War. It is referred to as the Cold War because there was no any active confrontation between any nations. The main reason why there was no active confrontation is mainly due to the fear of nuclear power that various nations had in their possession. There were numerous indirect attacks that took place on various nations. The most common form of indirect is that Vietnam and Korea. The Cuban crisis in 1962 is one of the incidences when the World almost came to a point of using nuclear power (Van Evera, 2013).
Causes of the Cold War
The major cause of the Cold War was as a result of the intentions of the Soviet Union trying to ensure that the ideology of communism gained fame in various parts of the World. That was against the wish of Americans who strongly believed in Democracy. Acquiring of automatic weapons by the USA caused fear and panic among the soviet people. The control of Eastern Europe led to the suspicions that the US president had to the Union. The US president personally disliked the leader of the Soviet Union. The fear that was among Americans was that the Soviet Union may use Western Europe as a base to cause attacks. The occupation of some parts of German by the Soviet Union also annoyed the Americans (Dudziak, 2011).
There were three underlying causes of the Cold War. They are classified as ideological, economic and power rivalry. In terms of ideologies, the United States believed democracy while the Soviet Union was a communist State. The Soviet Union had tried to advance attempts of ensuring that their ideology of communism was adopted by all states. That idea angered the US people. In terms of economy, the United States tried to ensure that there was free trade in all parts of the World, a concept that was opposed by the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union wanted its territories clear of any international commerce. There were power rivalries between the United States and the Soviet Union. That led to the creation of tension among the countries. Europe becomes dominated by the Soviet Union and the United States. The fight to gain total control by each of the States led to rivalry among the two countries (Dudziak, 2011).
Steps taken by the United States to counter the threats from the Soviet Union
The United States was shocked with the rate at which communism was growing in Europe. They immediately set the Marshall Plan that was aimed at countering the effect of communism that had widespread throughout in Europe. Through the plan, the US was able to offer relief support to countries that were in war torn areas to rebuild their economy. The money was not available to any of the Soviet countries or any of its close allies. The main motive for the financial assistance was to create business partners and exclude the Soviet Union from any trading relationships (Obama, 2010).
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0.1894974410533... | 1 | The Cold War is termed as a period where there was tension between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Cold War began after the end of the Second World War. It is referred to as the Cold War because there was no any active confrontation between any nations. The main reason why there was no active confrontation is mainly due to the fear of nuclear power that various nations had in their possession. There were numerous indirect attacks that took place on various nations. The most common form of indirect is that Vietnam and Korea. The Cuban crisis in 1962 is one of the incidences when the World almost came to a point of using nuclear power (Van Evera, 2013).
Causes of the Cold War
The major cause of the Cold War was as a result of the intentions of the Soviet Union trying to ensure that the ideology of communism gained fame in various parts of the World. That was against the wish of Americans who strongly believed in Democracy. Acquiring of automatic weapons by the USA caused fear and panic among the soviet people. The control of Eastern Europe led to the suspicions that the US president had to the Union. The US president personally disliked the leader of the Soviet Union. The fear that was among Americans was that the Soviet Union may use Western Europe as a base to cause attacks. The occupation of some parts of German by the Soviet Union also annoyed the Americans (Dudziak, 2011).
There were three underlying causes of the Cold War. They are classified as ideological, economic and power rivalry. In terms of ideologies, the United States believed democracy while the Soviet Union was a communist State. The Soviet Union had tried to advance attempts of ensuring that their ideology of communism was adopted by all states. That idea angered the US people. In terms of economy, the United States tried to ensure that there was free trade in all parts of the World, a concept that was opposed by the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union wanted its territories clear of any international commerce. There were power rivalries between the United States and the Soviet Union. That led to the creation of tension among the countries. Europe becomes dominated by the Soviet Union and the United States. The fight to gain total control by each of the States led to rivalry among the two countries (Dudziak, 2011).
Steps taken by the United States to counter the threats from the Soviet Union
The United States was shocked with the rate at which communism was growing in Europe. They immediately set the Marshall Plan that was aimed at countering the effect of communism that had widespread throughout in Europe. Through the plan, the US was able to offer relief support to countries that were in war torn areas to rebuild their economy. The money was not available to any of the Soviet countries or any of its close allies. The main motive for the financial assistance was to create business partners and exclude the Soviet Union from any trading relationships (Obama, 2010).
Order a unique essay on this topic or any other topic at an affordable price. Order Unique Answer Now | 621 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Yaa Asatenwaa: The Woman Who Confronted British Cannons
The world has been graced with many phenomenal women, but few can match up to the magnificence of Yaa Asantewaa. Born in 1840, during a time when Britain was seeking to establish its presence in Africa, Yaa would grow up to be a knight in shining armor for the Ashanti Empire as she confronted the mighty cannons of the British colonialists.
Asantewaa was the queen mother of Ejisuhene which was part of the Asante or Ashanti Empire. This role was assigned to her by her brother, Nana Akwasi Afrane Okpese, who was the ruler of the Ejisushene. When Akwasi died during the 1883 -1888 civil war, Yaa Asantewaa, exploited her position and authority as queen mother to appoint her grandson as monarch of Ejisushene. Unfortunately, in 1896, her Grandson was exiled on Seychelles Island by the British. The exile of their leader left the Ejisu people in turmoil. The empire was left with a significant leadership vacuum which all the men were reluctant to take up for the fear of the wrath of the British Colonial Government.
Confident of the sovereignty of his government, and with a desire to further cement his authority over the Ashanti Empire, the British Governor-General of the Gold Coast (now Ghana) Frederick Hodgson, sought to take the Golden stool which symbolized power from the weakened monarchy. His demands prompted a meeting of the elders. During the meeting, Yaa Asantewaa expressed her utter disgust at the cowardly conduct of her male counterparts who were afraid to go to war to defend the kingdom. In an emotionally charged speech, she resolved that if the men were afraid to defend their kingdom, she would rally the women to fight for their land. She stood by her word.
In 1900 at a time when African women were expected to assume a subservient position in society, Yaa Asantewaa rose up against tradition, congregated an army of over 5000 people to defend what was left of their kingdom against the British. This battle is famously known as the War of the Golden Stool. It was the last major rebellion led by a woman. Though she was captured and later exiled, her bravery had a ripple effect which stirred a kingdom-wide movement for independence.
Asantewaa died in exile on the 17 October 1921, leaving a great legacy for all African women and girls to emulate. Her acts of bravery remind us each day of the often untapped abilities of women. They also inspire us to be braver, rise up and challenge the unhinged status quo.
Yaa Asantewaa is honored in Ghana as one of the most courageous African women to have ever graced the land. She was named one of African personalities of the Millennium by the BBC Focus on Africa programme, and a girls’ school was built in her memory. | <urn:uuid:e37b17c4-f656-452b-a2b9-c58ef033692b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.empowerwomen.org/en/community/stories/2016/12/yaa-asatenwaa-the-woman-who-confronted-british-cannons | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00204.warc.gz | en | 0.982385 | 617 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.1522260308265686... | 2 | Yaa Asatenwaa: The Woman Who Confronted British Cannons
The world has been graced with many phenomenal women, but few can match up to the magnificence of Yaa Asantewaa. Born in 1840, during a time when Britain was seeking to establish its presence in Africa, Yaa would grow up to be a knight in shining armor for the Ashanti Empire as she confronted the mighty cannons of the British colonialists.
Asantewaa was the queen mother of Ejisuhene which was part of the Asante or Ashanti Empire. This role was assigned to her by her brother, Nana Akwasi Afrane Okpese, who was the ruler of the Ejisushene. When Akwasi died during the 1883 -1888 civil war, Yaa Asantewaa, exploited her position and authority as queen mother to appoint her grandson as monarch of Ejisushene. Unfortunately, in 1896, her Grandson was exiled on Seychelles Island by the British. The exile of their leader left the Ejisu people in turmoil. The empire was left with a significant leadership vacuum which all the men were reluctant to take up for the fear of the wrath of the British Colonial Government.
Confident of the sovereignty of his government, and with a desire to further cement his authority over the Ashanti Empire, the British Governor-General of the Gold Coast (now Ghana) Frederick Hodgson, sought to take the Golden stool which symbolized power from the weakened monarchy. His demands prompted a meeting of the elders. During the meeting, Yaa Asantewaa expressed her utter disgust at the cowardly conduct of her male counterparts who were afraid to go to war to defend the kingdom. In an emotionally charged speech, she resolved that if the men were afraid to defend their kingdom, she would rally the women to fight for their land. She stood by her word.
In 1900 at a time when African women were expected to assume a subservient position in society, Yaa Asantewaa rose up against tradition, congregated an army of over 5000 people to defend what was left of their kingdom against the British. This battle is famously known as the War of the Golden Stool. It was the last major rebellion led by a woman. Though she was captured and later exiled, her bravery had a ripple effect which stirred a kingdom-wide movement for independence.
Asantewaa died in exile on the 17 October 1921, leaving a great legacy for all African women and girls to emulate. Her acts of bravery remind us each day of the often untapped abilities of women. They also inspire us to be braver, rise up and challenge the unhinged status quo.
Yaa Asantewaa is honored in Ghana as one of the most courageous African women to have ever graced the land. She was named one of African personalities of the Millennium by the BBC Focus on Africa programme, and a girls’ school was built in her memory. | 634 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Inventions and Technology in Egypt
The Egyptians are known to be one of the first civilizations that ever ruled in the world.
They had many different technological advances and inventions, some that we use today.
List of Ancient Egyptian Inventions
- Ship building
- Papyrus Sheets
- Tooth care
- The Calendar
- Surgical Instruments
- Black Ink
- The Ox-drawn Plough
- The Sickle
- The Police
Some of the most important technology that was used by the Egyptians was when they built architecture.
They built pyramids, palaces, tombs and other things and in order to do this, they would use machines such as levers and ramps.
They were able to build some of the fanciest buildings and the perfected their building by adding arches and other architecture that we can see in different areas even today.
The Egyptians weren’t just good at building buildings and tombs, they were also great at building ships.
They would take papyrus reeds and would build small boats that they could use on the Nile River so that they could trade with other areas.
They later were able to build larger ships by using woods such as cedar that were shipped in from Lebanon.
These bigger ships allowed them to transport people and to make bigger trades.
Papyrus was a plant and the plant was able to help them to make wood to build ships, but it also was used to make paper.
The Egyptians would use the paper to write things such as religious ideas and books.
The Egyptians also used their papyrus paper to write important documents so that they could record things.
Not only did they use the papyrus paper for themselves, they also would sell these sheets to people in Greece.
They would make the paper but not tell other people how to do it so that they could continue to use it as one of their trading items.
Writing and Math
One of the most important advancements that the Egyptians made was writing.
They started by writing hieroglyphics. Hieroglyphics is called “sacred text.” This was where they would write using symbols.
Many historians are able to look at the hieroglyphics and tell things about people from Ancient Egypt.
The best thing about the writing during this time was that the Egyptians were able to write in order to keep records.
This is one of the ways that historians are able to know what happened during that time period.
Math such as geometry was very important for the Egyptians. They had to use math in order to be able to build things like their pyramids and they used math in order to keep up with transactions.
Since math was new during this time, the Egyptians did not have the numbers for 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9 and they would only use the numbers such as 1, 10, 1000, 1000 and more.
If they wanted to write down the number 4, they would write four 1’s such as 1111.
If they wanted to write the number 30, they would write down three 10’s such as 101010.
Instead of just using regular numbers for math, the Ancient Egyptians used a decimal system.
This helped them to be able to keep track of what they did and to have a number for each thing that they wanted to count.
Makeup and Tooth Care
Another thing that the Egyptians created was makeup.
They would make makeup for their eyes that was called kohl. In order to make this kohl, they would use soot and minerals.
This makeup was not used for fashion or to make women look good, as a matter of fact, both men and women wore the kohl.
The kohl’s purpose was to make sure that their skin was protected from the sun.
People of Ancient Egypt had a lot of problems with their teeth because their food would always have sand in it.
This caused them to wear down their teeth quickly.
In order to take care of their teeth, they created a way to brush their teeth.
They would combine ashes, eggshells and hooves of animals and they would mix it together and brush their teeth with it. No one is really sure what the toothbrushes were made out of.
The ancient Egyptians used many strange and wonderful cures and medicines. Archaeologists have found written records that described some of the practices that they tried.
Various documents show over 700 different types of remedies.
Some of the remedies are very good but likewise, some of the remedies are very questionable.
Evidence shows that doctors were able to treat burns and broken bones very similar to the way this is done today.
Other evidence shows things like crocodile dung being used (can you imagine) this is not really a method we use nowadays.
The ancient Egyptians understanding of the cardiovascular system is surprisingly sophisticated and very accurate.
The ancient Egyptian year was slightly different from what we currently use.
They divided their year into three main periods
- The inundation season (akhet)
- The sowing and growth of the crops (perit)
- The harvest (shemu)
Each of the periods was 120 days long
The start of the year coincided with the reappearance of Sirius (the Dog star) which appeared in the eastern sky and was around the same time that the yearly flooding of the Nile River happened.
Overtime it became evident that calendar was short and this was then adjusted to 365 days. Again overtime an extra day was added every four years which is something we still practice today.
The ancient Egyptians had a mixture of magical treatments and more traditional treatments.
The Edwin Smith Papyrus was written around 1600 BC and is a medical text on surgery from ancient Egypt.
it has a list of instruments that the ancient Egyptians used for many different types of surgeries.
The list includes things like swabs, bandage, surgical stitches, swabs and lint to help with many treatments.
The Museum in Cairo holds a collection of different types of surgical instruments that would’ve been used during this time they include things like scissors, copper needles, scalpels, hooks, pincers, spoons, and forceps.
I would be really worried if I went to the doctor and they used a spoon to help!
The ancient Egyptians use a mixture of bee wax, soot and vegetable gum to make black ink.
In 2017 scientists analyzing 2000-year-old papyri paper fragments with a sophisticated x-ray microscope discovered that this ink also contained copper.
The Ox-drawn Plough
A simple little invention that helped to revolutionize agriculture.
It’s something that we still see being used today by many farmers although these may be modified versions of what the ancient Egyptians used the principles are still very much alike.
A sickle is a curved blade used for cutting and harvesting different grains like barley and wheat.
In ancient Egypt, the blade was made of wood rather than Iron.
They used methods to glazed and then honed the wood to allow them to shape the edges.
The Egyptians were the first to use sundial clocks. They used something called a gnomon which was a stick or a pillar they correlated the time depending on the length of the shadow.
They used a T-shaped sundial which consisted of a crossbar and a vertical stick. The stick was marked with five hours in the morning they placed the stick East and the afternoon to stick facing West.
The built obelisks to calculate time as the shadows cast were similar to a sundial.
Over time they were able to calculate the shortest day and longest day of the year and they also build portable sundials which were basically a smaller version of obelisks.
As the river Nile floated every year the ancient Egyptians worked on ways to build canals and ditches to bring water from the river banks of the Nile to distant fields.
This is a crane-like tool that helps with irrigation. As you can see in the photograph below it looks like a long pole with a bucket attached to the end of it.
As you read above irrigation helped Egyptians bring water from the Nile to faraway fields.
Using the Shadoof this helps them lift the water out and enable them to water crops in a more manageable way along irrigation ditches in the required direction.
it was very warm in the summer months in ancient Egypt and many people shaved the hair from the heads for a couple of reasons it was more hygienic and to prevent pests such as lice.
Another reason was to protect the shaved hairless heads from the sun.
The Ancient Egyptians believed that when you died the body made a journey to the next world. To make it into the afterlife they had to preserve the body.
This is how they came up with Mummification which helped to preserve the body from decomposing after death.
They removed all internal organs and kept them in jars with water and palm oil. However, they did not remove the heart as they believed this to be the essence of a body.
Each organ had a different jar the Egyptian believe these to be important
- one for the stomach
- one for the intestines
- one for the lungs
- one for the liver
The body was then wrapped and placed in a tomb
Facts About Inventions and Technology in Ancient Egypt:
- The Ancient Egyptians were not the ones that created the wheel. This was introduced to them when foreigners took over their land and used chariots. This was probably during the reign of the Hyksos.
- The Egyptians had many games, one of them was like golf and bowling mixed. The player would roll the ball and try to get it into a hole in order to win.
- Another invention made from the Egyptians was door locks. Some of these were extremely big and the keys were very big too. Some of them were over 2 foot long.
- Paper comes from the Greek word for papyrus plant.
What Did You Learn?
- What was one of the greatest inventions that the Egyptians made? One of the greatest inventions that the Egyptians made was their architecture. They built many pyramids and some of them are huge and are still around today.
- What are some things that the Ancient Egyptians made that we have today? Some of the things that the Ancient Egyptians made that we have today are paper, toothbrushes and toothpaste.
- What is one invention that the Egyptians made that we have but that we use for other reasons? Makeup is one thing that the Egyptians made that we have today, but we use it to make ourselves look better and not to protect our skin.
- Beside building tombs and pyramids, what is another thing that they Egyptians built? Other things that the Egyptians built were ships. Some were small and some were large.
- Were the Egyptians able to count? The Egyptians were able to count but they used a different numbering system than we use today. | <urn:uuid:e0c56adf-9416-46d9-91df-120241d23955> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyforkids.net/inventions-and-technology-in-egypt.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00348.warc.gz | en | 0.984223 | 2,268 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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-0.046732518821... | 13 | Inventions and Technology in Egypt
The Egyptians are known to be one of the first civilizations that ever ruled in the world.
They had many different technological advances and inventions, some that we use today.
List of Ancient Egyptian Inventions
- Ship building
- Papyrus Sheets
- Tooth care
- The Calendar
- Surgical Instruments
- Black Ink
- The Ox-drawn Plough
- The Sickle
- The Police
Some of the most important technology that was used by the Egyptians was when they built architecture.
They built pyramids, palaces, tombs and other things and in order to do this, they would use machines such as levers and ramps.
They were able to build some of the fanciest buildings and the perfected their building by adding arches and other architecture that we can see in different areas even today.
The Egyptians weren’t just good at building buildings and tombs, they were also great at building ships.
They would take papyrus reeds and would build small boats that they could use on the Nile River so that they could trade with other areas.
They later were able to build larger ships by using woods such as cedar that were shipped in from Lebanon.
These bigger ships allowed them to transport people and to make bigger trades.
Papyrus was a plant and the plant was able to help them to make wood to build ships, but it also was used to make paper.
The Egyptians would use the paper to write things such as religious ideas and books.
The Egyptians also used their papyrus paper to write important documents so that they could record things.
Not only did they use the papyrus paper for themselves, they also would sell these sheets to people in Greece.
They would make the paper but not tell other people how to do it so that they could continue to use it as one of their trading items.
Writing and Math
One of the most important advancements that the Egyptians made was writing.
They started by writing hieroglyphics. Hieroglyphics is called “sacred text.” This was where they would write using symbols.
Many historians are able to look at the hieroglyphics and tell things about people from Ancient Egypt.
The best thing about the writing during this time was that the Egyptians were able to write in order to keep records.
This is one of the ways that historians are able to know what happened during that time period.
Math such as geometry was very important for the Egyptians. They had to use math in order to be able to build things like their pyramids and they used math in order to keep up with transactions.
Since math was new during this time, the Egyptians did not have the numbers for 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9 and they would only use the numbers such as 1, 10, 1000, 1000 and more.
If they wanted to write down the number 4, they would write four 1’s such as 1111.
If they wanted to write the number 30, they would write down three 10’s such as 101010.
Instead of just using regular numbers for math, the Ancient Egyptians used a decimal system.
This helped them to be able to keep track of what they did and to have a number for each thing that they wanted to count.
Makeup and Tooth Care
Another thing that the Egyptians created was makeup.
They would make makeup for their eyes that was called kohl. In order to make this kohl, they would use soot and minerals.
This makeup was not used for fashion or to make women look good, as a matter of fact, both men and women wore the kohl.
The kohl’s purpose was to make sure that their skin was protected from the sun.
People of Ancient Egypt had a lot of problems with their teeth because their food would always have sand in it.
This caused them to wear down their teeth quickly.
In order to take care of their teeth, they created a way to brush their teeth.
They would combine ashes, eggshells and hooves of animals and they would mix it together and brush their teeth with it. No one is really sure what the toothbrushes were made out of.
The ancient Egyptians used many strange and wonderful cures and medicines. Archaeologists have found written records that described some of the practices that they tried.
Various documents show over 700 different types of remedies.
Some of the remedies are very good but likewise, some of the remedies are very questionable.
Evidence shows that doctors were able to treat burns and broken bones very similar to the way this is done today.
Other evidence shows things like crocodile dung being used (can you imagine) this is not really a method we use nowadays.
The ancient Egyptians understanding of the cardiovascular system is surprisingly sophisticated and very accurate.
The ancient Egyptian year was slightly different from what we currently use.
They divided their year into three main periods
- The inundation season (akhet)
- The sowing and growth of the crops (perit)
- The harvest (shemu)
Each of the periods was 120 days long
The start of the year coincided with the reappearance of Sirius (the Dog star) which appeared in the eastern sky and was around the same time that the yearly flooding of the Nile River happened.
Overtime it became evident that calendar was short and this was then adjusted to 365 days. Again overtime an extra day was added every four years which is something we still practice today.
The ancient Egyptians had a mixture of magical treatments and more traditional treatments.
The Edwin Smith Papyrus was written around 1600 BC and is a medical text on surgery from ancient Egypt.
it has a list of instruments that the ancient Egyptians used for many different types of surgeries.
The list includes things like swabs, bandage, surgical stitches, swabs and lint to help with many treatments.
The Museum in Cairo holds a collection of different types of surgical instruments that would’ve been used during this time they include things like scissors, copper needles, scalpels, hooks, pincers, spoons, and forceps.
I would be really worried if I went to the doctor and they used a spoon to help!
The ancient Egyptians use a mixture of bee wax, soot and vegetable gum to make black ink.
In 2017 scientists analyzing 2000-year-old papyri paper fragments with a sophisticated x-ray microscope discovered that this ink also contained copper.
The Ox-drawn Plough
A simple little invention that helped to revolutionize agriculture.
It’s something that we still see being used today by many farmers although these may be modified versions of what the ancient Egyptians used the principles are still very much alike.
A sickle is a curved blade used for cutting and harvesting different grains like barley and wheat.
In ancient Egypt, the blade was made of wood rather than Iron.
They used methods to glazed and then honed the wood to allow them to shape the edges.
The Egyptians were the first to use sundial clocks. They used something called a gnomon which was a stick or a pillar they correlated the time depending on the length of the shadow.
They used a T-shaped sundial which consisted of a crossbar and a vertical stick. The stick was marked with five hours in the morning they placed the stick East and the afternoon to stick facing West.
The built obelisks to calculate time as the shadows cast were similar to a sundial.
Over time they were able to calculate the shortest day and longest day of the year and they also build portable sundials which were basically a smaller version of obelisks.
As the river Nile floated every year the ancient Egyptians worked on ways to build canals and ditches to bring water from the river banks of the Nile to distant fields.
This is a crane-like tool that helps with irrigation. As you can see in the photograph below it looks like a long pole with a bucket attached to the end of it.
As you read above irrigation helped Egyptians bring water from the Nile to faraway fields.
Using the Shadoof this helps them lift the water out and enable them to water crops in a more manageable way along irrigation ditches in the required direction.
it was very warm in the summer months in ancient Egypt and many people shaved the hair from the heads for a couple of reasons it was more hygienic and to prevent pests such as lice.
Another reason was to protect the shaved hairless heads from the sun.
The Ancient Egyptians believed that when you died the body made a journey to the next world. To make it into the afterlife they had to preserve the body.
This is how they came up with Mummification which helped to preserve the body from decomposing after death.
They removed all internal organs and kept them in jars with water and palm oil. However, they did not remove the heart as they believed this to be the essence of a body.
Each organ had a different jar the Egyptian believe these to be important
- one for the stomach
- one for the intestines
- one for the lungs
- one for the liver
The body was then wrapped and placed in a tomb
Facts About Inventions and Technology in Ancient Egypt:
- The Ancient Egyptians were not the ones that created the wheel. This was introduced to them when foreigners took over their land and used chariots. This was probably during the reign of the Hyksos.
- The Egyptians had many games, one of them was like golf and bowling mixed. The player would roll the ball and try to get it into a hole in order to win.
- Another invention made from the Egyptians was door locks. Some of these were extremely big and the keys were very big too. Some of them were over 2 foot long.
- Paper comes from the Greek word for papyrus plant.
What Did You Learn?
- What was one of the greatest inventions that the Egyptians made? One of the greatest inventions that the Egyptians made was their architecture. They built many pyramids and some of them are huge and are still around today.
- What are some things that the Ancient Egyptians made that we have today? Some of the things that the Ancient Egyptians made that we have today are paper, toothbrushes and toothpaste.
- What is one invention that the Egyptians made that we have but that we use for other reasons? Makeup is one thing that the Egyptians made that we have today, but we use it to make ourselves look better and not to protect our skin.
- Beside building tombs and pyramids, what is another thing that they Egyptians built? Other things that the Egyptians built were ships. Some were small and some were large.
- Were the Egyptians able to count? The Egyptians were able to count but they used a different numbering system than we use today. | 2,217 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Vladimir Lenin was the leader of the Russian Revolution in 1905. However, before there was a revolution, he, as well as other leaders in his party, had to decide who should start the revolution. The workers or peasants were chosen. According to Marxism, the workers of the world should unite. Of course, there was a problem-Russia in the late 1800s and early 1900s had very few workers. Instead, Russia had an agrarian economy. Therefore, the original approach to starting a revolution was to get the peasants involved. Unfortunately for the revolutionaries, the peasants did not want to get involved and usually had the revolutionaries thrown in jail.
The revolution attempt was failing. In the section entitled “The Spontaneity of the Masses and the Consciousness of the Social-Democrats” in Lenin’s What is to be Done?, he begins to argue that even though the workers are a small population, they should be the ones to start the revolution since they, “…marked the awakening antagonisms between workers and employers; but the workers, were not, and could not be, conscious of the irreconcilable antagonism of the interests to the whole of the modern political and social system, i.e., theirs was not yet Social Democratic consciousness” (What is to be Done, Section Two). Basically, Lenin was stating that the workers have not yet realized that they fit with the Social Democratic viewpoint, but with a little encouragement, they would be the ones to start a revolution. He specifically cites the St. Petersburg industrial war of 1896 as the first sign of the worker’s discontent and a sign that they are very close to his and his fellow revolutionaries viewpoints.
What was the St. Petersburg industrial war of 1896? On May 16 and 17, 1896 the textile mills in the city were closed for the coronation of Nicolas II. However, the workers were not paid for the two days the mills were closed. The first strike began on May 23 when workers of the Russian Cotton Mill demanded payment for the two days holiday. On the 27th of May, workers from the Ekateringof Textile Mill and the Koenig Factory joined, followed by workers at the Mitrofan’ev Textile Mill on May 28th. The workers now had more demands, including a shorter work day. By the beginning of June, the strikes had led to a de facto siege on the capital city, headed by the League of Struggle. At the end of the first week of June, 18 textile factories were on strike and official reposts stated that over 15,000 workers were participants on the strike. However, due to over 1,000 arrests by mid-june the strike had weakened significantly.
Although there was no short term effects to the strikes in the summer of 1896, the long term effects led to the 1905 revolution. Lenin saw these strikes as the beginning of the uprising of the workers. Although the strikes were, according to Lenin, a union struggle, the underlying cause lined up with the Social Democratic views. In Lenin’s mind, the St. Petersburg industrial war of 1896 was the start of something bigger, something that could change the face of Russia forever. | <urn:uuid:c47f3de0-3c81-46b0-a91d-fc7e1a78684e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blogs.lt.vt.edu/rkw15/2013/09/09/the-st-petersburg-industrial-war-of-1896/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00382.warc.gz | en | 0.985111 | 655 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.3993127942085266,... | 3 | Vladimir Lenin was the leader of the Russian Revolution in 1905. However, before there was a revolution, he, as well as other leaders in his party, had to decide who should start the revolution. The workers or peasants were chosen. According to Marxism, the workers of the world should unite. Of course, there was a problem-Russia in the late 1800s and early 1900s had very few workers. Instead, Russia had an agrarian economy. Therefore, the original approach to starting a revolution was to get the peasants involved. Unfortunately for the revolutionaries, the peasants did not want to get involved and usually had the revolutionaries thrown in jail.
The revolution attempt was failing. In the section entitled “The Spontaneity of the Masses and the Consciousness of the Social-Democrats” in Lenin’s What is to be Done?, he begins to argue that even though the workers are a small population, they should be the ones to start the revolution since they, “…marked the awakening antagonisms between workers and employers; but the workers, were not, and could not be, conscious of the irreconcilable antagonism of the interests to the whole of the modern political and social system, i.e., theirs was not yet Social Democratic consciousness” (What is to be Done, Section Two). Basically, Lenin was stating that the workers have not yet realized that they fit with the Social Democratic viewpoint, but with a little encouragement, they would be the ones to start a revolution. He specifically cites the St. Petersburg industrial war of 1896 as the first sign of the worker’s discontent and a sign that they are very close to his and his fellow revolutionaries viewpoints.
What was the St. Petersburg industrial war of 1896? On May 16 and 17, 1896 the textile mills in the city were closed for the coronation of Nicolas II. However, the workers were not paid for the two days the mills were closed. The first strike began on May 23 when workers of the Russian Cotton Mill demanded payment for the two days holiday. On the 27th of May, workers from the Ekateringof Textile Mill and the Koenig Factory joined, followed by workers at the Mitrofan’ev Textile Mill on May 28th. The workers now had more demands, including a shorter work day. By the beginning of June, the strikes had led to a de facto siege on the capital city, headed by the League of Struggle. At the end of the first week of June, 18 textile factories were on strike and official reposts stated that over 15,000 workers were participants on the strike. However, due to over 1,000 arrests by mid-june the strike had weakened significantly.
Although there was no short term effects to the strikes in the summer of 1896, the long term effects led to the 1905 revolution. Lenin saw these strikes as the beginning of the uprising of the workers. Although the strikes were, according to Lenin, a union struggle, the underlying cause lined up with the Social Democratic views. In Lenin’s mind, the St. Petersburg industrial war of 1896 was the start of something bigger, something that could change the face of Russia forever. | 697 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The cross was rarely used in early Christian iconography, as it depicts a purposely painful and gruesome method of public execution. The Ichthys, or fish symbol, was used by early Christians. Constantine adopted the Chi-Rho monogram as his banner (labarum). The use of a cross as the most prevalent symbol of Christianity probably gained momentum after Saint Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, traveled to the Holy Land, c. 326 – 328, and recovered the True Cross. The True Cross is the name for physical remnants which, by a Christian tradition, are believed to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified.
Theodoret (died c. 457) in his Ecclesiastical History Chapter xvii gives what had become the standard version of the finding of the True Cross:
The True Cross was captured by Saladin during the Battle of Hattin in 1187, and while some Christian rulers, like Richard the Lionheart, Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelos and Tamar, Queen of Georgia, sought to ransom it from Saladin, the cross was not returned and subsequently disappeared from historical records.All is not lost, however; at various times, especially from a piece of the cross captured by the crusaders in the sack of Constantinople, fragments of the True Cross were distributed as relics. By the end of the Middle Ages so many churches claimed to possess a piece of the True Cross, that John Calvin is famously said to have remarked that there was enough wood in them to fill a ship.
“When the empress beheld the place where the Saviour suffered, she immediately ordered the idolatrous temple, which had been there erected, to be destroyed, and the very earth on which it stood to be removed. When the tomb, which had been so long concealed, was discovered, three crosses were seen buried near the Lord's sepulchre. All held it as certain that one of these crosses was that of our Lord Jesus Christ, and that the other two were those of the thieves who were crucified with Him. Yet they could not discern to which of the three the Body of the Lord had been brought nigh, and which had received the outpouring of His precious Blood. But the wise and holy Macarius, the president of the city, resolved this question in the following manner. He caused a lady of rank, who had been long suffering from disease, to be touched by each of the crosses, with earnest prayer, and thus discerned the virtue residing in that of the Saviour. For the instant this cross was brought near the lady, it expelled the sore disease, and made her whole.” | <urn:uuid:8580da92-2fd7-4eb8-a1b7-ffbbf115af49> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.forumancientcoins.com/numiswiki/print.asp?key=cross | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00313.warc.gz | en | 0.98704 | 541 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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-0.2379935681819915... | 1 | The cross was rarely used in early Christian iconography, as it depicts a purposely painful and gruesome method of public execution. The Ichthys, or fish symbol, was used by early Christians. Constantine adopted the Chi-Rho monogram as his banner (labarum). The use of a cross as the most prevalent symbol of Christianity probably gained momentum after Saint Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, traveled to the Holy Land, c. 326 – 328, and recovered the True Cross. The True Cross is the name for physical remnants which, by a Christian tradition, are believed to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified.
Theodoret (died c. 457) in his Ecclesiastical History Chapter xvii gives what had become the standard version of the finding of the True Cross:
The True Cross was captured by Saladin during the Battle of Hattin in 1187, and while some Christian rulers, like Richard the Lionheart, Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelos and Tamar, Queen of Georgia, sought to ransom it from Saladin, the cross was not returned and subsequently disappeared from historical records.All is not lost, however; at various times, especially from a piece of the cross captured by the crusaders in the sack of Constantinople, fragments of the True Cross were distributed as relics. By the end of the Middle Ages so many churches claimed to possess a piece of the True Cross, that John Calvin is famously said to have remarked that there was enough wood in them to fill a ship.
“When the empress beheld the place where the Saviour suffered, she immediately ordered the idolatrous temple, which had been there erected, to be destroyed, and the very earth on which it stood to be removed. When the tomb, which had been so long concealed, was discovered, three crosses were seen buried near the Lord's sepulchre. All held it as certain that one of these crosses was that of our Lord Jesus Christ, and that the other two were those of the thieves who were crucified with Him. Yet they could not discern to which of the three the Body of the Lord had been brought nigh, and which had received the outpouring of His precious Blood. But the wise and holy Macarius, the president of the city, resolved this question in the following manner. He caused a lady of rank, who had been long suffering from disease, to be touched by each of the crosses, with earnest prayer, and thus discerned the virtue residing in that of the Saviour. For the instant this cross was brought near the lady, it expelled the sore disease, and made her whole.” | 551 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Coins have always also been used as amulets in China, as protection against pathogenic demons and other negative powers. And naturally, coins were appreciated as lucky charms for special events. There existed birthday money, exam money, or marriage money. Since the time of the Tang, it was traditional to pelt the bridal couple, sitting on the bed, with coins; the bride had to catch them with her skirt. The money used was not ordinary cash, however, but lucky coins with inscriptions like "long life, wealth, and honor," "like fishes in the water," "may you have five sons and one daughter," or "may you grow old in harmony." Such widespread rituals did not stop before the imperial house, of course. Coins issued for special occasions by the imperial court were called "palace money." This double cash coin was a lucky charm, produced on the occasion of the marriage of Qing Emperor Puyi (1875-1908) with one of his wives. | <urn:uuid:ad02eba9-c8f4-4316-b158-33d71e315e07> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://moneymuseum.com/en/coins?id=988 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00112.warc.gz | en | 0.987391 | 203 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.269522666931152... | 11 | Coins have always also been used as amulets in China, as protection against pathogenic demons and other negative powers. And naturally, coins were appreciated as lucky charms for special events. There existed birthday money, exam money, or marriage money. Since the time of the Tang, it was traditional to pelt the bridal couple, sitting on the bed, with coins; the bride had to catch them with her skirt. The money used was not ordinary cash, however, but lucky coins with inscriptions like "long life, wealth, and honor," "like fishes in the water," "may you have five sons and one daughter," or "may you grow old in harmony." Such widespread rituals did not stop before the imperial house, of course. Coins issued for special occasions by the imperial court were called "palace money." This double cash coin was a lucky charm, produced on the occasion of the marriage of Qing Emperor Puyi (1875-1908) with one of his wives. | 205 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When Russia grew in its empire, they also grew in the number of ethnicities within its empire. Since Russia grew in the number of ethnicities it had within its empire, Kappeler’s chapter on ethnicity in late tsarist Russia felt like a whirlwind. But, as much as a whirlwind as the chapter may have felt, one takeaway I did get was that a great number of nationalities, if not all nationalities, were treated relatively equally.
I believe this because of the high number of non-Russians who were in the upper echelon of Russian Empire society.… Read the rest here
The Decembrist movement, named after the month of the failed revolution, was a movement championed by military men of higher standing from educated backgrounds. The leaders of the movement were officers who couched their positions in the military amidst assumed political responsibility derived from positions in secret societies. The “Northern Society,” responsible for the formation in the Senate Square in St. Petersburg, kept the rank and file men supporting them unaware of the purpose for their insurrection. … Read the rest here
After reading Village Life in Tsarist Russia by Olga Semyonova Tian-Shanskaia and edited by David L. Ransel, one has gains new insight into what the world of a peasant in tsarist times looked like. For instance, as they lived in the countryside and were not a part of urban society, their views on religion were much different than citizens living in cities. While in the city, people were practiced Russian Orthodoxy quite strictly; however, in the countryside, peasants did not receive formal education when it came to religion, and this led to an odd mixture of paganism and Orthodoxy. … Read the rest here | <urn:uuid:772fa4e0-96ee-4afe-945e-945f2e1f6563> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blogs.dickinson.edu/quallsk/tag/tsarist-russia/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00317.warc.gz | en | 0.98176 | 357 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.14430... | 3 | When Russia grew in its empire, they also grew in the number of ethnicities within its empire. Since Russia grew in the number of ethnicities it had within its empire, Kappeler’s chapter on ethnicity in late tsarist Russia felt like a whirlwind. But, as much as a whirlwind as the chapter may have felt, one takeaway I did get was that a great number of nationalities, if not all nationalities, were treated relatively equally.
I believe this because of the high number of non-Russians who were in the upper echelon of Russian Empire society.… Read the rest here
The Decembrist movement, named after the month of the failed revolution, was a movement championed by military men of higher standing from educated backgrounds. The leaders of the movement were officers who couched their positions in the military amidst assumed political responsibility derived from positions in secret societies. The “Northern Society,” responsible for the formation in the Senate Square in St. Petersburg, kept the rank and file men supporting them unaware of the purpose for their insurrection. … Read the rest here
After reading Village Life in Tsarist Russia by Olga Semyonova Tian-Shanskaia and edited by David L. Ransel, one has gains new insight into what the world of a peasant in tsarist times looked like. For instance, as they lived in the countryside and were not a part of urban society, their views on religion were much different than citizens living in cities. While in the city, people were practiced Russian Orthodoxy quite strictly; however, in the countryside, peasants did not receive formal education when it came to religion, and this led to an odd mixture of paganism and Orthodoxy. … Read the rest here | 354 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Timothy is the kind-hearted West Indian man who saves Phillip's life again and again. He pulls him on the raft, rescues him from sharks, and shelters him from the hurricane. As a character, Timothy's purpose in the novel is to aid in Phillip's character transformation. He is in some ways Phillip's opposite: he represents values of selflessness, wisdom, and love, and he firmly believes in racial equality.
Timothy provides readers with a stark contrast to Phillip. Phillip is young, American, white, and educated; Timothy is old, poor, West Indian, black, and illiterate. Phillip is a small boy, Timothy is a big man. They are, in many ways, opposites.
Timothy is not only unlike Phillip, but he is also very different from the implied reader of this book – a literate young person who, like Phillip, is probably American. In this sense, the reader might relate more at first to Phillip than Timothy.
There are many techniques the novel uses to distance the implied reader from Timothy and make him seem strange, or "other." Through these techniques, the novel sets up an "us" vs. "them" kind of mentality.
First off, Timothy's speech is written to reflect his West Indian accent:
He looked at me in the fading light and said softly, "We will 'ave no other food tonight. You bes' eat dem, young bahss." With that, he pressed a piece of the fish against his teeth, sucking at it noisily.
Yes, they were different. They ate raw fish. (3.69-70)
Timothy's speech will seem strange and unfamiliar to most readers, calling attention his difference or "otherness." Note also Phillip's use of the word "they" in the passage. Who exactly do you think he means by "they"?
Second, Timothy is initially described by Phillip in a way that emphasizes his physical differences:
He crawled over toward me. His face couldn't have been blacker, or his teeth whiter. They made an alabaster trench in his mouth, and his pink-purple lips peeled back over them like the meat of a conch shell. He had a big welt, like a scar, on his left cheek. I knew he was West Indian. I had seen many of them in Willemstad, but he was the biggest one I'd ever seen. (3.17)
Timothy seems big and scary here and very different from our protagonist Phillip. It's almost like Philip is describing a large and dangerous animal instead of another person – who describes a fellow human being as "the biggest one I'd ever seen." Weird, right? Notice also how Phillip compares Timothy's features to the natural world, such as his lips, which Phillip compares to a conch shell. These similes align Timothy more with nature, as opposed to the "civilized" world from which Phillip purports to come.
Timothy also holds religious or spiritual beliefs that are outside the norms of mainstream American culture. For example, the episode with the jumbi highlights Timothy's voodoo practice, which Phillip finds very frightening:
I trusted Timothy, and kept telling myself that he wouldn't harm me, but it was the whole mysterious jumbi thing that was frightening. (11.51)
Even though Phillip and Timothy are friends, Phillip still does not understand Timothy's religion. Readers may be especially worried in this section, since it involves the lovable Stew Cat.
The challenge the novel gives Phillip – and readers who identify with him – is to get to know Timothy despite the fact that he comes from such a different culture. We are asked to look beyond the things that make him seem like an "other" and see in him our common humanity.
Once Phillip decides to trust Timothy, Timothy becomes an important mentor to him. Timothy sets up the island for the blind Phillip so that he'll be able to navigate it should anything happen to Timothy:
I followed it around to the lee side with my fingers. And there they were! Not two or three, but at least a dozen, lashed together, each with a barbed hook and bolt sinker. They were one more part of the legacy Timothy had left me. (16.15)
Here Timothy has set aside fishing poles with lures and sinkers for Phillip to use once he's on his own on the island.
Perhaps most important, Timothy teaches Phillips some crucial lessons about race and equality:
Wanting to hear it from Timothy, I asked him why there were different colors of skin, white and black, brown and red, and he laughed back, "Why b'feesh different color, or flower b'different color? I true don' know, Phill-eep, but I true tink beneath d'skin is all d'same." (10.13)
Timothy also serves as a role model and example of selflessness as he makes the greatest sacrifice for Phillip – using his body to protect Phillip during the hurricane that hits the island:
Timothy had been cut to ribbons by the wind, which drove the rain and tiny grains of sand before it. It had flayed his back and legs until there were very few places that weren't cut. (15.39)
Despite the fact that Timothy is a paragon of kindness and selflessness, the novel pretty much ignores his inner life. What are his thoughts and feelings? What are his needs and motivations? The novel is less concerned with these questions than with Timothy's impact on Phillip. We might say that Timothy exists in the novel solely to bring about Phillip's character transformation – not to undergo any transformation of his own.
Critics have identified this trend in literature, films, and television as the "magical negro" trope, a term first coined by filmmaker Spike Lee. For more examples of the "magical negro," check out this list). Critics often fault such works for treating a black person's experience only as it relates to a white person's. Timothy fits the bill here, insofar as he exists primarily to help a white character reform his or her racist views.
Were you left with any questions about Timothy's motivations, thoughts, or feelings? Can you imagine any ways in which Taylor could have enhanced Timothy's inner life in ways that would make sense for the book overall?
Dig Deeper: Check out Theodore Taylor's prequel Timothy of the Cay for a glimpse into Timothy's inner life. | <urn:uuid:08224165-11ef-4761-9c93-0b248222eb59> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.shmoop.com/study-guides/literature/the-cay/timothy | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00407.warc.gz | en | 0.980414 | 1,336 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.169467002153396... | 1 | Timothy is the kind-hearted West Indian man who saves Phillip's life again and again. He pulls him on the raft, rescues him from sharks, and shelters him from the hurricane. As a character, Timothy's purpose in the novel is to aid in Phillip's character transformation. He is in some ways Phillip's opposite: he represents values of selflessness, wisdom, and love, and he firmly believes in racial equality.
Timothy provides readers with a stark contrast to Phillip. Phillip is young, American, white, and educated; Timothy is old, poor, West Indian, black, and illiterate. Phillip is a small boy, Timothy is a big man. They are, in many ways, opposites.
Timothy is not only unlike Phillip, but he is also very different from the implied reader of this book – a literate young person who, like Phillip, is probably American. In this sense, the reader might relate more at first to Phillip than Timothy.
There are many techniques the novel uses to distance the implied reader from Timothy and make him seem strange, or "other." Through these techniques, the novel sets up an "us" vs. "them" kind of mentality.
First off, Timothy's speech is written to reflect his West Indian accent:
He looked at me in the fading light and said softly, "We will 'ave no other food tonight. You bes' eat dem, young bahss." With that, he pressed a piece of the fish against his teeth, sucking at it noisily.
Yes, they were different. They ate raw fish. (3.69-70)
Timothy's speech will seem strange and unfamiliar to most readers, calling attention his difference or "otherness." Note also Phillip's use of the word "they" in the passage. Who exactly do you think he means by "they"?
Second, Timothy is initially described by Phillip in a way that emphasizes his physical differences:
He crawled over toward me. His face couldn't have been blacker, or his teeth whiter. They made an alabaster trench in his mouth, and his pink-purple lips peeled back over them like the meat of a conch shell. He had a big welt, like a scar, on his left cheek. I knew he was West Indian. I had seen many of them in Willemstad, but he was the biggest one I'd ever seen. (3.17)
Timothy seems big and scary here and very different from our protagonist Phillip. It's almost like Philip is describing a large and dangerous animal instead of another person – who describes a fellow human being as "the biggest one I'd ever seen." Weird, right? Notice also how Phillip compares Timothy's features to the natural world, such as his lips, which Phillip compares to a conch shell. These similes align Timothy more with nature, as opposed to the "civilized" world from which Phillip purports to come.
Timothy also holds religious or spiritual beliefs that are outside the norms of mainstream American culture. For example, the episode with the jumbi highlights Timothy's voodoo practice, which Phillip finds very frightening:
I trusted Timothy, and kept telling myself that he wouldn't harm me, but it was the whole mysterious jumbi thing that was frightening. (11.51)
Even though Phillip and Timothy are friends, Phillip still does not understand Timothy's religion. Readers may be especially worried in this section, since it involves the lovable Stew Cat.
The challenge the novel gives Phillip – and readers who identify with him – is to get to know Timothy despite the fact that he comes from such a different culture. We are asked to look beyond the things that make him seem like an "other" and see in him our common humanity.
Once Phillip decides to trust Timothy, Timothy becomes an important mentor to him. Timothy sets up the island for the blind Phillip so that he'll be able to navigate it should anything happen to Timothy:
I followed it around to the lee side with my fingers. And there they were! Not two or three, but at least a dozen, lashed together, each with a barbed hook and bolt sinker. They were one more part of the legacy Timothy had left me. (16.15)
Here Timothy has set aside fishing poles with lures and sinkers for Phillip to use once he's on his own on the island.
Perhaps most important, Timothy teaches Phillips some crucial lessons about race and equality:
Wanting to hear it from Timothy, I asked him why there were different colors of skin, white and black, brown and red, and he laughed back, "Why b'feesh different color, or flower b'different color? I true don' know, Phill-eep, but I true tink beneath d'skin is all d'same." (10.13)
Timothy also serves as a role model and example of selflessness as he makes the greatest sacrifice for Phillip – using his body to protect Phillip during the hurricane that hits the island:
Timothy had been cut to ribbons by the wind, which drove the rain and tiny grains of sand before it. It had flayed his back and legs until there were very few places that weren't cut. (15.39)
Despite the fact that Timothy is a paragon of kindness and selflessness, the novel pretty much ignores his inner life. What are his thoughts and feelings? What are his needs and motivations? The novel is less concerned with these questions than with Timothy's impact on Phillip. We might say that Timothy exists in the novel solely to bring about Phillip's character transformation – not to undergo any transformation of his own.
Critics have identified this trend in literature, films, and television as the "magical negro" trope, a term first coined by filmmaker Spike Lee. For more examples of the "magical negro," check out this list). Critics often fault such works for treating a black person's experience only as it relates to a white person's. Timothy fits the bill here, insofar as he exists primarily to help a white character reform his or her racist views.
Were you left with any questions about Timothy's motivations, thoughts, or feelings? Can you imagine any ways in which Taylor could have enhanced Timothy's inner life in ways that would make sense for the book overall?
Dig Deeper: Check out Theodore Taylor's prequel Timothy of the Cay for a glimpse into Timothy's inner life. | 1,319 | ENGLISH | 1 |
WHO WERE THE MAGI?
‘We three kings of Orient are, bearing gifts we traverse afar
Field and fountain, moor and mountain following yonder star’
A favourite carol tells of the three wise men who came to worship the child Jesus in the stable, a story retold for two thousand years. Epiphany means ‘great light’ or ‘illumination’, referring in this instance to Jesus as the Light of the World. There are many interpretations of who these visitors might have been. They are variously described as Kings of the East and Astrologers and are commonly referred to as the Magi. The word Magi means ‘wise ones’ and relates to those who had a deep knowledge of the divine sciences including astronomy, astrology, numerology and the study of the celestial heavens and the ancient star maps. Today’s term ‘magic’ is derived from it and used to describe something supernatural or beyond the ordinary. Many intriguing questions arise. If the story is true and the Magi did indeed come to pay homage to Jesus how did they know of his birth? We are told they were guided by a star arising in the East which ‘went before them’ and finally ‘came to rest’ over the place where Jesus lay. Today Christians celebrate The Adoration of the Magi and the Feast of Epiphany on January 6th in remembrance of this event. If the Magi had ‘traversed afar’ from their own kingdoms, reputedly of the Persian Empire, this would have been a lengthy and even hazardous journey with much preparation required. How could they possibly arrive within days of the birth…unless they had advance warning?
In that time the journey by camel from Persia to Jerusalem covered some twelve hundred miles and involved a journey of a minimum three to six months? Travellers were required to cross the Syrian desert to Damascus, then south by what is now the Great Mecca Route, with the Sea of Galilee and the River Jordan to the west before reaching the crossing point near Jericho.
According to the story, on arrival in Jerusalem, the Kings began to enquire, ‘Where is he that has been born King of the Jews for we have seen his star in the East and have come to worship him?’ Word reached King Herod the Great, the ruler of Judea, who understandably became apprehensive. He was not alone in this for factions within the Sanhedrin, the ruling Council which governed Jewish religious affairs, were also concerned about anything which might disrupt the status quo and threaten their position of power. Herod enquired of the Jewish Scribes and Pharisees concerning the prophecies as to where the expected Messiah was to be born. He was told ‘In Bethlehem of Judea for so it is written by the prophet.’
At this news, Herod summoned the Magi and asked them at what time the star had appeared. Herod had his own court astrologers who, armed with this information, could draw up a chart to ascertain whether or not this was truly an auspicious event. Herod then directed the Kings to the town of Bethlehem and told them to ‘Search diligently for the child and when you have found him bring me word that I too may come and worship him.’
Since all kings in antiquity had astrologers as counsellors some have wondered why Herod’s astrologers did not identify the Star, they have attempted to explain this by stating that astrology was not part of the Jewish culture. In fact diverse schools of Astrology had developed over the centuries according to individual cultural tradition, including the Jewish. The Jewish tradition did not accept the Persian school of thought which they considered to be of pagan origin. The arcane teachings of Persia had their origins in the Chaldean mystery schools of ancient Egypt, later embracing Pythagorean principles based on solar and lunar cycles. It would not be surprising therefore that there would be differences of interpretation for Herod’s astrologers who, while anticipating the birth of the Messiah, did not practice according to Persian principles and failed to recognise the signs.
The Magi are frequently depicted in iconography wearing Persian robes, an indication that their roots lay in the ancient teachings of the Zoroastrian priesthood established five centuries before the birth of Jesus. Zarathustra, the founder of Zoroastrianism in Persia, prophesied that in time a king would arise from Abraham who would raise the dead and transform the world into a kingdom of peace. When the Persians invaded Palestine in the 6th century AD the Church of the Nativity was spared because the Commander was moved by the depiction above the church entrance of the Three Magi wearing the garb of Persian Zoroastrian priests.
History has shown us that Herod’s intention was not to worship but to destroy the child. The Magi, having found the place where Jesus lay, presented their gifts and ‘being warned in a dream not to return to Herod they departed to their own country by another way.’ When Herod realised that he had been misled by the Magi he flew into one of the rages for which he was renowned. He was determined to eliminate what he perceived to be a rival to his throne and commanded that all male children under the age of two were to be killed. This edict was carried out and is remembered by both Jews and Christians as the Slaughter of the Innocents, depicted in iconography and retold through time. Some have doubted the historical accuracy of the story which was not given prominence by historians of the time. The truth, however, is that vicious cruelty was a hallmark of Herod’s bloody reign and there were many massacres, murder and revenge being the order of the day; this was simply one more. Once again Joseph, the husband of Mary, received a dream in which an angel appeared to him with a warning saying: ‘Rise, take the child and his mother and flee to Egypt and remain there until I tell you: for Herod is about to search for the child to destroy him… and he rose and took the child and his mother by night and departed into Egypt and remained there until the death of Herod.’
Herod was to die a slow and agonising death soon after this event, his death is believed to have occurred in the Spring of 4 BC at his palace on the Dead Sea. He was succeeded by his son, Archelaus who the Jewish people did not wish to be their ruler and appealed to Caesar to give them an alternative king. Caesar divided the land over which Archelaus had control, saying that he would only receive the royal title if he ruled virtuously which he failed to do, he ruled for seven years before being exiled to Gaul. The Bible gives no account of the Flight into Egypt but states that on their return from Egypt, Joseph took Jesus and Mary to live in Nazareth ‘because Archelaus still reigned in Judaea.’ Archelaus was succeeded by his brother, Herod Antipas, who would become infamous at the time of the crucifixion. | <urn:uuid:2f7f2b00-662d-4baa-9158-ac5b04fb7228> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.spiritualalchemy.co.uk/blog/?p=224 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00090.warc.gz | en | 0.98525 | 1,457 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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-0.03873518854... | 2 | WHO WERE THE MAGI?
‘We three kings of Orient are, bearing gifts we traverse afar
Field and fountain, moor and mountain following yonder star’
A favourite carol tells of the three wise men who came to worship the child Jesus in the stable, a story retold for two thousand years. Epiphany means ‘great light’ or ‘illumination’, referring in this instance to Jesus as the Light of the World. There are many interpretations of who these visitors might have been. They are variously described as Kings of the East and Astrologers and are commonly referred to as the Magi. The word Magi means ‘wise ones’ and relates to those who had a deep knowledge of the divine sciences including astronomy, astrology, numerology and the study of the celestial heavens and the ancient star maps. Today’s term ‘magic’ is derived from it and used to describe something supernatural or beyond the ordinary. Many intriguing questions arise. If the story is true and the Magi did indeed come to pay homage to Jesus how did they know of his birth? We are told they were guided by a star arising in the East which ‘went before them’ and finally ‘came to rest’ over the place where Jesus lay. Today Christians celebrate The Adoration of the Magi and the Feast of Epiphany on January 6th in remembrance of this event. If the Magi had ‘traversed afar’ from their own kingdoms, reputedly of the Persian Empire, this would have been a lengthy and even hazardous journey with much preparation required. How could they possibly arrive within days of the birth…unless they had advance warning?
In that time the journey by camel from Persia to Jerusalem covered some twelve hundred miles and involved a journey of a minimum three to six months? Travellers were required to cross the Syrian desert to Damascus, then south by what is now the Great Mecca Route, with the Sea of Galilee and the River Jordan to the west before reaching the crossing point near Jericho.
According to the story, on arrival in Jerusalem, the Kings began to enquire, ‘Where is he that has been born King of the Jews for we have seen his star in the East and have come to worship him?’ Word reached King Herod the Great, the ruler of Judea, who understandably became apprehensive. He was not alone in this for factions within the Sanhedrin, the ruling Council which governed Jewish religious affairs, were also concerned about anything which might disrupt the status quo and threaten their position of power. Herod enquired of the Jewish Scribes and Pharisees concerning the prophecies as to where the expected Messiah was to be born. He was told ‘In Bethlehem of Judea for so it is written by the prophet.’
At this news, Herod summoned the Magi and asked them at what time the star had appeared. Herod had his own court astrologers who, armed with this information, could draw up a chart to ascertain whether or not this was truly an auspicious event. Herod then directed the Kings to the town of Bethlehem and told them to ‘Search diligently for the child and when you have found him bring me word that I too may come and worship him.’
Since all kings in antiquity had astrologers as counsellors some have wondered why Herod’s astrologers did not identify the Star, they have attempted to explain this by stating that astrology was not part of the Jewish culture. In fact diverse schools of Astrology had developed over the centuries according to individual cultural tradition, including the Jewish. The Jewish tradition did not accept the Persian school of thought which they considered to be of pagan origin. The arcane teachings of Persia had their origins in the Chaldean mystery schools of ancient Egypt, later embracing Pythagorean principles based on solar and lunar cycles. It would not be surprising therefore that there would be differences of interpretation for Herod’s astrologers who, while anticipating the birth of the Messiah, did not practice according to Persian principles and failed to recognise the signs.
The Magi are frequently depicted in iconography wearing Persian robes, an indication that their roots lay in the ancient teachings of the Zoroastrian priesthood established five centuries before the birth of Jesus. Zarathustra, the founder of Zoroastrianism in Persia, prophesied that in time a king would arise from Abraham who would raise the dead and transform the world into a kingdom of peace. When the Persians invaded Palestine in the 6th century AD the Church of the Nativity was spared because the Commander was moved by the depiction above the church entrance of the Three Magi wearing the garb of Persian Zoroastrian priests.
History has shown us that Herod’s intention was not to worship but to destroy the child. The Magi, having found the place where Jesus lay, presented their gifts and ‘being warned in a dream not to return to Herod they departed to their own country by another way.’ When Herod realised that he had been misled by the Magi he flew into one of the rages for which he was renowned. He was determined to eliminate what he perceived to be a rival to his throne and commanded that all male children under the age of two were to be killed. This edict was carried out and is remembered by both Jews and Christians as the Slaughter of the Innocents, depicted in iconography and retold through time. Some have doubted the historical accuracy of the story which was not given prominence by historians of the time. The truth, however, is that vicious cruelty was a hallmark of Herod’s bloody reign and there were many massacres, murder and revenge being the order of the day; this was simply one more. Once again Joseph, the husband of Mary, received a dream in which an angel appeared to him with a warning saying: ‘Rise, take the child and his mother and flee to Egypt and remain there until I tell you: for Herod is about to search for the child to destroy him… and he rose and took the child and his mother by night and departed into Egypt and remained there until the death of Herod.’
Herod was to die a slow and agonising death soon after this event, his death is believed to have occurred in the Spring of 4 BC at his palace on the Dead Sea. He was succeeded by his son, Archelaus who the Jewish people did not wish to be their ruler and appealed to Caesar to give them an alternative king. Caesar divided the land over which Archelaus had control, saying that he would only receive the royal title if he ruled virtuously which he failed to do, he ruled for seven years before being exiled to Gaul. The Bible gives no account of the Flight into Egypt but states that on their return from Egypt, Joseph took Jesus and Mary to live in Nazareth ‘because Archelaus still reigned in Judaea.’ Archelaus was succeeded by his brother, Herod Antipas, who would become infamous at the time of the crucifixion. | 1,441 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Women usually accompanied medieval armies - as sutlers, serving women, wives, laundresses and prostitutes. Sometimes their presence was harshly controlled (Henry V of England ordered that anyone who found a whore in camp could take her money, drive her off and break her arm). At other times they were tolerated in considerable numbers, and could be recruited as a general labour force. At the siege of Neuss by the Burgundians in 1475 some 4,000 camp women marched to the sound of trumpets and pipes, with a banner given by Charles the Bold, to work on a canal to divert the Rhine.
More rarely, women of the land-holding classes actually led troops in fulfilment of the family's feudal duty, or fought alongside brother or husband - or in place of a husband lost or imprisoned. Women of any class might play an important part in the defence of a castle or town. We know of at least one who served as a common soldier, known to be a woman by her comrades but looking and behaving tough enough to pass as a man. In battle some wore men's clothes and even armour - but these were the rare exceptions.
Most women made the camp a more comfortable place, cooked food and nursed the sick. Like their men, they would have dressed to suit their station in life and the hardships to be encountered. A woman of the aristocracy would have lived like the knight who was her husband, relative or protector, with spacious tents, comfortable camp equipage and plentiful servants. The humblest soldier's woman would have shared his cloak in a barn or under a hedge. The prettiest of fashionable dresses, the most frivolous of headdresses would have been very rarely seen. No one went campaigning in a party frock.
(Opposite) The scene that might have greeted a weary 14th century captain, home after a hard day of drill and organisation. He has brought his wife along on this safe stage of the campaign and they have found billets in a merchant's house, suitable to their status. His wife rises at the clatter of his horse on the cobbles outside and the bustle of their servants and his archer guard. He will wash off the grime and sweat, change into a comfortable gown and share a supper with her. They will discuss their days' work in detail - his under arms, hers running his household. She was raised to this world, and her grasp of kinship politics and understanding of most military matters will calm him. How good she looks in fine bleached linen, and a simple gown of the very finest English wool woven in Flanders, dyed at Prato near Florence - expensive, but worth it to give such pleasure. (Photo David Lazenby, Middelaldercentret)
(Right) Meanwhile, out in the fringe of the woods the wife of a vinlainer - the commander of 20 men - gathers wood for her cooking, breathing the evening air away from the smoke and noise of the camp and planning her soup. Her husband has found his soldiers billets in a sprawling farm. Life is always hard, but not so bad with her ox of a husband, a sensible and much respected man who always goes home from his campaigning with money in his purse - sometimes a surprising amount. This his fifth campaign and his wife's second. She has born him five children, but three died in infancy; her surviving girls were both married and gone before they were 16, so there is nothing to keep her at home.
(Opposite top) Here followers of a 1470s Swiss company cook their comrades" meal at the end of a long hot day. The cook wears a simple linen dress over her shift, and her long hair plaited and tied up in a linen cloth - typical everyday working dress. (Photo John Howe)
(Opposite) Little jewellery was worn, but the bells worn by all classes seem to have made up for any lack of decoration elsewhere. Here are two beautifully reconstructed 14th century belt buckles: prized purchases - or loot - for any young soldier, and a fine gift for a buxom cook ... (Photos & reconstructions Simon Metcalfe)
(Below & right) She wears a yellow kirtle - underdress - which she made and dyed herself. Her overdress is a woad-dyed gown her husband 'found' for her. She takes pleasure in the fashionable buttoned sleeves and the close fit allowed by the several panels of the body.
The patterns for these garments were based on those found at Herjolfness in Greenland at the beginning of the 20th century. They are meticulously reconstructed using vegetable-dyed wool, linen thread, and only the sewing techniques known to have been used at the time. The narrow panels of the torso of the dress are shaped to follow the body's form, not to economise, though there is nothing to indicate that this gown belonged to a 'rich' woman. The buttoned sleeves are typical of the 14th century. Note the two methods of shortening the skirt length for convenience when working: by tucking up the front, and by gathering some of the length over a second belt worn on the hips. (Photos Anne Embleton, reconstruction Julie Douglass)
Was this article helpful? | <urn:uuid:14fe7d61-b97e-45da-a084-e6f12ef6c342> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.martelnyc.com/worn-over/th-century-women-on-campaign.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00258.warc.gz | en | 0.982103 | 1,084 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.024954266846... | 2 | Women usually accompanied medieval armies - as sutlers, serving women, wives, laundresses and prostitutes. Sometimes their presence was harshly controlled (Henry V of England ordered that anyone who found a whore in camp could take her money, drive her off and break her arm). At other times they were tolerated in considerable numbers, and could be recruited as a general labour force. At the siege of Neuss by the Burgundians in 1475 some 4,000 camp women marched to the sound of trumpets and pipes, with a banner given by Charles the Bold, to work on a canal to divert the Rhine.
More rarely, women of the land-holding classes actually led troops in fulfilment of the family's feudal duty, or fought alongside brother or husband - or in place of a husband lost or imprisoned. Women of any class might play an important part in the defence of a castle or town. We know of at least one who served as a common soldier, known to be a woman by her comrades but looking and behaving tough enough to pass as a man. In battle some wore men's clothes and even armour - but these were the rare exceptions.
Most women made the camp a more comfortable place, cooked food and nursed the sick. Like their men, they would have dressed to suit their station in life and the hardships to be encountered. A woman of the aristocracy would have lived like the knight who was her husband, relative or protector, with spacious tents, comfortable camp equipage and plentiful servants. The humblest soldier's woman would have shared his cloak in a barn or under a hedge. The prettiest of fashionable dresses, the most frivolous of headdresses would have been very rarely seen. No one went campaigning in a party frock.
(Opposite) The scene that might have greeted a weary 14th century captain, home after a hard day of drill and organisation. He has brought his wife along on this safe stage of the campaign and they have found billets in a merchant's house, suitable to their status. His wife rises at the clatter of his horse on the cobbles outside and the bustle of their servants and his archer guard. He will wash off the grime and sweat, change into a comfortable gown and share a supper with her. They will discuss their days' work in detail - his under arms, hers running his household. She was raised to this world, and her grasp of kinship politics and understanding of most military matters will calm him. How good she looks in fine bleached linen, and a simple gown of the very finest English wool woven in Flanders, dyed at Prato near Florence - expensive, but worth it to give such pleasure. (Photo David Lazenby, Middelaldercentret)
(Right) Meanwhile, out in the fringe of the woods the wife of a vinlainer - the commander of 20 men - gathers wood for her cooking, breathing the evening air away from the smoke and noise of the camp and planning her soup. Her husband has found his soldiers billets in a sprawling farm. Life is always hard, but not so bad with her ox of a husband, a sensible and much respected man who always goes home from his campaigning with money in his purse - sometimes a surprising amount. This his fifth campaign and his wife's second. She has born him five children, but three died in infancy; her surviving girls were both married and gone before they were 16, so there is nothing to keep her at home.
(Opposite top) Here followers of a 1470s Swiss company cook their comrades" meal at the end of a long hot day. The cook wears a simple linen dress over her shift, and her long hair plaited and tied up in a linen cloth - typical everyday working dress. (Photo John Howe)
(Opposite) Little jewellery was worn, but the bells worn by all classes seem to have made up for any lack of decoration elsewhere. Here are two beautifully reconstructed 14th century belt buckles: prized purchases - or loot - for any young soldier, and a fine gift for a buxom cook ... (Photos & reconstructions Simon Metcalfe)
(Below & right) She wears a yellow kirtle - underdress - which she made and dyed herself. Her overdress is a woad-dyed gown her husband 'found' for her. She takes pleasure in the fashionable buttoned sleeves and the close fit allowed by the several panels of the body.
The patterns for these garments were based on those found at Herjolfness in Greenland at the beginning of the 20th century. They are meticulously reconstructed using vegetable-dyed wool, linen thread, and only the sewing techniques known to have been used at the time. The narrow panels of the torso of the dress are shaped to follow the body's form, not to economise, though there is nothing to indicate that this gown belonged to a 'rich' woman. The buttoned sleeves are typical of the 14th century. Note the two methods of shortening the skirt length for convenience when working: by tucking up the front, and by gathering some of the length over a second belt worn on the hips. (Photos Anne Embleton, reconstruction Julie Douglass)
Was this article helpful? | 1,098 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A history of the sport of soccer
Early history and the precursors of football The first known examples of a team game involving a ball, which was made out of a rock, occurred in old Mesoamerican cultures for over 3, years ago.
Second, many early descriptions of football and references to it were recorded by people who had studied at these schools. It is widely assumed that the word "football" or the phrase "foot ball" refers to the action of the foot kicking a ball.
Early evidence of soccer being played as a sport finds occurrence in China during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BC.
History of football in england
Nevertheless, the fact remains that people have enjoyed kicking a ball about for thousands of years and there is absolutely no reason to consider it an aberration of the more 'natural' form of playing a ball with the hands. Although players usually use their feet to move the ball around they may use any part of their body notably, "heading" with the forehead other than their hands or arms. The first competitions Other milestones were now to follow. Further reading: The development of football rules. It is also said that soldiers admired the game so much that they missed archery practice to watch it. It is therefore hard to decide which the first football club was. Football teams were established in the larger cities and the new railroads could bring them to other cities. Thring , who were both formerly at Shrewsbury School , called a meeting at Trinity College, Cambridge , with 12 other representatives from Eton, Harrow, Rugby, Winchester and Shrewsbury. Another important difference at this stage could be noticed between English and Scottish teams. Public schools' dominance of sports in the UK began to wane after the Factory Act of , which significantly increased the recreation time available to working class children. The objective was to get the ball over the opposition's boundary lines and as players passed it between themselves, trickery was the order of the day. However, a different version the game caught on in medieval England and became very popular with rules and regulations soon being assigned.
The rules were updated several times during the s to accommodate the rules of other influential Victorian football clubs. The Cambridge rules were not widely adopted outside English public schools and universities but it was arguably the most significant influence on the Football Association committee members responsible for formulating the rules of Association football.
The match that involved England and Scotland ended and was followed by 4, people at Hamilton Crescent the picture shows illustrations from this occasion.
During the first season, 12 clubs joined the league, but soon more clubs became interested and the competition would consequently expand into more divisions. From boxing day onward they were back in the trenches shooting at each other with guns Still, they joined in the following year, but would not partake in the World cup until Wedderburn refers to what has been translated into modern English as "keeping goal" and makes an allusion to passing the ball "strike it here". Following these matches, organised football in Melbourne rapidly increased in popularity. The game of football takes its form The most admitted story tells that the game was developed in England in the 12th century. The main aim was to carry the ball to a target spot. People in countries where other codes of football are prevalent Australia, Ireland, Wales, South Africa and New Zealand may use either term, although national associations in Australia and New Zealand now primarily use "football" for the formal name. Eventually, clubs decided to begin paying and soccer turned into a professional sport. Scoring goals or points by moving the ball to an opposing team's end of the field and either into a goal area, or over a line. Harrison , a seminal figure in Australian football, recalled that his cousin Wills wanted "a game of our own". The laws are often framed in broad terms, which allow flexibility in their application depending on the nature of the game.
Use of the hands was not permitted. Besides from kicks, the game involved also punches of the ball with the fist.
History of association football
This area is marked by the goal line, two lines starting on the goal line A memorable part of the history of soccer came in the first world war. Sheffield rules Main article: Sheffield rules By the late s, many football clubs had been formed throughout the English-speaking world, to play various codes of football. They all appear to have resembled rugby football , wrestling and volleyball more than what is recognizable as modern football. Players were not allowed to pass the ball forward, either by foot or by hand. History The early years Modern football originated in Britain in the 19th century. Blows below the belt were allowed. Various forms of what is now known as "folk football" were played. It is widely assumed that the word "football" or the phrase "foot ball" refers to the action of the foot kicking a ball. This reinforces the idea that the games played at the time did not necessarily involve a ball being kicked. There are four types of calls that can be reviewed: mistaken identity in awarding a red or yellow card, goals and whether there was a violation during the buildup, direct red card decisions, and penalty decisions.
The first detailed description of what was almost certainly football in England was given by William FitzStephen in about — In standard adult matches, a player who has been substituted may not take further part in a match.
In this century games that resembled football were played on meadows and roads in England.
Still, they joined in the following year, but would not partake in the World cup until Carrying the ball was banned, as were the practices of shin-kicking and tripping.
based on 49 review | <urn:uuid:58f33adc-a77a-443e-bf0a-4d4ed5c26d04> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://qenulonaraxetuwad.ettroisptitspointscompagnie.com/a-history-of-the-sport-of-soccer129344957uw.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00308.warc.gz | en | 0.98634 | 1,158 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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-0.22278568148612... | 3 | A history of the sport of soccer
Early history and the precursors of football The first known examples of a team game involving a ball, which was made out of a rock, occurred in old Mesoamerican cultures for over 3, years ago.
Second, many early descriptions of football and references to it were recorded by people who had studied at these schools. It is widely assumed that the word "football" or the phrase "foot ball" refers to the action of the foot kicking a ball.
Early evidence of soccer being played as a sport finds occurrence in China during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BC.
History of football in england
Nevertheless, the fact remains that people have enjoyed kicking a ball about for thousands of years and there is absolutely no reason to consider it an aberration of the more 'natural' form of playing a ball with the hands. Although players usually use their feet to move the ball around they may use any part of their body notably, "heading" with the forehead other than their hands or arms. The first competitions Other milestones were now to follow. Further reading: The development of football rules. It is also said that soldiers admired the game so much that they missed archery practice to watch it. It is therefore hard to decide which the first football club was. Football teams were established in the larger cities and the new railroads could bring them to other cities. Thring , who were both formerly at Shrewsbury School , called a meeting at Trinity College, Cambridge , with 12 other representatives from Eton, Harrow, Rugby, Winchester and Shrewsbury. Another important difference at this stage could be noticed between English and Scottish teams. Public schools' dominance of sports in the UK began to wane after the Factory Act of , which significantly increased the recreation time available to working class children. The objective was to get the ball over the opposition's boundary lines and as players passed it between themselves, trickery was the order of the day. However, a different version the game caught on in medieval England and became very popular with rules and regulations soon being assigned.
The rules were updated several times during the s to accommodate the rules of other influential Victorian football clubs. The Cambridge rules were not widely adopted outside English public schools and universities but it was arguably the most significant influence on the Football Association committee members responsible for formulating the rules of Association football.
The match that involved England and Scotland ended and was followed by 4, people at Hamilton Crescent the picture shows illustrations from this occasion.
During the first season, 12 clubs joined the league, but soon more clubs became interested and the competition would consequently expand into more divisions. From boxing day onward they were back in the trenches shooting at each other with guns Still, they joined in the following year, but would not partake in the World cup until Wedderburn refers to what has been translated into modern English as "keeping goal" and makes an allusion to passing the ball "strike it here". Following these matches, organised football in Melbourne rapidly increased in popularity. The game of football takes its form The most admitted story tells that the game was developed in England in the 12th century. The main aim was to carry the ball to a target spot. People in countries where other codes of football are prevalent Australia, Ireland, Wales, South Africa and New Zealand may use either term, although national associations in Australia and New Zealand now primarily use "football" for the formal name. Eventually, clubs decided to begin paying and soccer turned into a professional sport. Scoring goals or points by moving the ball to an opposing team's end of the field and either into a goal area, or over a line. Harrison , a seminal figure in Australian football, recalled that his cousin Wills wanted "a game of our own". The laws are often framed in broad terms, which allow flexibility in their application depending on the nature of the game.
Use of the hands was not permitted. Besides from kicks, the game involved also punches of the ball with the fist.
History of association football
This area is marked by the goal line, two lines starting on the goal line A memorable part of the history of soccer came in the first world war. Sheffield rules Main article: Sheffield rules By the late s, many football clubs had been formed throughout the English-speaking world, to play various codes of football. They all appear to have resembled rugby football , wrestling and volleyball more than what is recognizable as modern football. Players were not allowed to pass the ball forward, either by foot or by hand. History The early years Modern football originated in Britain in the 19th century. Blows below the belt were allowed. Various forms of what is now known as "folk football" were played. It is widely assumed that the word "football" or the phrase "foot ball" refers to the action of the foot kicking a ball. This reinforces the idea that the games played at the time did not necessarily involve a ball being kicked. There are four types of calls that can be reviewed: mistaken identity in awarding a red or yellow card, goals and whether there was a violation during the buildup, direct red card decisions, and penalty decisions.
The first detailed description of what was almost certainly football in England was given by William FitzStephen in about — In standard adult matches, a player who has been substituted may not take further part in a match.
In this century games that resembled football were played on meadows and roads in England.
Still, they joined in the following year, but would not partake in the World cup until Carrying the ball was banned, as were the practices of shin-kicking and tripping.
based on 49 review | 1,159 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This article does not have any sources. (June 2009)
A road is a piece of land which connects two or more places. Usually, a road has been made easy to travel on, for example by removing trees and stones so the ground is more level. Although many roads are made of gravel and dirt, some are paved with concrete or bricks or stones.
People have been making roads for a long time. Roman roads in Britain and the Inca road system are famous. Transport by boats on waterways was usually easier and faster than transport by road. In the industrial revolution, the railway was invented. A railway is a special type of road, using railway tracks. Roads are now usually made for wheeled vehicles, like cars, to travel on.
Other kinds of roadEdit
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Road.| | <urn:uuid:32901c2f-6669-4853-8a9a-b7c105d4db86> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00288.warc.gz | en | 0.980789 | 170 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.376021355... | 4 | This article does not have any sources. (June 2009)
A road is a piece of land which connects two or more places. Usually, a road has been made easy to travel on, for example by removing trees and stones so the ground is more level. Although many roads are made of gravel and dirt, some are paved with concrete or bricks or stones.
People have been making roads for a long time. Roman roads in Britain and the Inca road system are famous. Transport by boats on waterways was usually easier and faster than transport by road. In the industrial revolution, the railway was invented. A railway is a special type of road, using railway tracks. Roads are now usually made for wheeled vehicles, like cars, to travel on.
Other kinds of roadEdit
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Road.| | 171 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Aboriginals and Pre-Settlement Times
Excerpts from Timber trails with additions
It is uncertain when the original Indian tribes began to settle in bands in this area. With the infiltration of the white population in the east, the Indian tribes retreated farther west and north, creating scattered areas of settlement over the virgin country that would become Saskatchewan.
The earliest Cree Indians in the Big River area are said to be descendants of the Dog Rib and Wood Indians from Athabasca. These people enjoyed an abundant supply of water, prosperous hunting grounds and reserves of natural timber. One band of Cree established a campsite on the banks of a long narrow river that flowed through the area. They called it `Oklemow Cee-Pee', which when translated means 'Big River'. It is from this translation that our town got its name.
About one hundred and fifty years ago the peninsula on Delaronde was covered with jack pine and spruce. The lake provided a constant supply of fresh fish and attracted many fur-bearing animals. From legends handed down, it is believed it was to this place the Stoney Indians came and set up a temporary camp. In spite of the pleasant location, disease and fire plagued these people. Excessive mosquitoes and bull flies that year, followed by much illness brought hardship to the entire tribe. Added to this, a flash forest fire caused by a violent electrical storm drove the few remaining people from the area. The fire at that time is said to have spread south, fanned by high winds. The land from Delaronde to Bodmin was burned off, leaving Bodmin Hill so bare, it was known as Rabbit Plains for many years after.
From legends handed down through generations of Cree Indians, we learn that a band of Stoney Indians established a campsite on the west side of Delaronde Lake (this location is the peninsula where T.D. Michel presently resides). After the battle of the Little Big Horn, some of the surviving followers of Sitting Bull made their way to the Delaronde beach. The local Cree called this area "The Lake of the Stoneys' and so for years, it was known as Stoney Lake. Sometime later, it was officially renamed in honour of Alex Delaronde, an early settler who ran a stopping place at the south end of the lake.
It appears Chief Kenemotayo was promised that a reserve would be set up on Stoney Lake's east side (Delaronde) for his people, but this was not done because of the 1885 fires and the fact that no survey was completed at that time. In 1898, Chief Kenemotayo and his tribe amalgamated with the Whitefish Lake band. Under treaty # 6 adhesion that was signed in 1878, a reserve was established at Whitefish Lake in 1888 of approximately twelve thousand hectares. The tribes of Stoney Lake, Whitefish Lake, Big River and Pelican Lakes agreed to amalgamate, the first recorded chief of the Whitefish reserve was Sasseewahum, and the second chief was Kenemotayo.
Around this time, a Mission School was built and maintained by the Missionary Society of the Church of England on the shores of the east side of Delaronde Lake. In 1890, Louis Ahenakew and George Isbister from Winnipeg taught the Indian children at this school. A small settlement grew up around the Mission and a burial ground was set aside. From that time to the present, this place has been known as the Indian Village and it has been a traditional camping place for families for generations.
A number of the local families moved to the reserve at that time, but some of the band remained at the Village until 1919. Since that time, the area has been used for trapping and fishing and the Indians communicated between there and Whitefish. There are two Indian burial grounds on the Delaronde shores, close to the Village. In the old days, burials were made by wrapping the body in a blanket and laying it on poles over an open grave, then covering it well with earth. In time, the poles would rot and break and the remains and the earth would enter the waiting grave.
The Indians traditionally lived at or near the Village, but to date, no records indicate an official reserve was ever established. Several families moved back to the village in the mid-1970s. These families moved there intending to avoid the alcohol abuse that was happening on the reserve. For a while, there were as high as twenty to twenty-five children seen sliding down the hill between the cabins and the lake. The native and Canadian governments did not like this splinter group establishing a community of their own and made life as difficult as possible, to the point of trying to force them out of the Village. Several families moved back to the reserve, but some stayed and persevered in their argument. The residents of the village are attending school and working in the Big River community. The official name to the area is now the Blue Hair Indian Village and they have yet to receive Reserve status.
In 1885, the Federal Department of the Interior sent a group of surveyors and requested an appraisal of the timber potential of this area. The men were unable to chart anything east of Delaronde Lake as fires prevented them from entering the area. These mysterious fires were believed to have been set by Riel's Indian allies who had fled north from Batoche to escape Middleton's troops.
The Carlton to Green Lake trail was surveyed by John Bourgeois in 1888. This was under the supervision of the North West Territories. One of the earliest trails in the districts is one that comes out of the south, following high land and going east around Delaronde Lake, past the Indian Village and east toward what is now the Prince Albert National Park. This old trail was known as the Kenemotayoo Trail, named in honour of the Chief.
According to Mr Miles Isbister, a pioneer of this district, Mr Moar of the Forestry Department used part of this trail in the early mill years, cleaning it out and widening it so that it would be useful for hauling freight. The Kenemotayoo and the Hudson Bay Trail were the first trails into the district Ernest Joseph's father told the story of how he was camped just off the Kenemotayoo Trail one night. He had his tea boiling over the campfire when suddenly something large, with two bright eyes and a loud noise came rushing past his camp! Fearing to chase this creature in the dark, Mr Joseph waited until morning to check out the tracks left by the bright-eyed thing. Sure enough, there in the sand and mud were funny little marks all along the trail. Later he found out it was the Model T Ford car owned by William Cowan and Oscar Sharpe. This car was likely the first in Big River district and was seen many times after that bouncing along over the old trail on its way to Big River.
It is said a tribe of Indians from the south ventured into the area behind Bodmin Hill. They were a nomadic band and before they moved on, the onset of an early winter left them trapped in the area. The territory became known as 'Winter Lake' after the tribe that had been forced to winter there. The Indians had a special name for the winding river that flowed north from Big River. They referred to it as `wa-wa-gig-gon-ow', which translated means `water that flows crooked'. Many years later, the northern end of this river was dammed by the Big River Lumber Company. As a result, the water level rose and a lake was formed. It took the name the Indians had awarded it and was called "Crooked Lake". Later in honour of one of the earliest sawmill officials, William Cowan, the lake was renamed Cowan Lake.
The hill at Bodmin was well known to the Cree Indians who often used it as a lookout place as well as for religious meditations. The Indians called the hill `okee-se-won', which means 'to climb hill'. Somehow, this was eventually turned to Ladder Hill and the nearby lake bears the same name. The hill gradually became known as Bodmin Hill after the small settlement of that name sprang up to the west.
One of the first white men to venture into this northern area was Peter Pond, an independent fur trader from Montreal. He established a small post at the mouth of the Shell River and spent the winter of 1792 there. His destination was Green Lake and in the spring the expedition pressed further north. It is believed these explorers must have journeyed up the Big River.
Pierre De La Ronde became the manager of the original Peter Pond trading post at Shell River. Coming from Quebec in the 1800s, he came to the Shell River and raised his family there. One of his sons, Alex, saw the necessity in later years, for a stopping place along the Hudson Bay Trail. He chose the banks of the Big River for a post to accommodate the freighters en route from Prince Albert to Ile-a-la-Crosse. He later moved to Stoney Lake, where he operated a trading post and a stopping place somewhere along the south end of the lake.
Around 1908 three men with oxen, supplies and fishing equipment assembled in Prince Albert. These men were E.C. Brownfield, D.E Overly and Walter Knight. They planned to travel to Crooked Lake and set up a fish camp. The trail was fairly good as far as Devil's Lake, but from there they followed an old Indian trail, cutting out the road as they went. They reached their destination three days later, a total distance of ninety miles north of Prince Albert. They set up their fish camp at Stoney Lake about eight miles from Alex Delaronde's trading
post and spent the winter fishing and freighting. So in 1908, fish from Big River lakes went on the commercial market for the first time. | <urn:uuid:62fa84e1-3a9b-4dee-9637-c08aad99bebd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jkcc.com/century/presettle.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00353.warc.gz | en | 0.982761 | 2,052 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.176322817802... | 3 | Aboriginals and Pre-Settlement Times
Excerpts from Timber trails with additions
It is uncertain when the original Indian tribes began to settle in bands in this area. With the infiltration of the white population in the east, the Indian tribes retreated farther west and north, creating scattered areas of settlement over the virgin country that would become Saskatchewan.
The earliest Cree Indians in the Big River area are said to be descendants of the Dog Rib and Wood Indians from Athabasca. These people enjoyed an abundant supply of water, prosperous hunting grounds and reserves of natural timber. One band of Cree established a campsite on the banks of a long narrow river that flowed through the area. They called it `Oklemow Cee-Pee', which when translated means 'Big River'. It is from this translation that our town got its name.
About one hundred and fifty years ago the peninsula on Delaronde was covered with jack pine and spruce. The lake provided a constant supply of fresh fish and attracted many fur-bearing animals. From legends handed down, it is believed it was to this place the Stoney Indians came and set up a temporary camp. In spite of the pleasant location, disease and fire plagued these people. Excessive mosquitoes and bull flies that year, followed by much illness brought hardship to the entire tribe. Added to this, a flash forest fire caused by a violent electrical storm drove the few remaining people from the area. The fire at that time is said to have spread south, fanned by high winds. The land from Delaronde to Bodmin was burned off, leaving Bodmin Hill so bare, it was known as Rabbit Plains for many years after.
From legends handed down through generations of Cree Indians, we learn that a band of Stoney Indians established a campsite on the west side of Delaronde Lake (this location is the peninsula where T.D. Michel presently resides). After the battle of the Little Big Horn, some of the surviving followers of Sitting Bull made their way to the Delaronde beach. The local Cree called this area "The Lake of the Stoneys' and so for years, it was known as Stoney Lake. Sometime later, it was officially renamed in honour of Alex Delaronde, an early settler who ran a stopping place at the south end of the lake.
It appears Chief Kenemotayo was promised that a reserve would be set up on Stoney Lake's east side (Delaronde) for his people, but this was not done because of the 1885 fires and the fact that no survey was completed at that time. In 1898, Chief Kenemotayo and his tribe amalgamated with the Whitefish Lake band. Under treaty # 6 adhesion that was signed in 1878, a reserve was established at Whitefish Lake in 1888 of approximately twelve thousand hectares. The tribes of Stoney Lake, Whitefish Lake, Big River and Pelican Lakes agreed to amalgamate, the first recorded chief of the Whitefish reserve was Sasseewahum, and the second chief was Kenemotayo.
Around this time, a Mission School was built and maintained by the Missionary Society of the Church of England on the shores of the east side of Delaronde Lake. In 1890, Louis Ahenakew and George Isbister from Winnipeg taught the Indian children at this school. A small settlement grew up around the Mission and a burial ground was set aside. From that time to the present, this place has been known as the Indian Village and it has been a traditional camping place for families for generations.
A number of the local families moved to the reserve at that time, but some of the band remained at the Village until 1919. Since that time, the area has been used for trapping and fishing and the Indians communicated between there and Whitefish. There are two Indian burial grounds on the Delaronde shores, close to the Village. In the old days, burials were made by wrapping the body in a blanket and laying it on poles over an open grave, then covering it well with earth. In time, the poles would rot and break and the remains and the earth would enter the waiting grave.
The Indians traditionally lived at or near the Village, but to date, no records indicate an official reserve was ever established. Several families moved back to the village in the mid-1970s. These families moved there intending to avoid the alcohol abuse that was happening on the reserve. For a while, there were as high as twenty to twenty-five children seen sliding down the hill between the cabins and the lake. The native and Canadian governments did not like this splinter group establishing a community of their own and made life as difficult as possible, to the point of trying to force them out of the Village. Several families moved back to the reserve, but some stayed and persevered in their argument. The residents of the village are attending school and working in the Big River community. The official name to the area is now the Blue Hair Indian Village and they have yet to receive Reserve status.
In 1885, the Federal Department of the Interior sent a group of surveyors and requested an appraisal of the timber potential of this area. The men were unable to chart anything east of Delaronde Lake as fires prevented them from entering the area. These mysterious fires were believed to have been set by Riel's Indian allies who had fled north from Batoche to escape Middleton's troops.
The Carlton to Green Lake trail was surveyed by John Bourgeois in 1888. This was under the supervision of the North West Territories. One of the earliest trails in the districts is one that comes out of the south, following high land and going east around Delaronde Lake, past the Indian Village and east toward what is now the Prince Albert National Park. This old trail was known as the Kenemotayoo Trail, named in honour of the Chief.
According to Mr Miles Isbister, a pioneer of this district, Mr Moar of the Forestry Department used part of this trail in the early mill years, cleaning it out and widening it so that it would be useful for hauling freight. The Kenemotayoo and the Hudson Bay Trail were the first trails into the district Ernest Joseph's father told the story of how he was camped just off the Kenemotayoo Trail one night. He had his tea boiling over the campfire when suddenly something large, with two bright eyes and a loud noise came rushing past his camp! Fearing to chase this creature in the dark, Mr Joseph waited until morning to check out the tracks left by the bright-eyed thing. Sure enough, there in the sand and mud were funny little marks all along the trail. Later he found out it was the Model T Ford car owned by William Cowan and Oscar Sharpe. This car was likely the first in Big River district and was seen many times after that bouncing along over the old trail on its way to Big River.
It is said a tribe of Indians from the south ventured into the area behind Bodmin Hill. They were a nomadic band and before they moved on, the onset of an early winter left them trapped in the area. The territory became known as 'Winter Lake' after the tribe that had been forced to winter there. The Indians had a special name for the winding river that flowed north from Big River. They referred to it as `wa-wa-gig-gon-ow', which translated means `water that flows crooked'. Many years later, the northern end of this river was dammed by the Big River Lumber Company. As a result, the water level rose and a lake was formed. It took the name the Indians had awarded it and was called "Crooked Lake". Later in honour of one of the earliest sawmill officials, William Cowan, the lake was renamed Cowan Lake.
The hill at Bodmin was well known to the Cree Indians who often used it as a lookout place as well as for religious meditations. The Indians called the hill `okee-se-won', which means 'to climb hill'. Somehow, this was eventually turned to Ladder Hill and the nearby lake bears the same name. The hill gradually became known as Bodmin Hill after the small settlement of that name sprang up to the west.
One of the first white men to venture into this northern area was Peter Pond, an independent fur trader from Montreal. He established a small post at the mouth of the Shell River and spent the winter of 1792 there. His destination was Green Lake and in the spring the expedition pressed further north. It is believed these explorers must have journeyed up the Big River.
Pierre De La Ronde became the manager of the original Peter Pond trading post at Shell River. Coming from Quebec in the 1800s, he came to the Shell River and raised his family there. One of his sons, Alex, saw the necessity in later years, for a stopping place along the Hudson Bay Trail. He chose the banks of the Big River for a post to accommodate the freighters en route from Prince Albert to Ile-a-la-Crosse. He later moved to Stoney Lake, where he operated a trading post and a stopping place somewhere along the south end of the lake.
Around 1908 three men with oxen, supplies and fishing equipment assembled in Prince Albert. These men were E.C. Brownfield, D.E Overly and Walter Knight. They planned to travel to Crooked Lake and set up a fish camp. The trail was fairly good as far as Devil's Lake, but from there they followed an old Indian trail, cutting out the road as they went. They reached their destination three days later, a total distance of ninety miles north of Prince Albert. They set up their fish camp at Stoney Lake about eight miles from Alex Delaronde's trading
post and spent the winter fishing and freighting. So in 1908, fish from Big River lakes went on the commercial market for the first time. | 2,071 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In a quote from June 1885 Debussy wrote of his desire to follow his own way. “ I am sure the Institut would not approve, for, naturally regards the path which it ordains as the only right one. But there is no help for it! I am too enamored of my freedom, too fond of my own ideas.”. From the start of his music studies, though clearly talented, Debussy was also argumentative and experimental, and he challenged the rigid teaching of the academy, favoring techniques that at the time were frowned upon. Though his harmonies were often considered radical in his own time, Debussy is now widely regarded as one of the most influential composers of the twentieth century.
Claude Debussy was born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye on August twenty second, 1862 and was the eldest of five children. His father Manuel-Achille Debussy owned a china shop and was a salesman and his mother Victorine Manoury Debussy was a seamstress. When Debussy was four years old he began taking piano lessons with an elderly Italian named Cerutti; his lessons were paid for by his aunt. In 1871 at the age of nine Debussy gained the attention of Marie Maute de Fleurville, who claimed to have been a pupil of Frederic Chopin. Debussy always believed her claim, although there is no evidence that she was. At the age of ten the talented Debussy entered the Paris Conservatoire, where he stayed for eleven years; studying with some of the most significant figures of the era. Debussy was a brilliant pianist and an outstanding sight reader. He was also a rebel and would often alarm his professors by sitting at the piano playing chords that broke every textbook rule. He was just beginning to search for his own musical language, and he surely found it.
From 1880 to 1882 Debussy lived in Russia as music teacher to the children of Russian Socialite Madame Nadezhda von Meck, the patroness of Tchaikovsky. In 1880 she sent Debussy’s Danse bohemienne to Tchaikovsky. A month later he wrote back to her,...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | <urn:uuid:13c9154d-7d99-4ba0-8ad4-9c4aa064f3c4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Claude-Debussy-63652195.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00429.warc.gz | en | 0.985456 | 462 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.110047042369... | 2 | In a quote from June 1885 Debussy wrote of his desire to follow his own way. “ I am sure the Institut would not approve, for, naturally regards the path which it ordains as the only right one. But there is no help for it! I am too enamored of my freedom, too fond of my own ideas.”. From the start of his music studies, though clearly talented, Debussy was also argumentative and experimental, and he challenged the rigid teaching of the academy, favoring techniques that at the time were frowned upon. Though his harmonies were often considered radical in his own time, Debussy is now widely regarded as one of the most influential composers of the twentieth century.
Claude Debussy was born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye on August twenty second, 1862 and was the eldest of five children. His father Manuel-Achille Debussy owned a china shop and was a salesman and his mother Victorine Manoury Debussy was a seamstress. When Debussy was four years old he began taking piano lessons with an elderly Italian named Cerutti; his lessons were paid for by his aunt. In 1871 at the age of nine Debussy gained the attention of Marie Maute de Fleurville, who claimed to have been a pupil of Frederic Chopin. Debussy always believed her claim, although there is no evidence that she was. At the age of ten the talented Debussy entered the Paris Conservatoire, where he stayed for eleven years; studying with some of the most significant figures of the era. Debussy was a brilliant pianist and an outstanding sight reader. He was also a rebel and would often alarm his professors by sitting at the piano playing chords that broke every textbook rule. He was just beginning to search for his own musical language, and he surely found it.
From 1880 to 1882 Debussy lived in Russia as music teacher to the children of Russian Socialite Madame Nadezhda von Meck, the patroness of Tchaikovsky. In 1880 she sent Debussy’s Danse bohemienne to Tchaikovsky. A month later he wrote back to her,...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | 467 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Category: ROUTE 15
Knidos or Cnidus is an ancient settlement located in Turkey. Although Knidos was originally founded as a Spartan colony on the site of the present town of Datca in the 7th century B.C., its inhabitants relocated it at a later date to its present site at the tip of the Resadiye promontory. It was an ancient Greek city of Caria, part of the Dorian Hexapolis. It was situated on the Datça peninsula, which forms the southern side of the Sinus Ceramicus, now known as Gulf of Gökova. By the fourth century BC, Knidos was located at the site of modern Tekir, opposite Triopion Island.
It was built partly on the mainland and partly on the Island of Triopion or Cape Krio. The debate about it being an island or cape is caused by the fact that in ancient times it was connected to the mainland by a causeway and bridge. Today the connection is formed by a narrow sandy isthmus. By means of the causeway the channel between island and mainland was formed into two harbors, of which the larger, or southern, was further enclosed by two strongly built moles that are still in good part entire.
The inhabitants of ancient Knidos were excellent mariners with reputations that rivaled those of the Phoenicians in their seamanship. Threatened by a Persian invasion in 546 B.C., the Knidians sought to defend themselves by cutting a channel through the neck of the peninsula. They abandoned it, preferring to submit to Persian rule instead. Ancient Knidos was a city known for its artists, philosophers, and engineers and it grew wealthy through the wine trade. Eudoxos, one of the most famous ancient mathematicians and astronomers, Ctesias, the writer on Persian history, was from Knidos as was Sostratos, the architect who designed the lighthouse of Alexandria, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Never ones to pick a fight, the Knidians also surrendered to Alexander without a battle and later we see them part of the Kingdom of Pergamon and then, after 129 B.C., of Rome. During Byzantine times Knidos was an insignificant settlement and it was abandoned entirely some time during the 7th century A.D. The city had two harbors: the commercial port was located on the northern side of a promontory while the military port was located on the southern. Knidos was a planned city, built on the Hippodamos grid system. There are four wide streets running parallel to one another east and west that are intersected by a steep street of steps that divides the city into two. West of the first street at the northwestern end of the city was the military port and north of it was the Knidian agora.
The extreme length of the city was little less than a mile, and the whole intramural area is still thickly strewn with architectural remains. The walls, both of the island and on the mainland, can be traced throughout their whole circuit; and in many places, especially round the acropolis, at the northeast corner of the city, they are remarkably perfect. The first Western knowledge of the site was due to the mission of the Dilettante Society in 1812, and the excavations executed by C. T. Newton in 1857-1858.
The agora, the theatre, an odeum, a temple of Dionysus, a temple of the Muses, a temple of Aphrodite and a great number of minor buildings have been identified, and the general plan of the city has been very clearly made out. The most famous statue by Praxiteles, the Aphrodite of Knidos, was made for Cnidus. It has perished, but late copies exist, of which the most faithful is in the Vatican Museums. In a temple enclosure Newton discovered a fine seated statue of Demeter, which he sent back to the British Museum, and about three miles south-east of the city he came upon the ruins of a splendid tomb, and a colossal figure of a lion carved out of one block of Pentelic marble, ten feet in length and six in height, which has been supposed to commemorate the great naval victory, the Battle of Cnidus in which Conon defeated the Lacedaemonians in 394 BC.
Knidos was a city of high antiquity and as a Hellenic city probably of Lacedaemonian colonization. Along with Halicarnassus (present day Bodrum, Turkey) and Kos, and the Rhodian cities of Lindos, Kamiros and Ialyssos it formed the Dorian Hexapolis, which held its confederate assemblies on the Triopian headland, and there celebrated games in honor of Apollo, Poseidon and the nymphs. The city was at first governed by an oligarchic senate, composed of sixty members, and presided over by a magistrate; but, though it is proved by inscriptions that the old names continued to a very late period, the constitution underwent a popular transformation. The situation of the city was favorable for commerce, and the Knidians acquired considerable wealth, and were able to colonize the island of Lipara, and founded a city on Corcyra Nigra in the Adriatic. They ultimately submitted to Cyrus, and from the battle of Eurymedon to the latter part of the Peloponnesian War they were subject to Athens. In their expansion into the region, the Romans easily obtained the allegiance of Knidians, and rewarded them for help given against Antiochus by leaving them the freedom of their city. During the Byzantine period there must still have been a considerable population: for the ruins contain a large number of buildings belonging to the Byzantine style, and Christian sepulchres are common in the neighborhood.
Rescue excavations carried out since 1996 and so far completed two-thirds of the Stoa, the 3rd century, was built by the famous architect Sostratos. 113 meters long and 16 meters wide 5x3.80 m of soft-formed small rooms. All of the rooms open up to the south. Findings from the excavations are on display in the small museum in the city. | <urn:uuid:3dca7eef-c95a-4293-a0c6-a81ae90f1c95> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mgjj003.smartsailing.org/route-15.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00485.warc.gz | en | 0.981363 | 1,310 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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Knidos or Cnidus is an ancient settlement located in Turkey. Although Knidos was originally founded as a Spartan colony on the site of the present town of Datca in the 7th century B.C., its inhabitants relocated it at a later date to its present site at the tip of the Resadiye promontory. It was an ancient Greek city of Caria, part of the Dorian Hexapolis. It was situated on the Datça peninsula, which forms the southern side of the Sinus Ceramicus, now known as Gulf of Gökova. By the fourth century BC, Knidos was located at the site of modern Tekir, opposite Triopion Island.
It was built partly on the mainland and partly on the Island of Triopion or Cape Krio. The debate about it being an island or cape is caused by the fact that in ancient times it was connected to the mainland by a causeway and bridge. Today the connection is formed by a narrow sandy isthmus. By means of the causeway the channel between island and mainland was formed into two harbors, of which the larger, or southern, was further enclosed by two strongly built moles that are still in good part entire.
The inhabitants of ancient Knidos were excellent mariners with reputations that rivaled those of the Phoenicians in their seamanship. Threatened by a Persian invasion in 546 B.C., the Knidians sought to defend themselves by cutting a channel through the neck of the peninsula. They abandoned it, preferring to submit to Persian rule instead. Ancient Knidos was a city known for its artists, philosophers, and engineers and it grew wealthy through the wine trade. Eudoxos, one of the most famous ancient mathematicians and astronomers, Ctesias, the writer on Persian history, was from Knidos as was Sostratos, the architect who designed the lighthouse of Alexandria, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Never ones to pick a fight, the Knidians also surrendered to Alexander without a battle and later we see them part of the Kingdom of Pergamon and then, after 129 B.C., of Rome. During Byzantine times Knidos was an insignificant settlement and it was abandoned entirely some time during the 7th century A.D. The city had two harbors: the commercial port was located on the northern side of a promontory while the military port was located on the southern. Knidos was a planned city, built on the Hippodamos grid system. There are four wide streets running parallel to one another east and west that are intersected by a steep street of steps that divides the city into two. West of the first street at the northwestern end of the city was the military port and north of it was the Knidian agora.
The extreme length of the city was little less than a mile, and the whole intramural area is still thickly strewn with architectural remains. The walls, both of the island and on the mainland, can be traced throughout their whole circuit; and in many places, especially round the acropolis, at the northeast corner of the city, they are remarkably perfect. The first Western knowledge of the site was due to the mission of the Dilettante Society in 1812, and the excavations executed by C. T. Newton in 1857-1858.
The agora, the theatre, an odeum, a temple of Dionysus, a temple of the Muses, a temple of Aphrodite and a great number of minor buildings have been identified, and the general plan of the city has been very clearly made out. The most famous statue by Praxiteles, the Aphrodite of Knidos, was made for Cnidus. It has perished, but late copies exist, of which the most faithful is in the Vatican Museums. In a temple enclosure Newton discovered a fine seated statue of Demeter, which he sent back to the British Museum, and about three miles south-east of the city he came upon the ruins of a splendid tomb, and a colossal figure of a lion carved out of one block of Pentelic marble, ten feet in length and six in height, which has been supposed to commemorate the great naval victory, the Battle of Cnidus in which Conon defeated the Lacedaemonians in 394 BC.
Knidos was a city of high antiquity and as a Hellenic city probably of Lacedaemonian colonization. Along with Halicarnassus (present day Bodrum, Turkey) and Kos, and the Rhodian cities of Lindos, Kamiros and Ialyssos it formed the Dorian Hexapolis, which held its confederate assemblies on the Triopian headland, and there celebrated games in honor of Apollo, Poseidon and the nymphs. The city was at first governed by an oligarchic senate, composed of sixty members, and presided over by a magistrate; but, though it is proved by inscriptions that the old names continued to a very late period, the constitution underwent a popular transformation. The situation of the city was favorable for commerce, and the Knidians acquired considerable wealth, and were able to colonize the island of Lipara, and founded a city on Corcyra Nigra in the Adriatic. They ultimately submitted to Cyrus, and from the battle of Eurymedon to the latter part of the Peloponnesian War they were subject to Athens. In their expansion into the region, the Romans easily obtained the allegiance of Knidians, and rewarded them for help given against Antiochus by leaving them the freedom of their city. During the Byzantine period there must still have been a considerable population: for the ruins contain a large number of buildings belonging to the Byzantine style, and Christian sepulchres are common in the neighborhood.
Rescue excavations carried out since 1996 and so far completed two-thirds of the Stoa, the 3rd century, was built by the famous architect Sostratos. 113 meters long and 16 meters wide 5x3.80 m of soft-formed small rooms. All of the rooms open up to the south. Findings from the excavations are on display in the small museum in the city. | 1,314 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Was the Christmas star a Supernova which is the name given to an exploding star ? Was it a Comet, a planet or a conjunction of planets. These are questions that for many years mankind has tried to answer. Eastern Christians believe that Christ was in fact born on January 6th. Other believe that is was in fact December 25th. However, most of the evidence points to a different date, thus the two aforementioned dates would be incorrect.
The most feasible date would be September 7th 7 B.C. and this is how it was calculated. We know through records that Joseph and his family escaped taxation. If they hadn’t, there would be evidence of them paying tax through use of records. It is reasonable to state that this is why they might have fled to the East, only to find themselves at Bethlehem.
The taxation record that does not show any indication of Joseph and his family was conducted during 8 B.C. Also the mention of three kings that visited the young child is incorrect. They were however wise men and in them days these wise men would have certainly been astrologers and astronomers, hence the wise men recognising the strange event in the sky, such as the Christmas Star.
These wise men travelled East to Bethlehem on horseback as camels were only used to carry baggage. Also these wise men would have certainly avoided the desert, thus taking several months to reach their destination. In that case, Jesus would of in fact been around the age of three months when they arrived.
There is also mention of King Herald who was worried about the birth of a leader, thus had every child up to the age of two years to be killed. This indicates that he did not know the exact date of the birth. It is written that when herald died there was a full eclipse of the moon. Calculations show that a full Lunar eclipse did in fact take place during 1 and 4 B.C.
This indicates our search from 1 to 8 B.C. However all our dates are in fact wrong! During 513 A.D. The Romans changed the calendar to their Roman calendar and not only is there less weeks in the year and possible several years out they calculated the birth of Christ to be in the latter part of December.
Could the Christmas Star have been a Comet ? Comets are formed from the edge of the galaxy which is called the Ort Cloud. The best known comet is in fact Hally’s Comet, that travels past us every 76 years. So if we work on that theory, Hally’s comet would have been visible during 12 B.C. thus indicating that this was not responsible.
Another smaller comet would have been seen during 5 B.C. However, this would of been seen as insignificant and hardly worth following. Could it have been a planet of a conjunction of planets ? Well, interesting theory. If it was a single planet, it could only have been Venus, however, this planet would have been seen periodically, thus not indicating anything spectacular.
A conjunction of planets is the most likely theory. Venus passes in front of Jupiter every 247 years, giving use an alignment. The last recorded incident took place in 1818. So it is not due to take place until the year 2065. However this did occur during 2 B.C. So does this indicate the birth of Christ being in fact 2 B.C. ? If so this does not tie in with the taxation dates, which was 8 B.C.
What about any other planetary conjunction. Jupiter and Saturn were found to have had a conjunction in 7 B.C. and this would have also been brighter, hence being the two largest planetary object in our solar system, and also would have been visible for a longer period. This conjunction would have lasted several months. In fact the two planets would have been seen from the given area, three times in main conjunction, hence being their brightest. The first would have occurred on May 22nd 7 B.C. then seen again on October 6th, and finally rising together on the morning of September 15th through to December 1st 7 B.C.
Could the Christmas Star be false ? Many records show that kings were born and died whilst comets were seen overhead, however, many of these claims are untrue. It was stated that since the days of King Heralds death and that a full lunar eclipse was allegedly visible at the time, that other Kings should have this same honour. So let it be said from this day forward that many a great man be born or die as a comet passes, indicating the death of a great person or the birth of a King.
We do know that such a comet was seen for approximately 70 days in the East during 5 B.C. however most of the evidence points towards the conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn. Could it have been a Meteorite ? It is not often that a meteorite is seen so clearly and is never seen to last for such a long time. Could it have been the birth of a star. These are rarely seen, however, there are two such recorded incidents. The Greeks recorded one in 1054 A.D. and the best being recorded in 1572 A.D. near the constillation of Caseopear.
Also take into consideration a death of a star or a Supernova. These sometimes can be seen in brilliance just before they burn out or become a Neutron star or better known as a Pulsar, which act like a lighthouse. Rotating and giving off a beam of light. The result of many such Supernovas are left as Nebula which are often seen for hundreds of years, hence the Crab Nebula, which in fact shrinks and grows over the years Going backwards and forwards until it diminishes. The brilliance of a Supernova can be visible for several weeks.
Well the best fitting theory to date is the Jupiter and Saturn conjunction that occurred during 7 B.C. and also indicates the birth of Christ to be the 15th of September 7 B.C. and not as everyone claims it to be. In all, the whole event might not have even taken place, but if it did. Rest ashore we will inevitably construct a plausible and rational explanation to the Christmas Star and the Birth of Christ ?
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0.13643571734... | 4 | Was the Christmas star a Supernova which is the name given to an exploding star ? Was it a Comet, a planet or a conjunction of planets. These are questions that for many years mankind has tried to answer. Eastern Christians believe that Christ was in fact born on January 6th. Other believe that is was in fact December 25th. However, most of the evidence points to a different date, thus the two aforementioned dates would be incorrect.
The most feasible date would be September 7th 7 B.C. and this is how it was calculated. We know through records that Joseph and his family escaped taxation. If they hadn’t, there would be evidence of them paying tax through use of records. It is reasonable to state that this is why they might have fled to the East, only to find themselves at Bethlehem.
The taxation record that does not show any indication of Joseph and his family was conducted during 8 B.C. Also the mention of three kings that visited the young child is incorrect. They were however wise men and in them days these wise men would have certainly been astrologers and astronomers, hence the wise men recognising the strange event in the sky, such as the Christmas Star.
These wise men travelled East to Bethlehem on horseback as camels were only used to carry baggage. Also these wise men would have certainly avoided the desert, thus taking several months to reach their destination. In that case, Jesus would of in fact been around the age of three months when they arrived.
There is also mention of King Herald who was worried about the birth of a leader, thus had every child up to the age of two years to be killed. This indicates that he did not know the exact date of the birth. It is written that when herald died there was a full eclipse of the moon. Calculations show that a full Lunar eclipse did in fact take place during 1 and 4 B.C.
This indicates our search from 1 to 8 B.C. However all our dates are in fact wrong! During 513 A.D. The Romans changed the calendar to their Roman calendar and not only is there less weeks in the year and possible several years out they calculated the birth of Christ to be in the latter part of December.
Could the Christmas Star have been a Comet ? Comets are formed from the edge of the galaxy which is called the Ort Cloud. The best known comet is in fact Hally’s Comet, that travels past us every 76 years. So if we work on that theory, Hally’s comet would have been visible during 12 B.C. thus indicating that this was not responsible.
Another smaller comet would have been seen during 5 B.C. However, this would of been seen as insignificant and hardly worth following. Could it have been a planet of a conjunction of planets ? Well, interesting theory. If it was a single planet, it could only have been Venus, however, this planet would have been seen periodically, thus not indicating anything spectacular.
A conjunction of planets is the most likely theory. Venus passes in front of Jupiter every 247 years, giving use an alignment. The last recorded incident took place in 1818. So it is not due to take place until the year 2065. However this did occur during 2 B.C. So does this indicate the birth of Christ being in fact 2 B.C. ? If so this does not tie in with the taxation dates, which was 8 B.C.
What about any other planetary conjunction. Jupiter and Saturn were found to have had a conjunction in 7 B.C. and this would have also been brighter, hence being the two largest planetary object in our solar system, and also would have been visible for a longer period. This conjunction would have lasted several months. In fact the two planets would have been seen from the given area, three times in main conjunction, hence being their brightest. The first would have occurred on May 22nd 7 B.C. then seen again on October 6th, and finally rising together on the morning of September 15th through to December 1st 7 B.C.
Could the Christmas Star be false ? Many records show that kings were born and died whilst comets were seen overhead, however, many of these claims are untrue. It was stated that since the days of King Heralds death and that a full lunar eclipse was allegedly visible at the time, that other Kings should have this same honour. So let it be said from this day forward that many a great man be born or die as a comet passes, indicating the death of a great person or the birth of a King.
We do know that such a comet was seen for approximately 70 days in the East during 5 B.C. however most of the evidence points towards the conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn. Could it have been a Meteorite ? It is not often that a meteorite is seen so clearly and is never seen to last for such a long time. Could it have been the birth of a star. These are rarely seen, however, there are two such recorded incidents. The Greeks recorded one in 1054 A.D. and the best being recorded in 1572 A.D. near the constillation of Caseopear.
Also take into consideration a death of a star or a Supernova. These sometimes can be seen in brilliance just before they burn out or become a Neutron star or better known as a Pulsar, which act like a lighthouse. Rotating and giving off a beam of light. The result of many such Supernovas are left as Nebula which are often seen for hundreds of years, hence the Crab Nebula, which in fact shrinks and grows over the years Going backwards and forwards until it diminishes. The brilliance of a Supernova can be visible for several weeks.
Well the best fitting theory to date is the Jupiter and Saturn conjunction that occurred during 7 B.C. and also indicates the birth of Christ to be the 15th of September 7 B.C. and not as everyone claims it to be. In all, the whole event might not have even taken place, but if it did. Rest ashore we will inevitably construct a plausible and rational explanation to the Christmas Star and the Birth of Christ ?
By Steve Mera | 1,299 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Do these photos unveil what really caused the Titanic to sink?
Do forgotten photos unveil what really caused the Titanic to sink?
Titanic author and researcher Senan Molony puts forth a strong case that long-forgotten photos from Titanic’s Chief Electrical Engineer, John Kempster might prove the theory that a fierce fire onboard the Titanic contributed to the “unsinkable” ship’s demise. In Titanic’s Fatal Fire, which premieres at 8 p.m. ET April 15 on the Smithsonian channel, Molony details many of the decisions made by the shipbuilders to finish the Titanic on time, despite signs the ship might not have been fit for the sea.
Here are four remarkable things we learned from Molony about the photos and the show, which premieres on the 105th anniversary of the ship’s perilous journey.
The photos were in an attic for decades
A descendant of Kempster brought an album of old photos of the Titanic to an auction house in 2012, according to Molony.
"The auction house intended breaking up the individual pictures into single lots, meaning they would have been dispersed," Molony said. "A collector somehow heard about the find, however, and approached the dealers."
Photos show mark on Titanic where a fire was burning
Two of the photos show a 30-foot-long dark mark on the ship's starboard side, directly in front of where boiler room six would have been located, an area where there was a massive fire, according to show.
The area where the mark is located is also where the ship hit the iceberg, leading experts to believe the fire might have damaged the area, allowing the iceberg to cause further damage than it might do if the area wasn't compromised.
The fire on the Titanic was massive, and likely should have kept the ship from sailing
The day the Titanic left Belfast for Southampton, England, a massive fire was found in one of the coal storage bunkers. Typically firemen aboard the ships dug out the burning coal before the fire spread, but the Titanic's coal bunkers were three-stories high making it impossible to quickly deal with the massive flames.
While the fire was glossed over during the British Inquiry following the ship's sinking, Molony found a New York newspaper article featuring John Dilley, who was a fireman onboard the ship.
The firemen were told not to tell passengers or talk about the fire, which according to the Dilley burned the first few days of the voyage. “From the day we sailed the Titanic was on fire," according to the Dilley.
Molony said research suggests the coal fire was burning at over 1800 degrees Fahrenheit and may have warped the steel and made it brittle. The Titanic was designed to sink slowly enough that other ships could reach it and save passengers onboard, but the damage from the fire likely accelerated the ship's sinking.
The British Inquiry following the ship's sinking got a lot wrong
After the ship sank, an inquiry into what went wrong was held, but some key aspects of the ship's demise were downplayed or incorrect.
"Everyone accepted [the British Inquiry] claim that the fire did not play a major part, even though the inquiry also denied that the ship broke in two (she did!) and claimed that her sinking was caused by a 300-ft gash made by the berg," Molony said, adding "Sonar imaging of the wreck on the sea floor shows there was no such long gash. It had to be something else that caused her to sink in so short a time, two hours and 40 minutes."
Molony said the Board of Trade marine inspector, Maurice Clarke told the inquiry that the fire had been concealed from him. He had the power to withhold the ship from sailing and likely would have based on another case involving another transatlantic liner.
"The fact that [the British Inquiry] suppressed consideration of an uncontrolled fire should therefore not surprise – particularly since some of the judicial makeup of the Titanic Inquiry had previously ruled in 1910 in the case of the Cairnrona ... that she should not have gone to sea with a spontaneous coal fire in her bunkers," he said.
According to Molony, the Cairnrona people were killed in an explosion onboard the ship.
"The Cairnrona suffered an explosion, loss of life and panic," he said. "The finding was circulated to all shipping companies – but Titanic sailed anyway, two years later, with her coal in worse condition."
The Titanic likely sped up because of the coal fire
Molony said Titanic investigators believe workers in the boiler room were likely trying to remove coal from the boiler with the fire and had no choice but to burn it in other furnaces, which would have sped up the ship.
He said the Titanic's speed was yet another inconsistency following the ship's sinking.
"The Titanic was doing nearly 23 knots at time of impact, whereas the White Star Line told the English press four days before she sailed that the Titanic would do no more than 20 knots in order to economize coal in light of the recent coal strike," he said. | <urn:uuid:e8d3b766-cafb-4a81-a1db-18030bffe403> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/nation-now/2017/04/14/titanic-photos-may-show-why-it-sink-fire-boiler-room-iceberg-death-105-anniversary/100410926/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00455.warc.gz | en | 0.980828 | 1,059 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.3474175333976745... | 3 | Do these photos unveil what really caused the Titanic to sink?
Do forgotten photos unveil what really caused the Titanic to sink?
Titanic author and researcher Senan Molony puts forth a strong case that long-forgotten photos from Titanic’s Chief Electrical Engineer, John Kempster might prove the theory that a fierce fire onboard the Titanic contributed to the “unsinkable” ship’s demise. In Titanic’s Fatal Fire, which premieres at 8 p.m. ET April 15 on the Smithsonian channel, Molony details many of the decisions made by the shipbuilders to finish the Titanic on time, despite signs the ship might not have been fit for the sea.
Here are four remarkable things we learned from Molony about the photos and the show, which premieres on the 105th anniversary of the ship’s perilous journey.
The photos were in an attic for decades
A descendant of Kempster brought an album of old photos of the Titanic to an auction house in 2012, according to Molony.
"The auction house intended breaking up the individual pictures into single lots, meaning they would have been dispersed," Molony said. "A collector somehow heard about the find, however, and approached the dealers."
Photos show mark on Titanic where a fire was burning
Two of the photos show a 30-foot-long dark mark on the ship's starboard side, directly in front of where boiler room six would have been located, an area where there was a massive fire, according to show.
The area where the mark is located is also where the ship hit the iceberg, leading experts to believe the fire might have damaged the area, allowing the iceberg to cause further damage than it might do if the area wasn't compromised.
The fire on the Titanic was massive, and likely should have kept the ship from sailing
The day the Titanic left Belfast for Southampton, England, a massive fire was found in one of the coal storage bunkers. Typically firemen aboard the ships dug out the burning coal before the fire spread, but the Titanic's coal bunkers were three-stories high making it impossible to quickly deal with the massive flames.
While the fire was glossed over during the British Inquiry following the ship's sinking, Molony found a New York newspaper article featuring John Dilley, who was a fireman onboard the ship.
The firemen were told not to tell passengers or talk about the fire, which according to the Dilley burned the first few days of the voyage. “From the day we sailed the Titanic was on fire," according to the Dilley.
Molony said research suggests the coal fire was burning at over 1800 degrees Fahrenheit and may have warped the steel and made it brittle. The Titanic was designed to sink slowly enough that other ships could reach it and save passengers onboard, but the damage from the fire likely accelerated the ship's sinking.
The British Inquiry following the ship's sinking got a lot wrong
After the ship sank, an inquiry into what went wrong was held, but some key aspects of the ship's demise were downplayed or incorrect.
"Everyone accepted [the British Inquiry] claim that the fire did not play a major part, even though the inquiry also denied that the ship broke in two (she did!) and claimed that her sinking was caused by a 300-ft gash made by the berg," Molony said, adding "Sonar imaging of the wreck on the sea floor shows there was no such long gash. It had to be something else that caused her to sink in so short a time, two hours and 40 minutes."
Molony said the Board of Trade marine inspector, Maurice Clarke told the inquiry that the fire had been concealed from him. He had the power to withhold the ship from sailing and likely would have based on another case involving another transatlantic liner.
"The fact that [the British Inquiry] suppressed consideration of an uncontrolled fire should therefore not surprise – particularly since some of the judicial makeup of the Titanic Inquiry had previously ruled in 1910 in the case of the Cairnrona ... that she should not have gone to sea with a spontaneous coal fire in her bunkers," he said.
According to Molony, the Cairnrona people were killed in an explosion onboard the ship.
"The Cairnrona suffered an explosion, loss of life and panic," he said. "The finding was circulated to all shipping companies – but Titanic sailed anyway, two years later, with her coal in worse condition."
The Titanic likely sped up because of the coal fire
Molony said Titanic investigators believe workers in the boiler room were likely trying to remove coal from the boiler with the fire and had no choice but to burn it in other furnaces, which would have sped up the ship.
He said the Titanic's speed was yet another inconsistency following the ship's sinking.
"The Titanic was doing nearly 23 knots at time of impact, whereas the White Star Line told the English press four days before she sailed that the Titanic would do no more than 20 knots in order to economize coal in light of the recent coal strike," he said. | 1,047 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Early life Jackson was born on the western frontier of the Carolinas, an area that was in dispute between North Carolina and South Carolinaand both states have claimed him as a native son.
Visit Website Did you know? During their invasion of the western Carolinas inBritish soldiers took the young Andrew Jackson prisoner. When Jackson refused to shine one officer's boots, the officer struck him across the face with a saber, leaving lasting scars.
Jackson read law in his late teens and earned admission to the North Carolina bar in He soon moved west King andrew jackson the Appalachians to the region that would soon become the state of Tennesseeand began working as a prosecuting attorney in the settlement that became Nashville.
He later set up his own private practice and met and married Rachel Donelson Robards, the daughter of a local colonel. Jackson grew prosperous enough to build a mansion, the Hermitage, near Nashville, and to buy slaves. InJackson joined a convention charged with drafting the new Tennessee state constitution and became the first man to be elected to the U.
House of Representatives from Tennessee. Though he declined to seek reelection and returned home in Marchhe was almost immediately elected to the U. He was later chosen to head the state militia, a position he held when war broke out with Great Britain in The win, which occurred after the War of officially ended but before news of the Treaty of Ghent had reached Washingtonelevated Jackson to the status of national war hero.
After his forces captured Spanish posts at St. At first he professed no interest in the office, but by his boosters had rallied enough support to get him a nomination as well as a seat in the U.
In a five-way race, Jackson won the popular vote, but for the first time in history no candidate received a majority of electoral votes. The House of Representatives was charged with deciding between the three leading candidates: Critically ill after a stroke, Crawford was essentially out, and Speaker of the House Henry Clay who had finished fourth threw his support behind Adams, who later made Clay his secretary of state.
Andrew Jackson In the White House Andrew Jackson won redemption four years later in an election that was characterized to an unusual degree by negative personal attacks.
Jackson and his wife were accused of adultery on the basis that Rachel had not been legally divorced from her first husband when she married Jackson. Shortly after his victory inthe shy and pious Rachel died at the Hermitage; Jackson apparently believed the negative attacks had hastened her death.
Andrew Jackson and his supporters opposed the bank, seeing it as a privileged institution and the enemy of the common people; meanwhile, Clay and Webster led the argument in Congress for its recharter.
InSouth Carolina adopted a resolution declaring federal tariffs passed in and null and void and prohibiting their enforcement within state boundaries. While urging Congress to lower the high tariffs, Jackson sought and obtained the authority to order federal armed forces to South Carolina to enforce federal laws.
Violence seemed imminent, but South Carolina backed down, and Jackson earned credit for preserving the Union in its greatest moment of crisis to that date.
Supreme Court ruling that Georgia had no authority over Native American tribal lands. Inthe Cherokees signed a treaty giving up their land in exchange for territory west of Arkansaswhere in some 15, would head on foot along the so-called Trail of Tears.
The relocation resulted in the deaths of thousands. After leaving office, Jackson retired to the Hermitage, where he died in June Trump suggests Andrew Jackson would have averted the Civil War: “Why could that one not have been worked out?".
Andrew Jackson was the seventh U.S. president. Known as the 'people's president,' Jackson's life was marked by controversy. Learn more at pfmlures.com Watch video · Andrew Jackson was born in in the Waxhaws region between North Carolina and South Carolina.
A lawyer and a landowner, he became a national war hero after defeating the British in the Battle.
On July l0, , President Andrew Jackson sent a message to the United States Senate. He returned unsigned, with his objections, a bill that extended the charter of the Second Bank of the United States, due to expire in , for another fifteen years.
Andrew Jackson (March 15, – June 8, ) was an American soldier and statesman who served as the seventh President of the United States from to Before being elected to the presidency, Jackson gained fame as a general in the United States Army and served in both houses of pfmlures.com president, Jackson sought to advance the rights of the "common man" against a "corrupt.
Sep 30, · Jackson was sometimes called King Andrew the First because he wielded the power of the presidency almost as a king sometimes. He ignored the Supreme Court's decision on Indian Removal in Worcester v. | <urn:uuid:603d3ecb-130e-48c1-ab49-2f368c138a57> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://qemupigyfaja.pfmlures.com/king-andrew-jackson-17143ji.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00187.warc.gz | en | 0.98532 | 988 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.04955708608031273,... | 1 | Early life Jackson was born on the western frontier of the Carolinas, an area that was in dispute between North Carolina and South Carolinaand both states have claimed him as a native son.
Visit Website Did you know? During their invasion of the western Carolinas inBritish soldiers took the young Andrew Jackson prisoner. When Jackson refused to shine one officer's boots, the officer struck him across the face with a saber, leaving lasting scars.
Jackson read law in his late teens and earned admission to the North Carolina bar in He soon moved west King andrew jackson the Appalachians to the region that would soon become the state of Tennesseeand began working as a prosecuting attorney in the settlement that became Nashville.
He later set up his own private practice and met and married Rachel Donelson Robards, the daughter of a local colonel. Jackson grew prosperous enough to build a mansion, the Hermitage, near Nashville, and to buy slaves. InJackson joined a convention charged with drafting the new Tennessee state constitution and became the first man to be elected to the U.
House of Representatives from Tennessee. Though he declined to seek reelection and returned home in Marchhe was almost immediately elected to the U. He was later chosen to head the state militia, a position he held when war broke out with Great Britain in The win, which occurred after the War of officially ended but before news of the Treaty of Ghent had reached Washingtonelevated Jackson to the status of national war hero.
After his forces captured Spanish posts at St. At first he professed no interest in the office, but by his boosters had rallied enough support to get him a nomination as well as a seat in the U.
In a five-way race, Jackson won the popular vote, but for the first time in history no candidate received a majority of electoral votes. The House of Representatives was charged with deciding between the three leading candidates: Critically ill after a stroke, Crawford was essentially out, and Speaker of the House Henry Clay who had finished fourth threw his support behind Adams, who later made Clay his secretary of state.
Andrew Jackson In the White House Andrew Jackson won redemption four years later in an election that was characterized to an unusual degree by negative personal attacks.
Jackson and his wife were accused of adultery on the basis that Rachel had not been legally divorced from her first husband when she married Jackson. Shortly after his victory inthe shy and pious Rachel died at the Hermitage; Jackson apparently believed the negative attacks had hastened her death.
Andrew Jackson and his supporters opposed the bank, seeing it as a privileged institution and the enemy of the common people; meanwhile, Clay and Webster led the argument in Congress for its recharter.
InSouth Carolina adopted a resolution declaring federal tariffs passed in and null and void and prohibiting their enforcement within state boundaries. While urging Congress to lower the high tariffs, Jackson sought and obtained the authority to order federal armed forces to South Carolina to enforce federal laws.
Violence seemed imminent, but South Carolina backed down, and Jackson earned credit for preserving the Union in its greatest moment of crisis to that date.
Supreme Court ruling that Georgia had no authority over Native American tribal lands. Inthe Cherokees signed a treaty giving up their land in exchange for territory west of Arkansaswhere in some 15, would head on foot along the so-called Trail of Tears.
The relocation resulted in the deaths of thousands. After leaving office, Jackson retired to the Hermitage, where he died in June Trump suggests Andrew Jackson would have averted the Civil War: “Why could that one not have been worked out?".
Andrew Jackson was the seventh U.S. president. Known as the 'people's president,' Jackson's life was marked by controversy. Learn more at pfmlures.com Watch video · Andrew Jackson was born in in the Waxhaws region between North Carolina and South Carolina.
A lawyer and a landowner, he became a national war hero after defeating the British in the Battle.
On July l0, , President Andrew Jackson sent a message to the United States Senate. He returned unsigned, with his objections, a bill that extended the charter of the Second Bank of the United States, due to expire in , for another fifteen years.
Andrew Jackson (March 15, – June 8, ) was an American soldier and statesman who served as the seventh President of the United States from to Before being elected to the presidency, Jackson gained fame as a general in the United States Army and served in both houses of pfmlures.com president, Jackson sought to advance the rights of the "common man" against a "corrupt.
Sep 30, · Jackson was sometimes called King Andrew the First because he wielded the power of the presidency almost as a king sometimes. He ignored the Supreme Court's decision on Indian Removal in Worcester v. | 975 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Overview of the war of 1812 started on June 18, 1812 between the United States and Great Britain when the United States of America officially declared War against Great Britain. This declaration of war by the United States against Great Britain was said to have been caused by factors such as the Impressment issue and the need of the Americans to take ownership of the remaining part of the North American continent which during that time was still owned by the Monarchy government of England.
The British government tried to avoid this war with the Americans. In fact, when the British realized that the Americans were seriously thinking of going to war against them on a maritime matter known as the Impressment issue, the British government without hesitation ordered the rebuke of the so called Orders-in-Council. This Orders-in-Council approves the Impressment issue that caused this maritime problem between the Americans and the British.
Overview of the war of 1812 would look on the Impressment issue as the official cause of the Americans to wage war against the British. Impressment is the process which forcibly inducts men into military service. This is the gist of the British Orders-in council which authorized the British Royal Navy to forcibly induct English speaking men into their fleet whom they believe are British deserter sailors . Because of the very harsh condition of serving in the British Royal Navy at that time, the number of desertions became very high. In contrast, American ships provide better working and living conditions with their men at sea. This obtaining condition made many British navy men jump ship to work for American vessels.
As the need for navy personnel to man their various war ships reached a critical point due to desertions, the British Royal Navy imposed impressment in a very blatant and forcible way. They soon begin to stop American ships in high seas and forced able bodied men so long as they speak English, to transfer ship and work for the British Royal navy. This practice in the high seas of the British Royal navy against American vessels caused the “hawks” in the American Congress to agitate for war against Great Britain.
Another maritime issue that irked the “hawks” of the US congress to call for war with the British was the stoppage and seizures the British Royal navy did to American Ships doing trade with France. Overview of The war of 1812 would show us that this measure was made by the British because during that time, they were in a struggle with the forces of Napoleon Bonaparte of France for the control of the Iberian Peninsula. Thus, these two maritime issues were the bases for the Americans to wage war with the British which they officially declared on June 18, 1812 clumped under the Impressment issue. | <urn:uuid:7fccfbe0-d1b6-4549-8508-84495bc908ed> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thefinertimes.com/War-of-1812/overview-the-war-of-1812.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00022.warc.gz | en | 0.981967 | 553 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.2805262804... | 1 | Overview of the war of 1812 started on June 18, 1812 between the United States and Great Britain when the United States of America officially declared War against Great Britain. This declaration of war by the United States against Great Britain was said to have been caused by factors such as the Impressment issue and the need of the Americans to take ownership of the remaining part of the North American continent which during that time was still owned by the Monarchy government of England.
The British government tried to avoid this war with the Americans. In fact, when the British realized that the Americans were seriously thinking of going to war against them on a maritime matter known as the Impressment issue, the British government without hesitation ordered the rebuke of the so called Orders-in-Council. This Orders-in-Council approves the Impressment issue that caused this maritime problem between the Americans and the British.
Overview of the war of 1812 would look on the Impressment issue as the official cause of the Americans to wage war against the British. Impressment is the process which forcibly inducts men into military service. This is the gist of the British Orders-in council which authorized the British Royal Navy to forcibly induct English speaking men into their fleet whom they believe are British deserter sailors . Because of the very harsh condition of serving in the British Royal Navy at that time, the number of desertions became very high. In contrast, American ships provide better working and living conditions with their men at sea. This obtaining condition made many British navy men jump ship to work for American vessels.
As the need for navy personnel to man their various war ships reached a critical point due to desertions, the British Royal Navy imposed impressment in a very blatant and forcible way. They soon begin to stop American ships in high seas and forced able bodied men so long as they speak English, to transfer ship and work for the British Royal navy. This practice in the high seas of the British Royal navy against American vessels caused the “hawks” in the American Congress to agitate for war against Great Britain.
Another maritime issue that irked the “hawks” of the US congress to call for war with the British was the stoppage and seizures the British Royal navy did to American Ships doing trade with France. Overview of The war of 1812 would show us that this measure was made by the British because during that time, they were in a struggle with the forces of Napoleon Bonaparte of France for the control of the Iberian Peninsula. Thus, these two maritime issues were the bases for the Americans to wage war with the British which they officially declared on June 18, 1812 clumped under the Impressment issue. | 557 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
Carey v. Piphus
Carey v. Piphus, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on March 21, 1978, ruled (8–0) that public school officials can be financially liable for violating a student’s procedural due process rights under the Fourteenth Amendment if the student can prove the officials were unjustified in their actions and that an actual injury had occurred. If the student is unable to offer such proof, school officials may be liable only for small damages, not to exceed one dollar.
The case involved two students, one of whom was Jarius Piphus, a freshman at a vocational high school in Chicago. In 1974 he received a 20-day suspension for reportedly smoking marijuana on school grounds. Piphus denied the allegation, but he was never permitted a hearing to challenge the suspension. The second student was Silas Brisco, a sixth grader at a Chicago elementary school. In 1973 he wore an earring to school, in violation of a school rule that sought to limit gang activity. When asked to remove it, Brisco refused, claiming that the earring was “a symbol of black pride, not of gang membership.” Without being granted a hearing or other form of procedural due process, he was suspended for 20 days. The students sued their school board, arguing that their Fourteenth Amendment right to due process had been violated and that they were entitled to monetary damages. Their cases were later consolidated.
A federal district court subsequently ruled that both students had been denied due process. In addressing the issue of damages, the court, citing Wood v. Strickland (1975), rejected school officials’s claims of qualified immunity, because they should have realized “that a lengthy suspension without any adjudicative hearing of any type” was a violation of procedural due process. However, because the students failed to provide evidence of injuries resulting from the suspensions, the court refused to award damages. A court of appeals, however, reversed in part and remanded, holding that the lower court should have reviewed evidence of injury that was received after the judgment. Furthermore, according to the appellate court, if school officials could show that the students would have been suspended regardless of a hearing, then damages “representing the value of missed school time” should not be awarded. However, the court held that Piphus and Brisco were entitled to “substantial non-punitive” damages because their procedural due process rights had been violated.
On December 6, 1977, the case was argued before the U.S. Supreme Court. The court held that consistent with previous cases such as Wood, school officials can be financially liable for deprivation of students’ protected rights, and the facts of Piphus clearly supported the notion that school officials did indeed violate the two students’ right to due process. Further, in acknowledging the critical importance of citizens’ observing and abiding by federally protected rights, the court ruled that a violation of the due process rights of students per se is sufficient to entitle them to awards for damages.
At the same time, the court decided that a violation of due process, absent actual injury, was not sufficient to award substantial damages. When due process has been violated in the context of student discipline, but without proof of actual injury resulting from that violation, the court explained that students are entitled to only nominal damages. In addition, the court stated that substantial damages may be awarded only when students are able to show that their removal from school was unlawful or unjustified.
The court further addressed the issue of injury. According to the court, it is the student’s responsibility to prove that an injury occurred and that the injury was caused by the violation of due process and not by other, justifiable factors. It is possible, for example, that when a student proves that he or she has suffered harm from being removed from school, such harm may be caused by two factors: the violation of due process or the lawful and justified removal from school. If a student suffers emotional distress because he or she was suspended or expelled for legitimate and justified reasons without procedural due process, substantial damages will not be awarded, because the cause of the distress was a lawful removal from school.
On the basis of those findings, the court was of the opinion that Piphus and Brisco were entitled to damages because their due process rights were violated. However, if the students could not prove that their removal from school was unlawful or unjustified, they were entitled to only one dollar from school officials. The decision of the appellate court was reversed and the case remanded. (Only eight justices reviewed the case; Harry A. Blackmun was not involved in the consideration or decision.)
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Supreme Court of the United States
Supreme Court of the United States, final court of appeal and final expositor of the Constitution of the United States. Within the framework of litigation, the Supreme Court marks the boundaries of authority between state and nation, state and state, and government and citizen.…
Due process, a course of legal proceedings according to rules and principles that have been established in a system of jurisprudence for the enforcement and protection of private rights. In each case, due process contemplates an exercise of the powers of government as the law permits and sanctions, under recognized…
Fourteenth Amendment, amendment (1868) to the Constitution of the United States that granted citizenship and equal civil and legal rights to African Americans and slaves who had been emancipated after the American Civil War, including them under the umbrella phrase “all persons born or naturalized in the United States.” In… | <urn:uuid:3f458a4d-732d-4792-9df3-2c27d4e6069f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Carey-v-Piphus | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00239.warc.gz | en | 0.980957 | 1,197 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.0371853150... | 1 | Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
Carey v. Piphus
Carey v. Piphus, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on March 21, 1978, ruled (8–0) that public school officials can be financially liable for violating a student’s procedural due process rights under the Fourteenth Amendment if the student can prove the officials were unjustified in their actions and that an actual injury had occurred. If the student is unable to offer such proof, school officials may be liable only for small damages, not to exceed one dollar.
The case involved two students, one of whom was Jarius Piphus, a freshman at a vocational high school in Chicago. In 1974 he received a 20-day suspension for reportedly smoking marijuana on school grounds. Piphus denied the allegation, but he was never permitted a hearing to challenge the suspension. The second student was Silas Brisco, a sixth grader at a Chicago elementary school. In 1973 he wore an earring to school, in violation of a school rule that sought to limit gang activity. When asked to remove it, Brisco refused, claiming that the earring was “a symbol of black pride, not of gang membership.” Without being granted a hearing or other form of procedural due process, he was suspended for 20 days. The students sued their school board, arguing that their Fourteenth Amendment right to due process had been violated and that they were entitled to monetary damages. Their cases were later consolidated.
A federal district court subsequently ruled that both students had been denied due process. In addressing the issue of damages, the court, citing Wood v. Strickland (1975), rejected school officials’s claims of qualified immunity, because they should have realized “that a lengthy suspension without any adjudicative hearing of any type” was a violation of procedural due process. However, because the students failed to provide evidence of injuries resulting from the suspensions, the court refused to award damages. A court of appeals, however, reversed in part and remanded, holding that the lower court should have reviewed evidence of injury that was received after the judgment. Furthermore, according to the appellate court, if school officials could show that the students would have been suspended regardless of a hearing, then damages “representing the value of missed school time” should not be awarded. However, the court held that Piphus and Brisco were entitled to “substantial non-punitive” damages because their procedural due process rights had been violated.
On December 6, 1977, the case was argued before the U.S. Supreme Court. The court held that consistent with previous cases such as Wood, school officials can be financially liable for deprivation of students’ protected rights, and the facts of Piphus clearly supported the notion that school officials did indeed violate the two students’ right to due process. Further, in acknowledging the critical importance of citizens’ observing and abiding by federally protected rights, the court ruled that a violation of the due process rights of students per se is sufficient to entitle them to awards for damages.
At the same time, the court decided that a violation of due process, absent actual injury, was not sufficient to award substantial damages. When due process has been violated in the context of student discipline, but without proof of actual injury resulting from that violation, the court explained that students are entitled to only nominal damages. In addition, the court stated that substantial damages may be awarded only when students are able to show that their removal from school was unlawful or unjustified.
The court further addressed the issue of injury. According to the court, it is the student’s responsibility to prove that an injury occurred and that the injury was caused by the violation of due process and not by other, justifiable factors. It is possible, for example, that when a student proves that he or she has suffered harm from being removed from school, such harm may be caused by two factors: the violation of due process or the lawful and justified removal from school. If a student suffers emotional distress because he or she was suspended or expelled for legitimate and justified reasons without procedural due process, substantial damages will not be awarded, because the cause of the distress was a lawful removal from school.
On the basis of those findings, the court was of the opinion that Piphus and Brisco were entitled to damages because their due process rights were violated. However, if the students could not prove that their removal from school was unlawful or unjustified, they were entitled to only one dollar from school officials. The decision of the appellate court was reversed and the case remanded. (Only eight justices reviewed the case; Harry A. Blackmun was not involved in the consideration or decision.)
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Supreme Court of the United States
Supreme Court of the United States, final court of appeal and final expositor of the Constitution of the United States. Within the framework of litigation, the Supreme Court marks the boundaries of authority between state and nation, state and state, and government and citizen.…
Due process, a course of legal proceedings according to rules and principles that have been established in a system of jurisprudence for the enforcement and protection of private rights. In each case, due process contemplates an exercise of the powers of government as the law permits and sanctions, under recognized…
Fourteenth Amendment, amendment (1868) to the Constitution of the United States that granted citizenship and equal civil and legal rights to African Americans and slaves who had been emancipated after the American Civil War, including them under the umbrella phrase “all persons born or naturalized in the United States.” In… | 1,187 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The 1824 presidential election, like the one in 2016, held that it was solely the votes that the candidates amassed in the Electoral College that mattered. Then, as now, if a candidate failed to muster an absolute majority, the 12th Amendment of the Constitution dictates that the election be decided by the House of Representatives, with every state delegation, whether large or small, having one vote. Furthermore, the amendment requires the House to choose a president from the three highest receivers of electoral votes.
In the event, one candidate won, one helped him win, and one stormed out of town denouncing the process as a “corrupt bargain.” Until the razor-thin disputed election of 2000, the election of 1824 remained the most controversial one in U.S. history.
On Dec. 1, 1824, the results were announced. Andrew Jackson of Tennessee had received 99 electoral votes and 153,544 popular votes; John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, the son of John Adams, the nation’s second president, received 84 electoral and 108,740 popular votes; Secretary of State William Crawford of Georgia, who had suffered a stroke before the election, received 41 electoral votes; and Rep. Henry Clay of Kentucky won 37 electoral votes.
At the time, all four of the candidates were members of the Democratic-Republican Party, although there were significant political differences among them. Importantly, each of them had fallen short of the 131 votes needed for an outright victory, as mandated by the Constitution.
Since the Constitution allows the House to consider only the top three candidates, Clay could not become president. Crawford's poor health following a stroke made his election by the House, at best, a dubious proposition. That left Jackson and Adams. For his part, Jackson expected the House to declare him the winner, since he had won a plurality of both the popular and electoral votes. (The 1824 election was the first one in which the popular vote was tabulated.)
Instead, on this day in 1825, the House elected Adams on the first ballot with 13 states voting for him, followed by Jackson with seven states and Crawford with four. Significantly, Clay had backed Adams, an endorsement that carried extra weight because Clay was the speaker of the House. When Adams subsequently nominated Clay as his secretary of state, a furious Jackson accused the pair of having struck a “corrupt bargain.”
With little popular support, Adams’ time in the presidency was largely ineffectual. In 1828, Jackson received more than twice as many electoral votes as Adams, thereby dashing Adams’ hopes of a second term. | <urn:uuid:bc89b134-5859-40ca-860f-fc63ed8f6f74> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.politico.com/story/2017/02/us-house-decides-presidential-election-feb-9-1825-234690 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00138.warc.gz | en | 0.981472 | 534 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.0887281298... | 3 | The 1824 presidential election, like the one in 2016, held that it was solely the votes that the candidates amassed in the Electoral College that mattered. Then, as now, if a candidate failed to muster an absolute majority, the 12th Amendment of the Constitution dictates that the election be decided by the House of Representatives, with every state delegation, whether large or small, having one vote. Furthermore, the amendment requires the House to choose a president from the three highest receivers of electoral votes.
In the event, one candidate won, one helped him win, and one stormed out of town denouncing the process as a “corrupt bargain.” Until the razor-thin disputed election of 2000, the election of 1824 remained the most controversial one in U.S. history.
On Dec. 1, 1824, the results were announced. Andrew Jackson of Tennessee had received 99 electoral votes and 153,544 popular votes; John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, the son of John Adams, the nation’s second president, received 84 electoral and 108,740 popular votes; Secretary of State William Crawford of Georgia, who had suffered a stroke before the election, received 41 electoral votes; and Rep. Henry Clay of Kentucky won 37 electoral votes.
At the time, all four of the candidates were members of the Democratic-Republican Party, although there were significant political differences among them. Importantly, each of them had fallen short of the 131 votes needed for an outright victory, as mandated by the Constitution.
Since the Constitution allows the House to consider only the top three candidates, Clay could not become president. Crawford's poor health following a stroke made his election by the House, at best, a dubious proposition. That left Jackson and Adams. For his part, Jackson expected the House to declare him the winner, since he had won a plurality of both the popular and electoral votes. (The 1824 election was the first one in which the popular vote was tabulated.)
Instead, on this day in 1825, the House elected Adams on the first ballot with 13 states voting for him, followed by Jackson with seven states and Crawford with four. Significantly, Clay had backed Adams, an endorsement that carried extra weight because Clay was the speaker of the House. When Adams subsequently nominated Clay as his secretary of state, a furious Jackson accused the pair of having struck a “corrupt bargain.”
With little popular support, Adams’ time in the presidency was largely ineffectual. In 1828, Jackson received more than twice as many electoral votes as Adams, thereby dashing Adams’ hopes of a second term. | 570 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today, we honor the life and legacy of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., whose life-long devotion to the advancement of civil rights led to the end of institutionalized Jim Crow across the American South.
Dr. King was not the first to dream of an America where people would be judged on the content of their character rather than the color of their skin. He was not the first to march, and he was not the first to protest.
Dr. King’s approach of non-violent resistance, civil disobedience dates back to the efforts of Melvin Tolson at Wiley College in Marshall, Tex., in the mid 1930s. From Tolson’s efforts, sharecroppers unionized, and one of his pupils at Wiley went on to found the Congress on Racial Equality (CORE). For what it’s worth, the approach of civil disobedience dates back to an essay by Henry David Thoreau written in the 1840s.
Dr. King was not the first to dream, nor was he the first to act. So, why was his movement the first to effect tangible change? How did Dr. King’s movement transform the nation?
The answer lies in his heart.
The heart of Dr. King, from which his plans for the civil rights movement were built, was laid out in a sermon he preached at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Ala., on November 17, 1957. In his sermon, titled, “Love Your Enemies,” Dr. King explained that the darkness from anger sparked by racial injustice could not drive out the darkness of the racism itself, that only light could drive out darkness.
Dr. King explained the concept of love, what it means to love your enemies, and that love has a redemptive power. Redemption, it means to free one from the bonds of sin. To redeem your enemies means to convert them and to bring them over to your side. The concept is rooted in the Gospel.
Dr. King loved America, and wanted to see America redeemed from it’s racial injustice. To do this, Dr. King trusted the Lord’s word to love his enemies. His entire movement was built on his faith.
The concept of love and redemption carried over into his work in the early 1960s, highlighted by his famous “I Have a Dream” speech. In that speech, Dr. King explained how his faith continued to motivate his work:
I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight, and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together.
This is our hope. This is the faith that I go back to the South with. With this faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day.
Dr. King understood that his dream may not be fully realized during his life, or even during this world, but that one day, the Lord would return, and then his dream would be realized. He encouraged others in this faith, noting that unjust suffering had a redemptive quality.
Dr. King continued his work, influencing the passage of key legislation and the changing of attitudes. He left a legacy, not only of dedication, but of success.
However, Dr. King’s faith was never more evident than when he gave his famous “Mountain Top Speech,” in which he drew a parallel with Moses, saying that God had allowed him to go to the mountain top, and see the promised land.
Whether Dr. King had a mountain top experience heading into Memphis in 1968, or whether he had always worked with the knowledge that he would not see his dream fulfilled in his lifetime, he lived with the faith that God would bring that dream about.
For Dr. King, his dream was tangible, and would certainly come to pass, because his faith had made it real. As he concluded his final public address, he stated:
And so I’m happy, tonight. I’m not worried about anything. I’m not fearing any man! Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord!!
Even so, come Lord Jesus.
What empowered Dr. King’s dream, his work and his activism was his faith. His faith that this cause was in line with God’s will. His faith was so strong that his dream and cause were tangible, which is what faith does, according to Hebrews 11:1.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., transformed America, not only by showing us the sin of racial injustice and spurring us to repentance, but also by demonstrating the power of a life lived by faith.
We may not transform a nation, or subdue a kingdom, but if we live our lives by our faith in the Lord, we too can see powerful things happen.
To live this faith, we must first have faith in the Lord, trust that He exists and that He receives those who come to Him for salvation. Then, we must trust that the Lord loves and does what’s best for us. The final piece is a trust in the Lord’s plan, and a willingness to move into line with God’s plan.
These are the ingredients to a life of faith, and Dr. King is a prime example of what can happen when one lives by faith. That’s why Dr. King’s dream was a righteous dream, and why his movement was so effective. | <urn:uuid:fe7ffce6-2cca-401f-99e5-984c206aba0f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://pointtolife.net/category/philosophy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00070.warc.gz | en | 0.980263 | 1,224 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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-0.3686818480491638... | 18 | Today, we honor the life and legacy of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., whose life-long devotion to the advancement of civil rights led to the end of institutionalized Jim Crow across the American South.
Dr. King was not the first to dream of an America where people would be judged on the content of their character rather than the color of their skin. He was not the first to march, and he was not the first to protest.
Dr. King’s approach of non-violent resistance, civil disobedience dates back to the efforts of Melvin Tolson at Wiley College in Marshall, Tex., in the mid 1930s. From Tolson’s efforts, sharecroppers unionized, and one of his pupils at Wiley went on to found the Congress on Racial Equality (CORE). For what it’s worth, the approach of civil disobedience dates back to an essay by Henry David Thoreau written in the 1840s.
Dr. King was not the first to dream, nor was he the first to act. So, why was his movement the first to effect tangible change? How did Dr. King’s movement transform the nation?
The answer lies in his heart.
The heart of Dr. King, from which his plans for the civil rights movement were built, was laid out in a sermon he preached at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Ala., on November 17, 1957. In his sermon, titled, “Love Your Enemies,” Dr. King explained that the darkness from anger sparked by racial injustice could not drive out the darkness of the racism itself, that only light could drive out darkness.
Dr. King explained the concept of love, what it means to love your enemies, and that love has a redemptive power. Redemption, it means to free one from the bonds of sin. To redeem your enemies means to convert them and to bring them over to your side. The concept is rooted in the Gospel.
Dr. King loved America, and wanted to see America redeemed from it’s racial injustice. To do this, Dr. King trusted the Lord’s word to love his enemies. His entire movement was built on his faith.
The concept of love and redemption carried over into his work in the early 1960s, highlighted by his famous “I Have a Dream” speech. In that speech, Dr. King explained how his faith continued to motivate his work:
I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight, and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together.
This is our hope. This is the faith that I go back to the South with. With this faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day.
Dr. King understood that his dream may not be fully realized during his life, or even during this world, but that one day, the Lord would return, and then his dream would be realized. He encouraged others in this faith, noting that unjust suffering had a redemptive quality.
Dr. King continued his work, influencing the passage of key legislation and the changing of attitudes. He left a legacy, not only of dedication, but of success.
However, Dr. King’s faith was never more evident than when he gave his famous “Mountain Top Speech,” in which he drew a parallel with Moses, saying that God had allowed him to go to the mountain top, and see the promised land.
Whether Dr. King had a mountain top experience heading into Memphis in 1968, or whether he had always worked with the knowledge that he would not see his dream fulfilled in his lifetime, he lived with the faith that God would bring that dream about.
For Dr. King, his dream was tangible, and would certainly come to pass, because his faith had made it real. As he concluded his final public address, he stated:
And so I’m happy, tonight. I’m not worried about anything. I’m not fearing any man! Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord!!
Even so, come Lord Jesus.
What empowered Dr. King’s dream, his work and his activism was his faith. His faith that this cause was in line with God’s will. His faith was so strong that his dream and cause were tangible, which is what faith does, according to Hebrews 11:1.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., transformed America, not only by showing us the sin of racial injustice and spurring us to repentance, but also by demonstrating the power of a life lived by faith.
We may not transform a nation, or subdue a kingdom, but if we live our lives by our faith in the Lord, we too can see powerful things happen.
To live this faith, we must first have faith in the Lord, trust that He exists and that He receives those who come to Him for salvation. Then, we must trust that the Lord loves and does what’s best for us. The final piece is a trust in the Lord’s plan, and a willingness to move into line with God’s plan.
These are the ingredients to a life of faith, and Dr. King is a prime example of what can happen when one lives by faith. That’s why Dr. King’s dream was a righteous dream, and why his movement was so effective. | 1,188 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There have been many experiments done on depth of processing and the self reference effect. The Depth of Processing model of memory maintains that how deep something is encoded into a person’s memory depends on using certain types of processing. This relates to the self reference effect because it is believed that people have the tendency to remember something better when they can relate it to themselves. People who can personally relate to something have the tendency to embed it deeper into their memory.
Craik and Tulving did a series of experiments on the depth of processing model. They had participants use a series of processing methods to encode words at different levels; shallow, moderate, and deep. The subjects were shown a series of words and ask questions about the words that would provide a yes or no response. At the shallow level they were asked questions about whether or not the word was written in capital letters. At the moderate level of processing, the subject was asked questions as to whether or not two words rhymed. Finally, the subjects were asked about words in sentences and whether or not they fit. This was the deep level of processing. After participants had completed the task they were then given a surprise recognition test with the words that they were just asked questions on (target words) and then words that they have never seen before (distraction words). The results of the experiment showed that people remembered the words better that were at deeper level of processing (Craik and Tulving 1975).
Although there was some criticisms about the above experiment, Craik and Tulving performed more experiments each time refining the D.O.P. model. There were thoughts that the structural tasks were easier and not as much time had to be spent on them therefore people did not have as long to look at those words and could not study them like the other tasks. Craik and Tulving then made the structural task take equally as long as the other tasks. The results remand the same as the previous experiments. Craik and Tulving also originally started with five tasks, but then narrowed it down to three to avoid a ceiling effect. The self-referent task was later added to model by Rogers.
Palmere, Benton, Glover, and Ronning (1983) did a series of experiments continuing the research on the depth of processing model. They used paragraphs and within the paragraph there were sentences that were supported and then ones that were not. After the subjects were through reading all the paragraphs, they were then given a recognition test on the information in the paragraph. The results of this experiment showed that the subjects remember more information about the sentences which were supported with other information rather the ones that stand alone. This supports to the depth of processing because according to this experiment people remember information that had more detail which would require more thinking which would in turn encode the information at a much deeper level. The deeper information is encode people are more likely able to recall the information.
Another experiment was done by Bower and Karlin (1974) which tested the depth of processing model on memory fue faces. They used college student pictures out yearbooks that were put onto slides. They then showed the slide to the subjects who were asked questions. The subjects were then ask to look at a serious of slides and asked whether or not that person had appeared in the original group of slides shown. The results of this experiment showed that when a person had a more detailed response about a person, the subject was more inclined to remember that person from the original group. This relates back to the Depth of Processing model because it showing by using more detail, information can be processed more deeply.
This experiment as well supports the depth of processing model because it shows that when a person has to think more and respond to a much deeper question, they are more likely to remember. The shallower the depth at which the information is processed the more likely a person is to forget the information. When information is processed at a deeper level it requires more thought, therefore it is embedded into the memory.
Research on the D.O.P. model led to the investigation of the self-referent effect, which focuses on people remembering information when they can relate the information to themselves. It is thought that information that can be encoded in relation to the self is the deepest form of processing. Rodgers, Kuiper, and Kirker (1977) define the self as being a lifetime of experiences and that there are schemas created for all that one has done to help keep information organized. When new information is experienced a person is more likely to remember it if the person has a similar schema already created because they can make associations.
There is a problem with self-referent because the are people who have extreme schemas. There are people who will resist information that goes against their self only relating to things that really describes then or really does not. Then there are people out there that have no real opinion about themselves and they are just in the middle. For the most part people are more likely to remember words that relate to them and their schema.
Rogers, Kuiper and Kirker (1977) explored the idea of the self-referent effect. The participants were given a series of adjectives and asked questions about the given adjective. There were four different tasks used: structural, phonemic, semantic, and self-referent. The structural, phonemic, and semantic were used by Craik and Tulving (1975), while self-referent test as led Does the word describe you? The results of this experiment showed that people were more likely to remember the adjectives that they related to themselves rather than those related to any of the other forms of processing. This supports the idea that self-referent is related to the depth of processing model as representations of the deepest form of processing.
The purpose of this experiment was to explore further the self-referent effect and its relation to the depth of processing model. Using the Rogers, Kuiper, and Kiker experiment the same general method was used. The participants were shown adjectives and asked a question, either structural, phonemic, semantic, or self-referent. A recall test was then given about the adjectives that had been presented. When the participant is given the recall test it is more likely they will recall phonemic information more than structural, the semantic information better than the phonemic, but the self-referent will be recall even greater than semantic.
There were twenty college students selected from general psychology courses at a small mid western religious affiliated university. The people selected were both male and females around the same general age, college students. This experiment was completely voluntary, but the participants were offered extra credit if they participated. They were read on informed consent and were asked to sign it before participating in the actual experiment (appendix A informed consent form).
The hard machinary used in the experiment was very limited. There was a t-scope used to present the slides. The experiment used was modeled after Rogers experiment, so the information in this experiment is similar. The stimuli used were adjectives used from Meyers Briggs typed inventory. There were twenty positive adjective chosen and twenty negative adjectives (appendix B master list). The task adjectives were chosen from Webster’s Theasourous, Webster’s Rhyming Dictionary. They were then presented and agreed upon by a consensous. The attempt was made as well to have all the task words be adjectives. The adjectives were then used in various tasks. The complete wording on the tasks can be found in appendix C and the complete task can be found in Table 1.
The particapants lead into the room by an experimentor and tested independently. The subjects were sat at a table in the middle of the room. The particapant was greeted and thanked for their particapation. First they were ask and sign the informed consent form and sign it. They were then explained the procedure of the experiment. They were asked to view a word and then asked to read a question pertaining to the word they just viewed on the screen. Then they were asked to respond to the word either yes or no only. The answer was recorded by another experimentor. The particapant was then flased
The experiment had two (response type) x four (task type) anova with repeated measures. The numbers are in proportion form because of the self referent effect. For the other three tasks, the yes and no responses were set prior to carrying out the experiment, whereas with self referent the yes or no outcome could not be set before hand because it was unknown how the particapant was going to respond. Therefore the reponses were converted into proportions to be able recognize main effect differences. The main effect differences were recognized if p was less .05. There was a significant main effect of response type on recall. F(1,19)=33.28: p=.0001. Items that received a yes response were remembered significantly better than items that received a no response. (Ms=.26 and .143 respectively). The least significant difference (LSD) test was used to find the differences between the means. Since the design was a within subject design the formula that was used was as follows:
LSD= Tcrit Msw (2/n)
Tcrit= T critical
Msw= Means within
N= number of particapates
There is a significant main effect of task type on recall. F(3,57): p=.0001. Adjectives rated with self referent task were remembered significantly better than those rated with somantic task (Ms=.465 and .209 respectively). Further adjectives rated semantic task were significantly betterthan those rated with phonetic task (M= .087) or the structural task (M= .047). There was a significant response type by task type interaction F(3,57): p=.0001. For both yes and no response items adjectives rated with self referent task were remembered significantly better than items at a semantic task. Further, for both yes and no response items, semantic task adjectives were remebered better than phoneic and structural task. Differences were largfer for response items (see table 2). | <urn:uuid:a35dea6c-8cff-4811-9d67-5deec0d6846e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://pennsylvaniaangerclass.com/psychology-depth-of-processing-and-the-self-refer/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00093.warc.gz | en | 0.981464 | 2,081 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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0.08768834173679352... | 1 | There have been many experiments done on depth of processing and the self reference effect. The Depth of Processing model of memory maintains that how deep something is encoded into a person’s memory depends on using certain types of processing. This relates to the self reference effect because it is believed that people have the tendency to remember something better when they can relate it to themselves. People who can personally relate to something have the tendency to embed it deeper into their memory.
Craik and Tulving did a series of experiments on the depth of processing model. They had participants use a series of processing methods to encode words at different levels; shallow, moderate, and deep. The subjects were shown a series of words and ask questions about the words that would provide a yes or no response. At the shallow level they were asked questions about whether or not the word was written in capital letters. At the moderate level of processing, the subject was asked questions as to whether or not two words rhymed. Finally, the subjects were asked about words in sentences and whether or not they fit. This was the deep level of processing. After participants had completed the task they were then given a surprise recognition test with the words that they were just asked questions on (target words) and then words that they have never seen before (distraction words). The results of the experiment showed that people remembered the words better that were at deeper level of processing (Craik and Tulving 1975).
Although there was some criticisms about the above experiment, Craik and Tulving performed more experiments each time refining the D.O.P. model. There were thoughts that the structural tasks were easier and not as much time had to be spent on them therefore people did not have as long to look at those words and could not study them like the other tasks. Craik and Tulving then made the structural task take equally as long as the other tasks. The results remand the same as the previous experiments. Craik and Tulving also originally started with five tasks, but then narrowed it down to three to avoid a ceiling effect. The self-referent task was later added to model by Rogers.
Palmere, Benton, Glover, and Ronning (1983) did a series of experiments continuing the research on the depth of processing model. They used paragraphs and within the paragraph there were sentences that were supported and then ones that were not. After the subjects were through reading all the paragraphs, they were then given a recognition test on the information in the paragraph. The results of this experiment showed that the subjects remember more information about the sentences which were supported with other information rather the ones that stand alone. This supports to the depth of processing because according to this experiment people remember information that had more detail which would require more thinking which would in turn encode the information at a much deeper level. The deeper information is encode people are more likely able to recall the information.
Another experiment was done by Bower and Karlin (1974) which tested the depth of processing model on memory fue faces. They used college student pictures out yearbooks that were put onto slides. They then showed the slide to the subjects who were asked questions. The subjects were then ask to look at a serious of slides and asked whether or not that person had appeared in the original group of slides shown. The results of this experiment showed that when a person had a more detailed response about a person, the subject was more inclined to remember that person from the original group. This relates back to the Depth of Processing model because it showing by using more detail, information can be processed more deeply.
This experiment as well supports the depth of processing model because it shows that when a person has to think more and respond to a much deeper question, they are more likely to remember. The shallower the depth at which the information is processed the more likely a person is to forget the information. When information is processed at a deeper level it requires more thought, therefore it is embedded into the memory.
Research on the D.O.P. model led to the investigation of the self-referent effect, which focuses on people remembering information when they can relate the information to themselves. It is thought that information that can be encoded in relation to the self is the deepest form of processing. Rodgers, Kuiper, and Kirker (1977) define the self as being a lifetime of experiences and that there are schemas created for all that one has done to help keep information organized. When new information is experienced a person is more likely to remember it if the person has a similar schema already created because they can make associations.
There is a problem with self-referent because the are people who have extreme schemas. There are people who will resist information that goes against their self only relating to things that really describes then or really does not. Then there are people out there that have no real opinion about themselves and they are just in the middle. For the most part people are more likely to remember words that relate to them and their schema.
Rogers, Kuiper and Kirker (1977) explored the idea of the self-referent effect. The participants were given a series of adjectives and asked questions about the given adjective. There were four different tasks used: structural, phonemic, semantic, and self-referent. The structural, phonemic, and semantic were used by Craik and Tulving (1975), while self-referent test as led Does the word describe you? The results of this experiment showed that people were more likely to remember the adjectives that they related to themselves rather than those related to any of the other forms of processing. This supports the idea that self-referent is related to the depth of processing model as representations of the deepest form of processing.
The purpose of this experiment was to explore further the self-referent effect and its relation to the depth of processing model. Using the Rogers, Kuiper, and Kiker experiment the same general method was used. The participants were shown adjectives and asked a question, either structural, phonemic, semantic, or self-referent. A recall test was then given about the adjectives that had been presented. When the participant is given the recall test it is more likely they will recall phonemic information more than structural, the semantic information better than the phonemic, but the self-referent will be recall even greater than semantic.
There were twenty college students selected from general psychology courses at a small mid western religious affiliated university. The people selected were both male and females around the same general age, college students. This experiment was completely voluntary, but the participants were offered extra credit if they participated. They were read on informed consent and were asked to sign it before participating in the actual experiment (appendix A informed consent form).
The hard machinary used in the experiment was very limited. There was a t-scope used to present the slides. The experiment used was modeled after Rogers experiment, so the information in this experiment is similar. The stimuli used were adjectives used from Meyers Briggs typed inventory. There were twenty positive adjective chosen and twenty negative adjectives (appendix B master list). The task adjectives were chosen from Webster’s Theasourous, Webster’s Rhyming Dictionary. They were then presented and agreed upon by a consensous. The attempt was made as well to have all the task words be adjectives. The adjectives were then used in various tasks. The complete wording on the tasks can be found in appendix C and the complete task can be found in Table 1.
The particapants lead into the room by an experimentor and tested independently. The subjects were sat at a table in the middle of the room. The particapant was greeted and thanked for their particapation. First they were ask and sign the informed consent form and sign it. They were then explained the procedure of the experiment. They were asked to view a word and then asked to read a question pertaining to the word they just viewed on the screen. Then they were asked to respond to the word either yes or no only. The answer was recorded by another experimentor. The particapant was then flased
The experiment had two (response type) x four (task type) anova with repeated measures. The numbers are in proportion form because of the self referent effect. For the other three tasks, the yes and no responses were set prior to carrying out the experiment, whereas with self referent the yes or no outcome could not be set before hand because it was unknown how the particapant was going to respond. Therefore the reponses were converted into proportions to be able recognize main effect differences. The main effect differences were recognized if p was less .05. There was a significant main effect of response type on recall. F(1,19)=33.28: p=.0001. Items that received a yes response were remembered significantly better than items that received a no response. (Ms=.26 and .143 respectively). The least significant difference (LSD) test was used to find the differences between the means. Since the design was a within subject design the formula that was used was as follows:
LSD= Tcrit Msw (2/n)
Tcrit= T critical
Msw= Means within
N= number of particapates
There is a significant main effect of task type on recall. F(3,57): p=.0001. Adjectives rated with self referent task were remembered significantly better than those rated with somantic task (Ms=.465 and .209 respectively). Further adjectives rated semantic task were significantly betterthan those rated with phonetic task (M= .087) or the structural task (M= .047). There was a significant response type by task type interaction F(3,57): p=.0001. For both yes and no response items adjectives rated with self referent task were remembered significantly better than items at a semantic task. Further, for both yes and no response items, semantic task adjectives were remebered better than phoneic and structural task. Differences were largfer for response items (see table 2). | 2,095 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Flags were an important part of the soldiers’ lives. Officially, they were used to align and rally troops and to identify units amid the smoke and confusion of battle. But to the men, it was more than a mere field marker. To them, it was something to be cherished, something to die for. It symbolized what they were fighting for, and was a record of their service. Each tear in the fabric was a reminder of a past battle, and the men were proud of the holes and the patches. They carefully painted the name of each battle they participated in on the flag. There was no greater glory than to capture the enemy’s flag; there was no greater disgrace than to lose one's own. Many flags were stained with the blood of the men who died defending them.
At Pea Ridge, the war was not yet a year old. Many of the flags, and the men who carried them, had not yet received their baptism in fire and blood. In March, 1862, the flags were still fresh and bright. The war would change them, as it did the men and the nation.
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At Pea Ridge, the war was not yet a year old. Many of the flags, and the men who carried them, had not yet received their baptism in fire and blood. In March, 1862, the flags were still fresh and bright. The war would change them, as it did the men and the nation.
Last updated: April 10, 2015 | 242 | ENGLISH | 1 |
She married Simon Bradstreet, a graduate of Cambridge University, at the age of Two years later, Bradstreet, along with her husband and parents, immigrated to America with the Winthrop Puritan group, and the family settled in Ipswich, Massachusetts. There Bradstreet and her husband raised eight children, and she became one of the first poets to write English verse in the American colonies.
Anne was formally enrolled at the school, but she was home-schooled by her dad, and the other bit was self-education. Anne ramped up a reputation while living here as someone with a huge appetite for reading.
The travel party made it through the wilderness over the next three months till they landed at the Salem port of Massachusetts on July 22nd, The New World assailed them with deprivation, wantonness and rampant sickness that held sway over the colonies. Anne submitted to the Puritan life in Boston by becoming a part of the church.
The common life of the inhabitants of the new world was one of lack and rampant sickness. The aboriginal Indians also made these worse by launching raids on the new settlements that cropped up around the pristine neighborhoods.
From a documented account of the American world into the s, only a few women were recorded to have published their poetry.
Anne, therefore, earned a place among this select few with her works. Not Having Enough As Anne Bradstreet's family settled into life in Salem, they had to share most things at the beginning between her father and her husband.
Their life was hugely Spartan, and they had little or nothing to call theirs at the time. The writings of Thomas Dudley gave an insight into the life Anne lived as he complained of the absence of a dinner table.
They had to share a room when winter set in as there was a fireplace in there to keep them warm. Over the next few years, Anne and her family had to change their abode to live a better life. Anne Bradstreet's travel party moved first to Charlestown from Salem before berthing at modern-day Cambridge, known then as Newtown.
They moved on to Ipswich before settling down at Andover in the year The works of Anne portrayed a conflict of religious and emotional slants within her while living as a puritan. Her writings became a vent to voice the mix of turmoil she was going through at the time.
Anne dovetailed into the themes of death, sin, redemption as well as bodily frailty. She penned her internal fights over the promises of heaven and the present state of personal sensory enjoyment. Her day-to-day spousal and kindred satisfaction gave room for her to explore a balance between the eternal and ephemeral.
Anne Bradstreet voiced her struggles with detachment from the world despite her puritan oaths. Her strong attachment to her spouse and her kindred made her feel she was less connected to God.
Common Attribution Anne Bradstreet's propulsion to write is situated by reviewers to have answered to her personal need rather than a global reach.
While her works got well-received by those who came in contact with them, she penned them for her friends and family was. At the time, the work was a bestseller in England though little was known of it in America. The bulk of work that appeared in this volume was penned by her in the decade to These writings took on a more private tone than the one published in the England release.
They also bore a more distinct signature and hue.Anne Bradstreet Biography Poet, Author (–) Anne Bradstreet was a 17th century writer who is credited as being one of the first English poets in the metin2sell.com: Sep 16, Anne Bradstreet: Anne Bradstreet, one of the first poets to write English verse in the American colonies.
Long considered primarily of historical interest, she won critical acceptance in the 20th century as a writer of enduring verse, particularly for her sequence of religious poems, “Contemplations,” written for.
Anne Bradstreet’s most popular book is Great American Poems. Anne Bradsteet America's First Poet Selections From Her Works by. Anne Bradstreet. The Works of Anne Bradstreet: In Prose and Verse by.
Anne Bradstreet. avg rating — 0 ratings — 2 editions. Anne Bradstreet Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Anne Bradstreet was born in Northampton, England in the year to a well-read father, Thomas Dudley. Anne was formally enrolled at the school, but she was home-schooled by her dad, and the other bit was self-education.
I read the works of Anne Bradstreet while completing an essay for my degree, comparing her poetic explorations of death and grief with those of Emily Dickinson. Bradstreet was the first female poet of the New World, and her book ‘The Tenth Muse’ was the first to be published by a woman in America/5.
Over the past four centuries, Anne Bradstreet has received a number of accolades from literary scholars and critics.
She has been called one of the greatest Puritan/New World poets, the first female poet in America, and some even consider her the best female poet of all time. Feminist literary. | <urn:uuid:4c9ca933-3e39-43be-95e8-fb77f7a619ea> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mujegyf.metin2sell.com/biography-and-works-of-anne-bradstreet-21163bs.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00070.warc.gz | en | 0.984851 | 1,070 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.084167242... | 1 | She married Simon Bradstreet, a graduate of Cambridge University, at the age of Two years later, Bradstreet, along with her husband and parents, immigrated to America with the Winthrop Puritan group, and the family settled in Ipswich, Massachusetts. There Bradstreet and her husband raised eight children, and she became one of the first poets to write English verse in the American colonies.
Anne was formally enrolled at the school, but she was home-schooled by her dad, and the other bit was self-education. Anne ramped up a reputation while living here as someone with a huge appetite for reading.
The travel party made it through the wilderness over the next three months till they landed at the Salem port of Massachusetts on July 22nd, The New World assailed them with deprivation, wantonness and rampant sickness that held sway over the colonies. Anne submitted to the Puritan life in Boston by becoming a part of the church.
The common life of the inhabitants of the new world was one of lack and rampant sickness. The aboriginal Indians also made these worse by launching raids on the new settlements that cropped up around the pristine neighborhoods.
From a documented account of the American world into the s, only a few women were recorded to have published their poetry.
Anne, therefore, earned a place among this select few with her works. Not Having Enough As Anne Bradstreet's family settled into life in Salem, they had to share most things at the beginning between her father and her husband.
Their life was hugely Spartan, and they had little or nothing to call theirs at the time. The writings of Thomas Dudley gave an insight into the life Anne lived as he complained of the absence of a dinner table.
They had to share a room when winter set in as there was a fireplace in there to keep them warm. Over the next few years, Anne and her family had to change their abode to live a better life. Anne Bradstreet's travel party moved first to Charlestown from Salem before berthing at modern-day Cambridge, known then as Newtown.
They moved on to Ipswich before settling down at Andover in the year The works of Anne portrayed a conflict of religious and emotional slants within her while living as a puritan. Her writings became a vent to voice the mix of turmoil she was going through at the time.
Anne dovetailed into the themes of death, sin, redemption as well as bodily frailty. She penned her internal fights over the promises of heaven and the present state of personal sensory enjoyment. Her day-to-day spousal and kindred satisfaction gave room for her to explore a balance between the eternal and ephemeral.
Anne Bradstreet voiced her struggles with detachment from the world despite her puritan oaths. Her strong attachment to her spouse and her kindred made her feel she was less connected to God.
Common Attribution Anne Bradstreet's propulsion to write is situated by reviewers to have answered to her personal need rather than a global reach.
While her works got well-received by those who came in contact with them, she penned them for her friends and family was. At the time, the work was a bestseller in England though little was known of it in America. The bulk of work that appeared in this volume was penned by her in the decade to These writings took on a more private tone than the one published in the England release.
They also bore a more distinct signature and hue.Anne Bradstreet Biography Poet, Author (–) Anne Bradstreet was a 17th century writer who is credited as being one of the first English poets in the metin2sell.com: Sep 16, Anne Bradstreet: Anne Bradstreet, one of the first poets to write English verse in the American colonies.
Long considered primarily of historical interest, she won critical acceptance in the 20th century as a writer of enduring verse, particularly for her sequence of religious poems, “Contemplations,” written for.
Anne Bradstreet’s most popular book is Great American Poems. Anne Bradsteet America's First Poet Selections From Her Works by. Anne Bradstreet. The Works of Anne Bradstreet: In Prose and Verse by.
Anne Bradstreet. avg rating — 0 ratings — 2 editions. Anne Bradstreet Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Anne Bradstreet was born in Northampton, England in the year to a well-read father, Thomas Dudley. Anne was formally enrolled at the school, but she was home-schooled by her dad, and the other bit was self-education.
I read the works of Anne Bradstreet while completing an essay for my degree, comparing her poetic explorations of death and grief with those of Emily Dickinson. Bradstreet was the first female poet of the New World, and her book ‘The Tenth Muse’ was the first to be published by a woman in America/5.
Over the past four centuries, Anne Bradstreet has received a number of accolades from literary scholars and critics.
She has been called one of the greatest Puritan/New World poets, the first female poet in America, and some even consider her the best female poet of all time. Feminist literary. | 1,049 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Museum Victoria's Blaschka Model Collection consists of nine glass models of marine invertebrates. Four of these are a series showing developmental stages of a sponge.
The models were made by Leopold Blaschka (1822-1895) and his son, Rudolf (1857-1939), highly skilled glass artists based in Dresden, Germany. The Blaschkas are best known for their glass models of plants and marine invertebrates. They were passionate naturalists and based their models on observations and drawings made in the field and in their own purpose-built seawater aquariums. They also referred to the work of other naturalists, many of whom they corresponded with. Their painstaking work produced incredibly detailed and scientifically accurate models that still astonish scientists and artists today. The Blaschkas kept their techniques secret and many of the skills used to produce the models were lost with Rudolf's death in 1939.
The Blaschkas' glass models were bought by universities and museums for teaching, education and display. The Blaschkas were working during a period when many new museums were opening and natural history displays were starting to become what audiences today would recognises as scientific. Preserving vertebrate specimens for display in these new museums was relatively easy but soft-bodied invertebrates were, and still are, difficult to preserve without losing their colour and shape. This made them less attractive for display and less useful for showing how they appeared when alive. Models were therefore often used to allow people to see what the live animals looked like. Glass models were unusual but allowed the extremely delicate structures of many invertebrates to be reproduced with great accuracy. The Blaschkas made only soft-bodied animals such as worms, molluscs and cnidarians; there are no Blaschka models of arthropods.
Exactly how the Museum acquired its collection of Blaschka models is not known. The Blaschka's models were sold across the world through a number of natural history suppliers. These included the American Henry Ward, whose 1888 catalogue listed 700 glass Blaschka models for order. The Museums' founder, Sir Frederick McCoy, regularly bought items from Ward and it is possible that he purchased the Museum's Blaschka models this way. It is also possible that the models were originally bought for the aquarium at the Royal Exhibition. In 1944 "glass models of the lower forms of marine life", which possibly refer to these models, were on display in the Melbourne Aquarium. Until it burned down in 1953, the aquarium was part of the Royal Exhibition Building. | <urn:uuid:dac10ee5-9dc4-4689-b8d0-963a1dde450d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://collections.museumvictoria.com.au/articles/16658 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00204.warc.gz | en | 0.98667 | 536 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.3046797215... | 4 | Museum Victoria's Blaschka Model Collection consists of nine glass models of marine invertebrates. Four of these are a series showing developmental stages of a sponge.
The models were made by Leopold Blaschka (1822-1895) and his son, Rudolf (1857-1939), highly skilled glass artists based in Dresden, Germany. The Blaschkas are best known for their glass models of plants and marine invertebrates. They were passionate naturalists and based their models on observations and drawings made in the field and in their own purpose-built seawater aquariums. They also referred to the work of other naturalists, many of whom they corresponded with. Their painstaking work produced incredibly detailed and scientifically accurate models that still astonish scientists and artists today. The Blaschkas kept their techniques secret and many of the skills used to produce the models were lost with Rudolf's death in 1939.
The Blaschkas' glass models were bought by universities and museums for teaching, education and display. The Blaschkas were working during a period when many new museums were opening and natural history displays were starting to become what audiences today would recognises as scientific. Preserving vertebrate specimens for display in these new museums was relatively easy but soft-bodied invertebrates were, and still are, difficult to preserve without losing their colour and shape. This made them less attractive for display and less useful for showing how they appeared when alive. Models were therefore often used to allow people to see what the live animals looked like. Glass models were unusual but allowed the extremely delicate structures of many invertebrates to be reproduced with great accuracy. The Blaschkas made only soft-bodied animals such as worms, molluscs and cnidarians; there are no Blaschka models of arthropods.
Exactly how the Museum acquired its collection of Blaschka models is not known. The Blaschka's models were sold across the world through a number of natural history suppliers. These included the American Henry Ward, whose 1888 catalogue listed 700 glass Blaschka models for order. The Museums' founder, Sir Frederick McCoy, regularly bought items from Ward and it is possible that he purchased the Museum's Blaschka models this way. It is also possible that the models were originally bought for the aquarium at the Royal Exhibition. In 1944 "glass models of the lower forms of marine life", which possibly refer to these models, were on display in the Melbourne Aquarium. Until it burned down in 1953, the aquarium was part of the Royal Exhibition Building. | 554 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Joseph Warren, say some today, would have been the first president of the United States had he not been killed at the Battle of Bunker Hill.
Had Warren lived, said Loyalist Peter Oliver in 1782, George Washington would have been ‘an obscurity.’
British Gen. Thomas Gage said the death of Joseph Warren was ‘worth the death of 500 men.’
Counties in 14 states bear the name of Joseph Warren, as do four towns in New England (New Hampshire and Rhode Island each have a Warren named after Sir Peter). Five ships were named after him, four statues bearing his likeness are on display and a street in Detroit is named ‘Warren Avenue.’
So what was so special about Joseph Warren?
Unlike John Hancock, Joseph Warren didn’t have a wealthy uncle who took him under his wing when his father died. But Joseph Warren was ambitious, both for wealth and for glory.
He had taken to heart the words of his father: “I would rather a son of mine were dead than a coward.”
Joseph Warren was just 14 and about to enter Harvard in 1755 when his father was killed falling off a ladder while picking apples. His mother, Mary Stevens Warren, mortgaged the farm to send him to Harvard, though she probably could have used more of his help to run it.
After graduating from Harvard, he married a 17-year-old heiress, Elizabeth Hooten, in 1764. She died eight years later, leaving him with two young sons and two young daughters.
his family. He saved 7-year-old John Quincy Adams’ finger from amputation.
Warren also had Loyalist patients: the children of Thomas Hutchinson, British Gen. Thomas Gage and his wife Margaret. After his wife died, Joseph Warren is believed by some to have had an affair with Margaret Gage, who may have tipped him off about the British plans to raid Concord and arrest Hancock and Adams.
It was Joseph Warren who enlisted Paul Revere and William Dawes to spread the alarm on April 19, 1775.
Most Influential Patriot
Of Joseph Warren, military historian Ethan Rafuse wrote, “No man, with the possible exception of Samuel Adams, did so much to bring about the rise of a movement powerful enough to lead the people of Massachusetts to revolution.”
Joseph Warren was gregarious, charming and a powerful speaker who enlisted in the patriot cause. He became Grand Master of the Masonic Lodge of St. Andrew when Paul Revere was the secretary. He was also a member of the Sons of Liberty, and he tried to save Christopher Seider, the young boy killed in 1770 by British soldiers.
In the fall of 1774, Joseph Warren wrote the Suffolk Resolves, which supported a boycott of British goods and urged armed resistance to the British.
By the first months of 1775 he was the most influential patriot leader in Massachusetts. Hancock and the Adamses were in Philadelphia attending the Second Continental Congress, and Warren, just 33, was the president of the Provincial Congress – Massachusetts’ shadow government.
Joseph Warren was also a member of the Committee of Safety, and he had made sure powder and arms were stored in towns throughout Massachusetts. He tried to organize Massachusetts’ fighting forces into an ‘army of observation,’ and he propagandized so they’d be willing to fight.
On the day of the Battles of Lexington and Concord, he sneaked out of Boston and led militia in harassing the British returning to the city. He then returned to Boston, where he organized soldiers for the siege of Boston and negotiated with Gage.
On June 13, colonial leaders learned the British planned to send troops to take the unoccupied hills surrounding the besieged city. That night, 1,200 colonial troops stealthily occupied Bunker Hill and Breed’s Hill and built an earthworks.
Warren had been commissioned a major general in the Massachusetts militia, but insisted on fighting as a private in the thick of the fighting. He asked Gen. Israel Putnam where the heaviest fighting would be.
During the battle he fought behind the earthworks until the patriots’ ammunition was exhausted. He stayed there to give the militia time to escape while the British made their final assault. A British officer recognized him and shot him in the head. He died instantly, six days after his 34th birthday.
The British stripped his body and stabbed it beyond recognition, then threw him into a shallow grave with another patriot killed in the battle. Paul Revere later identified his body.
The day after the battle, Abigail Adams wrote to her husband:
I have just heard that our dear Friend Dr. Warren is no more but fell gloriously fighting for his Country-saying better to die honourably in the field than ignominiously hang upon the Gallows. great is our Loss. He has distinguished himself in every engagement, by his courage and fortitude, by animating the Soldiers & leading them on by his own example.
Interested in the Battle of Bunker Hill? You might want to read what it was like for Abigail Adams and her young son to watch it from 10 miles away.
Many others watched the battle from hills and rooftops, including this 10-year-old Loyalist who told her granddaughter what it was like.
Or you might want to read about the printer’s apprentice who spent 107 days in a British prison for cheering the patriot side while watching the battle.
The most detailed account of the battle came from someone who fought in it: a private named Peter Brown who enlisted after he heard the news of Lexington and Concord. The British, he wrote, got a ‘choaky mouthful.’
The news about the Battle of Bunker Hill threw the surrounding towns into a panic. Read the first-person account of a Salem doctor who thought the British had reached the next town.
Here is a more detailed description of the death of Joseph Warren.
Paul Revere was a man of many talents who became the first odontologist when he identified the body of his friend Joseph Warren nine months after the battle was over. | <urn:uuid:64dccbb2-bcb4-4a1c-bdd7-459b6259bd9f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/joseph-warren-patriot-made-forget-george-washington/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00482.warc.gz | en | 0.984624 | 1,272 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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... | 7 | Joseph Warren, say some today, would have been the first president of the United States had he not been killed at the Battle of Bunker Hill.
Had Warren lived, said Loyalist Peter Oliver in 1782, George Washington would have been ‘an obscurity.’
British Gen. Thomas Gage said the death of Joseph Warren was ‘worth the death of 500 men.’
Counties in 14 states bear the name of Joseph Warren, as do four towns in New England (New Hampshire and Rhode Island each have a Warren named after Sir Peter). Five ships were named after him, four statues bearing his likeness are on display and a street in Detroit is named ‘Warren Avenue.’
So what was so special about Joseph Warren?
Unlike John Hancock, Joseph Warren didn’t have a wealthy uncle who took him under his wing when his father died. But Joseph Warren was ambitious, both for wealth and for glory.
He had taken to heart the words of his father: “I would rather a son of mine were dead than a coward.”
Joseph Warren was just 14 and about to enter Harvard in 1755 when his father was killed falling off a ladder while picking apples. His mother, Mary Stevens Warren, mortgaged the farm to send him to Harvard, though she probably could have used more of his help to run it.
After graduating from Harvard, he married a 17-year-old heiress, Elizabeth Hooten, in 1764. She died eight years later, leaving him with two young sons and two young daughters.
his family. He saved 7-year-old John Quincy Adams’ finger from amputation.
Warren also had Loyalist patients: the children of Thomas Hutchinson, British Gen. Thomas Gage and his wife Margaret. After his wife died, Joseph Warren is believed by some to have had an affair with Margaret Gage, who may have tipped him off about the British plans to raid Concord and arrest Hancock and Adams.
It was Joseph Warren who enlisted Paul Revere and William Dawes to spread the alarm on April 19, 1775.
Most Influential Patriot
Of Joseph Warren, military historian Ethan Rafuse wrote, “No man, with the possible exception of Samuel Adams, did so much to bring about the rise of a movement powerful enough to lead the people of Massachusetts to revolution.”
Joseph Warren was gregarious, charming and a powerful speaker who enlisted in the patriot cause. He became Grand Master of the Masonic Lodge of St. Andrew when Paul Revere was the secretary. He was also a member of the Sons of Liberty, and he tried to save Christopher Seider, the young boy killed in 1770 by British soldiers.
In the fall of 1774, Joseph Warren wrote the Suffolk Resolves, which supported a boycott of British goods and urged armed resistance to the British.
By the first months of 1775 he was the most influential patriot leader in Massachusetts. Hancock and the Adamses were in Philadelphia attending the Second Continental Congress, and Warren, just 33, was the president of the Provincial Congress – Massachusetts’ shadow government.
Joseph Warren was also a member of the Committee of Safety, and he had made sure powder and arms were stored in towns throughout Massachusetts. He tried to organize Massachusetts’ fighting forces into an ‘army of observation,’ and he propagandized so they’d be willing to fight.
On the day of the Battles of Lexington and Concord, he sneaked out of Boston and led militia in harassing the British returning to the city. He then returned to Boston, where he organized soldiers for the siege of Boston and negotiated with Gage.
On June 13, colonial leaders learned the British planned to send troops to take the unoccupied hills surrounding the besieged city. That night, 1,200 colonial troops stealthily occupied Bunker Hill and Breed’s Hill and built an earthworks.
Warren had been commissioned a major general in the Massachusetts militia, but insisted on fighting as a private in the thick of the fighting. He asked Gen. Israel Putnam where the heaviest fighting would be.
During the battle he fought behind the earthworks until the patriots’ ammunition was exhausted. He stayed there to give the militia time to escape while the British made their final assault. A British officer recognized him and shot him in the head. He died instantly, six days after his 34th birthday.
The British stripped his body and stabbed it beyond recognition, then threw him into a shallow grave with another patriot killed in the battle. Paul Revere later identified his body.
The day after the battle, Abigail Adams wrote to her husband:
I have just heard that our dear Friend Dr. Warren is no more but fell gloriously fighting for his Country-saying better to die honourably in the field than ignominiously hang upon the Gallows. great is our Loss. He has distinguished himself in every engagement, by his courage and fortitude, by animating the Soldiers & leading them on by his own example.
Interested in the Battle of Bunker Hill? You might want to read what it was like for Abigail Adams and her young son to watch it from 10 miles away.
Many others watched the battle from hills and rooftops, including this 10-year-old Loyalist who told her granddaughter what it was like.
Or you might want to read about the printer’s apprentice who spent 107 days in a British prison for cheering the patriot side while watching the battle.
The most detailed account of the battle came from someone who fought in it: a private named Peter Brown who enlisted after he heard the news of Lexington and Concord. The British, he wrote, got a ‘choaky mouthful.’
The news about the Battle of Bunker Hill threw the surrounding towns into a panic. Read the first-person account of a Salem doctor who thought the British had reached the next town.
Here is a more detailed description of the death of Joseph Warren.
Paul Revere was a man of many talents who became the first odontologist when he identified the body of his friend Joseph Warren nine months after the battle was over. | 1,266 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When the Mormon pioneers arrived in Utah they found an inhospitable desert. A few decades later, Utah was a major transportation hub with flourishing communities and electric lights illuminating orderly streets and fruit trees. So how did these destitute refugees create a prosperous, modern society in a matter of years?
You can get some insight into this phenomenon by following one family—my family—as they navigated and influenced their changing world.
Thomas English Daniels was a typical Mormon pioneer: his family joined the Church in England and came to join the Saints in America.
When the Mormons were forced out of Nauvoo, he crossed the plains to Utah with his siblings and widowed mother, seeing suffering and death on the way. When they arrived in Utah, the family was asked to settle in Utah County.
With little access to advanced education or the latest technology, pioneers had to get creative as they built their new society. Many used knowledge from the lives and careers they left behind to make their community work. Others changed occupations based on need and availability. Thomas’s sons saw this need in electricity.
Salt Lake was fascinated with electric lighting early on. In more rural areas of Utah, if people wanted power they had to rely on enterprising individuals like the Daniels brothers. In the evenings, after work, Thomas Jr. built a dynamo (generator) that would later run the first electric lights in Payson. He and his brother, James, also made lights for the first electrification of Provo at the woolen mills.
Small operations like theirs were popping up across the state, but as Utah grew more connected, people needed more reliable sources of energy. The Thomas brothers knew the state could make more use of its rivers for power (they’d owned a sawmill in Daniels Canyon for several years). The potential for hydroelectric power from streams and reservoirs was exciting, but also required more structure. Smaller companies were bought out by a series of larger companies, finally culminating in Utah Power and Light.
James and Thomas adapted to the conglomerate that swallowed so many of the local power companies, moving beyond their small community to help electrify the state. With James’s son Cleon, the brothers helped establish significant hydroelectric power sources in Grace,
Idaho and Logan, Utah. Cleon made his career as an employee of Utah Power and Light, making sure the hydroelectric dams supplied reliable, consistent power.
I heard about the family’s part in Utah’s development from Cleon’s daughter, my grandmother. She had fond memories of growing up in a company house in Logan Canyon, next to the hydroelectric dam her father helped build and manage. She loved growing up with the trees, the river, and all the electricity they could want. Due in large part to the efforts of her father and others like him, her world was very different from the one her grandfather was born into.
It took a lot to transform Utah into that world: a transcontinental railroad, strong leadership, and dedication to keeping up with scientific advancement. But it also took the work and creativity of local people who wanted to make their world better.
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No votes so far! Be the first to rate this post. | <urn:uuid:c2d41e5b-11f5-4ada-bbd5-5efdee798802> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://utahstories.com/2018/08/power-to-the-people-how-enterprising-mormon-pioneers-electrified-utah/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00483.warc.gz | en | 0.982923 | 684 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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-0.2318675518035... | 1 | When the Mormon pioneers arrived in Utah they found an inhospitable desert. A few decades later, Utah was a major transportation hub with flourishing communities and electric lights illuminating orderly streets and fruit trees. So how did these destitute refugees create a prosperous, modern society in a matter of years?
You can get some insight into this phenomenon by following one family—my family—as they navigated and influenced their changing world.
Thomas English Daniels was a typical Mormon pioneer: his family joined the Church in England and came to join the Saints in America.
When the Mormons were forced out of Nauvoo, he crossed the plains to Utah with his siblings and widowed mother, seeing suffering and death on the way. When they arrived in Utah, the family was asked to settle in Utah County.
With little access to advanced education or the latest technology, pioneers had to get creative as they built their new society. Many used knowledge from the lives and careers they left behind to make their community work. Others changed occupations based on need and availability. Thomas’s sons saw this need in electricity.
Salt Lake was fascinated with electric lighting early on. In more rural areas of Utah, if people wanted power they had to rely on enterprising individuals like the Daniels brothers. In the evenings, after work, Thomas Jr. built a dynamo (generator) that would later run the first electric lights in Payson. He and his brother, James, also made lights for the first electrification of Provo at the woolen mills.
Small operations like theirs were popping up across the state, but as Utah grew more connected, people needed more reliable sources of energy. The Thomas brothers knew the state could make more use of its rivers for power (they’d owned a sawmill in Daniels Canyon for several years). The potential for hydroelectric power from streams and reservoirs was exciting, but also required more structure. Smaller companies were bought out by a series of larger companies, finally culminating in Utah Power and Light.
James and Thomas adapted to the conglomerate that swallowed so many of the local power companies, moving beyond their small community to help electrify the state. With James’s son Cleon, the brothers helped establish significant hydroelectric power sources in Grace,
Idaho and Logan, Utah. Cleon made his career as an employee of Utah Power and Light, making sure the hydroelectric dams supplied reliable, consistent power.
I heard about the family’s part in Utah’s development from Cleon’s daughter, my grandmother. She had fond memories of growing up in a company house in Logan Canyon, next to the hydroelectric dam her father helped build and manage. She loved growing up with the trees, the river, and all the electricity they could want. Due in large part to the efforts of her father and others like him, her world was very different from the one her grandfather was born into.
It took a lot to transform Utah into that world: a transcontinental railroad, strong leadership, and dedication to keeping up with scientific advancement. But it also took the work and creativity of local people who wanted to make their world better.
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Julius Caesar was a general and a politician of the late Roman Republic. He greatly influenced the size of the Roman Empire before seizing power and making himself dictator of Rome, which paved the way for the Imperial system. (Julius Caesar 100BC-44BC, April 29th, 2014)
Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus Augustus was born on July 12th or 13th, 100BC into the prestigious Julius clan. He and his family were closely related to the Marion faction in Roman politics. Caesar started to progress within the Roman political system. He became a succession quaestor in 69 BC, aedile in 65 BC, and praetor in 62 BC.61-60 BC he served as governor of the Roman Province of Spain. Later in Rome in 60 BC, Caesar ...view middle of the document...
There were rumors that Pompeia had helped Clodius sneak in. Caesar then divorced her because of the rumors on the grounds that – as we still say today- “Caesar’s wife must be above suspicion.” Later, in 59 BC, Caesar married Calpurnia, the daughter of Pisa. She was the one who dreamed of Caesar’s imminent death right before the fateful Ides of March. (Caesar, Gaius Julius, April 30th 2014)
Julius was such a famous and important leader in ancient Rome that they named a month after him-Julym for Julius Caesar. (Julius Caesar for kids, April 29th 2014) Julius Caesar was a great administer and to say he was a well-known general would be an understatement. He improved laws and changed how they ruled provinces of the Empire. . (Julius Caesar for kids, May 1st 2014)
Rome started to become overrun with crime and people were so scared, they stayed off the streets. People started to become unemployed and taxes started to increase. The Roman people became angry with the government. They demanded that the government do something. Caesar heard the pleads of the people and convinced them he knew what to do. The Roman people began to trust and rely on him to fix Rome’s problems. (Julius Caesar for kids, May 1st 2014)
As Caesar gained power through the people, the Senate became worried. They feared Caesar might make himself king. Soon, so that wouldn’t happen, the Senate swore that Rome would never be ruled by king again. Caesar became impatient and brought his own army to Rome ti overthrow the Senate. The people saw this as heroic. They were saved! Caesar was going to solve all of their problems; well it wasn’t going to be easy. The Senate constantly plotted and acted against him. (Julius Caesar for kids, May 1st 2014)
Caesar’s reforms enhanced his standing with Rome’s lower and middle-class populations significantly. His popularity with the senate was another matter. Jealousy and concern over his increasing power led to tension among a number or politicians who saw in him an aspiring king. History itself had shown that he Romans had no desire for monarchial rule. It has been said... | <urn:uuid:826947cd-b9e6-4f14-9c8a-50a111bce94c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/julius-caesar-and-the-late-roman-republic | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00379.warc.gz | en | 0.988821 | 646 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.331278920173645... | 1 | Julius Caesar was a general and a politician of the late Roman Republic. He greatly influenced the size of the Roman Empire before seizing power and making himself dictator of Rome, which paved the way for the Imperial system. (Julius Caesar 100BC-44BC, April 29th, 2014)
Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus Augustus was born on July 12th or 13th, 100BC into the prestigious Julius clan. He and his family were closely related to the Marion faction in Roman politics. Caesar started to progress within the Roman political system. He became a succession quaestor in 69 BC, aedile in 65 BC, and praetor in 62 BC.61-60 BC he served as governor of the Roman Province of Spain. Later in Rome in 60 BC, Caesar ...view middle of the document...
There were rumors that Pompeia had helped Clodius sneak in. Caesar then divorced her because of the rumors on the grounds that – as we still say today- “Caesar’s wife must be above suspicion.” Later, in 59 BC, Caesar married Calpurnia, the daughter of Pisa. She was the one who dreamed of Caesar’s imminent death right before the fateful Ides of March. (Caesar, Gaius Julius, April 30th 2014)
Julius was such a famous and important leader in ancient Rome that they named a month after him-Julym for Julius Caesar. (Julius Caesar for kids, April 29th 2014) Julius Caesar was a great administer and to say he was a well-known general would be an understatement. He improved laws and changed how they ruled provinces of the Empire. . (Julius Caesar for kids, May 1st 2014)
Rome started to become overrun with crime and people were so scared, they stayed off the streets. People started to become unemployed and taxes started to increase. The Roman people became angry with the government. They demanded that the government do something. Caesar heard the pleads of the people and convinced them he knew what to do. The Roman people began to trust and rely on him to fix Rome’s problems. (Julius Caesar for kids, May 1st 2014)
As Caesar gained power through the people, the Senate became worried. They feared Caesar might make himself king. Soon, so that wouldn’t happen, the Senate swore that Rome would never be ruled by king again. Caesar became impatient and brought his own army to Rome ti overthrow the Senate. The people saw this as heroic. They were saved! Caesar was going to solve all of their problems; well it wasn’t going to be easy. The Senate constantly plotted and acted against him. (Julius Caesar for kids, May 1st 2014)
Caesar’s reforms enhanced his standing with Rome’s lower and middle-class populations significantly. His popularity with the senate was another matter. Jealousy and concern over his increasing power led to tension among a number or politicians who saw in him an aspiring king. History itself had shown that he Romans had no desire for monarchial rule. It has been said... | 677 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Project Wet is an education program for children and this Thursday a lot of students learned about water pollution, Water Delivery and water cycles.
Four-hundred students from the Tampa bay area dedicated an entire day learning about water. This program continues to develop for fourth consecutive year and is called “Make a Splash”. This project is yet another activity intended to commemorate the Earths Day on the 22nd of April. All the children that day learned a great deal about the importance of water. Some of the activities during that important day were carrying buckets of water. You may wonder what does that have to do with the importance of water. Well not all people around the world are lucky enough to have plumbing and water faucets. It was very hard back in the days and it is still very hard for people in some regions around the world. Sometimes, according to a recent survey, it takes up to four hours a day for some people in Africa to go to the well and bring buckets of water back to their families. The idea of this project was for the kids to appreciate the water and all the good things that come form it and cherish it. Kids started looking at nature differently and realized that they are really lucky to live in a place where Water Delivery is facilitated.
Our company supports that project and encourages you to appreciate your water. | <urn:uuid:fda832e2-91cb-4b62-87be-b3f5bd0a2581> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thewaterdeliverycompany.com/blog/2011/04/21/project-wet-educates-children/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00453.warc.gz | en | 0.980055 | 271 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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Four-hundred students from the Tampa bay area dedicated an entire day learning about water. This program continues to develop for fourth consecutive year and is called “Make a Splash”. This project is yet another activity intended to commemorate the Earths Day on the 22nd of April. All the children that day learned a great deal about the importance of water. Some of the activities during that important day were carrying buckets of water. You may wonder what does that have to do with the importance of water. Well not all people around the world are lucky enough to have plumbing and water faucets. It was very hard back in the days and it is still very hard for people in some regions around the world. Sometimes, according to a recent survey, it takes up to four hours a day for some people in Africa to go to the well and bring buckets of water back to their families. The idea of this project was for the kids to appreciate the water and all the good things that come form it and cherish it. Kids started looking at nature differently and realized that they are really lucky to live in a place where Water Delivery is facilitated.
Our company supports that project and encourages you to appreciate your water. | 266 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This article needs additional citations for verification. (August 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Confederate Home Guard units worked in coordination with the Confederate Army, and were tasked with both the defense of the Confederate home front during the American Civil War, as well as to help track down and capture Confederate Army deserters. The Home Guard was a type of militia for the Confederacy. It had a rank structure and did have certain regulations, whether those were enforced or not.
Home Guard units were, essentially, to be a last defense against any invading Union forces. They also were used at times to gather information about invading Union forces troop movements, as well as to identify and control any local civilians who were considered sympathetic to the Union cause. They received no military training, and although they could be drafted into the Confederate service if need be, there are only a few cases in which that happened. The Home Guard was recognized as a type of service to the Confederacy. It was often made up of older planters or others exempted from front line service.
Citizens of some states also formed Unionist Home Guard units. For example, in Kentucky, the Home Guard consisted of Unionist men; Confederate sympathizers in the state, led by Simon Bolivar Buckner, formed militia groups known as the State Guard.
Background and implementation
Most Home Guard units consisted of volunteers and paid no salary. A bounty was offered by the Confederate government for the capture of deserters, although it was rarely paid, due to the government's debt.
While most able-bodied Southern men went away to war, many stayed behind, either by choice or due to something that prevented them from serving in the army. Planters owning 20 slaves or more were exempted from service, with other family members exempted based on their total slaveholding. Although many states did not initially form Home Guard units, by 1863 all 11 Confederate states had done so. Initially tasked with being the defense force against any Union Army elements that might pass through the Confederate battle lines and enter into Southern territory, the Home Guard was later used to help capture Confederate army deserters returning to their homes.
The Home Guard possessed a wide range of powers, whether those powers were legitimate and recognized by the Confederacy or not. As there were few younger Southern men at home, few could stand in the way of any Home Guard unit that wished to abuse its powers. In addition to this, due to the war demanding so much attention from the Confederate Congress, not to mention the other branches of the government and the military, little attention was paid to the Home Guard units. All were commanded locally, and rarely did they receive any specific direction. In essence, the Home Guard units could work as they pleased. More often than not they made their own decisions and priorities.
Depending on the area, Home Guard units would be at times nothing more than a group of men identified as such, working from home as they pleased. At other times, most usually in states located in what was known as the Eastern theater of the war, Home Guard units had base camps and headquarters, went on patrol, and scouted for possible deserters or Union stragglers. Most of the time, Home Guard units were poorly equipped, due to shortages of goods, ammunition, and weapons to supply the Confederate Army. They rarely dressed in anything that could be called a uniform, but did make efforts to wear the same color clothing as the Confederate soldiers.
By the middle of the war, many Home Guard units were composed of wounded soldiers that had returned to recover.
Deserters that were encountered by Home Guard patrols were dealt with in many different fashions. At times, the deserting soldiers would be returned to the Army via Confederate units that were stationed near to whatever area the deserters were captured. Sometimes deserters were executed by the Home Guard.
By 1864, the Union Army occupied much of the formerly Confederate-controlled areas. With Union forces now patrolling home-front areas, many Home Guard units disbanded to avoid being considered or mistaken for guerrillas, and it became increasingly difficult for the Confederacy to enforce any action against deserters who returned home. Even in the Western theater states of Arkansas, Texas and Louisiana, Union troops were regularly seen, and at times the troops had taken control of many towns or cities. Some Southern citizens who lived in those states and who did not support secession had now openly come out in support of the Union, often forming Union Army regiments or units to serve in that army. These newly formed Union units, made up of local citizens, personally knew the members of the Home Guard, which greatly hampered, if not completely disabled, the Home Guard's ability to function.
By the war's end, very few such units were still in existence. However some were still active in areas where Union soldiers were less common, although these were mostly bands of thieves preying on the less fortunate. One of the most notorious of these was the Independent Rangers, led by early Old West outlaw Cullen Baker. In late 1864, this band was responsible for what became known as the Massacre of Saline, when they murdered ten unarmed men from Perry County, Arkansas, on the Saline River.
- The film Free State of Jones (2016), starring Matthew McConaughey, portrays the Home Guard in Jones County, Mississippi as taking excessive taxes in goods from the women and children left on yeoman farms.
- The Confederate Home Guard is featured in a major role in the novel Cold Mountain (1997) by Charles Frazier and the 2003 film adaptation of the same name, written and directed by Anthony Minghella. Both novel and film are presented from the point of view of a Confederate deserter, and the Home Guards hunting him are characterized as villains.
- In Margaret Mitchell's novel Gone with the Wind (1936), the Home Guard fights General Sherman's army when it invades Atlanta. The soldiers fight bravely, but lose the battle and many are killed. This characterization was also portrayed in the movie by the same name adapted from the novel, which has been a huge success.
- Southern Misconceptions, Home Guard
- Home Guard Portrayal in Cold Mountain, St. Francis University
- Desertion in the Confederate Army
- Civil War Desertions
- William Russell Hickman, b. 1846 Mount Airy, North Carolina d. 1932 Guthrie, Oklahoma. His personal account of serving in the Civil War and avoiding the Home Guard to enlist under the command of General Sherman July 1864 | <urn:uuid:02d1d482-f7c3-4166-8383-b1a72b41321c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wikiyy.com/en/Confederate_Home_Guard | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00051.warc.gz | en | 0.984675 | 1,339 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.06853465735912... | 1 | This article needs additional citations for verification. (August 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Confederate Home Guard units worked in coordination with the Confederate Army, and were tasked with both the defense of the Confederate home front during the American Civil War, as well as to help track down and capture Confederate Army deserters. The Home Guard was a type of militia for the Confederacy. It had a rank structure and did have certain regulations, whether those were enforced or not.
Home Guard units were, essentially, to be a last defense against any invading Union forces. They also were used at times to gather information about invading Union forces troop movements, as well as to identify and control any local civilians who were considered sympathetic to the Union cause. They received no military training, and although they could be drafted into the Confederate service if need be, there are only a few cases in which that happened. The Home Guard was recognized as a type of service to the Confederacy. It was often made up of older planters or others exempted from front line service.
Citizens of some states also formed Unionist Home Guard units. For example, in Kentucky, the Home Guard consisted of Unionist men; Confederate sympathizers in the state, led by Simon Bolivar Buckner, formed militia groups known as the State Guard.
Background and implementation
Most Home Guard units consisted of volunteers and paid no salary. A bounty was offered by the Confederate government for the capture of deserters, although it was rarely paid, due to the government's debt.
While most able-bodied Southern men went away to war, many stayed behind, either by choice or due to something that prevented them from serving in the army. Planters owning 20 slaves or more were exempted from service, with other family members exempted based on their total slaveholding. Although many states did not initially form Home Guard units, by 1863 all 11 Confederate states had done so. Initially tasked with being the defense force against any Union Army elements that might pass through the Confederate battle lines and enter into Southern territory, the Home Guard was later used to help capture Confederate army deserters returning to their homes.
The Home Guard possessed a wide range of powers, whether those powers were legitimate and recognized by the Confederacy or not. As there were few younger Southern men at home, few could stand in the way of any Home Guard unit that wished to abuse its powers. In addition to this, due to the war demanding so much attention from the Confederate Congress, not to mention the other branches of the government and the military, little attention was paid to the Home Guard units. All were commanded locally, and rarely did they receive any specific direction. In essence, the Home Guard units could work as they pleased. More often than not they made their own decisions and priorities.
Depending on the area, Home Guard units would be at times nothing more than a group of men identified as such, working from home as they pleased. At other times, most usually in states located in what was known as the Eastern theater of the war, Home Guard units had base camps and headquarters, went on patrol, and scouted for possible deserters or Union stragglers. Most of the time, Home Guard units were poorly equipped, due to shortages of goods, ammunition, and weapons to supply the Confederate Army. They rarely dressed in anything that could be called a uniform, but did make efforts to wear the same color clothing as the Confederate soldiers.
By the middle of the war, many Home Guard units were composed of wounded soldiers that had returned to recover.
Deserters that were encountered by Home Guard patrols were dealt with in many different fashions. At times, the deserting soldiers would be returned to the Army via Confederate units that were stationed near to whatever area the deserters were captured. Sometimes deserters were executed by the Home Guard.
By 1864, the Union Army occupied much of the formerly Confederate-controlled areas. With Union forces now patrolling home-front areas, many Home Guard units disbanded to avoid being considered or mistaken for guerrillas, and it became increasingly difficult for the Confederacy to enforce any action against deserters who returned home. Even in the Western theater states of Arkansas, Texas and Louisiana, Union troops were regularly seen, and at times the troops had taken control of many towns or cities. Some Southern citizens who lived in those states and who did not support secession had now openly come out in support of the Union, often forming Union Army regiments or units to serve in that army. These newly formed Union units, made up of local citizens, personally knew the members of the Home Guard, which greatly hampered, if not completely disabled, the Home Guard's ability to function.
By the war's end, very few such units were still in existence. However some were still active in areas where Union soldiers were less common, although these were mostly bands of thieves preying on the less fortunate. One of the most notorious of these was the Independent Rangers, led by early Old West outlaw Cullen Baker. In late 1864, this band was responsible for what became known as the Massacre of Saline, when they murdered ten unarmed men from Perry County, Arkansas, on the Saline River.
- The film Free State of Jones (2016), starring Matthew McConaughey, portrays the Home Guard in Jones County, Mississippi as taking excessive taxes in goods from the women and children left on yeoman farms.
- The Confederate Home Guard is featured in a major role in the novel Cold Mountain (1997) by Charles Frazier and the 2003 film adaptation of the same name, written and directed by Anthony Minghella. Both novel and film are presented from the point of view of a Confederate deserter, and the Home Guards hunting him are characterized as villains.
- In Margaret Mitchell's novel Gone with the Wind (1936), the Home Guard fights General Sherman's army when it invades Atlanta. The soldiers fight bravely, but lose the battle and many are killed. This characterization was also portrayed in the movie by the same name adapted from the novel, which has been a huge success.
- Southern Misconceptions, Home Guard
- Home Guard Portrayal in Cold Mountain, St. Francis University
- Desertion in the Confederate Army
- Civil War Desertions
- William Russell Hickman, b. 1846 Mount Airy, North Carolina d. 1932 Guthrie, Oklahoma. His personal account of serving in the Civil War and avoiding the Home Guard to enlist under the command of General Sherman July 1864 | 1,366 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Essay on Biography of Thomas Stearns Eliot
Thomas Stearns Eliot (aka T.S Eliot) was born in St. Louis in the September of 1888 to a family with a very strong New England family. Eliot abandoned his home roots and allied himself with both the New and Old England through his life. He attended Harvard as an undergraduate in 1906.He was accepted into the literary circles, and had a knack for 16th- and 17th-century poetry. Like the Italian Renaissance, Eastern religion, and philosophy. The greatest influences on him were 19th-century French …show more content…
By 1917 Eliot had achieved great success with his first book , Prufrock and Other Observations, it also included “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,” (Poets) a work he began to write while he was an undergraduate at Harvard. Eliot's reputation was improved by the admiration and help of poet Ezra Pound, another large figure of poetry at that time. During Eliot's recuperation from his breakdown in a Swiss sanitarium, he wrote “The Waste Land, arguably one of the most influential English-language poem’s ever written” (Bush).
Eliot began the quarterly Criterion in 1922, running it until1939 where it ended. He was now the voice of modern poetry, and in London he expanded the size of his writings. In addition to writing poetry and editing it for various publications, he wrote philosophical reviews and a number of critical essays. “Many of these like “Tradition and the Individual Talent,” are classics, smartly and sweetly discerning other poets while secretly informing the reader about Eliot's own work” (Bush). “Eliot declared his preference for poetry that does away with the poet's own personality and uses the "objective correlative" of symbolic, meaningful, and often chaotic concrete imagery”(Bush).
Eliot joined the Church of England in 1927 and his later works reflects his | <urn:uuid:78078d5e-af10-4f5f-ab9e-6e59bd185e72> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/biography-of-thomas-stearns-eliot/F3UDF9NSJ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00546.warc.gz | en | 0.986111 | 418 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.1153164431452... | 1 | Essay on Biography of Thomas Stearns Eliot
Thomas Stearns Eliot (aka T.S Eliot) was born in St. Louis in the September of 1888 to a family with a very strong New England family. Eliot abandoned his home roots and allied himself with both the New and Old England through his life. He attended Harvard as an undergraduate in 1906.He was accepted into the literary circles, and had a knack for 16th- and 17th-century poetry. Like the Italian Renaissance, Eastern religion, and philosophy. The greatest influences on him were 19th-century French …show more content…
By 1917 Eliot had achieved great success with his first book , Prufrock and Other Observations, it also included “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,” (Poets) a work he began to write while he was an undergraduate at Harvard. Eliot's reputation was improved by the admiration and help of poet Ezra Pound, another large figure of poetry at that time. During Eliot's recuperation from his breakdown in a Swiss sanitarium, he wrote “The Waste Land, arguably one of the most influential English-language poem’s ever written” (Bush).
Eliot began the quarterly Criterion in 1922, running it until1939 where it ended. He was now the voice of modern poetry, and in London he expanded the size of his writings. In addition to writing poetry and editing it for various publications, he wrote philosophical reviews and a number of critical essays. “Many of these like “Tradition and the Individual Talent,” are classics, smartly and sweetly discerning other poets while secretly informing the reader about Eliot's own work” (Bush). “Eliot declared his preference for poetry that does away with the poet's own personality and uses the "objective correlative" of symbolic, meaningful, and often chaotic concrete imagery”(Bush).
Eliot joined the Church of England in 1927 and his later works reflects his | 426 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Malcolm X was born Malcolm Little on May 19, 1925 in Omaha, Nebraska. His mother, Louise Norton Little, was a homemaker occupied with the family’s eight children. His father, Earl Little, was an outspoken Baptist minister and avid supporter of Black Nationalist leader Marcus Garvey. Earl’s civil rights activism prompted death threats from the white supremacist organization Black Legion, forcing the family to relocate twice before Malcolm’s fourth birthday.
Regardless of the Little’s efforts to elude the Legion, in 1929, their Lansing, Michigan home was burned to the ground. Two years later, Earl’s body was found lying across the town’s trolley tracks. Police ruled both incidents as accidents, but the Littles were certain that members of the Black Legion were responsible. Louise suffered emotional breakdown several years after the death of her husband and was committed to a mental institution, while her children were split up among various foster homes and orphanages.
Eventually, Malcolm and his long-time friend, Malcolm “Shorty” Jarvis, moved back to Boston. In 1946, they were arrested and convicted on burglary charges, and Malcolm was sentenced to 10 years in prison, although he was granted parole after serving seven years.
Recalling his days in school, he used the time to further his education. It was during this period of self-enlightenment that Malcolm’s brother Reginald would visit and discuss his recent conversion to the Muslim religion. Reginald belonged to the religious organization the Nation of Islam (NOI).
Intrigued, Malcolm began to study the teachings of NOI leader Elijah Muhammad. Muhammad taught that white society actively worked to keep African-Americans from empowering themselves and achieving political, economic, and social success. Among other goals, the NOI fought for a state of their own, separate from one inhabited by white people. By the time he was paroled in 1952, Malcolm was a devoted follower with the new surname “X” (He considered “Little” a slave name and chose the “X” to signify his lost tribal name.).
Intelligent and articulate, Malcolm was appointed as a minister and national spokesman for the Nation of Islam. Elijah Muhammad also charged him with establishing new mosques in cities such as Detroit, Michigan, and Harlem. Malcolm utilized newspaper columns, as well as radio and television, to communicate the NOI’s message across the United States. His charisma, drive, and conviction attracted an astounding number of new members. Malcolm was largely credited with increasing membership in the NOI from 500 in 1952 to 30,000 in 1963.
The crowds and controversy surrounding Malcolm made him a media magnet. He was featured in a weeklong television special with Mike Wallace in 1959, called The Hate That Hate Produced. The program explored the fundamentals of the NOI, and tracked Malcolm’s emergence as one of its most important leaders. After the special, Malcolm was faced with the uncomfortable reality that his fame had eclipsed that of his mentor Elijah Muhammad. In addition to the media, Malcolm’s vivid personality had captured the government’s attention. As membership in the NOI continued to grow, FBI agents infiltrated the organization (one even acted as Malcolm’s bodyguard) and secretly placed bugs, wiretaps, cameras, and other surveillance equipment to monitor the group’s activities.
Malcolm’s faith was dealt a crushing blow at the height of the civil rights movement in 1963. He learned that his mentor and leader, Elijah Muhammad, was secretly having relations with as many as six women within the Nation of Islam organization. As if that were not enough, Malcolm found out that some of these relationships had resulted in children.
Since joining the NOI, Malcolm had strictly adhered to the teachings of Muhammad, which included remaining celibate until his marriage to Betty Shabazz in 1958. Malcolm refused Muhammad’s request to help cover up the affairs and subsequent children. He was deeply hurt by Muhammad’s actions, because he had previously considered him a living prophet. Malcolm also felt guilty about the masses he had led to join the NOI, which he now felt was a fraudulent organization built on too many lies to ignore.
Shortly after his shocking discovery, Malcolm received criticism for a comment he made regarding the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. “[Kennedy] never foresaw that the chickens would come home to roost so soon,” said Malcolm. After the statement, Elijah Muhammad “silenced” Malcolm for 90 days. Malcolm, however, suspected he was silenced for another reason. In March 1964, Malcolm terminated his relationship with the NOI. Unable to look past Muhammad’s deception, Malcolm decided to found his own religious organization, the Muslim Mosque, Inc.
That same year, Malcolm went on a pilgrimage to Mecca, which proved to be life altering for him. For the first time, Malcolm shared his thoughts and beliefs with different cultures and found the response to be overwhelmingly positive. When he returned, Malcolm said he had met “blonde-haired, blued-eyed men I could call my brothers.” He returned to the United States with a new outlook on integration and a new hope for the future. This time when Malcolm spoke, instead of just preaching to African-Americans, he had a message for all races.
After Malcolm resigned his position in the Nation of Islam and renounced Elijah Muhammad, relations between the two had become increasingly volatile. FBI informants working undercover in the NOI warned officials that Malcolm had been marked for assassination–one undercover officer had even been ordered to help plant a bomb in Malcolm’s car.
After repeated attempts on his life, Malcolm rarely traveled anywhere without bodyguards. On February 14, 1965 the home where Malcolm, Betty, and their four daughters lived in East Elmhurst, New York was firebombed. Luckily, the family escaped physical injury.
One week later, however, Malcolm’s enemies were successful in their ruthless attempt. At a speaking engagement in the Manhattan’s Audubon Ballroom on February 21, 1965, three gunmen rushed Malcolm onstage. They shot him 15 times at close range. The 39-year-old was pronounced dead on arrival at New York’s Columbia Presbyterian Hospital.
Fifteen hundred people attended Malcolm’s funeral in Harlem on February 27, 1965 at the Faith Temple Church of God in Christ (now Child’s Memorial Temple Church of God in Christ). After the ceremony, friends took the shovels away from the waiting gravediggers and buried Malcolm themselves.
Later that year, Betty gave birth to their twin daughters.
Malcolm’s assassins, Talmadge Hayer, Norman 3X Butler, and Thomas 15X Johnson, were convicted of first-degree murder in March 1966. The three men were all members of the Nation of Islam. Malcolm X’s legacy has moved through generations as the subject of numerous documentaries, books, and movies. A tremendous resurgence of interest occurred in 1992 when director Spike Lee released the acclaimed movie, Malcolm X. The film received Oscar nominations for Best Actor (Denzel Washington) and Best Costume Design.
Malcolm X is buried at the Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York.
( Source: MalcolmX.com )
Related posts from similar topics: | <urn:uuid:06cf22e8-087e-4615-b2ec-d4fb4cea3ea8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.islamicity.org/11133/abridged-biography-malcolm-x/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00194.warc.gz | en | 0.982283 | 1,522 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.05610900744795... | 1 | Malcolm X was born Malcolm Little on May 19, 1925 in Omaha, Nebraska. His mother, Louise Norton Little, was a homemaker occupied with the family’s eight children. His father, Earl Little, was an outspoken Baptist minister and avid supporter of Black Nationalist leader Marcus Garvey. Earl’s civil rights activism prompted death threats from the white supremacist organization Black Legion, forcing the family to relocate twice before Malcolm’s fourth birthday.
Regardless of the Little’s efforts to elude the Legion, in 1929, their Lansing, Michigan home was burned to the ground. Two years later, Earl’s body was found lying across the town’s trolley tracks. Police ruled both incidents as accidents, but the Littles were certain that members of the Black Legion were responsible. Louise suffered emotional breakdown several years after the death of her husband and was committed to a mental institution, while her children were split up among various foster homes and orphanages.
Eventually, Malcolm and his long-time friend, Malcolm “Shorty” Jarvis, moved back to Boston. In 1946, they were arrested and convicted on burglary charges, and Malcolm was sentenced to 10 years in prison, although he was granted parole after serving seven years.
Recalling his days in school, he used the time to further his education. It was during this period of self-enlightenment that Malcolm’s brother Reginald would visit and discuss his recent conversion to the Muslim religion. Reginald belonged to the religious organization the Nation of Islam (NOI).
Intrigued, Malcolm began to study the teachings of NOI leader Elijah Muhammad. Muhammad taught that white society actively worked to keep African-Americans from empowering themselves and achieving political, economic, and social success. Among other goals, the NOI fought for a state of their own, separate from one inhabited by white people. By the time he was paroled in 1952, Malcolm was a devoted follower with the new surname “X” (He considered “Little” a slave name and chose the “X” to signify his lost tribal name.).
Intelligent and articulate, Malcolm was appointed as a minister and national spokesman for the Nation of Islam. Elijah Muhammad also charged him with establishing new mosques in cities such as Detroit, Michigan, and Harlem. Malcolm utilized newspaper columns, as well as radio and television, to communicate the NOI’s message across the United States. His charisma, drive, and conviction attracted an astounding number of new members. Malcolm was largely credited with increasing membership in the NOI from 500 in 1952 to 30,000 in 1963.
The crowds and controversy surrounding Malcolm made him a media magnet. He was featured in a weeklong television special with Mike Wallace in 1959, called The Hate That Hate Produced. The program explored the fundamentals of the NOI, and tracked Malcolm’s emergence as one of its most important leaders. After the special, Malcolm was faced with the uncomfortable reality that his fame had eclipsed that of his mentor Elijah Muhammad. In addition to the media, Malcolm’s vivid personality had captured the government’s attention. As membership in the NOI continued to grow, FBI agents infiltrated the organization (one even acted as Malcolm’s bodyguard) and secretly placed bugs, wiretaps, cameras, and other surveillance equipment to monitor the group’s activities.
Malcolm’s faith was dealt a crushing blow at the height of the civil rights movement in 1963. He learned that his mentor and leader, Elijah Muhammad, was secretly having relations with as many as six women within the Nation of Islam organization. As if that were not enough, Malcolm found out that some of these relationships had resulted in children.
Since joining the NOI, Malcolm had strictly adhered to the teachings of Muhammad, which included remaining celibate until his marriage to Betty Shabazz in 1958. Malcolm refused Muhammad’s request to help cover up the affairs and subsequent children. He was deeply hurt by Muhammad’s actions, because he had previously considered him a living prophet. Malcolm also felt guilty about the masses he had led to join the NOI, which he now felt was a fraudulent organization built on too many lies to ignore.
Shortly after his shocking discovery, Malcolm received criticism for a comment he made regarding the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. “[Kennedy] never foresaw that the chickens would come home to roost so soon,” said Malcolm. After the statement, Elijah Muhammad “silenced” Malcolm for 90 days. Malcolm, however, suspected he was silenced for another reason. In March 1964, Malcolm terminated his relationship with the NOI. Unable to look past Muhammad’s deception, Malcolm decided to found his own religious organization, the Muslim Mosque, Inc.
That same year, Malcolm went on a pilgrimage to Mecca, which proved to be life altering for him. For the first time, Malcolm shared his thoughts and beliefs with different cultures and found the response to be overwhelmingly positive. When he returned, Malcolm said he had met “blonde-haired, blued-eyed men I could call my brothers.” He returned to the United States with a new outlook on integration and a new hope for the future. This time when Malcolm spoke, instead of just preaching to African-Americans, he had a message for all races.
After Malcolm resigned his position in the Nation of Islam and renounced Elijah Muhammad, relations between the two had become increasingly volatile. FBI informants working undercover in the NOI warned officials that Malcolm had been marked for assassination–one undercover officer had even been ordered to help plant a bomb in Malcolm’s car.
After repeated attempts on his life, Malcolm rarely traveled anywhere without bodyguards. On February 14, 1965 the home where Malcolm, Betty, and their four daughters lived in East Elmhurst, New York was firebombed. Luckily, the family escaped physical injury.
One week later, however, Malcolm’s enemies were successful in their ruthless attempt. At a speaking engagement in the Manhattan’s Audubon Ballroom on February 21, 1965, three gunmen rushed Malcolm onstage. They shot him 15 times at close range. The 39-year-old was pronounced dead on arrival at New York’s Columbia Presbyterian Hospital.
Fifteen hundred people attended Malcolm’s funeral in Harlem on February 27, 1965 at the Faith Temple Church of God in Christ (now Child’s Memorial Temple Church of God in Christ). After the ceremony, friends took the shovels away from the waiting gravediggers and buried Malcolm themselves.
Later that year, Betty gave birth to their twin daughters.
Malcolm’s assassins, Talmadge Hayer, Norman 3X Butler, and Thomas 15X Johnson, were convicted of first-degree murder in March 1966. The three men were all members of the Nation of Islam. Malcolm X’s legacy has moved through generations as the subject of numerous documentaries, books, and movies. A tremendous resurgence of interest occurred in 1992 when director Spike Lee released the acclaimed movie, Malcolm X. The film received Oscar nominations for Best Actor (Denzel Washington) and Best Costume Design.
Malcolm X is buried at the Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York.
( Source: MalcolmX.com )
Related posts from similar topics: | 1,511 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During his tenure as president, George Washington's language rarely reached the emotional pitch of a January note about L'Enfant:
The family lived on Purchase Street in Boston. A New England town meeting is a form of local government with elected officials, and not just a gathering of citizens; according to historian William Fowlerit was "the most democratic institution in the British empire".
His parents hoped that his schooling would prepare him for the ministry, but Adams gradually shifted his interest to politics. In his thesis, he argued that it was "lawful to resist the Supreme Magistrate, if the Commonwealth cannot otherwise be preserved", which indicated that his political views, like his father's, were oriented towards colonial rights.
InMassachusetts was facing a serious currency shortage, and Deacon Adams and the Boston Caucus created a "land bank" which issued paper money to borrowers who mortgaged their land as security. Opposition to the land bank came from the more aristocratic "court party", who were supporters of the royal governor and controlled the Governor's Councilthe upper chamber of the General Court.
Lawsuits over the bank persisted for years, even after Deacon Adams's death, and the younger Samuel Adams often had to defend the family estate from seizure by John quincy adams thesis government.
He considered becoming a lawyer, but instead decided to go into business. He worked at Thomas Cushing's counting housebut the job only lasted a few months because Cushing felt that Adams was too preoccupied with politics to become a good merchant.
Adams always remained, in the words of historian Pauline Maier"a man utterly uninterested in either making or possessing money". During the crisis with Great Britain, mass meetings were held here that were too large for Faneuil Hall.
Several generations of Adamses were maltsters, who produced the malt necessary for brewing beer.
Samuel born and Hannah born He was elected to his first political office inserving as one of the clerks of the Boston market. Inthe Boston Town Meeting elected him to the post of tax collector, which provided a small income.
The town meeting was on the verge of bankruptcy, and Adams was compelled to file suit against delinquent taxpayers, but many taxes went uncollected. Adams's friends paid off some of the deficit, and the town meeting wrote off the remainder.
By then, he had emerged as a leader of the popular party, and the embarrassing situation did not lessen his influence. The British Parliament found itself deep in debt and looking for new sources of revenue, and they sought to directly tax the colonies of British America for the first time.
Colonists were not represented in Parliament, he argued, and therefore they could not be taxed by that body; the colonists were represented by the colonial assemblies, and only they could levy taxes upon them. As was customary, the town meeting provided the representatives with a set of written instructions, which Adams was selected to write.
Adams highlighted what he perceived to be the dangers of taxation without representation: For if our Trade may be taxed, why not our Lands?
It strikes at our British privileges, which as we have never forfeited them, we hold in common with our Fellow Subjects who are Natives of Britain. If Taxes are laid upon us in any shape without our having a legal Representation where they are laid, are we not reduced from the Character of free Subjects to the miserable State of tributary Slaves?
Alexander, "it became the first political body in America to go on record stating Parliament could not constitutionally tax the colonists.
The directives also contained the first official recommendation that the colonies present a unified defense of their rights. He supported calls for a boycott of British goods to put pressure on Parliament to repeal the tax.
Adams was friendly with the Loyal Nine but was not a member.Biography of John Adams essaysJohn Adams was the first Vice-President and the second President of the United States. Although not very popular, he had a very successful life.
John Adams was born October 30, , in Braintree Massachusetts, which is now known as Quincy. His father. Adolf Hitler was obsessed with the occult, in his case the Thule Society, closely inter-connected with German Theosophists. The jolly roger, skull and cross bones, "der Totenkopf" was an emblem worn by Hitler's SS soldiers and was emblazoned on SS armoured cars and tanks (see images on this page).
Nov 28, · First its an argumentative paper. This is what the thesis needs to be based on. Did John Quincy Adams support slavery? THANKS PLEASE HELP ASAPStatus: Open. The John Quincy Adams Society is committed to identifying, educating, and equipping the next generation of scholars and policy leaders to encourage a new era of realism and restraint in American foreign policy.
Start a local chapter! Get started. We Believe. Download thesis statement on John Quincy Adams 2 in our database or order an original thesis paper that will be written by one of our staff writers and .
John Quincy Adams John Quincy Adams was the son of Charles Francis Adams where Charles was the youngest son of Adams - John Quincy Adams short introduction. Charles studied diplomacy and politics. In bid to honour his father, Charles build the memorial presidential library in the”Old House” at Adams National Historical Park in. | <urn:uuid:57246dbb-97bf-4475-88af-4acac9740f84> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mewaduponih.heartoftexashop.com/john-quincy-adams-thesis-6752gg.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00529.warc.gz | en | 0.982713 | 1,093 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.124239884... | 1 | During his tenure as president, George Washington's language rarely reached the emotional pitch of a January note about L'Enfant:
The family lived on Purchase Street in Boston. A New England town meeting is a form of local government with elected officials, and not just a gathering of citizens; according to historian William Fowlerit was "the most democratic institution in the British empire".
His parents hoped that his schooling would prepare him for the ministry, but Adams gradually shifted his interest to politics. In his thesis, he argued that it was "lawful to resist the Supreme Magistrate, if the Commonwealth cannot otherwise be preserved", which indicated that his political views, like his father's, were oriented towards colonial rights.
InMassachusetts was facing a serious currency shortage, and Deacon Adams and the Boston Caucus created a "land bank" which issued paper money to borrowers who mortgaged their land as security. Opposition to the land bank came from the more aristocratic "court party", who were supporters of the royal governor and controlled the Governor's Councilthe upper chamber of the General Court.
Lawsuits over the bank persisted for years, even after Deacon Adams's death, and the younger Samuel Adams often had to defend the family estate from seizure by John quincy adams thesis government.
He considered becoming a lawyer, but instead decided to go into business. He worked at Thomas Cushing's counting housebut the job only lasted a few months because Cushing felt that Adams was too preoccupied with politics to become a good merchant.
Adams always remained, in the words of historian Pauline Maier"a man utterly uninterested in either making or possessing money". During the crisis with Great Britain, mass meetings were held here that were too large for Faneuil Hall.
Several generations of Adamses were maltsters, who produced the malt necessary for brewing beer.
Samuel born and Hannah born He was elected to his first political office inserving as one of the clerks of the Boston market. Inthe Boston Town Meeting elected him to the post of tax collector, which provided a small income.
The town meeting was on the verge of bankruptcy, and Adams was compelled to file suit against delinquent taxpayers, but many taxes went uncollected. Adams's friends paid off some of the deficit, and the town meeting wrote off the remainder.
By then, he had emerged as a leader of the popular party, and the embarrassing situation did not lessen his influence. The British Parliament found itself deep in debt and looking for new sources of revenue, and they sought to directly tax the colonies of British America for the first time.
Colonists were not represented in Parliament, he argued, and therefore they could not be taxed by that body; the colonists were represented by the colonial assemblies, and only they could levy taxes upon them. As was customary, the town meeting provided the representatives with a set of written instructions, which Adams was selected to write.
Adams highlighted what he perceived to be the dangers of taxation without representation: For if our Trade may be taxed, why not our Lands?
It strikes at our British privileges, which as we have never forfeited them, we hold in common with our Fellow Subjects who are Natives of Britain. If Taxes are laid upon us in any shape without our having a legal Representation where they are laid, are we not reduced from the Character of free Subjects to the miserable State of tributary Slaves?
Alexander, "it became the first political body in America to go on record stating Parliament could not constitutionally tax the colonists.
The directives also contained the first official recommendation that the colonies present a unified defense of their rights. He supported calls for a boycott of British goods to put pressure on Parliament to repeal the tax.
Adams was friendly with the Loyal Nine but was not a member.Biography of John Adams essaysJohn Adams was the first Vice-President and the second President of the United States. Although not very popular, he had a very successful life.
John Adams was born October 30, , in Braintree Massachusetts, which is now known as Quincy. His father. Adolf Hitler was obsessed with the occult, in his case the Thule Society, closely inter-connected with German Theosophists. The jolly roger, skull and cross bones, "der Totenkopf" was an emblem worn by Hitler's SS soldiers and was emblazoned on SS armoured cars and tanks (see images on this page).
Nov 28, · First its an argumentative paper. This is what the thesis needs to be based on. Did John Quincy Adams support slavery? THANKS PLEASE HELP ASAPStatus: Open. The John Quincy Adams Society is committed to identifying, educating, and equipping the next generation of scholars and policy leaders to encourage a new era of realism and restraint in American foreign policy.
Start a local chapter! Get started. We Believe. Download thesis statement on John Quincy Adams 2 in our database or order an original thesis paper that will be written by one of our staff writers and .
John Quincy Adams John Quincy Adams was the son of Charles Francis Adams where Charles was the youngest son of Adams - John Quincy Adams short introduction. Charles studied diplomacy and politics. In bid to honour his father, Charles build the memorial presidential library in the”Old House” at Adams National Historical Park in. | 1,078 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mary Toucans Mr.. Kara Period 3 Renaissance DB During the Time period of The Renaissance was a time that many art, literature and science advancements were made. People refer to this time period as the time period of ‘rebirth’ of learning that had been put on hold since the fall of Rome. The renaissance was a time of much advancement across the board. Throughout the time of the Renaissance there were numerous famous, artists, inventors and scientists; some famous for one of those achievements listed and others known for all three.
The men known for all three were referred to as the Renaissance men. The Renaissance man was skilled in all aspects of learning. A very famous renaissance man, Leonardo Dad Vinci made many one of a kind sculptures and murals but also contributed to science. Dad Vinci would depict the human body in drawings and describe different muscles and use his art skills for other scientists to work off of (Doc. L). Dad Vinci also had a famous drawing titled ‘The Vitamin Man’ where he showed how the human body moved.
Along with contributions to biology the renaissance men also came up with the Scientific method. The scientific method changed the way we come to conclusions by having a set way to come up with answers with repeating experiments and questioning our hypothesis. (Doc 2). While all of the scientific advancements were important, science wasn’t the only place that advancements were made. During this time period many artists were remembered for sculptures, drawings and murals but they also invented a new type of art.
They invented Linear Perspective; a type of drawing or painting using lines and a focal point making their drawings have an allusion of looking 3-D. ( Doc. 4) This form of art is fusing math and art into one is another example of the renaissance men being scholarly as well as creative. Along with perspective drawing artists also hid simple shapes like triangles in their pieces to make them more aesthetically pleasing to the eye. Transitional sentence? ) Before the Renaissance time period the larger part of Europe were Catholics. Up until the printing press was invented people believed anything that the church told them. They believed that they could buy their way into heaven as well as being excommunicated by the discretion of the priest. None of these things are written in he bible but since people could not read they could not tell and believed the priests.
For the very few that could read in their language, the bible was written in Latin which very few people could read. When Gutenberg invented the Printing press in 1454 people started to learn how to read and everyday people were becoming caudate ) I nee more Ana more Tanat people s tarter to read started to realize that the church was fooling them. Along with being able to read and become well educated, the printing press and reading in general taught people how to think for themselves which Just added to the time period of Why. | <urn:uuid:03be5064-c81f-4651-9b79-e97115dc38a7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://googlebestbuy.com/renissance-dbq/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00297.warc.gz | en | 0.987854 | 591 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.16647760... | 3 | Mary Toucans Mr.. Kara Period 3 Renaissance DB During the Time period of The Renaissance was a time that many art, literature and science advancements were made. People refer to this time period as the time period of ‘rebirth’ of learning that had been put on hold since the fall of Rome. The renaissance was a time of much advancement across the board. Throughout the time of the Renaissance there were numerous famous, artists, inventors and scientists; some famous for one of those achievements listed and others known for all three.
The men known for all three were referred to as the Renaissance men. The Renaissance man was skilled in all aspects of learning. A very famous renaissance man, Leonardo Dad Vinci made many one of a kind sculptures and murals but also contributed to science. Dad Vinci would depict the human body in drawings and describe different muscles and use his art skills for other scientists to work off of (Doc. L). Dad Vinci also had a famous drawing titled ‘The Vitamin Man’ where he showed how the human body moved.
Along with contributions to biology the renaissance men also came up with the Scientific method. The scientific method changed the way we come to conclusions by having a set way to come up with answers with repeating experiments and questioning our hypothesis. (Doc 2). While all of the scientific advancements were important, science wasn’t the only place that advancements were made. During this time period many artists were remembered for sculptures, drawings and murals but they also invented a new type of art.
They invented Linear Perspective; a type of drawing or painting using lines and a focal point making their drawings have an allusion of looking 3-D. ( Doc. 4) This form of art is fusing math and art into one is another example of the renaissance men being scholarly as well as creative. Along with perspective drawing artists also hid simple shapes like triangles in their pieces to make them more aesthetically pleasing to the eye. Transitional sentence? ) Before the Renaissance time period the larger part of Europe were Catholics. Up until the printing press was invented people believed anything that the church told them. They believed that they could buy their way into heaven as well as being excommunicated by the discretion of the priest. None of these things are written in he bible but since people could not read they could not tell and believed the priests.
For the very few that could read in their language, the bible was written in Latin which very few people could read. When Gutenberg invented the Printing press in 1454 people started to learn how to read and everyday people were becoming caudate ) I nee more Ana more Tanat people s tarter to read started to realize that the church was fooling them. Along with being able to read and become well educated, the printing press and reading in general taught people how to think for themselves which Just added to the time period of Why. | 588 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Throughout the famed Puritan novel
Throughout the famed Puritan novel, The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne symbolizes Pearl as dark and evil, as she was born out of sin. However, contrary to popular belief, Pearl is in fact the purest character in the novel. Hester Prynne was a woman from England who moved to America, before her husband, Roger Chillingworth, and committed adultery during his absence with an eminent minister, Arthur Dimmesdale. With the blame solely on Hester, and with the Puritan town oblivious to their loved minister’s true identity, she and Pearl, the fruit of her sin, were shunned from society. Yet, Dimmesdale continued being loved by his village. Throughout the famed Puritan novel, The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne symbolizes Pearl as dark and evil, as she was born out of sin. However, contrary to popular belief, Pearl is in fact the purest character in the novel. Hester Prynne was a woman from England who moved to America, before her husband, Roger Chillingworth, and committed adultery during his absence with an eminent minister, Arthur Dimmesdale.
With the blame solely on Hester, and with the Puritan town oblivious to their loved minister’s true identity, she and Pearl, the fruit of her sin, were shunned from society. Yet, Dimmesdale continued being loved by his village. When Pearl was first introduced, she symbolized Hester’s adultery in the most predominant way possible, her name. Like a precious pearl coming out of a black and ugly oyster, Pearl’s name represents good coming out of the bad. The bad being Hester and Dimmesdale’s adultery and the good being the beautiful, pure, and innocent child born into the world. Hester proclaimed that “[her] child must seek a heavenly Father” (Hawthorne, 64) because she represents good, thus only deserves God as her father, and not a sinner, like Dimmesdale. Thus, Pearl is the purest character in the novel, as she is directly associated with “a heavenly Father,” or God. Dimmesdale was not like a father to Pearl, God was. All Dimmesdale was to Pearl was the strange man who always “[kept] his hand over his heart” (191). He didn’t open up to his wrongs, he just held his “hand over his heart” and kept all his feelings and truths bottling up.
He was very selfish and he was never there for Pearl, so the real father figure in her life was the Holy Father. When Hester made the decision of committing adultery in a 17th century Puritan society, Pearl was “purchased with all [Hester] had — [she was] her mother’s only treasure” (81). Because she committed adultery, Hester had traded her dignity for the Scarlet Letter on her chest, and her baby, Pearl the living Scarlet Letter. These two things were symbols of her sin in her life, however, Pearl was there to not only keep Hester company, but to give Hester’s life a purpose. Pearl was “[Hester’s] pearl of great price” (81). She was very valuable, and cost a “great price” to Hester, even though Hester thought about shutting her up in closets. Without Pearl, Hester could have summoned Satan with Mistress Hibbins, but instead, she had an obligation to raise her daughter, and to stay out of the darkness. Pearl is constantly associated with sin due to Hester and Dimmesdale’s adultery.
Pearl herself, however, is a good child. When Hawthorne first introduced Pearl she was an “infant [who] pierced the air with [her] wailings and screams” (65). All babies “wail” and “scream,” it’s normal behavior; as they cannot speak. However, babies are not born evil; they become evil as they grow up, from the influence of their environment. Thus, it was incorrect for the Puritans to assume Pearl was evil solely because she was born out of adultery. There was no instance in which Pearl did something morally wrong that another child would be excused for. All other major characters have sinned i.e. Hester, Dimmesdale, Chillingworth, etc. Thus, Pearl is the purest character even though the Puritans see her as sinful and as “the body, or the reality of [Hester’s] sin,” because she truly represents good and has a direct connection to purity and heaven (73). Pearl’s supernatural inquiry and knowledge of her parents’ situation, for instance, when she asks Hester why Dimmesdale doesn’t wear his “[scarlet letter] outside his bosom” makes her not a demon, but gives her a supernatural or divine presence connected to good and heaven, not darkness and Hell (191).
Pearl was also brought into the world for another good purpose, to remind Dimmesdale of his sin, and to be the ultimate driving entity in his battle of self-flagellation and internal conflict. Like a flower trying to burst through the dirt and bloom into the sky, Dimmesdale was stuck underground in the dirt. He created his own personal purgatory, and his own Scarlet Letter by using archaic Christian flagellation rituals. He was stuck in this “purgatory” until he confessed to his sins, and Pearl was the reason he did so. Once he confessed to his sin, God set him free from his temporal life. It wasn’t just for Dimmesdale Pearl was born, “she was offered to the world” (186) so that they could know what Dimmesdale had done and what a hypocrite he was. The “world” being the Boston Puritan Colony. Like a “living hieroglyphic,” Pearl’s presence in Dimmesdale’s life got him to reveal “the secret [he] so darkly sought to hide” (186). That was one of the reasons God put her on this Earth. Not Satan, God. And that is why Pearl is the purest character Hawthorne created. Throughout The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne directly associates Pearl with darkness, however she is truly the purest character in the novel. Like a beautiful, young pearl coming out of an ugly oyster, Pearl actually represents purity and the divine. God put her on the Earth with a purpose, to keep Hester in a good direction, and to get Dimmesdale to confess, and that connection makes her the purest character in the novel.
This essay can be used as a great template for your paper. It was made by i need help with my homework - an academic help service. | <urn:uuid:41ffbfa6-eede-4525-896c-fe76236e6e54> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://kidsaresweet.org/weblog/throughout-the-famed-puritan-novel.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00545.warc.gz | en | 0.984279 | 1,460 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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Throughout the famed Puritan novel, The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne symbolizes Pearl as dark and evil, as she was born out of sin. However, contrary to popular belief, Pearl is in fact the purest character in the novel. Hester Prynne was a woman from England who moved to America, before her husband, Roger Chillingworth, and committed adultery during his absence with an eminent minister, Arthur Dimmesdale. With the blame solely on Hester, and with the Puritan town oblivious to their loved minister’s true identity, she and Pearl, the fruit of her sin, were shunned from society. Yet, Dimmesdale continued being loved by his village. Throughout the famed Puritan novel, The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne symbolizes Pearl as dark and evil, as she was born out of sin. However, contrary to popular belief, Pearl is in fact the purest character in the novel. Hester Prynne was a woman from England who moved to America, before her husband, Roger Chillingworth, and committed adultery during his absence with an eminent minister, Arthur Dimmesdale.
With the blame solely on Hester, and with the Puritan town oblivious to their loved minister’s true identity, she and Pearl, the fruit of her sin, were shunned from society. Yet, Dimmesdale continued being loved by his village. When Pearl was first introduced, she symbolized Hester’s adultery in the most predominant way possible, her name. Like a precious pearl coming out of a black and ugly oyster, Pearl’s name represents good coming out of the bad. The bad being Hester and Dimmesdale’s adultery and the good being the beautiful, pure, and innocent child born into the world. Hester proclaimed that “[her] child must seek a heavenly Father” (Hawthorne, 64) because she represents good, thus only deserves God as her father, and not a sinner, like Dimmesdale. Thus, Pearl is the purest character in the novel, as she is directly associated with “a heavenly Father,” or God. Dimmesdale was not like a father to Pearl, God was. All Dimmesdale was to Pearl was the strange man who always “[kept] his hand over his heart” (191). He didn’t open up to his wrongs, he just held his “hand over his heart” and kept all his feelings and truths bottling up.
He was very selfish and he was never there for Pearl, so the real father figure in her life was the Holy Father. When Hester made the decision of committing adultery in a 17th century Puritan society, Pearl was “purchased with all [Hester] had — [she was] her mother’s only treasure” (81). Because she committed adultery, Hester had traded her dignity for the Scarlet Letter on her chest, and her baby, Pearl the living Scarlet Letter. These two things were symbols of her sin in her life, however, Pearl was there to not only keep Hester company, but to give Hester’s life a purpose. Pearl was “[Hester’s] pearl of great price” (81). She was very valuable, and cost a “great price” to Hester, even though Hester thought about shutting her up in closets. Without Pearl, Hester could have summoned Satan with Mistress Hibbins, but instead, she had an obligation to raise her daughter, and to stay out of the darkness. Pearl is constantly associated with sin due to Hester and Dimmesdale’s adultery.
Pearl herself, however, is a good child. When Hawthorne first introduced Pearl she was an “infant [who] pierced the air with [her] wailings and screams” (65). All babies “wail” and “scream,” it’s normal behavior; as they cannot speak. However, babies are not born evil; they become evil as they grow up, from the influence of their environment. Thus, it was incorrect for the Puritans to assume Pearl was evil solely because she was born out of adultery. There was no instance in which Pearl did something morally wrong that another child would be excused for. All other major characters have sinned i.e. Hester, Dimmesdale, Chillingworth, etc. Thus, Pearl is the purest character even though the Puritans see her as sinful and as “the body, or the reality of [Hester’s] sin,” because she truly represents good and has a direct connection to purity and heaven (73). Pearl’s supernatural inquiry and knowledge of her parents’ situation, for instance, when she asks Hester why Dimmesdale doesn’t wear his “[scarlet letter] outside his bosom” makes her not a demon, but gives her a supernatural or divine presence connected to good and heaven, not darkness and Hell (191).
Pearl was also brought into the world for another good purpose, to remind Dimmesdale of his sin, and to be the ultimate driving entity in his battle of self-flagellation and internal conflict. Like a flower trying to burst through the dirt and bloom into the sky, Dimmesdale was stuck underground in the dirt. He created his own personal purgatory, and his own Scarlet Letter by using archaic Christian flagellation rituals. He was stuck in this “purgatory” until he confessed to his sins, and Pearl was the reason he did so. Once he confessed to his sin, God set him free from his temporal life. It wasn’t just for Dimmesdale Pearl was born, “she was offered to the world” (186) so that they could know what Dimmesdale had done and what a hypocrite he was. The “world” being the Boston Puritan Colony. Like a “living hieroglyphic,” Pearl’s presence in Dimmesdale’s life got him to reveal “the secret [he] so darkly sought to hide” (186). That was one of the reasons God put her on this Earth. Not Satan, God. And that is why Pearl is the purest character Hawthorne created. Throughout The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne directly associates Pearl with darkness, however she is truly the purest character in the novel. Like a beautiful, young pearl coming out of an ugly oyster, Pearl actually represents purity and the divine. God put her on the Earth with a purpose, to keep Hester in a good direction, and to get Dimmesdale to confess, and that connection makes her the purest character in the novel.
This essay can be used as a great template for your paper. It was made by i need help with my homework - an academic help service. | 1,392 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the first scene on Master and Commander after the ship beats to quarters they're shown lowering three rowboats and towing them behind the ship. Why do they do that?
The boats of a Napoleonic warship were a very important part of the ship's equipment. They were the main means (and often the only means) of moving men, goods and communications to and from the ship.
The number of boats carried and their size would be dependent on the rate of warship. A ship-of-the-line could have as many as 7 boats, while an unrated sloop-of-war would still have 3-4.
The larger boats would often have a mast and rigging allowing them to be sailed as well as being rowed. This gave them some independence from the ship itself and they were fairly seaworthy (Captain Bligh managed to navigate his ship's launch over 3,600 miles after the mutiny).
Until the wide-spread adoption of the davit (which only started to be introduced at the start of the French Revolutionary war), lowering and raising the ship's boats involved tackle suspended from the fore and main yardarms. This could be a very tricky operation to perform in the midst of a battle.
Therefore, in addition to keeping the spar deck clear (as noted in CGCampbell's answer), it made sense to tow some or all of the ship's boats as this allowed them to be available for action much more readily. In action, the ship's boats would be used for a number of purposes - as lifeboats (to rescue any seamen of either side who fell into the sea), as weapons (boarding actions of the period usually used the boats rather than bring the ships together) and for communications (transferring orders too complex to send via the flags).
Source: The Boats of Men-of-war, W.E.May (Caxton, 2003)
Beat to quarters is what has become General Quarters in the modern navies. It was the call to ship's company to prepare for action/battle. All crew would prepare for action, depending on the reason for BtQ. (BtQ would be called during storm preparation as well as battle prep, for instance)
The cannon crew would ensure their cannon were properly tied for the action, and pulled all the way to the rear of their lines. Water would be laid for the swabs, the linstocks would all be lit, the balls stacked close at hand and the gunpowder readied.
The rates would scamper up the ratlines to stand by for maneuvering changes to the sheets. Extra rigging would be laid out, out of the way. The marines would take their positions, and light their linstocks, or prime their flints.
The ship's surgeon would prepare his table and instruments in the mess, while the cooks would heat water (for fire control and for the surgeon).
Finally, the dinghies would taken down and lowered into the water and taken in tow. This was done to clear the decks for combat. They would only be in the way of the marines and would be in more danger of being holed or destroyed from cannon fire (from the enemy).
These were some of the main things that might happen during a BtQ for combat. Many other items would be done as well, however. | <urn:uuid:a8fc832c-06bb-43cd-9513-af36ab596660> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/23052/in-the-film-master-and-commander-why-do-they-start-towing-their-rowboats-after/23059 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00018.warc.gz | en | 0.98935 | 692 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.35394585... | 11 | In the first scene on Master and Commander after the ship beats to quarters they're shown lowering three rowboats and towing them behind the ship. Why do they do that?
The boats of a Napoleonic warship were a very important part of the ship's equipment. They were the main means (and often the only means) of moving men, goods and communications to and from the ship.
The number of boats carried and their size would be dependent on the rate of warship. A ship-of-the-line could have as many as 7 boats, while an unrated sloop-of-war would still have 3-4.
The larger boats would often have a mast and rigging allowing them to be sailed as well as being rowed. This gave them some independence from the ship itself and they were fairly seaworthy (Captain Bligh managed to navigate his ship's launch over 3,600 miles after the mutiny).
Until the wide-spread adoption of the davit (which only started to be introduced at the start of the French Revolutionary war), lowering and raising the ship's boats involved tackle suspended from the fore and main yardarms. This could be a very tricky operation to perform in the midst of a battle.
Therefore, in addition to keeping the spar deck clear (as noted in CGCampbell's answer), it made sense to tow some or all of the ship's boats as this allowed them to be available for action much more readily. In action, the ship's boats would be used for a number of purposes - as lifeboats (to rescue any seamen of either side who fell into the sea), as weapons (boarding actions of the period usually used the boats rather than bring the ships together) and for communications (transferring orders too complex to send via the flags).
Source: The Boats of Men-of-war, W.E.May (Caxton, 2003)
Beat to quarters is what has become General Quarters in the modern navies. It was the call to ship's company to prepare for action/battle. All crew would prepare for action, depending on the reason for BtQ. (BtQ would be called during storm preparation as well as battle prep, for instance)
The cannon crew would ensure their cannon were properly tied for the action, and pulled all the way to the rear of their lines. Water would be laid for the swabs, the linstocks would all be lit, the balls stacked close at hand and the gunpowder readied.
The rates would scamper up the ratlines to stand by for maneuvering changes to the sheets. Extra rigging would be laid out, out of the way. The marines would take their positions, and light their linstocks, or prime their flints.
The ship's surgeon would prepare his table and instruments in the mess, while the cooks would heat water (for fire control and for the surgeon).
Finally, the dinghies would taken down and lowered into the water and taken in tow. This was done to clear the decks for combat. They would only be in the way of the marines and would be in more danger of being holed or destroyed from cannon fire (from the enemy).
These were some of the main things that might happen during a BtQ for combat. Many other items would be done as well, however. | 685 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Negative/Positive Effects of the Industrial Revolution
The 1800's were a time of innovation and immigration to cities to get the new stock jobs, because the Agricultural Revolution changed farms. There were a large number of positive and negative effects from the Industrial Revolution. One positive effect of the commercial Revolution, was urbanization. Urbanization was when ever cities were built because of all the jobs the industrial facilities were providing. Many people wanted these jobs, and went from farms to new metropolitan areas. They needed homes for people new comers, and so they quickly built make-shift apartments. Although the living conditions had been poor, estate was overall a great point. It recognized factories and increased the economy, and it set up basics for each of our economic expansion. Urbanization overall was a positive thing. One more positive effect of the Industrial Revolution was industrial production. This is the production of cotton, steam engines, and railroads. These were all wonderful things. Silk cotton being highly processed in industries let it be a faster procedure and decreased slavery. Steam engines and railroads were incredible because it gave a fast and much easier way to handle good, by simply land and water. Additionally, it increased careers because people were required to run and work these machines. Commercial production was an overall confident effect of the commercial Revolution. Finally, modern inventions were a positive effect of the commercial Revolution. Some of these inventions and medical advancements were vaccines, lights, x-rays, and mobile phones. Vaccines built people much healthier, and life-expectancy rose, which in turn increased the people. X-Rays also helped people learn more about body anatomy, which was beneficial to medical technology. Lights and telephones weren't necessary, but it made lifestyle a whole lot much easier. Also, these were made from factories, hence more jobs. Modern innovations were a general positive effect of the Industrial Revolution. Working conditions and wages were a bad effect of the Industrial Revolution. Production facilities...
п»їGilman uses metaphor in The Yellow Picture to comment on the harmful and oppressive social .. | <urn:uuid:d3c0069f-0290-4000-88a5-cb4c4c5caf6a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sofloirepaironlinephonerepairschool.com/positive-effects/20290-negativepositive-associated-with-the-industrial-trend.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00271.warc.gz | en | 0.981913 | 419 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.0103273037821054... | 1 | Negative/Positive Effects of the Industrial Revolution
The 1800's were a time of innovation and immigration to cities to get the new stock jobs, because the Agricultural Revolution changed farms. There were a large number of positive and negative effects from the Industrial Revolution. One positive effect of the commercial Revolution, was urbanization. Urbanization was when ever cities were built because of all the jobs the industrial facilities were providing. Many people wanted these jobs, and went from farms to new metropolitan areas. They needed homes for people new comers, and so they quickly built make-shift apartments. Although the living conditions had been poor, estate was overall a great point. It recognized factories and increased the economy, and it set up basics for each of our economic expansion. Urbanization overall was a positive thing. One more positive effect of the Industrial Revolution was industrial production. This is the production of cotton, steam engines, and railroads. These were all wonderful things. Silk cotton being highly processed in industries let it be a faster procedure and decreased slavery. Steam engines and railroads were incredible because it gave a fast and much easier way to handle good, by simply land and water. Additionally, it increased careers because people were required to run and work these machines. Commercial production was an overall confident effect of the commercial Revolution. Finally, modern inventions were a positive effect of the commercial Revolution. Some of these inventions and medical advancements were vaccines, lights, x-rays, and mobile phones. Vaccines built people much healthier, and life-expectancy rose, which in turn increased the people. X-Rays also helped people learn more about body anatomy, which was beneficial to medical technology. Lights and telephones weren't necessary, but it made lifestyle a whole lot much easier. Also, these were made from factories, hence more jobs. Modern innovations were a general positive effect of the Industrial Revolution. Working conditions and wages were a bad effect of the Industrial Revolution. Production facilities...
п»їGilman uses metaphor in The Yellow Picture to comment on the harmful and oppressive social .. | 414 | ENGLISH | 1 |
PITTSBURGH, Pa. — For many people, slipping a pair of high heels on is just part of getting dressed up for work or going out. High heels can make someone feel more attractive or confident, notes Alexis McFeely. This16-year-old speaks from experience. But after her grandmother took a nasty fall, the teen began to question the safety of her favorite shoe. So this sophomore at St. John Paul II Catholic High School in Huntsville, Ala., decided to do some research. And her findings surprised even her.
High heels are not only bad for balance, she showed, but they also do not make women as attractive as they seem to think.
Alexis brought her findings to the Intel International Science and Engineering Fair. This yearly event was created and is run by Society for Science & the Public. It brought together almost 1,800 students from 81 countries to share their science fair projects. This year, ISEF is sponsored by Intel. (The Society also publishes Science News for Students and this blog.)
Prompted by her grandmother’s fall, Alexis contacted the center where her grandmother was seeing a therapist to improve her balance. She arranged to use a machine there that measures postural stability — the ability to maintain balance. As a patient stands in a harness, the foot area below them tilts and moves. A computer measures how quickly and how well patients can adjust their posture to maintain their balance.
The teen recruited 25 women for tests on the machine. Each underwent 18 tests — half wearing flats, the rest of the time standing in shoes with heels that were 7.6 centimeters (3 inches) high. To make this test scientific, each woman had to be compared to the others while wearing the same shoes. Since the women varied in size and age, Alexis had to buy a lot of matching flats and high heels.
No surprise, the women did not balance as well in the high heels as they did wearing flats. The average drop-off in balance when wearing heels was 9.4 percent, she reports. It’s enough, Alexis says, to potentially make the difference “between falling or not.”
And some women did fall as the platform beneath them shifted. Three of her participants fell in flats, while 14 fell off their high heels.
Her recruits ranged in age from 14 to more than 65 years old. The older women fell the most often. Again, that’s hardly a surprise as these women, she notes “started off with a lower balance score.”
A stiletto survey
“I’ve always thought I’m more attractive in high heels,” Alexis says. She adds that she had also “assumed guys would think I was more attractive [in them].” But to be sure, she went back to science for some answers.
The teen designed two surveys — one for men, the other for women. Both groups looked at photos of a woman. In one she wore flats. The other showed her standing in in heels while wearing the same outfit. The survey then asked people which image they preferred.
To get lots of recruits, Alexis put her survey on Facebook. She also included a link to it on her Instagram account. At the local airport, she handed out the survey to people as they walked by the ticket counters. In the end, 225 women and 208 men took part.
Women clearly preferred the photo of a woman in heels. But to her surprise, the teen found that “almost half of the men didn’t see a difference between the pictures.”
That wasn’t the only surprise. The women’s survey had asked females if they thought high heels made them more attractive. It also asked women how secure they felt wearing heels. Alexis asked the men whether they found women more attractive in high heels and if they’d like their partner to wear them.
Two in every three women surveyed — 66 percent — reported feeling off balance when they wore high heels. Nearly as many women — 62 percent — also said they thought men preferred them in high heels. In fact, only one in three men did. The rest said they preferred women to wear flats. (Only one in every four men had said they’d prefer their significant other to wear high heels.)
“It shows that women are making themselves feel unsafe because they feel they are more attractive in high heels,” Alexis concludes.
The teen hopes her findings might help inform people about risks from high heels — especially older women who might not have good balance. “My grandmother didn’t know that she was 13 times more likely to fall,” she says. “If she did, she wouldn’t have been wearing them.”
“I love high heels and I’ve been wearing them for a while now,” Alexis notes. And even after her science project, she has no plans to give them up. Being young and having no balance problems, she notes, “I’m good to go.” However, she adds, “Knowing now that men don’t have a preference, I feel less pressure [to wear them].” | <urn:uuid:fbd3d9f8-4b24-4d97-82b9-0b42057d6763> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/blog/eureka-lab/many-women-take-unnecessary-risks-wearing-high-heels | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00232.warc.gz | en | 0.980336 | 1,081 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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-0.0361871831... | 3 | PITTSBURGH, Pa. — For many people, slipping a pair of high heels on is just part of getting dressed up for work or going out. High heels can make someone feel more attractive or confident, notes Alexis McFeely. This16-year-old speaks from experience. But after her grandmother took a nasty fall, the teen began to question the safety of her favorite shoe. So this sophomore at St. John Paul II Catholic High School in Huntsville, Ala., decided to do some research. And her findings surprised even her.
High heels are not only bad for balance, she showed, but they also do not make women as attractive as they seem to think.
Alexis brought her findings to the Intel International Science and Engineering Fair. This yearly event was created and is run by Society for Science & the Public. It brought together almost 1,800 students from 81 countries to share their science fair projects. This year, ISEF is sponsored by Intel. (The Society also publishes Science News for Students and this blog.)
Prompted by her grandmother’s fall, Alexis contacted the center where her grandmother was seeing a therapist to improve her balance. She arranged to use a machine there that measures postural stability — the ability to maintain balance. As a patient stands in a harness, the foot area below them tilts and moves. A computer measures how quickly and how well patients can adjust their posture to maintain their balance.
The teen recruited 25 women for tests on the machine. Each underwent 18 tests — half wearing flats, the rest of the time standing in shoes with heels that were 7.6 centimeters (3 inches) high. To make this test scientific, each woman had to be compared to the others while wearing the same shoes. Since the women varied in size and age, Alexis had to buy a lot of matching flats and high heels.
No surprise, the women did not balance as well in the high heels as they did wearing flats. The average drop-off in balance when wearing heels was 9.4 percent, she reports. It’s enough, Alexis says, to potentially make the difference “between falling or not.”
And some women did fall as the platform beneath them shifted. Three of her participants fell in flats, while 14 fell off their high heels.
Her recruits ranged in age from 14 to more than 65 years old. The older women fell the most often. Again, that’s hardly a surprise as these women, she notes “started off with a lower balance score.”
A stiletto survey
“I’ve always thought I’m more attractive in high heels,” Alexis says. She adds that she had also “assumed guys would think I was more attractive [in them].” But to be sure, she went back to science for some answers.
The teen designed two surveys — one for men, the other for women. Both groups looked at photos of a woman. In one she wore flats. The other showed her standing in in heels while wearing the same outfit. The survey then asked people which image they preferred.
To get lots of recruits, Alexis put her survey on Facebook. She also included a link to it on her Instagram account. At the local airport, she handed out the survey to people as they walked by the ticket counters. In the end, 225 women and 208 men took part.
Women clearly preferred the photo of a woman in heels. But to her surprise, the teen found that “almost half of the men didn’t see a difference between the pictures.”
That wasn’t the only surprise. The women’s survey had asked females if they thought high heels made them more attractive. It also asked women how secure they felt wearing heels. Alexis asked the men whether they found women more attractive in high heels and if they’d like their partner to wear them.
Two in every three women surveyed — 66 percent — reported feeling off balance when they wore high heels. Nearly as many women — 62 percent — also said they thought men preferred them in high heels. In fact, only one in three men did. The rest said they preferred women to wear flats. (Only one in every four men had said they’d prefer their significant other to wear high heels.)
“It shows that women are making themselves feel unsafe because they feel they are more attractive in high heels,” Alexis concludes.
The teen hopes her findings might help inform people about risks from high heels — especially older women who might not have good balance. “My grandmother didn’t know that she was 13 times more likely to fall,” she says. “If she did, she wouldn’t have been wearing them.”
“I love high heels and I’ve been wearing them for a while now,” Alexis notes. And even after her science project, she has no plans to give them up. Being young and having no balance problems, she notes, “I’m good to go.” However, she adds, “Knowing now that men don’t have a preference, I feel less pressure [to wear them].” | 1,030 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History is full of improbable people, and I have always been fascinated by highly improbable people. Werner Goldberg was one of those improbably person. During World War 2, Werner Goldberg was one of the best known people in Nazi Germany. Photos of Werner Goldberg in his German army uniform appeared on billboards and army recruiting posters all over Germany. He was known to the German public simply as ‘the ideal German soldier.’ Almost nobody in Germany knew his real name or that he was a Jew. In 1933, Werner Goldberg’s father was fired from his job when Hitler came to power because he was a Jew. Werner was unable to get a job for the same reason. Werner needed to make money to feed his family, so in 1938 he joined the army. Werner saw military action soon after completing basic training. He participated in the German invasion of Poland in 1939. Shortly after the invasion of Poland began, a German army photographer took photos of Werner Goldberg and sent them to the Berliner Tagesblatt, a major newspaper in Germany’s capital. They liked the photos and published a full-page picture of Werner Goldberg in their Sunday edition. The newspaper didn’t state his name. They probably didn’t know it. They captioned the photo ‘The Ideal German Soldier.’ Hitler was very impressed by the picture and ordered it reprinted on Nazi propaganda and army recruiting posters. Eventually Nazi officials discovered the truth, that the ‘ideal German soldier’ was a Jew. Goldberg was forced out of the army, but he was never sent to jail or a concentration camp. In 1942, Werner Goldberg rescued his sick father who was being held in a Gestapo prison hospital for Jews. On Christmas Eve, Werner went to the hospital. He gambled that the guards and Gestapo agents at the door would either be absent from their posts or drunk because of the holiday, and he was right. Werner got into the hospital by showing the guards a photo of himself captioned ‘the ideal German soldier.’ The guards recognized the photo and let Werner into the hospital. Once inside, Werner simply went to his father’s room, dressed his father in street clothes that he brought with him and simply walked out the door with his father. Werner Goldberg survived the war and died in 2004.
I teach history at a junior high school in Orinda. I talk to my students fairly often about widely held historic myths. Some historic myths are harmless, but others are dangerous. When people believe that a historic myth is true, they will sometimes act on that myth with terrible consequences. I think this will be a big year for historic myth making. This is a presidential election year, and presidential candidates are always a major source of historic misinformation – especially when talking about people in the other party.
One of the most persistent and dangerous of all historic myths is the myth of Nazi efficiency. According to this often-told story, the Nazis were ruthlessly efficient. The logic of this myth is that since the Nazis were not constrained by moral considerations, they were able to maximize economic production through a system of slave labor and confiscation of resources. I have heard this story all my life, and I know people who believe that it is true. While the myth of Nazi effciency sounds logical, it is completely wrong. The Nazis were not ruthlessly efficient; they were just ruthless. For the Nazis, economic efficiency never came first. Proving that their racial theory was correct always came first. As a result, a lot of competent workers and managers were removed from their jobs by the Nazis simply because they weren’t ‘pure Aryans’, a term that was never clearly defined. These people were often replaced by incompetent Nazi party members simply because they had ‘Aryan Certificates’ proving their ‘racial purity’, not because they knew how to do their jobs. Incompetent Nazi party officials took positions of power throughout German industry. Graft, cronyism, nepotism, and bribery were so rampant that the economy of Nazi Germany was never really on a wartime footing. Throughout the war, German factories continued to produce luxury consumer goods for people with money or party connections. Incredibly, many German aircraft and tank factories operated from 9 to 5 and were closed on weekends right until the end of the war. In the United States, on the other hand, the aircraft factories never closed. They operated 24 hours a day, every day, 7 days a week. In Nazi-controlled Europe, trains and airplanes badly needed by the German army were used throughout the war to transport luxury consumer goods to Germany from the occupied countries, including perfume from France, lobsters from Norway, and stolen art from all over Europe. Trains transporting Jews and others to death camps had the right-of-way over troop and ammunition trains headed for the front, and millions of Jews Poles, and Russians with valuable job skills, like doctors and engineers, were simply murdered. After the war was over, economists from the United States, England, France, and Russia went to Germany to study the Nazi economic system. They all returned home with the same conclusion – there was nothing to learn from the Nazis about how to run an economy. The reason that the myth of Nazi efficiency is so dangerous is that the people who believe that the myth is true think that the way to stimulate a stagnant economy is to ‘go Nazi’, and that is a terrible idea!
Have you ever seen the movie ‘Titanic’? No, not the 1997 movie with Leonardo DiCaprio, but the 1943 version made in Nazi Germany. I collect movies made in Nazi Germany, and this is one of the best. No expense was spared in making this lavish movie. There are spectacular sets, beautiful costumes, and amazing special effects. The producers of this movie made a detailed 20 foot long model of the Titanic for the sinking scene, and they used a large luxury liner, a real one, to film the deck scenes. The special effects in the sinking scene are truly amazing considering the technology available in 1943. Despite the movie’s tremendous cost, ‘Titanic’ was never released in Nazi Germany. Dr. Goebbels, Hitler’s propaganda minister, did not like the movie’s message. In this version of the Titanic story, the hero is a German officer named Petersen. Petersen is convinced that the ship is traveling far too fast and is heading for disaster. He tells his superiors about his concerns, but he is repeatedly told to just obey orders and stop questioning the judgement of higher-ups. Petersen reluctantly does as he is told, and this leads to disaster. Goebbels did not like that message. He wanted the German people to just do as they were told, without asking questions. In this movie, the villain is a greedy, degenerate Englishmen named Ismay. In movies made in Nazi Germany, the villain was usually either an Englishmen or a Jew. Since there are no Jews in this movie, the villain is an Englishmen. If you would like to see this movie, give me a call. I have several copies with English subtitles. | <urn:uuid:580325fd-c9dd-454c-8c4c-8c84cae5806a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.tarses.com/blog/tag/nazi/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00260.warc.gz | en | 0.985808 | 1,470 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.4243623316287994... | 1 | History is full of improbable people, and I have always been fascinated by highly improbable people. Werner Goldberg was one of those improbably person. During World War 2, Werner Goldberg was one of the best known people in Nazi Germany. Photos of Werner Goldberg in his German army uniform appeared on billboards and army recruiting posters all over Germany. He was known to the German public simply as ‘the ideal German soldier.’ Almost nobody in Germany knew his real name or that he was a Jew. In 1933, Werner Goldberg’s father was fired from his job when Hitler came to power because he was a Jew. Werner was unable to get a job for the same reason. Werner needed to make money to feed his family, so in 1938 he joined the army. Werner saw military action soon after completing basic training. He participated in the German invasion of Poland in 1939. Shortly after the invasion of Poland began, a German army photographer took photos of Werner Goldberg and sent them to the Berliner Tagesblatt, a major newspaper in Germany’s capital. They liked the photos and published a full-page picture of Werner Goldberg in their Sunday edition. The newspaper didn’t state his name. They probably didn’t know it. They captioned the photo ‘The Ideal German Soldier.’ Hitler was very impressed by the picture and ordered it reprinted on Nazi propaganda and army recruiting posters. Eventually Nazi officials discovered the truth, that the ‘ideal German soldier’ was a Jew. Goldberg was forced out of the army, but he was never sent to jail or a concentration camp. In 1942, Werner Goldberg rescued his sick father who was being held in a Gestapo prison hospital for Jews. On Christmas Eve, Werner went to the hospital. He gambled that the guards and Gestapo agents at the door would either be absent from their posts or drunk because of the holiday, and he was right. Werner got into the hospital by showing the guards a photo of himself captioned ‘the ideal German soldier.’ The guards recognized the photo and let Werner into the hospital. Once inside, Werner simply went to his father’s room, dressed his father in street clothes that he brought with him and simply walked out the door with his father. Werner Goldberg survived the war and died in 2004.
I teach history at a junior high school in Orinda. I talk to my students fairly often about widely held historic myths. Some historic myths are harmless, but others are dangerous. When people believe that a historic myth is true, they will sometimes act on that myth with terrible consequences. I think this will be a big year for historic myth making. This is a presidential election year, and presidential candidates are always a major source of historic misinformation – especially when talking about people in the other party.
One of the most persistent and dangerous of all historic myths is the myth of Nazi efficiency. According to this often-told story, the Nazis were ruthlessly efficient. The logic of this myth is that since the Nazis were not constrained by moral considerations, they were able to maximize economic production through a system of slave labor and confiscation of resources. I have heard this story all my life, and I know people who believe that it is true. While the myth of Nazi effciency sounds logical, it is completely wrong. The Nazis were not ruthlessly efficient; they were just ruthless. For the Nazis, economic efficiency never came first. Proving that their racial theory was correct always came first. As a result, a lot of competent workers and managers were removed from their jobs by the Nazis simply because they weren’t ‘pure Aryans’, a term that was never clearly defined. These people were often replaced by incompetent Nazi party members simply because they had ‘Aryan Certificates’ proving their ‘racial purity’, not because they knew how to do their jobs. Incompetent Nazi party officials took positions of power throughout German industry. Graft, cronyism, nepotism, and bribery were so rampant that the economy of Nazi Germany was never really on a wartime footing. Throughout the war, German factories continued to produce luxury consumer goods for people with money or party connections. Incredibly, many German aircraft and tank factories operated from 9 to 5 and were closed on weekends right until the end of the war. In the United States, on the other hand, the aircraft factories never closed. They operated 24 hours a day, every day, 7 days a week. In Nazi-controlled Europe, trains and airplanes badly needed by the German army were used throughout the war to transport luxury consumer goods to Germany from the occupied countries, including perfume from France, lobsters from Norway, and stolen art from all over Europe. Trains transporting Jews and others to death camps had the right-of-way over troop and ammunition trains headed for the front, and millions of Jews Poles, and Russians with valuable job skills, like doctors and engineers, were simply murdered. After the war was over, economists from the United States, England, France, and Russia went to Germany to study the Nazi economic system. They all returned home with the same conclusion – there was nothing to learn from the Nazis about how to run an economy. The reason that the myth of Nazi efficiency is so dangerous is that the people who believe that the myth is true think that the way to stimulate a stagnant economy is to ‘go Nazi’, and that is a terrible idea!
Have you ever seen the movie ‘Titanic’? No, not the 1997 movie with Leonardo DiCaprio, but the 1943 version made in Nazi Germany. I collect movies made in Nazi Germany, and this is one of the best. No expense was spared in making this lavish movie. There are spectacular sets, beautiful costumes, and amazing special effects. The producers of this movie made a detailed 20 foot long model of the Titanic for the sinking scene, and they used a large luxury liner, a real one, to film the deck scenes. The special effects in the sinking scene are truly amazing considering the technology available in 1943. Despite the movie’s tremendous cost, ‘Titanic’ was never released in Nazi Germany. Dr. Goebbels, Hitler’s propaganda minister, did not like the movie’s message. In this version of the Titanic story, the hero is a German officer named Petersen. Petersen is convinced that the ship is traveling far too fast and is heading for disaster. He tells his superiors about his concerns, but he is repeatedly told to just obey orders and stop questioning the judgement of higher-ups. Petersen reluctantly does as he is told, and this leads to disaster. Goebbels did not like that message. He wanted the German people to just do as they were told, without asking questions. In this movie, the villain is a greedy, degenerate Englishmen named Ismay. In movies made in Nazi Germany, the villain was usually either an Englishmen or a Jew. Since there are no Jews in this movie, the villain is an Englishmen. If you would like to see this movie, give me a call. I have several copies with English subtitles. | 1,460 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Black scientists kept out of Oak Ridge WWII work
Adolf Hitler's quest to build a master race drove European scientific talent into the United States' ranks, giving the nation a jump-start on the race to develop the first atomic bomb.
But even as the United States held its arms open to immigrating scientists, many persecuted Jews, it constrained African-Americans who wanted to commit their talents to the war effort.
Nowhere was this more evident than in Oak Ridge, constructed in the segregated South after President Franklin D. Roosevelt authorized the Manhattan Project in 1942.
Refugees welcomed African-American talent
In the project’s early stages, about a dozen black scientists and technicians were welcomed by the refugee researchers working in New York and Chicago.
"The scientists working on the project were generally more open-minded," said Edward Anders, a former University of Chicago professor. "Many were foreign-born and so the whole idea of discrimination against blacks was repugnant."
But soon the project needed room for a larger nuclear reactor and plants that could produce a supply of the Uranium-235 isotope. A "secret city" was built in the rural farmland of Anderson County, and teams of scientists were transferred there.
While white Americans and European refugee scientists could work freely on the site, black researchers could not. The "Solid South" bloc of Democrats in Congress insisted that the new city reflect the Jim Crow segregation laws that persisted in the 1940s.
So the history of the Manhattan Project in Oak Ridge was written with the black scientific contributions left behind.
Two largely forgotten figures were J. Ernest Wilkins and George Warren Reed, who had worked with European refugee scientists Enrico Fermi and Leo Szilard at the Chicago Metallurgical Laboratory, or "Met Lab," until their research was moved south without them.
A doctorate at age 19
J. Ernest Wilkins Jr. was by all definitions a prodigy.
His roots were saturated in education. Wilkins' grandfather founded St. Mark's Methodist Church in New York City, and his father, a lawyer and labor leader, would later be appointed the assistant secretary of education by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, making him the first African-American to hold an undersecretary position in the United States government.
His mother, Lucille Robinson Wilkins, was equally accomplished. She had a master's degree from the University of Chicago and studied progressive education techniques, ensuring all of her children entered school several grades ahead.
"He grew up in this very sort of hothouse environment in which accomplishment and educational achievement was the calling of the realm, so to speak," said Wilkins' niece, Carolyn Wilkins. "He really was encouraged at every step to excel, and he did so."
At age 13, Wilkins became the youngest person ever admitted to the University of Chicago. He received his first bachelor's degree in mathematics at age 16. He earned his master's degree the next year and finished his doctorate at age 19 before going on to teach math at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama.
Within a year, the government recruited him to join the Manhattan Project at his alma mater, where Chicago Pile 1, the world's first nuclear reactor, had just been built.
There, Wilkins researched neutron energy, reactor physics and engineering with Fermi and Eugene Wigner.
In a short year, he discovered three scientific phenomena that bear his name today: the Wilkins Effect, the Wilkins Spectra, and the Wigner Wilkins Spectra, which deal with the motion of subatomic particles.
Just 21 years old when he started working on the Manhattan Project, he was among the brightest young minds America had on its team designing an atomic bomb.
Blacks lived in segregated 'hutments'
But in Oak Ridge, African-Americans could hold only labor positions. They were required to live in government-built "hutments," encampments of 16-by-16-foot plywood structures that stood just off South Illinois Avenue, where a Panera Bread and Aubrey's restaurant stand today.
The huts had shutter windows, one stove and were without plumbing.
Men and women — including married couples — were not permitted to live together, and their children were not allowed to live on the reservation at all. The women's hutment was fenced in, and women had to be back inside the fence by curfew.
Kattie Strickland, an African-American woman who worked as a janitor in Oak Ridge, told the Atomic Heritage Foundation that her job in Oak Ridge was well paid. After some negotiation by a manager, she was even able to secure pay equal to her male counterparts.
The indignities of segregation, though, were facts of life.
Seth Wheatley, a white engineer who worked at what is now Y-12 National Security Complex, told the Atomic Heritage Foundation about the day he was riding the secret city's bus line to Knoxville.
"I happened to get on and sit in the last remaining seat, and a Negro was sitting there halfway back in the bus. And shortly after we started out, the bus driver noted that a black man was not sitting on the back row where he was supposed to be, and he stopped the bus along the side of the road," Wheatley recalled.
"And I can still see him getting up and walking back and almost grabbing the guy to make him get back to where he’s supposed to be."
Wheatley said he got up and walked to the back row to sit down with the man.
'Not possible for him to continue'
There was no allowance for black scientists, and when Wilkins’ research was transferred to Oak Ridge's X-10 Graphite Reactor in 1944, he was left behind.
Edward Teller, another Jewish physicist who fled the Axis, saw that as an opportunity. He wrote a letter to Harold Urey, director of war research, asking him to recruit Wilkins to support a New York team that was calculating how atmospheric opacity could affect the atomic bomb.
"Knowing that men of high qualifications are scarce these days, I thought that it might be useful that I suggest a capable person for this job. Mr. Wilkins in Wigner's group at the Metallurgical Laboratory has been doing, according to Wigner, excellent work," Teller wrote.
"He is a colored man and since Wigner's group is moving to (Oak Ridge) it is not possible for him to continue work with that group. I think that it might be a good idea to secure his services for our work."
Wilkins continued working at the Met Lab for two more years.
It is not known whether he knew at the time that his research would be used to craft the atomic bomb. What is known is that he was one of 70 Manhattan Project scientists who signed Szilard's petition urging then-President Harry Truman not to use the atomic bomb on Japan without first demonstrating its power.
"They saw the great power of the weapon or felt they knew what the power of the weapon was, and their preference was not to drop it,” said Ronald Mickens, a former colleague of Wilkins' at Clark Atlanta University, “particularly as it became clear that the Germans were not going to complete their atomic weapons before the war in Europe ended. Remember, that was the primary reason the Manhattan Project was set up."
Belated acceptance at Oak Ridge
After the war, Wilkins wanted to work at a major university.
"That just was not possible,” said Mickens, “as was the case for most, if not all, African-American scientists."
Instead, Wilkins went to work as a mathematician for an optical company in New York and eventually at the Nuclear Development Corporation of America.
He was interested in the peaceful applications of nuclear energy and helped design a power-generating nuclear reactor.
"He's just one of those people who is so well rounded that he could just go into situations and really excel," said Talitha Washington, who crossed paths with Wilkins throughout her undergraduate and graduate education in Atlanta, and arranged a master's session in his honor.
"I think at one point when he was in the industry, they were kind of questioning him because he was a mathematician and he worked with engineers," she said.
So, he earned two more degrees at New York University: a bachelor's and master's in mechanical engineering.
He went on to establish Howard University's mathematics Ph.D. program and served as president of the American Nuclear Society. He was the second African-American elected to the National Academy of Engineering, one of the highest honors an engineer can receive.
Eventually, Wilkins did get an Oak Ridge appointment, serving on the board of directors of the Oak Ridge Associated Universities for six years in the 1980s before taking a teaching position at Clark Atlanta University.
The 14-page resume he submitted to ORAU listed about 100 scientific papers he'd authored in the 40 years since the city turned him away.
On May 1, 2011, Wilkins died in Arizona at age 87. His scientific career spanned seven decades.
A hand-built log cabin school
George Warren Reed's trajectory into the Manhattan Project wasn't all that different from Wilkins’.
He was a second-generation African-American college student, a result of his family's great passion and perseverance in education.
His father, who had to drop out of college to fight in World War I, had higher hopes for his children. He hand-built a log cabin school near Montrose, Virginia, so the state government would send a teacher.
"All his kids went through high school and on to some other kind of education or training," said Mark Morrison Reed, George's son. "So it went back at least three generations with the importance of education. I think almost all of Dad’s cousins actually had gone to college and that was expected."
One of Reed's uncles attended the Hampton Institute. Another was a Howard medical school graduate and the associate dean of Howard University's Medical School.
When Reed was in school, his mother, a graduate of Miners Teachers College, never let him take a job to help support the family, instead requiring him to come straight home and work on his homework.
"So they were unequivocal about this, that the first thing was to get an education. And my parents pretty much were the same way," Morrison Reed said.
Reed finished his master's degree at Howard University in 1944.
'1-A' and ready for service
Before George Reed died, his son interviewed him about his Manhattan Project work.
George Reed was classified as 1-A, or “available” for the draft, and wanted to contribute to the war effort using chemistry. He began looking at opportunities at the Met Lab in Chicago and at Columbia University, where he soon began working.
“My life story would be very different had not World War II intervened with the need to more fully utilize all the nation’s manpower and with the continued opening up of opportunities to all,” Reed told his son.
“We didn’t know it at the time, but we were developing the atomic bomb,” he said. “I was trained as an organic chemist and we were purifying uranium, but at that time I was totally in the dark; we didn’t even talk to the people in the lab next to us.”
Many of Reed’s white colleagues at Columbia were drafted into military training and then returned to work on the Manhattan Project as privates and corporals, allowing them to accrue benefits, such as the G.I. Bill, for their research time.
“So I went to my draft board in Washington and said, ‘Look, these people are going in like this. I think I should go in this way, too, and I’m 1-A,’ ” Reed recalled.
“When they got back to me, they said, ‘Look, we are not allowed to touch you.’ I said, ‘But these guys are going to go in and when the war is over they’re going to have all the benefits of having been in the Army and I’m not going to have anything.’
"And they said, ‘We are just not allowed to touch you.' ”
'Negro scientists aren't welcome'
Color was a barrier again when the move to Oak Ridge began.
The laboratory managers told employees they had the option to transfer to a place that did not have a name but had red earth and jobs for the white scientists.
“I went to the personnel director in New York and said, ‘Look, there is something wrong with this. Why can’t I go when everybody else is given the opportunity?’ ”
"It just can’t work that way,” the man told Reed. “Negro scientists aren’t welcome down there.”
He continued working in New York until the war ended in 1945. Afterward, he went to Chicago to work at the Met Lab, and eventually at Argonne National Laboratory as he finished his Ph.D.
'One of the most brilliant men'
Edward Anders, a professor at the University of Chicago, met Reed at a conference just months before Oak Ridge desegregated in 1955. The two struck up a friendship through conversations about science and the civil rights movement.
Anders said Reed approached even difficult topics like racism and discrimination with the objectivity of a scientist.
“He was one of the most brilliant men I've ever met in my life,” Anders said. “He just had a very regal, aristocratic bearing about him. He was a very modest man, but he couldn’t help it, people just knew right away how smart he was."
The two began attending conferences together, flying into cities on Friday nights and leaving Sunday afternoons. Even in these seemingly benign situations, Anders remembered the effect growing up and working in a culture of discrimination had on his friend.
“I remember we were at the airport at the check-in counter,” Anders recalled. “There was George and it was a warm summer day. We were in short sleeves and he was wearing a suit. And we remarked, ‘Well George, you’re all dressed up.’ And he said, 'I have to.’ And we knew the meaning of that."
Morrison Reed said his father credited surviving and thriving as an African-American scientist in the mid-20th century to his move to Chicago, instead of to Oak Ridge.
He remained connected to the University of Chicago and Argonne National Laboratory for much of his life, though he took a hiatus in the 1970s to study meteorites and lunar samples. He was one of the scientists who examined lunar rock samples from Apollo space missions and received NASA’s Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal for using a nuclear reactor to determine that lunar rock contained minerals that could not be found on Earth.
Reed published more than 120 scientific papers over his career. He died Aug. 31, 2015, at his home in Chicago.
"It's almost impossible to imagine what it would have been like, had I been born in 1949 in Oak Ridge,” his son said. “Where was he going to live, and where would I be going to school, and where are the black middle-class families that were my parents’ peers? What would my mother do with her master's in social work?"
"It could have been different," Morrison Reed said, “that's for sure.”
Desegregation comes to Oak Ridge
After the war, African-American families were allowed to live together in the hutment villages. But by that time the structures were falling apart. Reporters who visited the site pointed out leaky roofs, exposed wiring, broken boardwalks, garbage overflow, rodent infestations and community bathrooms that served as many as 77 families each.
African-Americans who needed medical care were limited to one ward of the hospital and one section of the dental clinic, and the schools were segregated.
Chicago Tribune correspondent Enoch P. Waters called Oak Ridge a "City of Paradoxes" in 1945 for its expensive research endeavors and poor conditions for about 7,000 African-American laborers who helped make the work possible. About 1,000 of them remained in the city after the war.
"If through the work done here America has advanced science, it is equally true that in the way it has forced Negroes to live here America has retarded the cause of democracy," he wrote. "And this is ironical because it was to preserve democracy that this whole project was brought into being."
Oak Ridge Councilman Waldo Cohn was nearly recalled for his 1953 resolution to desegregate schools. He wrote to U.S. Rep. Howard Baker Sr. about the "tempest-in-a-teapot" his resolution stirred up.
It ultimately took an order from the Atomic Energy Commission in 1955 to integrate the schools, and Oak Ridge became the first Southern city to do it. But the segregation of neighborhoods prevented full school district integration for more than a decade. Businesses and workplaces took a little longer.
The end of the war meant the city was no longer secret, and visiting scientists of diverse races and nationalities brought progress to the town — in time, great progress.
'The quality of one's ideas'
Today the Manhattan Project's X-10 Graphite Reactor site — now called Oak Ridge National Laboratory — welcomes scientists from around the world and almost 30 percent of the laboratory's employees are people of color, including the laboratory's director, Dr. Thomas Zacharia.
"I feel fortunate to have built my career in an era that is much more conscious of the value of diversity than was the case in years past," Zacharia said. "Breakthrough discoveries are not limited by one’s race or ethnicity. In fact, diversity provides a valuable advantage in exploring new frontiers.
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0.48256319... | 1 | Black scientists kept out of Oak Ridge WWII work
Adolf Hitler's quest to build a master race drove European scientific talent into the United States' ranks, giving the nation a jump-start on the race to develop the first atomic bomb.
But even as the United States held its arms open to immigrating scientists, many persecuted Jews, it constrained African-Americans who wanted to commit their talents to the war effort.
Nowhere was this more evident than in Oak Ridge, constructed in the segregated South after President Franklin D. Roosevelt authorized the Manhattan Project in 1942.
Refugees welcomed African-American talent
In the project’s early stages, about a dozen black scientists and technicians were welcomed by the refugee researchers working in New York and Chicago.
"The scientists working on the project were generally more open-minded," said Edward Anders, a former University of Chicago professor. "Many were foreign-born and so the whole idea of discrimination against blacks was repugnant."
But soon the project needed room for a larger nuclear reactor and plants that could produce a supply of the Uranium-235 isotope. A "secret city" was built in the rural farmland of Anderson County, and teams of scientists were transferred there.
While white Americans and European refugee scientists could work freely on the site, black researchers could not. The "Solid South" bloc of Democrats in Congress insisted that the new city reflect the Jim Crow segregation laws that persisted in the 1940s.
So the history of the Manhattan Project in Oak Ridge was written with the black scientific contributions left behind.
Two largely forgotten figures were J. Ernest Wilkins and George Warren Reed, who had worked with European refugee scientists Enrico Fermi and Leo Szilard at the Chicago Metallurgical Laboratory, or "Met Lab," until their research was moved south without them.
A doctorate at age 19
J. Ernest Wilkins Jr. was by all definitions a prodigy.
His roots were saturated in education. Wilkins' grandfather founded St. Mark's Methodist Church in New York City, and his father, a lawyer and labor leader, would later be appointed the assistant secretary of education by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, making him the first African-American to hold an undersecretary position in the United States government.
His mother, Lucille Robinson Wilkins, was equally accomplished. She had a master's degree from the University of Chicago and studied progressive education techniques, ensuring all of her children entered school several grades ahead.
"He grew up in this very sort of hothouse environment in which accomplishment and educational achievement was the calling of the realm, so to speak," said Wilkins' niece, Carolyn Wilkins. "He really was encouraged at every step to excel, and he did so."
At age 13, Wilkins became the youngest person ever admitted to the University of Chicago. He received his first bachelor's degree in mathematics at age 16. He earned his master's degree the next year and finished his doctorate at age 19 before going on to teach math at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama.
Within a year, the government recruited him to join the Manhattan Project at his alma mater, where Chicago Pile 1, the world's first nuclear reactor, had just been built.
There, Wilkins researched neutron energy, reactor physics and engineering with Fermi and Eugene Wigner.
In a short year, he discovered three scientific phenomena that bear his name today: the Wilkins Effect, the Wilkins Spectra, and the Wigner Wilkins Spectra, which deal with the motion of subatomic particles.
Just 21 years old when he started working on the Manhattan Project, he was among the brightest young minds America had on its team designing an atomic bomb.
Blacks lived in segregated 'hutments'
But in Oak Ridge, African-Americans could hold only labor positions. They were required to live in government-built "hutments," encampments of 16-by-16-foot plywood structures that stood just off South Illinois Avenue, where a Panera Bread and Aubrey's restaurant stand today.
The huts had shutter windows, one stove and were without plumbing.
Men and women — including married couples — were not permitted to live together, and their children were not allowed to live on the reservation at all. The women's hutment was fenced in, and women had to be back inside the fence by curfew.
Kattie Strickland, an African-American woman who worked as a janitor in Oak Ridge, told the Atomic Heritage Foundation that her job in Oak Ridge was well paid. After some negotiation by a manager, she was even able to secure pay equal to her male counterparts.
The indignities of segregation, though, were facts of life.
Seth Wheatley, a white engineer who worked at what is now Y-12 National Security Complex, told the Atomic Heritage Foundation about the day he was riding the secret city's bus line to Knoxville.
"I happened to get on and sit in the last remaining seat, and a Negro was sitting there halfway back in the bus. And shortly after we started out, the bus driver noted that a black man was not sitting on the back row where he was supposed to be, and he stopped the bus along the side of the road," Wheatley recalled.
"And I can still see him getting up and walking back and almost grabbing the guy to make him get back to where he’s supposed to be."
Wheatley said he got up and walked to the back row to sit down with the man.
'Not possible for him to continue'
There was no allowance for black scientists, and when Wilkins’ research was transferred to Oak Ridge's X-10 Graphite Reactor in 1944, he was left behind.
Edward Teller, another Jewish physicist who fled the Axis, saw that as an opportunity. He wrote a letter to Harold Urey, director of war research, asking him to recruit Wilkins to support a New York team that was calculating how atmospheric opacity could affect the atomic bomb.
"Knowing that men of high qualifications are scarce these days, I thought that it might be useful that I suggest a capable person for this job. Mr. Wilkins in Wigner's group at the Metallurgical Laboratory has been doing, according to Wigner, excellent work," Teller wrote.
"He is a colored man and since Wigner's group is moving to (Oak Ridge) it is not possible for him to continue work with that group. I think that it might be a good idea to secure his services for our work."
Wilkins continued working at the Met Lab for two more years.
It is not known whether he knew at the time that his research would be used to craft the atomic bomb. What is known is that he was one of 70 Manhattan Project scientists who signed Szilard's petition urging then-President Harry Truman not to use the atomic bomb on Japan without first demonstrating its power.
"They saw the great power of the weapon or felt they knew what the power of the weapon was, and their preference was not to drop it,” said Ronald Mickens, a former colleague of Wilkins' at Clark Atlanta University, “particularly as it became clear that the Germans were not going to complete their atomic weapons before the war in Europe ended. Remember, that was the primary reason the Manhattan Project was set up."
Belated acceptance at Oak Ridge
After the war, Wilkins wanted to work at a major university.
"That just was not possible,” said Mickens, “as was the case for most, if not all, African-American scientists."
Instead, Wilkins went to work as a mathematician for an optical company in New York and eventually at the Nuclear Development Corporation of America.
He was interested in the peaceful applications of nuclear energy and helped design a power-generating nuclear reactor.
"He's just one of those people who is so well rounded that he could just go into situations and really excel," said Talitha Washington, who crossed paths with Wilkins throughout her undergraduate and graduate education in Atlanta, and arranged a master's session in his honor.
"I think at one point when he was in the industry, they were kind of questioning him because he was a mathematician and he worked with engineers," she said.
So, he earned two more degrees at New York University: a bachelor's and master's in mechanical engineering.
He went on to establish Howard University's mathematics Ph.D. program and served as president of the American Nuclear Society. He was the second African-American elected to the National Academy of Engineering, one of the highest honors an engineer can receive.
Eventually, Wilkins did get an Oak Ridge appointment, serving on the board of directors of the Oak Ridge Associated Universities for six years in the 1980s before taking a teaching position at Clark Atlanta University.
The 14-page resume he submitted to ORAU listed about 100 scientific papers he'd authored in the 40 years since the city turned him away.
On May 1, 2011, Wilkins died in Arizona at age 87. His scientific career spanned seven decades.
A hand-built log cabin school
George Warren Reed's trajectory into the Manhattan Project wasn't all that different from Wilkins’.
He was a second-generation African-American college student, a result of his family's great passion and perseverance in education.
His father, who had to drop out of college to fight in World War I, had higher hopes for his children. He hand-built a log cabin school near Montrose, Virginia, so the state government would send a teacher.
"All his kids went through high school and on to some other kind of education or training," said Mark Morrison Reed, George's son. "So it went back at least three generations with the importance of education. I think almost all of Dad’s cousins actually had gone to college and that was expected."
One of Reed's uncles attended the Hampton Institute. Another was a Howard medical school graduate and the associate dean of Howard University's Medical School.
When Reed was in school, his mother, a graduate of Miners Teachers College, never let him take a job to help support the family, instead requiring him to come straight home and work on his homework.
"So they were unequivocal about this, that the first thing was to get an education. And my parents pretty much were the same way," Morrison Reed said.
Reed finished his master's degree at Howard University in 1944.
'1-A' and ready for service
Before George Reed died, his son interviewed him about his Manhattan Project work.
George Reed was classified as 1-A, or “available” for the draft, and wanted to contribute to the war effort using chemistry. He began looking at opportunities at the Met Lab in Chicago and at Columbia University, where he soon began working.
“My life story would be very different had not World War II intervened with the need to more fully utilize all the nation’s manpower and with the continued opening up of opportunities to all,” Reed told his son.
“We didn’t know it at the time, but we were developing the atomic bomb,” he said. “I was trained as an organic chemist and we were purifying uranium, but at that time I was totally in the dark; we didn’t even talk to the people in the lab next to us.”
Many of Reed’s white colleagues at Columbia were drafted into military training and then returned to work on the Manhattan Project as privates and corporals, allowing them to accrue benefits, such as the G.I. Bill, for their research time.
“So I went to my draft board in Washington and said, ‘Look, these people are going in like this. I think I should go in this way, too, and I’m 1-A,’ ” Reed recalled.
“When they got back to me, they said, ‘Look, we are not allowed to touch you.’ I said, ‘But these guys are going to go in and when the war is over they’re going to have all the benefits of having been in the Army and I’m not going to have anything.’
"And they said, ‘We are just not allowed to touch you.' ”
'Negro scientists aren't welcome'
Color was a barrier again when the move to Oak Ridge began.
The laboratory managers told employees they had the option to transfer to a place that did not have a name but had red earth and jobs for the white scientists.
“I went to the personnel director in New York and said, ‘Look, there is something wrong with this. Why can’t I go when everybody else is given the opportunity?’ ”
"It just can’t work that way,” the man told Reed. “Negro scientists aren’t welcome down there.”
He continued working in New York until the war ended in 1945. Afterward, he went to Chicago to work at the Met Lab, and eventually at Argonne National Laboratory as he finished his Ph.D.
'One of the most brilliant men'
Edward Anders, a professor at the University of Chicago, met Reed at a conference just months before Oak Ridge desegregated in 1955. The two struck up a friendship through conversations about science and the civil rights movement.
Anders said Reed approached even difficult topics like racism and discrimination with the objectivity of a scientist.
“He was one of the most brilliant men I've ever met in my life,” Anders said. “He just had a very regal, aristocratic bearing about him. He was a very modest man, but he couldn’t help it, people just knew right away how smart he was."
The two began attending conferences together, flying into cities on Friday nights and leaving Sunday afternoons. Even in these seemingly benign situations, Anders remembered the effect growing up and working in a culture of discrimination had on his friend.
“I remember we were at the airport at the check-in counter,” Anders recalled. “There was George and it was a warm summer day. We were in short sleeves and he was wearing a suit. And we remarked, ‘Well George, you’re all dressed up.’ And he said, 'I have to.’ And we knew the meaning of that."
Morrison Reed said his father credited surviving and thriving as an African-American scientist in the mid-20th century to his move to Chicago, instead of to Oak Ridge.
He remained connected to the University of Chicago and Argonne National Laboratory for much of his life, though he took a hiatus in the 1970s to study meteorites and lunar samples. He was one of the scientists who examined lunar rock samples from Apollo space missions and received NASA’s Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal for using a nuclear reactor to determine that lunar rock contained minerals that could not be found on Earth.
Reed published more than 120 scientific papers over his career. He died Aug. 31, 2015, at his home in Chicago.
"It's almost impossible to imagine what it would have been like, had I been born in 1949 in Oak Ridge,” his son said. “Where was he going to live, and where would I be going to school, and where are the black middle-class families that were my parents’ peers? What would my mother do with her master's in social work?"
"It could have been different," Morrison Reed said, “that's for sure.”
Desegregation comes to Oak Ridge
After the war, African-American families were allowed to live together in the hutment villages. But by that time the structures were falling apart. Reporters who visited the site pointed out leaky roofs, exposed wiring, broken boardwalks, garbage overflow, rodent infestations and community bathrooms that served as many as 77 families each.
African-Americans who needed medical care were limited to one ward of the hospital and one section of the dental clinic, and the schools were segregated.
Chicago Tribune correspondent Enoch P. Waters called Oak Ridge a "City of Paradoxes" in 1945 for its expensive research endeavors and poor conditions for about 7,000 African-American laborers who helped make the work possible. About 1,000 of them remained in the city after the war.
"If through the work done here America has advanced science, it is equally true that in the way it has forced Negroes to live here America has retarded the cause of democracy," he wrote. "And this is ironical because it was to preserve democracy that this whole project was brought into being."
Oak Ridge Councilman Waldo Cohn was nearly recalled for his 1953 resolution to desegregate schools. He wrote to U.S. Rep. Howard Baker Sr. about the "tempest-in-a-teapot" his resolution stirred up.
It ultimately took an order from the Atomic Energy Commission in 1955 to integrate the schools, and Oak Ridge became the first Southern city to do it. But the segregation of neighborhoods prevented full school district integration for more than a decade. Businesses and workplaces took a little longer.
The end of the war meant the city was no longer secret, and visiting scientists of diverse races and nationalities brought progress to the town — in time, great progress.
'The quality of one's ideas'
Today the Manhattan Project's X-10 Graphite Reactor site — now called Oak Ridge National Laboratory — welcomes scientists from around the world and almost 30 percent of the laboratory's employees are people of color, including the laboratory's director, Dr. Thomas Zacharia.
"I feel fortunate to have built my career in an era that is much more conscious of the value of diversity than was the case in years past," Zacharia said. "Breakthrough discoveries are not limited by one’s race or ethnicity. In fact, diversity provides a valuable advantage in exploring new frontiers.
"Science advances most quickly when the only limit is the quality of one’s ideas; ideas are sharpened and strengthened when they are subjected to the scrutiny of smart people with different perspectives and backgrounds." | 3,680 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Isaac Newton was an English scientist who not only studied but made stupendous discoveries in mathematics, physics, and chemistry. However, he is also a well-known astronomer, natural philosopher and theologian.
Sir Isaac Newton was born in three months after the death of his father and when his mother remarried he moved to his grandparents. These were the people that raised him from his youth. On reaching the proper age, Newton attended Cambridge University where he stayed until the plague hit. Even though he called his age of the time of the plague “the prime of my age for invention”, no natural disaster was able to stop him from his scientific studies.
It was after the university that he began his discoveries connected with optics. His invention of the reflecting telescope in 1668 finally drew the attention of other scientists. Isaac Newton conducted a number of experiments concerning light and its composition. That’s to this hard work he was able to put forward a number of discoveries. He proved that light can be measured by patterns. Moreover, he proved that white light consists of different colored rays which correspond to the colors of the rainbow. Each ray can be defined by the angle through which it is reflected. All this and much more was published in his book “Optics” in 1704.
Isaac Newton is mostly known for what is now something of a legend, a story told to kids. His discovery of the laws of gravity is what he is best known for among people who do not tie their lives with science. The story goes like this. Isaac was allegedly sitting under a tree. All of a sudden an apple fell on his head. A bit stumped at first, our great scientist started to think and analyze. By measuring the force needed to hold the moon in orbit he inevitably understood that there must be some other force, one which has not been studied before. And so there is – the force of gravity.
Isaac Newton was not only a scientist but also a powerful public figure. He was elected member of the parliament for the University of Cambridge to oppose the Kind James II’s attempts to make universities catholic. It should be noted that he also held the post of a Mint and was even knighted. This was a prominent figure in the scientific world and in the public world of his time. His work will not be forgotten. | <urn:uuid:75d85e46-bbd9-422c-ab9a-85ca03f14e3d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/essay-on-isaac-newton/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00291.warc.gz | en | 0.991627 | 482 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.11631329357... | 1 | Isaac Newton was an English scientist who not only studied but made stupendous discoveries in mathematics, physics, and chemistry. However, he is also a well-known astronomer, natural philosopher and theologian.
Sir Isaac Newton was born in three months after the death of his father and when his mother remarried he moved to his grandparents. These were the people that raised him from his youth. On reaching the proper age, Newton attended Cambridge University where he stayed until the plague hit. Even though he called his age of the time of the plague “the prime of my age for invention”, no natural disaster was able to stop him from his scientific studies.
It was after the university that he began his discoveries connected with optics. His invention of the reflecting telescope in 1668 finally drew the attention of other scientists. Isaac Newton conducted a number of experiments concerning light and its composition. That’s to this hard work he was able to put forward a number of discoveries. He proved that light can be measured by patterns. Moreover, he proved that white light consists of different colored rays which correspond to the colors of the rainbow. Each ray can be defined by the angle through which it is reflected. All this and much more was published in his book “Optics” in 1704.
Isaac Newton is mostly known for what is now something of a legend, a story told to kids. His discovery of the laws of gravity is what he is best known for among people who do not tie their lives with science. The story goes like this. Isaac was allegedly sitting under a tree. All of a sudden an apple fell on his head. A bit stumped at first, our great scientist started to think and analyze. By measuring the force needed to hold the moon in orbit he inevitably understood that there must be some other force, one which has not been studied before. And so there is – the force of gravity.
Isaac Newton was not only a scientist but also a powerful public figure. He was elected member of the parliament for the University of Cambridge to oppose the Kind James II’s attempts to make universities catholic. It should be noted that he also held the post of a Mint and was even knighted. This was a prominent figure in the scientific world and in the public world of his time. His work will not be forgotten. | 472 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What Is Realism in Art Painting?
While it may seem strange now, artists once sought to only depict idealized versions of people and nature.
However, in response to the sudden upheavals that occurred throughout the 19th century and the growing concern for the scientific exploration of reality, artists sought to use paints to create artwork that depicted life as realistically as possible, out of both a fascination for life and a desire to rebel against social convention.
Realist art emerged in the 1840s and overlapped with the Romantic movement, with both movements competing with each other. The realist movement emerged from a time of major social change, in the aftermath of the Revolution of 1848. French paintings depicted their interest in democracy. British paintings were created in response to Victorian materialism. The realists of Paris in the 19th century thought that painters should draw inspiration from their surroundings. More than anything, realists were inspired by science and sought to create art that was as realistic as possible.
Realistic art came out of a belief in science and its ability to solve human problems. Painters sought to create the most realistic depictions of scenery possible, rejecting romanticism, which was more focused on imagination and the subjective. Realists placed much more emphasis on the effect of light on the scene, including the ways in which lighting makes the object have depth and the way objects cast shadows on other objects.
Instead of imitating old forms of artwork, realists tried to create artwork that represented what was understood about nature and contemporary life. Instead of following the collective standards of art, realist artists tried to develop their own particular style. The biggest proponent of realism was Gustave Courbet, who was only interested in painting that which could be empirically proven.
Realism was not only concerned with accuracy, but also with philosophical issues. Realist artists sought perceptual truth and also sought to understand the inner reality of the subject. Artists were willing to draw ordinary people engaging in daily activities. Artwork depicted the problems, customs and mores of people, with artists feeling that they should represent that which was neglected by painters in the past. Much realistic art focused on the struggles of the working class during the Industrial Revolution, as they fought to avoid eliciting emotions and beauty in the average person that would justify oppression. Still life art also emerged from the realist movement. Courbet’s "Burial at Omans" depicted a funeral and did not show death in a sentimental or glamorous way. Later, in Russia, realist art was used to depict loyal communist workers in a way designed to influence the attitudes of the people. | <urn:uuid:f8ea3892-e155-41ea-8ab4-12579f1c4e8d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://homesteady.com/12600557/what-is-realism-in-art-painting | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00210.warc.gz | en | 0.98097 | 532 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.3565552830696... | 1 | What Is Realism in Art Painting?
While it may seem strange now, artists once sought to only depict idealized versions of people and nature.
However, in response to the sudden upheavals that occurred throughout the 19th century and the growing concern for the scientific exploration of reality, artists sought to use paints to create artwork that depicted life as realistically as possible, out of both a fascination for life and a desire to rebel against social convention.
Realist art emerged in the 1840s and overlapped with the Romantic movement, with both movements competing with each other. The realist movement emerged from a time of major social change, in the aftermath of the Revolution of 1848. French paintings depicted their interest in democracy. British paintings were created in response to Victorian materialism. The realists of Paris in the 19th century thought that painters should draw inspiration from their surroundings. More than anything, realists were inspired by science and sought to create art that was as realistic as possible.
Realistic art came out of a belief in science and its ability to solve human problems. Painters sought to create the most realistic depictions of scenery possible, rejecting romanticism, which was more focused on imagination and the subjective. Realists placed much more emphasis on the effect of light on the scene, including the ways in which lighting makes the object have depth and the way objects cast shadows on other objects.
Instead of imitating old forms of artwork, realists tried to create artwork that represented what was understood about nature and contemporary life. Instead of following the collective standards of art, realist artists tried to develop their own particular style. The biggest proponent of realism was Gustave Courbet, who was only interested in painting that which could be empirically proven.
Realism was not only concerned with accuracy, but also with philosophical issues. Realist artists sought perceptual truth and also sought to understand the inner reality of the subject. Artists were willing to draw ordinary people engaging in daily activities. Artwork depicted the problems, customs and mores of people, with artists feeling that they should represent that which was neglected by painters in the past. Much realistic art focused on the struggles of the working class during the Industrial Revolution, as they fought to avoid eliciting emotions and beauty in the average person that would justify oppression. Still life art also emerged from the realist movement. Courbet’s "Burial at Omans" depicted a funeral and did not show death in a sentimental or glamorous way. Later, in Russia, realist art was used to depict loyal communist workers in a way designed to influence the attitudes of the people. | 536 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Suez War, also known by the other names of Suez Canal Crisis and Tripartite Aggression, was a short lived conflict that has had long standing complications for all those involved.
The Suez War is named after the Suez Canal in which the conflict was a major factor. This canal is not simply a canal like any other, in fact it was the most important man made canal in the world as it made trade between Europe and Asia quicker, easier and more reliable. The Suez Canal actually has the nickname as “The highway to India”.
The issue with the Suez Canal is that it is currently 193.3 kilometres long (164 km long it time of opening) and runs through Egypt. While this may not be an issue today, historically it has had huge implications for Egypt, its neighbouring countries and western European powers like Britain and France.
Prior to the Suez Canal Crisis
Post World War II Britain was in a position where it needed to assess its Empire due to being financially crippled by the two World Wars that have occurred. This assessment actually led to consolidation in some areas, this was namely the Suez Canal and the Middle East.
The Middle East has long been known to be a vast oil field offering wealth through oil and the Suez Canal has always been known as a geographical and strategic waterway.
As of the end of the Nineteenth century Britain still held colonial power of Egypt, including the Suez Canal waterway that ran through it. After World War II and with the Cold War starting Britain decided to consolidate its stronghold on the canal for future use because of its geographical location.
The strength of military might from the British in the area to the point that the British had military installations everywhere, including a garrison holding around eighty thousand troops.
The problems started after World War II for two reasons, first the British were consolidating, but also the Egyptians were becoming increasing unhappy with the British. Egypt felt that the British treated them as second class citizens; further to this they did not appreciate Britain’s involvement in the creation of an Israeli state.
For those that don’t know Israel as a country was only created post World War II by the United States with supporting from European powers to give the Jewish a place of their own post the atrocities they suffered at the hands of Hitler.
By 1951 the Egyptian government had also grown to have a dislike for the British along with their people so they cancelled a treaty that had been in place since 1936 giving the British lease of the Suez Canal. The British decided that with their large garrison as a deterrent and their treaty still being valid, that they were not going to withdraw from the canal.
Over time the hostilities towards the British were to build up into a crescendo that started conflict. But before this could happen another key move occurred. The British wanted American support but did not get any; this was because the US wanted to lower British dominance over the area so they could build their own influence.
This all changed when Egypt recognised the People's Republic of China, a move that made the Americans changed tactics and withdraw funding for key projects in Egypt. Egypt’s response was swift and sudden as the Egyptian President Gamal Abdul Nasser took to his soap box and made a speech on the 26th July in which he announced Nationalisation of the Suez Canal. This also included a reference to the initial builder of the canal as a code word for Egyptian troops to move in and take control from the British.
The British could not get anyone to hear its complaints so decided to flex its military muscles so not to lose face and control of the region.
In August 1956 a meeting took place in London between France, the UK and the US to talk about diplomacy of the situation. This actually meant that the British and French gained an alliance against Egypt.
Both the British and French wanted to depose Egyptian President Gamal Abdul Nasser so they could both protects their influence and colonies in the region. Israel was then bought into the situation as they wanted to strengthen its southern borders to open up shipping in the region.
The military intervention started.
The Suez War
On October 29th the conflict started in earnest. The Israelis stationed troops on the Israeli border with Jordan so it wouldn’t come into the war on Egypt’s side. After this Israel started an operation called Operation Kadesh where they invaded the Sinai Peninsula taking control very quickly. This involved land, air and sea attacks.
The following day the British and French veto USSR demand for Israel-Egypt cease-fire, however the UN agrees a plan for a cease fire only 3 days later. On the 30th October the British and French did however put an ultimatum forward to both Israel and Egypt, with no reply they both started a bombing campaign on the 31st October.
Egypt responded by sinking all 40 ships on the canal and closing it to further ships.
On the 5th November British and French forces moved into the area with the British Para’s landing at a small airfield then moving on to the beach so the Navy Commando’s could land under guard from the Parachute Regiment. The French redeployed five hundred Paratroopers from Algeria to Egypt and air dropped another five hundred or so paratroopers.
Combat sorties by planes around this time accounted for many as bombing raids and soldier drops occurred continuously.
Some soldiers of the British 45 Commando Regiment were dropped in by helicopter and met resistance. It took time and effort but eventually they managed to overpower the resistance with the support of tank regiments and other troops.
The British dead number 16, with the French losing 10 and Israelis losing 189. In total estimates put Egypt’s losses at between 1,650 and 3,650 in total.
On November 7th the UN votes unanimously for Britain, France and Israel to withdraw its troops, by the 29th November the pressure from the UN ended the invasion.
In December 1956 Israel refuses to give Gaza back to Egypt, an issue it still suffers with today. British and French troops also leave Egypt.
The start of 1957 sees the nationalisation of all French and British banks in Egypt, Israeli ships being barred from using the Suez Canal and the first ships from Britain paying the toll to the Egyptians for using the canal.
The occupation and conflict officially ends in March 1957 with a resounding victory for Egypt. | <urn:uuid:31d3c1d5-9a17-4058-b5d0-de46b76d6dd0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thefinertimes.com/War-in-The-Middle-East/the-suez-war.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00006.warc.gz | en | 0.980527 | 1,312 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.252103418111801... | 1 | The Suez War, also known by the other names of Suez Canal Crisis and Tripartite Aggression, was a short lived conflict that has had long standing complications for all those involved.
The Suez War is named after the Suez Canal in which the conflict was a major factor. This canal is not simply a canal like any other, in fact it was the most important man made canal in the world as it made trade between Europe and Asia quicker, easier and more reliable. The Suez Canal actually has the nickname as “The highway to India”.
The issue with the Suez Canal is that it is currently 193.3 kilometres long (164 km long it time of opening) and runs through Egypt. While this may not be an issue today, historically it has had huge implications for Egypt, its neighbouring countries and western European powers like Britain and France.
Prior to the Suez Canal Crisis
Post World War II Britain was in a position where it needed to assess its Empire due to being financially crippled by the two World Wars that have occurred. This assessment actually led to consolidation in some areas, this was namely the Suez Canal and the Middle East.
The Middle East has long been known to be a vast oil field offering wealth through oil and the Suez Canal has always been known as a geographical and strategic waterway.
As of the end of the Nineteenth century Britain still held colonial power of Egypt, including the Suez Canal waterway that ran through it. After World War II and with the Cold War starting Britain decided to consolidate its stronghold on the canal for future use because of its geographical location.
The strength of military might from the British in the area to the point that the British had military installations everywhere, including a garrison holding around eighty thousand troops.
The problems started after World War II for two reasons, first the British were consolidating, but also the Egyptians were becoming increasing unhappy with the British. Egypt felt that the British treated them as second class citizens; further to this they did not appreciate Britain’s involvement in the creation of an Israeli state.
For those that don’t know Israel as a country was only created post World War II by the United States with supporting from European powers to give the Jewish a place of their own post the atrocities they suffered at the hands of Hitler.
By 1951 the Egyptian government had also grown to have a dislike for the British along with their people so they cancelled a treaty that had been in place since 1936 giving the British lease of the Suez Canal. The British decided that with their large garrison as a deterrent and their treaty still being valid, that they were not going to withdraw from the canal.
Over time the hostilities towards the British were to build up into a crescendo that started conflict. But before this could happen another key move occurred. The British wanted American support but did not get any; this was because the US wanted to lower British dominance over the area so they could build their own influence.
This all changed when Egypt recognised the People's Republic of China, a move that made the Americans changed tactics and withdraw funding for key projects in Egypt. Egypt’s response was swift and sudden as the Egyptian President Gamal Abdul Nasser took to his soap box and made a speech on the 26th July in which he announced Nationalisation of the Suez Canal. This also included a reference to the initial builder of the canal as a code word for Egyptian troops to move in and take control from the British.
The British could not get anyone to hear its complaints so decided to flex its military muscles so not to lose face and control of the region.
In August 1956 a meeting took place in London between France, the UK and the US to talk about diplomacy of the situation. This actually meant that the British and French gained an alliance against Egypt.
Both the British and French wanted to depose Egyptian President Gamal Abdul Nasser so they could both protects their influence and colonies in the region. Israel was then bought into the situation as they wanted to strengthen its southern borders to open up shipping in the region.
The military intervention started.
The Suez War
On October 29th the conflict started in earnest. The Israelis stationed troops on the Israeli border with Jordan so it wouldn’t come into the war on Egypt’s side. After this Israel started an operation called Operation Kadesh where they invaded the Sinai Peninsula taking control very quickly. This involved land, air and sea attacks.
The following day the British and French veto USSR demand for Israel-Egypt cease-fire, however the UN agrees a plan for a cease fire only 3 days later. On the 30th October the British and French did however put an ultimatum forward to both Israel and Egypt, with no reply they both started a bombing campaign on the 31st October.
Egypt responded by sinking all 40 ships on the canal and closing it to further ships.
On the 5th November British and French forces moved into the area with the British Para’s landing at a small airfield then moving on to the beach so the Navy Commando’s could land under guard from the Parachute Regiment. The French redeployed five hundred Paratroopers from Algeria to Egypt and air dropped another five hundred or so paratroopers.
Combat sorties by planes around this time accounted for many as bombing raids and soldier drops occurred continuously.
Some soldiers of the British 45 Commando Regiment were dropped in by helicopter and met resistance. It took time and effort but eventually they managed to overpower the resistance with the support of tank regiments and other troops.
The British dead number 16, with the French losing 10 and Israelis losing 189. In total estimates put Egypt’s losses at between 1,650 and 3,650 in total.
On November 7th the UN votes unanimously for Britain, France and Israel to withdraw its troops, by the 29th November the pressure from the UN ended the invasion.
In December 1956 Israel refuses to give Gaza back to Egypt, an issue it still suffers with today. British and French troops also leave Egypt.
The start of 1957 sees the nationalisation of all French and British banks in Egypt, Israeli ships being barred from using the Suez Canal and the first ships from Britain paying the toll to the Egyptians for using the canal.
The occupation and conflict officially ends in March 1957 with a resounding victory for Egypt. | 1,329 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Throughout by establishing governments and laws.A major reason
Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, European nations competed for a place in the new world. Many nations, such as the dutch, the french and the spanish, all arrived earlier to establish stronger foundations. However, the English prevailed by opening their colonial settlements to anyone, planning to stay permanently and by establishing governments and laws.A major reason that the English succeeded in the colonization of the new world was that they intended to stay permanently. The french and dutch came to trade fish, sugar and expensive furs. They came in small groups who lived off nature. The Spanish were sent over by there king to collect riches and to expand his empire. But many of the English came to start new lives. Most of the English settlers were poor or second in line for an inheritance and hoped for the best. Staying in the new world permanently was a risk they were willing to take. Because many English settlers remained permanently, English colony societies grew more successfully than those of other European nations.One of the most significant reasons the English succeeded in colonization was the growth rate within their colonies. The English colonies were more open to other people and religions, and this inclusiveness led to growth. With more cultures present, the English had more trade and a wider network of connections. The connections between nations made for more places to trade goods, so this boosted the economies of English settlements significantly. When the economy in a settlement grew, people had employment and were happy and wanted to stay. When other countries saw the successes in the English colonies, some joined them because they saw opportunity. An example of this was during the polish workers strike in 1619.When the English came to the new world, they established governments and created sets of laws to begin a society. This was a foundation for the permanence of the English colonies. For example, one law that was written stated that in every town containing over fifty families, a public school must be created and a teacher was to be appointed and paid with tax money. The founders of the original colonies formed government structures within the colonies and taxed themselves. The English crown allowed them to do these things as long as they did not take up arms.The English successfully colonized the Americas because of their different approach towards colonization. The French, Spanish and Dutch presence was temporary and less involved in permanent settlements. The English, on the other hand, laid down roots. They farmed the land, created a society based on governments and sets of laws, and many English settlers stayed in the colonies permanently. For these reasons, the English were more successful than other nations at colonizing the Americas. | <urn:uuid:8027714f-a168-4641-89c6-febe237f7e42> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://weatherbird.net/throughout-by-establishing-governments-and-laws-a-major-reason/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00399.warc.gz | en | 0.986455 | 537 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.3377817869... | 1 | Throughout by establishing governments and laws.A major reason
Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, European nations competed for a place in the new world. Many nations, such as the dutch, the french and the spanish, all arrived earlier to establish stronger foundations. However, the English prevailed by opening their colonial settlements to anyone, planning to stay permanently and by establishing governments and laws.A major reason that the English succeeded in the colonization of the new world was that they intended to stay permanently. The french and dutch came to trade fish, sugar and expensive furs. They came in small groups who lived off nature. The Spanish were sent over by there king to collect riches and to expand his empire. But many of the English came to start new lives. Most of the English settlers were poor or second in line for an inheritance and hoped for the best. Staying in the new world permanently was a risk they were willing to take. Because many English settlers remained permanently, English colony societies grew more successfully than those of other European nations.One of the most significant reasons the English succeeded in colonization was the growth rate within their colonies. The English colonies were more open to other people and religions, and this inclusiveness led to growth. With more cultures present, the English had more trade and a wider network of connections. The connections between nations made for more places to trade goods, so this boosted the economies of English settlements significantly. When the economy in a settlement grew, people had employment and were happy and wanted to stay. When other countries saw the successes in the English colonies, some joined them because they saw opportunity. An example of this was during the polish workers strike in 1619.When the English came to the new world, they established governments and created sets of laws to begin a society. This was a foundation for the permanence of the English colonies. For example, one law that was written stated that in every town containing over fifty families, a public school must be created and a teacher was to be appointed and paid with tax money. The founders of the original colonies formed government structures within the colonies and taxed themselves. The English crown allowed them to do these things as long as they did not take up arms.The English successfully colonized the Americas because of their different approach towards colonization. The French, Spanish and Dutch presence was temporary and less involved in permanent settlements. The English, on the other hand, laid down roots. They farmed the land, created a society based on governments and sets of laws, and many English settlers stayed in the colonies permanently. For these reasons, the English were more successful than other nations at colonizing the Americas. | 537 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Answer the following question in brief.
Why did the British Prime Minister send Sir Stafford Cripps to India ?
Sir Stafford Cripps had come to India during World War 2 to discuss with the Nationalist leaders of India about a system of self-governance through dominion status. It was a promise by the British that a proper election would be held after the war has ended. But the main aim of the British government to send Sir Stafford Cripps to India was to assemble Indian cooperation and support to the British rule against their opponents in World War 2. When he arrived, he tried to satisfy all the communities with his proposal. However many people did not trust his ideas and policies. There was a little trust between British and Indians as both the sides felt that they were not 100% revealing their true plans.
This mission failed due to three reasons:
1. The Indian National Congress rejected this offer due to Gandhiji's opposition.2. Cripps had modified the original offer, but still, it provided for no real transfer of power.3. The Viceroy and Secretary of state for India continued their mission to sabotage India. | <urn:uuid:f2cf7b24-293c-4ded-8c29-8f31d9ab144f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.shaalaa.com/question-bank-solutions/answer-following-question-brief-why-did-british-prime-minister-send-sir-stafford-cripps-india-last-phase-struggle-independence_80838 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00202.warc.gz | en | 0.985563 | 234 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.188744217157363... | 2 | Answer the following question in brief.
Why did the British Prime Minister send Sir Stafford Cripps to India ?
Sir Stafford Cripps had come to India during World War 2 to discuss with the Nationalist leaders of India about a system of self-governance through dominion status. It was a promise by the British that a proper election would be held after the war has ended. But the main aim of the British government to send Sir Stafford Cripps to India was to assemble Indian cooperation and support to the British rule against their opponents in World War 2. When he arrived, he tried to satisfy all the communities with his proposal. However many people did not trust his ideas and policies. There was a little trust between British and Indians as both the sides felt that they were not 100% revealing their true plans.
This mission failed due to three reasons:
1. The Indian National Congress rejected this offer due to Gandhiji's opposition.2. Cripps had modified the original offer, but still, it provided for no real transfer of power.3. The Viceroy and Secretary of state for India continued their mission to sabotage India. | 236 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tracing its heritage back to the originally canvassed or belted cattle breeds found in Austria and Switzerland, the Dutch Belted cattle breed otherwise known as Lakenvelder are bred mainly for their production of dairy milk.
The breed was reportedly relocated by the Dutch nobles from within the mountainous farms of the northeastern regions of Switzerland known as the canton Appenzell and the Mountain areas of the Italian regions of the County of Tyrol shortly after the feudal period.
The Dutch who were highly protective of their belted cattle herds were found to be less likely to have parted with their herds after moving. The Dutch Belted cattle breed was most recognized for their milking and fattening qualities.
During the 1750 period the Dutch Belted breed were observed as one of the thriving breeds found in the Netherlands. Today, in their fewer numbers, the breed has become a rare commodity to be used as an adequate source of beef.
During the 17th century the Dutch Belted cattle were highly demanded within the Netherlands mainly for their belted color pattern. Dutch nobles who bred the Dutch Belted cattle were reported to have also bred this desired belted trait into their Dutch rabbits, Lavender chickens and Hampshire pigs.
During the 1830’s the Dutch Belted Cattle were imported within the United States of America where they were used as exhibition animals of a rare breed by American showman and entertainer P.T. Barnum in his renowned traveling circus.
The Dutch Belted Cattle Association of America was founded in the year 1886 which recognized the newly established Dutch Belted Cattle herd-book. Still actively registering the Dutch Belted cattle today, the Association is observed as the oldest continual registry for the Dutch Belted breeds located worldwide.
The Dutch Belted breed was widely recognized and accepted as one of the more popular breeds within the United States of America until the 1940’s.
However prior to this adoption by the American society, the Dutch Belted breed during the 9000’s observed a worldwide decline in their numbers near to the point of extinction.
Within the United States the decline of the Dutch Belted cattle was only compounded by a buyout program initiated by the United States government which promoted the sale of dairy cattle for beef production to maintain the current price of milk doing this period.
The American Livestock Breeds Conservancy still recognizes the Dutch Belted Cattle on the Conservation Priority list as critical having a total nationwide population of no more than 300 and a worldwide total of less than 1,000.
Dutch Belted cattle crossbred with other cattle breeds found in the Netherlands has resulted in a severe dilution of the original herds resulting in the current stock found in the United States to be more purebred to the original genetic type than the Dutch Belted breeds found in the Netherlands today.
The Dutch belted breeds found today are found to be more productive than the previously bred cattle; however the incentives which would suggest the preservation of the breed are insufficient to effect immediate action.
There are some Dutch belted cattle breeds which have been known to produce more than 9,000 liters of milk during their period of breastfeeding.
The Lakenvelder breed is observed as one of the rare domestic breed of cattle having a similar appearance to the Dutch Belted cattle with a solid colored neck hackle and tail typically black but with an almost perfect white body.
As a primary dairy bred cattle, the average Dutch Belted cow will often weigh between 900 to 1500 pounds with the bulls having a weight of more than 2,000 pounds.
The Dutch Belted cattle are mainly black in color and can be occasionally found to have a dusky red coat with the breed’s most unique characteristic to be the distinguished wide white belt around the middle of its body located between the hips and the shoulders. Additionally the Dutch Belted cattle are horned cattle breeds.
Due to the Dutch Belted cattle as a dairy breed they have been found to be able to produce with a greater level of efficiency while grazing on grass and forage when compared to other traditional breeds without the supervision of intense management practices.
The Dutch Belted cows have been found to produce more than 20,000 pounds of milk annually. The quality of the produced milk has been observed to contain much smaller fat based anti-bubbles sometimes referred to as globules which results in the milk as having a more natural homogenized characteristic allowing easier digestion when consumed with a butterfat content of more than 5 percent.
The Dutch Belted cattle has been known to exhibit a higher fertility rate and efficiency when compared to the Holstein bred cattle in addition to having little of no difficulty during calving, a trait readily welcomed by cattle men and ranchers.
Due to the Dutch Belted breed’s brawny built frame, they have been found suitable in crossbreeding to produce a greater yield of beef content than achieved by the typical dairy cow.
This particular trait has additionally allowed the Dutch Belted breed to be a realized as an all-purpose breed.
The genetic consistency offered by the Dutch Belted cattle breed has been developed through years of selective pure breeding. The bulls produced are often very influential with their offspring sharing similar traits.
When cross bred with other breeds the Dutch Belted breeds will produce highly vigorous hybrids which have been found to effectively produce dairy milk when grazing on grass.
The Dutch Belted Cattle Association of America maintains the conservation of the Dutch Belted Cattle through a variety of sound genetically based principles and precise documentation.
They provide an active list of breeders where cattle men and ranchers can purchase their seed stock to develop their Dutch Belted cattle herds,
Ranchers and can additionally purchase stock from a number of farms found within the United States such as:
Cattle for Sale Tags:
- dutch belted cattle
- dutch belted cattle for sale
- dutch belt cattle | <urn:uuid:6a3646bd-e330-4469-af90-cc5c7b94db3a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.cattleforsale.org/dutch-belted/dutch-belted-cattle/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00018.warc.gz | en | 0.980365 | 1,204 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.1149269491434... | 3 | Tracing its heritage back to the originally canvassed or belted cattle breeds found in Austria and Switzerland, the Dutch Belted cattle breed otherwise known as Lakenvelder are bred mainly for their production of dairy milk.
The breed was reportedly relocated by the Dutch nobles from within the mountainous farms of the northeastern regions of Switzerland known as the canton Appenzell and the Mountain areas of the Italian regions of the County of Tyrol shortly after the feudal period.
The Dutch who were highly protective of their belted cattle herds were found to be less likely to have parted with their herds after moving. The Dutch Belted cattle breed was most recognized for their milking and fattening qualities.
During the 1750 period the Dutch Belted breed were observed as one of the thriving breeds found in the Netherlands. Today, in their fewer numbers, the breed has become a rare commodity to be used as an adequate source of beef.
During the 17th century the Dutch Belted cattle were highly demanded within the Netherlands mainly for their belted color pattern. Dutch nobles who bred the Dutch Belted cattle were reported to have also bred this desired belted trait into their Dutch rabbits, Lavender chickens and Hampshire pigs.
During the 1830’s the Dutch Belted Cattle were imported within the United States of America where they were used as exhibition animals of a rare breed by American showman and entertainer P.T. Barnum in his renowned traveling circus.
The Dutch Belted Cattle Association of America was founded in the year 1886 which recognized the newly established Dutch Belted Cattle herd-book. Still actively registering the Dutch Belted cattle today, the Association is observed as the oldest continual registry for the Dutch Belted breeds located worldwide.
The Dutch Belted breed was widely recognized and accepted as one of the more popular breeds within the United States of America until the 1940’s.
However prior to this adoption by the American society, the Dutch Belted breed during the 9000’s observed a worldwide decline in their numbers near to the point of extinction.
Within the United States the decline of the Dutch Belted cattle was only compounded by a buyout program initiated by the United States government which promoted the sale of dairy cattle for beef production to maintain the current price of milk doing this period.
The American Livestock Breeds Conservancy still recognizes the Dutch Belted Cattle on the Conservation Priority list as critical having a total nationwide population of no more than 300 and a worldwide total of less than 1,000.
Dutch Belted cattle crossbred with other cattle breeds found in the Netherlands has resulted in a severe dilution of the original herds resulting in the current stock found in the United States to be more purebred to the original genetic type than the Dutch Belted breeds found in the Netherlands today.
The Dutch belted breeds found today are found to be more productive than the previously bred cattle; however the incentives which would suggest the preservation of the breed are insufficient to effect immediate action.
There are some Dutch belted cattle breeds which have been known to produce more than 9,000 liters of milk during their period of breastfeeding.
The Lakenvelder breed is observed as one of the rare domestic breed of cattle having a similar appearance to the Dutch Belted cattle with a solid colored neck hackle and tail typically black but with an almost perfect white body.
As a primary dairy bred cattle, the average Dutch Belted cow will often weigh between 900 to 1500 pounds with the bulls having a weight of more than 2,000 pounds.
The Dutch Belted cattle are mainly black in color and can be occasionally found to have a dusky red coat with the breed’s most unique characteristic to be the distinguished wide white belt around the middle of its body located between the hips and the shoulders. Additionally the Dutch Belted cattle are horned cattle breeds.
Due to the Dutch Belted cattle as a dairy breed they have been found to be able to produce with a greater level of efficiency while grazing on grass and forage when compared to other traditional breeds without the supervision of intense management practices.
The Dutch Belted cows have been found to produce more than 20,000 pounds of milk annually. The quality of the produced milk has been observed to contain much smaller fat based anti-bubbles sometimes referred to as globules which results in the milk as having a more natural homogenized characteristic allowing easier digestion when consumed with a butterfat content of more than 5 percent.
The Dutch Belted cattle has been known to exhibit a higher fertility rate and efficiency when compared to the Holstein bred cattle in addition to having little of no difficulty during calving, a trait readily welcomed by cattle men and ranchers.
Due to the Dutch Belted breed’s brawny built frame, they have been found suitable in crossbreeding to produce a greater yield of beef content than achieved by the typical dairy cow.
This particular trait has additionally allowed the Dutch Belted breed to be a realized as an all-purpose breed.
The genetic consistency offered by the Dutch Belted cattle breed has been developed through years of selective pure breeding. The bulls produced are often very influential with their offspring sharing similar traits.
When cross bred with other breeds the Dutch Belted breeds will produce highly vigorous hybrids which have been found to effectively produce dairy milk when grazing on grass.
The Dutch Belted Cattle Association of America maintains the conservation of the Dutch Belted Cattle through a variety of sound genetically based principles and precise documentation.
They provide an active list of breeders where cattle men and ranchers can purchase their seed stock to develop their Dutch Belted cattle herds,
Ranchers and can additionally purchase stock from a number of farms found within the United States such as:
Cattle for Sale Tags:
- dutch belted cattle
- dutch belted cattle for sale
- dutch belt cattle | 1,212 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the wake of the disaster at Quiberon, Thurot was lionised as a hero in France. Frederick had lost 13, men, Daun 11,; additionally, some 7, Austrians were made prisoners. At the start of the war, no French regular army troops were stationed in America, and few British troops.
A Prussian scheme for compensating Frederick Augustus with Bohemia in exchange for Saxony obviously presupposed further spoliation of Austria. He had been concerned about the extended supply line to the forts on the Ohio, and he had sent Baron Dieskau to lead the defenses at Frontenac against Shirley's expected attack.
Leaving Christoph von Dohna to pursue the defeated Russians, Frederick hastened back to Saxony to save his brother Prince Henry from attack by superior Austrian forces under Daun. The war was the product of an imperial struggle, a clash between the French and English over colonial territory and wealth.
He left a sizable force at Fort William Henry to distract Montcalm and began organizing for the expedition to Quebec. Additionally, the British desired to keep all their colonial conquests.
The Governor of Virginia and the Governor of Canada are quarrelling about lands which really belong to us, and their quarrel may end in our own destruction. Despite facing such a formidable alliance, British naval strength and Spanish ineffectiveness led to British success.
This portrait was painted in by Charles Willson Peale. Austrian artillery devastated his advancing troops, but he sent wave after wave of them forward in an attempt to break the Austrian line.
Battle of Quiberon Bay and Battle of Lagos The French naval defeat at Quiberon Bay proved a devastating setback to the planned invasionand was one of the major reasons behind its ultimate cancellation By the Royal Navy had expanded to 71, personnel and ships in commission, with another 82 under ordinance.
Several of the prisoners had smallpox, and the scalps infected and killed hundreds of Indians in the following weeks. The French immediately set to work to improve their position, renamed it Fort Duquesneand sent a detachment under Coulon de Jumonvilleas a corps of observation, to see what Washington was doing, and to deliver to the English a summons requiring them to withdraw from the domain of the king of France.
The number of American rangers steadily expanded during the French and Indian War. French policy was, moreover, complicated by the existence of le Secret du roi —a system of private diplomacy conducted by King Louis XV. Finally, all these component parts of war power could only become effective when they and the civil resources of the Empire were duly co-ordinated under the supreme direction of a competent statesman.
InWashington received authorization to build a fort near the present site of Pittsburgh. A Russian army of 90, men, which had begun to cross Polish territory in May, at last entered East Prussia in August In spite of this they still had a major presence in central India, and hoped to regain the power they had lost to the British in southern India during the Second Carnatic War.
On November 9 Hawke withdrew to English waters, and the Brest fleet took to sea. British colonial forces, led by Lieutenant Colonel George Washington, attempted to expel the French inbut were outnumbered and defeated by the French.
The British felt that if they did not assert their position, the French would become the dominant power in Bengal. British forces defeated French forces in India, and in British armies invaded and conquered Canada.
Their line was thus an immensely long inland semicircle, flanked by the Gulfs of St Lawrence and Mexico, which were open to naval attack, and subject, along its very thin south-westward extension, to the natural pressure of a pioneering population many times more numerous than its own.
Even so, France had concluded a defensive alliance with Prussia inand the maintenance of the Anglo-Austrian alignment after was deemed essential by the duke of NewcastleBritish secretary of state in the ministry of his brother Henry Pelham.
He at once set out, marched through the dense woods all night, and attacked the French at dawn.
But the French trade, always hampered by government restrictions, was still more adversely affected by the British command of the sea, before which it finally withered away, while its rival ultimately triumphed. In January, they ambushed British rangers near Ticonderoga.
In an effort to set back the invasion, a British raid was launched against Le Havre which destroyed numerous flat-boats and supplies. The war had not been at all triumphant from the British point of view. The expedition was beset by delays of all kinds but was finally ready to sail from Halifax, Nova Scotia in early August.
On November 3,anticipating the Austro-Prussian armistice by three weeks, Great Britain and France signed preliminaries of peace at Fontainebleau. But at the very same time the British Ohio Company obtained a grant of half a million acres in that region, and the next year,sent the trader, Christopher Gist, to prospect for them.
Owing to various causes, of which congeniality was always the principal, the Indians, who knew nothing of the outside world, were generally inclined to believe more in French than in British prowess, especially as the French understood so much better how to make the greatest show of whatever force they had.
The French defeat had a devastating impact on French political life, and a number of senior figures were forced out of public office. He stated in his report, "The French had swept south", detailing the steps which they had taken to fortify the area, and their intention to fortify the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers.
Most of the Americans were young and poor; many were indentured servants who won freedom from their labor contracts by going to war. It did nothing to allay the colonial rivalry between Great Britain and France, and it virtually guaranteed a subsequent conflict between Austria and Prussia by confirming the conquest of Silesia by Frederick the Great.
Frontier warfare declined throughoutnot because Anglo-American forces defeated Indian war parties or the French, but because the French were unable to supply their Indian allies.The French and Indian War won by the British had a great economic impact on the colonies.
The war changed economical relations between Britain and its colonies for some time and became the largest reason for the outbreak of the American Nowitzky 2 The French, Indians, also known as the Seven Years war ().
The French and. The French and Indian War took place between and and is also known as the Seven Years War. This conflict formed part of a larger struggle between France and. After the British victory in the Seven Years' War, (see EDSITEment-reviewed Digital History's The Seven Years' War) Indian peoples found their diplomatic options more circumscribed.
As North American colonists, eager for land, began to spill over the Appalachian Mountains in the s, British concern and Indian anger over the expansion increased. The Seven Years' War, also known as the French and Indian War, war between British and Prussia against the French, Austrians and Russians Seven Years' War.
The Seven Years War, or sometimes referred to as the French and Indian war, took place in the year and finally came to a conclusion injust prior to the American Revolution. The French and Indian war is often a war that’s importance is overlooked throughout the history of America. The Seven Years' War, also known as the French and Indian War, began in when the fighting between French and colonists merged into a European conflict involving France, Austria, and Russia.Download | <urn:uuid:0b35541e-3007-4ec5-911b-c3d272f4f893> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://leraryo.willeyshandmadecandy.com/the-impact-of-the-seven-years-of-british-war-against-the-french-and-indians-2653ld.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00298.warc.gz | en | 0.98188 | 1,576 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | In the wake of the disaster at Quiberon, Thurot was lionised as a hero in France. Frederick had lost 13, men, Daun 11,; additionally, some 7, Austrians were made prisoners. At the start of the war, no French regular army troops were stationed in America, and few British troops.
A Prussian scheme for compensating Frederick Augustus with Bohemia in exchange for Saxony obviously presupposed further spoliation of Austria. He had been concerned about the extended supply line to the forts on the Ohio, and he had sent Baron Dieskau to lead the defenses at Frontenac against Shirley's expected attack.
Leaving Christoph von Dohna to pursue the defeated Russians, Frederick hastened back to Saxony to save his brother Prince Henry from attack by superior Austrian forces under Daun. The war was the product of an imperial struggle, a clash between the French and English over colonial territory and wealth.
He left a sizable force at Fort William Henry to distract Montcalm and began organizing for the expedition to Quebec. Additionally, the British desired to keep all their colonial conquests.
The Governor of Virginia and the Governor of Canada are quarrelling about lands which really belong to us, and their quarrel may end in our own destruction. Despite facing such a formidable alliance, British naval strength and Spanish ineffectiveness led to British success.
This portrait was painted in by Charles Willson Peale. Austrian artillery devastated his advancing troops, but he sent wave after wave of them forward in an attempt to break the Austrian line.
Battle of Quiberon Bay and Battle of Lagos The French naval defeat at Quiberon Bay proved a devastating setback to the planned invasionand was one of the major reasons behind its ultimate cancellation By the Royal Navy had expanded to 71, personnel and ships in commission, with another 82 under ordinance.
Several of the prisoners had smallpox, and the scalps infected and killed hundreds of Indians in the following weeks. The French immediately set to work to improve their position, renamed it Fort Duquesneand sent a detachment under Coulon de Jumonvilleas a corps of observation, to see what Washington was doing, and to deliver to the English a summons requiring them to withdraw from the domain of the king of France.
The number of American rangers steadily expanded during the French and Indian War. French policy was, moreover, complicated by the existence of le Secret du roi —a system of private diplomacy conducted by King Louis XV. Finally, all these component parts of war power could only become effective when they and the civil resources of the Empire were duly co-ordinated under the supreme direction of a competent statesman.
InWashington received authorization to build a fort near the present site of Pittsburgh. A Russian army of 90, men, which had begun to cross Polish territory in May, at last entered East Prussia in August In spite of this they still had a major presence in central India, and hoped to regain the power they had lost to the British in southern India during the Second Carnatic War.
On November 9 Hawke withdrew to English waters, and the Brest fleet took to sea. British colonial forces, led by Lieutenant Colonel George Washington, attempted to expel the French inbut were outnumbered and defeated by the French.
The British felt that if they did not assert their position, the French would become the dominant power in Bengal. British forces defeated French forces in India, and in British armies invaded and conquered Canada.
Their line was thus an immensely long inland semicircle, flanked by the Gulfs of St Lawrence and Mexico, which were open to naval attack, and subject, along its very thin south-westward extension, to the natural pressure of a pioneering population many times more numerous than its own.
Even so, France had concluded a defensive alliance with Prussia inand the maintenance of the Anglo-Austrian alignment after was deemed essential by the duke of NewcastleBritish secretary of state in the ministry of his brother Henry Pelham.
He at once set out, marched through the dense woods all night, and attacked the French at dawn.
But the French trade, always hampered by government restrictions, was still more adversely affected by the British command of the sea, before which it finally withered away, while its rival ultimately triumphed. In January, they ambushed British rangers near Ticonderoga.
In an effort to set back the invasion, a British raid was launched against Le Havre which destroyed numerous flat-boats and supplies. The war had not been at all triumphant from the British point of view. The expedition was beset by delays of all kinds but was finally ready to sail from Halifax, Nova Scotia in early August.
On November 3,anticipating the Austro-Prussian armistice by three weeks, Great Britain and France signed preliminaries of peace at Fontainebleau. But at the very same time the British Ohio Company obtained a grant of half a million acres in that region, and the next year,sent the trader, Christopher Gist, to prospect for them.
Owing to various causes, of which congeniality was always the principal, the Indians, who knew nothing of the outside world, were generally inclined to believe more in French than in British prowess, especially as the French understood so much better how to make the greatest show of whatever force they had.
The French defeat had a devastating impact on French political life, and a number of senior figures were forced out of public office. He stated in his report, "The French had swept south", detailing the steps which they had taken to fortify the area, and their intention to fortify the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers.
Most of the Americans were young and poor; many were indentured servants who won freedom from their labor contracts by going to war. It did nothing to allay the colonial rivalry between Great Britain and France, and it virtually guaranteed a subsequent conflict between Austria and Prussia by confirming the conquest of Silesia by Frederick the Great.
Frontier warfare declined throughoutnot because Anglo-American forces defeated Indian war parties or the French, but because the French were unable to supply their Indian allies.The French and Indian War won by the British had a great economic impact on the colonies.
The war changed economical relations between Britain and its colonies for some time and became the largest reason for the outbreak of the American Nowitzky 2 The French, Indians, also known as the Seven Years war ().
The French and. The French and Indian War took place between and and is also known as the Seven Years War. This conflict formed part of a larger struggle between France and. After the British victory in the Seven Years' War, (see EDSITEment-reviewed Digital History's The Seven Years' War) Indian peoples found their diplomatic options more circumscribed.
As North American colonists, eager for land, began to spill over the Appalachian Mountains in the s, British concern and Indian anger over the expansion increased. The Seven Years' War, also known as the French and Indian War, war between British and Prussia against the French, Austrians and Russians Seven Years' War.
The Seven Years War, or sometimes referred to as the French and Indian war, took place in the year and finally came to a conclusion injust prior to the American Revolution. The French and Indian war is often a war that’s importance is overlooked throughout the history of America. The Seven Years' War, also known as the French and Indian War, began in when the fighting between French and colonists merged into a European conflict involving France, Austria, and Russia.Download | 1,563 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1944, Christmas was celebrated for the sixth time since the Second World War had broken out on September 1, 1939. Men who often shared the same religious background fought each other to the death in sharp contrast with the old Christmas message of Peace on Earth. Christmas under Fire, 1944 tells about this last war time Christmas. Below an excerpt from this book. This part is about the Dutch winter famine of 1944.
The front page of the Haarlem edition of the Christian resistance paper Trouw (Loyalty) of December 21st 1944. (Delpher)
The relentless actions by the occupier against the resistance had become daily routine in 1944. In addition, in that year many men had been drafted for labor in Germany in connection with the Arbeitseinsatz
(forced labor deployment). In particular though, it was the famine above all during the winter of 1944/1945 that caused much suffering. This was the result of the order by Reichskommissar
(state commissioner) Arthur Seyss-Inquart to halt all inland shipping. His order was a reprisal against the general railway strike which had been ordered by the Dutch government on September 17, 1944, in support of Operation Market Garden and with which the Dutch complied on a large scale. As a result of Seyss-Inquart's order, the densely populated western part of the country (the Randstad, which included Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, and Utrecht) was cut off from food and fuel.
After the lifting of the blockade six weeks later, inland shipping was resumed with great difficulty. When canals and rivers as well as the IJsselmeer froze over in December, ship traffic was impossible until February. For the population in the Randstad, the consequences were severe. City-dwellers went en masse to the countryside to obtain food. In order to warm themselves in the harsh winter, people even used furniture as fuel. Owing to the scarce and unvaried foods on the one hand and the deteriorating hygienic situation on the other, conditions like hunger edema, tuberculosis and scabies erupted. Dysentery and diphtheria were rampant among children. No less than 200,000 people had to be treated in hospital for malnutrition. During the winter famine, an estimated 20,000 to 22,000 people died of inadequate nutrition, sickness and exhaustion.
Dark, cold, and shortages – these words describe the Christmas celebration of many residents of the major cities in the west. In their apartment over Café De IJsbreker along the Amstel in Amsterdam, the Crone couple spent the Christmas holidays for the most part in bed as this was the only place in the house where it was warm. Fuel for the stove was barely available. When they got out of bed, they walked around in coats and hats. Light was provided by a few candles and a kerosene lantern as there was no electricity either. Likewise, food was scarce, and their Christmas dinner consisted of only winter carrots and nothing else. They had bought a little Christmas tree though. The couple still had some flour and butter in the house, but they had agreed to save it until New Year's Eve to bake some Dutch pancakes, which they did using a few pieces of wood and a make-shift stove.
For the Amsberg family, also living in Amsterdam, at Christmas there was little more than the smell of pancakes being baked by the neighbors across the street. The Amsbergs had hardly anything to eat themselves. Their daughter Kiki, four years of age at the time, could only recall after the war that she had shared a tin of sweetened condensed milk among the three of them as a Christmas dinner. She had lost her cat as well. According to her parents, the animal had been stolen. It’s very possible that her cat was not the only one that disappeared into some starving family’s cooking pot.
In Scheveningen near The Hague, the Christmas atmosphere was hardly any better than in the capital. According to the fisherman Cor van Toorn, hardly anyone enjoyed Christmas. Without heating and by the light of a lone candle, after around 19:00 or 19:30 there was little else to do but go to bed. He knew it was December 25 but that was all there was to it. Since September, he was employed in the soup kitchen on the Van Alkemadelaan where food supplies had decreased considerably. In September, 20 packs of butter were added to the soup pots of 135 gallons; in December this had dropped to just one. With 10 crates of salad added, this mixture had to pass for vegetable soup.
Two days before Christmas he and a few others were dispatched with horse and carriage to get potatoes from the cellar of a government building on the Oostduinlaan. The whole floor was covered with them but most were rotten. Nevertheless, everything was taken. Then the good potatoes were selected and thrown into the peeling machine. These peeled potatoes were distributed as a supplement on the two Christmas days (in the Netherlands Christmas is celebrated on 25 and 26 December). Another addition to the Christmas ration was a small bowl of mashed potatoes and cabbage with a little bacon for everyone. The people who received this food, according to Cor, found this Christmas addition marvelous, but after Christmas they would have to make do again with gradually dwindling rations.
In the home of Catholic politician P.J.M. Aalberse in The Hague, "only one room could be moderately heated and only for a few hours per day" in the period prior to Christmas because of the shortage of coal. He wondered if they could make it until Christmas with the dwindling coal supply. He wrote: "Sitting in the cold all the time with numb fingers and icy feet was even worse than being hungry." Many of his fellow citizens set off to gather wood to fuel their stoves. Every day he saw upper-class as well as lower-class people "carrying bundles of branches they had collected in the bushes. Often, entire trees were cut down." According to Aalberse, it was impossible to heat the house above 10°C on the Christmas holidays. There was no electricity either, and the only source of light in the Aalberse home was a few candles which had to be used sparingly, causing the family to sit in the dark at night for a long time. A good night's rest was a rarity as well because V-1s and V-2s were launched not far from the city, causing a lot of noise.
The news of the German breakthrough in the Ardennes had also reached the Netherlands, adding to the dejected mood of the Christmas days. "The hope of being finally liberated after five long years has been pushed back into the far distance again," Aalberse wrote in his diary. "Added to this was the dire situation in which we lived .... Potatoes, our main source of food, are now rationed to 1 kilo per person per week. The bread ration had already been reduced to 1500 grams per week. Vegetables have not been available for weeks. That is what we were facing. Each night, we went to bed hungry."
The food situation in the northern and eastern parts of the Netherlands was less dire than elsewhere because in those parts, farmers provided an acceptable supply of food. Unlike starving residents in the Randstad, the Aalberse family did not need to search for food in the holiday period the Aalberse family did not need to search for food in the holiday period as it was simply delivered to them. Friends from Zevenaar had sent them a large parcel that was delivered the Friday before Christmas. "So many delicious things in there," Aalberse enthusiastically entered in his diary. "A beautiful chunk of pork, three hard-boiled eggs, many legumes, powdered milk and so on and on. Yes, even an extravagant luxury for me, a bag of delicious pre-war tobacco!" He and his mother got tears in their eyes and danced around the table in enjoyment. After Christmas they received some more legumes and "two delicious mutton chops" from other friends outside The Hague. "So at Christmas we felt like kings," according to the author, and "we did not have to lie in bed yawning with an empty stomach."
- Christmas under Fire, 1944
- The Last Christmas of World War II
- ISBN: 9781087410616
- Meer informatie over dit boek
- Kok, R. & Somers, E., Nederland en de Tweede Wereldoorlog, pp. 427-429.
- VPRO-radio Het Spoor Terug, ‘Kerst 1944’, 27 Dec. 1987.
- VPRO-radio Het Spoor Terug, ‘Kerst 1944’, 27 Dec. 1987.
- Aalberse, P.J.M., Dagboek XI: Begin november 1944 tot 7 augustus 1946, Huygens ING digitaal archief. | <urn:uuid:1800f8a3-1c36-40c6-82f4-b1b571d830da> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.tracesofwar.com/news/8800/Christmas-during-the-Dutch-winter-famine-of-1944.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00091.warc.gz | en | 0.982852 | 1,872 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.355493068... | 1 | In 1944, Christmas was celebrated for the sixth time since the Second World War had broken out on September 1, 1939. Men who often shared the same religious background fought each other to the death in sharp contrast with the old Christmas message of Peace on Earth. Christmas under Fire, 1944 tells about this last war time Christmas. Below an excerpt from this book. This part is about the Dutch winter famine of 1944.
The front page of the Haarlem edition of the Christian resistance paper Trouw (Loyalty) of December 21st 1944. (Delpher)
The relentless actions by the occupier against the resistance had become daily routine in 1944. In addition, in that year many men had been drafted for labor in Germany in connection with the Arbeitseinsatz
(forced labor deployment). In particular though, it was the famine above all during the winter of 1944/1945 that caused much suffering. This was the result of the order by Reichskommissar
(state commissioner) Arthur Seyss-Inquart to halt all inland shipping. His order was a reprisal against the general railway strike which had been ordered by the Dutch government on September 17, 1944, in support of Operation Market Garden and with which the Dutch complied on a large scale. As a result of Seyss-Inquart's order, the densely populated western part of the country (the Randstad, which included Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, and Utrecht) was cut off from food and fuel.
After the lifting of the blockade six weeks later, inland shipping was resumed with great difficulty. When canals and rivers as well as the IJsselmeer froze over in December, ship traffic was impossible until February. For the population in the Randstad, the consequences were severe. City-dwellers went en masse to the countryside to obtain food. In order to warm themselves in the harsh winter, people even used furniture as fuel. Owing to the scarce and unvaried foods on the one hand and the deteriorating hygienic situation on the other, conditions like hunger edema, tuberculosis and scabies erupted. Dysentery and diphtheria were rampant among children. No less than 200,000 people had to be treated in hospital for malnutrition. During the winter famine, an estimated 20,000 to 22,000 people died of inadequate nutrition, sickness and exhaustion.
Dark, cold, and shortages – these words describe the Christmas celebration of many residents of the major cities in the west. In their apartment over Café De IJsbreker along the Amstel in Amsterdam, the Crone couple spent the Christmas holidays for the most part in bed as this was the only place in the house where it was warm. Fuel for the stove was barely available. When they got out of bed, they walked around in coats and hats. Light was provided by a few candles and a kerosene lantern as there was no electricity either. Likewise, food was scarce, and their Christmas dinner consisted of only winter carrots and nothing else. They had bought a little Christmas tree though. The couple still had some flour and butter in the house, but they had agreed to save it until New Year's Eve to bake some Dutch pancakes, which they did using a few pieces of wood and a make-shift stove.
For the Amsberg family, also living in Amsterdam, at Christmas there was little more than the smell of pancakes being baked by the neighbors across the street. The Amsbergs had hardly anything to eat themselves. Their daughter Kiki, four years of age at the time, could only recall after the war that she had shared a tin of sweetened condensed milk among the three of them as a Christmas dinner. She had lost her cat as well. According to her parents, the animal had been stolen. It’s very possible that her cat was not the only one that disappeared into some starving family’s cooking pot.
In Scheveningen near The Hague, the Christmas atmosphere was hardly any better than in the capital. According to the fisherman Cor van Toorn, hardly anyone enjoyed Christmas. Without heating and by the light of a lone candle, after around 19:00 or 19:30 there was little else to do but go to bed. He knew it was December 25 but that was all there was to it. Since September, he was employed in the soup kitchen on the Van Alkemadelaan where food supplies had decreased considerably. In September, 20 packs of butter were added to the soup pots of 135 gallons; in December this had dropped to just one. With 10 crates of salad added, this mixture had to pass for vegetable soup.
Two days before Christmas he and a few others were dispatched with horse and carriage to get potatoes from the cellar of a government building on the Oostduinlaan. The whole floor was covered with them but most were rotten. Nevertheless, everything was taken. Then the good potatoes were selected and thrown into the peeling machine. These peeled potatoes were distributed as a supplement on the two Christmas days (in the Netherlands Christmas is celebrated on 25 and 26 December). Another addition to the Christmas ration was a small bowl of mashed potatoes and cabbage with a little bacon for everyone. The people who received this food, according to Cor, found this Christmas addition marvelous, but after Christmas they would have to make do again with gradually dwindling rations.
In the home of Catholic politician P.J.M. Aalberse in The Hague, "only one room could be moderately heated and only for a few hours per day" in the period prior to Christmas because of the shortage of coal. He wondered if they could make it until Christmas with the dwindling coal supply. He wrote: "Sitting in the cold all the time with numb fingers and icy feet was even worse than being hungry." Many of his fellow citizens set off to gather wood to fuel their stoves. Every day he saw upper-class as well as lower-class people "carrying bundles of branches they had collected in the bushes. Often, entire trees were cut down." According to Aalberse, it was impossible to heat the house above 10°C on the Christmas holidays. There was no electricity either, and the only source of light in the Aalberse home was a few candles which had to be used sparingly, causing the family to sit in the dark at night for a long time. A good night's rest was a rarity as well because V-1s and V-2s were launched not far from the city, causing a lot of noise.
The news of the German breakthrough in the Ardennes had also reached the Netherlands, adding to the dejected mood of the Christmas days. "The hope of being finally liberated after five long years has been pushed back into the far distance again," Aalberse wrote in his diary. "Added to this was the dire situation in which we lived .... Potatoes, our main source of food, are now rationed to 1 kilo per person per week. The bread ration had already been reduced to 1500 grams per week. Vegetables have not been available for weeks. That is what we were facing. Each night, we went to bed hungry."
The food situation in the northern and eastern parts of the Netherlands was less dire than elsewhere because in those parts, farmers provided an acceptable supply of food. Unlike starving residents in the Randstad, the Aalberse family did not need to search for food in the holiday period the Aalberse family did not need to search for food in the holiday period as it was simply delivered to them. Friends from Zevenaar had sent them a large parcel that was delivered the Friday before Christmas. "So many delicious things in there," Aalberse enthusiastically entered in his diary. "A beautiful chunk of pork, three hard-boiled eggs, many legumes, powdered milk and so on and on. Yes, even an extravagant luxury for me, a bag of delicious pre-war tobacco!" He and his mother got tears in their eyes and danced around the table in enjoyment. After Christmas they received some more legumes and "two delicious mutton chops" from other friends outside The Hague. "So at Christmas we felt like kings," according to the author, and "we did not have to lie in bed yawning with an empty stomach."
- Christmas under Fire, 1944
- The Last Christmas of World War II
- ISBN: 9781087410616
- Meer informatie over dit boek
- Kok, R. & Somers, E., Nederland en de Tweede Wereldoorlog, pp. 427-429.
- VPRO-radio Het Spoor Terug, ‘Kerst 1944’, 27 Dec. 1987.
- VPRO-radio Het Spoor Terug, ‘Kerst 1944’, 27 Dec. 1987.
- Aalberse, P.J.M., Dagboek XI: Begin november 1944 tot 7 augustus 1946, Huygens ING digitaal archief. | 1,950 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Short Summary
This novel is authored by Mark Twain and was published in 1884 in the UK and 1885 in the United States. This is a book novel set within a society in southern antebellum that went extinct over 20 years before the publication of the work.
A Synopsis of the Story
The novel starts with Huck Finn introducing himself and giving an insinuation that he became rich from a previous adventure with Tom Sawyer, and that his family took Sawyer into their home in order to reform him. In the rebellion of his parents, Huck escapes at night to be part of Sawyer’s gang pretending to be pirates and robbers.
At one time, Huck catches wind that Pap Finn, his father is back in town. However, the Huck is concerned about his father’s intentions due to his bad behavior in the past. Pap tries to persuade him to stop attending school, but he refuses. It is then that Pap kidnaps him and takes him to a small cabin across the Mississippi.
In the wilderness, Pap constantly mistreats Huck. One day Huck decides he has had enough and escapes downwards along the Mississippi. He lands close to Jackson’s island whereby he meets Jim, Miss Watson’s servant. Jim has escaped in fear of being sold along the river.
Upon discovering an impending search at Jackson’s island, Jim and Huck flee down the river. Jim intends to make his way to the free states, but Huck believes he is going against religion and society. The struggle between Huck’s perspective on slavery and Jim’s search for freedom becomes a major theme.
During their journey along the river, they encounter various characters that interrupt them. The only time they felt safe was when they were drifting on the raft. Suddenly, the Duke and the King seize them and use them to perform scams in various towns. However, one of their scamming plots backfire, and a frenzy erupts allowing Jim and Huck to flee.
The Duke and the King soon join them but end up betraying the boys by selling Jim to the Phelps as a slave. When Huck goes to save Jim, the Phelps thinks he is their nephew Tom Sawyer, and Huck plays along. Later, Tom arrives, but Huck convinces him to take the role of Sid, his brother. They hatch an escape plan that backfires, leading to Jim’s recapture. Back at the farm, Tom explains everything to the Phelps, and they realize that Jim had been set free in the late miss Watson’s will. The novel ends with Huck contemplating his next adventure away from society. | <urn:uuid:1d9adfdd-ba21-40d0-ab8e-175cab1ca1ef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://summarystory.com/the-adventures-of-huckleberry-finn/the-adventures-of-huckleberry-finn-short-summary/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00165.warc.gz | en | 0.981584 | 539 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.04910643771... | 10 | The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Short Summary
This novel is authored by Mark Twain and was published in 1884 in the UK and 1885 in the United States. This is a book novel set within a society in southern antebellum that went extinct over 20 years before the publication of the work.
A Synopsis of the Story
The novel starts with Huck Finn introducing himself and giving an insinuation that he became rich from a previous adventure with Tom Sawyer, and that his family took Sawyer into their home in order to reform him. In the rebellion of his parents, Huck escapes at night to be part of Sawyer’s gang pretending to be pirates and robbers.
At one time, Huck catches wind that Pap Finn, his father is back in town. However, the Huck is concerned about his father’s intentions due to his bad behavior in the past. Pap tries to persuade him to stop attending school, but he refuses. It is then that Pap kidnaps him and takes him to a small cabin across the Mississippi.
In the wilderness, Pap constantly mistreats Huck. One day Huck decides he has had enough and escapes downwards along the Mississippi. He lands close to Jackson’s island whereby he meets Jim, Miss Watson’s servant. Jim has escaped in fear of being sold along the river.
Upon discovering an impending search at Jackson’s island, Jim and Huck flee down the river. Jim intends to make his way to the free states, but Huck believes he is going against religion and society. The struggle between Huck’s perspective on slavery and Jim’s search for freedom becomes a major theme.
During their journey along the river, they encounter various characters that interrupt them. The only time they felt safe was when they were drifting on the raft. Suddenly, the Duke and the King seize them and use them to perform scams in various towns. However, one of their scamming plots backfire, and a frenzy erupts allowing Jim and Huck to flee.
The Duke and the King soon join them but end up betraying the boys by selling Jim to the Phelps as a slave. When Huck goes to save Jim, the Phelps thinks he is their nephew Tom Sawyer, and Huck plays along. Later, Tom arrives, but Huck convinces him to take the role of Sid, his brother. They hatch an escape plan that backfires, leading to Jim’s recapture. Back at the farm, Tom explains everything to the Phelps, and they realize that Jim had been set free in the late miss Watson’s will. The novel ends with Huck contemplating his next adventure away from society. | 526 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Chemise Definition: Definitions for the Clothing & Textile Industry
The chemise, called a "smock" or "shift" in the 16th century, was a simple garment worn next to the skin to protect clothing from sweat and body oils. Chemise is the French term. Italians called it a "Camicia". The English called the same shirt a "Smock" and the Irish called it a "Line" (pronounced LAY-na).
A chemise or shift was the foundation of most multilayered garments. As such it varied from utilitarian to decorative according to type of material used and visibility. It was used in various forms from early 10th century to 15th century Italian through to the end of our period. In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, it was usually the only piece of clothing that was washed regularly.
The earliest smocks were simple shirt-like garments, and came into being in Anglo-Saxon times. Many European countries also used smocking on their garments. They gradually developed in the 18th and early 19th century into a fuller garment with much more room to move while working. The fullness was gathered in tubes or reeds at both back and front. These garments, known as 'smock frocks, were worn in England by the shepherds, carters and wagoners in the 1700s. Not much is recorded of the wearing apparel of the working class up to this period, but occasionally in paintings of rural life one can see them.
Smocks were made of fine linen; many of the better quality smocks were made of what we now call "handkerchief-weight" linen. These smocks hung to just about knee to calf-length, on average. There were several varieties of smocks worn in the 16th century; below is a listing of the main types.
SHIRT SMOCKS are thus named because they are similar to a nobleman's shirt and have a short opening at the front. They are usually shorter than round frocks.
COAT SMOCKS were worn mainly by the Welsh shepherds. They were buttoned at the front and had a large, cape-like collar to protect the wearer from the wet and misty conditions in Wales. They were knee length or longer and usually made of wool.
The tradition of wearing a smock had declined by the
1800's, and it was rare to see them being worn after this
time. It was about then that smocking became a fashion statement
on tea gowns, children's wear and nightdresses. When lawn
tennis became popular in the 1800's, bodices were smocked
with silk and caught at the waist by a sash. Today, once
more, smocking is very popular on babies | <urn:uuid:ff543fbb-0bfe-4024-96fe-3d941fa9fb31> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.apparelsearch.com/definitions/clothing/chemise_definition.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00349.warc.gz | en | 0.988439 | 572 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.364359319... | 4 | Chemise Definition: Definitions for the Clothing & Textile Industry
The chemise, called a "smock" or "shift" in the 16th century, was a simple garment worn next to the skin to protect clothing from sweat and body oils. Chemise is the French term. Italians called it a "Camicia". The English called the same shirt a "Smock" and the Irish called it a "Line" (pronounced LAY-na).
A chemise or shift was the foundation of most multilayered garments. As such it varied from utilitarian to decorative according to type of material used and visibility. It was used in various forms from early 10th century to 15th century Italian through to the end of our period. In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, it was usually the only piece of clothing that was washed regularly.
The earliest smocks were simple shirt-like garments, and came into being in Anglo-Saxon times. Many European countries also used smocking on their garments. They gradually developed in the 18th and early 19th century into a fuller garment with much more room to move while working. The fullness was gathered in tubes or reeds at both back and front. These garments, known as 'smock frocks, were worn in England by the shepherds, carters and wagoners in the 1700s. Not much is recorded of the wearing apparel of the working class up to this period, but occasionally in paintings of rural life one can see them.
Smocks were made of fine linen; many of the better quality smocks were made of what we now call "handkerchief-weight" linen. These smocks hung to just about knee to calf-length, on average. There were several varieties of smocks worn in the 16th century; below is a listing of the main types.
SHIRT SMOCKS are thus named because they are similar to a nobleman's shirt and have a short opening at the front. They are usually shorter than round frocks.
COAT SMOCKS were worn mainly by the Welsh shepherds. They were buttoned at the front and had a large, cape-like collar to protect the wearer from the wet and misty conditions in Wales. They were knee length or longer and usually made of wool.
The tradition of wearing a smock had declined by the
1800's, and it was rare to see them being worn after this
time. It was about then that smocking became a fashion statement
on tea gowns, children's wear and nightdresses. When lawn
tennis became popular in the 1800's, bodices were smocked
with silk and caught at the waist by a sash. Today, once
more, smocking is very popular on babies | 586 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This article does not have any sources. (May 2013)
Navigation is the methods used to learn where someone is and how to go to another place. Since this is easy when landmarks are visible, the word is often limited to the methods ships or aircraft use. The word navigation was invented in the 15th century from the Latin word navis which means "ship" and is found in other Indo-European languages. Navigation is literally "art of ship mastery" but is also used for 'finding one's way'. The Global Positioning System is the main tool for it.
One type of navigation was made by the Polynesians and is called Polynesian navigation. Polynesians used different things found all around them to find their way across large areas of open ocean. Other early people also learned how to travel large distances using the natural world. For example:
- A long time ago (and still used by some people today) people would watch the stars, the sun and the moon. From this they would know where north was. With charts they could find how far from the equator they were. This is called celestial navigation. Until they had accurate clocks they didn't know their Longitude (how far east or west they were) without seeing landmarks.
- Some types of clouds form over land, and waves can bounce off of a shore and travel out to sea.
- The time it took to get to a place. When traveling on land they knew it would take them, for example, two days to get from one place to another. This time would most likely stay the same. From this they could travel two days and know they were close to where they wanted to be.
- The animals they found helped too. In different places the people would find different types of fish, whales or birds that only lived in one place, or near land. From that they could tell either they were near or far from where they needed to be.
An example of people who used the stars were the Vikings. They knew that the star called Polaris (the North Star) does not change location and points to the north. They would then know the latitude (distance from the equator), by measuring the angle between Polaris and the horizon. They also used animals, especially birds, to know if land was nearby. They also knew that specific kind of clouds form near land and that waves are different near land than at high seas.
As time went by better methods of navigation were invented or discovered. Some of these methods are:
- Dead reckoning. A ship could throw a log over the side. Attached to the log was a rope with knots tied at regular distances. By counting how many knots went over the side before they pulled the log back in, they knew how fast they were going. They would write this down every day and figure out how much they traveled for the day. This is why a ship's speed is measured in knots.
- A compass. It was discovered that the Earth had two poles (North and South) and that these poles had different magnetic charges (positive and negative). Resting a strip of magnetic iron on the point of pin it was found that the strip would spin until it matched the magnetic field of Earth. From this a direction could be taken and paths could be followed. The compass was first invented in China. It was later invented in France in 12th century.
- Accurate clocks. With a clock, it was finally possible to know what a person's longitude was. Longitude is the location east or west. Before this, only landmarks and dead reckoning could be used.
- Pilotage is when ships look out for special beacons or man made markers, which tell them where they are or to watch out for certain obstacles such as reefs.
- People divided the compass into 360 degrees. Then they could give an accurate number for the direction the ship had to follow (the "bearing") to arrive at a harbor. The first navigational sea maps, called "nautical charts", showed the bearings needed to get from one harbor to another.
- Stellar navigation is an improvement on navigating by stars. It uses a sextant, a compass and a very accurate clock called a chronometer. By measuring the altitude of a star (how high it is above the horizon), and its direction on a compass at a known time, the navigator can determine where the ship is. GPS has pretty much replaced stellar navigation, but stellar navigation is still taught in all maritime schools because it does not need special electronics.
- Radio navigation was invented in the early 20th century. Hyperbolic navigation uses radio transmitters to find the location of a ship between two or three radio transmitters that do not move.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Navigation.| | <urn:uuid:b73416a3-c034-4068-9ef3-b038c6e3ecab> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigation | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00324.warc.gz | en | 0.98191 | 979 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.2364796996... | 5 | This article does not have any sources. (May 2013)
Navigation is the methods used to learn where someone is and how to go to another place. Since this is easy when landmarks are visible, the word is often limited to the methods ships or aircraft use. The word navigation was invented in the 15th century from the Latin word navis which means "ship" and is found in other Indo-European languages. Navigation is literally "art of ship mastery" but is also used for 'finding one's way'. The Global Positioning System is the main tool for it.
One type of navigation was made by the Polynesians and is called Polynesian navigation. Polynesians used different things found all around them to find their way across large areas of open ocean. Other early people also learned how to travel large distances using the natural world. For example:
- A long time ago (and still used by some people today) people would watch the stars, the sun and the moon. From this they would know where north was. With charts they could find how far from the equator they were. This is called celestial navigation. Until they had accurate clocks they didn't know their Longitude (how far east or west they were) without seeing landmarks.
- Some types of clouds form over land, and waves can bounce off of a shore and travel out to sea.
- The time it took to get to a place. When traveling on land they knew it would take them, for example, two days to get from one place to another. This time would most likely stay the same. From this they could travel two days and know they were close to where they wanted to be.
- The animals they found helped too. In different places the people would find different types of fish, whales or birds that only lived in one place, or near land. From that they could tell either they were near or far from where they needed to be.
An example of people who used the stars were the Vikings. They knew that the star called Polaris (the North Star) does not change location and points to the north. They would then know the latitude (distance from the equator), by measuring the angle between Polaris and the horizon. They also used animals, especially birds, to know if land was nearby. They also knew that specific kind of clouds form near land and that waves are different near land than at high seas.
As time went by better methods of navigation were invented or discovered. Some of these methods are:
- Dead reckoning. A ship could throw a log over the side. Attached to the log was a rope with knots tied at regular distances. By counting how many knots went over the side before they pulled the log back in, they knew how fast they were going. They would write this down every day and figure out how much they traveled for the day. This is why a ship's speed is measured in knots.
- A compass. It was discovered that the Earth had two poles (North and South) and that these poles had different magnetic charges (positive and negative). Resting a strip of magnetic iron on the point of pin it was found that the strip would spin until it matched the magnetic field of Earth. From this a direction could be taken and paths could be followed. The compass was first invented in China. It was later invented in France in 12th century.
- Accurate clocks. With a clock, it was finally possible to know what a person's longitude was. Longitude is the location east or west. Before this, only landmarks and dead reckoning could be used.
- Pilotage is when ships look out for special beacons or man made markers, which tell them where they are or to watch out for certain obstacles such as reefs.
- People divided the compass into 360 degrees. Then they could give an accurate number for the direction the ship had to follow (the "bearing") to arrive at a harbor. The first navigational sea maps, called "nautical charts", showed the bearings needed to get from one harbor to another.
- Stellar navigation is an improvement on navigating by stars. It uses a sextant, a compass and a very accurate clock called a chronometer. By measuring the altitude of a star (how high it is above the horizon), and its direction on a compass at a known time, the navigator can determine where the ship is. GPS has pretty much replaced stellar navigation, but stellar navigation is still taught in all maritime schools because it does not need special electronics.
- Radio navigation was invented in the early 20th century. Hyperbolic navigation uses radio transmitters to find the location of a ship between two or three radio transmitters that do not move.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Navigation.| | 971 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Federalists vs. The Anti-Federalists
When the revolutionary war was over, the American colonists had found
themselves free of British domination.Due to the fact that they were free
from British control, they wanted to create their own system of government where
tyranny would be practically diminished. Originally, the separate states were
connected by The Articles of Confederation. But this document gave the central
government no power of their own. Because of this, the states had many problems
in international politics since they had just found freedom and did not have the
respect of other countries. This caused a lot of thinking and it was decided that
a document needed to be created to strengthen the central government and at the same
time ensuring the safety of the states. So came to be the constitution. The
constitution brought about a division between the American people. These two groups
were the federalists, who believed that the constitution was good, and the anti-federalists
who thought that the constitution would not be able to protect the rights of the people.
These two groups had conflicting views but together, they both wanted the same thing.
The same thing was that America should be controlled by the people by the principles
Both groups, the federalist and anti-federalists recognized the fact that
power was being abused. They witnessed what had happened in the war and that their
had been negative effects of power and the result was very clear. British vocation had
made them very aware of the threat of corruption. Therefore, they wanted to make a
government that would ensure the duration of an just republic. The federalists exclaimed
that the constitution was the only way they could reach this goal of a just society.
As James Wilson had said, the constitution would not give all the power to the
legislature unless it was legally written down to ensure power was not mistreated. In the
constitution, it does allow congress to make laws that help out the government in the area of
execution of foreign powers.
The view of the anti-federalists were obviously different. They believed
that the power given to the congress was not safe since it put them too much in
control. Hence they created the Bill of Rights to “establish justice, ensure domestic
tranquillity and provide for the common defense…” The anti-federalists feared that the
actual people would not be fairly represented by their new government since they would have
the power to get rid of the individual rights of the people. The Bill of Rights claims
it is for and by the people. Especially since America is so large, it does not ensure
everyone’s opinion would be heard. Many people did not like the idea of having representatives
from each state because one man can not bring forth many different opinions. Anti-federalists
believe that liberty only is present when there are few people and they can actually
get their voice projected. In a large population, like America, the citizens do not get
individual freedom and are deprived of their rights.
Yet, Madison a federalist stated that in a small republic, tyranny could be
much more assessable since it would be easier to dominate others. Unlike in a
large republic which is made up of many views where as it is less chance that a few can
dominate others. Even in individual states it is easy to elect officials since people can be
easily controlled when there aren’t many people. In other word, the more the people, the less
chance of bribery and inducement. Another benefit of a larger republic is that there
would be a variety of people representing them and their would be many candidates to pick
from. Ensuring the highest quality government. In a small republic, options would
be very select making it an unfair election.
Besides finding officials to best represent the people, there were many other
controversial topics that faced the American people. The topic of taxation
brought about many different ideas of what should be. The anti-federalists believed that by
forming a new system would be very challenging because that is what they know and use.
The first problem they found was that states would not want to have two state taxes.
This is unfair to the people. They also argued that a state tax was unfair since each state
was different with different needs. This could very well destroy a state economically while
other states be fine.
The federalists believed that congress had all the right to have direct
taxation in ensure the safety of national security. The claimed that the constitution
was created to make sure the sovereign power of the states was protected. The state
legislature was responsible to elect two senators and the presidential electoral process.
As stated before, both sides wanted to create a country where the peoples
voice was heard and tyranny would not happen, but the way to accomplish this was a
conflicting. The topic of power and who got what had torn America apart but
soon enough, they formed a perfect solution in which both views where united to
protect the citizens rights. | <urn:uuid:57ffd334-ebad-4257-8c91-127296d87ea6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://taxteaparty.com/u-s-governmentt-federalists-vs-anti-federalists/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00066.warc.gz | en | 0.983314 | 1,057 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.192564114... | 2 | The Federalists vs. The Anti-Federalists
When the revolutionary war was over, the American colonists had found
themselves free of British domination.Due to the fact that they were free
from British control, they wanted to create their own system of government where
tyranny would be practically diminished. Originally, the separate states were
connected by The Articles of Confederation. But this document gave the central
government no power of their own. Because of this, the states had many problems
in international politics since they had just found freedom and did not have the
respect of other countries. This caused a lot of thinking and it was decided that
a document needed to be created to strengthen the central government and at the same
time ensuring the safety of the states. So came to be the constitution. The
constitution brought about a division between the American people. These two groups
were the federalists, who believed that the constitution was good, and the anti-federalists
who thought that the constitution would not be able to protect the rights of the people.
These two groups had conflicting views but together, they both wanted the same thing.
The same thing was that America should be controlled by the people by the principles
Both groups, the federalist and anti-federalists recognized the fact that
power was being abused. They witnessed what had happened in the war and that their
had been negative effects of power and the result was very clear. British vocation had
made them very aware of the threat of corruption. Therefore, they wanted to make a
government that would ensure the duration of an just republic. The federalists exclaimed
that the constitution was the only way they could reach this goal of a just society.
As James Wilson had said, the constitution would not give all the power to the
legislature unless it was legally written down to ensure power was not mistreated. In the
constitution, it does allow congress to make laws that help out the government in the area of
execution of foreign powers.
The view of the anti-federalists were obviously different. They believed
that the power given to the congress was not safe since it put them too much in
control. Hence they created the Bill of Rights to “establish justice, ensure domestic
tranquillity and provide for the common defense…” The anti-federalists feared that the
actual people would not be fairly represented by their new government since they would have
the power to get rid of the individual rights of the people. The Bill of Rights claims
it is for and by the people. Especially since America is so large, it does not ensure
everyone’s opinion would be heard. Many people did not like the idea of having representatives
from each state because one man can not bring forth many different opinions. Anti-federalists
believe that liberty only is present when there are few people and they can actually
get their voice projected. In a large population, like America, the citizens do not get
individual freedom and are deprived of their rights.
Yet, Madison a federalist stated that in a small republic, tyranny could be
much more assessable since it would be easier to dominate others. Unlike in a
large republic which is made up of many views where as it is less chance that a few can
dominate others. Even in individual states it is easy to elect officials since people can be
easily controlled when there aren’t many people. In other word, the more the people, the less
chance of bribery and inducement. Another benefit of a larger republic is that there
would be a variety of people representing them and their would be many candidates to pick
from. Ensuring the highest quality government. In a small republic, options would
be very select making it an unfair election.
Besides finding officials to best represent the people, there were many other
controversial topics that faced the American people. The topic of taxation
brought about many different ideas of what should be. The anti-federalists believed that by
forming a new system would be very challenging because that is what they know and use.
The first problem they found was that states would not want to have two state taxes.
This is unfair to the people. They also argued that a state tax was unfair since each state
was different with different needs. This could very well destroy a state economically while
other states be fine.
The federalists believed that congress had all the right to have direct
taxation in ensure the safety of national security. The claimed that the constitution
was created to make sure the sovereign power of the states was protected. The state
legislature was responsible to elect two senators and the presidential electoral process.
As stated before, both sides wanted to create a country where the peoples
voice was heard and tyranny would not happen, but the way to accomplish this was a
conflicting. The topic of power and who got what had torn America apart but
soon enough, they formed a perfect solution in which both views where united to
protect the citizens rights. | 1,036 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Last Updated on
Have you ever been to Mars and wondered why it is such a difficult question to answer? Mars looks like a slice of the Sun, but there is water on Mars, it has been there for billions of years, and even our very existence is based on it. If you want to learn about Mars, you may be surprised at how much there is to know.
The size of the solar system, all the planets, all the giant gas giants are part of the same solar system, and that is in fact the main body of our solar system. Mars is the smallest of them all. It is a little larger than Neptune and a little smaller than Jupiter. NASA publishes the most current research and analysis of Mars.
Just a few of the things we know about Mars and facts about the Sun are:
Mars was a star long ago in the early solar system. It is still going, it is still out there and it will keep going until its Sun runs out of fuel. It is a little bit like a burning ember in a star, and we have caught that flame in a cloud of interstellar dust.
Mars is a rocky planet, it is not a gas giant, but that is not all that mars is like. Mars has been the subject of much speculation for many years now. It has always been thought that Mars was at some point a habitable planet. If the two planets were so close that a small life form could have formed on the surface, it would mean that our planet is old enough to have had life.
We do know for sure that Mars has liquid water, but the water is so cold that even in a climate with mild temperatures(just below freezing), the water freezes and hardens to rock and ice. There may be some dust, and it is possible that a hint of methane gas could be there, but the water would still be frozen solid. That makes Mars a dead planet, or at least, a dead red planet.
The problem with Mars is that it is not in the right place to be able to see the planet, the Sun, and the Sun’s other planets. Mars is in the same part of the solar system as Jupiter, and the two are separated by a vast distance. Saturn is one of the planets as well.
For now, Mars is close enough to the Sun that it does get a lot of the same radiation from the Sun as Jupiter, and that is why the two planets are so close. We are lucky, in a way, that we live on a planet that is so close to our Sun. The Sun is not protected by the Earth and the Moon, and thus we cannot be protected from its radiation.
We have to learn more about the space between Earth and Mars and how life could have been formed there. We should do everything we can to keep a look out for life on Mars. | <urn:uuid:c1ffe522-ddda-48aa-96d0-07d4cc07a810> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.interestingfacts.org/fact/interesting-facts-about-mars-2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00102.warc.gz | en | 0.980856 | 587 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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Have you ever been to Mars and wondered why it is such a difficult question to answer? Mars looks like a slice of the Sun, but there is water on Mars, it has been there for billions of years, and even our very existence is based on it. If you want to learn about Mars, you may be surprised at how much there is to know.
The size of the solar system, all the planets, all the giant gas giants are part of the same solar system, and that is in fact the main body of our solar system. Mars is the smallest of them all. It is a little larger than Neptune and a little smaller than Jupiter. NASA publishes the most current research and analysis of Mars.
Just a few of the things we know about Mars and facts about the Sun are:
Mars was a star long ago in the early solar system. It is still going, it is still out there and it will keep going until its Sun runs out of fuel. It is a little bit like a burning ember in a star, and we have caught that flame in a cloud of interstellar dust.
Mars is a rocky planet, it is not a gas giant, but that is not all that mars is like. Mars has been the subject of much speculation for many years now. It has always been thought that Mars was at some point a habitable planet. If the two planets were so close that a small life form could have formed on the surface, it would mean that our planet is old enough to have had life.
We do know for sure that Mars has liquid water, but the water is so cold that even in a climate with mild temperatures(just below freezing), the water freezes and hardens to rock and ice. There may be some dust, and it is possible that a hint of methane gas could be there, but the water would still be frozen solid. That makes Mars a dead planet, or at least, a dead red planet.
The problem with Mars is that it is not in the right place to be able to see the planet, the Sun, and the Sun’s other planets. Mars is in the same part of the solar system as Jupiter, and the two are separated by a vast distance. Saturn is one of the planets as well.
For now, Mars is close enough to the Sun that it does get a lot of the same radiation from the Sun as Jupiter, and that is why the two planets are so close. We are lucky, in a way, that we live on a planet that is so close to our Sun. The Sun is not protected by the Earth and the Moon, and thus we cannot be protected from its radiation.
We have to learn more about the space between Earth and Mars and how life could have been formed there. We should do everything we can to keep a look out for life on Mars. | 580 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- 0,99 €
Description de l’éditeur
Sicily would naturally be the place in which Carthage would first seek to establish a foreign dominion. At its nearest point it was not more than fifty miles distant; its soil was fertile, its climate temperate; it was rich in several valuable articles of commerce. We have seen that, in the treaty which was made with Rome about the end of the sixth century B.C., the Carthaginians claimed part of the island as their own. It is probable that this part was then less than it had been. For more than two hundred years the Greeks had been spreading their settlements over the country; and the Greeks were the great rivals of the Phoenicians. If they were not as keen traders - and trade was certainly held in less estimation in Athens, and even in Corinth, than it was in Tyre and Carthage - they were as bold and skillful as sailors, and far more ready than their rivals to fight for what they had got or for what they wanted. The earliest Greek colony in Sicily was Naxos, on the east coast, founded by settlers from Euboea in 735. Other Greek cities sought room for their surplus population in the same field; and some of the colonies founded fresh settlements of their own. The latest of them was Agrigentum on the south coast, which owed its origin to Gela, itself a colony of Cretans and Rhodians. As the Greeks thus spread westward the Carthaginians retired before them, till their dominions were probably reduced to little more than a few trading ports on the western coast of the island. As long, indeed, as they could trade with the new comers they seemed to be satisfied. They kept up, for the most part, friendly relations with their rivals, allowing even the right of intermarriage to some at least of their cities. | <urn:uuid:701c442d-532d-400a-b2f7-6d9610bf9d49> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://books.apple.com/fr/book/a-short-history-of-carthage/id1354741750 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00107.warc.gz | en | 0.992845 | 390 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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Description de l’éditeur
Sicily would naturally be the place in which Carthage would first seek to establish a foreign dominion. At its nearest point it was not more than fifty miles distant; its soil was fertile, its climate temperate; it was rich in several valuable articles of commerce. We have seen that, in the treaty which was made with Rome about the end of the sixth century B.C., the Carthaginians claimed part of the island as their own. It is probable that this part was then less than it had been. For more than two hundred years the Greeks had been spreading their settlements over the country; and the Greeks were the great rivals of the Phoenicians. If they were not as keen traders - and trade was certainly held in less estimation in Athens, and even in Corinth, than it was in Tyre and Carthage - they were as bold and skillful as sailors, and far more ready than their rivals to fight for what they had got or for what they wanted. The earliest Greek colony in Sicily was Naxos, on the east coast, founded by settlers from Euboea in 735. Other Greek cities sought room for their surplus population in the same field; and some of the colonies founded fresh settlements of their own. The latest of them was Agrigentum on the south coast, which owed its origin to Gela, itself a colony of Cretans and Rhodians. As the Greeks thus spread westward the Carthaginians retired before them, till their dominions were probably reduced to little more than a few trading ports on the western coast of the island. As long, indeed, as they could trade with the new comers they seemed to be satisfied. They kept up, for the most part, friendly relations with their rivals, allowing even the right of intermarriage to some at least of their cities. | 398 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Year 6 have begun their work on the wants and needs learning that Miss Duncan and Mr Davies began when they visited Kafuro and Rihamu during the summer.
Our first task was to draw around the outline of a pupil and give the outlined child a name. Next, we discussed what this child would need to grow up into a happy and healthy adult. The children were set the task of identifying twenty things that would help the child achieve this. At this point there was no input and the children could completely decide for themselves.
Once the pupils had completed their twenty things that a child would need, they wrote them on post its and placed them in the middle of the child. Next, they were asked to remove five of the things that the child could do without – this reduced the items to fifiteen. This exercise was repeated twice more and generated fierce debate on each table as the children argued over what should stay. Eventually, each group had five items left which they shared with the rest of the class and compared.
Our next step was to introduce UNICEF wants and needs cards and perform a similar exercise. However, firstly the children were asked to divide the cards into three groups: those they thought were Most Important, Important and Least Important. Then, once again, Mr Stanley asked the pupils to reduce the cards down to just five, and the classroom became very animated as the children had to make some very difficult decisions over what should stay and what should go.
Once the pupils had completed this exercise, they compared the five wants and needs they had left with the post its they had created in the previious lesson. As a class, we then discussed the difference between wants and needs.
Needs: the things that are absolutely necessary for all children to have a happy and healthy life
Wants:the things that are nice to have but not necessary for a full life.
We finished this first session by discussing some key questions: Are wants and needs different for people in the UK and Uganda? Why don’t all children in the world have what they need?
To the first question, the pupils were quite clear that needs would be the same in both countries. However, there was an acknowledgement that wants would be different. For example, a pupil in the UK might want a Playstation or an Xbox, but for a pupil in Uganda, where electricity is scarce in places, a new bike would be something that they might really want.
The pupils were surprisingly not shocked that children in the world didn’t have everything they need. They were quite clear about some of the reasons why this might be the case:
- Some countries don’t have enough money to feed people
- Some governments are corrupt
- The environment was not conducive to growing food – a result of climate change
- Lack of water supply – again due to climate change.
There was widespread disbelief in the class that millions of people go hungry in the world when there is more than enough food to feed everyone comfortably.
In our next session the pupils looked at the needs of children are protected. We studied the United Nations Charter for the rights of the Child. In groups, the children looked at the post its they had created during the first session and divided them into wants and needs. For each need they tried to marry it up with one of the articles from the convention
The class then shared their ideas together and were easily able to show how the articles supported the needs they had identified.
Finally, we looked at scenarios in which children’s rights have been abused. The pupils were each given a scenario and tasked with identifying which rights had been violated and suggesting actions to restore these rights.
Some of the scenarios are posted below:
Download (DOCX, 57KB)
Download (DOCX, 96KB)
Download (DOCX, 78KB)
Download (DOCX, 75KB)
Download (DOCX, 84KB)
Download (DOCX, 62KB)
In our next post we will talk about Rights and Responsibilities and how we have used them to create our class charter. | <urn:uuid:39e8baff-eea7-4ff2-9f7b-854eaefccde6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://qeppschools.primaryblogger.co.uk/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00321.warc.gz | en | 0.987456 | 840 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.6293959021... | 1 | Year 6 have begun their work on the wants and needs learning that Miss Duncan and Mr Davies began when they visited Kafuro and Rihamu during the summer.
Our first task was to draw around the outline of a pupil and give the outlined child a name. Next, we discussed what this child would need to grow up into a happy and healthy adult. The children were set the task of identifying twenty things that would help the child achieve this. At this point there was no input and the children could completely decide for themselves.
Once the pupils had completed their twenty things that a child would need, they wrote them on post its and placed them in the middle of the child. Next, they were asked to remove five of the things that the child could do without – this reduced the items to fifiteen. This exercise was repeated twice more and generated fierce debate on each table as the children argued over what should stay. Eventually, each group had five items left which they shared with the rest of the class and compared.
Our next step was to introduce UNICEF wants and needs cards and perform a similar exercise. However, firstly the children were asked to divide the cards into three groups: those they thought were Most Important, Important and Least Important. Then, once again, Mr Stanley asked the pupils to reduce the cards down to just five, and the classroom became very animated as the children had to make some very difficult decisions over what should stay and what should go.
Once the pupils had completed this exercise, they compared the five wants and needs they had left with the post its they had created in the previious lesson. As a class, we then discussed the difference between wants and needs.
Needs: the things that are absolutely necessary for all children to have a happy and healthy life
Wants:the things that are nice to have but not necessary for a full life.
We finished this first session by discussing some key questions: Are wants and needs different for people in the UK and Uganda? Why don’t all children in the world have what they need?
To the first question, the pupils were quite clear that needs would be the same in both countries. However, there was an acknowledgement that wants would be different. For example, a pupil in the UK might want a Playstation or an Xbox, but for a pupil in Uganda, where electricity is scarce in places, a new bike would be something that they might really want.
The pupils were surprisingly not shocked that children in the world didn’t have everything they need. They were quite clear about some of the reasons why this might be the case:
- Some countries don’t have enough money to feed people
- Some governments are corrupt
- The environment was not conducive to growing food – a result of climate change
- Lack of water supply – again due to climate change.
There was widespread disbelief in the class that millions of people go hungry in the world when there is more than enough food to feed everyone comfortably.
In our next session the pupils looked at the needs of children are protected. We studied the United Nations Charter for the rights of the Child. In groups, the children looked at the post its they had created during the first session and divided them into wants and needs. For each need they tried to marry it up with one of the articles from the convention
The class then shared their ideas together and were easily able to show how the articles supported the needs they had identified.
Finally, we looked at scenarios in which children’s rights have been abused. The pupils were each given a scenario and tasked with identifying which rights had been violated and suggesting actions to restore these rights.
Some of the scenarios are posted below:
Download (DOCX, 57KB)
Download (DOCX, 96KB)
Download (DOCX, 78KB)
Download (DOCX, 75KB)
Download (DOCX, 84KB)
Download (DOCX, 62KB)
In our next post we will talk about Rights and Responsibilities and how we have used them to create our class charter. | 822 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ida was a journalist, educator, and a truth seeker. Her legacy will live forever on, no matter that discrimination against African-American is not as high nowadays. The legacy she left behind within the Civil Rights movement will remain intact.
She tackled issues regarding the political, economic, and social standing of black people in America through her writing. Ida managed to shed lights on some important issues regarding racial discrimination, when nobody else was speaking on the matter.
Ida was born in 1862 to enslaved parents. She spent a majority of her childhood in Mississippi, even after the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. She lived with her parents and seven other siblings. Her life drastically changed in 1878, when her parents and siblings become victims of a yellow fever epidemic and died. At 16, she was already an orphan with 5 other siblings she had to take care of. Ida moved to her grandmother in Memphis Valley, and in order to support her family, she taught at black elementary schools.
It is during this time that her desire to right wrongs was born. She received a lower wage than her white counterparts, and faced huge discrimination as a black school teacher. This experience would influence her journalism and desire to work with black activists and leaders.
There are two things that people will always remember regarding Ida. One is her fight against lynching, and the other is that she was one of the first journalists to go into investigative journalism. Not many people were investigating cases back then, but Wells was determined to do so.
She rose to fame in the 1890s, when she documented lynching in the United States. She investigated claims of whites that lynching were reserved for black criminals only, and managed to expose lynching as a barbaric practice of whites in the South. Ida claimed white people use the practice to intimidate and oppress black people.
Back then, the common narrative to justify lynching was that black men violated white women. Ida, however, recognized that lynching had nothing to do with crime, it was only a tool to keep black community in an economic and socially inferior position. What set her off was the murder of her friends, as she investigated and exposed the real truth why her friends were lynched. Ida urged black people in Memphis to boycott streetcars and white-owned businesses.
Ida implicated that liaisons between white women and black men were consensual. And that set off a fury in the town she lived in. When she was out of town in Philadelphia, her printing press was destroyed. They threatened to kill her on sight, so she never returned to Memphis.
Influence on black feminist movement
Ida was not a feminist writer herself. She only tried to explain that the defense of white women’s honor allowed Southern white men to get away with murder. Her call for all races and genders to be accountable for their actions is what empowered African-American women to speak out loud and fight for their rights.
Ida managed to show that racial and gender discrimination are linked, which further empowered the black feminist cause.
- No nation, savage or civilized, save only the United States of America, has confessed its inability to protect its women save by hanging, shooting, and burning alleged offenders
- A Winchester rifle should have a place of honor in every black home, and it should be used for that protection which the law refuses to give
- What becomes a crime deserving capital punishment when the tables are turned is a matter of small moment when the negro woman is the accusing party
- Somebody must show that the Afro-American race is more sinned against than sinning, and it seems to have fallen upon me to do so
- The people must know before they can act, and there is no educator to compare with the press
- I’d rather go down in history as one lone Negro who dared to tell the government that it had done a dastardly thing than to save my skin by taking back what I said
- LYNCHED BECAUSE THE JURY ACQUITTED HIM The
entire system of the judiciary of this country is in the hands of white people.
To this add the fact of the inherent prejudice against colored people, and it
will be clearly seen that a white jury is certain to find a Negro prisoner
guilty if there is the least evidence to warrant such a finding. Meredith Lewis
was arrested in Roseland, La., in July of last year. A white jury found him not
guilty of the crime of murder wherewith he stood charged.”
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0.163462966... | 1 | Ida was a journalist, educator, and a truth seeker. Her legacy will live forever on, no matter that discrimination against African-American is not as high nowadays. The legacy she left behind within the Civil Rights movement will remain intact.
She tackled issues regarding the political, economic, and social standing of black people in America through her writing. Ida managed to shed lights on some important issues regarding racial discrimination, when nobody else was speaking on the matter.
Ida was born in 1862 to enslaved parents. She spent a majority of her childhood in Mississippi, even after the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. She lived with her parents and seven other siblings. Her life drastically changed in 1878, when her parents and siblings become victims of a yellow fever epidemic and died. At 16, she was already an orphan with 5 other siblings she had to take care of. Ida moved to her grandmother in Memphis Valley, and in order to support her family, she taught at black elementary schools.
It is during this time that her desire to right wrongs was born. She received a lower wage than her white counterparts, and faced huge discrimination as a black school teacher. This experience would influence her journalism and desire to work with black activists and leaders.
There are two things that people will always remember regarding Ida. One is her fight against lynching, and the other is that she was one of the first journalists to go into investigative journalism. Not many people were investigating cases back then, but Wells was determined to do so.
She rose to fame in the 1890s, when she documented lynching in the United States. She investigated claims of whites that lynching were reserved for black criminals only, and managed to expose lynching as a barbaric practice of whites in the South. Ida claimed white people use the practice to intimidate and oppress black people.
Back then, the common narrative to justify lynching was that black men violated white women. Ida, however, recognized that lynching had nothing to do with crime, it was only a tool to keep black community in an economic and socially inferior position. What set her off was the murder of her friends, as she investigated and exposed the real truth why her friends were lynched. Ida urged black people in Memphis to boycott streetcars and white-owned businesses.
Ida implicated that liaisons between white women and black men were consensual. And that set off a fury in the town she lived in. When she was out of town in Philadelphia, her printing press was destroyed. They threatened to kill her on sight, so she never returned to Memphis.
Influence on black feminist movement
Ida was not a feminist writer herself. She only tried to explain that the defense of white women’s honor allowed Southern white men to get away with murder. Her call for all races and genders to be accountable for their actions is what empowered African-American women to speak out loud and fight for their rights.
Ida managed to show that racial and gender discrimination are linked, which further empowered the black feminist cause.
- No nation, savage or civilized, save only the United States of America, has confessed its inability to protect its women save by hanging, shooting, and burning alleged offenders
- A Winchester rifle should have a place of honor in every black home, and it should be used for that protection which the law refuses to give
- What becomes a crime deserving capital punishment when the tables are turned is a matter of small moment when the negro woman is the accusing party
- Somebody must show that the Afro-American race is more sinned against than sinning, and it seems to have fallen upon me to do so
- The people must know before they can act, and there is no educator to compare with the press
- I’d rather go down in history as one lone Negro who dared to tell the government that it had done a dastardly thing than to save my skin by taking back what I said
- LYNCHED BECAUSE THE JURY ACQUITTED HIM The
entire system of the judiciary of this country is in the hands of white people.
To this add the fact of the inherent prejudice against colored people, and it
will be clearly seen that a white jury is certain to find a Negro prisoner
guilty if there is the least evidence to warrant such a finding. Meredith Lewis
was arrested in Roseland, La., in July of last year. A white jury found him not
guilty of the crime of murder wherewith he stood charged.”
Weaving is a method of textile production where two distinct sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at right angles. The goal is to form a fabric or cloth. It is similar to ... | 979 | ENGLISH | 1 |
However, in the 1638 siege the Ottomans had come well prepared and the Janissaries along with other groups, continually fired at the Persians while the trench diggers and miners ceased the moat, which gave them a huge advantage because the moat was the major defence for them. So it was critically important for the Ottomans to be firstly well prepared and secondly, to capture the moat. 11 Zarain also mentions that a frame was built to act as a bridge on which the canons were able to get closer to the walls and break them.
However, the force of the explosions broke the trenches built to divert the river, which flowed back into the city and the emperor seeing this quickly ordered the barques to sail through. This not only shows a strategy to transport the canons closer to the walls, but also that the emperor had great leadership skills because as soon as he saw the opportunity he ordered the barques to sail through. This shows that leaders would make use of the opportunities that would arise and demonstrates how experienced and skilful they were as leaders. They were also pragmatic because they knew that wars did not always go according to plan.
Once the Ottomans made an important breakthrough, the next step was to build a mile long trench that would allow the army to march through and were then divided into squadrons with each having a commander. Although all these squadrons had a leader, the chief conductor of the war would be the African engineer, who was given this authority by the emperor. This suggests that the army was united under one chief co-ordinator. This was essential because having too many leaders would probably cause confusion and if all the leaders had equal power and they disagreed with each other, which caused resentment, then that could cause problems.
The major factor in not only this campaign but in all campaigns was unity and this was only possible when everyone thought the same and did what they had to do by following one order. The Persians however, lacked in this area as they began to disagree because some felt they should give in to the Ottomans and others were not prepared to do that. The chief General Obet Han made the suggestion of surrendering to the Turks. The commanders told him that he would have to support them till the ” last man” or he would be killed.
Han’s reaction to this proved very beneficial for the Ottomans. He decided to join the Turks who promised him protection and great rewards. He then deceived the commanders and the next day him and three thousand soldiers pretended to lead the first assault against the Turks. The emperor later adorned him and rewarded the soldiers. This shows that renegades like Han, were very valuable to the Ottomans as they could provide immense help in a number of ways. It also gave the Ottomans advantage, as they were one step ahead in planning, as they knew the enemies next move.
The conduct of the 1638 Baghdad siege, as delineated by Zarain Aga, gives the impression that a lot of planning had taken place to make sure that this assault was successful. However, it was down to trial and error and previous mistakes from which the Ottomans learned from and hence planned and prepared more effectively for this assault. Although, as in all wars, no plan is ever concrete and you can never be hundred percent prepared. Depending on the circumstances, different measures have to be taken, which is exactly what the Ottomans did in this siege.
So the Ottomans did take a pragmatic approach when required, which actually proved fortuitous at times. It is also true that there were external factors that helped the Ottomans, namely Obet Han. Overall though, the Ottomans were a strong united force where everyone knew what their role was in the siege and they all worked together to achieve the same objective. It is also true that the Ottomans were a well-provisioned force, which helped them to sustain assaults for a longer period of time. Zarain also briefly touches upon diplomacy in this siege. The Persians were in a state of confusion, as they knew the Ottomans were doing well.
Some of them decided a parley with the Ottomans to see if they could reach a compromise. The Sultan decided that the Persians would have to give up all their arms and to take all their belongings and leave for Persia. However, the Persians did not go quietly and disturbed the Ottoman army, who took matters into their own hands and in the end there was a bloody fight where both sides lost a lot of men and the Ottomans in the end won. Although the Persians pleaded for mercy, the Ottomans showed none as they had already given the Persians a chance before to surrender.
As a consequence the heads of the captured Persians was chopped off. This shows that the Ottomans did actually give their enemy the choice to surrender and that they would not harm them if they did so. However, they also made it quite clear that if they did not give up then they would all be killed in the end. Although it may seem harsh that the Ottomans beheaded those Persians, you have to understand that it was their policy and it had to be maintained in all campaigns because it was a lesson for everyone so that they knew whom they were dealing with and that they were consistent in what they said and did.
Motivation is also apparent from this primary source. The most obvious source of motivation is religion. On more than one occasion religion is mentioned in the text. The leaders or commanders that were killed Zarain would refer to them as martyrs and that they had acquired heaven. In each squadron, a person who could speak eloquently was chosen to give a speech to lift the spirits of the soldiers. Sermons were used to stimulate the soldiers and increase their motivation as they were fighting a heretical group and that they were the rightly guided ones.
Zarain also mentions how these soldiers were ready to die and wanted to become martyrs. Drums were also used in this siege to boost soldier’s spirits and increase their courage. It is also clear that reward and material concerns was also a motivational factor. The soldiers knew that the emperor generously rewarded those who were exceptional and were valiant. This shows that the Ottoman campaigns were not completely religiously motivated, however religion was an effective tool along with material concerns. Zarain Aga has provided a very detailed account of the events leading up to the eventual capturing of Baghdad.
In terms of military technology, the Ottomans realised that they would need to make extensive use of the canons, which meant that they would need sufficient ordnance to sustain the assault. Although the Ottomans were not technologically superior to the West, they did nevertheless make use of firepower when required but did not heavily rely on it. It is also clear that apart from technology, there were other factors that played a major role in the final collapse of the city. Supply was very important, not just for the artillery but for the soldiers and the horses too.
The fact that they sustained such a long offensive shows that they did not have supply problems. Another important factor was experience. The Ottomans had an army that was well trained, disciplined and very experienced. The Janissaries were a strong Special Forces unit that gave the army that extra edge compared to other armies. The whole army itself worked and functioned really well and there was a strong cohesion. It is also clear that there were many opportunities that arose, which the Ottoman armies were able to take advantage of. Bribery and attracting the enemy was also a factor.
Obet Han was in correspondence with the Emperor and eventually provided a lot of help to the Ottoman army by giving them vital information and helping the Ottomans to be one step ahead of their enemy. He was of course generously rewarded for his assistance. In terms of preparation and strategy it seems as though the army generals must have done a lot of preparation and planning because the army took on such mammoth tasks such as diverting the river Euphrates building large trenches to accommodate large canons and building a bridge like frame so that the canons could be crossed so that they were closer to the fortress.
Motivation is also another factor I extrapolated from the text. Zarain seems to put a lot of emphasis on the fact that the soldiers were religiously motivated and that they were prepared to die and the ones who did die were martyrs in heaven. He also mentions how reward and recognition was something that attracted loyalty to the Ottomans. Although he associates this with Obet Han and the soldiers, it was actually part of the military package to be awarded for exceptional achievement.
Although I have used Zarain Aga’s account for the 1638 siege of Baghdad, I know that there are many primary sources that deal with this campaign, which vary slightly in their version of the event. However, I felt that this particular account provides you with a lot of detailed information, such as the size of the army and the figures for each of the different composite forces. It explains all the challenges the army faced and how effectively they were dealt with. It also gives some information about the Persians and their situation.
However, I do realise that this is one person’s version of events and that there is a lot of bias in the text towards the Ottoman side. The reason being that he is writing the letter to his brother, which is quite informal. It is clear that to gain better knowledge of the siege I would have to read a series of contemporary primary accounts to gain a fairly accurate picture of the siege. 1 Zarain, Aga. A relation of the late siege and taking of the city of Babylon by the Turks as it was written from thence by Zarain Aga one of his captains (London, 1639).
2 R. Murphy, Ottoman Warfare 1500-1700, (London, 1999) p 109 3 J. Kelenik, “The Military Revolution in Hungary” in: G. David & P. Fador, Ottomans Hungarians, andHabsburgs in central Europe, (Boston, 2000) p 152 4 Ibid, p117 5 J. F. Guilmartin, “The Military Revolution: Origins and First Tests Abroad” in: C. J Rogers, The Military Revolution Debate (Oxford, 1995) p 304 6P. Sugar, “A near perfect society; the Ottoman Empire”. In War: a historical, political and social study, L. L. Farrar (Santa Barbara, 1978) pp 95-104 7 R. Murphy, Ottoman Warfare, p 109. | <urn:uuid:68c6239f-a6ca-4634-a4ce-7b940238ff98> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graceplaceofwillmar.org/baghdad-as-accounted-by-zarain-aga/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00051.warc.gz | en | 0.990731 | 2,185 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.3017135858... | 3 | However, in the 1638 siege the Ottomans had come well prepared and the Janissaries along with other groups, continually fired at the Persians while the trench diggers and miners ceased the moat, which gave them a huge advantage because the moat was the major defence for them. So it was critically important for the Ottomans to be firstly well prepared and secondly, to capture the moat. 11 Zarain also mentions that a frame was built to act as a bridge on which the canons were able to get closer to the walls and break them.
However, the force of the explosions broke the trenches built to divert the river, which flowed back into the city and the emperor seeing this quickly ordered the barques to sail through. This not only shows a strategy to transport the canons closer to the walls, but also that the emperor had great leadership skills because as soon as he saw the opportunity he ordered the barques to sail through. This shows that leaders would make use of the opportunities that would arise and demonstrates how experienced and skilful they were as leaders. They were also pragmatic because they knew that wars did not always go according to plan.
Once the Ottomans made an important breakthrough, the next step was to build a mile long trench that would allow the army to march through and were then divided into squadrons with each having a commander. Although all these squadrons had a leader, the chief conductor of the war would be the African engineer, who was given this authority by the emperor. This suggests that the army was united under one chief co-ordinator. This was essential because having too many leaders would probably cause confusion and if all the leaders had equal power and they disagreed with each other, which caused resentment, then that could cause problems.
The major factor in not only this campaign but in all campaigns was unity and this was only possible when everyone thought the same and did what they had to do by following one order. The Persians however, lacked in this area as they began to disagree because some felt they should give in to the Ottomans and others were not prepared to do that. The chief General Obet Han made the suggestion of surrendering to the Turks. The commanders told him that he would have to support them till the ” last man” or he would be killed.
Han’s reaction to this proved very beneficial for the Ottomans. He decided to join the Turks who promised him protection and great rewards. He then deceived the commanders and the next day him and three thousand soldiers pretended to lead the first assault against the Turks. The emperor later adorned him and rewarded the soldiers. This shows that renegades like Han, were very valuable to the Ottomans as they could provide immense help in a number of ways. It also gave the Ottomans advantage, as they were one step ahead in planning, as they knew the enemies next move.
The conduct of the 1638 Baghdad siege, as delineated by Zarain Aga, gives the impression that a lot of planning had taken place to make sure that this assault was successful. However, it was down to trial and error and previous mistakes from which the Ottomans learned from and hence planned and prepared more effectively for this assault. Although, as in all wars, no plan is ever concrete and you can never be hundred percent prepared. Depending on the circumstances, different measures have to be taken, which is exactly what the Ottomans did in this siege.
So the Ottomans did take a pragmatic approach when required, which actually proved fortuitous at times. It is also true that there were external factors that helped the Ottomans, namely Obet Han. Overall though, the Ottomans were a strong united force where everyone knew what their role was in the siege and they all worked together to achieve the same objective. It is also true that the Ottomans were a well-provisioned force, which helped them to sustain assaults for a longer period of time. Zarain also briefly touches upon diplomacy in this siege. The Persians were in a state of confusion, as they knew the Ottomans were doing well.
Some of them decided a parley with the Ottomans to see if they could reach a compromise. The Sultan decided that the Persians would have to give up all their arms and to take all their belongings and leave for Persia. However, the Persians did not go quietly and disturbed the Ottoman army, who took matters into their own hands and in the end there was a bloody fight where both sides lost a lot of men and the Ottomans in the end won. Although the Persians pleaded for mercy, the Ottomans showed none as they had already given the Persians a chance before to surrender.
As a consequence the heads of the captured Persians was chopped off. This shows that the Ottomans did actually give their enemy the choice to surrender and that they would not harm them if they did so. However, they also made it quite clear that if they did not give up then they would all be killed in the end. Although it may seem harsh that the Ottomans beheaded those Persians, you have to understand that it was their policy and it had to be maintained in all campaigns because it was a lesson for everyone so that they knew whom they were dealing with and that they were consistent in what they said and did.
Motivation is also apparent from this primary source. The most obvious source of motivation is religion. On more than one occasion religion is mentioned in the text. The leaders or commanders that were killed Zarain would refer to them as martyrs and that they had acquired heaven. In each squadron, a person who could speak eloquently was chosen to give a speech to lift the spirits of the soldiers. Sermons were used to stimulate the soldiers and increase their motivation as they were fighting a heretical group and that they were the rightly guided ones.
Zarain also mentions how these soldiers were ready to die and wanted to become martyrs. Drums were also used in this siege to boost soldier’s spirits and increase their courage. It is also clear that reward and material concerns was also a motivational factor. The soldiers knew that the emperor generously rewarded those who were exceptional and were valiant. This shows that the Ottoman campaigns were not completely religiously motivated, however religion was an effective tool along with material concerns. Zarain Aga has provided a very detailed account of the events leading up to the eventual capturing of Baghdad.
In terms of military technology, the Ottomans realised that they would need to make extensive use of the canons, which meant that they would need sufficient ordnance to sustain the assault. Although the Ottomans were not technologically superior to the West, they did nevertheless make use of firepower when required but did not heavily rely on it. It is also clear that apart from technology, there were other factors that played a major role in the final collapse of the city. Supply was very important, not just for the artillery but for the soldiers and the horses too.
The fact that they sustained such a long offensive shows that they did not have supply problems. Another important factor was experience. The Ottomans had an army that was well trained, disciplined and very experienced. The Janissaries were a strong Special Forces unit that gave the army that extra edge compared to other armies. The whole army itself worked and functioned really well and there was a strong cohesion. It is also clear that there were many opportunities that arose, which the Ottoman armies were able to take advantage of. Bribery and attracting the enemy was also a factor.
Obet Han was in correspondence with the Emperor and eventually provided a lot of help to the Ottoman army by giving them vital information and helping the Ottomans to be one step ahead of their enemy. He was of course generously rewarded for his assistance. In terms of preparation and strategy it seems as though the army generals must have done a lot of preparation and planning because the army took on such mammoth tasks such as diverting the river Euphrates building large trenches to accommodate large canons and building a bridge like frame so that the canons could be crossed so that they were closer to the fortress.
Motivation is also another factor I extrapolated from the text. Zarain seems to put a lot of emphasis on the fact that the soldiers were religiously motivated and that they were prepared to die and the ones who did die were martyrs in heaven. He also mentions how reward and recognition was something that attracted loyalty to the Ottomans. Although he associates this with Obet Han and the soldiers, it was actually part of the military package to be awarded for exceptional achievement.
Although I have used Zarain Aga’s account for the 1638 siege of Baghdad, I know that there are many primary sources that deal with this campaign, which vary slightly in their version of the event. However, I felt that this particular account provides you with a lot of detailed information, such as the size of the army and the figures for each of the different composite forces. It explains all the challenges the army faced and how effectively they were dealt with. It also gives some information about the Persians and their situation.
However, I do realise that this is one person’s version of events and that there is a lot of bias in the text towards the Ottoman side. The reason being that he is writing the letter to his brother, which is quite informal. It is clear that to gain better knowledge of the siege I would have to read a series of contemporary primary accounts to gain a fairly accurate picture of the siege. 1 Zarain, Aga. A relation of the late siege and taking of the city of Babylon by the Turks as it was written from thence by Zarain Aga one of his captains (London, 1639).
2 R. Murphy, Ottoman Warfare 1500-1700, (London, 1999) p 109 3 J. Kelenik, “The Military Revolution in Hungary” in: G. David & P. Fador, Ottomans Hungarians, andHabsburgs in central Europe, (Boston, 2000) p 152 4 Ibid, p117 5 J. F. Guilmartin, “The Military Revolution: Origins and First Tests Abroad” in: C. J Rogers, The Military Revolution Debate (Oxford, 1995) p 304 6P. Sugar, “A near perfect society; the Ottoman Empire”. In War: a historical, political and social study, L. L. Farrar (Santa Barbara, 1978) pp 95-104 7 R. Murphy, Ottoman Warfare, p 109. | 2,220 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Friday, January 3 2nd week of the Christmas Season
‘City of Angels’
How did the city of Los Angeles, California, get its name?
There are many theories but a popular one credits a historian and explorer named Fr. Juan Crespi.
Born March 1, 1721, in Palma de Mallorca, where his philosophy teacher was Junipero Sera. In 1749, Fr. Crespi and Fr. Franciso Palou volunteered to accompany Fr. Serra when he went to Mexico to serve as a missionary. Fr. Crespi later continued into California as part of the first European overland exploration from San Diego to Monterey and into the San Francisco Bay area.
In August 1769, Fr. Crespi wrote in his journal about what he had seen that day, including a beautiful river which the expedition had named: “Nuestra Senora de los Angeles de la Porciuncula.” The name was chosen in honor of the feast of St. Mary of the Angels, which is celebrated August 2.
The land surrounding the river eventually became known as Los Angeles.
Joseph rose and took the child and his mother, and went to the land of Israel. But when he heard that Archelaus was ruling over Judea in place of his father Herod, Joseph was afraid to go back there. And because he had been warned in a dream, he departed for the region of Galilee. -Matthew 2:21-22
You would think that if God were to arrange for the coming of the King of Kings into this world, everything would have gone smoothly.
But that’s not what happened.
Think about it. The circumstances surrounding Jesus’ birth - and the rest of HIs life - were not perfect. There were problems. By many social standards, Jesus was an illegitimate child. There was talk about divorce long before a one-parent family was common. And the Holy Family was a family with only one child, which at that time was unusual.
Mary and Joseph probably didn’t think they were doing any better than I may think I’m doing with my family.
Jesus did not come as a king on a state visit. He came to be part of our real lives in order to help us make sense out of real life, with all its problems.
Spend some quiet time with the Lord | <urn:uuid:2e44b8d5-c3c3-4063-83cf-d76ef6729225> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.stjosephboston.org/daily-reflection | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00132.warc.gz | en | 0.990346 | 499 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.06777941435575... | 1 | Friday, January 3 2nd week of the Christmas Season
‘City of Angels’
How did the city of Los Angeles, California, get its name?
There are many theories but a popular one credits a historian and explorer named Fr. Juan Crespi.
Born March 1, 1721, in Palma de Mallorca, where his philosophy teacher was Junipero Sera. In 1749, Fr. Crespi and Fr. Franciso Palou volunteered to accompany Fr. Serra when he went to Mexico to serve as a missionary. Fr. Crespi later continued into California as part of the first European overland exploration from San Diego to Monterey and into the San Francisco Bay area.
In August 1769, Fr. Crespi wrote in his journal about what he had seen that day, including a beautiful river which the expedition had named: “Nuestra Senora de los Angeles de la Porciuncula.” The name was chosen in honor of the feast of St. Mary of the Angels, which is celebrated August 2.
The land surrounding the river eventually became known as Los Angeles.
Joseph rose and took the child and his mother, and went to the land of Israel. But when he heard that Archelaus was ruling over Judea in place of his father Herod, Joseph was afraid to go back there. And because he had been warned in a dream, he departed for the region of Galilee. -Matthew 2:21-22
You would think that if God were to arrange for the coming of the King of Kings into this world, everything would have gone smoothly.
But that’s not what happened.
Think about it. The circumstances surrounding Jesus’ birth - and the rest of HIs life - were not perfect. There were problems. By many social standards, Jesus was an illegitimate child. There was talk about divorce long before a one-parent family was common. And the Holy Family was a family with only one child, which at that time was unusual.
Mary and Joseph probably didn’t think they were doing any better than I may think I’m doing with my family.
Jesus did not come as a king on a state visit. He came to be part of our real lives in order to help us make sense out of real life, with all its problems.
Spend some quiet time with the Lord | 486 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Jackson Pollock was born in 1912 in Cody, Wyoming. His parents were of Irish descent; his father was first a farmer and later a surveyor. Jackson was the youngest of five brothers.
His family had moved to six different states by the time he was ten years old. While living in Phoenix, Arizona, Pollock explored rivers, hills, and Indian ruins, and often visited local Indian reservations. These experiences had a profound influence on him and on his painting and throughout his life, Pollock had an interest in Native-American art, and the artistic processes employed by Native-American artists.
The family eventually moved to California and in 1927, Jackson and his brother worked as surveyors. By this time, Pollock also had begun to use his middle name, Jack, instead of his first name, Paul. As a teenager Pollock began to drink, and this increasingly difficult addiction troubled him throughout the rest of his life and in fact was responsible for his untimely death. At an early age he found drawing, as well as alcohol, could be an outlet for his tensions. He was enrolled at the Los Angeles Manual Arts High School but was expelled for being a "troublemaker." After a year of probation he returned to the school, but left in 1930 without graduating.
Picasso's Nude Woman- Krasner's collectionPollock then joined his oldest brother at the Art Students League in New York City. Here he studied with the famous regional painter, Thomas Hart Benton, who influenced Pollock not only in terms of his swirling compositions but also in a negative way in that he pushed realistic painting so hard that Pollock eventually rebelled against realism and became a non-objective painter. After that, Pollock's painting went through many phases and at one time or another, his work showed influences of Renaissance art, the Mexican muralists, and the great Cubist artist, Picasso.
During the Depression, Pollock did odd jobs and joined the New Deal sponsored Federal Arts Project (FAP). By 1937, Pollock was drinking heavily and for the first time underwent psychiatric treatment for alcoholism.
Pollock, while still a member of the FAP in 1942, was part of an important group exhibit, which included Arshile Gorky, Willem de Kooning (unknown at this time), Stuart Davis, and Lee Krasner. Pollock and Krasner became lovers, began to live together and were married in 1945.
Pollock was introduced to abstract imagery derived from the unconscious by the painter Robert Motherwell in 1942. During that same year he met Peggy Guggenheim who invited him to participate in the "Spring Salon for Young Artists," to be held in1943. She also commissioned Pollock to paint a large mural for her home. This mural, unlike previous murals by Pollock, lacked any visible evidence of Picasso's influence, and is considered one of his most important early works. Pollock had his first solo show at Guggenheim's Art of the Century Gallery in New York in 1945.
Number 5In 1947, while living on a farm near New York City with his wife, Lee Krasner, Pollock developed his drip paintings, which rejected the concept of traditional easel painting and the slow method of painting with a brush. Pollock laid his unprimed canvases on the floor and dripped, dribbled, and spattered the paint from a stick. This was a direct emotional and physical release of inner energy for Pollock. He had complete control over the flow of paint but the process was spontaneous. It was here that he developed the technique of the all-over composition, in which the painting has no fixed center of interest.
These paintings seem to explode with a dance like-movement, causing the eye to be confused before knowing where to look next. These paintings were an attempt to create an entirely new type of painting, which was innovative, improvised and spontaneous. Pollock would lay the canvas flat on the floor, stand over the canvas and pour and drip the paint onto the canvas, expressing his inner energy and perhaps torment. Rather than using artist's paints, he often would buy gallons of paint from Sears, including metallic paints. As he would move around the canvas and drip the paint, he would often try to become one with the painting, dancing and dripping and sometimes moving across the canvas, leaving footprints and debris from the studio. These paintings were unlike any paintings seen before. Needless to say, this was a major development in post-World War II painting and is considered by critics and art historians to be the most significant change in pictorial space in painting since the development of Cubism.
Many of Pollock's drip paintings from 1947 to 1950 are considered masterpieces, including Cathedral (1947), Number 1: White Cockatoo (1948), Lavender Mist and Autumn Rhythm (1950).
Between 1950 and 1954, Pollock's paintings went through changes which coincided with his increasingly heavy drinking problem. In these paintings he sometimes reintroduced figurative elements as in Number 29 (1950), developed vast areas of color as in the masterpiece Blue Poles (1952), and returned to using brushes in Ocean Grayness (1953) and White Light (1954).
During these years, Pollock was very successful at selling paintings but was becoming increasingly depressed and was having more frequent bouts with alcohol. Pollock again sought help for his problem and remained in therapy until his death in 1956. He produced very few paintings in 1955 and 1956, which may have made him even more depressed.
Jackson Pollock died in 1956 when he crashed into a tree while driving drunk. Technically, this was an accidental death, but to many who knew him, it was the inevitable outcome of his own self-destructiveness, and was hardly a surprise. | <urn:uuid:3f3f70ae-ffe4-4938-8783-dd2abac78eb2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mediamatic.net/en/page/19558/jackson-pollock | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00370.warc.gz | en | 0.989634 | 1,189 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.27188289... | 2 | Jackson Pollock was born in 1912 in Cody, Wyoming. His parents were of Irish descent; his father was first a farmer and later a surveyor. Jackson was the youngest of five brothers.
His family had moved to six different states by the time he was ten years old. While living in Phoenix, Arizona, Pollock explored rivers, hills, and Indian ruins, and often visited local Indian reservations. These experiences had a profound influence on him and on his painting and throughout his life, Pollock had an interest in Native-American art, and the artistic processes employed by Native-American artists.
The family eventually moved to California and in 1927, Jackson and his brother worked as surveyors. By this time, Pollock also had begun to use his middle name, Jack, instead of his first name, Paul. As a teenager Pollock began to drink, and this increasingly difficult addiction troubled him throughout the rest of his life and in fact was responsible for his untimely death. At an early age he found drawing, as well as alcohol, could be an outlet for his tensions. He was enrolled at the Los Angeles Manual Arts High School but was expelled for being a "troublemaker." After a year of probation he returned to the school, but left in 1930 without graduating.
Picasso's Nude Woman- Krasner's collectionPollock then joined his oldest brother at the Art Students League in New York City. Here he studied with the famous regional painter, Thomas Hart Benton, who influenced Pollock not only in terms of his swirling compositions but also in a negative way in that he pushed realistic painting so hard that Pollock eventually rebelled against realism and became a non-objective painter. After that, Pollock's painting went through many phases and at one time or another, his work showed influences of Renaissance art, the Mexican muralists, and the great Cubist artist, Picasso.
During the Depression, Pollock did odd jobs and joined the New Deal sponsored Federal Arts Project (FAP). By 1937, Pollock was drinking heavily and for the first time underwent psychiatric treatment for alcoholism.
Pollock, while still a member of the FAP in 1942, was part of an important group exhibit, which included Arshile Gorky, Willem de Kooning (unknown at this time), Stuart Davis, and Lee Krasner. Pollock and Krasner became lovers, began to live together and were married in 1945.
Pollock was introduced to abstract imagery derived from the unconscious by the painter Robert Motherwell in 1942. During that same year he met Peggy Guggenheim who invited him to participate in the "Spring Salon for Young Artists," to be held in1943. She also commissioned Pollock to paint a large mural for her home. This mural, unlike previous murals by Pollock, lacked any visible evidence of Picasso's influence, and is considered one of his most important early works. Pollock had his first solo show at Guggenheim's Art of the Century Gallery in New York in 1945.
Number 5In 1947, while living on a farm near New York City with his wife, Lee Krasner, Pollock developed his drip paintings, which rejected the concept of traditional easel painting and the slow method of painting with a brush. Pollock laid his unprimed canvases on the floor and dripped, dribbled, and spattered the paint from a stick. This was a direct emotional and physical release of inner energy for Pollock. He had complete control over the flow of paint but the process was spontaneous. It was here that he developed the technique of the all-over composition, in which the painting has no fixed center of interest.
These paintings seem to explode with a dance like-movement, causing the eye to be confused before knowing where to look next. These paintings were an attempt to create an entirely new type of painting, which was innovative, improvised and spontaneous. Pollock would lay the canvas flat on the floor, stand over the canvas and pour and drip the paint onto the canvas, expressing his inner energy and perhaps torment. Rather than using artist's paints, he often would buy gallons of paint from Sears, including metallic paints. As he would move around the canvas and drip the paint, he would often try to become one with the painting, dancing and dripping and sometimes moving across the canvas, leaving footprints and debris from the studio. These paintings were unlike any paintings seen before. Needless to say, this was a major development in post-World War II painting and is considered by critics and art historians to be the most significant change in pictorial space in painting since the development of Cubism.
Many of Pollock's drip paintings from 1947 to 1950 are considered masterpieces, including Cathedral (1947), Number 1: White Cockatoo (1948), Lavender Mist and Autumn Rhythm (1950).
Between 1950 and 1954, Pollock's paintings went through changes which coincided with his increasingly heavy drinking problem. In these paintings he sometimes reintroduced figurative elements as in Number 29 (1950), developed vast areas of color as in the masterpiece Blue Poles (1952), and returned to using brushes in Ocean Grayness (1953) and White Light (1954).
During these years, Pollock was very successful at selling paintings but was becoming increasingly depressed and was having more frequent bouts with alcohol. Pollock again sought help for his problem and remained in therapy until his death in 1956. He produced very few paintings in 1955 and 1956, which may have made him even more depressed.
Jackson Pollock died in 1956 when he crashed into a tree while driving drunk. Technically, this was an accidental death, but to many who knew him, it was the inevitable outcome of his own self-destructiveness, and was hardly a surprise. | 1,260 | ENGLISH | 1 |
T HE story of Arthur has led us a long way. We have almost forgotten that it began with the old Cymric stories, the stories of the people who lived in Britain before the coming of the Romans. We have followed it down through many forms: Welsh, in the stories of The Mabinogion; Latin, in the stories of Geoffrey of Monmouth; French, in the stories of Wace and Map; Semi-Saxon, in the stories of Layamon; Middle English, in the stories of Malory; and at last English as we now speak it, in the stories of Tennyson. Now we must go back and see why it is that our Literature is English, and why it is that we speak English, and not Gaelic, or Cymric, or Latin, or French. And then from its beginnings we will follow our English Literature through the ages.
Since historical times the land we now call England has been conquered three times, for we need hardly count the Danish Invasion. It was conquered by the Romans, it was conquered by the English, and it was conquered by the Normans. It was only England that felt the full weight of these conquests. Scotland, Ireland, and, in part, Wales were left almost untouched. And of the three it was only the English conquest that had lasting effects.
In 55 B.C. the Romans landed in Britain, and for nearly four hundred years after that they kept coming and going. All South Britain became a Roman province, and the people paid tribute or taxes to the Roman Emperor. But they did not become Romans. They still kept their own language, their own customs and religions.
It will help you to understand the state of Britain in those old
days if you think of India
It was in much the same way that Britain was a Roman province. And so our literature was never Latin. There was, indeed, a time when nearly all our books were written in Latin. But that was later, and not because Latin was the language of the people, but because it was the language of the learned and of the monks, who were the chief people who wrote books.
When, then, after nearly four hundred years the Romans went away,
the people of Britain were still British. But soon another
people came. These were the Anglo-Saxons, the English, who came
from over the sea. And little by little they took possession of
Britain. They drove the old dwellers out until it was only in
the north, in Wales and in Cornwall, that they were to be found.
Then Britain became Angleland or England, and the language was no
longer Celtic, but English. And although there are a few words
in our language which can be traced to the old Celtic, these are
very few. It is thus from Anglo-Saxon, and not from Gaelic or
Cymric, that the language we speak
Yet our Celtic forefathers have given something to our literature which perhaps we could never have had from English alone. The Celtic literature is full of wonder, it is full of a tender magic and makes us feel the fairy charm of nature, although it has not the strength, the downrightness, we might say, of the English. It has been said that every poet has somewhere in him a Celtic strain. That is, perhaps, too much to believe. But it is, perhaps, the Celtic love of beauty, together with the Saxon love of strength and right, to which we owe much of our great literature. The Celtic languages are dying out, but they have left us something which will last so long as our literature lasts.
And now, having talked in the beginning of this book of the stories which we owe to our Celtic forefathers, let us see what the Saxons brought us from over the sea.
Almost the oldest Anglo-Saxon book that we have is called Beowulf. Wise men tell us that, like the tales of Arthur, like the tales of Ossian, this book was not at first the work of one man, but that it has been gradually put together out of many minstrel songs. That may be so, but what is sure is that these tales are very old, and that they were sung and told for many years in the old homes of the English across the sea before they came to Britain and named it Angleland.
Yet, as with the old Gaelic and Cymric tales, we have no very old copy of this tale. But unlike these old tales, we do not find Beowulf told in different ways in different manuscripts. There is only one copy of Beowulf, and that was probably written in the tenth or eleventh century, long years after the English were firmly settled in the land.
As Beowulf is one of our great book treasures, you may like to hear something of its story.
Long ago, in the time when Queen Elizabeth, James I., and Charles I. sat upon the throne, there lived a learned gentleman called Sir Robert Bruce Cotton. He was an antiquary. That is, he loved old things, and he gathered together old books, coins, manuscripts and other articles, which are of interest because they help to make us understand the history of bygone days.
Sir Robert Cotton loved books especially, and like many other book lovers, he was greedy of them. It was said, indeed, that he often found it hard to return books which had been lent to him, and that, among others, he had books which really ought to have belonged to the King.
Sir Robert's library soon became famous, and many scholars came to read there, for Sir Robert was very kind in allowing other people to use his books. But twice his library was taken from him, because it was said that it contained things which were dangerous for people to know, and that he allowed the enemies of the King to use it. That was in the days of Charles I., and those were troublous times.
The second time that his library was taken from him, Sir Robert died, but it was given back to his son, and many years later his great-great-grandson gave it to the nation.
In 1731 the house in which the library was took fire, and more than a hundred books were burned, some being partly and some quite destroyed. Among those that were partly destroyed was Beowulf. But no one cared very much, for no one had read the book or knew anything about it.
Where Sir Robert found Beowulf, or what he thought about it, we shall never know. Very likely it had remained in some quiet monastery library for hundreds of years until Henry VIII. scattered the monks and their books. Many books were then lost, but some were saved, and after many adventures found safe resting-places. Among those was Beowulf.
Some years after the fire the Cotton Library, as it is now called, was removed to the British Museum, where it now remains. And there a Danish gentleman who was looking for books about his own land found Beowulf, and made a copy of it. Its adventures, however, were not over. Just when the printed copies were ready to be published, the British bombarded Copenhagen. The house in which the copies were was set on fire and they were all burned. The Danish gentleman, however, was not daunted. He set to work again, and at last Beowulf was published.
Even after it was published in Denmark, no Englishman thought of making a translation of the book, and it was not until fifty years more had come and gone that an English translation appeared.
When the Danish gentleman made his copy of Beowulf, he found the edges of the book so charred by fire that they broke away with the slightest touch. No one thought of mending the leaves, and as years went on they fell to pieces more and more. But at last some one woke up to the fact that this half-burned book was a great treasure. Then it was carefully mended, and thus kept from wasting more.
So now, after all its adventures, having been found, we shall never know where, by a gentleman in the days of Queen Elizabeth, having lain on his bookshelves unknown and unread for a hundred years and more, having been nearly destroyed by fire, having been still further destroyed by neglect, Beowulf at last came to its own, and is now carefully treasured in a glass case in the British Museum, where any one who cares about it may go to look at it.
And although it is perhaps not much to look at, it is a very great treasure. For it is not only the oldest epic poem in the Anglo-Saxon language, it is history too. By that I do not mean that the story is all true, but that by reading it carefully we can find out much about the daily lives of our forefathers in their homes across the seas. And besides this, some of the people mentioned in the poem are mentioned in history too, and it is thought that Beowulf, the hero himself, really lived.
And now, having spoken about the book and its adventures, let us in the next chapter speak about the story. As usual, I will give part of it in the words of the original, translated, of course, into modern English. You can always tell what is from the original by the quotation marks, if by nothing else. | <urn:uuid:62485833-c315-4e53-b653-fc0ef4b90a43> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/displayitem.php?item=books/marshall/literature/old | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00399.warc.gz | en | 0.991365 | 1,953 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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-0.03140524... | 1 | T HE story of Arthur has led us a long way. We have almost forgotten that it began with the old Cymric stories, the stories of the people who lived in Britain before the coming of the Romans. We have followed it down through many forms: Welsh, in the stories of The Mabinogion; Latin, in the stories of Geoffrey of Monmouth; French, in the stories of Wace and Map; Semi-Saxon, in the stories of Layamon; Middle English, in the stories of Malory; and at last English as we now speak it, in the stories of Tennyson. Now we must go back and see why it is that our Literature is English, and why it is that we speak English, and not Gaelic, or Cymric, or Latin, or French. And then from its beginnings we will follow our English Literature through the ages.
Since historical times the land we now call England has been conquered three times, for we need hardly count the Danish Invasion. It was conquered by the Romans, it was conquered by the English, and it was conquered by the Normans. It was only England that felt the full weight of these conquests. Scotland, Ireland, and, in part, Wales were left almost untouched. And of the three it was only the English conquest that had lasting effects.
In 55 B.C. the Romans landed in Britain, and for nearly four hundred years after that they kept coming and going. All South Britain became a Roman province, and the people paid tribute or taxes to the Roman Emperor. But they did not become Romans. They still kept their own language, their own customs and religions.
It will help you to understand the state of Britain in those old
days if you think of India
It was in much the same way that Britain was a Roman province. And so our literature was never Latin. There was, indeed, a time when nearly all our books were written in Latin. But that was later, and not because Latin was the language of the people, but because it was the language of the learned and of the monks, who were the chief people who wrote books.
When, then, after nearly four hundred years the Romans went away,
the people of Britain were still British. But soon another
people came. These were the Anglo-Saxons, the English, who came
from over the sea. And little by little they took possession of
Britain. They drove the old dwellers out until it was only in
the north, in Wales and in Cornwall, that they were to be found.
Then Britain became Angleland or England, and the language was no
longer Celtic, but English. And although there are a few words
in our language which can be traced to the old Celtic, these are
very few. It is thus from Anglo-Saxon, and not from Gaelic or
Cymric, that the language we speak
Yet our Celtic forefathers have given something to our literature which perhaps we could never have had from English alone. The Celtic literature is full of wonder, it is full of a tender magic and makes us feel the fairy charm of nature, although it has not the strength, the downrightness, we might say, of the English. It has been said that every poet has somewhere in him a Celtic strain. That is, perhaps, too much to believe. But it is, perhaps, the Celtic love of beauty, together with the Saxon love of strength and right, to which we owe much of our great literature. The Celtic languages are dying out, but they have left us something which will last so long as our literature lasts.
And now, having talked in the beginning of this book of the stories which we owe to our Celtic forefathers, let us see what the Saxons brought us from over the sea.
Almost the oldest Anglo-Saxon book that we have is called Beowulf. Wise men tell us that, like the tales of Arthur, like the tales of Ossian, this book was not at first the work of one man, but that it has been gradually put together out of many minstrel songs. That may be so, but what is sure is that these tales are very old, and that they were sung and told for many years in the old homes of the English across the sea before they came to Britain and named it Angleland.
Yet, as with the old Gaelic and Cymric tales, we have no very old copy of this tale. But unlike these old tales, we do not find Beowulf told in different ways in different manuscripts. There is only one copy of Beowulf, and that was probably written in the tenth or eleventh century, long years after the English were firmly settled in the land.
As Beowulf is one of our great book treasures, you may like to hear something of its story.
Long ago, in the time when Queen Elizabeth, James I., and Charles I. sat upon the throne, there lived a learned gentleman called Sir Robert Bruce Cotton. He was an antiquary. That is, he loved old things, and he gathered together old books, coins, manuscripts and other articles, which are of interest because they help to make us understand the history of bygone days.
Sir Robert Cotton loved books especially, and like many other book lovers, he was greedy of them. It was said, indeed, that he often found it hard to return books which had been lent to him, and that, among others, he had books which really ought to have belonged to the King.
Sir Robert's library soon became famous, and many scholars came to read there, for Sir Robert was very kind in allowing other people to use his books. But twice his library was taken from him, because it was said that it contained things which were dangerous for people to know, and that he allowed the enemies of the King to use it. That was in the days of Charles I., and those were troublous times.
The second time that his library was taken from him, Sir Robert died, but it was given back to his son, and many years later his great-great-grandson gave it to the nation.
In 1731 the house in which the library was took fire, and more than a hundred books were burned, some being partly and some quite destroyed. Among those that were partly destroyed was Beowulf. But no one cared very much, for no one had read the book or knew anything about it.
Where Sir Robert found Beowulf, or what he thought about it, we shall never know. Very likely it had remained in some quiet monastery library for hundreds of years until Henry VIII. scattered the monks and their books. Many books were then lost, but some were saved, and after many adventures found safe resting-places. Among those was Beowulf.
Some years after the fire the Cotton Library, as it is now called, was removed to the British Museum, where it now remains. And there a Danish gentleman who was looking for books about his own land found Beowulf, and made a copy of it. Its adventures, however, were not over. Just when the printed copies were ready to be published, the British bombarded Copenhagen. The house in which the copies were was set on fire and they were all burned. The Danish gentleman, however, was not daunted. He set to work again, and at last Beowulf was published.
Even after it was published in Denmark, no Englishman thought of making a translation of the book, and it was not until fifty years more had come and gone that an English translation appeared.
When the Danish gentleman made his copy of Beowulf, he found the edges of the book so charred by fire that they broke away with the slightest touch. No one thought of mending the leaves, and as years went on they fell to pieces more and more. But at last some one woke up to the fact that this half-burned book was a great treasure. Then it was carefully mended, and thus kept from wasting more.
So now, after all its adventures, having been found, we shall never know where, by a gentleman in the days of Queen Elizabeth, having lain on his bookshelves unknown and unread for a hundred years and more, having been nearly destroyed by fire, having been still further destroyed by neglect, Beowulf at last came to its own, and is now carefully treasured in a glass case in the British Museum, where any one who cares about it may go to look at it.
And although it is perhaps not much to look at, it is a very great treasure. For it is not only the oldest epic poem in the Anglo-Saxon language, it is history too. By that I do not mean that the story is all true, but that by reading it carefully we can find out much about the daily lives of our forefathers in their homes across the seas. And besides this, some of the people mentioned in the poem are mentioned in history too, and it is thought that Beowulf, the hero himself, really lived.
And now, having spoken about the book and its adventures, let us in the next chapter speak about the story. As usual, I will give part of it in the words of the original, translated, of course, into modern English. You can always tell what is from the original by the quotation marks, if by nothing else. | 1,931 | ENGLISH | 1 |
IN 1963, MARIA GOEPPERT MAYER won the Nobel Prize for Physics. She was the second woman ever to win the prize. The first was Marie Curie, who won in 1903. The third woman to win is Donna Strickland, who was awarded the prize today for her work on high-intensity optical pulses (a.k.a. revolutionary laser physics). When she was told she was the third woman to win the physics Nobel, she was surprised. “I thought there might have been more,” she said.
Another surprising and equally disturbing wrinkle of this history of women in science: Maria Goeppert Mayer performed the work that won her physics’ most coveted and prestigious prize while in unpaid and “volunteer” positions. It wasn’t until she was in her late 50s, just three years before she won the Nobel, that a university hired her full-time.
Mayer was born in 1906, and she grew up in Göttingen, a famous German university town full of professors known for their prowess in math. After starting her studies in mathematics, Goeppert Mayer switched to studying physics after becoming fascinated with quantum mechanics. After she moved with her husband, a chemist, to America, she spent years at Johns Hopkins, Columbia University, and University of Chicago, pursuing her work in physics outside of any official academic structure. Today, academic couples are often recruited and hired as a pair, but in the 1930s, universities shied away from giving jobs to the partners of professors—read: their wives, however talented. In Chicago, Goeppert Mayer was made a professor—but not given a salary for her work.
While in Chicago, she dug into her work on the origin of elements, which led to the work that would earn her the prize. She developed what’s known as the “nuclear shell model,” which explains how nuclear particles organize themselves in atoms. She published her groundbreaking work in 1948 in Physical Review. A separate team of scientists had independently come to the same conclusions: She shared the Nobel Prize with them.
By then, Goeppert Meyer had held a paid professorship for just three years. In 1960 the University of California, San Diego, appointed her to a full-time job. Yet, when she won the prize, newspapers identified her as a “San Diego Mother.” | <urn:uuid:1556c4b8-f39f-48ad-9f5b-8f75927c077c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.herstory-online.com/single-post/2018/10/11/A-Mother-and-a-Nobel-Prize-Winner-in-Physics | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00537.warc.gz | en | 0.98783 | 498 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.1040789633... | 1 | IN 1963, MARIA GOEPPERT MAYER won the Nobel Prize for Physics. She was the second woman ever to win the prize. The first was Marie Curie, who won in 1903. The third woman to win is Donna Strickland, who was awarded the prize today for her work on high-intensity optical pulses (a.k.a. revolutionary laser physics). When she was told she was the third woman to win the physics Nobel, she was surprised. “I thought there might have been more,” she said.
Another surprising and equally disturbing wrinkle of this history of women in science: Maria Goeppert Mayer performed the work that won her physics’ most coveted and prestigious prize while in unpaid and “volunteer” positions. It wasn’t until she was in her late 50s, just three years before she won the Nobel, that a university hired her full-time.
Mayer was born in 1906, and she grew up in Göttingen, a famous German university town full of professors known for their prowess in math. After starting her studies in mathematics, Goeppert Mayer switched to studying physics after becoming fascinated with quantum mechanics. After she moved with her husband, a chemist, to America, she spent years at Johns Hopkins, Columbia University, and University of Chicago, pursuing her work in physics outside of any official academic structure. Today, academic couples are often recruited and hired as a pair, but in the 1930s, universities shied away from giving jobs to the partners of professors—read: their wives, however talented. In Chicago, Goeppert Mayer was made a professor—but not given a salary for her work.
While in Chicago, she dug into her work on the origin of elements, which led to the work that would earn her the prize. She developed what’s known as the “nuclear shell model,” which explains how nuclear particles organize themselves in atoms. She published her groundbreaking work in 1948 in Physical Review. A separate team of scientists had independently come to the same conclusions: She shared the Nobel Prize with them.
By then, Goeppert Meyer had held a paid professorship for just three years. In 1960 the University of California, San Diego, appointed her to a full-time job. Yet, when she won the prize, newspapers identified her as a “San Diego Mother.” | 500 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation
|Subject area||Arts Entertainment|
When American officially entered World War II in 1941 changes occurred for many men and women. The draft has been enacted forcing men to do their duty and fight for their nation. Women were asked to hold down the front in lots of ways, ranging from rationing, volunteering, saving wheat germ and making the most of their products they currently had. There was also a hard push for girls to take war generation projects outside the house. Before the depression, only a few years prior to the war, it wasn't unusual for a woman to work for salary, but as the depression set in, married women were at risk of losing their jobs. Numerous girls were fired or asked to resign so as to make room for a guy who'd lost his job. Many citizens felt it was unjust for a family to have two wage earners when some households had none. (Kessler-Harris) Previously, the average workforce of girls was single. However, when the war started, couples were wed in a younger age, putting the normal worker in short supply. This led to a quick increase in older married women going to work outside the home. ВЂњDuring the depression, 80 percent of Americans objected to wives working outside the home, by 1942, just 13 percent still objected.” (May) By the end of the war, 25 percent of married women were employed. (May) Although women had worked out the home prior to World War II, their entrance into the war production labor force generated change in the normal gender roles and provided an exciting and tough time for many women who were gaining their independence. Various socioeconomic classes of women were targeted at wartime propaganda mobilizing them to “do their own part”. Customarily, unmarried women of the middle and lower classes were recruited to the... | <urn:uuid:37390647-1353-48e0-893d-68cc629a8f93> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studybay.com/example-works/essay/arts_entertainment/1003663/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00279.warc.gz | en | 0.98672 | 399 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.256154835224151... | 1 | Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation
|Subject area||Arts Entertainment|
When American officially entered World War II in 1941 changes occurred for many men and women. The draft has been enacted forcing men to do their duty and fight for their nation. Women were asked to hold down the front in lots of ways, ranging from rationing, volunteering, saving wheat germ and making the most of their products they currently had. There was also a hard push for girls to take war generation projects outside the house. Before the depression, only a few years prior to the war, it wasn't unusual for a woman to work for salary, but as the depression set in, married women were at risk of losing their jobs. Numerous girls were fired or asked to resign so as to make room for a guy who'd lost his job. Many citizens felt it was unjust for a family to have two wage earners when some households had none. (Kessler-Harris) Previously, the average workforce of girls was single. However, when the war started, couples were wed in a younger age, putting the normal worker in short supply. This led to a quick increase in older married women going to work outside the home. ВЂњDuring the depression, 80 percent of Americans objected to wives working outside the home, by 1942, just 13 percent still objected.” (May) By the end of the war, 25 percent of married women were employed. (May) Although women had worked out the home prior to World War II, their entrance into the war production labor force generated change in the normal gender roles and provided an exciting and tough time for many women who were gaining their independence. Various socioeconomic classes of women were targeted at wartime propaganda mobilizing them to “do their own part”. Customarily, unmarried women of the middle and lower classes were recruited to the... | 402 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|Known for||First major concentration camp to be liberated by the Allies|
|Location||Lower Saxony, Northern Germany|
|Operated by||German Army, later Schutzstaffel (SS)|
|Original use||Prisoner of war camp, later civilian internment camp|
|Inmates||Jews, Poles, Soviets, Dutch, Czechs, Germans, Austrians|
|Number of inmates||120,000|
|Killed||unknown (estimated at 50,000 or more in the concentration camp alone)|
|Liberated by||United Kingdom and Canada, April 15, 1945|
|Notable inmates||Anne and Margot Frank|
Bergen-Belsen [ˈbɛʁɡn̩.bɛlsn̩], or Belsen, was a Nazi concentration camp in what is today Lower Saxony in northern Germany, southwest of the town of Bergen near Celle. Originally established as a prisoner of war camp, in 1943, parts of it became a concentration camp. Initially this was an "exchange camp", where Jewish hostages were held with the intention of exchanging them for German prisoners of war held overseas. The camp was later expanded to accommodate Jews from other concentration camps.
After 1945 the name was applied to the displaced persons camp established nearby, but it is most commonly associated with the concentration camp. From 1941 to 1945, almost 20,000 Soviet prisoners of war and a further 50,000 inmates died there. Overcrowding, lack of food and poor sanitary conditions caused outbreaks of typhus, tuberculosis, typhoid fever and dysentery, leading to the deaths of more than 35,000 people in the first few months of 1945, shortly before and after the liberation.
The camp was liberated on April 15, 1945, by the British 11th Armoured Division. The soldiers discovered approximately 60,000 prisoners inside, most of them half-starved and seriously ill, and another 13,000 corpses lying around the camp unburied. The horrors of the camp, documented on film and in pictures, made the name "Belsen" emblematic of Nazi crimes in general for public opinion in many countries in the immediate post-1945 period. Today, there is a memorial with an exhibition hall at the site.
In 1935 the Wehrmacht began to build a large military complex close to the village of Belsen, a part of the town of Bergen, in what was then the Province of Hanover. This became the largest military training area in Germany of the time and was used for armoured vehicle training. The barracks were finished in 1937. The camp has been in continuous operation since then and is today known as Bergen-Hohne Training Area. It is used by the NATO armed forces.
The workers who constructed the original buildings were housed in camps near Fallingbostel and Bergen, the latter being the so-called Bergen-Belsen Army Construction Camp. Once the military complex was completed in 1938/39, the workers' camp fell into disuse. However, after the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, the Wehrmacht began using the huts as a prisoner of war (POW) camp.
The camp of huts near Fallingbostel became known as Stalag XI-B and was to become one of the Wehrmacht's largest POW camps, holding up to 95,000 prisoners from various countries. In June 1940, Belgian and French POWs were housed in the former Bergen-Belsen construction workers' camp. This installation was significantly expanded from June 1941, once Germany prepared to invade the Soviet Union, becoming an independent camp known as Stalag XI-C (311). It was intended to hold up to 20,000 Soviet POWs and was one of three such camps in the area. The others were at Oerbke (Stalag XI-D (321)) and Wietzendorf (Stalag X-D (310)). By the end of March 1942, some 41,000 Soviet POWs had died in these three camps of starvation, exhaustion, and disease. By the end of the war, the total number of dead had increased to 50,000. When the POW camp in Bergen ceased operation in early 1945, as the Wehrmacht handed it over to the SS, the cemetery contained over 19,500 dead Soviet prisoners.
In the summer of 1943, Stalag XI-C (311) was dissolved and Bergen-Belsen became a branch camp of Stalag XI-B. It served as the hospital for all Soviet POWs in the region until January 1945. Other inmates/patients were Italian military internees from August 1944 and, following the suppression of the Warsaw Uprising in October 1944, around 1,000 members of the Polish Home Army were imprisoned in a separate section of the POW camp.
In April 1943, a part of the Bergen-Belsen camp was taken over by the SS Economic-Administration Main Office (SS Wirtschafts-Verwaltungshauptamt; WVHA). It thus became part of the concentration camp system, run by the SS Schutzstaffel but it was a special case. Having initially been designated a Zivilinterniertenlager ("civilian internment camp"), in June 1943 it was redesignated Aufenthaltslager ("holding camp"), since the Geneva Conventions stipulated that the former type of facility must be open to inspection by international committees. This "holding camp" or "exchange camp" was for Jews who were intended to be exchanged for German civilians interned in other countries, or for hard currency. The SS divided this camp into subsections for individual groups (the "Hungarian camp", the "special camp" for Polish Jews, the "neutrals camp" for citizens of neutral countries and the "Star camp" for Dutch Jews). Between the summer of 1943 and December 1944 at least 14,600 Jews, including 2,750 children and minors were transported to the Bergen-Belsen "holding" or exchange camp.:160 Inmates were made to work, many of them in the "shoe commando" which salvaged usable pieces of leather from shoes collected and brought to the camp from all over Germany and occupied Europe. In general the prisoners of this part of the camp were treated less harshly than some other classes of Bergen-Belsen prisoner until fairly late in the war, due to their perceived potential exchange value. However, only around 2,560 Jewish prisoners were ever actually released from Bergen-Belsen and allowed to leave Germany.
In March 1944, part of the camp was redesignated as an Erholungslager ("recovery camp"), where prisoners too sick to work were brought from other concentration camps. They were in Belsen supposedly to recover and then return to their original camps and resume work, but many of them died in Belsen of disease, starvation, exhaustion and lack of medical attention.
In August 1944, a new section was created and this became the so-called "women's camp". By November 1944 this camp received around 9,000 women and young girls. Most of those who were able to work stayed only for a short while and were then sent on to other concentration camps or slave-labour camps. The first women interned there were Poles, arrested after the failed Warsaw Uprising. Others were Jewish women from Poland or Hungary, transferred from Auschwitz. Margot and Anne Frank died there in February or March 1945.
In December 1944 SS-Hauptsturmführer Josef Kramer, previously at Auschwitz-Birkenau, became the new camp commandant, replacing SS-Hauptsturmführer Adolf Haas, who had been in post since the spring of 1943. In January 1945, the SS took over the POW hospital and increased the size of Bergen-Belsen. As eastern concentration camps were evacuated before the advance of the Red Army, at least 85,000 people were transported in cattle cars or marched to Bergen-Belsen. Before that the number of prisoners at Belsen had been much smaller. In July 1944 there were 7,300; by December 1944 the number had increased to 15,000; and by February 1945 it had risen to 22,000. Numbers then soared to around 60,000 by April 15, 1945. This overcrowding led to a vast increase in deaths from disease: particularly typhus, as well as tuberculosis, typhoid fever, dysentery and malnutrition in a camp originally designed to hold about 10,000 inmates. At this point also, the special status of the exchange prisoners no longer applied. All inmates were subject to starvation and epidemics.
Bergen-Belsen concentration camp had three satellite camps. These were at regional armament works. Around 2,000 female concentration camp prisoners were forced to work there. Those who were too weak or sick to continue with their work were brought to Bergen-Belsen.:204–205
Außenlager Bomlitz-Benefeld at Bomlitz near Fallingbostel was in use from September 3 to October 15, 1944. It was located at the facility of Eibia GmbH, a gunpowder works. Around 600 female Polish Jews were used for construction and production work.:204
Außenlager Hambühren-Ovelgönne (Lager III, Waldeslust) at Hambühren south of Winsen was in use from August 23, 1944 to February 4, 1945. It was an abandoned potash mine, now intended as an underground production site for Bremen plane manufacturer Focke-Wulf. Around 400 prisoners, mostly female Polish or Hungarian Jews, were forced to prepare the facility and to help lay train tracks to it. This was done for the company Hochtief.:204
Außenlager Unterlüß-Altensothrieth (Tannenberglager) east of Bergen was in use from late August 1944 to April 13, 1945. It was located at Unterlüß, where the Rheinmetall-Borsig AG had a large test site. Up to 900 female Polish, Hungarian, Romanian, Yugoslavian and Czech Jews had to clear forest, do construction work or work in munitions production.:204
Prisoners were guarded by SS staff and received no wages for their work. The companies instead reimbursed the SS for the labour supplied. Wage taxes were also levied by local authorities.:204–205
Current estimates put the number of prisoners who passed through the concentration camp during its period of operation from 1943 to 1945 at around 120,000. Due to the destruction of the camp's files by the SS, not even half of them, around 55,000, are known by name.:269 As mentioned above, treatment of prisoners by the SS varied between individual sections of the camp, with the inmates of the exchange camp generally being better treated than other prisoners, at least initially. However, in October 1943 the SS selected 1,800 men and women from the Sonderlager ("special camp"), Jews from Poland who held passports from Latin American countries. Since the governments of these nations mostly refused to honour the passports, these people had lost their value to the regime. Under the pretext of sending them to a fictitious "Lager Bergau", the SS had them transported to Auschwitz-Birkenau, where they were sent directly to the gas chambers and killed. In February and May 1944 another 350 prisoners from the "special camp" were sent to Auschwitz. Thus, out of the total of 14,600 prisoners in the exchange camp, at least 3,550 died, more than 1,400 of them at Belsen, and around 2,150 at Auschwitz.:187
In the Männerlager (the male section of the "recovery camp"), inmates suffered even more from lack of care, malnourishment, disease and mistreatment by the guards. Thousands of them died. In the summer of 1944, at least 200 men were killed by orders of the SS by being injected with phenol.:196
There were no gas chambers at Bergen-Belsen, since the mass killings took place in the camps further east. Nevertheless, current estimates put the number of deaths at Belsen at more than 50,000 Jews, Czechs, Poles, anti-Nazi Christians, homosexuals, and Roma and Sinti (Gypsies). Among them was Czech painter and writer Josef Čapek (estimated to be in April 1945). He had coined the word robot, popularised by his brother Karel Čapek.
The rate at which inmates died at Belsen accelerated notably after the mass transport of prisoners from other camps began in December 1944. From 1943 to the end of 1944 around 3,100 died. From January to mid-April 1945 this rose to around 35,000. Another 14,000 died after liberation between April 15 and the end of June 1945 (see below).:233
|Deaths at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp|
December 1944 to April 15, 1945:232–233
|December 1944||at least 360|
|January 1945||around 1,200|
|February 1945||around 6,400|
|March 1945||at least 18,168|
|April 1945||around 10,000|
After the war, there were allegations that the camp (or possibly a section of it), was "of a privileged nature", compared to others. A lawsuit filed by the Jewish community in Thessaloniki against 55 alleged collaborators claims that 53 of them were sent to Bergen-Belsen "as a special favor" granted by the Germans.
When the British and Canadians advanced on Bergen-Belsen in 1945, the German army negotiated a truce and exclusion zone around the camp to prevent the spread of typhus. On April 11, 1945 Heinrich Himmler (the Reichsführer SS) agreed to have the camp handed over without a fight. SS guards ordered prisoners to bury some of the dead. The next day, Wehrmacht representatives approached the British and were brought to VIII Corps. At around 1 a.m. on April 13, an agreement was signed, designating an area of 48 square kilometers (19 square miles) around the camp as a neutral zone. Most of the SS were allowed to leave. Only a small number of SS men and women, including the camp commandant Kramer, remained to "uphold order inside the camp". The outside was guarded by Hungarian and regular German troops. Due to heavy fighting near Winsen and Walle, the British were unable to reach Bergen-Belsen on April 14, as originally planned. The camp was liberated on the afternoon of April 15, 1945.:253 The first two to reach the camp were a British Special Air Service officer, Lieutenant John Randall, and his jeep driver, who were on a reconnaissance mission and discovered the camp by chance.
When British and Canadian troops finally entered they found over 13,000 unburied bodies and (including the satellite camps) around 60,000 inmates, most acutely sick and starving. The prisoners had been without food or water for days before the Allied arrival, partially due to allied bombing. Immediately before and after liberation, prisoners were dying at around 500 per day, mostly from typhus. The scenes that greeted British troops were described by the BBC's Richard Dimbleby, who accompanied them:
|“||...Here over an acre of ground lay dead and dying people. You could not see which was which... The living lay with their heads against the corpses and around them moved the awful, ghostly procession of emaciated, aimless people, with nothing to do and with no hope of life, unable to move out of your way, unable to look at the terrible sights around them ... Babies had been born here, tiny wizened things that could not live ... A mother, driven mad, screamed at a British sentry to give her milk for her child, and thrust the tiny mite into his arms, then ran off, crying terribly. He opened the bundle and found the baby had been dead for days.
This day at Belsen was the most horrible of my life.
Initially lacking sufficient manpower, the British allowed the Hungarians to remain in charge and only commandant Kramer was arrested. Subsequently, SS and Hungarian guards shot and killed some of the starving prisoners who were trying to get their hands on food supplies from the store houses. The British started to provide emergency medical care, clothing and food. Immediately following the liberation, revenge killings took place in the satellite camp the SS had created in the area of the army barracks that later became Hohne-Camp. Around 15,000 prisoners from Mittelbau-Dora had been relocated there in early April. These prisoners were in much better physical condition than most of the others. Some of these men turned on those who had been their overseers at Mittelbau. About 170 of these "Kapos" were killed on April 15, 1945.:62 On April 20, four German fighter planes attacked the camp, damaging the water supply and killing three British medical orderlies.:261
Over the next days the surviving prisoners were deloused and moved to a nearby German Panzer army camp, which became the Bergen-Belsen DP (displaced persons) camp. Over a period of four weeks, almost 29,000 of the survivors were moved there. Before the handover, the SS had managed to destroy the camp's administrative files, thereby eradicating most written evidence.
The British forced the former SS camp personnel to help bury the thousands of dead bodies in mass graves. Some civil servants from Celle and Landkreis Celle were brought to Belsen and confronted with the crimes committed on their doorstep.:262 Military photographers and cameramen of No. 5 Army Film and Photographic Unit documented the conditions in the camp and the measures of the British Army to ameliorate them. Many of the pictures they took and the films they made from April 15 to June 9, 1945 were published or shown abroad. Today, the originals are in the Imperial War Museum. These documents had a lasting impact on the international perception and memory of Nazi concentration camps to this day.:243 According to Habbo Knoch, head of the institution that runs the memorial today: "Bergen-Belsen [...] became a synonym world-wide for German crimes committed during the time of Nazi rule.":9
Bergen-Belsen concentration camp was then burned to the ground by flamethrowing "Bren gun" carriers and Churchill Crocodile tanks because of the typhus epidemic and louse infestation. As the concentration camp ceased to exist at this point, the name Belsen after this time refers to events at the Bergen-Belsen DP camp.:265
There were massive efforts to help the survivors with food and medical treatment, led by Brigadier Glyn Hughes, Deputy Director of Medical Services of 2nd Army, and James Johnston, the Senior Medical Officer. Despite their efforts, about another 9,000 died in April, and by the end of June 1945 another 4,000 had died. (After liberation 13,994 people died.):305
Two specialist teams were dispatched from Britain to deal with the feeding problem. The first, led by A. P. Meiklejohn, included 96 medical student volunteers from London teaching hospitals who were later cred with significantly reducing the death rate amongst prisoners. A research team led by Dr Janet Vaughan was dispatched by the Medical Research Council to test the effectiveness of various feeding regimes.
The British troops and medical staff tried these diets to feed the prisoners, in this order:
Some were too weak to even consume the Bengal Famine Mixture. Intravenous feeding was attempted but abandoned – SS doctors had previously used injections to murder prisoners so some became hysterical at the sight of the intravenous feeding equipment.
Many of the former SS staff who survived the typhus epidemic were tried by the British at the Belsen trial. Over the period in which Bergen-Belsen operated as a concentration camp, at least 480 people had worked as guards or members of the commandant's staff, including around 45 women. From September 17 to November 17, 1945, 45 of those were tried by a military tribunal in Lüneburg. They included former commandant Josef Kramer, 16 other SS male members, 16 female SS guards and 12 former kapos (one of whom became ill during the trial). Among them were Irma Grese, Elisabeth Volkenrath, Hertha Ehlert, Ilse Lothe, Johanna Bormann and Fritz Klein. Many of the defendants were not just charged with crimes committed at Belsen but also earlier ones at Auschwitz. Their activities at other concentration camps such as Mittelbau-Dora, Ravensbrück, Neuengamme, the Gross Rosen subcamps at Neusalz and Langenleuba, and the Mittelbau-Dora subcamp at Gross Werther were not subject of the trial. It was based on British military law and the charges were thus limited to war crimes. Substantial media coverage of the trial provided the German and international public with detailed information on the mass killings at Belsen as well as on the gas chambers of Auschwitz-Birkenau.
Eleven of the defendants were sentenced to death. They included Kramer, Volkenrath and Klein. The executions by hanging took place on December 13, 1945 in Hamelin. Fourteen defendants were acquitted (one was excluded from the trial due to illness). Of the remaining 19, one was sentenced to life in prison but he was executed for another crime. Eighteen were sentenced to prison for periods of one to 15 years; however, most of these sentences were subsequently reduced significantly on appeals or pleas for clemency. By June 1955, the last of those sentenced in the Belsen trial had been released.:37 Nine other members of the Belsen personnel were tried by later military tribunals in 1946 and 1948.
Denazification courts were created by the Allies to try members of the SS and other Nazi organisations. Between 1947 and 1949 these courts initiated proceedings against at least 46 former SS staff at Belsen. Around half of these were discontinued, mostly because the defendants were considered to have been forced to join the SS.:39 Those who were sentenced received prison terms of between four and 36 months or were fined. As the judges decided to count the time the defendants had spent in Allied internment towards the sentence, the terms were considered to have already been fully served.
Only one trial was ever held by a German court for crimes committed at Belsen, at Jena in 1949; the defendant was acquitted. More than 200 other SS members who were at Belsen have been known by name but never had to stand trial. No Wehrmacht soldier was ever put on trial for crimes committed against the inmates of the POW camps at Bergen-Belsen and in the region around it, despite the fact that the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg had found in 1946 that the treatment of Soviet POWs by the Wehrmacht constituted a war crime.:39
The area of the former Bergen-Belsen camp fell into neglect after the burning of the buildings and the closure of the nearby displaced persons' camp in the summer of 1950. The area reverted to heath; few traces of the camp remained. However, as early as May 1945, the British had erected large signs at the former camp site. Ex-prisoners began to set up monuments. A first wooden memorial was built by Jewish DPs in September 1945, followed by one made in stone, dedicated on the first anniversary of the liberation in 1946. On November 2, 1945, a large wooden cross was dedicated as a memorial to the murdered Polish prisoners. Also by the end of 1945 the Soviets had built a memorial at the entrance to the POW cemetery. A memorial to the Italian POWs followed in 1950, but was removed when the bodies were reinterred in a Hamburg cemetery.
The British military authorities ordered the construction of a permanent memorial in September 1945 after having been lambasted by the press for the desolate state of the camp.:41 In the summer of 1946, a commission presented the design plan, which included the obelisk and memorial walls. The memorial was finally inaugurated in a large ceremony in November 1952, with the participation of Germany's president Theodor Heuss, who called on the Germans never to forget what had happened at Belsen.:41
For a long time, however, remembering Bergen-Belsen was not a political priority. Periods of attention were followed by long phases of official neglect. For much of the 1950s, Belsen "was increasingly forgotten as a place of remembrance". Only after 1957 did large groups of young people visit the place where Anne Frank had died. After anti-Semitic graffiti was scrawled on the Cologne synagogue over Christmas 1959, German chancellor Konrad Adenauer followed a suggestion by Nahum Goldmann, president of the World Jewish Congress, and visited the site of a former concentration camp for the first time. In a speech at the Bergen-Belsen memorial, Adenauer assured the Jews still living in Germany that they would have the same respect and security as everyone else.:42 Afterwards, the German public saw the Belsen memorial as primarily a Jewish place of remembrance. Nevertheless, the memorial was redesigned in 1960–61. In 1966, a document centre was opened which offered a permanent exhibition on the persecution of the Jews, with a focus on events in the nearby Netherlands – where Anne Frank and her family had been arrested in 1944. This was complemented by an overview of the history of the Bergen-Belsen camp. This was the first ever permanent exhibit anywhere in Germany on the topic of Nazi crimes.:42 However, there was still no scientific personnel at the site, with only a caretaker as permanent staff. Memorial events were only organized by the survivors themselves.
In October 1979, the president of the European Parliament Simone Veil, herself a survivor of Auschwitz and Bergen-Belsen, came to the memorial for a speech which focused on the Nazi persecution of Roma and Sinti. This was the first time that an official event in Germany acknowledged this aspect of the Nazi era.
In 1985, international attention was focused on Bergen-Belsen. The camp was hastily included in Ronald Reagan's itinerary when he visited West Germany after a controversy about a visit to a cemetery where the interred included members of the Waffen SS (see Bitburg controversy). Shortly before Reagan's visit on May 5, there had been a large memorial event on the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the camp's liberation, which had been attended by German president Richard von Weizsäcker and chancellor Helmut Kohl.:44 In the aftermath of these events, the parliament of Lower Saxony decided to expand the exhibition centre and to hire permanent scientific staff. In 1990, the permanent exhibition was replaced by a new version and a larger document building was opened.
Only in 2000 did the Federal Government of Germany begin to financially support the memorial. Co-financed by the state of Lower Saxony, a complete redesign was planned which was intended to be more in line with contemporary thought on exhibition design. On April 15, 2005, there was a ceremony, commemorating the 60th anniversary of the liberation and many ex-prisoners and ex-liberating troops attended. In October 2007, the redesigned memorial site was opened, including a large new Documentation Centre and permanent exhibition on the edge of the newly redefined camp, whose structure and layout can now be traced. Since 2009, the memorial has been receiving funding from the Federal government on an ongoing basis.
The site is open to the public and includes monuments to the dead, including a successor to the wooden cross of 1945, some individual memorial stones and a "House of Silence" for reflection. In addition to the Jewish, Polish and Dutch national memorials, a memorial to eight Turkish citizens who were killed at Belsen was dedicated in December 2012.
Millions of words have been written about these horror camps, many of them by inmates of those unbelievable places. I've tried, without success, to describe it from my own point of view, but the words won't come. To me Belsen was the ultimate blasphemy.
I saw my father beaten by the SS, and I lost most of my family there... A ransom deal that the Americans attempted saved 2,000 Jews and I was one. I actually went into the gas chamber, but was reprieved. God knows why.
After a day’s journey, we arrived at Bergen-Belsen. This concentration camp was hopelessly overcrowded and we were not accepted. The right hand no longer knew what the left hand was doing, so we were sent to an adjoining Wehrmacht compound. As the soldiers of the Wehrmacht marched out, we moved in. The confusion was unbelievable; this time it was disorder with German perfection. We were moved into clean barracks, equipped for human beings with excellent bathrooms and clean beds stacked three on top of each other. After all we had experienced in the preceding year, this was sheer luxury. There was no mention of the usual camp rituals, no roll calls and no work, but also no food.
It was shortly after the British Red Cross arrived, though it may have no connection, that a very large quantity of lipstick arrived. This was not at all what we men wanted, we were screaming for hundreds and thousands of other things and I don't know who asked for lipstick. I wish so much that I could discover who did it, it was the action of genius, sheer unadulterated brilliance. I believe nothing did more for those internees than the lipstick. Women lay in bed with no sheets and no nightie but with scarlet red lips, you saw them wandering about with nothing but a blanket over their shoulders, but with scarlet red lips. I saw a woman dead on the post mortem table and clutched in her hand was a piece of lipstick. At last someone had done something to make them individuals again, they were someone, no longer merely the number tattooed on the arm. At last they could take an interest in their appearance. That lipstick started to give them back their humanity.
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0.666841983795166,... | 1 | |Known for||First major concentration camp to be liberated by the Allies|
|Location||Lower Saxony, Northern Germany|
|Operated by||German Army, later Schutzstaffel (SS)|
|Original use||Prisoner of war camp, later civilian internment camp|
|Inmates||Jews, Poles, Soviets, Dutch, Czechs, Germans, Austrians|
|Number of inmates||120,000|
|Killed||unknown (estimated at 50,000 or more in the concentration camp alone)|
|Liberated by||United Kingdom and Canada, April 15, 1945|
|Notable inmates||Anne and Margot Frank|
Bergen-Belsen [ˈbɛʁɡn̩.bɛlsn̩], or Belsen, was a Nazi concentration camp in what is today Lower Saxony in northern Germany, southwest of the town of Bergen near Celle. Originally established as a prisoner of war camp, in 1943, parts of it became a concentration camp. Initially this was an "exchange camp", where Jewish hostages were held with the intention of exchanging them for German prisoners of war held overseas. The camp was later expanded to accommodate Jews from other concentration camps.
After 1945 the name was applied to the displaced persons camp established nearby, but it is most commonly associated with the concentration camp. From 1941 to 1945, almost 20,000 Soviet prisoners of war and a further 50,000 inmates died there. Overcrowding, lack of food and poor sanitary conditions caused outbreaks of typhus, tuberculosis, typhoid fever and dysentery, leading to the deaths of more than 35,000 people in the first few months of 1945, shortly before and after the liberation.
The camp was liberated on April 15, 1945, by the British 11th Armoured Division. The soldiers discovered approximately 60,000 prisoners inside, most of them half-starved and seriously ill, and another 13,000 corpses lying around the camp unburied. The horrors of the camp, documented on film and in pictures, made the name "Belsen" emblematic of Nazi crimes in general for public opinion in many countries in the immediate post-1945 period. Today, there is a memorial with an exhibition hall at the site.
In 1935 the Wehrmacht began to build a large military complex close to the village of Belsen, a part of the town of Bergen, in what was then the Province of Hanover. This became the largest military training area in Germany of the time and was used for armoured vehicle training. The barracks were finished in 1937. The camp has been in continuous operation since then and is today known as Bergen-Hohne Training Area. It is used by the NATO armed forces.
The workers who constructed the original buildings were housed in camps near Fallingbostel and Bergen, the latter being the so-called Bergen-Belsen Army Construction Camp. Once the military complex was completed in 1938/39, the workers' camp fell into disuse. However, after the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, the Wehrmacht began using the huts as a prisoner of war (POW) camp.
The camp of huts near Fallingbostel became known as Stalag XI-B and was to become one of the Wehrmacht's largest POW camps, holding up to 95,000 prisoners from various countries. In June 1940, Belgian and French POWs were housed in the former Bergen-Belsen construction workers' camp. This installation was significantly expanded from June 1941, once Germany prepared to invade the Soviet Union, becoming an independent camp known as Stalag XI-C (311). It was intended to hold up to 20,000 Soviet POWs and was one of three such camps in the area. The others were at Oerbke (Stalag XI-D (321)) and Wietzendorf (Stalag X-D (310)). By the end of March 1942, some 41,000 Soviet POWs had died in these three camps of starvation, exhaustion, and disease. By the end of the war, the total number of dead had increased to 50,000. When the POW camp in Bergen ceased operation in early 1945, as the Wehrmacht handed it over to the SS, the cemetery contained over 19,500 dead Soviet prisoners.
In the summer of 1943, Stalag XI-C (311) was dissolved and Bergen-Belsen became a branch camp of Stalag XI-B. It served as the hospital for all Soviet POWs in the region until January 1945. Other inmates/patients were Italian military internees from August 1944 and, following the suppression of the Warsaw Uprising in October 1944, around 1,000 members of the Polish Home Army were imprisoned in a separate section of the POW camp.
In April 1943, a part of the Bergen-Belsen camp was taken over by the SS Economic-Administration Main Office (SS Wirtschafts-Verwaltungshauptamt; WVHA). It thus became part of the concentration camp system, run by the SS Schutzstaffel but it was a special case. Having initially been designated a Zivilinterniertenlager ("civilian internment camp"), in June 1943 it was redesignated Aufenthaltslager ("holding camp"), since the Geneva Conventions stipulated that the former type of facility must be open to inspection by international committees. This "holding camp" or "exchange camp" was for Jews who were intended to be exchanged for German civilians interned in other countries, or for hard currency. The SS divided this camp into subsections for individual groups (the "Hungarian camp", the "special camp" for Polish Jews, the "neutrals camp" for citizens of neutral countries and the "Star camp" for Dutch Jews). Between the summer of 1943 and December 1944 at least 14,600 Jews, including 2,750 children and minors were transported to the Bergen-Belsen "holding" or exchange camp.:160 Inmates were made to work, many of them in the "shoe commando" which salvaged usable pieces of leather from shoes collected and brought to the camp from all over Germany and occupied Europe. In general the prisoners of this part of the camp were treated less harshly than some other classes of Bergen-Belsen prisoner until fairly late in the war, due to their perceived potential exchange value. However, only around 2,560 Jewish prisoners were ever actually released from Bergen-Belsen and allowed to leave Germany.
In March 1944, part of the camp was redesignated as an Erholungslager ("recovery camp"), where prisoners too sick to work were brought from other concentration camps. They were in Belsen supposedly to recover and then return to their original camps and resume work, but many of them died in Belsen of disease, starvation, exhaustion and lack of medical attention.
In August 1944, a new section was created and this became the so-called "women's camp". By November 1944 this camp received around 9,000 women and young girls. Most of those who were able to work stayed only for a short while and were then sent on to other concentration camps or slave-labour camps. The first women interned there were Poles, arrested after the failed Warsaw Uprising. Others were Jewish women from Poland or Hungary, transferred from Auschwitz. Margot and Anne Frank died there in February or March 1945.
In December 1944 SS-Hauptsturmführer Josef Kramer, previously at Auschwitz-Birkenau, became the new camp commandant, replacing SS-Hauptsturmführer Adolf Haas, who had been in post since the spring of 1943. In January 1945, the SS took over the POW hospital and increased the size of Bergen-Belsen. As eastern concentration camps were evacuated before the advance of the Red Army, at least 85,000 people were transported in cattle cars or marched to Bergen-Belsen. Before that the number of prisoners at Belsen had been much smaller. In July 1944 there were 7,300; by December 1944 the number had increased to 15,000; and by February 1945 it had risen to 22,000. Numbers then soared to around 60,000 by April 15, 1945. This overcrowding led to a vast increase in deaths from disease: particularly typhus, as well as tuberculosis, typhoid fever, dysentery and malnutrition in a camp originally designed to hold about 10,000 inmates. At this point also, the special status of the exchange prisoners no longer applied. All inmates were subject to starvation and epidemics.
Bergen-Belsen concentration camp had three satellite camps. These were at regional armament works. Around 2,000 female concentration camp prisoners were forced to work there. Those who were too weak or sick to continue with their work were brought to Bergen-Belsen.:204–205
Außenlager Bomlitz-Benefeld at Bomlitz near Fallingbostel was in use from September 3 to October 15, 1944. It was located at the facility of Eibia GmbH, a gunpowder works. Around 600 female Polish Jews were used for construction and production work.:204
Außenlager Hambühren-Ovelgönne (Lager III, Waldeslust) at Hambühren south of Winsen was in use from August 23, 1944 to February 4, 1945. It was an abandoned potash mine, now intended as an underground production site for Bremen plane manufacturer Focke-Wulf. Around 400 prisoners, mostly female Polish or Hungarian Jews, were forced to prepare the facility and to help lay train tracks to it. This was done for the company Hochtief.:204
Außenlager Unterlüß-Altensothrieth (Tannenberglager) east of Bergen was in use from late August 1944 to April 13, 1945. It was located at Unterlüß, where the Rheinmetall-Borsig AG had a large test site. Up to 900 female Polish, Hungarian, Romanian, Yugoslavian and Czech Jews had to clear forest, do construction work or work in munitions production.:204
Prisoners were guarded by SS staff and received no wages for their work. The companies instead reimbursed the SS for the labour supplied. Wage taxes were also levied by local authorities.:204–205
Current estimates put the number of prisoners who passed through the concentration camp during its period of operation from 1943 to 1945 at around 120,000. Due to the destruction of the camp's files by the SS, not even half of them, around 55,000, are known by name.:269 As mentioned above, treatment of prisoners by the SS varied between individual sections of the camp, with the inmates of the exchange camp generally being better treated than other prisoners, at least initially. However, in October 1943 the SS selected 1,800 men and women from the Sonderlager ("special camp"), Jews from Poland who held passports from Latin American countries. Since the governments of these nations mostly refused to honour the passports, these people had lost their value to the regime. Under the pretext of sending them to a fictitious "Lager Bergau", the SS had them transported to Auschwitz-Birkenau, where they were sent directly to the gas chambers and killed. In February and May 1944 another 350 prisoners from the "special camp" were sent to Auschwitz. Thus, out of the total of 14,600 prisoners in the exchange camp, at least 3,550 died, more than 1,400 of them at Belsen, and around 2,150 at Auschwitz.:187
In the Männerlager (the male section of the "recovery camp"), inmates suffered even more from lack of care, malnourishment, disease and mistreatment by the guards. Thousands of them died. In the summer of 1944, at least 200 men were killed by orders of the SS by being injected with phenol.:196
There were no gas chambers at Bergen-Belsen, since the mass killings took place in the camps further east. Nevertheless, current estimates put the number of deaths at Belsen at more than 50,000 Jews, Czechs, Poles, anti-Nazi Christians, homosexuals, and Roma and Sinti (Gypsies). Among them was Czech painter and writer Josef Čapek (estimated to be in April 1945). He had coined the word robot, popularised by his brother Karel Čapek.
The rate at which inmates died at Belsen accelerated notably after the mass transport of prisoners from other camps began in December 1944. From 1943 to the end of 1944 around 3,100 died. From January to mid-April 1945 this rose to around 35,000. Another 14,000 died after liberation between April 15 and the end of June 1945 (see below).:233
|Deaths at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp|
December 1944 to April 15, 1945:232–233
|December 1944||at least 360|
|January 1945||around 1,200|
|February 1945||around 6,400|
|March 1945||at least 18,168|
|April 1945||around 10,000|
After the war, there were allegations that the camp (or possibly a section of it), was "of a privileged nature", compared to others. A lawsuit filed by the Jewish community in Thessaloniki against 55 alleged collaborators claims that 53 of them were sent to Bergen-Belsen "as a special favor" granted by the Germans.
When the British and Canadians advanced on Bergen-Belsen in 1945, the German army negotiated a truce and exclusion zone around the camp to prevent the spread of typhus. On April 11, 1945 Heinrich Himmler (the Reichsführer SS) agreed to have the camp handed over without a fight. SS guards ordered prisoners to bury some of the dead. The next day, Wehrmacht representatives approached the British and were brought to VIII Corps. At around 1 a.m. on April 13, an agreement was signed, designating an area of 48 square kilometers (19 square miles) around the camp as a neutral zone. Most of the SS were allowed to leave. Only a small number of SS men and women, including the camp commandant Kramer, remained to "uphold order inside the camp". The outside was guarded by Hungarian and regular German troops. Due to heavy fighting near Winsen and Walle, the British were unable to reach Bergen-Belsen on April 14, as originally planned. The camp was liberated on the afternoon of April 15, 1945.:253 The first two to reach the camp were a British Special Air Service officer, Lieutenant John Randall, and his jeep driver, who were on a reconnaissance mission and discovered the camp by chance.
When British and Canadian troops finally entered they found over 13,000 unburied bodies and (including the satellite camps) around 60,000 inmates, most acutely sick and starving. The prisoners had been without food or water for days before the Allied arrival, partially due to allied bombing. Immediately before and after liberation, prisoners were dying at around 500 per day, mostly from typhus. The scenes that greeted British troops were described by the BBC's Richard Dimbleby, who accompanied them:
|“||...Here over an acre of ground lay dead and dying people. You could not see which was which... The living lay with their heads against the corpses and around them moved the awful, ghostly procession of emaciated, aimless people, with nothing to do and with no hope of life, unable to move out of your way, unable to look at the terrible sights around them ... Babies had been born here, tiny wizened things that could not live ... A mother, driven mad, screamed at a British sentry to give her milk for her child, and thrust the tiny mite into his arms, then ran off, crying terribly. He opened the bundle and found the baby had been dead for days.
This day at Belsen was the most horrible of my life.
Initially lacking sufficient manpower, the British allowed the Hungarians to remain in charge and only commandant Kramer was arrested. Subsequently, SS and Hungarian guards shot and killed some of the starving prisoners who were trying to get their hands on food supplies from the store houses. The British started to provide emergency medical care, clothing and food. Immediately following the liberation, revenge killings took place in the satellite camp the SS had created in the area of the army barracks that later became Hohne-Camp. Around 15,000 prisoners from Mittelbau-Dora had been relocated there in early April. These prisoners were in much better physical condition than most of the others. Some of these men turned on those who had been their overseers at Mittelbau. About 170 of these "Kapos" were killed on April 15, 1945.:62 On April 20, four German fighter planes attacked the camp, damaging the water supply and killing three British medical orderlies.:261
Over the next days the surviving prisoners were deloused and moved to a nearby German Panzer army camp, which became the Bergen-Belsen DP (displaced persons) camp. Over a period of four weeks, almost 29,000 of the survivors were moved there. Before the handover, the SS had managed to destroy the camp's administrative files, thereby eradicating most written evidence.
The British forced the former SS camp personnel to help bury the thousands of dead bodies in mass graves. Some civil servants from Celle and Landkreis Celle were brought to Belsen and confronted with the crimes committed on their doorstep.:262 Military photographers and cameramen of No. 5 Army Film and Photographic Unit documented the conditions in the camp and the measures of the British Army to ameliorate them. Many of the pictures they took and the films they made from April 15 to June 9, 1945 were published or shown abroad. Today, the originals are in the Imperial War Museum. These documents had a lasting impact on the international perception and memory of Nazi concentration camps to this day.:243 According to Habbo Knoch, head of the institution that runs the memorial today: "Bergen-Belsen [...] became a synonym world-wide for German crimes committed during the time of Nazi rule.":9
Bergen-Belsen concentration camp was then burned to the ground by flamethrowing "Bren gun" carriers and Churchill Crocodile tanks because of the typhus epidemic and louse infestation. As the concentration camp ceased to exist at this point, the name Belsen after this time refers to events at the Bergen-Belsen DP camp.:265
There were massive efforts to help the survivors with food and medical treatment, led by Brigadier Glyn Hughes, Deputy Director of Medical Services of 2nd Army, and James Johnston, the Senior Medical Officer. Despite their efforts, about another 9,000 died in April, and by the end of June 1945 another 4,000 had died. (After liberation 13,994 people died.):305
Two specialist teams were dispatched from Britain to deal with the feeding problem. The first, led by A. P. Meiklejohn, included 96 medical student volunteers from London teaching hospitals who were later cred with significantly reducing the death rate amongst prisoners. A research team led by Dr Janet Vaughan was dispatched by the Medical Research Council to test the effectiveness of various feeding regimes.
The British troops and medical staff tried these diets to feed the prisoners, in this order:
Some were too weak to even consume the Bengal Famine Mixture. Intravenous feeding was attempted but abandoned – SS doctors had previously used injections to murder prisoners so some became hysterical at the sight of the intravenous feeding equipment.
Many of the former SS staff who survived the typhus epidemic were tried by the British at the Belsen trial. Over the period in which Bergen-Belsen operated as a concentration camp, at least 480 people had worked as guards or members of the commandant's staff, including around 45 women. From September 17 to November 17, 1945, 45 of those were tried by a military tribunal in Lüneburg. They included former commandant Josef Kramer, 16 other SS male members, 16 female SS guards and 12 former kapos (one of whom became ill during the trial). Among them were Irma Grese, Elisabeth Volkenrath, Hertha Ehlert, Ilse Lothe, Johanna Bormann and Fritz Klein. Many of the defendants were not just charged with crimes committed at Belsen but also earlier ones at Auschwitz. Their activities at other concentration camps such as Mittelbau-Dora, Ravensbrück, Neuengamme, the Gross Rosen subcamps at Neusalz and Langenleuba, and the Mittelbau-Dora subcamp at Gross Werther were not subject of the trial. It was based on British military law and the charges were thus limited to war crimes. Substantial media coverage of the trial provided the German and international public with detailed information on the mass killings at Belsen as well as on the gas chambers of Auschwitz-Birkenau.
Eleven of the defendants were sentenced to death. They included Kramer, Volkenrath and Klein. The executions by hanging took place on December 13, 1945 in Hamelin. Fourteen defendants were acquitted (one was excluded from the trial due to illness). Of the remaining 19, one was sentenced to life in prison but he was executed for another crime. Eighteen were sentenced to prison for periods of one to 15 years; however, most of these sentences were subsequently reduced significantly on appeals or pleas for clemency. By June 1955, the last of those sentenced in the Belsen trial had been released.:37 Nine other members of the Belsen personnel were tried by later military tribunals in 1946 and 1948.
Denazification courts were created by the Allies to try members of the SS and other Nazi organisations. Between 1947 and 1949 these courts initiated proceedings against at least 46 former SS staff at Belsen. Around half of these were discontinued, mostly because the defendants were considered to have been forced to join the SS.:39 Those who were sentenced received prison terms of between four and 36 months or were fined. As the judges decided to count the time the defendants had spent in Allied internment towards the sentence, the terms were considered to have already been fully served.
Only one trial was ever held by a German court for crimes committed at Belsen, at Jena in 1949; the defendant was acquitted. More than 200 other SS members who were at Belsen have been known by name but never had to stand trial. No Wehrmacht soldier was ever put on trial for crimes committed against the inmates of the POW camps at Bergen-Belsen and in the region around it, despite the fact that the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg had found in 1946 that the treatment of Soviet POWs by the Wehrmacht constituted a war crime.:39
The area of the former Bergen-Belsen camp fell into neglect after the burning of the buildings and the closure of the nearby displaced persons' camp in the summer of 1950. The area reverted to heath; few traces of the camp remained. However, as early as May 1945, the British had erected large signs at the former camp site. Ex-prisoners began to set up monuments. A first wooden memorial was built by Jewish DPs in September 1945, followed by one made in stone, dedicated on the first anniversary of the liberation in 1946. On November 2, 1945, a large wooden cross was dedicated as a memorial to the murdered Polish prisoners. Also by the end of 1945 the Soviets had built a memorial at the entrance to the POW cemetery. A memorial to the Italian POWs followed in 1950, but was removed when the bodies were reinterred in a Hamburg cemetery.
The British military authorities ordered the construction of a permanent memorial in September 1945 after having been lambasted by the press for the desolate state of the camp.:41 In the summer of 1946, a commission presented the design plan, which included the obelisk and memorial walls. The memorial was finally inaugurated in a large ceremony in November 1952, with the participation of Germany's president Theodor Heuss, who called on the Germans never to forget what had happened at Belsen.:41
For a long time, however, remembering Bergen-Belsen was not a political priority. Periods of attention were followed by long phases of official neglect. For much of the 1950s, Belsen "was increasingly forgotten as a place of remembrance". Only after 1957 did large groups of young people visit the place where Anne Frank had died. After anti-Semitic graffiti was scrawled on the Cologne synagogue over Christmas 1959, German chancellor Konrad Adenauer followed a suggestion by Nahum Goldmann, president of the World Jewish Congress, and visited the site of a former concentration camp for the first time. In a speech at the Bergen-Belsen memorial, Adenauer assured the Jews still living in Germany that they would have the same respect and security as everyone else.:42 Afterwards, the German public saw the Belsen memorial as primarily a Jewish place of remembrance. Nevertheless, the memorial was redesigned in 1960–61. In 1966, a document centre was opened which offered a permanent exhibition on the persecution of the Jews, with a focus on events in the nearby Netherlands – where Anne Frank and her family had been arrested in 1944. This was complemented by an overview of the history of the Bergen-Belsen camp. This was the first ever permanent exhibit anywhere in Germany on the topic of Nazi crimes.:42 However, there was still no scientific personnel at the site, with only a caretaker as permanent staff. Memorial events were only organized by the survivors themselves.
In October 1979, the president of the European Parliament Simone Veil, herself a survivor of Auschwitz and Bergen-Belsen, came to the memorial for a speech which focused on the Nazi persecution of Roma and Sinti. This was the first time that an official event in Germany acknowledged this aspect of the Nazi era.
In 1985, international attention was focused on Bergen-Belsen. The camp was hastily included in Ronald Reagan's itinerary when he visited West Germany after a controversy about a visit to a cemetery where the interred included members of the Waffen SS (see Bitburg controversy). Shortly before Reagan's visit on May 5, there had been a large memorial event on the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the camp's liberation, which had been attended by German president Richard von Weizsäcker and chancellor Helmut Kohl.:44 In the aftermath of these events, the parliament of Lower Saxony decided to expand the exhibition centre and to hire permanent scientific staff. In 1990, the permanent exhibition was replaced by a new version and a larger document building was opened.
Only in 2000 did the Federal Government of Germany begin to financially support the memorial. Co-financed by the state of Lower Saxony, a complete redesign was planned which was intended to be more in line with contemporary thought on exhibition design. On April 15, 2005, there was a ceremony, commemorating the 60th anniversary of the liberation and many ex-prisoners and ex-liberating troops attended. In October 2007, the redesigned memorial site was opened, including a large new Documentation Centre and permanent exhibition on the edge of the newly redefined camp, whose structure and layout can now be traced. Since 2009, the memorial has been receiving funding from the Federal government on an ongoing basis.
The site is open to the public and includes monuments to the dead, including a successor to the wooden cross of 1945, some individual memorial stones and a "House of Silence" for reflection. In addition to the Jewish, Polish and Dutch national memorials, a memorial to eight Turkish citizens who were killed at Belsen was dedicated in December 2012.
Millions of words have been written about these horror camps, many of them by inmates of those unbelievable places. I've tried, without success, to describe it from my own point of view, but the words won't come. To me Belsen was the ultimate blasphemy.
I saw my father beaten by the SS, and I lost most of my family there... A ransom deal that the Americans attempted saved 2,000 Jews and I was one. I actually went into the gas chamber, but was reprieved. God knows why.
After a day’s journey, we arrived at Bergen-Belsen. This concentration camp was hopelessly overcrowded and we were not accepted. The right hand no longer knew what the left hand was doing, so we were sent to an adjoining Wehrmacht compound. As the soldiers of the Wehrmacht marched out, we moved in. The confusion was unbelievable; this time it was disorder with German perfection. We were moved into clean barracks, equipped for human beings with excellent bathrooms and clean beds stacked three on top of each other. After all we had experienced in the preceding year, this was sheer luxury. There was no mention of the usual camp rituals, no roll calls and no work, but also no food.
It was shortly after the British Red Cross arrived, though it may have no connection, that a very large quantity of lipstick arrived. This was not at all what we men wanted, we were screaming for hundreds and thousands of other things and I don't know who asked for lipstick. I wish so much that I could discover who did it, it was the action of genius, sheer unadulterated brilliance. I believe nothing did more for those internees than the lipstick. Women lay in bed with no sheets and no nightie but with scarlet red lips, you saw them wandering about with nothing but a blanket over their shoulders, but with scarlet red lips. I saw a woman dead on the post mortem table and clutched in her hand was a piece of lipstick. At last someone had done something to make them individuals again, they were someone, no longer merely the number tattooed on the arm. At last they could take an interest in their appearance. That lipstick started to give them back their humanity.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bergen-Belsen concentration camp.| | 6,858 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What started out as a group of soldiers listed on sick call at a Midwest training base would lead to a pandemic that would kill more people than the Great War it helped end. This flu pandemic would then disappear and leave a wake of changes in the cities and towns it affected. Tacoma would not be spared.
From the very first coughs to headlines finally proclaiming an end to killer flu cases, the medical drama of 1918-1919 involves warnings about the perils of global travel and the limitations of public health. This is the story of the “Spanish Flu” that would claim roughly five percent of the world’s population and infect one of every three people on the planet a century ago.
Flashback to the waning days of the World War I for a moment. Camp Lewis was just a year old and was busy minting soldiers for battle in the trenches “over there.”
Although the origins of what became known as the Spanish Flu aren’t fully known, what is clear is that it wasn’t in Spain. Its “Spanish” moniker only came because Spain was the first major country to report its cases. America, Britain, Germany and France censored war-time reporting of the illness marching through their ranks under the idea that such news would hurt morale and give aid to the enemy.
One prevailing theory of the flu’s origin is that the particularly dangerous and contagious strain of influenza had originated in Kansas in February 1918 after it had mutated and jumped from pigs to humans. During an outbreak there, a soldier went on leave in Kansas’ Haskell County and returned to duty to Camp Funston. Within the month of his return, more than 1,000 soldiers there came down with the flu. Some of the soldiers, unfortunately, had already shipped out to other military installations before they felt too sick to train, bringing the ailment with them. Hundreds of soldiers and military workers then fell ill around the world.
Those vast numbers then brought the contagious disease to the civilian population.
The annual flu season came to Camp Lewis in March 1918, but those cases were largely unremarkable with the soldiers recovering quickly before returning to their training. That luck was not to hold out. News of a devastating flu season was just reaching newspapers. Then the 91st Division left the training fields of Camp Lewis for combat in France in the early summer. Those soldiers were quickly replaced with the newly formed 13th Division. That division drew its members from around the nation, particularly from Eastern and Southern states that had been experiencing flu outbreaks. Those soldiers brought the flu with them.
A trainload of sailors from Philadelphia came to Bremerton’s Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, for example, and immediately overwhelmed the military hospitals there. Then Camp Lewis’ hospital beds filled up following the first 11 influenza cases appearing in local hospital records on September 21, 1918. Flu infections then jumped to 1,450 and then 3,024 in a matter of weeks.
Alarm bells rattled at military bases around the nation. All suffered from the strains of sick and dying soldiers. Camp Lewis would close to civilians for an entire month, in the hopes that limiting access would stop the flu from spreading. Tacoma, likewise, would ban public gatherings, public school classes, public funerals and concerts. Other cities around the state did likewise.
“The character of this disease is such that we are in the dark, to a large extent, as to a means to prevent its spread…” the Washington State Board of Health to the governor in its annual report, which was several months late since the board wanted to draft plans to handle the latest news of the emerging crisis. “We know of no way at present whereby we can detect a ‘carrier’ of influenza germs. In fact, we are in extreme doubt as to what germ is responsible for this disease.”
By the time the report was written, the flu had claimed 4,879 lives in just the last three months of 1918. The flu would claim more before it was over. Keep in mind that the prevailing medical opinion of the day was that the flu was caused by a bacteria that could be filtered from being inhaled through the use of cotton masks. These gauge masks actually did little to control the contagious nature of the flu, which is actually a virus that can easily pass through such protection.
The quick action of government officials at least did something since Washington ranked at the bottom of the list of 30 states that reported massive flu outbreaks. Tacoma, for example, periodically closed all theaters, dance halls and banned public meetings in October and November. Only Oregon reported a lower mortality rate from the ailment, most likely because it had much fewer soldiers and sailors flowing into its borders during the peak of the pandemic as America fought a two-front war. One war was in the trenches of Europe. The other one hid behind every sneeze and every cough, often killing within hours.
Camp Lewis and Tacoma were actually under a ban of public gatherings when news of the armistice sparked celebrations in the streets around the world. Some defied the order and attended last-minute parties, but many just stayed home in hopes they could avoid getting the flu from the revelers.
Flu cases would trickle in ones and twos for another a year and a half until the pandemic was officially declared over. It would claim several notable local martyrs. A singer by the name of Linnie Love was among them. The nationally known soprano was booked to perform a spat of shows at Camp Lewis with her costar Lorna Lea right as the flu pandemic filled local hospital beds. They were offered the chance to cancel the shows because of the quarantine, but held to the performer’s credo that the “show must go on.” That loyalty to their craft would lead to Love’s death, however. The duet would perform for the bedridden soldiers only to both fall ill from influenza. Lea would recover. Love would not. She died on November 12, the day after the war ended. She is one of the last of the 164 flu deaths tied to Camp Lewis’ flu outbreak.
One of Tacoma’s first resident priests would also fall victim to the flu because of his devotion to his flock. Father Peter Francis Hylebos, who came to the city in 1880 to serve as the first pastor to Saint Leo’s Parish, was one of the most prominent local victims. He passed away of flu-induced pneumonia on November 28, 1918, the day he was scheduled to deliver a Thanksgiving service at the Rialto Theater. About 500 Tacomans would die of the flu, although the exact number will never be known since reporting standards were not universally followed and varied between hospitals. Most of those deaths occurred in the fall of 1918, but some would trickle in well into the following spring, long after the pandemic was largely deemed to have passed. That fact further clouds the effort to determine a definitive body count. But keep in mind that more American soldiers died of influenza than in combat; 57,000 to 53,000, respectively.
The great Spanish Flu pandemic of 1918 provided the world’s first response to a global health crisis and boosted the funding for public health departments around the nation. Preventing flu outbreaks is a mission the Tacoma-Pierce County Health Department continues to this day, with educational and medical programs to vaccinate against the most common strains of influenza. | <urn:uuid:ebf7ea87-3325-452a-8c44-c588616913f1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.southsoundtalk.com/2019/11/29/the-1918-influenza-pandemic-hit-tacoma-as-wwi-ended/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00088.warc.gz | en | 0.981495 | 1,536 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.52621144056... | 4 | What started out as a group of soldiers listed on sick call at a Midwest training base would lead to a pandemic that would kill more people than the Great War it helped end. This flu pandemic would then disappear and leave a wake of changes in the cities and towns it affected. Tacoma would not be spared.
From the very first coughs to headlines finally proclaiming an end to killer flu cases, the medical drama of 1918-1919 involves warnings about the perils of global travel and the limitations of public health. This is the story of the “Spanish Flu” that would claim roughly five percent of the world’s population and infect one of every three people on the planet a century ago.
Flashback to the waning days of the World War I for a moment. Camp Lewis was just a year old and was busy minting soldiers for battle in the trenches “over there.”
Although the origins of what became known as the Spanish Flu aren’t fully known, what is clear is that it wasn’t in Spain. Its “Spanish” moniker only came because Spain was the first major country to report its cases. America, Britain, Germany and France censored war-time reporting of the illness marching through their ranks under the idea that such news would hurt morale and give aid to the enemy.
One prevailing theory of the flu’s origin is that the particularly dangerous and contagious strain of influenza had originated in Kansas in February 1918 after it had mutated and jumped from pigs to humans. During an outbreak there, a soldier went on leave in Kansas’ Haskell County and returned to duty to Camp Funston. Within the month of his return, more than 1,000 soldiers there came down with the flu. Some of the soldiers, unfortunately, had already shipped out to other military installations before they felt too sick to train, bringing the ailment with them. Hundreds of soldiers and military workers then fell ill around the world.
Those vast numbers then brought the contagious disease to the civilian population.
The annual flu season came to Camp Lewis in March 1918, but those cases were largely unremarkable with the soldiers recovering quickly before returning to their training. That luck was not to hold out. News of a devastating flu season was just reaching newspapers. Then the 91st Division left the training fields of Camp Lewis for combat in France in the early summer. Those soldiers were quickly replaced with the newly formed 13th Division. That division drew its members from around the nation, particularly from Eastern and Southern states that had been experiencing flu outbreaks. Those soldiers brought the flu with them.
A trainload of sailors from Philadelphia came to Bremerton’s Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, for example, and immediately overwhelmed the military hospitals there. Then Camp Lewis’ hospital beds filled up following the first 11 influenza cases appearing in local hospital records on September 21, 1918. Flu infections then jumped to 1,450 and then 3,024 in a matter of weeks.
Alarm bells rattled at military bases around the nation. All suffered from the strains of sick and dying soldiers. Camp Lewis would close to civilians for an entire month, in the hopes that limiting access would stop the flu from spreading. Tacoma, likewise, would ban public gatherings, public school classes, public funerals and concerts. Other cities around the state did likewise.
“The character of this disease is such that we are in the dark, to a large extent, as to a means to prevent its spread…” the Washington State Board of Health to the governor in its annual report, which was several months late since the board wanted to draft plans to handle the latest news of the emerging crisis. “We know of no way at present whereby we can detect a ‘carrier’ of influenza germs. In fact, we are in extreme doubt as to what germ is responsible for this disease.”
By the time the report was written, the flu had claimed 4,879 lives in just the last three months of 1918. The flu would claim more before it was over. Keep in mind that the prevailing medical opinion of the day was that the flu was caused by a bacteria that could be filtered from being inhaled through the use of cotton masks. These gauge masks actually did little to control the contagious nature of the flu, which is actually a virus that can easily pass through such protection.
The quick action of government officials at least did something since Washington ranked at the bottom of the list of 30 states that reported massive flu outbreaks. Tacoma, for example, periodically closed all theaters, dance halls and banned public meetings in October and November. Only Oregon reported a lower mortality rate from the ailment, most likely because it had much fewer soldiers and sailors flowing into its borders during the peak of the pandemic as America fought a two-front war. One war was in the trenches of Europe. The other one hid behind every sneeze and every cough, often killing within hours.
Camp Lewis and Tacoma were actually under a ban of public gatherings when news of the armistice sparked celebrations in the streets around the world. Some defied the order and attended last-minute parties, but many just stayed home in hopes they could avoid getting the flu from the revelers.
Flu cases would trickle in ones and twos for another a year and a half until the pandemic was officially declared over. It would claim several notable local martyrs. A singer by the name of Linnie Love was among them. The nationally known soprano was booked to perform a spat of shows at Camp Lewis with her costar Lorna Lea right as the flu pandemic filled local hospital beds. They were offered the chance to cancel the shows because of the quarantine, but held to the performer’s credo that the “show must go on.” That loyalty to their craft would lead to Love’s death, however. The duet would perform for the bedridden soldiers only to both fall ill from influenza. Lea would recover. Love would not. She died on November 12, the day after the war ended. She is one of the last of the 164 flu deaths tied to Camp Lewis’ flu outbreak.
One of Tacoma’s first resident priests would also fall victim to the flu because of his devotion to his flock. Father Peter Francis Hylebos, who came to the city in 1880 to serve as the first pastor to Saint Leo’s Parish, was one of the most prominent local victims. He passed away of flu-induced pneumonia on November 28, 1918, the day he was scheduled to deliver a Thanksgiving service at the Rialto Theater. About 500 Tacomans would die of the flu, although the exact number will never be known since reporting standards were not universally followed and varied between hospitals. Most of those deaths occurred in the fall of 1918, but some would trickle in well into the following spring, long after the pandemic was largely deemed to have passed. That fact further clouds the effort to determine a definitive body count. But keep in mind that more American soldiers died of influenza than in combat; 57,000 to 53,000, respectively.
The great Spanish Flu pandemic of 1918 provided the world’s first response to a global health crisis and boosted the funding for public health departments around the nation. Preventing flu outbreaks is a mission the Tacoma-Pierce County Health Department continues to this day, with educational and medical programs to vaccinate against the most common strains of influenza. | 1,547 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A list of books about Native Americans for kids. Native American Links For Kids We have visited all of these websites about American Indian culture and to the best of our knowledge they are informative, respectful, and safe for kids.
TOP When Europeans came to the Americas they were considered outsiders but, in accordance with the Aboriginal view, were permitted to share in the land and its resources.
Elders have told us that, in the eyes of the Creator, the Europeans as outsiders could not enjoy the same rights as the original inhabitants. Whatever rights the Europeans wanted had to be sought from those who were placed upon the land first by the Creator.
It is a belief common to many Aboriginal societies that the Creator placed Aboriginal people upon this land first for a reason, and that, as the first ones on the land, they were placed in a special relationship to it.
In the worldview of Aboriginal people, the Europeans were visitors and, as such, were bound to respect the obligations of that status.
For Aboriginal peoples, the land was part of their identity as a people. The earth was their Mother, the animals were their spiritual kin and all were part of the greater whole, which was life.
Their culture was grounded in nature.
Time was marked by the changing seasons and the rising and setting of the sun, rather than by numbers, and their existence was marked by an acceptance of and respect for their natural surroundings and their place in the scheme of things.
The thinking of Aboriginal peoples was cyclical, rather than linear like that of the Europeans. Everything was thought of in terms of its relation to the whole, not as individual bits of information to be compared to one another. Aboriginal philosophy was holistic, and did not lend itself readily to dichotomies or categories as did European philosophy.
The most fundamental of those rights is the right to their identity as Aboriginal people. This right to identity also implies the further right to self-determination, for it is through self-determination that a people preserves their collective identity.
The right to self-determination can take several forms. This latter right is violated if the traditional economy of an Aboriginal group is disrupted severely or damaged by the encroachments of a civilization that exploits or abuses natural resources on a large scale, such as a hydro-electric project, a pipeline or a strip mine.
These are the Aboriginal rights of the indigenous people of Canada. Like Aboriginal rights, treaty rights are also understood by Aboriginal peoples in broad, conceptual terms. Unlike Aboriginal rights, however, treaty rights are more susceptible to the restrictive interpretations of the federal and provincial governments.
Governments have claimed that treaty rights are limited to written promises made to Aboriginal groups by the Crown in specific treaties.
In return for these promises, First Nations in Manitoba are purported to have agreed to "yield up" the land they traditionally used and occupied, and to move to reserves in order to make room for the expanding white settlements. The signing of the post-Confederation numbered treaties in Manitoba was a solemn affair, resulting from negotiation through a bilateral, consensual process.
Indian tribes in Manitoba had been using the formality of the treaty-making process for many generations prior to the arrival of the Europeans and, to those tribes, the solemnity of the occasion marked the new relationship.
The representatives of the Crown were well aware of the importance of the process to the Indian tribes and, as some writers have pointed out, took advantage of that sense of importance. To a large extent, Indian tribes negotiated for what they could, but were faced with negotiators whose mandate was to obtain signatures upon the treaty documents by whatever means necessary.
The European objectives were to exercise complete control over the land, and to make it safe for settlement and for the development of its resources. In negotiating the treaties, the newcomers sought to provide the minimum in benefits in return for peace and control of the land.
Nevertheless, many provisions in the treaties were included at the insistence of the Aboriginal groups. Many verbal promises, not included in the written versions of the treaties, were made to reassure the Indian representatives about the exact nature of the agreements. The promises, both written and oral, were to be good "as long as the sun shines, the grass grows, and the rivers flow.
Aboriginal people consider the treaties to be agreements made between sovereign nations. Aboriginal signatories agreed to give up only their rights to certain tracts of land, not their right to govern their own lives and affairs.
While Europeans considered the treaties as transfers of title to land, Aboriginal nations perceived them merely to be agreements to share the land, as they did with the animals and other groups. Aboriginal peoples perceived the treaties as agreements only to share the land because the concept of legal title to land, as the Europeans understood it, was foreign to their culture.
|Culture Name||Last Edited March 4, The history of Indigenous Aboriginal art in Canada begins sometime during the last Ice Age between 80, and 12, years ago.|
|BibMe: Free Bibliography & Citation Maker - MLA, APA, Chicago, Harvard||The name Canada is derived from the Iroquoian word kanata, which means village. Canada is located in the northern portion of the continent of North America, extending, in general, from the 49th parallel northward to the islands of the Arctic Ocean.|
However, land was not something which an individual could divide, transfer, surrender, destroy or own to the exclusion of all others. The land was there to be shared, as it was the source of all life.
Today, Aboriginal peoples believe their treaty rights have become a series of broken promises. Time and time again during our hearings, people spoke eloquently about their understanding of the treaties and their frustrations at the manner of their treatment.
Aboriginal people in Manitoba firmly believe that despite, or perhaps more properly, because of the treaties they entered into with the Crown, they were to have been allowed to retain part of their land, to retain their identities, their cultures, their languages, their religions and their traditional ways of life, including their laws and their systems of government.
Those things have been denied to them. Even the manner in which the reserve land was set aside for the various First Nation signatories has been a source of frustration.
Instead of reserves being viewed by government as land for which Aboriginal people retain their original title, the government has persisted in the view that land was surrendered to the Crown, which then "gave it back" to Aboriginal people.
Aboriginal people were to have been partners in the new arrangement, with an equal say in defining their ongoing relationship with the Crown.Native American Facts for Kids Resources on American Indians for Children and Teachers Welcome to Native Languages of the Americas!We are a non-profit organization working to preserve and promote American Indian languages.
Essay about Aboriginal People of Canada Words | 6 Pages.
Aboriginal people represent less than 3% of the total population in BC. Yet, they account for more than 9% of all suicides in BC (Chandler). We cannot vouch for the truthfulness of any report on this site.
If you feel a location has been reported in error, or want to dispute a report, please contact us. As of the census, Aboriginal peoples in Canada totalled 1,, people, or % of the national population, with , First Nations people, , Métis and 65, Inuit.
% of the population under the age of 14 are of Aboriginal descent. Dec 23, · The indigenous peoples of Mexico still living today are called: Purepecha; Tarascan; Huichol; The Huichol are a very interesting people.
Huichol Indians live in the Sierra Madre Mountain Range in Mexico and are well known for wonderfully intricate yarn paintings and for their beautiful bead leslutinsduphoenix.coms: They have been overwhelmed by European colonies and societies and have come under their rule. Aboriginal people in Canada and Mexico are expected to live under Canadian or Mexican government when they are a different people than . | <urn:uuid:ebbcf2f1-cb96-421b-9ea0-4820347869e4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vafowuwyfuponu.leslutinsduphoenix.com/an-introduction-to-aboriginal-people-in-canada-and-mexico-44873hf.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00486.warc.gz | en | 0.981821 | 1,652 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.37298950552... | 1 | A list of books about Native Americans for kids. Native American Links For Kids We have visited all of these websites about American Indian culture and to the best of our knowledge they are informative, respectful, and safe for kids.
TOP When Europeans came to the Americas they were considered outsiders but, in accordance with the Aboriginal view, were permitted to share in the land and its resources.
Elders have told us that, in the eyes of the Creator, the Europeans as outsiders could not enjoy the same rights as the original inhabitants. Whatever rights the Europeans wanted had to be sought from those who were placed upon the land first by the Creator.
It is a belief common to many Aboriginal societies that the Creator placed Aboriginal people upon this land first for a reason, and that, as the first ones on the land, they were placed in a special relationship to it.
In the worldview of Aboriginal people, the Europeans were visitors and, as such, were bound to respect the obligations of that status.
For Aboriginal peoples, the land was part of their identity as a people. The earth was their Mother, the animals were their spiritual kin and all were part of the greater whole, which was life.
Their culture was grounded in nature.
Time was marked by the changing seasons and the rising and setting of the sun, rather than by numbers, and their existence was marked by an acceptance of and respect for their natural surroundings and their place in the scheme of things.
The thinking of Aboriginal peoples was cyclical, rather than linear like that of the Europeans. Everything was thought of in terms of its relation to the whole, not as individual bits of information to be compared to one another. Aboriginal philosophy was holistic, and did not lend itself readily to dichotomies or categories as did European philosophy.
The most fundamental of those rights is the right to their identity as Aboriginal people. This right to identity also implies the further right to self-determination, for it is through self-determination that a people preserves their collective identity.
The right to self-determination can take several forms. This latter right is violated if the traditional economy of an Aboriginal group is disrupted severely or damaged by the encroachments of a civilization that exploits or abuses natural resources on a large scale, such as a hydro-electric project, a pipeline or a strip mine.
These are the Aboriginal rights of the indigenous people of Canada. Like Aboriginal rights, treaty rights are also understood by Aboriginal peoples in broad, conceptual terms. Unlike Aboriginal rights, however, treaty rights are more susceptible to the restrictive interpretations of the federal and provincial governments.
Governments have claimed that treaty rights are limited to written promises made to Aboriginal groups by the Crown in specific treaties.
In return for these promises, First Nations in Manitoba are purported to have agreed to "yield up" the land they traditionally used and occupied, and to move to reserves in order to make room for the expanding white settlements. The signing of the post-Confederation numbered treaties in Manitoba was a solemn affair, resulting from negotiation through a bilateral, consensual process.
Indian tribes in Manitoba had been using the formality of the treaty-making process for many generations prior to the arrival of the Europeans and, to those tribes, the solemnity of the occasion marked the new relationship.
The representatives of the Crown were well aware of the importance of the process to the Indian tribes and, as some writers have pointed out, took advantage of that sense of importance. To a large extent, Indian tribes negotiated for what they could, but were faced with negotiators whose mandate was to obtain signatures upon the treaty documents by whatever means necessary.
The European objectives were to exercise complete control over the land, and to make it safe for settlement and for the development of its resources. In negotiating the treaties, the newcomers sought to provide the minimum in benefits in return for peace and control of the land.
Nevertheless, many provisions in the treaties were included at the insistence of the Aboriginal groups. Many verbal promises, not included in the written versions of the treaties, were made to reassure the Indian representatives about the exact nature of the agreements. The promises, both written and oral, were to be good "as long as the sun shines, the grass grows, and the rivers flow.
Aboriginal people consider the treaties to be agreements made between sovereign nations. Aboriginal signatories agreed to give up only their rights to certain tracts of land, not their right to govern their own lives and affairs.
While Europeans considered the treaties as transfers of title to land, Aboriginal nations perceived them merely to be agreements to share the land, as they did with the animals and other groups. Aboriginal peoples perceived the treaties as agreements only to share the land because the concept of legal title to land, as the Europeans understood it, was foreign to their culture.
|Culture Name||Last Edited March 4, The history of Indigenous Aboriginal art in Canada begins sometime during the last Ice Age between 80, and 12, years ago.|
|BibMe: Free Bibliography & Citation Maker - MLA, APA, Chicago, Harvard||The name Canada is derived from the Iroquoian word kanata, which means village. Canada is located in the northern portion of the continent of North America, extending, in general, from the 49th parallel northward to the islands of the Arctic Ocean.|
However, land was not something which an individual could divide, transfer, surrender, destroy or own to the exclusion of all others. The land was there to be shared, as it was the source of all life.
Today, Aboriginal peoples believe their treaty rights have become a series of broken promises. Time and time again during our hearings, people spoke eloquently about their understanding of the treaties and their frustrations at the manner of their treatment.
Aboriginal people in Manitoba firmly believe that despite, or perhaps more properly, because of the treaties they entered into with the Crown, they were to have been allowed to retain part of their land, to retain their identities, their cultures, their languages, their religions and their traditional ways of life, including their laws and their systems of government.
Those things have been denied to them. Even the manner in which the reserve land was set aside for the various First Nation signatories has been a source of frustration.
Instead of reserves being viewed by government as land for which Aboriginal people retain their original title, the government has persisted in the view that land was surrendered to the Crown, which then "gave it back" to Aboriginal people.
Aboriginal people were to have been partners in the new arrangement, with an equal say in defining their ongoing relationship with the Crown.Native American Facts for Kids Resources on American Indians for Children and Teachers Welcome to Native Languages of the Americas!We are a non-profit organization working to preserve and promote American Indian languages.
Essay about Aboriginal People of Canada Words | 6 Pages.
Aboriginal people represent less than 3% of the total population in BC. Yet, they account for more than 9% of all suicides in BC (Chandler). We cannot vouch for the truthfulness of any report on this site.
If you feel a location has been reported in error, or want to dispute a report, please contact us. As of the census, Aboriginal peoples in Canada totalled 1,, people, or % of the national population, with , First Nations people, , Métis and 65, Inuit.
% of the population under the age of 14 are of Aboriginal descent. Dec 23, · The indigenous peoples of Mexico still living today are called: Purepecha; Tarascan; Huichol; The Huichol are a very interesting people.
Huichol Indians live in the Sierra Madre Mountain Range in Mexico and are well known for wonderfully intricate yarn paintings and for their beautiful bead leslutinsduphoenix.coms: They have been overwhelmed by European colonies and societies and have come under their rule. Aboriginal people in Canada and Mexico are expected to live under Canadian or Mexican government when they are a different people than . | 1,625 | ENGLISH | 1 |
English Past Perfect Tense, Definition and Examples
Past Perfect Tense
When we construct a sentence in the past, we may want to talk about the events that happened in the past. In addition, it is possible to talk about our plans for the past. We need to use a different structure in the sentences in which we want to add such complex time meanings. In general, this structure is called past perfect tense. This tense structure makes us feel more free when talking about the past. In addition, this dense and complex structure is frequently used in novels.
Past perfect tense is often used to create a sequence relationship between two different events that occurred in the past. In this way, which can be more easily understood which is experienced before and after. In today’s article, we will see the positive and negative sentence setup with past perfect tense in detail. Let’s start.
When constructing a positive sentence, we need to use the third form of verbs. We used the second forms of verbs when constructing sentences in past simple tense. But when we talk about an event in the more distant past than in the past, we need to change our verb style and use the third form of the verb. In general, let’s examine the sentence structure together:
- Subject + had + V3 or V + ed
Let us imagine that we experienced one of two different events in the past, one after the other. In this case, we will need to express one or both of these verbs using past perfect tense. Here are some examples:
- I had washed the dishes before you came here.
- You had no idea about the girl when they asked.
- He had gone when she became ill.
If you want to make a negative sentence within the past continious tense sentence structure, simply add a note to the positive sentence structure. Therefore, it is easy to learn to use negative sentences in past continious tense. In such sentences, we may need to arrange two different events in the past again.
- I had not washed the dishes until you came the home.
- You had not said that there is a problem before they said.
- She had not arranged a meeting with them before they asked for.
You can multify these sentences.
Here is Detailed Past Perfect Tenses Example Sentences;
- I went there after I had completed the task.
- She had come late to the school.
- They had not been married when I was born.
- Until he went to England, he had not (hadn’t) spoken English.
- You had not studied hard.
- She had not done her homework so she was sad.
- He had not lived in Florida.
- They had not gone out when you called.
- She had done her homework so she was happy.
- Had they been married when I was born?
- Had he spoken English until he went to England?
- Had she done her homework?
- Had he lived in Florida?
- Had they gone out when you called?
- Had the woman cried till the morning?
- He had lived in Florida for ten years before he moved to California.
- They had gone out when you called.
- By the time we came, she had finished the project. | <urn:uuid:2b53cae9-04bc-47bd-b271-11fe1196efa3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://englishgrammarhere.com/tenses/past-perfect-tense-definition-and-examples/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00057.warc.gz | en | 0.981813 | 686 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.4362072... | 7 | English Past Perfect Tense, Definition and Examples
Past Perfect Tense
When we construct a sentence in the past, we may want to talk about the events that happened in the past. In addition, it is possible to talk about our plans for the past. We need to use a different structure in the sentences in which we want to add such complex time meanings. In general, this structure is called past perfect tense. This tense structure makes us feel more free when talking about the past. In addition, this dense and complex structure is frequently used in novels.
Past perfect tense is often used to create a sequence relationship between two different events that occurred in the past. In this way, which can be more easily understood which is experienced before and after. In today’s article, we will see the positive and negative sentence setup with past perfect tense in detail. Let’s start.
When constructing a positive sentence, we need to use the third form of verbs. We used the second forms of verbs when constructing sentences in past simple tense. But when we talk about an event in the more distant past than in the past, we need to change our verb style and use the third form of the verb. In general, let’s examine the sentence structure together:
- Subject + had + V3 or V + ed
Let us imagine that we experienced one of two different events in the past, one after the other. In this case, we will need to express one or both of these verbs using past perfect tense. Here are some examples:
- I had washed the dishes before you came here.
- You had no idea about the girl when they asked.
- He had gone when she became ill.
If you want to make a negative sentence within the past continious tense sentence structure, simply add a note to the positive sentence structure. Therefore, it is easy to learn to use negative sentences in past continious tense. In such sentences, we may need to arrange two different events in the past again.
- I had not washed the dishes until you came the home.
- You had not said that there is a problem before they said.
- She had not arranged a meeting with them before they asked for.
You can multify these sentences.
Here is Detailed Past Perfect Tenses Example Sentences;
- I went there after I had completed the task.
- She had come late to the school.
- They had not been married when I was born.
- Until he went to England, he had not (hadn’t) spoken English.
- You had not studied hard.
- She had not done her homework so she was sad.
- He had not lived in Florida.
- They had not gone out when you called.
- She had done her homework so she was happy.
- Had they been married when I was born?
- Had he spoken English until he went to England?
- Had she done her homework?
- Had he lived in Florida?
- Had they gone out when you called?
- Had the woman cried till the morning?
- He had lived in Florida for ten years before he moved to California.
- They had gone out when you called.
- By the time we came, she had finished the project. | 647 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We often wonder where some of our customs and traditions originate from. However some fade away over the centuries but others have survived the test of time. One such tradition which is thought to have originated in the 13th century, was upheld in Hereford Cathedral until very recently. Celebrating the Feast of St Nicholas and choosing a ‘Boy Bishop’ was commonplace during medieval and Tudor times.
Who was St Nicholas?
Traditionally a choirboy would be chosen on the 6th December, (the feast of St Nicholas, the patron saint of children, as well as sailors, merchants, archers, repentant thieves, brewers, pawnbrokers and students) to take over the duties of the Bishop.
The ‘Boy Bishop’ would be invested with all of the symbols of the episcopal office and be seated in the Bishop’s throne. He was required to act as Bishop for anywhere between 24 hours and 3 weeks depending on the region. Required to preach at least one sermon, he lead processions around communities, collected money for the parish funds and had the authority to bless people. He was also given a supply of tokens to distribute to the poor which could be redeemed for food and drink in local shops and hostelries.
It was believed that the ‘Boy Bishop’ tradition was a reinforcement of beliefs of the special relationship of children with heaven and a respect for innocence and purity of soul.
Why did Henry VIII ban the Boy Bishop?
King Henry VIII banned the appointment of ‘Boy Bishops’ during his reign because he felt it was unfitting and mocked Church authorities and in turn the king himself. However it was briefly reinstated by Mary I and then disappeared again under Elizabeth I’s reign.
What was ‘barring out?”
Another Tudor tradition associated with St Nicholas’s Day is that of “barring out”. Schoolboys would lock their schoolmasters out of the school and take possession of the place until the schoolmaster met certain demands. We could definitely see that going down a storm in our local schools today!
We have some brilliant customs and traditions in our county, some well-known and others well hidden. So if you have any to share and keep alive please do we would love to hear from you.
If you love Herefordshire Folklore and History follow our weekly Facebook ‘Folklore Friday’ feature here. | <urn:uuid:cb398d31-9a2b-467b-bbb6-f7cd848c3b68> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.eatsleepliveherefordshire.co.uk/celebrating-the-feast-of-st-nicholas/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00544.warc.gz | en | 0.982746 | 499 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.14158114790... | 8 | We often wonder where some of our customs and traditions originate from. However some fade away over the centuries but others have survived the test of time. One such tradition which is thought to have originated in the 13th century, was upheld in Hereford Cathedral until very recently. Celebrating the Feast of St Nicholas and choosing a ‘Boy Bishop’ was commonplace during medieval and Tudor times.
Who was St Nicholas?
Traditionally a choirboy would be chosen on the 6th December, (the feast of St Nicholas, the patron saint of children, as well as sailors, merchants, archers, repentant thieves, brewers, pawnbrokers and students) to take over the duties of the Bishop.
The ‘Boy Bishop’ would be invested with all of the symbols of the episcopal office and be seated in the Bishop’s throne. He was required to act as Bishop for anywhere between 24 hours and 3 weeks depending on the region. Required to preach at least one sermon, he lead processions around communities, collected money for the parish funds and had the authority to bless people. He was also given a supply of tokens to distribute to the poor which could be redeemed for food and drink in local shops and hostelries.
It was believed that the ‘Boy Bishop’ tradition was a reinforcement of beliefs of the special relationship of children with heaven and a respect for innocence and purity of soul.
Why did Henry VIII ban the Boy Bishop?
King Henry VIII banned the appointment of ‘Boy Bishops’ during his reign because he felt it was unfitting and mocked Church authorities and in turn the king himself. However it was briefly reinstated by Mary I and then disappeared again under Elizabeth I’s reign.
What was ‘barring out?”
Another Tudor tradition associated with St Nicholas’s Day is that of “barring out”. Schoolboys would lock their schoolmasters out of the school and take possession of the place until the schoolmaster met certain demands. We could definitely see that going down a storm in our local schools today!
We have some brilliant customs and traditions in our county, some well-known and others well hidden. So if you have any to share and keep alive please do we would love to hear from you.
If you love Herefordshire Folklore and History follow our weekly Facebook ‘Folklore Friday’ feature here. | 472 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Looking around aviation news and history, I see that many commercial aircraft are touted to have this or that much time fly between New York and London. What caused the route between these two cities to be used in measuring the "speed" of the aircraft?
They are (and historically, were even more so) two of the biggest cities in the business world (ranked Alpha++). That specific route has some of the highest rates of business travel and is, therefore, a fairly prestigious, famous route which is popular with fairly wealthy, prestigious people.
They are also two of the most famous cities in the world, and most people know roughly where they are on a map. The fact they're separated by an ocean which is large but was just small enough to be possible to cross safely in the early days of aviation also helped, because it gives the impression of being further than it is.
For example it's a comparable distance to London-Dubai, but that doesn't "feel" as big due to being overland through Europe. Equally while many people know roughly where Dubai is nowadays, it wasn't anywhere near as famous 30-80 years ago.
I suggest that the particular international air route is used because (1) both countries speak English and (2) English speakers read easily left to right.
I believe that commercial aircraft pilots and air traffic controllers around the world speak English at least as a second language.
The particular route is typically perceived to be longer than many other routes that are the same length yet nearer the equator. Perceptions can be misleading. For instance, on a Mercator projection map, Greenland appears about the same size as Africa, but actually Africa is 14 times the size of Greenland.
Once a benchmark is set up, it's usually preferable to add data to it and continue using it, than to create a new benchmark, because it permits a comparison between current and previous samples.
So even if the two cities are not the most logical choices now, they were in the past. | <urn:uuid:abf4aaa8-a178-4376-9f80-a4de42eb6e6e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aviation.stackexchange.com/questions/25972/why-is-new-york-london-used-in-time-measurement-for-aircraft | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00447.warc.gz | en | 0.98018 | 410 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.457539051771163... | 7 | Looking around aviation news and history, I see that many commercial aircraft are touted to have this or that much time fly between New York and London. What caused the route between these two cities to be used in measuring the "speed" of the aircraft?
They are (and historically, were even more so) two of the biggest cities in the business world (ranked Alpha++). That specific route has some of the highest rates of business travel and is, therefore, a fairly prestigious, famous route which is popular with fairly wealthy, prestigious people.
They are also two of the most famous cities in the world, and most people know roughly where they are on a map. The fact they're separated by an ocean which is large but was just small enough to be possible to cross safely in the early days of aviation also helped, because it gives the impression of being further than it is.
For example it's a comparable distance to London-Dubai, but that doesn't "feel" as big due to being overland through Europe. Equally while many people know roughly where Dubai is nowadays, it wasn't anywhere near as famous 30-80 years ago.
I suggest that the particular international air route is used because (1) both countries speak English and (2) English speakers read easily left to right.
I believe that commercial aircraft pilots and air traffic controllers around the world speak English at least as a second language.
The particular route is typically perceived to be longer than many other routes that are the same length yet nearer the equator. Perceptions can be misleading. For instance, on a Mercator projection map, Greenland appears about the same size as Africa, but actually Africa is 14 times the size of Greenland.
Once a benchmark is set up, it's usually preferable to add data to it and continue using it, than to create a new benchmark, because it permits a comparison between current and previous samples.
So even if the two cities are not the most logical choices now, they were in the past. | 408 | ENGLISH | 1 |
SPANISH KINGS AND QUEENS
ISABEL (1451 - 1504) and FERNANDO (1452 - 1516)
Fernando was the son of King Juan II of Aragon. He became King of Sicily in 1468 and a year later, in 1469, he married Isabel, heiress to the Crown of Castile, thereby laying the foundations for a united Spanish Kingdom.
Isabel and Fernando had five children. Isabel of Asturias was born in 1470 and died in 1498. She first married Alfonso of Portugal and then Manuel I of Portugal; she died in childbirth. Juan, Prince of Asturias, was born in 1478. He married Margaret of Austria but died 6 months later in 1497 without any heirs. Juana ("La Loca") was born in 1479 and married Felipe, Archduke of Austria. She became queen on her brother's death. Maria of Aragon was born in 1482 and married Manuel I of Portugal after her sister's death. Catherine Aragon was born in 1485. She first married King Arthur VI of England and then King Henry VIII of England, who divorced her when she was unable to provide him with an heir to the throne.
Isabel became Queen of Castile in 1474 and Fernando was made co-ruler of the united kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. Their fight was against non-Catholics, namely the Moors, and in 1478 the inquisition began to root out and punish non-believers. In 1492, they finally captured Granada, the last Moorish stronghold in Spain. The picture below painted by Francisco Pradilla Ortiz, shows Boabdil handing over the keys of the city to the Catholic Monarchs.
Following Columbus's discovery of the Americas in 1492, a vast colonial empire was established. In 1503, Fernando became King of Naples. When Isabel died in 1504, her will stated that Juana, her second daughter, should become queen, since her son, Juan, and her eldest daughter, Isabel, had already died. The painting on the left was painted by Eduardo Rosales and shows Isabel dictating her will to the scribe at the desk. Fernando is sitting in the chair on the left, with their daughter Juana behind him.
JUANA (1479 - 1555) and FELIPE (1478 -1506)
After Isabel's death in 1504, their daughter Juana, who suffered from schizophrenia, together with her husband Felipe, Archduke of Austria, ascended to the throne. The couple had been living in Brussels but they then moved to Burgos, a town in the north of Spain, in the spring of 1506.
Felipe was known as Felipe el Hermoso (Felipe the Good-looking) and was renowned for his infidelities. As he had more and more love affairs, Juana's mental stability worsened. Legend has it that Juana, who was insanely jealous, once attacked one or her own ladies-in-waiting who she believed was the object of Felipe's attentions with a knife, and ordered that her hair be cut off. Since then, only ugly women were allowed to serve in the palace.
Felipe died after a short illness, and doubts still remain as to whether he was in fact poisoned by his father-in-law. Juana's madness got progressively worse after her husband's death, and she lost her mind (hence her name of Juana la Loca - Juana the Mad). Consequently, her father ruled as regent until his death in 1516.
Juana believed that her husband would come to life again and had him put in two coffins: a lead one inside a wooden one. In December, she decided to take him to the cathedral in Granada to be buried alongside her mother Isabel. The funeral procession set of from Flanders accompanied by a group of musicians, and some courtiers and ladies-in-waiting. They walked at night, because she believed that "an honest woman should flee from the light of day when she has lost her husband, who was the sun", and every so often, the coffin would be opened so that Juana could kiss Felipe's face. Along the way the procession would stop at monasteries so that funeral services could be held for her dead husband. Unfortunately, once they made they made the mistake of stopping at a convent and Juana, horrified at the idea of women setting eyes on her dead husband, ordered that they leave immediately.
The picture below was painted by Francisco Pradilla Ortiz (1848-1921) and shows one of the breaks the funeral procession took along the way:
They never did reach Granada as Juana was declared officially mad and locked up in the small town of Tordesillas, remaining here until her death in 1555.
CARLOS I (1680 - 1558)
After Fernando's death, Carlos became King in 1516 and was to become one of the most powerful rulers in the world. In 1520, he was crowned Carlos V, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, an empire on which "the sun never set". When his father Felipe died in 1506, he became Duke of Burgundy and ruler of the Netherlands, and on the death of his grandfather Fernando, he became King of the Two Sicilies and of Spain. He was a tolerant ruler and having brought peace to the German lands and becoming a European leader after a power struggle with France, he decided to retire and split his empire between his brother Fernando and his son Felipe. In 1556, his son became King of Spain and Carlos retired to a Spanish monastery in Yuste where he died in 1558. | <urn:uuid:cc338852-223e-49fc-9ef6-e939a97fa8fd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://granadamap.com/kingsqueens.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00370.warc.gz | en | 0.989276 | 1,194 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.12191021442413... | 14 | SPANISH KINGS AND QUEENS
ISABEL (1451 - 1504) and FERNANDO (1452 - 1516)
Fernando was the son of King Juan II of Aragon. He became King of Sicily in 1468 and a year later, in 1469, he married Isabel, heiress to the Crown of Castile, thereby laying the foundations for a united Spanish Kingdom.
Isabel and Fernando had five children. Isabel of Asturias was born in 1470 and died in 1498. She first married Alfonso of Portugal and then Manuel I of Portugal; she died in childbirth. Juan, Prince of Asturias, was born in 1478. He married Margaret of Austria but died 6 months later in 1497 without any heirs. Juana ("La Loca") was born in 1479 and married Felipe, Archduke of Austria. She became queen on her brother's death. Maria of Aragon was born in 1482 and married Manuel I of Portugal after her sister's death. Catherine Aragon was born in 1485. She first married King Arthur VI of England and then King Henry VIII of England, who divorced her when she was unable to provide him with an heir to the throne.
Isabel became Queen of Castile in 1474 and Fernando was made co-ruler of the united kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. Their fight was against non-Catholics, namely the Moors, and in 1478 the inquisition began to root out and punish non-believers. In 1492, they finally captured Granada, the last Moorish stronghold in Spain. The picture below painted by Francisco Pradilla Ortiz, shows Boabdil handing over the keys of the city to the Catholic Monarchs.
Following Columbus's discovery of the Americas in 1492, a vast colonial empire was established. In 1503, Fernando became King of Naples. When Isabel died in 1504, her will stated that Juana, her second daughter, should become queen, since her son, Juan, and her eldest daughter, Isabel, had already died. The painting on the left was painted by Eduardo Rosales and shows Isabel dictating her will to the scribe at the desk. Fernando is sitting in the chair on the left, with their daughter Juana behind him.
JUANA (1479 - 1555) and FELIPE (1478 -1506)
After Isabel's death in 1504, their daughter Juana, who suffered from schizophrenia, together with her husband Felipe, Archduke of Austria, ascended to the throne. The couple had been living in Brussels but they then moved to Burgos, a town in the north of Spain, in the spring of 1506.
Felipe was known as Felipe el Hermoso (Felipe the Good-looking) and was renowned for his infidelities. As he had more and more love affairs, Juana's mental stability worsened. Legend has it that Juana, who was insanely jealous, once attacked one or her own ladies-in-waiting who she believed was the object of Felipe's attentions with a knife, and ordered that her hair be cut off. Since then, only ugly women were allowed to serve in the palace.
Felipe died after a short illness, and doubts still remain as to whether he was in fact poisoned by his father-in-law. Juana's madness got progressively worse after her husband's death, and she lost her mind (hence her name of Juana la Loca - Juana the Mad). Consequently, her father ruled as regent until his death in 1516.
Juana believed that her husband would come to life again and had him put in two coffins: a lead one inside a wooden one. In December, she decided to take him to the cathedral in Granada to be buried alongside her mother Isabel. The funeral procession set of from Flanders accompanied by a group of musicians, and some courtiers and ladies-in-waiting. They walked at night, because she believed that "an honest woman should flee from the light of day when she has lost her husband, who was the sun", and every so often, the coffin would be opened so that Juana could kiss Felipe's face. Along the way the procession would stop at monasteries so that funeral services could be held for her dead husband. Unfortunately, once they made they made the mistake of stopping at a convent and Juana, horrified at the idea of women setting eyes on her dead husband, ordered that they leave immediately.
The picture below was painted by Francisco Pradilla Ortiz (1848-1921) and shows one of the breaks the funeral procession took along the way:
They never did reach Granada as Juana was declared officially mad and locked up in the small town of Tordesillas, remaining here until her death in 1555.
CARLOS I (1680 - 1558)
After Fernando's death, Carlos became King in 1516 and was to become one of the most powerful rulers in the world. In 1520, he was crowned Carlos V, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, an empire on which "the sun never set". When his father Felipe died in 1506, he became Duke of Burgundy and ruler of the Netherlands, and on the death of his grandfather Fernando, he became King of the Two Sicilies and of Spain. He was a tolerant ruler and having brought peace to the German lands and becoming a European leader after a power struggle with France, he decided to retire and split his empire between his brother Fernando and his son Felipe. In 1556, his son became King of Spain and Carlos retired to a Spanish monastery in Yuste where he died in 1558. | 1,265 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Brief History of Time
OUR PICTURE OF THE UNIVERSE
A well-known scientist (some say it was Bertrand Russell) once gave a public lecture on astronomy. He described how the earth orbits around the sun and how the sun, in turn, orbits around the center of a vast collection of stars called our galaxy. At the end of the lecture, a little old lady at the back of the room got up and said: “What you have told us is rubbish. The world is really a flat plate supported on the back of a giant tortoise.” The scientist gave a superior smile before replying, “What is the tortoise standing on.” “You’re very clever, young man, very clever,” said the old lady. “But it’s turtles all the way down!”
Most people would find the picture of our universe as an infinite tower of tortoises rather ridiculous, but why do we think we know better? What do we know about the universe, and how do we know it?
Where did the universe come from, and where is it going? Did the universe have a beginning, and if so, what happened before then? What is the nature of time? Will it ever come to an end? Can we go back in time? Recent breakthroughs in physics, made possible in part by fantastic new technologies, suggest answers to some of these longstanding questions. Someday these answers may seem as obvious to us as the earth orbiting the sun – or perhaps as ridiculous as a tower of tortoises. Only time (whatever that may be) will tell.
As long ago as 340 BC the Greek philosopher Aristotle, in his book On the Heavens, was able to put forward two good arguments for believing that the earth was a round sphere rather than a Hat plate. First, he realized that eclipses of the moon were caused by the earth coming between the sun and the moon. The earth’s shadow on the moon was always round, which would be true only if the earth wasspherical. If the earth had been a flat disk, the shadow would have been elongated and elliptical, unless the eclipse always occurred at a time when the sun was directly under the center of the disk. Second, the Greeks knew from their travels that the North Star appeared lower in the sky when viewed in the south than it did in more northerly regions. (Since the North Star lies over the North Pole, it appears to be directly above an observer at the North Pole, but to someone looking from the equator, it appears to lie just at the horizon. From the difference in the apparent position of the North Star in Egypt and Greece, Aristotle even quoted an estimate that the distance around the earth was 400,000 stadia. It is not known exactly what length a stadium was, but it may have been about 200 yards, which would make Aristotle’s estimate about twice the currently accepted figure. The Greeks even had a third argument that the earth must be round, for why else does one first see the
sails of a ship coming over the horizon, and only later see the hull?
Aristotle thought the earth was stationary and that the sun, the moon, the planets, and the stars moved in circular orbits about the earth. He believed this because he felt, for mystical reasons, that the earth was the center of the universe, and that circular motion was the most perfect. This idea was elaborated by Ptolemy in the second century AD into a complete cosmological model. The earth stood at the center, surrounded by eight spheres that carried the moon, the sun, the stars, and the five planets known at the time, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn (Fig. 1.1). The planets themselves moved on smaller circles attached to their respective spheres in order to account for their rather complicated observed paths in the sky. The outermost sphere carried the so-called fixed stars, which always stay in the same positions relative to each other
but which rotate together across the sky. What lay beyond the last sphere was never made very clear, but it certainly was not part of mankind’s observable universe.
Ptolemy’s model provided a reasonably accurate system for predicting the positions of heavenly bodies in the sky. But in order to predict these positions correctly, Ptolemy had to make an assumption that the moon followed a path that sometimes brought it twice as close to the earth as at other times. And that meant that the moon ought sometimes to appear twice as big as at other times! Ptolemy recognized this flaw, but nevertheless his model was generally, although not universally, accepted. It was adopted by the Christian church as the picture of the universe that was in accordance with Scripture, for it had the great advantage that it left lots of room outside the sphere of fixed stars for heaven and hell.
A simpler model, however, was proposedin 1514 by a Polish priest, Nicholas Copernicus. (At first, perhaps for fear of being branded a heretic by his church, Copernicus circulated his model anonymously.) His idea was that the sun was stationary at the center and that the earth and the planets moved in circular orbits around the sun. Nearly a century passed before this idea was taken seriously. Then two astronomers – the German, Johannes Kepler, and the Italian, Galileo Galilei – started publicly to support the Copernican theory, despite the fact that the orbits it predicted did not quite match the ones observed. The death blow to the Aristotelian/Ptolemaic theory came in 1609. In that year, Galileo started observing the night sky with a telescope, which had just been invented. When he looked at the planet Jupiter, Galileo found that it was accompanied by several small satellites or moons that orbited around it. This implied that everything did not have to orbit directly around the earth, as Aristotle and
Ptolemy had thought. (It was, of course, still possible to believe that the earth was stationary at the center of the universe and that the moons of Jupiter moved on extremely complicated paths around the earth, giving the appearance that they orbited Jupiter. However, Copernicus’s theory was much simpler.) At the same time, Johannes Kepler had modified Copernicus’s theory, suggesting that the planets moved not in circles but in ellipses (an ellipse is an elongated circle). The predictions now finally matched the observations.
As far as Kepler was concerned, elliptical orbits were merely an ad hoc hypothesis, and a rather repugnant one at that, because ellipses were clearly less perfect than circles. Having discovered almost by accident that elliptical orbits fit the observations well, he could not reconcile them with his idea that the planets were made to orbit the sun by magnetic forces.An explanation was provided only much later, in 1687, when Sir Isaac Newton published his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, probably the most important single work ever published in the physical sciences. In it Newton not only put forward a theory of how bodies move in space and time, but he also developed the complicated mathematics needed to analyze those motions. In addition, Newton postulated a law of universal gravitation according to which each body in the universe was attracted toward every other body by a force that was stronger the more massive the bodies and the closer they were to each other. It was this same force that caused objects to fall to the ground. (The story that Newton was inspired by an apple hitting his head is almost certainly apocryphal. All Newton himself ever said was that the idea of gravity came to him as he sat “in a contemplative mood” and “was occasioned by the fall of an apple.”) Newton went on to
show that, according to his law, gravity causes the moon to move in an elliptical orbit around the earth and causes the earth and the planets to follow elliptical paths around the sun.
The Copernican model got rid of Ptolemy’s celestial spheres, and with them, the idea that the universe had a natural boundary. Since “fixed stars” did not appear to change their positions apart from a rotation across the sky caused by the earth spinning on its axis, it became natural to suppose that the fixed stars were objects like our sun but very much farther away.
Newton realized that, according to his theory of gravity, the stars should attract each other, so it seemed they could not remain essentially motionless. Would they not all fall together at some point? In a letter in 1691 to Richard Bentley, another leading thinker of his day, Newton argued that this would indeed happen if there were
only a finite number of stars distributed over a finite region of space. But he reasoned that if, on the other hand, there were an infinite number of stars, distributed more or less uniformly over infinite space, this would not happen, because there would not be any central point for them to fall to.
This argument is an instance of the pitfalls that you can encounter in talking about infinity. In an infinite universe, every point can be regarded as the center, because every point has an infinite number of stars on each side of it. The correct approach, it was realized only much later, is to consider the finite situation, in which the stars all fall in on each other, and then to ask how things change if one adds more stars roughly uniformly distributed outside this region. According to Newton’s law, the extra stars would make no difference at all to the original ones on average, so the stars would fall in just as fast. We can add as
many stars as we like, but they will still always collapse in on them-selves. We now know it is impossible to have an infinite static model of the universe in which gravity is always attractive.
It is an interesting reflection on the general climate of thought before the twentieth century that no one had suggested that the universe was expanding or contracting. It was generally accepted that either the universe had existed forever in an unchanging state, or that it had been created at a finite time in the past more or less as we observe it today. In part this may have been due to people’s tendency to believe in eternal truths, as well as the comfort they found in the thought that even though they may grow old and die, the universe is eternal and unchanging.
Even those who realized that Newton’s theory of gravity showed that the universe could not be static did not think to suggest that it might be expanding. Instead, they
attempted to modify the theory by making the gravitational force repulsive at very large distances. This did not significantly affect their predictions of the motions of the planets, but it allowed an infinite distribution of stars to remain in equilibrium – with the attractive forces between nearby stars balanced by the repulsive forces from those that were farther away. However, we now believe such an equilibrium would be unstable: if the stars in some region got only slightly nearer each other, the attractive forces between them would become stronger and dominate over the repulsive forces so that the stars would continue to fall toward each other. On the other hand, if the stars got a bit farther away from each other, the repulsive forces would dominate and drive them farther apart.
Another objection to an infinite static universe is normally ascribed to the German philosopher Heinrich Olbers, whowrote about this theory in 1823. In fact, various contemporaries of Newton had raised the problem, and the Olbers article was not even the first to contain plausible arguments against it. It was, however, the first to be widely noted. The difficulty is that in an infinite static universe nearly every line of sight would end on the surface of a star. Thus one would expect that the whole sky would be as bright as the sun, even at night. Olbers’ counter-argument was that the light from distant stars would be dimmed by absorption by intervening matter. However, if that happened the intervening matter would eventually heat up until it glowed as brightly as the stars. The only way of avoiding the conclusion that the whole of the night sky should be as bright as the surface of the sun would be to assume that the stars had not been shining forever but had turned on at some finite time in the past. In that case the absorbing matter might not have heated up yet or the light from distant stars might not yet have
reached us. And that brings us to the question of what could have caused the stars to have turned on in the first place.
The beginning of the universe had, of course, been discussed long before this. According to a number of early cosmologies and the Jewish/Christian/Muslim tradition, the universe started at a finite, and not very distant, time in the past. One argument for such a beginning was the feeling that it was necessary to have “First Cause” to explain the existence of the universe. (Within the universe, you always explained one event as being caused by some earlier event, but the existence of the universe itself could be explained in this way only if it had some beginning.) Another argument was put forward by St. Augustine in his book The City of God. He pointed out that civilization is progressing and we remember who performed this deed or developed that technique. Thus man, and so also perhaps the universe, could not
have been around all that long. St. Augustine accepted a date of about 5000 BC for the Creation of the universe according to the book of Genesis. (It is interesting that this is not so far from the end of the last Ice Age, about 10,000 BC, which is when archaeologists tell us that civilization really began.)
Aristotle, and most of the other Greek philosophers, on the other hand, did not like the idea of a creation because it smacked too much of divine intervention. They believed, therefore, that the human race and the world around it had existed, and would exist, forever. The ancients had already considered the argument about progress described above, and answered it by saying that there had been periodic floods or other disasters that repeatedly set the human race right back to the beginning of civilization.
The questions of whether the universe had a beginning in time and whether it islimited in space were later extensively examined by the philosopher Immanuel Kant in his monumental (and very obscure) work Critique of Pure Reason, published in 1781. He called these questions antinomies (that is, contradictions) of pure reason because he felt that there were equally compelling arguments for believing the thesis, that the universe had a beginning, and the antithesis, that it had existed forever. His argument for the thesis was that if the universe did not have a beginning, there would be an infinite period of time before any event, which he considered absurd. The argument for the antithesis was that if the universe had a beginning, there would be an infinite period of time before it, so why should the universe begin at any one particular time? In fact, his cases for both the thesis and the antithesis are really the same argument. They are both based on his unspoken assumption that time continues back forever, whether or not the universe had
existed forever. As we shall see, the concept of time has no meaning before the beginning of the universe. This was first pointed out by St. Augustine. When asked: “What did God do before he created the universe?” Augustine didn’t reply: “He was preparing Hell for people who asked such questions.” Instead, he said that time was a property of the universe that God created, and that time did not exist before the beginning of the universe.
When most people believed in an essentially static and unchanging universe, the question of whether or not it had a beginning was really one of metaphysics or theology. One could account for what was observed equally well on the theory that the universe had existed forever or on the theory that it was set in motion at some finite time in such a manner as to look as though it had existed forever. But in 1929, Edwin Hubble made the landmark observation that wherever you look, distant
galaxies are moving rapidly away from us. In other words, the universe is expanding. This means that at earlier times objects would have been closer together. In fact, it seemed that there was a time, about ten or twenty thousand million years ago, when they were all at exactly the same place and when, therefore, the density of the universe was infinite. This discovery finally brought the question of the beginning of the universe into the realm of science.
Hubble’s observations suggested that there was a time, called the big bang, when the universe was infinitesimally small and infinitely dense. Under such conditions all the laws of science, and therefore all ability to predict the future, would break down. If there were events earlier than this time, then they could not affect what happens at the present time. Their existence can be ignored because it would have no observational consequences. One may say that time had a beginning at the big bang,in the sense that earlier times simply would not be defined. It should be emphasized that this beginning in time is very different from those that had been considered previously. In an unchanging universe a beginning in time is something that has to be imposed by some being outside the universe; there is no physical necessity for a beginning. One can imagine that God created the universe at literally any time in the past. On the other hand, if the universe is expanding, there may be physical reasons why there had to be a beginning. One could still imagine that God created the universe at the instant of the big bang, or even afterwards in just such a way as to make it look as though there had been a big bang, but it would be meaningless to suppose that it was created before the big bang. An expanding universe does not preclude a creator, but it does place limits on when he might have carried out his job! | <urn:uuid:bbf8e896-bc19-4cda-9d76-be5e6e37639d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.richersshop.com/a-brief-history-of-time/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00472.warc.gz | en | 0.981254 | 3,716 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.34607201814... | 1 | A Brief History of Time
OUR PICTURE OF THE UNIVERSE
A well-known scientist (some say it was Bertrand Russell) once gave a public lecture on astronomy. He described how the earth orbits around the sun and how the sun, in turn, orbits around the center of a vast collection of stars called our galaxy. At the end of the lecture, a little old lady at the back of the room got up and said: “What you have told us is rubbish. The world is really a flat plate supported on the back of a giant tortoise.” The scientist gave a superior smile before replying, “What is the tortoise standing on.” “You’re very clever, young man, very clever,” said the old lady. “But it’s turtles all the way down!”
Most people would find the picture of our universe as an infinite tower of tortoises rather ridiculous, but why do we think we know better? What do we know about the universe, and how do we know it?
Where did the universe come from, and where is it going? Did the universe have a beginning, and if so, what happened before then? What is the nature of time? Will it ever come to an end? Can we go back in time? Recent breakthroughs in physics, made possible in part by fantastic new technologies, suggest answers to some of these longstanding questions. Someday these answers may seem as obvious to us as the earth orbiting the sun – or perhaps as ridiculous as a tower of tortoises. Only time (whatever that may be) will tell.
As long ago as 340 BC the Greek philosopher Aristotle, in his book On the Heavens, was able to put forward two good arguments for believing that the earth was a round sphere rather than a Hat plate. First, he realized that eclipses of the moon were caused by the earth coming between the sun and the moon. The earth’s shadow on the moon was always round, which would be true only if the earth wasspherical. If the earth had been a flat disk, the shadow would have been elongated and elliptical, unless the eclipse always occurred at a time when the sun was directly under the center of the disk. Second, the Greeks knew from their travels that the North Star appeared lower in the sky when viewed in the south than it did in more northerly regions. (Since the North Star lies over the North Pole, it appears to be directly above an observer at the North Pole, but to someone looking from the equator, it appears to lie just at the horizon. From the difference in the apparent position of the North Star in Egypt and Greece, Aristotle even quoted an estimate that the distance around the earth was 400,000 stadia. It is not known exactly what length a stadium was, but it may have been about 200 yards, which would make Aristotle’s estimate about twice the currently accepted figure. The Greeks even had a third argument that the earth must be round, for why else does one first see the
sails of a ship coming over the horizon, and only later see the hull?
Aristotle thought the earth was stationary and that the sun, the moon, the planets, and the stars moved in circular orbits about the earth. He believed this because he felt, for mystical reasons, that the earth was the center of the universe, and that circular motion was the most perfect. This idea was elaborated by Ptolemy in the second century AD into a complete cosmological model. The earth stood at the center, surrounded by eight spheres that carried the moon, the sun, the stars, and the five planets known at the time, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn (Fig. 1.1). The planets themselves moved on smaller circles attached to their respective spheres in order to account for their rather complicated observed paths in the sky. The outermost sphere carried the so-called fixed stars, which always stay in the same positions relative to each other
but which rotate together across the sky. What lay beyond the last sphere was never made very clear, but it certainly was not part of mankind’s observable universe.
Ptolemy’s model provided a reasonably accurate system for predicting the positions of heavenly bodies in the sky. But in order to predict these positions correctly, Ptolemy had to make an assumption that the moon followed a path that sometimes brought it twice as close to the earth as at other times. And that meant that the moon ought sometimes to appear twice as big as at other times! Ptolemy recognized this flaw, but nevertheless his model was generally, although not universally, accepted. It was adopted by the Christian church as the picture of the universe that was in accordance with Scripture, for it had the great advantage that it left lots of room outside the sphere of fixed stars for heaven and hell.
A simpler model, however, was proposedin 1514 by a Polish priest, Nicholas Copernicus. (At first, perhaps for fear of being branded a heretic by his church, Copernicus circulated his model anonymously.) His idea was that the sun was stationary at the center and that the earth and the planets moved in circular orbits around the sun. Nearly a century passed before this idea was taken seriously. Then two astronomers – the German, Johannes Kepler, and the Italian, Galileo Galilei – started publicly to support the Copernican theory, despite the fact that the orbits it predicted did not quite match the ones observed. The death blow to the Aristotelian/Ptolemaic theory came in 1609. In that year, Galileo started observing the night sky with a telescope, which had just been invented. When he looked at the planet Jupiter, Galileo found that it was accompanied by several small satellites or moons that orbited around it. This implied that everything did not have to orbit directly around the earth, as Aristotle and
Ptolemy had thought. (It was, of course, still possible to believe that the earth was stationary at the center of the universe and that the moons of Jupiter moved on extremely complicated paths around the earth, giving the appearance that they orbited Jupiter. However, Copernicus’s theory was much simpler.) At the same time, Johannes Kepler had modified Copernicus’s theory, suggesting that the planets moved not in circles but in ellipses (an ellipse is an elongated circle). The predictions now finally matched the observations.
As far as Kepler was concerned, elliptical orbits were merely an ad hoc hypothesis, and a rather repugnant one at that, because ellipses were clearly less perfect than circles. Having discovered almost by accident that elliptical orbits fit the observations well, he could not reconcile them with his idea that the planets were made to orbit the sun by magnetic forces.An explanation was provided only much later, in 1687, when Sir Isaac Newton published his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, probably the most important single work ever published in the physical sciences. In it Newton not only put forward a theory of how bodies move in space and time, but he also developed the complicated mathematics needed to analyze those motions. In addition, Newton postulated a law of universal gravitation according to which each body in the universe was attracted toward every other body by a force that was stronger the more massive the bodies and the closer they were to each other. It was this same force that caused objects to fall to the ground. (The story that Newton was inspired by an apple hitting his head is almost certainly apocryphal. All Newton himself ever said was that the idea of gravity came to him as he sat “in a contemplative mood” and “was occasioned by the fall of an apple.”) Newton went on to
show that, according to his law, gravity causes the moon to move in an elliptical orbit around the earth and causes the earth and the planets to follow elliptical paths around the sun.
The Copernican model got rid of Ptolemy’s celestial spheres, and with them, the idea that the universe had a natural boundary. Since “fixed stars” did not appear to change their positions apart from a rotation across the sky caused by the earth spinning on its axis, it became natural to suppose that the fixed stars were objects like our sun but very much farther away.
Newton realized that, according to his theory of gravity, the stars should attract each other, so it seemed they could not remain essentially motionless. Would they not all fall together at some point? In a letter in 1691 to Richard Bentley, another leading thinker of his day, Newton argued that this would indeed happen if there were
only a finite number of stars distributed over a finite region of space. But he reasoned that if, on the other hand, there were an infinite number of stars, distributed more or less uniformly over infinite space, this would not happen, because there would not be any central point for them to fall to.
This argument is an instance of the pitfalls that you can encounter in talking about infinity. In an infinite universe, every point can be regarded as the center, because every point has an infinite number of stars on each side of it. The correct approach, it was realized only much later, is to consider the finite situation, in which the stars all fall in on each other, and then to ask how things change if one adds more stars roughly uniformly distributed outside this region. According to Newton’s law, the extra stars would make no difference at all to the original ones on average, so the stars would fall in just as fast. We can add as
many stars as we like, but they will still always collapse in on them-selves. We now know it is impossible to have an infinite static model of the universe in which gravity is always attractive.
It is an interesting reflection on the general climate of thought before the twentieth century that no one had suggested that the universe was expanding or contracting. It was generally accepted that either the universe had existed forever in an unchanging state, or that it had been created at a finite time in the past more or less as we observe it today. In part this may have been due to people’s tendency to believe in eternal truths, as well as the comfort they found in the thought that even though they may grow old and die, the universe is eternal and unchanging.
Even those who realized that Newton’s theory of gravity showed that the universe could not be static did not think to suggest that it might be expanding. Instead, they
attempted to modify the theory by making the gravitational force repulsive at very large distances. This did not significantly affect their predictions of the motions of the planets, but it allowed an infinite distribution of stars to remain in equilibrium – with the attractive forces between nearby stars balanced by the repulsive forces from those that were farther away. However, we now believe such an equilibrium would be unstable: if the stars in some region got only slightly nearer each other, the attractive forces between them would become stronger and dominate over the repulsive forces so that the stars would continue to fall toward each other. On the other hand, if the stars got a bit farther away from each other, the repulsive forces would dominate and drive them farther apart.
Another objection to an infinite static universe is normally ascribed to the German philosopher Heinrich Olbers, whowrote about this theory in 1823. In fact, various contemporaries of Newton had raised the problem, and the Olbers article was not even the first to contain plausible arguments against it. It was, however, the first to be widely noted. The difficulty is that in an infinite static universe nearly every line of sight would end on the surface of a star. Thus one would expect that the whole sky would be as bright as the sun, even at night. Olbers’ counter-argument was that the light from distant stars would be dimmed by absorption by intervening matter. However, if that happened the intervening matter would eventually heat up until it glowed as brightly as the stars. The only way of avoiding the conclusion that the whole of the night sky should be as bright as the surface of the sun would be to assume that the stars had not been shining forever but had turned on at some finite time in the past. In that case the absorbing matter might not have heated up yet or the light from distant stars might not yet have
reached us. And that brings us to the question of what could have caused the stars to have turned on in the first place.
The beginning of the universe had, of course, been discussed long before this. According to a number of early cosmologies and the Jewish/Christian/Muslim tradition, the universe started at a finite, and not very distant, time in the past. One argument for such a beginning was the feeling that it was necessary to have “First Cause” to explain the existence of the universe. (Within the universe, you always explained one event as being caused by some earlier event, but the existence of the universe itself could be explained in this way only if it had some beginning.) Another argument was put forward by St. Augustine in his book The City of God. He pointed out that civilization is progressing and we remember who performed this deed or developed that technique. Thus man, and so also perhaps the universe, could not
have been around all that long. St. Augustine accepted a date of about 5000 BC for the Creation of the universe according to the book of Genesis. (It is interesting that this is not so far from the end of the last Ice Age, about 10,000 BC, which is when archaeologists tell us that civilization really began.)
Aristotle, and most of the other Greek philosophers, on the other hand, did not like the idea of a creation because it smacked too much of divine intervention. They believed, therefore, that the human race and the world around it had existed, and would exist, forever. The ancients had already considered the argument about progress described above, and answered it by saying that there had been periodic floods or other disasters that repeatedly set the human race right back to the beginning of civilization.
The questions of whether the universe had a beginning in time and whether it islimited in space were later extensively examined by the philosopher Immanuel Kant in his monumental (and very obscure) work Critique of Pure Reason, published in 1781. He called these questions antinomies (that is, contradictions) of pure reason because he felt that there were equally compelling arguments for believing the thesis, that the universe had a beginning, and the antithesis, that it had existed forever. His argument for the thesis was that if the universe did not have a beginning, there would be an infinite period of time before any event, which he considered absurd. The argument for the antithesis was that if the universe had a beginning, there would be an infinite period of time before it, so why should the universe begin at any one particular time? In fact, his cases for both the thesis and the antithesis are really the same argument. They are both based on his unspoken assumption that time continues back forever, whether or not the universe had
existed forever. As we shall see, the concept of time has no meaning before the beginning of the universe. This was first pointed out by St. Augustine. When asked: “What did God do before he created the universe?” Augustine didn’t reply: “He was preparing Hell for people who asked such questions.” Instead, he said that time was a property of the universe that God created, and that time did not exist before the beginning of the universe.
When most people believed in an essentially static and unchanging universe, the question of whether or not it had a beginning was really one of metaphysics or theology. One could account for what was observed equally well on the theory that the universe had existed forever or on the theory that it was set in motion at some finite time in such a manner as to look as though it had existed forever. But in 1929, Edwin Hubble made the landmark observation that wherever you look, distant
galaxies are moving rapidly away from us. In other words, the universe is expanding. This means that at earlier times objects would have been closer together. In fact, it seemed that there was a time, about ten or twenty thousand million years ago, when they were all at exactly the same place and when, therefore, the density of the universe was infinite. This discovery finally brought the question of the beginning of the universe into the realm of science.
Hubble’s observations suggested that there was a time, called the big bang, when the universe was infinitesimally small and infinitely dense. Under such conditions all the laws of science, and therefore all ability to predict the future, would break down. If there were events earlier than this time, then they could not affect what happens at the present time. Their existence can be ignored because it would have no observational consequences. One may say that time had a beginning at the big bang,in the sense that earlier times simply would not be defined. It should be emphasized that this beginning in time is very different from those that had been considered previously. In an unchanging universe a beginning in time is something that has to be imposed by some being outside the universe; there is no physical necessity for a beginning. One can imagine that God created the universe at literally any time in the past. On the other hand, if the universe is expanding, there may be physical reasons why there had to be a beginning. One could still imagine that God created the universe at the instant of the big bang, or even afterwards in just such a way as to make it look as though there had been a big bang, but it would be meaningless to suppose that it was created before the big bang. An expanding universe does not preclude a creator, but it does place limits on when he might have carried out his job! | 3,685 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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