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The First Thanksgiving
After surviving a terrible first winter in the New World the Pilgrims, aided by the friendly Squanto and other members of the Wampanoag tribe, succeeded in producing a bountiful harvest and gave thanks in a mutual celebration which was the first Thanksgiving. Still celebrated with decorations including Pilgrim hats and Indian headdresses, this was the first time settlers in America paused to give thanks for the bountiful nature of their new home.
In fact by March of 1621 – only four about months after landing – of the 102 Pilgrims who went ashore in the New World only around 50 were still alive. Nearly half of the Mayflower’s crew had died as well. At the end of the first summer, these survivors participated in a Harvest Festival, joined by around 90 Wampanoags, and dined primarily on game and fish, since the few crops grown successfully that year had been stored against the approaching winter. Not until 1623, according to the records left by Pilgrim leaders, did an event described as a Thanksgiving celebration occur in Plymouth Colony.
Even then it was not the first in North America. Thanksgiving celebrations in Europe had been common and the earliest settlers in the New World brought the tradition with them. Celebrations labeled as Thanksgiving Day were present in the Jamestown settlement in Virginia in 1610, and evidence suggests similar events as early as 1607, the first year of the colony.
Another Virginia settlement, the short-lived Berkeley 100, was required by its charter to celebrate the day of their landing in the New World – on the north bank of the James River – as a day of Thanksgiving. The colony was abandoned due to the attacks of Natives only three years later.
Other Thanksgivings which predated the Pilgrims include those of Spanish settlers in St. Augustine and Texas. The debate over the first Thanksgiving was even addressed by President Kennedy when issuing his annual proclamation in 1963, just 17 days before his assassination, when he specified the holiday’s descent from celebrations in both Massachusetts and Virginia. Regardless, the traditions of the current holiday are evidently permanently attached to the poorly documented and nearly mythical day in the autumn of 1621, and so they shall probably ever remain. | <urn:uuid:e84f5185-4e05-461d-a603-ea0ba93f6bb1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historycollection.co/10-historical-facts-actually-fiction/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00312.warc.gz | en | 0.980486 | 454 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.4561988115310669... | 2 | The First Thanksgiving
After surviving a terrible first winter in the New World the Pilgrims, aided by the friendly Squanto and other members of the Wampanoag tribe, succeeded in producing a bountiful harvest and gave thanks in a mutual celebration which was the first Thanksgiving. Still celebrated with decorations including Pilgrim hats and Indian headdresses, this was the first time settlers in America paused to give thanks for the bountiful nature of their new home.
In fact by March of 1621 – only four about months after landing – of the 102 Pilgrims who went ashore in the New World only around 50 were still alive. Nearly half of the Mayflower’s crew had died as well. At the end of the first summer, these survivors participated in a Harvest Festival, joined by around 90 Wampanoags, and dined primarily on game and fish, since the few crops grown successfully that year had been stored against the approaching winter. Not until 1623, according to the records left by Pilgrim leaders, did an event described as a Thanksgiving celebration occur in Plymouth Colony.
Even then it was not the first in North America. Thanksgiving celebrations in Europe had been common and the earliest settlers in the New World brought the tradition with them. Celebrations labeled as Thanksgiving Day were present in the Jamestown settlement in Virginia in 1610, and evidence suggests similar events as early as 1607, the first year of the colony.
Another Virginia settlement, the short-lived Berkeley 100, was required by its charter to celebrate the day of their landing in the New World – on the north bank of the James River – as a day of Thanksgiving. The colony was abandoned due to the attacks of Natives only three years later.
Other Thanksgivings which predated the Pilgrims include those of Spanish settlers in St. Augustine and Texas. The debate over the first Thanksgiving was even addressed by President Kennedy when issuing his annual proclamation in 1963, just 17 days before his assassination, when he specified the holiday’s descent from celebrations in both Massachusetts and Virginia. Regardless, the traditions of the current holiday are evidently permanently attached to the poorly documented and nearly mythical day in the autumn of 1621, and so they shall probably ever remain. | 481 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Get Full Essay Get access to this section to get all help you need with your essay and educational issues. Mao used terror and repression most notably to eliminate political threats to his power.
Get Full Essay Get access to this section to get all help you need with your essay and educational issues. From this period on untilMao had numerous domestic policies, some were failures and some successes.
The focus of this essay is to establish whether Mao achieved this goal with his domestic policies. The effect of the civil war on China was that there was major instability in the Country. Mao knew it and one of his major concerns in order to achieve his goals was to even out this insecurity.
InMao launched the Organic law which divided China into 6 subdivisions. Each of these were regulated by offices and bureaus, which also included officials. Force was used to achieve a certain level of stability. His second movement was the Agrarian Reform Law. The communist party workers were dispatched to each village to implement it.
Although the courts were originally set up by the party officials, it was the peasants who ran them. Inpeasants were encouraged to form co-operatives as quarrels arose within the peasants as to whose land should be worked first and as production did not rise fast enough.
This was a system by which the land was jointly owned so one large crop was grown. Before Mao Zedong, woman had had no rights what so ever in China. Women had arranged marriages and were a tool for reproduction. Female babies could be drowned and girls could be sold as slaves.
This was a great success for him because it meant that from one day to another, the women in china became equal to men, who for centuries before had always been inferior. Women were allowed to vote, own land, and chose who they wanted to marry, the arranged marriages were banned from China. This meant that Mao was years ahead other countries in the world, where woman in other countries were still controlled and had no idea of what freedom was.
InMao, after remembering what had weakened the Nationalists during the civil war, Mao created the Three Anti Movement, which targeted waste, inefficiency and corruption. Soon this movement was changed to the 5 Anti movement. This was to help the economy by opposing issues such as tax evasion and fraud.
It was aimed to boost the cal, steel and chemical production. It was recorded that the1st 5year plan was a great success. The original output targets set up in were mostly achieved but also surpassed.
After those five years, china had a railway system which moved goods an raw material. Mao told the communist party to be ready and receive criticism from the Chinese people. InMao launched the flower campaign. As more and more was happening, Mao called a stop the free speech idea, by then China moved into a time of suppression.
Others were sent in prison and labour camps. Unlike the first 5 year plan, the great leap forward fell far below its targets and goals. The land that had been taken from landlords and given to the peasants was withdrawn from them.
There were millions of deaths during that time period as people starved. There is no doubt that the great leap forward was a disaster. Mao always refused to accept the blame for this and instead retreated. He handed out the food shortage problem to Deng Xiaoping and Liu Shaoqi.
Mao did not approve of this and was very scared of the direction China was heading towards and therefore started to take part more actively in Chinese politics.
Deng Xaoping and Liu Shaoqi were taken out of the party. Deng Xaoping became a waiter and Liu died in jail after months of imprisonments. Over the next decade, during the cultural revolution, China was in Chaos. Mao told students to form themselves into red guards.
Children even accused their own parents of being anti communists. They Red guards destroyed factories, offices and local communist party offices. Many people were beaten, tortured, imprisoned or executed after unfair trials.
By the cultural revolution was out of control.Successes and Failures of Mao’s Domestic Policies Between and Essay Sample. His optimal goal was to turn China into a super power, a power as powerful or greater than The United States.
The focus of this essay is to establish whether Mao achieved this goal with his domestic policies. In , peasants were encouraged to . Mao's consolidation of power between and Mao’s consolidation of power between and Essay Sample The whole doc is available only for registered users OPEN DOC.
Start studying Mao's Consolidation of China Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools. Search. the New Democratic Youth League - 9 million members by , and which later became the Communist Youth League after Communists come to power, land reform is universally applied.
This service will be useful for: At iridis-photo-restoration.com you will find a wide variety of top-notch essay and term paper samples on any possible topics absolutely for free. Their consolidation of power in was also enabled by their means of legality, and Hitler becoming Chancellor in January This rise to power was viable due to numerous factors; Hitler’s own tactical manoeuvring of the Reichstag, Germany’s growing economic downfall, Germany changed political landscape and in according to the title.
Their consolidation of power in was also enabled by their means of legality, and Hitler becoming Chancellor in January This rise to power was viable due to numerous factors; Hitler’s own tactical manoeuvring of the Reichstag, Germany’s growing economic downfall, Germany changed political landscape and in according to the title. | <urn:uuid:39b233bb-36d8-4272-8496-8a48571b47c2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rytulifovip.iridis-photo-restoration.com/maos-consolidation-of-power-between-1949-and-1953-essay-24312rb.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00270.warc.gz | en | 0.989158 | 1,161 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.3401458859443... | 1 | Get Full Essay Get access to this section to get all help you need with your essay and educational issues. Mao used terror and repression most notably to eliminate political threats to his power.
Get Full Essay Get access to this section to get all help you need with your essay and educational issues. From this period on untilMao had numerous domestic policies, some were failures and some successes.
The focus of this essay is to establish whether Mao achieved this goal with his domestic policies. The effect of the civil war on China was that there was major instability in the Country. Mao knew it and one of his major concerns in order to achieve his goals was to even out this insecurity.
InMao launched the Organic law which divided China into 6 subdivisions. Each of these were regulated by offices and bureaus, which also included officials. Force was used to achieve a certain level of stability. His second movement was the Agrarian Reform Law. The communist party workers were dispatched to each village to implement it.
Although the courts were originally set up by the party officials, it was the peasants who ran them. Inpeasants were encouraged to form co-operatives as quarrels arose within the peasants as to whose land should be worked first and as production did not rise fast enough.
This was a system by which the land was jointly owned so one large crop was grown. Before Mao Zedong, woman had had no rights what so ever in China. Women had arranged marriages and were a tool for reproduction. Female babies could be drowned and girls could be sold as slaves.
This was a great success for him because it meant that from one day to another, the women in china became equal to men, who for centuries before had always been inferior. Women were allowed to vote, own land, and chose who they wanted to marry, the arranged marriages were banned from China. This meant that Mao was years ahead other countries in the world, where woman in other countries were still controlled and had no idea of what freedom was.
InMao, after remembering what had weakened the Nationalists during the civil war, Mao created the Three Anti Movement, which targeted waste, inefficiency and corruption. Soon this movement was changed to the 5 Anti movement. This was to help the economy by opposing issues such as tax evasion and fraud.
It was aimed to boost the cal, steel and chemical production. It was recorded that the1st 5year plan was a great success. The original output targets set up in were mostly achieved but also surpassed.
After those five years, china had a railway system which moved goods an raw material. Mao told the communist party to be ready and receive criticism from the Chinese people. InMao launched the flower campaign. As more and more was happening, Mao called a stop the free speech idea, by then China moved into a time of suppression.
Others were sent in prison and labour camps. Unlike the first 5 year plan, the great leap forward fell far below its targets and goals. The land that had been taken from landlords and given to the peasants was withdrawn from them.
There were millions of deaths during that time period as people starved. There is no doubt that the great leap forward was a disaster. Mao always refused to accept the blame for this and instead retreated. He handed out the food shortage problem to Deng Xiaoping and Liu Shaoqi.
Mao did not approve of this and was very scared of the direction China was heading towards and therefore started to take part more actively in Chinese politics.
Deng Xaoping and Liu Shaoqi were taken out of the party. Deng Xaoping became a waiter and Liu died in jail after months of imprisonments. Over the next decade, during the cultural revolution, China was in Chaos. Mao told students to form themselves into red guards.
Children even accused their own parents of being anti communists. They Red guards destroyed factories, offices and local communist party offices. Many people were beaten, tortured, imprisoned or executed after unfair trials.
By the cultural revolution was out of control.Successes and Failures of Mao’s Domestic Policies Between and Essay Sample. His optimal goal was to turn China into a super power, a power as powerful or greater than The United States.
The focus of this essay is to establish whether Mao achieved this goal with his domestic policies. In , peasants were encouraged to . Mao's consolidation of power between and Mao’s consolidation of power between and Essay Sample The whole doc is available only for registered users OPEN DOC.
Start studying Mao's Consolidation of China Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools. Search. the New Democratic Youth League - 9 million members by , and which later became the Communist Youth League after Communists come to power, land reform is universally applied.
This service will be useful for: At iridis-photo-restoration.com you will find a wide variety of top-notch essay and term paper samples on any possible topics absolutely for free. Their consolidation of power in was also enabled by their means of legality, and Hitler becoming Chancellor in January This rise to power was viable due to numerous factors; Hitler’s own tactical manoeuvring of the Reichstag, Germany’s growing economic downfall, Germany changed political landscape and in according to the title.
Their consolidation of power in was also enabled by their means of legality, and Hitler becoming Chancellor in January This rise to power was viable due to numerous factors; Hitler’s own tactical manoeuvring of the Reichstag, Germany’s growing economic downfall, Germany changed political landscape and in according to the title. | 1,123 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Two magnificent poets died on January 9, 68 years apart, one died on January 9, 1946, Countee Cullen was one of the driving forces of the Harlem Renaissance, the other great black poet Amira Baraka died on January 9, 2014, was one of the driving forces of the Black Arts Movement. Two exceptionally talented black men who spoke directly to the communities of blacks that supported them. I would like to celebrate the works of both artists as I read from some of their more popular creations on my blog today. First, the mercurial Countee Cullen who lifestyle caused him many problems in his 42 years of life.
The history of blacks includes many inspiring artists who laid claim to defined brilliance and excellence. One of these individuals was Countee Cullen, whose words created magic on the pages he decorated with incredible letters of profound truth. Quick question, who was the only man to marry a Dubois and teach a Baldwin? Why, Countee Cullen, who married the daughter of WEB DuBois, Yolande DuBois and taught High School French to James Baldwin.
This master ancestor was sometimes overlooked by two of his contemporaries Langston Hughes, and Zora Neale Hurston during the marvelous age of the Harlem Renaissance. However, his impact on the literary community during that period of time was quite legendary. , I intend to pay special homage to Mr. Cullen, who faced life’s challenges of racism and prejudice but still managed to excel and produce fantastic works of written art.
Mr. Cullen’s life was swirled in controversy but his poetic verses rose above those circumstances as his measured greatness were magnified by his creation of verse. As we move along day by day, remember this, our black history need not ever be a black mystery. | <urn:uuid:c206f686-92d4-4a01-a7ae-c0a78dd00ab0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.joesmokethoughts.com/423564185?pagenum=2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00209.warc.gz | en | 0.988154 | 360 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.2797693610... | 1 | Two magnificent poets died on January 9, 68 years apart, one died on January 9, 1946, Countee Cullen was one of the driving forces of the Harlem Renaissance, the other great black poet Amira Baraka died on January 9, 2014, was one of the driving forces of the Black Arts Movement. Two exceptionally talented black men who spoke directly to the communities of blacks that supported them. I would like to celebrate the works of both artists as I read from some of their more popular creations on my blog today. First, the mercurial Countee Cullen who lifestyle caused him many problems in his 42 years of life.
The history of blacks includes many inspiring artists who laid claim to defined brilliance and excellence. One of these individuals was Countee Cullen, whose words created magic on the pages he decorated with incredible letters of profound truth. Quick question, who was the only man to marry a Dubois and teach a Baldwin? Why, Countee Cullen, who married the daughter of WEB DuBois, Yolande DuBois and taught High School French to James Baldwin.
This master ancestor was sometimes overlooked by two of his contemporaries Langston Hughes, and Zora Neale Hurston during the marvelous age of the Harlem Renaissance. However, his impact on the literary community during that period of time was quite legendary. , I intend to pay special homage to Mr. Cullen, who faced life’s challenges of racism and prejudice but still managed to excel and produce fantastic works of written art.
Mr. Cullen’s life was swirled in controversy but his poetic verses rose above those circumstances as his measured greatness were magnified by his creation of verse. As we move along day by day, remember this, our black history need not ever be a black mystery. | 375 | ENGLISH | 1 |
St Brigid – Mary of the Gael – is second only to St Patrick in the esteem of the Irish people. She is, of course, specially associated with Kildare and the whole area of Magh Life (The Liffey Plain). It would appear that the veneration of St Brigid incorporates elements of a much older tradition. When the Celts came to Ireland, maybe around 500 B.C., they brought with them their Druidic religion. They had many gods, who interacted with the people, sometimes for good, and sometimes for evil. Many of the gods and goddesses were associated with cult sites at particular places. The pagan religious framework of the Celts is not well documented, and what details we have, are mainly of the religious practices of the continental Celts as described by Roman writers, who most likely never visited Ireland. So their accounts would not relate directly to the practices in Ireland, though there must have been broad similarities. The pagan religious practices of the Irish Celts were not encouraged by the Christians, and when they did record them, they would not have wished to present a balanced picture, even if they fully understood the rituals. So we actually have very little knowledge of the religious practices and rituals of the Druidic religion. On the other hand, the early Christian Church in Ireland did not seem to associate the Druidic religion with cruel and barbarous practices, which would have to be eliminated entirely. The names, and many of the attributes, of the Celtic Irish gods were preserved in an oral tradition though the Gods themselves were reduced to the ranks of fairies; they were not gods, but they were greater than human, they were the Sidh or the Tuath de Danann. The Christian traditions treated the Tuath de Danann with a certain sympathy and they are frequently shown as coming forth from their pagan world, being embraced in the Christian fold, and entering into heavenly bliss e.g. the stories of the Children of Lir, Oisin, and the tale of Eithne. It was not so easy to get the ordinary people to completely forget the pagan Celtic gods and elements of paganism survived for hundreds of years after Christianity became firmly established. Indeed there is evidence to suggest that some of the more popular deities were absorbed into the Christian tradition as local saints, and the rituals associated with their worship survived as folk customs right up to very recent times. This would appear to have happened, at least to some extent, in the case of St Brigid.
The head God of the Irish Celts was The Dagda. The Dagda Mor was the father and chief of the people of Dana (the Tuath de Danann). He was a master of music, as well as other magical endowments, and owned a harp that came flying through the air at his call.
Dana was the greatest of the de Danann goddesses; she was the mother of the Irish gods. Daughter of the Dagda, and like him associated with the ideas of fertility and blessing, Dana was also known as Brid “the poetess”. Brid is identified with the goddess Brigantia, territorial deity of the Brigantes, a powerful Celtic tribe of North Britain. Brigantia was associated with water and gives her name to rivers; the Brighid in Ireland; the Braint in Wales; and the Brent in England. Place name evidence would also suggest that the goddess Brid was known in Celtic Europe. The name Brid was originally an epithet meaning “the exalted one”. She is sometimes mentioned as a triple goddess i.e. three sister goddesses named Brid; one goddess associated with poetry and traditional learning in general; one associated with the smith’s art; and the third associated with healing. However over time the separate attributes of the three goddesses became merged in the one figure. The Irish goddess Brid was specially concerned with the arts and with poetry. As such she was venerated by the filidh who were poets and prophets, and who had perhaps a rather academic interest in her. The Christian approach to the filidh seems to have been to allow them to maintain their literary, historical and legal responsibilities while suppressing their ritualistic role. However, it is mainly as a goddess of the ordinary people, concerned with healing, with flocks and stock and the yield of the earth, that she has survived to become a Christian saint. | <urn:uuid:c462c47e-8b99-4adc-970e-71f42774937e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://kildarelocalhistory.ie/kildare/history-of-kildare-town/saint-brigid/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00061.warc.gz | en | 0.98826 | 896 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.06856369972... | 3 | St Brigid – Mary of the Gael – is second only to St Patrick in the esteem of the Irish people. She is, of course, specially associated with Kildare and the whole area of Magh Life (The Liffey Plain). It would appear that the veneration of St Brigid incorporates elements of a much older tradition. When the Celts came to Ireland, maybe around 500 B.C., they brought with them their Druidic religion. They had many gods, who interacted with the people, sometimes for good, and sometimes for evil. Many of the gods and goddesses were associated with cult sites at particular places. The pagan religious framework of the Celts is not well documented, and what details we have, are mainly of the religious practices of the continental Celts as described by Roman writers, who most likely never visited Ireland. So their accounts would not relate directly to the practices in Ireland, though there must have been broad similarities. The pagan religious practices of the Irish Celts were not encouraged by the Christians, and when they did record them, they would not have wished to present a balanced picture, even if they fully understood the rituals. So we actually have very little knowledge of the religious practices and rituals of the Druidic religion. On the other hand, the early Christian Church in Ireland did not seem to associate the Druidic religion with cruel and barbarous practices, which would have to be eliminated entirely. The names, and many of the attributes, of the Celtic Irish gods were preserved in an oral tradition though the Gods themselves were reduced to the ranks of fairies; they were not gods, but they were greater than human, they were the Sidh or the Tuath de Danann. The Christian traditions treated the Tuath de Danann with a certain sympathy and they are frequently shown as coming forth from their pagan world, being embraced in the Christian fold, and entering into heavenly bliss e.g. the stories of the Children of Lir, Oisin, and the tale of Eithne. It was not so easy to get the ordinary people to completely forget the pagan Celtic gods and elements of paganism survived for hundreds of years after Christianity became firmly established. Indeed there is evidence to suggest that some of the more popular deities were absorbed into the Christian tradition as local saints, and the rituals associated with their worship survived as folk customs right up to very recent times. This would appear to have happened, at least to some extent, in the case of St Brigid.
The head God of the Irish Celts was The Dagda. The Dagda Mor was the father and chief of the people of Dana (the Tuath de Danann). He was a master of music, as well as other magical endowments, and owned a harp that came flying through the air at his call.
Dana was the greatest of the de Danann goddesses; she was the mother of the Irish gods. Daughter of the Dagda, and like him associated with the ideas of fertility and blessing, Dana was also known as Brid “the poetess”. Brid is identified with the goddess Brigantia, territorial deity of the Brigantes, a powerful Celtic tribe of North Britain. Brigantia was associated with water and gives her name to rivers; the Brighid in Ireland; the Braint in Wales; and the Brent in England. Place name evidence would also suggest that the goddess Brid was known in Celtic Europe. The name Brid was originally an epithet meaning “the exalted one”. She is sometimes mentioned as a triple goddess i.e. three sister goddesses named Brid; one goddess associated with poetry and traditional learning in general; one associated with the smith’s art; and the third associated with healing. However over time the separate attributes of the three goddesses became merged in the one figure. The Irish goddess Brid was specially concerned with the arts and with poetry. As such she was venerated by the filidh who were poets and prophets, and who had perhaps a rather academic interest in her. The Christian approach to the filidh seems to have been to allow them to maintain their literary, historical and legal responsibilities while suppressing their ritualistic role. However, it is mainly as a goddess of the ordinary people, concerned with healing, with flocks and stock and the yield of the earth, that she has survived to become a Christian saint. | 888 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Between 1347-1350, a unique and virulent form of plague devastated Europe. Spread from the east via the Mediterranean trade routes, within three years, what became known as the Black Death, Bubonic Plague or the Great Plague had swept across Europe? Fourteenth century society-already weakened by war and malnutrition was at its mercy. The pandemic was, relentlessly, switching between bubonic phases characterized by black and swollen buboes caused by inflamed lymph nodes, pneumonic plague, which attacked the lungs and septicaemic Plague. By the time its grip began to slacken in 1350, the Black Death had killed one-third of the European population were dead. It would take two hundred years for levels to recover.
The effects of the Black Death on European society during and after the pandemic were stark. The onset of the disease threw society into turmoil, overthrowing all the usual social, moral and religious mores, as people attempted to stay alive and cope with the everyday horror of their lives. This social turmoil did not cease once the plague was over. For the enormous losses of life changed the dynamics of European society, leading to alterations in the status quo between the classes, town and country and religion. Here are just ten ways in which the Black Death turned society upside down.
Towns and Cities sealed themselves off.
The plague began to change European society from the moment it touched land. It initially entered the European mainland via the Mediterranean ports. The Black Death’s first landing on European soil was at Messina in Sicily, October 1347. Fleas, rats, and sailors all carrying the plague disembarked before the port’s citizens realized they were infected. Within days, the disease had spread, and the desperate citizens of Messina drove the infected sailors back out to sea. However, it was too late to prevent the plagues spread. By January 1348, it had reached Genoa and Venice and then moved north to the northern city of Pisa.
The plague’s journey through Europe had begun- and news of its devastation preceded it. Those towns and cities as yet unaffected tried staving off infection by learning from the example of the plagues’ early victims. “A single stranger carried the infection to Padua, to such effect that perhaps a third of the people died within the region as a whole” noted L A Murtori writing of these fourteenth-century events three centuries later. “In the hope of avoiding such a plague, cities banned the entry of all outsiders.” So, when a city heard the plague was approaching, it quickly sealed its gates.
However, such measures could also be the ruin of towns, as trade would stop, destroying economic wealth. More importantly, once food supplies ran out, the whole population, wealthy or not, would starve. So other towns opted for a more limited form of quarantine. The English city of Gloucester had become prosperous due to its trade in cloth, iron, wine, and corn with Bristol along the River Severn. Annual and weekly fairs for the outlying districts also added to its wealth. Then, in the summer of 1348, news reached the town that the plague had infected the port of Bristol.
So, the council of Gloucester took the drastic decision to close itself off to- travelers from Bristol at least. By barring one of its primary sources of income, the town’s economy was at risk but the councilor’s hoped by banning contact with the infected city, they could keep the plague at bay- and continue to function. However, this measure did not reassure the town’s citizens. They began to flee Gloucester for the countryside where they believed they would be safe. Such was the extent of the exodus that the authorities began to issue a fine for each day a person was absent as they feared there would be insufficient people to run the town.
However, the council’s partial sealing of the city was insufficient. In 1349, the plague reached Gloucester. The people of Gloucester were about to discover, as had those who had encountered disease across Europe before them, that they were willing to abandon much more than their towns, wealth and possessions to stay alive. | <urn:uuid:9a4dfeaf-b1aa-49d4-87aa-85c7fdfa9fd1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historycollection.co/10-ways-the-black-death-turned-medieval-society-upside-down/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00303.warc.gz | en | 0.984303 | 868 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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0.13728150725364... | 4 | Between 1347-1350, a unique and virulent form of plague devastated Europe. Spread from the east via the Mediterranean trade routes, within three years, what became known as the Black Death, Bubonic Plague or the Great Plague had swept across Europe? Fourteenth century society-already weakened by war and malnutrition was at its mercy. The pandemic was, relentlessly, switching between bubonic phases characterized by black and swollen buboes caused by inflamed lymph nodes, pneumonic plague, which attacked the lungs and septicaemic Plague. By the time its grip began to slacken in 1350, the Black Death had killed one-third of the European population were dead. It would take two hundred years for levels to recover.
The effects of the Black Death on European society during and after the pandemic were stark. The onset of the disease threw society into turmoil, overthrowing all the usual social, moral and religious mores, as people attempted to stay alive and cope with the everyday horror of their lives. This social turmoil did not cease once the plague was over. For the enormous losses of life changed the dynamics of European society, leading to alterations in the status quo between the classes, town and country and religion. Here are just ten ways in which the Black Death turned society upside down.
Towns and Cities sealed themselves off.
The plague began to change European society from the moment it touched land. It initially entered the European mainland via the Mediterranean ports. The Black Death’s first landing on European soil was at Messina in Sicily, October 1347. Fleas, rats, and sailors all carrying the plague disembarked before the port’s citizens realized they were infected. Within days, the disease had spread, and the desperate citizens of Messina drove the infected sailors back out to sea. However, it was too late to prevent the plagues spread. By January 1348, it had reached Genoa and Venice and then moved north to the northern city of Pisa.
The plague’s journey through Europe had begun- and news of its devastation preceded it. Those towns and cities as yet unaffected tried staving off infection by learning from the example of the plagues’ early victims. “A single stranger carried the infection to Padua, to such effect that perhaps a third of the people died within the region as a whole” noted L A Murtori writing of these fourteenth-century events three centuries later. “In the hope of avoiding such a plague, cities banned the entry of all outsiders.” So, when a city heard the plague was approaching, it quickly sealed its gates.
However, such measures could also be the ruin of towns, as trade would stop, destroying economic wealth. More importantly, once food supplies ran out, the whole population, wealthy or not, would starve. So other towns opted for a more limited form of quarantine. The English city of Gloucester had become prosperous due to its trade in cloth, iron, wine, and corn with Bristol along the River Severn. Annual and weekly fairs for the outlying districts also added to its wealth. Then, in the summer of 1348, news reached the town that the plague had infected the port of Bristol.
So, the council of Gloucester took the drastic decision to close itself off to- travelers from Bristol at least. By barring one of its primary sources of income, the town’s economy was at risk but the councilor’s hoped by banning contact with the infected city, they could keep the plague at bay- and continue to function. However, this measure did not reassure the town’s citizens. They began to flee Gloucester for the countryside where they believed they would be safe. Such was the extent of the exodus that the authorities began to issue a fine for each day a person was absent as they feared there would be insufficient people to run the town.
However, the council’s partial sealing of the city was insufficient. In 1349, the plague reached Gloucester. The people of Gloucester were about to discover, as had those who had encountered disease across Europe before them, that they were willing to abandon much more than their towns, wealth and possessions to stay alive. | 863 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The United States has not been kind to the black community in the past, to put it lightly; and even today, racial profiling and discrimination are still rampant. Lest we forget what we can lose to racism, here are 8 black icons who left the US looking for a better life.
America has been—and remains—an unfortunate example of a discriminatory nation. It harbors all sort of lamentable mentalities, driven by hatred, fear, ignorance, prejudice, and superstition. So it’s no surprise that, over the years, it has lost many amazing talents who’ve simply had to run away from American toxicity and build a life elsewhere. African-American talent is a prime example of this tendency. And that’s America’s loss.
Many black people sought refuge throughout the world from the constant humiliations or outright discrimination they faced in the U.S. Among them are these 8 black icons who escaped the blatant racism of their native country.
After a racist society let them down over and over again, many African-Americans were unsurprisingly drawn to the egalitarian promise of communism. Harry Haywood was one such person. His primary motivation was to put an end to racism through what he saw as the noble ideals of absolute equality, and his goal was to connect the political doctrine of Communism as a whole with the particular racial issues of his time. He moved to Russia’s Soviet Union in the 20s, where black people were treated particularly well, to study the effects of the communist approach to the racism he saw in his native America.
Passionate about theatre and acting, Aldridge left the United States in 1824 under the certainty audiences there would never accept a black actor performing the great Shakespearean roles. So he moved to London and became a British citizen. There he also met resistance, but he never looked back. What followed became theatre history, as he remains the only African-American ever to be honored with bronze plaques at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre. Prussia and Russia also awarded him top distinctions from the heads of state—an unthinkable recognition in the minds of Americans at the time.
100 years after Aldridge paved the way, Robeson became only the second black actor to star in Othello at the West End. It took even more time for him to become the first African-American to portray that character in a major U.S. stage, when he reprised his role in 1943, this time on Broadway. American audiences were that reluctant to see a black actor leading a prominent production. Robeson had to settle in London for the early stages of his career, as he never would’ve made it under the highly malignant conditions of America. He went on to become a famous concert artist, film actor, and activist.
The Jazz world was lucky to have the likes of the "Sophisticated Giant" playing at a time when America wasn't welcoming. Standing at 6 feet 6 inches, Gordon was also known as "Long Tall Dexter," and was much admired among his fellows musicians. He specialized as a tenor saxophonist, but also ventured into acting, earning an Academy Award nomination for his role in Round Midnight (1986). Gordon left the United States to spend over 14 years in Europe, where he enjoyed an easier life because, by his own admission, he suffered much less racism and found a public who respected jazz much more.
Carlos Wesley "Don" Byas was another American saxophonist who had a better time in Europe than he did in the United States. In 1946 he went to Paris to tour with other great jazz musicians, and remained in the European mainland for the rest of his life, dying of lung cancer 26 years later at the age of 59.
Baldwin was one of those rare talents whose vision was far ahead of his time. As a novelist, playwright, essayist, and social critic, he spent his entire career exploring the complexities of racial, sexual, and class disputes across western societies in general and throughout America in particular. His sexual orientation studies came way before the gay liberation movement in the 20th century, and he anticipated its spirit by decades. Facing constant racial discrimination, Baldwin became thoroughly disenchanted about life in the United States for minorities, especially after a particularly upsetting incident in which he was refused service at a restaurant for being black. So he left America when he was 24 and settled in Paris and never looked back. The U.S. lost an extraordinary icon right there.
McKay immigrated from Jamaica to the U.S. in 1912 to pursue a literary career. He was initially shocked by the extreme racism against African-Americans in the south, where segregation was rampant, which inspired him to write poetry about the situation. He became drawn to communism as well and moved to Russia for a while to better understand it. After some years, McKay was disillusioned with the communist ideal, but remained firmly convinced racism was the biggest issue plaguing America at the time. His texts focused on challenging white authority and on celebrating his own Jamaican heritage.
Josephine Baker was an American-born entertainer who was adopted by France in the 20s. She was a celebrated dancer during her early career in New York, and later became a notable character both in World War II and in the American Civil Rights movement. In Europe, she reached international fame, where she was part of the French Resistance against the Nazi Occupation.
After the war, she was named a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor (the highest French order of merit), and awarded the Croix de Guerre. In the 50s she became involved with the struggle of African-Americans to secure basic civil rights in the U.S., and she was even offered the unofficial leadership movement after Martin Luther King Jr.’s assassination (which she declined for the sake of her children).
Two years before she died, Josephine Baker summarized the feelings shared by most on this list.
“One day I realized I was living in a country where I was afraid to be black…So I left. I had been suffocating in the United States…. A lot of us left, not because we wanted to leave, but because we couldn’t stand it anymore…. I felt liberated in Paris.”
Speaking from the heart of her brothers and sisters, representing whole generations of people systematically oppressed by a toxic U.S. mentality (back when, according to some, “America was great”), Josephine’s words echo through the hearts of millions even to this day.
Your voice matters!
Are you an expert in history or culture? Do you want to share your knowledge? Read our submissions guidelines and send us a 500-word article to [email protected] for a chance to share your thoughts with the rest of the world!
Check out these other articles!
15 African-American Inventors And Scientists Who Changed The World
6 Famous Personalities Who Were Spies And Agents In WWII
How Jazz Music Became The Spirit Of Liberation And Protest | <urn:uuid:b822036b-5a2a-4c5f-9ea4-b2b2d3897a1a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://culturacolectiva.com/history/african-american-icons-who-emigrated-from-america-racism | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00255.warc.gz | en | 0.981526 | 1,444 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.0775163... | 2 | The United States has not been kind to the black community in the past, to put it lightly; and even today, racial profiling and discrimination are still rampant. Lest we forget what we can lose to racism, here are 8 black icons who left the US looking for a better life.
America has been—and remains—an unfortunate example of a discriminatory nation. It harbors all sort of lamentable mentalities, driven by hatred, fear, ignorance, prejudice, and superstition. So it’s no surprise that, over the years, it has lost many amazing talents who’ve simply had to run away from American toxicity and build a life elsewhere. African-American talent is a prime example of this tendency. And that’s America’s loss.
Many black people sought refuge throughout the world from the constant humiliations or outright discrimination they faced in the U.S. Among them are these 8 black icons who escaped the blatant racism of their native country.
After a racist society let them down over and over again, many African-Americans were unsurprisingly drawn to the egalitarian promise of communism. Harry Haywood was one such person. His primary motivation was to put an end to racism through what he saw as the noble ideals of absolute equality, and his goal was to connect the political doctrine of Communism as a whole with the particular racial issues of his time. He moved to Russia’s Soviet Union in the 20s, where black people were treated particularly well, to study the effects of the communist approach to the racism he saw in his native America.
Passionate about theatre and acting, Aldridge left the United States in 1824 under the certainty audiences there would never accept a black actor performing the great Shakespearean roles. So he moved to London and became a British citizen. There he also met resistance, but he never looked back. What followed became theatre history, as he remains the only African-American ever to be honored with bronze plaques at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre. Prussia and Russia also awarded him top distinctions from the heads of state—an unthinkable recognition in the minds of Americans at the time.
100 years after Aldridge paved the way, Robeson became only the second black actor to star in Othello at the West End. It took even more time for him to become the first African-American to portray that character in a major U.S. stage, when he reprised his role in 1943, this time on Broadway. American audiences were that reluctant to see a black actor leading a prominent production. Robeson had to settle in London for the early stages of his career, as he never would’ve made it under the highly malignant conditions of America. He went on to become a famous concert artist, film actor, and activist.
The Jazz world was lucky to have the likes of the "Sophisticated Giant" playing at a time when America wasn't welcoming. Standing at 6 feet 6 inches, Gordon was also known as "Long Tall Dexter," and was much admired among his fellows musicians. He specialized as a tenor saxophonist, but also ventured into acting, earning an Academy Award nomination for his role in Round Midnight (1986). Gordon left the United States to spend over 14 years in Europe, where he enjoyed an easier life because, by his own admission, he suffered much less racism and found a public who respected jazz much more.
Carlos Wesley "Don" Byas was another American saxophonist who had a better time in Europe than he did in the United States. In 1946 he went to Paris to tour with other great jazz musicians, and remained in the European mainland for the rest of his life, dying of lung cancer 26 years later at the age of 59.
Baldwin was one of those rare talents whose vision was far ahead of his time. As a novelist, playwright, essayist, and social critic, he spent his entire career exploring the complexities of racial, sexual, and class disputes across western societies in general and throughout America in particular. His sexual orientation studies came way before the gay liberation movement in the 20th century, and he anticipated its spirit by decades. Facing constant racial discrimination, Baldwin became thoroughly disenchanted about life in the United States for minorities, especially after a particularly upsetting incident in which he was refused service at a restaurant for being black. So he left America when he was 24 and settled in Paris and never looked back. The U.S. lost an extraordinary icon right there.
McKay immigrated from Jamaica to the U.S. in 1912 to pursue a literary career. He was initially shocked by the extreme racism against African-Americans in the south, where segregation was rampant, which inspired him to write poetry about the situation. He became drawn to communism as well and moved to Russia for a while to better understand it. After some years, McKay was disillusioned with the communist ideal, but remained firmly convinced racism was the biggest issue plaguing America at the time. His texts focused on challenging white authority and on celebrating his own Jamaican heritage.
Josephine Baker was an American-born entertainer who was adopted by France in the 20s. She was a celebrated dancer during her early career in New York, and later became a notable character both in World War II and in the American Civil Rights movement. In Europe, she reached international fame, where she was part of the French Resistance against the Nazi Occupation.
After the war, she was named a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor (the highest French order of merit), and awarded the Croix de Guerre. In the 50s she became involved with the struggle of African-Americans to secure basic civil rights in the U.S., and she was even offered the unofficial leadership movement after Martin Luther King Jr.’s assassination (which she declined for the sake of her children).
Two years before she died, Josephine Baker summarized the feelings shared by most on this list.
“One day I realized I was living in a country where I was afraid to be black…So I left. I had been suffocating in the United States…. A lot of us left, not because we wanted to leave, but because we couldn’t stand it anymore…. I felt liberated in Paris.”
Speaking from the heart of her brothers and sisters, representing whole generations of people systematically oppressed by a toxic U.S. mentality (back when, according to some, “America was great”), Josephine’s words echo through the hearts of millions even to this day.
Your voice matters!
Are you an expert in history or culture? Do you want to share your knowledge? Read our submissions guidelines and send us a 500-word article to [email protected] for a chance to share your thoughts with the rest of the world!
Check out these other articles!
15 African-American Inventors And Scientists Who Changed The World
6 Famous Personalities Who Were Spies And Agents In WWII
How Jazz Music Became The Spirit Of Liberation And Protest | 1,423 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Immigration formed a key issue in the past as to the movement of persons from one country or continent to the other. There were so many reasons that each group gave that forced them to move places for their benefit. As such the reasons depended on the economic activity of certain group at the time, the population capacity of the natives in the motherland and also the need to explore new lands across the world. For the purpose of this work, we shall have a look at the Irish and Chinese people history across the globe from the past to the present. Here, we establish the relationship that the two groups had in their specific areas of immigration in the USA basing mainly on Irish in Boston and Chinese in California (CA). Further, a diverse influence the two groups have on the US society will be discussed regarding nature, customs, change, and purpose to the natives.
Comparison between Chinese and Irish Immigration in the USA
The Chinese people immigration is based on the different perspectives they face in a society like resistance and oppression that was taking place at the time in history. The people wanted to break off from the new dynasties that were emerging and used their influence to control the society for larger and powerful territories. The population was also exiting from the harsh British rules and wars that at the time were affecting them negatively. Another reason for the immigration was the need for the middle class to go out and seek for better working pays to return home and buy some of the lands that the colonialists owned. The first interaction between the Chinese and California was the year 1848 when gold was discovered in the area. This immigration was referred to as the “Gold Dust” era that was taking place outside China. This act was seen a few years later in the landmark case of People V Hall that gave directions to the manner through which the Chinese community can involve itself in making political decisions. Denial to vote was a challenge to them as they lacked the necessary voice to air their views.
The 1790 Naturalization Act was precise on its regulations as the white natives were given only power to acquire citizenship, unlike the Chinese community. The Chinese Six Chinese district association formed a force that ensured security for the locals. Rules, regulations, and policies developed at the time by different authorities were subject to consultation with the Chinese umbrella of the districts that ensured the rights of every China man is observed from all perspectives. Railway development was a common economic practice that saw over two thousand Chinese immigrants absorbed in the work as from 1865-1867. Further legal changes also picked speed when anti-Chinese violence campaigns were conducted at the time to inform and enforce protective rights of the immigrants who were gathering native status. Some of the court decisions also affected such conducts as was seen in the case of Chan Yong in 1855 when he was denied citizenship. Page laws were introduced in the year 1875 to prevent the entries of a new population for the people of Japanese, Chinese, and “Mongolian” contract laborers, felons and prostitutes origins. As such the law intended to safeguard the population growth of new Chinese community in the area. The Chinese community was forced to settle in villages like the Monterey Chinese fishing village in order to safeguard the security of their women and children. The late nineteenth century saw great oppression for the Chinese community. An example is seen in the year 1882 when a Chinese Exclusion Law was legislated to suspend the adverse immigration of new Chinese population. The laws saw China traders then would be allowed to go home and marry back at home and come back to continue with their works. The changes in laws also saw harsh conditions set by the Chinese community. Expulsion of Chinese people was witnessed in different areas like Seattle, and American West side. The Geary laws also saw the previous set laws set are cemented to ensure Chinese population controlled at any given time. The changes started in the early twentieth century when a big fire destroyed a major factory in San Francisco, an event referred to as “the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire” that destroyed most of the Chinese immigrants’ documents. As such the US community was forced to recognize the then Chinese community under Fourteen Amendment. The move also created paper sons and daughters for the Chinese community to be considered as American citizens. The situation remained unchanged until the early twentieth century when the US Congress took the steps or repelling all statutes that were oppressing to the Chinese community. This position essentially meant that full and equal rights were granted to them as any other person in the society.
The Irish Society originated from the Ireland when it broke from the enslavement of Southern US blacks. Daniel O’Connell was the initiator of the movement to end slavery from Britain masters than in the American setup. The Irish community intended to change to American citizenship to enable them counter their black neighbors. The population pressure of the community forced son inheritance of land to be a common practice of the Irish community and as such the sons and daughters moved to other places for better opportunities. The society was forced to engage in textile works as a better economic opportunities. Further, women were forced to work as casual household laborers to secure their position in the society in the mid-nineteenth century to support their men who did not see it as a cultural defect as compared to Jewish and Italian men on their women. The women also worked in the era as most of them were single and household labor paid even more than textile works. The option created a generation of Irish maids in different parts of the regions where they settled. Education and work opportunities also varied among the Irish society. Immigrants worked more in the employment opportunities sectors as compared to the natives. The same was witnessed in education where immigrants were illiterate as compared to the Irish American natives. However, the change in generations saw a change in the two notions as the immigrants had an experience of the resources. Ideologies also changed about the Irish when leaders in the political setup like President Abbott Lawrence Lowell encouraged the abortion of the community and avoided the American society from dominating them. Irish community success to their new destination was witnessed by their education and skin color perception. They were further allowed to settle in other cities apart from Boston like Philadelphia and New York. Another issue surrounding the immigration of the Irish community was the political nature of the then community. They were allowed to engage in the political machinery in their specific areas of settlement. The gesture was seen where the Irish society was related to the Democratic Party then. Forming a large population in such areas gave them the power to negotiate their rights and demands in the society. The “Robin Hoods” format ensured Irish society maintains political influence in their respective areas. The white skin of the Irish community was another factor that worked in their favor as they were accepted as whites. Further, their activism in labor works ensured that they had better-working conditions as other American workers.
Contrast between Chinese and Irish Communities Immigrants in the USA
The two groups faced difference in the manner through which they moved and settled in the new country at the time. Irish communities had other Irish natives in American cities during their separation from the US black community. Unlike the Irish, the Chinese community did not have any roots in the US making them strangers in the world where the supremacy of society regarding resource and labor right. The acceptance of the two groups also took another step in the communities. The Irish race faced minimal challenges because of their ethical and cultural background. Their white skin gave them an upper hand as compared to their Chinese compatriots who had a different skin complexity. As such, Irish members were granted enough freedom to promote their rights at the time. The Chinese were viewed as outsiders and faced hostile approaches from the natives. Expertise and traditional views created a difference in the two groups. Irish societies allowed women to engage in economic activities, and that ensured most of their women to be absorbed in the different employment sectors by then. Although the immigrants were less literate, their 2nd generation of new members adopted to the new ways of a new territory as compared to Japanese and Chinese women. The tough Chinese culture on women saw mostly men immigrants at the time who had gone out of their way to ensure they acquire enough wealth to buy property for their wives back at home.
The other contrasting factor in the two races in the formation of legal ordinances that controlled how they participated in the area. The natives formed several laws to control the influx of the Chinese community that we see the changes to the same taking place in the mid-twentieth century. A different angle was taken from the Irish communities were laws were made to ensure they enjoy the same rights as natives in the society in various sectors. The Chinese society was also denied rights to participate in political and governorship positions as they were denied citizenship rights. The approach was, however, different from the Irish community.
Role of Race and Ethnicity
The two factors played a lot of influence in the manner through which a given community was either accepted or rejected in the area they settled. The Chinese community being a conservative society faced a bigger challenge as they differ from the areas they immigrated to at the time. The men were only allowed to work and as such they could not move with their wives to new territories. They had to travel back home and marry their Chinese wives as they to travel to the US by the then imposed laws. This aspect was very different from Irish society where most of the immigration came from women who were either single or were seeking employment. Race differences also affected the settlement and political engagement of both groups. The white color assisted the Irish society to bond with the American natives by then. Absorption of the Irish community was encouraged to benefit from their expertise in various leadership and business opportunities. The aspect ensured a second generation of Irish community that facilitated a foundation of American –Irish society to protect their rights in workplaces. The difference in the race did not benefit the Chinese society like the Irish. They were openly discriminated by the whites then due to their obvious differences. Race conflicts ensured that rules were passed to oppress and suppress the Chinese community. As such, race differences occupied a lot of significant differences in preferential treatment at the time when the political, social and cultural classes were taking shape in the American society. The opportunity of color similarities protected the Irish and as such involved them in the day to day social, economic, cultural and political changes in the American society. | <urn:uuid:056ef00c-ad22-4f90-9911-48f3dec5dc22> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://best-writing-service.net/essays/analysis/immigration.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00094.warc.gz | en | 0.986512 | 2,090 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.126153811... | 9 | Immigration formed a key issue in the past as to the movement of persons from one country or continent to the other. There were so many reasons that each group gave that forced them to move places for their benefit. As such the reasons depended on the economic activity of certain group at the time, the population capacity of the natives in the motherland and also the need to explore new lands across the world. For the purpose of this work, we shall have a look at the Irish and Chinese people history across the globe from the past to the present. Here, we establish the relationship that the two groups had in their specific areas of immigration in the USA basing mainly on Irish in Boston and Chinese in California (CA). Further, a diverse influence the two groups have on the US society will be discussed regarding nature, customs, change, and purpose to the natives.
Comparison between Chinese and Irish Immigration in the USA
The Chinese people immigration is based on the different perspectives they face in a society like resistance and oppression that was taking place at the time in history. The people wanted to break off from the new dynasties that were emerging and used their influence to control the society for larger and powerful territories. The population was also exiting from the harsh British rules and wars that at the time were affecting them negatively. Another reason for the immigration was the need for the middle class to go out and seek for better working pays to return home and buy some of the lands that the colonialists owned. The first interaction between the Chinese and California was the year 1848 when gold was discovered in the area. This immigration was referred to as the “Gold Dust” era that was taking place outside China. This act was seen a few years later in the landmark case of People V Hall that gave directions to the manner through which the Chinese community can involve itself in making political decisions. Denial to vote was a challenge to them as they lacked the necessary voice to air their views.
The 1790 Naturalization Act was precise on its regulations as the white natives were given only power to acquire citizenship, unlike the Chinese community. The Chinese Six Chinese district association formed a force that ensured security for the locals. Rules, regulations, and policies developed at the time by different authorities were subject to consultation with the Chinese umbrella of the districts that ensured the rights of every China man is observed from all perspectives. Railway development was a common economic practice that saw over two thousand Chinese immigrants absorbed in the work as from 1865-1867. Further legal changes also picked speed when anti-Chinese violence campaigns were conducted at the time to inform and enforce protective rights of the immigrants who were gathering native status. Some of the court decisions also affected such conducts as was seen in the case of Chan Yong in 1855 when he was denied citizenship. Page laws were introduced in the year 1875 to prevent the entries of a new population for the people of Japanese, Chinese, and “Mongolian” contract laborers, felons and prostitutes origins. As such the law intended to safeguard the population growth of new Chinese community in the area. The Chinese community was forced to settle in villages like the Monterey Chinese fishing village in order to safeguard the security of their women and children. The late nineteenth century saw great oppression for the Chinese community. An example is seen in the year 1882 when a Chinese Exclusion Law was legislated to suspend the adverse immigration of new Chinese population. The laws saw China traders then would be allowed to go home and marry back at home and come back to continue with their works. The changes in laws also saw harsh conditions set by the Chinese community. Expulsion of Chinese people was witnessed in different areas like Seattle, and American West side. The Geary laws also saw the previous set laws set are cemented to ensure Chinese population controlled at any given time. The changes started in the early twentieth century when a big fire destroyed a major factory in San Francisco, an event referred to as “the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire” that destroyed most of the Chinese immigrants’ documents. As such the US community was forced to recognize the then Chinese community under Fourteen Amendment. The move also created paper sons and daughters for the Chinese community to be considered as American citizens. The situation remained unchanged until the early twentieth century when the US Congress took the steps or repelling all statutes that were oppressing to the Chinese community. This position essentially meant that full and equal rights were granted to them as any other person in the society.
The Irish Society originated from the Ireland when it broke from the enslavement of Southern US blacks. Daniel O’Connell was the initiator of the movement to end slavery from Britain masters than in the American setup. The Irish community intended to change to American citizenship to enable them counter their black neighbors. The population pressure of the community forced son inheritance of land to be a common practice of the Irish community and as such the sons and daughters moved to other places for better opportunities. The society was forced to engage in textile works as a better economic opportunities. Further, women were forced to work as casual household laborers to secure their position in the society in the mid-nineteenth century to support their men who did not see it as a cultural defect as compared to Jewish and Italian men on their women. The women also worked in the era as most of them were single and household labor paid even more than textile works. The option created a generation of Irish maids in different parts of the regions where they settled. Education and work opportunities also varied among the Irish society. Immigrants worked more in the employment opportunities sectors as compared to the natives. The same was witnessed in education where immigrants were illiterate as compared to the Irish American natives. However, the change in generations saw a change in the two notions as the immigrants had an experience of the resources. Ideologies also changed about the Irish when leaders in the political setup like President Abbott Lawrence Lowell encouraged the abortion of the community and avoided the American society from dominating them. Irish community success to their new destination was witnessed by their education and skin color perception. They were further allowed to settle in other cities apart from Boston like Philadelphia and New York. Another issue surrounding the immigration of the Irish community was the political nature of the then community. They were allowed to engage in the political machinery in their specific areas of settlement. The gesture was seen where the Irish society was related to the Democratic Party then. Forming a large population in such areas gave them the power to negotiate their rights and demands in the society. The “Robin Hoods” format ensured Irish society maintains political influence in their respective areas. The white skin of the Irish community was another factor that worked in their favor as they were accepted as whites. Further, their activism in labor works ensured that they had better-working conditions as other American workers.
Contrast between Chinese and Irish Communities Immigrants in the USA
The two groups faced difference in the manner through which they moved and settled in the new country at the time. Irish communities had other Irish natives in American cities during their separation from the US black community. Unlike the Irish, the Chinese community did not have any roots in the US making them strangers in the world where the supremacy of society regarding resource and labor right. The acceptance of the two groups also took another step in the communities. The Irish race faced minimal challenges because of their ethical and cultural background. Their white skin gave them an upper hand as compared to their Chinese compatriots who had a different skin complexity. As such, Irish members were granted enough freedom to promote their rights at the time. The Chinese were viewed as outsiders and faced hostile approaches from the natives. Expertise and traditional views created a difference in the two groups. Irish societies allowed women to engage in economic activities, and that ensured most of their women to be absorbed in the different employment sectors by then. Although the immigrants were less literate, their 2nd generation of new members adopted to the new ways of a new territory as compared to Japanese and Chinese women. The tough Chinese culture on women saw mostly men immigrants at the time who had gone out of their way to ensure they acquire enough wealth to buy property for their wives back at home.
The other contrasting factor in the two races in the formation of legal ordinances that controlled how they participated in the area. The natives formed several laws to control the influx of the Chinese community that we see the changes to the same taking place in the mid-twentieth century. A different angle was taken from the Irish communities were laws were made to ensure they enjoy the same rights as natives in the society in various sectors. The Chinese society was also denied rights to participate in political and governorship positions as they were denied citizenship rights. The approach was, however, different from the Irish community.
Role of Race and Ethnicity
The two factors played a lot of influence in the manner through which a given community was either accepted or rejected in the area they settled. The Chinese community being a conservative society faced a bigger challenge as they differ from the areas they immigrated to at the time. The men were only allowed to work and as such they could not move with their wives to new territories. They had to travel back home and marry their Chinese wives as they to travel to the US by the then imposed laws. This aspect was very different from Irish society where most of the immigration came from women who were either single or were seeking employment. Race differences also affected the settlement and political engagement of both groups. The white color assisted the Irish society to bond with the American natives by then. Absorption of the Irish community was encouraged to benefit from their expertise in various leadership and business opportunities. The aspect ensured a second generation of Irish community that facilitated a foundation of American –Irish society to protect their rights in workplaces. The difference in the race did not benefit the Chinese society like the Irish. They were openly discriminated by the whites then due to their obvious differences. Race conflicts ensured that rules were passed to oppress and suppress the Chinese community. As such, race differences occupied a lot of significant differences in preferential treatment at the time when the political, social and cultural classes were taking shape in the American society. The opportunity of color similarities protected the Irish and as such involved them in the day to day social, economic, cultural and political changes in the American society. | 2,096 | ENGLISH | 1 |
According to a recently released study, some white medical students hold certain beliefs and racial biases that could affect how they assess pain with black patients.
Published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences journal, the study adds to the evidence piling up that suggests black patients are treated differently than white patients when it comes to pain management. Lead author Kelly Hoffman noted that researchers performed the study in an effort to determine the factors that come into play in the difference in treatment for various patients.
"For a long time we've known there are really large racial disparities in health and health care, in pain management this is really [striking]," Hoffman, a psychology doctoral candidate at the University of Virginia, told ABC News.
Participants included 222 white medical students from the University of Virginia. They were asked by researchers to read two made-up medical cases about a black patient and a white patient. Upon completion, they were asked to rate their perceived pain on a scale of one to ten. The medical students were then asked to offer their opinions on a number of statements made concerning biological differences of each race.
Many of the "facts" offered in these statements were actually false, such as "Blacks' nerve endings are less sensitive than whites'," "Blacks' skin is thicker than whites'," and "Blacks have stronger immune systems than whites."
Of the 15 statements, only four were true. The true statements included such facts as black patients have a higher risk for heart disease and stroke, have denser bones than white patients, and are less likely to contract spinal cord diseases, reports Gillian Mohney for ABC News.
Results of the study discovered 50% of participants believed at least one of the false statements to be "possibly, probably, or definitely true."
If a medical student believed false information, they were found to be more likely to show a racial bias when assessing and recommending pain treatment to their white and black patients.
"Participants who endorsed more false beliefs about biological differences between blacks and whites showed a racial bias in the accuracy of their treatment recommendations," according to the study's findings.
Researchers also determined that those students who did not believe any of the false statements also did not show a bias in how their patients were treated.
Participants included white medical students in order to determine if a bias existed along racial lines and if so, the possibility that white doctors could not accurately assess the pain level of black patients. While the same study was performed with 106 non-white medical students, researchers were unable to find similar correlations as were found with the white participants. As such, these findings were not included in the final study.
For the second part of the study, 92 people were asked to participate in the same exercise as the one given to the medical students. That study found that 73% of people believed at least one of the false facts. In fact, the more false information a person believed, the more likely they were to estimate a black person's pain on a lesser scale than they were a white person's pain. | <urn:uuid:5b284aaa-d903-4c88-b1e9-ecf31a055464> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.educationnews.org/higher-education/study-white-medical-students-show-bias-with-black-patients-pain/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00186.warc.gz | en | 0.980507 | 616 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | According to a recently released study, some white medical students hold certain beliefs and racial biases that could affect how they assess pain with black patients.
Published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences journal, the study adds to the evidence piling up that suggests black patients are treated differently than white patients when it comes to pain management. Lead author Kelly Hoffman noted that researchers performed the study in an effort to determine the factors that come into play in the difference in treatment for various patients.
"For a long time we've known there are really large racial disparities in health and health care, in pain management this is really [striking]," Hoffman, a psychology doctoral candidate at the University of Virginia, told ABC News.
Participants included 222 white medical students from the University of Virginia. They were asked by researchers to read two made-up medical cases about a black patient and a white patient. Upon completion, they were asked to rate their perceived pain on a scale of one to ten. The medical students were then asked to offer their opinions on a number of statements made concerning biological differences of each race.
Many of the "facts" offered in these statements were actually false, such as "Blacks' nerve endings are less sensitive than whites'," "Blacks' skin is thicker than whites'," and "Blacks have stronger immune systems than whites."
Of the 15 statements, only four were true. The true statements included such facts as black patients have a higher risk for heart disease and stroke, have denser bones than white patients, and are less likely to contract spinal cord diseases, reports Gillian Mohney for ABC News.
Results of the study discovered 50% of participants believed at least one of the false statements to be "possibly, probably, or definitely true."
If a medical student believed false information, they were found to be more likely to show a racial bias when assessing and recommending pain treatment to their white and black patients.
"Participants who endorsed more false beliefs about biological differences between blacks and whites showed a racial bias in the accuracy of their treatment recommendations," according to the study's findings.
Researchers also determined that those students who did not believe any of the false statements also did not show a bias in how their patients were treated.
Participants included white medical students in order to determine if a bias existed along racial lines and if so, the possibility that white doctors could not accurately assess the pain level of black patients. While the same study was performed with 106 non-white medical students, researchers were unable to find similar correlations as were found with the white participants. As such, these findings were not included in the final study.
For the second part of the study, 92 people were asked to participate in the same exercise as the one given to the medical students. That study found that 73% of people believed at least one of the false facts. In fact, the more false information a person believed, the more likely they were to estimate a black person's pain on a lesser scale than they were a white person's pain. | 614 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Custom Romans and the Slaves Essay Paper Sample
The Roman Republic in the first century before the Common Era regarded slaves as tools for use to meet their needs. The gladiatorial games were indeed one of the most common forms of entertainment. By way of supplying gladiators for contests, several schools of training were established across Italy. The schools hosted war prisoners and condemned criminals who regarded as slaves. Therefore, the Roman basically perceived slaves as criminals and thus were deprived off their rights. They were taught skills needed to fight even unto death in gladiatorial games. The Romans used the slaves for their benefit in matters of economic growth and development. They were mainly used as sources of labor to propel the country's economy and establishment. In fact, slaves were viewed as household property and that the Romans owned them like any other material thing (Strauss 23-56).
Buy Romans and the Slaves essay paper online
* Final order price might be slightly different depending on the current exchange rate of chosen payment system.
The inhumanity done to the slaves could not be entertained any longer by people like Spartacus. Strauss credits Spartacus's success to three things: the risks he took; his ability to fight inside out and the fact that he was a great salesman. He was able to sale his ideas to the slaves and later emerged with a group of 70,000 slaves and held the Roman army for about four years. His first victories which were too daring owing to his competence in fighting drew many recruits to his team. His military know-how and experience was a great source of the success achieved as at then. What further multiplied his appeal in the fight was celebrity; being a gladiator and charisma because he had the shroud of religious prophecy. Spartacus was therefore able to sell his plan to the many people mounted support and led to such great achievement which stands in all periods of history (Strauss 11-89).
Later on Crassus, the wealthiest man in Rome and Pompey led to the ultimate defeat of the slave insurrection. Spartacus tried in vain t o attain an agreement with the senate delegate led by Crassus. After Crassus refused any consensus with Spartacus, division in the slave insurrection weakened the team. A part of the forces led by Spartacus fled in the direction of the mountains to Petelia west while legions of Crassus pursued them. The legions succeeded to catch up with the portion of the rebels which separated from Spartacus army. Discipline broke in the Spartacus army which led to the demise of the rebellion. Small groups of the Spartacus army were attacking the oncoming legions independently and thus their effort could not suffice to counteract to the forces led by Crassus. Spartacus later turned his men around and in the end brought his whole strength to attack the legions in thefinal stand where the slaves were completely routed. Many of the slaves were killed on the field. Even Spartacus himself did not survive the attack.
The racial/ethnic beliefs and assumption played a very significant role in the slave uprising. Strauss has what some people would term as wild ideas about the influence Spartacus wife had. Strauss states that Spartacus had a religiously inspired wife and the mantle of prophecy propelled him to greater achievements in the war. This is thought to have given the entire group a lot of courage as backed up by this spiritual and religious belief. Moreover, the assumptions made by the senate gave time for the war to developed strong grounds which made it last for an expected four years. The senate looked down upon the danger of the slaves insurrection led by Spartacus and initially sent non-competent armies led by second-rated generals to counteract to the forces of the slaves. The Roman Empire was deemed strong and unshakable according to the dictates of culture and origin. It was an imaginable thing that caught up with Italy during this time that in 73BC where Spartacus led a group of untrained slaves in fighting against the Roman army (Strauss 121-7).
Women in both camps were also not left out in the rebellion process. Both women in the Roman society and in the Spartacus's slave rebellion played some role in the slave insurrection. Spartacus uprising included women among men in fighting against Crassus and the legions. They actively take part in the uprising led by Spartacus. Women slaves were all at the leniency of the predatory masters. The women however protested a great deal while the men fought in Spartacus camp. The roman women though on the senate's side did not have direct power of politics save for those who came from wealthy or strong families like Crassus where they could influence in private negotiations in the war. There was however one major national role which was reserved purely for women. This was in the sphere of religion. Spartacus wife as described by Strauss is one such example. However, there was a special group called the Vestals on the Roman side who were freed of any duty to marry or even have children and were instead devoted to study as well as correct ritual observance which were though important for the survival and security of the Roman army but which the male priests colleagues could not perform.
Like Rome's Craftiest General, Scipio Africanus, Spartacus learned the art of war in the most difficult and bloodiest of all kinds and forums. They have both charged superior forces in their different settings. Their efforts in fighting wars seem to followw similar trends. In the midst of dead hopes and dark moments, they have found their way to victory in unbelievable situations. Scipio's moves to exact oaths to a group of young roman patricians which was planning to desert the empire can be compared to Spartacus daring move to challenge the senate (Lacey par. 1-2). They are both men of war who apparently do not have any limits. They have given their whole selves to the point of death but ensure that they get what they are after. Both have demonstrated uncanny abilities; abilities which have lifted them above their age mates. They have both formed an important part of history in war.
The Roman military response to Spartacus and to the Goth threat at Adrianople in 378 has similarities in some way. The initial attack employed by the Roman military was weak. In Spartacus case, incompetent soldiers led by second rate generals was sent to fight back were they lost massively to the slaves' insurrection. Similarly, the Roman military moved from its classical infantry-based organization into small armed troops known as "limitanei" and other large troops referred to as the "comitatenses". This later led to neglect in military training and thus incompetence grew amongst the soldiers before they met the Goths at Adrianople in 378. Therefore, the Roman military response was still flawed in the quality and experience of staff involved. Such weakness as realized in the troops was similar in both occasions. The border was easily penetrated owing to the weakness and the Goths prevailed (MacDowall 43-77). Similarly, the same made Spartacus and his forces to triumph over the Roman army for such a long duration of time before they were defeated.
Spartacus' slave uprising continues to fascinate the public imagination over two thousands years after its brief success because of the effects realized after the war. Spartacus was a heroic slave and his actions and move live along the history. It is a war that laid a foundation for freedom, a war of all times that posed a great threat to the economy and government of Rome. Led by only a single person who gathered support from fellow slaves, this is considered a striking event that will live long amongst the minds of people. There were great dynamics in social change and development that struck the whole world with a lot of awe and even lives to this day. The true class grounds of ethics that as led by the ruling class of the Romans were greatly challenged by the Spartacan code. It was a massive achievement and an insurrection that paralyzed Roman systems to some extent. The events of the uprising are unfathomable. It is a revolt that ravaged an empire.
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Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:4c171c0a-8cf9-49cf-8385-644b5651e993> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://primewritings.com/essays/history-essays/romans-and-the-slaves.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00450.warc.gz | en | 0.982713 | 1,715 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.486635029315948... | 1 | Custom Romans and the Slaves Essay Paper Sample
The Roman Republic in the first century before the Common Era regarded slaves as tools for use to meet their needs. The gladiatorial games were indeed one of the most common forms of entertainment. By way of supplying gladiators for contests, several schools of training were established across Italy. The schools hosted war prisoners and condemned criminals who regarded as slaves. Therefore, the Roman basically perceived slaves as criminals and thus were deprived off their rights. They were taught skills needed to fight even unto death in gladiatorial games. The Romans used the slaves for their benefit in matters of economic growth and development. They were mainly used as sources of labor to propel the country's economy and establishment. In fact, slaves were viewed as household property and that the Romans owned them like any other material thing (Strauss 23-56).
Buy Romans and the Slaves essay paper online
* Final order price might be slightly different depending on the current exchange rate of chosen payment system.
The inhumanity done to the slaves could not be entertained any longer by people like Spartacus. Strauss credits Spartacus's success to three things: the risks he took; his ability to fight inside out and the fact that he was a great salesman. He was able to sale his ideas to the slaves and later emerged with a group of 70,000 slaves and held the Roman army for about four years. His first victories which were too daring owing to his competence in fighting drew many recruits to his team. His military know-how and experience was a great source of the success achieved as at then. What further multiplied his appeal in the fight was celebrity; being a gladiator and charisma because he had the shroud of religious prophecy. Spartacus was therefore able to sell his plan to the many people mounted support and led to such great achievement which stands in all periods of history (Strauss 11-89).
Later on Crassus, the wealthiest man in Rome and Pompey led to the ultimate defeat of the slave insurrection. Spartacus tried in vain t o attain an agreement with the senate delegate led by Crassus. After Crassus refused any consensus with Spartacus, division in the slave insurrection weakened the team. A part of the forces led by Spartacus fled in the direction of the mountains to Petelia west while legions of Crassus pursued them. The legions succeeded to catch up with the portion of the rebels which separated from Spartacus army. Discipline broke in the Spartacus army which led to the demise of the rebellion. Small groups of the Spartacus army were attacking the oncoming legions independently and thus their effort could not suffice to counteract to the forces led by Crassus. Spartacus later turned his men around and in the end brought his whole strength to attack the legions in thefinal stand where the slaves were completely routed. Many of the slaves were killed on the field. Even Spartacus himself did not survive the attack.
The racial/ethnic beliefs and assumption played a very significant role in the slave uprising. Strauss has what some people would term as wild ideas about the influence Spartacus wife had. Strauss states that Spartacus had a religiously inspired wife and the mantle of prophecy propelled him to greater achievements in the war. This is thought to have given the entire group a lot of courage as backed up by this spiritual and religious belief. Moreover, the assumptions made by the senate gave time for the war to developed strong grounds which made it last for an expected four years. The senate looked down upon the danger of the slaves insurrection led by Spartacus and initially sent non-competent armies led by second-rated generals to counteract to the forces of the slaves. The Roman Empire was deemed strong and unshakable according to the dictates of culture and origin. It was an imaginable thing that caught up with Italy during this time that in 73BC where Spartacus led a group of untrained slaves in fighting against the Roman army (Strauss 121-7).
Women in both camps were also not left out in the rebellion process. Both women in the Roman society and in the Spartacus's slave rebellion played some role in the slave insurrection. Spartacus uprising included women among men in fighting against Crassus and the legions. They actively take part in the uprising led by Spartacus. Women slaves were all at the leniency of the predatory masters. The women however protested a great deal while the men fought in Spartacus camp. The roman women though on the senate's side did not have direct power of politics save for those who came from wealthy or strong families like Crassus where they could influence in private negotiations in the war. There was however one major national role which was reserved purely for women. This was in the sphere of religion. Spartacus wife as described by Strauss is one such example. However, there was a special group called the Vestals on the Roman side who were freed of any duty to marry or even have children and were instead devoted to study as well as correct ritual observance which were though important for the survival and security of the Roman army but which the male priests colleagues could not perform.
Like Rome's Craftiest General, Scipio Africanus, Spartacus learned the art of war in the most difficult and bloodiest of all kinds and forums. They have both charged superior forces in their different settings. Their efforts in fighting wars seem to followw similar trends. In the midst of dead hopes and dark moments, they have found their way to victory in unbelievable situations. Scipio's moves to exact oaths to a group of young roman patricians which was planning to desert the empire can be compared to Spartacus daring move to challenge the senate (Lacey par. 1-2). They are both men of war who apparently do not have any limits. They have given their whole selves to the point of death but ensure that they get what they are after. Both have demonstrated uncanny abilities; abilities which have lifted them above their age mates. They have both formed an important part of history in war.
The Roman military response to Spartacus and to the Goth threat at Adrianople in 378 has similarities in some way. The initial attack employed by the Roman military was weak. In Spartacus case, incompetent soldiers led by second rate generals was sent to fight back were they lost massively to the slaves' insurrection. Similarly, the Roman military moved from its classical infantry-based organization into small armed troops known as "limitanei" and other large troops referred to as the "comitatenses". This later led to neglect in military training and thus incompetence grew amongst the soldiers before they met the Goths at Adrianople in 378. Therefore, the Roman military response was still flawed in the quality and experience of staff involved. Such weakness as realized in the troops was similar in both occasions. The border was easily penetrated owing to the weakness and the Goths prevailed (MacDowall 43-77). Similarly, the same made Spartacus and his forces to triumph over the Roman army for such a long duration of time before they were defeated.
Spartacus' slave uprising continues to fascinate the public imagination over two thousands years after its brief success because of the effects realized after the war. Spartacus was a heroic slave and his actions and move live along the history. It is a war that laid a foundation for freedom, a war of all times that posed a great threat to the economy and government of Rome. Led by only a single person who gathered support from fellow slaves, this is considered a striking event that will live long amongst the minds of people. There were great dynamics in social change and development that struck the whole world with a lot of awe and even lives to this day. The true class grounds of ethics that as led by the ruling class of the Romans were greatly challenged by the Spartacan code. It was a massive achievement and an insurrection that paralyzed Roman systems to some extent. The events of the uprising are unfathomable. It is a revolt that ravaged an empire.
Related history-essays essays
- Professionalism and Debating the American Revolution
- Mexican War on Independence
- Constantine the Great
- The History of the Holocaust
- Asia and the Aftermath of World War II
- Social History
- History of Ju-Jitsu
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- Stereotyped African American Actors
- Cuban Missile Crisis
Most popular orders | 1,743 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Miss Phillips: October 2015
Our first trip in year 5 was a success, we all had a great day and we learnt lots of new facts and vocabulary that we will be able to use in the classroom.
We started off in the Power House with a challenge to find as many different engines powered by a different type of fuel which we had to remember in our smaller groups. The Power House had so many different engines, it was a big challenge for us to remember what powered each of them but we managed it and found engines powered by:
- Muscle power (horses),
- Oil and Gas,
- Hydraulic (the one no one could remember),
- Hot air (cleaner than steam).
After finding all the types of engines which was pretty exciting and very interesting, we got to do something that was even more exciting — we got to see the trains!! They were huge when we stood next to them. There were a few different types of trains; an articulated steam train that was capable of travelling around sharp bends and up steep gradients, an electric powered engine, a tank engine, along with some of the first engines built in Britain. All of these engines have travelled around the world one had been used in India and another in Tasmania, but all engines get returned to the place where they were built which is why they are now back in Britain. In class before the trip we have been learning about how George Stephenson became the first inventor to introduce a passenger steam train by winning a competition against 4 other engines, one of which was the 'Novelty' which was in the museum for us to look at (it was very basic compared to the other engines). As well as the engines we were fortunate to see a range of carriages, 1st, 2nd and 3rd class, which was great for us to see to gather more ideas for our DT project.
After the Power House we went to discover what was outside in the court yard — we got to walk on railway tracks!! We saw the place where they would bring the engines in to fix; there was a hole in the ground for workers to get to the underside of the train but also an overhead hook that was on wheels to lift the trains off the tracks to be moved. We then continued our walk across the cast iron tracks to the sight where the first passenger and goods railway was built in 1830.
As well as all the exciting things we got to see and sketch above, we also got to go into the Air and Space gallery to see some other types of transport that were used in the past and are still used today. There were planes, including the first one built by the Wright Brothers and Royal Air Force planes and helicopters (which were massive and we had to work out how they manged to get them into the warehouse!). There were also cars, carts, motorbikes and even the world's fastest milk float (my favourite).
We had a fantastic day at the museum and the children definitely enjoyed the experience of seeing trains up close and not at a station. I was very impressed with how all the children behaved and engaged with the information! All of Base 4 would like to thank Mrs. Cador and Mrs. Gleave who kindly gave their time to join us on the trip!
Don't forget any of the new facts over the half term; we will need it to put into our Learning Journey books.
popular recent articlesAlso in the news
Sophie read some of our class story today- we really enjoy listening to each other when we...
So, where did that week go? We have had another great, busy, fun-filled week in school. Our music, RE and writing in particular this week has just blown me away. The children have been continuing with their singing, this time adding rap to to their repertoire ! I can't believe they managed to say all those words so well! I loved to see you guys bobbing and moving to the beat; wonderful! We...
A great week of learning in Base 4 this week — we've been working incredibly hard on our learning journey and getting creative in Music too.We returned to the feast at Heorot, only to find that the mead-hall had been destroyed by the foul beast, Grendel. We learnt more about Grendel and banked lots of wonderful language to describe him.Our Maths has focused on tenths and hundredths. ... | <urn:uuid:aa7d92fb-543c-4325-8dd6-3c2ea8280bcc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wrenburyschool.org.uk/school-news/museum-of-science-and-industry.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00340.warc.gz | en | 0.990186 | 902 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.5880793929100037... | 1 | Miss Phillips: October 2015
Our first trip in year 5 was a success, we all had a great day and we learnt lots of new facts and vocabulary that we will be able to use in the classroom.
We started off in the Power House with a challenge to find as many different engines powered by a different type of fuel which we had to remember in our smaller groups. The Power House had so many different engines, it was a big challenge for us to remember what powered each of them but we managed it and found engines powered by:
- Muscle power (horses),
- Oil and Gas,
- Hydraulic (the one no one could remember),
- Hot air (cleaner than steam).
After finding all the types of engines which was pretty exciting and very interesting, we got to do something that was even more exciting — we got to see the trains!! They were huge when we stood next to them. There were a few different types of trains; an articulated steam train that was capable of travelling around sharp bends and up steep gradients, an electric powered engine, a tank engine, along with some of the first engines built in Britain. All of these engines have travelled around the world one had been used in India and another in Tasmania, but all engines get returned to the place where they were built which is why they are now back in Britain. In class before the trip we have been learning about how George Stephenson became the first inventor to introduce a passenger steam train by winning a competition against 4 other engines, one of which was the 'Novelty' which was in the museum for us to look at (it was very basic compared to the other engines). As well as the engines we were fortunate to see a range of carriages, 1st, 2nd and 3rd class, which was great for us to see to gather more ideas for our DT project.
After the Power House we went to discover what was outside in the court yard — we got to walk on railway tracks!! We saw the place where they would bring the engines in to fix; there was a hole in the ground for workers to get to the underside of the train but also an overhead hook that was on wheels to lift the trains off the tracks to be moved. We then continued our walk across the cast iron tracks to the sight where the first passenger and goods railway was built in 1830.
As well as all the exciting things we got to see and sketch above, we also got to go into the Air and Space gallery to see some other types of transport that were used in the past and are still used today. There were planes, including the first one built by the Wright Brothers and Royal Air Force planes and helicopters (which were massive and we had to work out how they manged to get them into the warehouse!). There were also cars, carts, motorbikes and even the world's fastest milk float (my favourite).
We had a fantastic day at the museum and the children definitely enjoyed the experience of seeing trains up close and not at a station. I was very impressed with how all the children behaved and engaged with the information! All of Base 4 would like to thank Mrs. Cador and Mrs. Gleave who kindly gave their time to join us on the trip!
Don't forget any of the new facts over the half term; we will need it to put into our Learning Journey books.
popular recent articlesAlso in the news
Sophie read some of our class story today- we really enjoy listening to each other when we...
So, where did that week go? We have had another great, busy, fun-filled week in school. Our music, RE and writing in particular this week has just blown me away. The children have been continuing with their singing, this time adding rap to to their repertoire ! I can't believe they managed to say all those words so well! I loved to see you guys bobbing and moving to the beat; wonderful! We...
A great week of learning in Base 4 this week — we've been working incredibly hard on our learning journey and getting creative in Music too.We returned to the feast at Heorot, only to find that the mead-hall had been destroyed by the foul beast, Grendel. We learnt more about Grendel and banked lots of wonderful language to describe him.Our Maths has focused on tenths and hundredths. ... | 898 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For thousands of years, Istanbul was one of the most coveted cities in the entire world. Powerful empires fought for control of it, and it was invaded more than 60 times. It was a city that everyone wanted, and it was all because of its location.
Istanbul is the only city in the world that sits on two continents. The eastern half of the city is located in Asia, and the western half is in Europe. It is ideally situated for trade between the two continents, and it has easy access to the sea.
The Black Sea borders the city to the north, and the Sea of Marmara (the northeast extension of the Mediterranean Sea) borders it to the south. The Bosporus Strait (sometimes spelled Bosphorus), a very narrow waterway, separates the eastern and western parts of Istanbul. Ships cannot travel from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea without passing through the strait.
In the 7th century B.C., the ancient Greeks established a settlement called Byzantion (later called Byzantium) along the Golden Horn, a natural harbor that leads to the Bosporus Strait. The Bosporus quickly became one of the most important trade routes in the ancient world, and the Greek settlement flourished. Byzantion was constantly invaded because of its desirable location, and it eventually became part of the vast Roman Empire. In A.D. 330, Emperor Constantine made the city the new Roman capital and renamed it Constantinople. It was located on the western side of the Bosporus where the land forms a horn-shaped peninsula. Massive walls and towers were built around the peninsula to protect the city from naval attacks, and walls were also built to protect the city from land invasions. The walls are considered to be one of the most complex and elaborate fortification systems ever built. The Romans also strung a giant chain across the entrance to the Golden Horn to prevent enemy ships from entering the harbor.
In addition to fortifying the city against attack, Constantine built palaces, monuments, and churches. He commissioned great works of art and also made Christianity the official religion of his empire. The city prospered under Roman rule and was able to withstand repeated enemy attacks. Despite their military success in Constantinople, the Roman Empire collapsed after Rome fell to barbarian invaders in the 5th century. The Romans maintained control of Constantinople and renamed their empire the Byzantium Empire. The city remained rich and powerful and was a center of learning, art, culture, and architecture.
In the centuries that followed,
Constantinople was repeatedly attacked by Middle Eastern invaders. It fell into economic and military decline and was captured by armies of the Christian Crusades in 1204. The Byzantine Empire regained control in 1261, but the city had been plundered and left in ruins. It never fully recovered and was very vulnerable when it was attacked by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Turks were able to breach the city's defensive walls by firing 1200-pound cannonballs at them. They evaded the chain that was stretched across the Golden Horn by rolling their ships across land on oiled logs. After a 54-day siege, they captured the city and began their almost 500-year rule.
The Ottoman rule was a time of artistic and architectural achievement, and Constantinople was restored to its former glory. Although people of many faiths populated the city, the Ottomans were Muslim and constructed many mosques throughout Constantinople. It wasn't until after World War I that they lost control of their prized city. They fought on the side of the Germans (the losing side) during the war, and they lost much of their vast empire when the war ended. Constantinople was occupied by the French and British after the war, and in 1922, the renamed city of Istanbul became part of the newly-created Republic of Turkey.
Today, Istanbul is a modern city that retains many elements of its past. Two-thirds of the population lives on the European side of the city where commerce and tourism thrive. Ancient palaces, churches, mosques, fortresses, and fortification walls remain standing throughout Istanbul, and they are popular tourist attractions.
The European side of Istanbul is also home to world-class museums, which house historically-significant artifacts and works of art. The Asian side of the city is much quieter and is home to many residential neighborhoods.
Istanbul remains one of the world's great cultural and architectural centers as well as a place where European and Asian cultures meet, It also continues to be a major center of commerce, and 36 percent of Turkey's exports and 40 percent of its imports pass through the city. The significance of the Bosporus Strait has not lessened over the years, and it is the primary hub for transport of oil to Europe from Russia and western Asia. It is one of the world's most active shipping lanes, and the traffic is so heavy that it must be managed by a control tower.
Although it has been many years since the Greeks, Romans, and Ottomans ruled the city, reminders of their dynasties are everywhere. All it takes is one visit to this beautiful city to understand why it was worth fighting for.
* Istanbul was located along the Silk Road, an ancient trade route that linked China with Europe.
* In order to restore Constantinople to its former glory, the Ottomans forced subjects from every corner of their empire to move to the city.
Caption: Istanbul has long been coveted for its easy access to the sea.
Caption: Above: The Aqueduct of Valens was built by Emperor Valens in the late 4th century and is one of the most important landmarks in the city. Right: This mosaic has survived from the Byzantine era.
Caption: Street performers fill the air with music
Caption: This image depicts the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
Christine Graf is a frequent contributor to FACES. | <urn:uuid:3adb17ff-670b-44c0-b107-040f85888553> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=ITOF&sw=w&u=nysl_me_touro&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA443989268&asid=aea0bfbe2cf90e5542d0ee1cb681a871 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00211.warc.gz | en | 0.980344 | 1,204 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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-0.0478763654... | 1 | For thousands of years, Istanbul was one of the most coveted cities in the entire world. Powerful empires fought for control of it, and it was invaded more than 60 times. It was a city that everyone wanted, and it was all because of its location.
Istanbul is the only city in the world that sits on two continents. The eastern half of the city is located in Asia, and the western half is in Europe. It is ideally situated for trade between the two continents, and it has easy access to the sea.
The Black Sea borders the city to the north, and the Sea of Marmara (the northeast extension of the Mediterranean Sea) borders it to the south. The Bosporus Strait (sometimes spelled Bosphorus), a very narrow waterway, separates the eastern and western parts of Istanbul. Ships cannot travel from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea without passing through the strait.
In the 7th century B.C., the ancient Greeks established a settlement called Byzantion (later called Byzantium) along the Golden Horn, a natural harbor that leads to the Bosporus Strait. The Bosporus quickly became one of the most important trade routes in the ancient world, and the Greek settlement flourished. Byzantion was constantly invaded because of its desirable location, and it eventually became part of the vast Roman Empire. In A.D. 330, Emperor Constantine made the city the new Roman capital and renamed it Constantinople. It was located on the western side of the Bosporus where the land forms a horn-shaped peninsula. Massive walls and towers were built around the peninsula to protect the city from naval attacks, and walls were also built to protect the city from land invasions. The walls are considered to be one of the most complex and elaborate fortification systems ever built. The Romans also strung a giant chain across the entrance to the Golden Horn to prevent enemy ships from entering the harbor.
In addition to fortifying the city against attack, Constantine built palaces, monuments, and churches. He commissioned great works of art and also made Christianity the official religion of his empire. The city prospered under Roman rule and was able to withstand repeated enemy attacks. Despite their military success in Constantinople, the Roman Empire collapsed after Rome fell to barbarian invaders in the 5th century. The Romans maintained control of Constantinople and renamed their empire the Byzantium Empire. The city remained rich and powerful and was a center of learning, art, culture, and architecture.
In the centuries that followed,
Constantinople was repeatedly attacked by Middle Eastern invaders. It fell into economic and military decline and was captured by armies of the Christian Crusades in 1204. The Byzantine Empire regained control in 1261, but the city had been plundered and left in ruins. It never fully recovered and was very vulnerable when it was attacked by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Turks were able to breach the city's defensive walls by firing 1200-pound cannonballs at them. They evaded the chain that was stretched across the Golden Horn by rolling their ships across land on oiled logs. After a 54-day siege, they captured the city and began their almost 500-year rule.
The Ottoman rule was a time of artistic and architectural achievement, and Constantinople was restored to its former glory. Although people of many faiths populated the city, the Ottomans were Muslim and constructed many mosques throughout Constantinople. It wasn't until after World War I that they lost control of their prized city. They fought on the side of the Germans (the losing side) during the war, and they lost much of their vast empire when the war ended. Constantinople was occupied by the French and British after the war, and in 1922, the renamed city of Istanbul became part of the newly-created Republic of Turkey.
Today, Istanbul is a modern city that retains many elements of its past. Two-thirds of the population lives on the European side of the city where commerce and tourism thrive. Ancient palaces, churches, mosques, fortresses, and fortification walls remain standing throughout Istanbul, and they are popular tourist attractions.
The European side of Istanbul is also home to world-class museums, which house historically-significant artifacts and works of art. The Asian side of the city is much quieter and is home to many residential neighborhoods.
Istanbul remains one of the world's great cultural and architectural centers as well as a place where European and Asian cultures meet, It also continues to be a major center of commerce, and 36 percent of Turkey's exports and 40 percent of its imports pass through the city. The significance of the Bosporus Strait has not lessened over the years, and it is the primary hub for transport of oil to Europe from Russia and western Asia. It is one of the world's most active shipping lanes, and the traffic is so heavy that it must be managed by a control tower.
Although it has been many years since the Greeks, Romans, and Ottomans ruled the city, reminders of their dynasties are everywhere. All it takes is one visit to this beautiful city to understand why it was worth fighting for.
* Istanbul was located along the Silk Road, an ancient trade route that linked China with Europe.
* In order to restore Constantinople to its former glory, the Ottomans forced subjects from every corner of their empire to move to the city.
Caption: Istanbul has long been coveted for its easy access to the sea.
Caption: Above: The Aqueduct of Valens was built by Emperor Valens in the late 4th century and is one of the most important landmarks in the city. Right: This mosaic has survived from the Byzantine era.
Caption: Street performers fill the air with music
Caption: This image depicts the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
Christine Graf is a frequent contributor to FACES. | 1,219 | ENGLISH | 1 |
According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), 20 percent of youth who were infected with HIV since they were born were unaware they were infected when they first become sexually active. The study also found that those youth who knew they were infected usually failed to tell their partner before becoming sexual activity, and some of sexual activity did not involve condom use.
The NIH reports that physicians need to offer more counseling about healthy sexual activity to younger generations. A large percentage of physicians wait to inform a person of their HIV status until they are a teenager because they are more likely to handle the diagnosis emotionally. The American Academy of Pediatrics now wants health care providers to ask parents and caregivers when to discuss the diagnosis.
Rohan Hazra, M.D., states: “Our findings show that these young people act very much like their HIV-negative counterparts across the country. However, because of their HIV status, it is extremely important for health care providers, school counselors and family members to reinforce the importance of practicing safe sex, taking medication regularly and disclosing HIV status to potential partners.” Hazra is with the Pediatric, Adolescent and Maternal AIDS Branch of the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National NICHD.
About 10,000 people are living with HIV in the United States and acquired the disease at or after birth. Participants of the study were an average age of 14 when they had their first sexual experience, and one-third of the participants said they did not disclose their HIV status to their partner. 62 percent of the participants also admitted that they performed at least one sexual act without a condom.
Susannah Allison, Ph.D., with the Infant, Child and Adolescent HIV Prevention Program at NIMH, stated: “As more HIV-positive infants survive childhood and become sexually active teens, it becomes increasingly important to emphasize how healthy behaviors can protect these teens, as well as their partners.”
Source: National Institutes of Health | <urn:uuid:ffef5a89-ba2a-4788-a734-6c1457a50f75> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kids.laws.com/kids-news/20-of-hiv-infected-youth-were-unaware-of-status-35408.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00490.warc.gz | en | 0.982854 | 397 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.2790418565273285... | 4 | According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), 20 percent of youth who were infected with HIV since they were born were unaware they were infected when they first become sexually active. The study also found that those youth who knew they were infected usually failed to tell their partner before becoming sexual activity, and some of sexual activity did not involve condom use.
The NIH reports that physicians need to offer more counseling about healthy sexual activity to younger generations. A large percentage of physicians wait to inform a person of their HIV status until they are a teenager because they are more likely to handle the diagnosis emotionally. The American Academy of Pediatrics now wants health care providers to ask parents and caregivers when to discuss the diagnosis.
Rohan Hazra, M.D., states: “Our findings show that these young people act very much like their HIV-negative counterparts across the country. However, because of their HIV status, it is extremely important for health care providers, school counselors and family members to reinforce the importance of practicing safe sex, taking medication regularly and disclosing HIV status to potential partners.” Hazra is with the Pediatric, Adolescent and Maternal AIDS Branch of the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National NICHD.
About 10,000 people are living with HIV in the United States and acquired the disease at or after birth. Participants of the study were an average age of 14 when they had their first sexual experience, and one-third of the participants said they did not disclose their HIV status to their partner. 62 percent of the participants also admitted that they performed at least one sexual act without a condom.
Susannah Allison, Ph.D., with the Infant, Child and Adolescent HIV Prevention Program at NIMH, stated: “As more HIV-positive infants survive childhood and become sexually active teens, it becomes increasingly important to emphasize how healthy behaviors can protect these teens, as well as their partners.”
Source: National Institutes of Health | 387 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Born in 1808 in Kentucky, Jefferson Davis graduated from West Point in 1828. After seven years in the army he resigned his commission to become a planter in Mississippi. Davis was elected to Congress in 1845 and then left in 1846 to fight in the Mexican War. From 1853 to 1857 he was secretary of war for President Franklin Pierce and then served in the U.S. Senate until 1861. Davis resigned from the senate in January 1861 and was inaugurated February 1861 as president of the Confederacy.
Davis' administration was marked by cronyism, autocracy, hard work, and complete devotion to the cause. Outside his constant support of Lee, Davis often quarreled with his generals and interfered with the War Department to the point where he had six secretaries of war in four years . Still he worked ceaselessly, was able to hold onto talented staff, and promoted a much needed nationalistic view of the Confederacy.
In 1865, his responses to the failed Peace Conference and Gen. Lee's report on the state of the army at Petersburg display Davis' complete dedication to the Confederacy. Even with the surrender of Lee's and Johnston's armies he couldn't accept the end of the Confederacy. After his capture in Georgia he spent two years in prison and was released without being brought to trial. He wrote The Rise and and Fall of the Confederate Government in 1881 and died in 1889.
Back to Biographies
Last updated: February 26, 2015 | <urn:uuid:481f40ab-5ab5-4301-8154-b0303770044b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://home.nps.gov/pete/learn/historyculture/jefferson-davis.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00421.warc.gz | en | 0.985216 | 298 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.2765706777572632... | 6 | Born in 1808 in Kentucky, Jefferson Davis graduated from West Point in 1828. After seven years in the army he resigned his commission to become a planter in Mississippi. Davis was elected to Congress in 1845 and then left in 1846 to fight in the Mexican War. From 1853 to 1857 he was secretary of war for President Franklin Pierce and then served in the U.S. Senate until 1861. Davis resigned from the senate in January 1861 and was inaugurated February 1861 as president of the Confederacy.
Davis' administration was marked by cronyism, autocracy, hard work, and complete devotion to the cause. Outside his constant support of Lee, Davis often quarreled with his generals and interfered with the War Department to the point where he had six secretaries of war in four years . Still he worked ceaselessly, was able to hold onto talented staff, and promoted a much needed nationalistic view of the Confederacy.
In 1865, his responses to the failed Peace Conference and Gen. Lee's report on the state of the army at Petersburg display Davis' complete dedication to the Confederacy. Even with the surrender of Lee's and Johnston's armies he couldn't accept the end of the Confederacy. After his capture in Georgia he spent two years in prison and was released without being brought to trial. He wrote The Rise and and Fall of the Confederate Government in 1881 and died in 1889.
Back to Biographies
Last updated: February 26, 2015 | 345 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Consider the IBM logo.
Visually, you just see three letters when you look at this logo. However, there are actually eight horizontal lines with gaps.
The whole is more than the sum of its parts.
The iPod is a more complex example. It was a hugely successful portable music player. Why was that?
The secret behind the iPod’s success was Apple combining several things to create something new. It was so new that it revolutionized the music industry.
There were a few essential parts that made the iPod a success.
First, although many music players already existed, Apple made a better designed and more beautiful one, with the capacity to store a very large number of songs.
Apple also acquired an existing, easy-to-use software program for music management and syncing with the iPod. They renamed it “iTunes.”
Afterwards, they added the last piece of the puzzle - the ability to easily buy single songs (instead of whole albums) for a very low price, all from within iTunes.
Each essential part, on its own, would not lead to the revolution that became identified as the iPod. Combined, they created the perfect storm - a gestalt idea.
Gestalt is an organized whole that is perceived as more than the sum of its parts (Oxford English Dictionary).
These ideas, when implemented, combine essential elements working together to create a whole that is larger than its parts.
Would you like Haim to help you? | <urn:uuid:c9222110-3926-41f2-9d80-bb33b0c0af03> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://schlesinger.co/gestalt-ideas/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00248.warc.gz | en | 0.980284 | 309 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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-0.1237193197011... | 7 | Consider the IBM logo.
Visually, you just see three letters when you look at this logo. However, there are actually eight horizontal lines with gaps.
The whole is more than the sum of its parts.
The iPod is a more complex example. It was a hugely successful portable music player. Why was that?
The secret behind the iPod’s success was Apple combining several things to create something new. It was so new that it revolutionized the music industry.
There were a few essential parts that made the iPod a success.
First, although many music players already existed, Apple made a better designed and more beautiful one, with the capacity to store a very large number of songs.
Apple also acquired an existing, easy-to-use software program for music management and syncing with the iPod. They renamed it “iTunes.”
Afterwards, they added the last piece of the puzzle - the ability to easily buy single songs (instead of whole albums) for a very low price, all from within iTunes.
Each essential part, on its own, would not lead to the revolution that became identified as the iPod. Combined, they created the perfect storm - a gestalt idea.
Gestalt is an organized whole that is perceived as more than the sum of its parts (Oxford English Dictionary).
These ideas, when implemented, combine essential elements working together to create a whole that is larger than its parts.
Would you like Haim to help you? | 288 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Guide to a Perfect trip in Egypt!
Ancient Egyptians have helped a lot in providing a great deal of knowledge and evidence about ancient medicine to modern historians. This knowledge has been discovered on the many papyrus scrolls which have been found in archeological excavations in Egypt. In ancient Egypt illnesses were not just cured by magicians and the medicine man but also by doctors and physicians. Excavations have revealed plates showing physicians and an illustration about Imenhotep who was the physician to King Zozer shows how he was worshipped as the god of the healing after his death due to the medicinal knowledge he possessed.
People in ancient Egypt were aware of pharmaceuticals as well, even though they still firmly believed that wellness and sickness was an unceasing battle between the good and the evil. People in ancient Egypt knew how to prepare drugs from plants and herbs like fennel, cumin, caraway, aloe, safflower, glue, pomegranates botanical, mineral substances and linseed oil. Also other substances which were used for making drugs included copper salts, plain salt, lead, eggs, liver, hairs, milk, animal horns and fat, honey and wax.
In the period of the new kingdom medical prescriptions were very varied and dozens of them were available for some diseases. The physician chose the most effective medicines based on the prescribed criteria. Some medicines then were fast acting while others showed their effect slowly. Also, there were drugs which were very specific to certain seasons. An example is an eye medication which could be used only at the onset of winters for the first two months and there was another one which was used two months after this while a third was applicable all the year round.
The age of the patients was strongly considered when deciding a medicine. For example, when treating patients suffering from retention of urine, an adult was given a mixture of water, ale sediments, green dates and some other vegetables, but on the other hand a child with the same ailment was given an old piece of papyrus soaked in oil applied as a hot band around his stomach. Chemists had to very carefully consider the age of the patients while preparing the drugs. If the young patient was mature enough he could take tablets, but if he was still in an infant, tablets would be dissolved into a wet nurse's milk. Some drugs derived their popularity from the fact that they were used for curing a reputed figure of the time. For example, a specific eye ointment was highly popular with ancient Egyptians, simply because it cured one of the pharaohs. It’s interesting to note that chemists during ancient Egyptian period invented some other drugs, which were commonly known as household drugs, meant to eliminate domestic pests.
Egyptians placed a huge value on appearingbeautiful and young....
Fertility is the process of birth and the coming of a new creature... | <urn:uuid:ee93cd65-78cd-4e0a-91d5-bb8825ddedb8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ask-aladdin.com/ancient-egypt/medicine-ancient-egyptian/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00177.warc.gz | en | 0.986578 | 585 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.2416048347949981... | 5 | Guide to a Perfect trip in Egypt!
Ancient Egyptians have helped a lot in providing a great deal of knowledge and evidence about ancient medicine to modern historians. This knowledge has been discovered on the many papyrus scrolls which have been found in archeological excavations in Egypt. In ancient Egypt illnesses were not just cured by magicians and the medicine man but also by doctors and physicians. Excavations have revealed plates showing physicians and an illustration about Imenhotep who was the physician to King Zozer shows how he was worshipped as the god of the healing after his death due to the medicinal knowledge he possessed.
People in ancient Egypt were aware of pharmaceuticals as well, even though they still firmly believed that wellness and sickness was an unceasing battle between the good and the evil. People in ancient Egypt knew how to prepare drugs from plants and herbs like fennel, cumin, caraway, aloe, safflower, glue, pomegranates botanical, mineral substances and linseed oil. Also other substances which were used for making drugs included copper salts, plain salt, lead, eggs, liver, hairs, milk, animal horns and fat, honey and wax.
In the period of the new kingdom medical prescriptions were very varied and dozens of them were available for some diseases. The physician chose the most effective medicines based on the prescribed criteria. Some medicines then were fast acting while others showed their effect slowly. Also, there were drugs which were very specific to certain seasons. An example is an eye medication which could be used only at the onset of winters for the first two months and there was another one which was used two months after this while a third was applicable all the year round.
The age of the patients was strongly considered when deciding a medicine. For example, when treating patients suffering from retention of urine, an adult was given a mixture of water, ale sediments, green dates and some other vegetables, but on the other hand a child with the same ailment was given an old piece of papyrus soaked in oil applied as a hot band around his stomach. Chemists had to very carefully consider the age of the patients while preparing the drugs. If the young patient was mature enough he could take tablets, but if he was still in an infant, tablets would be dissolved into a wet nurse's milk. Some drugs derived their popularity from the fact that they were used for curing a reputed figure of the time. For example, a specific eye ointment was highly popular with ancient Egyptians, simply because it cured one of the pharaohs. It’s interesting to note that chemists during ancient Egyptian period invented some other drugs, which were commonly known as household drugs, meant to eliminate domestic pests.
Egyptians placed a huge value on appearingbeautiful and young....
Fertility is the process of birth and the coming of a new creature... | 576 | ENGLISH | 1 |
John Bell Hood was born June 1,1831 in Owingsville, Kentucky. Since he was educated at the United States Military Academy, he joined the Confederate Army as a calvary captain. Hood was unhappy that his home state of Kentucky declared neutrality, so he decided to serve his adopted state of Texas. In 1862, Hood was promoted to colonel of the 4th Texas Infantry. By March of 1862, Hood was promoted again to Brigadier General. Since Hood developed a reputation for being brave and aggressive in battle, he quickly moved through the military ranks of the Confederate Army.
Failure in Command of the Army of the Tennessee
Hood’s bravery and fierce demeanor in battle also got him into trouble on the battlefield. After being wounded at the Battle of Gettysburg, Hood lost full use of one of his arms. Nevertheless, he returned to service in the Confederate Army and was promoted to General in 1864. Hood assumed command of the Army of Tennessee stationed in Atlanta, Georgia. Hood, however, struggled to command such a large army. He was unsuccessful in attempts to pierce the Union siege of Atlanta in 1864 and lost at least 20,000 men at failed frontal assaults.
Brutal Defeats in Tennessee
He suffered a humiliating defeat with thousands of casualties at the Battle of Franklin, sometimes called the "Pickett's Charge of the West," because of the numerous unsuccessful frontal assaults he ordered into fortified Union positions. Then, Hood led his army to a second defeat to Union forces under Major General George H. Thomas at Nashville in December of 1864, essentially sealing the fate of the Army of Tennessee. He was relieved of command.
After the Civil War
After the war, Hood worked as a cotton broken and president of an insurance company in New Orleans, Louisiana. In 1868, he married Anna Marie Hennen. They had eleven children together and three sets of twins. During the winter of 1878, a Yellow Fever epidemic broke out in New Orleans. Hood’s insurance business began to fail because of the outbreak. Both Hood and Anna (and daughter Lydia) contracted Yellow Fever and died, leaving ten of the Hood children as orphans. | <urn:uuid:8cc34592-8941-4f81-a827-7347e5dd316d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/john-bell-hood-biography | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00035.warc.gz | en | 0.982215 | 443 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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-0.119883663952... | 2 | John Bell Hood was born June 1,1831 in Owingsville, Kentucky. Since he was educated at the United States Military Academy, he joined the Confederate Army as a calvary captain. Hood was unhappy that his home state of Kentucky declared neutrality, so he decided to serve his adopted state of Texas. In 1862, Hood was promoted to colonel of the 4th Texas Infantry. By March of 1862, Hood was promoted again to Brigadier General. Since Hood developed a reputation for being brave and aggressive in battle, he quickly moved through the military ranks of the Confederate Army.
Failure in Command of the Army of the Tennessee
Hood’s bravery and fierce demeanor in battle also got him into trouble on the battlefield. After being wounded at the Battle of Gettysburg, Hood lost full use of one of his arms. Nevertheless, he returned to service in the Confederate Army and was promoted to General in 1864. Hood assumed command of the Army of Tennessee stationed in Atlanta, Georgia. Hood, however, struggled to command such a large army. He was unsuccessful in attempts to pierce the Union siege of Atlanta in 1864 and lost at least 20,000 men at failed frontal assaults.
Brutal Defeats in Tennessee
He suffered a humiliating defeat with thousands of casualties at the Battle of Franklin, sometimes called the "Pickett's Charge of the West," because of the numerous unsuccessful frontal assaults he ordered into fortified Union positions. Then, Hood led his army to a second defeat to Union forces under Major General George H. Thomas at Nashville in December of 1864, essentially sealing the fate of the Army of Tennessee. He was relieved of command.
After the Civil War
After the war, Hood worked as a cotton broken and president of an insurance company in New Orleans, Louisiana. In 1868, he married Anna Marie Hennen. They had eleven children together and three sets of twins. During the winter of 1878, a Yellow Fever epidemic broke out in New Orleans. Hood’s insurance business began to fail because of the outbreak. Both Hood and Anna (and daughter Lydia) contracted Yellow Fever and died, leaving ten of the Hood children as orphans. | 470 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bacon’s Rebellion was a revolt led by Nathaniel Bacon in 1676 against the injustices of William Berkeley, the Governor of Virginia.
Did You Know?
Nathaniel Bacon was actually a cousin of William Berkeley, the Governor of Virginia.
Before the struggle for freedom commenced in 1776 in America, the citizens of Maryland, Virginia, were living in peace, taking care of their plantations. The British monarchy ruled over the colonies, and the citizens were happy with the progress of the lands. The British monarchy invited settlers to domesticate the lands as well as create cash crops. But with Native American settlements near the border, things were always tense with the citizens living in close proximity.
In 1676, Nathaniel Bacon, the son of wealthy parents in Suffolk, had arrived in Virginia to take care of the tobacco plantations of his family. He even had a seat in the House of Burgesses, a ruling Council that handled the judicial and administrative affairs of the state. Virginia was ruled by William Berkeley. But the frequent tensions between the Native Americans and the settlers, the low protection provided to the farmers working on his plantations, as well as the proximity of the attacks near the borders had rendered many injuries. This led to a dispute between Nathaniel Bacon and William Berkeley, which finally erupted into a widespread revolt, known as Bacon’s Rebellion.
Causes of Bacon’s Rebellion
◆ Tobacco was produced at low prices and exported to other countries for a profit.
◆ Indentured servants who had served their terms had no lands to grow their crops, and yet had to pay high taxes.
◆ Frequent attacks on the plantations near the borders by Native Americans.
◆ William Berkeley’s refusal to take action against the Native Americans and administer rights to the citizens to defend themselves.
Bacon’s Rebellion Facts
◆ An overseer of Nathaniel Bacon working on his plantation was killed in an unprecedented attack by the Doeg tribe.
◆ Frequent complaints regarding protection against the attacks fell on deaf ears. Instead, Governor Berkeley offered to build forts along the border. This was thought to be another ploy, by the people of Virginia, to raise taxes.
◆ After Governor Berkeley’s refusal to take action against the Native American tribes, Bacon arrived with 500 men and demanded a commission to lead an army against the tribes. The governor yielded to his demands after he threatened to shoot the remaining members of the Council.
◆ Nathaniel Bacon and his army persuaded the Occoneechee tribe to fight against the Susquehannock. After they captured the strongholds of the Susquehannock, Bacon and his army attacked the Occoneechee tribe, killing men and women indiscriminately. Thus, the middlemen acting on behalf of the governor in the fur trades were vanquished. In retaliation, William Berkeley branded Nathaniel Bacon a rebel and a traitor.
◆ Bacon and his army marched back to Jamestown and burned down all the official buildings, while Berkeley fled to Northampton.
◆ Bacon and his army attacked the friendly Pamunkey tribe, who were the allies of the English, and were supplying them with weapons during raids with other tribes.
◆ In July 1676, Bacon issued a list of complaints, named the ‘Declaration of the People of Virginia’, outlining the grievances of the citizens and the injustices they had to incur under the rule of William Berkeley.
◆ Naval ships from England were sent as reinforcements to aid against the rebellion. Before they could capture Bacon, he died of dysentery in October that year.
◆ The leadership soon fell into the hands of John Ingram, but the followers either died or joined Berkeley.
◆ The rebellion soon ended, and 23 men were hanged without trial on the orders of William Berkeley.
Effects of Bacon’s Rebellion
◆ Bacon’s Rebellion was a significant event, because it highlighted the mistreatment under British rule, and stoked the fire of rebellion in different states.
◆ It unwittingly encouraged white populism and waged a war against the Indians, who were the original rulers of the land.
◆ The rebellion stopped the use of indentured servants, and instead encouraged the capturing of slaves from Africa, to put a stop to any further uprisings.
◆ William Berkeley was relieved of governorship, and later died in England.
Bacon’s Rebellion was regarded to be a standpoint in American history. Although a closer look at the facts would indicate that Bacon only cared only about whites. This rebellion was even considered to be a personal vendetta between him and Governor Berkeley. In the end, Nathaniel Bacon tried to end the disharmony and discontent among the plantation farmers. It was a significant event, since it was the first time the average citizen had demanded his rights in front of the government. | <urn:uuid:0d5d13ef-fd8b-4f59-8199-fb0f37878ff4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historyplex.com/bacons-rebellion-causes-effects | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00542.warc.gz | en | 0.982139 | 999 | 4.4375 | 4 | [
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0.23404099047... | 7 | Bacon’s Rebellion was a revolt led by Nathaniel Bacon in 1676 against the injustices of William Berkeley, the Governor of Virginia.
Did You Know?
Nathaniel Bacon was actually a cousin of William Berkeley, the Governor of Virginia.
Before the struggle for freedom commenced in 1776 in America, the citizens of Maryland, Virginia, were living in peace, taking care of their plantations. The British monarchy ruled over the colonies, and the citizens were happy with the progress of the lands. The British monarchy invited settlers to domesticate the lands as well as create cash crops. But with Native American settlements near the border, things were always tense with the citizens living in close proximity.
In 1676, Nathaniel Bacon, the son of wealthy parents in Suffolk, had arrived in Virginia to take care of the tobacco plantations of his family. He even had a seat in the House of Burgesses, a ruling Council that handled the judicial and administrative affairs of the state. Virginia was ruled by William Berkeley. But the frequent tensions between the Native Americans and the settlers, the low protection provided to the farmers working on his plantations, as well as the proximity of the attacks near the borders had rendered many injuries. This led to a dispute between Nathaniel Bacon and William Berkeley, which finally erupted into a widespread revolt, known as Bacon’s Rebellion.
Causes of Bacon’s Rebellion
◆ Tobacco was produced at low prices and exported to other countries for a profit.
◆ Indentured servants who had served their terms had no lands to grow their crops, and yet had to pay high taxes.
◆ Frequent attacks on the plantations near the borders by Native Americans.
◆ William Berkeley’s refusal to take action against the Native Americans and administer rights to the citizens to defend themselves.
Bacon’s Rebellion Facts
◆ An overseer of Nathaniel Bacon working on his plantation was killed in an unprecedented attack by the Doeg tribe.
◆ Frequent complaints regarding protection against the attacks fell on deaf ears. Instead, Governor Berkeley offered to build forts along the border. This was thought to be another ploy, by the people of Virginia, to raise taxes.
◆ After Governor Berkeley’s refusal to take action against the Native American tribes, Bacon arrived with 500 men and demanded a commission to lead an army against the tribes. The governor yielded to his demands after he threatened to shoot the remaining members of the Council.
◆ Nathaniel Bacon and his army persuaded the Occoneechee tribe to fight against the Susquehannock. After they captured the strongholds of the Susquehannock, Bacon and his army attacked the Occoneechee tribe, killing men and women indiscriminately. Thus, the middlemen acting on behalf of the governor in the fur trades were vanquished. In retaliation, William Berkeley branded Nathaniel Bacon a rebel and a traitor.
◆ Bacon and his army marched back to Jamestown and burned down all the official buildings, while Berkeley fled to Northampton.
◆ Bacon and his army attacked the friendly Pamunkey tribe, who were the allies of the English, and were supplying them with weapons during raids with other tribes.
◆ In July 1676, Bacon issued a list of complaints, named the ‘Declaration of the People of Virginia’, outlining the grievances of the citizens and the injustices they had to incur under the rule of William Berkeley.
◆ Naval ships from England were sent as reinforcements to aid against the rebellion. Before they could capture Bacon, he died of dysentery in October that year.
◆ The leadership soon fell into the hands of John Ingram, but the followers either died or joined Berkeley.
◆ The rebellion soon ended, and 23 men were hanged without trial on the orders of William Berkeley.
Effects of Bacon’s Rebellion
◆ Bacon’s Rebellion was a significant event, because it highlighted the mistreatment under British rule, and stoked the fire of rebellion in different states.
◆ It unwittingly encouraged white populism and waged a war against the Indians, who were the original rulers of the land.
◆ The rebellion stopped the use of indentured servants, and instead encouraged the capturing of slaves from Africa, to put a stop to any further uprisings.
◆ William Berkeley was relieved of governorship, and later died in England.
Bacon’s Rebellion was regarded to be a standpoint in American history. Although a closer look at the facts would indicate that Bacon only cared only about whites. This rebellion was even considered to be a personal vendetta between him and Governor Berkeley. In the end, Nathaniel Bacon tried to end the disharmony and discontent among the plantation farmers. It was a significant event, since it was the first time the average citizen had demanded his rights in front of the government. | 973 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Growing up in the 1950s, there were a lot of topics people just didn’t talk about. One such topic was disabilities. Often, we were told not to stare at individuals with differences because it was impolite. People just didn’t talk about being differently abled back then. Today, there are more open discussions, and there are some books on the market for school-aged children on a variety of topics involving disabilities. Why did it take so long?
Beverly Cleary is quoted as having said, “If you don’t see the book you want on the shelves, write it.” (ibtimes.com) A celebrated author with many awards including a Newbery, Ms. Cleary grew up on a farm in a town that didn’t even have a library. Yet, she was determined to tell the stories she felt worthy of sharing. This 103 year old author’s books have sold over 91 million copies.
Toni Morrison once tweeted the following, ” “If there’s a book you want to read, but it hasn’t been written yet, then you must write it.” She won a Pulitzer prize for her book Beloved, and she and her now deceased son Slade wrote several children’s books. She is a recipient of the President’s Medal of Freedom along with many other honors. Having grown up in a steel town, her family didn’t even own a televison until she was grown. She knew she had stories that must be told.
Children need to see themselves in stories.
Also, these stories need to be told to help children in the mainstream understand the world of a child with special needs.
Here are some ways these stories in children’s literature can help both the child with the disability and his or her classmates:
- Show examples of specific disabilities for classmates to observe
- Show examples of specific disabilities so children with special needs feel represented
- Foster a better understanding of differences
- Open discussions after reading these stories to help classmates understand how they can communicate and interact optimally with a child with a disability
- Initiate discussions about bullying
- Help classmates become more sensitive to challenges
When I taught college-level English and MLA Research, I always used diversity as a theme for my classes. So it would seem natural that when I decided to write a children’s book it would include include persons with disabilities.
I am happy to announce that my book entitled The Legend of Eddie the Whale is expected to go live on http://www.amazon.com later this month. I will keep you posted.
My book includes examples of a sax player with a cochlear implant, a mother and daughter telling each other “I Love You” in American Sign Language, a homeless man as well as other examples of diversity.
So the connection to these quotes by Beverly Cleary and Toni Morrison is that I am hoping to continue the trend and to write stories about disabilities and other forms of diversity because there are many stories that still need to be told.
Let’s keep moving forward. These stories are long overdue. | <urn:uuid:02ed956e-3efc-4f5f-8a6e-c123318b5e6c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://deafgrayanditalian.com/2019/06/02/how-can-childrens-literature-help-kids-understand-the-challenges-of-their-classmates-with-disabilities/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00504.warc.gz | en | 0.980936 | 657 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.2653245329... | 2 | Growing up in the 1950s, there were a lot of topics people just didn’t talk about. One such topic was disabilities. Often, we were told not to stare at individuals with differences because it was impolite. People just didn’t talk about being differently abled back then. Today, there are more open discussions, and there are some books on the market for school-aged children on a variety of topics involving disabilities. Why did it take so long?
Beverly Cleary is quoted as having said, “If you don’t see the book you want on the shelves, write it.” (ibtimes.com) A celebrated author with many awards including a Newbery, Ms. Cleary grew up on a farm in a town that didn’t even have a library. Yet, she was determined to tell the stories she felt worthy of sharing. This 103 year old author’s books have sold over 91 million copies.
Toni Morrison once tweeted the following, ” “If there’s a book you want to read, but it hasn’t been written yet, then you must write it.” She won a Pulitzer prize for her book Beloved, and she and her now deceased son Slade wrote several children’s books. She is a recipient of the President’s Medal of Freedom along with many other honors. Having grown up in a steel town, her family didn’t even own a televison until she was grown. She knew she had stories that must be told.
Children need to see themselves in stories.
Also, these stories need to be told to help children in the mainstream understand the world of a child with special needs.
Here are some ways these stories in children’s literature can help both the child with the disability and his or her classmates:
- Show examples of specific disabilities for classmates to observe
- Show examples of specific disabilities so children with special needs feel represented
- Foster a better understanding of differences
- Open discussions after reading these stories to help classmates understand how they can communicate and interact optimally with a child with a disability
- Initiate discussions about bullying
- Help classmates become more sensitive to challenges
When I taught college-level English and MLA Research, I always used diversity as a theme for my classes. So it would seem natural that when I decided to write a children’s book it would include include persons with disabilities.
I am happy to announce that my book entitled The Legend of Eddie the Whale is expected to go live on http://www.amazon.com later this month. I will keep you posted.
My book includes examples of a sax player with a cochlear implant, a mother and daughter telling each other “I Love You” in American Sign Language, a homeless man as well as other examples of diversity.
So the connection to these quotes by Beverly Cleary and Toni Morrison is that I am hoping to continue the trend and to write stories about disabilities and other forms of diversity because there are many stories that still need to be told.
Let’s keep moving forward. These stories are long overdue. | 614 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|15th President of the United States|
March 4, 1857 – March 3, 1861
|Vice President||John C. Breckinridge|
|Preceded by||Franklin Pierce|
|Succeeded by||Abraham Lincoln|
|Born||April 23, 1791|
Cove Gap, Pennsylvania
|Died||June 1, 1868 (aged 77)|
James Buchanan Jr. (April 23, 1791 - June 1, 1868) was the 15th President of the United States. He was the only President not to have married. His niece, Harriet Lane, stood in as First Lady. He was an experienced politician and he became president in 1857.
Early life[change | change source]
James Buchanan was Born on April 23, 1791 in Cove Gap, Pennsylvania, into a prosperous merchant family. He had four sisters and three brothers, and studied at the Old Stone Academy before entering Dickinson College in 1807. There he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1812. He was engaged to Anne C. Coleman but she died before they were married, and he never had children. He served in both the House and Senate, representing Pennsylvania, as well as the Minister to Russia, under Andrew Jackson, before stepping taking the presidential career.
Presidency[change | change source]
During the beginning of his presidency, he called slavery an issue of little importance. This was clearly not the case at the time; Northerners and Southerners were very divided on slavery, almost to the point of war. Buchanan is the only United States President who was never married.
The Supreme Court declared that African Americans were not American citizens and that the states were allowed to keep slavery legal. James Buchanan supported that decision because he did not want the pro-slavery states to stop being part of the United States.
Buchanan supported the rights of slave owners to keep their slaves and wanted Kansas to adopt a constitution that allowed slavery. Because of that, the Democratic Party was divided on that issue and after the 1858 Congressional election, there were more Republicans in Congress than Democrats. He did not get along with the Republicans.
He ordered troops to fight against Utah based on untrue information that Utah was planning a revolt. Buchanan later realized that he made a mistake and apologized.
During his term, the country was becoming more and more divided over the slavery issue. A few months before his term ended, some of the southern states decided that they were going to not be a part of the United States any more.
Buchanan believed that it was a bad thing, but he did nothing about it because he felt that using force against the south was against the Constitution. He did not even prepare the country for war.
At the end of his term, he left the next president, Abraham Lincoln, to face the greatest crisis in United States history, the Civil War.
References[change | change source]
- Klein, Philip Shriver (December 1955). "The Lost Love of a Bachelor President". American Heritage Magazine 7 (1). http://www.americanheritage.com/content/lost-love-bachelor-president. Retrieved 2012-11-29.
- President James Buchanan at The White House.com | <urn:uuid:cfad128f-8f61-4ace-8495-e09efdacdb5d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Buchanan | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00078.warc.gz | en | 0.980657 | 677 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.538639545440... | 1 | |15th President of the United States|
March 4, 1857 – March 3, 1861
|Vice President||John C. Breckinridge|
|Preceded by||Franklin Pierce|
|Succeeded by||Abraham Lincoln|
|Born||April 23, 1791|
Cove Gap, Pennsylvania
|Died||June 1, 1868 (aged 77)|
James Buchanan Jr. (April 23, 1791 - June 1, 1868) was the 15th President of the United States. He was the only President not to have married. His niece, Harriet Lane, stood in as First Lady. He was an experienced politician and he became president in 1857.
Early life[change | change source]
James Buchanan was Born on April 23, 1791 in Cove Gap, Pennsylvania, into a prosperous merchant family. He had four sisters and three brothers, and studied at the Old Stone Academy before entering Dickinson College in 1807. There he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1812. He was engaged to Anne C. Coleman but she died before they were married, and he never had children. He served in both the House and Senate, representing Pennsylvania, as well as the Minister to Russia, under Andrew Jackson, before stepping taking the presidential career.
Presidency[change | change source]
During the beginning of his presidency, he called slavery an issue of little importance. This was clearly not the case at the time; Northerners and Southerners were very divided on slavery, almost to the point of war. Buchanan is the only United States President who was never married.
The Supreme Court declared that African Americans were not American citizens and that the states were allowed to keep slavery legal. James Buchanan supported that decision because he did not want the pro-slavery states to stop being part of the United States.
Buchanan supported the rights of slave owners to keep their slaves and wanted Kansas to adopt a constitution that allowed slavery. Because of that, the Democratic Party was divided on that issue and after the 1858 Congressional election, there were more Republicans in Congress than Democrats. He did not get along with the Republicans.
He ordered troops to fight against Utah based on untrue information that Utah was planning a revolt. Buchanan later realized that he made a mistake and apologized.
During his term, the country was becoming more and more divided over the slavery issue. A few months before his term ended, some of the southern states decided that they were going to not be a part of the United States any more.
Buchanan believed that it was a bad thing, but he did nothing about it because he felt that using force against the south was against the Constitution. He did not even prepare the country for war.
At the end of his term, he left the next president, Abraham Lincoln, to face the greatest crisis in United States history, the Civil War.
References[change | change source]
- Klein, Philip Shriver (December 1955). "The Lost Love of a Bachelor President". American Heritage Magazine 7 (1). http://www.americanheritage.com/content/lost-love-bachelor-president. Retrieved 2012-11-29.
- President James Buchanan at The White House.com | 712 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Friedrich Wilhelm Schembor
In the contribution at hand the author describes how the calibres of rifles and bullets were fixed 200 years ago. Everybody interested in old rifles knows the problem that the calibre, which is defined as the inside diameter of the barrel of firearms or as the diameter of bullets, thus supposed to be a measure of length, was given as a measure of weight. In order to answer the question what is meant by calibres of former times such as pound and lead, and how these calibres were calculated, it is necessary to look into the fixing of the dimensional and weight systems of that time in general. During the examined period an enormous number of different units of measure were used simultaneously. Every state, every country, every earl, every count, every ruler of a piece of land, no matter how small it was, had his own units of measure. These units of measure had the same names in the different territories, but they comprised different sizes and quantities. So, if one travelled around, one had not only to grapple with the various currencies, but one had also to be well-informed about the various different units of measure. Here the introduction of the metric dimensional and weight system put things right, which had been valid in France since 1799, but which became effective much later in all the other countries. In Austria, for instance, the metric system was introduced optionally by the act of 23rd January 1871 not earlier than 1st January 1873, and became compulsory on 1st January 1876. At that time the Austrian measure of length was the fathom. One fathom consisted of 6 feet (shoes), which again were divided into inches, lines, points and quints. The calibres of rifles and bullets were defined correspondingly. The basis for defining the calibre of rifle bullets was the diameter of a cannon ball of exactly one pound weight. In the years 1816 and 1817 extensive experiments were carried out with the models available in the High Artillery Office, which resulted in quite usable “regulated” diameters for bullets, pellets, shells and bombs, for the bores of rifles and carbines, and for the diameters of the appropriate measuring instruments, such as the gauge and sight spikes as well as the bullet and cartridge gauges introduced in the Austro-Hungarian artillery. By presenting and discussing some original sources which have not been noticed so far, it has become possible to demonstrate how these relevant data were found out 200 years ago. | <urn:uuid:f6b3e381-df9a-44ed-9c82-909134e7e9cd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://oemz-online.at/pages/viewpage.action?pageId=8421799 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00478.warc.gz | en | 0.986663 | 508 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.43400228023... | 5 | Friedrich Wilhelm Schembor
In the contribution at hand the author describes how the calibres of rifles and bullets were fixed 200 years ago. Everybody interested in old rifles knows the problem that the calibre, which is defined as the inside diameter of the barrel of firearms or as the diameter of bullets, thus supposed to be a measure of length, was given as a measure of weight. In order to answer the question what is meant by calibres of former times such as pound and lead, and how these calibres were calculated, it is necessary to look into the fixing of the dimensional and weight systems of that time in general. During the examined period an enormous number of different units of measure were used simultaneously. Every state, every country, every earl, every count, every ruler of a piece of land, no matter how small it was, had his own units of measure. These units of measure had the same names in the different territories, but they comprised different sizes and quantities. So, if one travelled around, one had not only to grapple with the various currencies, but one had also to be well-informed about the various different units of measure. Here the introduction of the metric dimensional and weight system put things right, which had been valid in France since 1799, but which became effective much later in all the other countries. In Austria, for instance, the metric system was introduced optionally by the act of 23rd January 1871 not earlier than 1st January 1873, and became compulsory on 1st January 1876. At that time the Austrian measure of length was the fathom. One fathom consisted of 6 feet (shoes), which again were divided into inches, lines, points and quints. The calibres of rifles and bullets were defined correspondingly. The basis for defining the calibre of rifle bullets was the diameter of a cannon ball of exactly one pound weight. In the years 1816 and 1817 extensive experiments were carried out with the models available in the High Artillery Office, which resulted in quite usable “regulated” diameters for bullets, pellets, shells and bombs, for the bores of rifles and carbines, and for the diameters of the appropriate measuring instruments, such as the gauge and sight spikes as well as the bullet and cartridge gauges introduced in the Austro-Hungarian artillery. By presenting and discussing some original sources which have not been noticed so far, it has become possible to demonstrate how these relevant data were found out 200 years ago. | 540 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Resources needed: Clear space, some classical music (optional).
Introduction: The teacher tells the children that they are going to hear a story about a clumsy elephant. The children should find their own space and they have to listen very carefully.
Narrator: There once was an elephant that was different from all the other elephants in the jungle, as he could only walk on two feet instead of four. So he wasn’t very good at balancing since he didn’t walk on four feet. (All the children walk around like the elephant with two legs and they lose their balance and fall down.) One day, he decided to go for a walk in the jungle. He heard the monkeys in the trees above. (Children move like monkey and make monkey sounds.) Then he heard snakes hissing in the grass (children move like snakes and make hissing noises), and finally he heard the lions roaring from their caves (children move like the lions and roar loudly.) He kept walking until he came across a pair of beautiful ballet shoes. What colour were they? (Children answer. The ballet shoes are magic so they can be any colour.) The elephant never saw such beautiful shoes. He rushed to put the ballet shoes on. (Children put on the ballet shoes.) He looked at them and admired them. He started to dance gracefully in them. (Children move/dance gracefully around the room.) He was so happy because he was known as the “clumsy elephant.” But all of a sudden the shoes had a life of their own. They made him jump up and down, up and down. (Children jump up and down, up and down, up and down.) The elephant sat down and the ballet shoes eventually stopped moving. He got up slowly and the shoes were very still, but once he got up on two feet again the shoes went from side to side. (Children move from left to right, left to right, left to right.) They went faster and faster from side to side until eventually the clumsy elephant sat down. (Children sit down.) He got up slowly and the shoes were slow. (Children get up slowly and carefully.) When he was on two feet the shoes went round in circles faster and faster until suddenly they stopped. (Children go round in circles.) The elephant tiptoed slowly and then the shoes went up and down, from side to side, and around in circles faster and faster each time until they suddenly stopped. (Children tiptoe and jump up and down, move from side to side, and around in circles.) Then the shoes started to dance very gracefully. (Children dance very gracefully.) The elephant had never been so graceful. The monkey came down from the trees. The snake came out of the grass, and the lion came out of the cave. They all agreed they had never seen an elephant so graceful. When he had finished his dance he took a bow. (Children take a bow.) And bent down and kissed his shoes. He said, “Thank you, beautiful ballet shoes.” (Children kiss their shoes.)
Closure: Tell the children that the elephant is very tired and he is going to go to sleep with his ballet shoes. (Everyone lies down on the floor and kisses their ballet shoes good night. They stay very still as if they were asleep.) The teacher moves around the room trying to get the elephants to move. If an elephant moves then they have to get up and help the teacher to get the other sleeping elephants to move. They are not allowed to touch the other elephants, but they may move close and try to get them to laugh by talking to them.
For more movement stories, activities and games click here. | <urn:uuid:59851240-f3d7-439f-b508-078b2d7f304b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://dramastartbooks.com/2017/02/11/the-clumsy-elephant-and-the-beautiful-ballet-shoe-a-movement-story-for-children/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00293.warc.gz | en | 0.987069 | 757 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.513687372207... | 17 | Resources needed: Clear space, some classical music (optional).
Introduction: The teacher tells the children that they are going to hear a story about a clumsy elephant. The children should find their own space and they have to listen very carefully.
Narrator: There once was an elephant that was different from all the other elephants in the jungle, as he could only walk on two feet instead of four. So he wasn’t very good at balancing since he didn’t walk on four feet. (All the children walk around like the elephant with two legs and they lose their balance and fall down.) One day, he decided to go for a walk in the jungle. He heard the monkeys in the trees above. (Children move like monkey and make monkey sounds.) Then he heard snakes hissing in the grass (children move like snakes and make hissing noises), and finally he heard the lions roaring from their caves (children move like the lions and roar loudly.) He kept walking until he came across a pair of beautiful ballet shoes. What colour were they? (Children answer. The ballet shoes are magic so they can be any colour.) The elephant never saw such beautiful shoes. He rushed to put the ballet shoes on. (Children put on the ballet shoes.) He looked at them and admired them. He started to dance gracefully in them. (Children move/dance gracefully around the room.) He was so happy because he was known as the “clumsy elephant.” But all of a sudden the shoes had a life of their own. They made him jump up and down, up and down. (Children jump up and down, up and down, up and down.) The elephant sat down and the ballet shoes eventually stopped moving. He got up slowly and the shoes were very still, but once he got up on two feet again the shoes went from side to side. (Children move from left to right, left to right, left to right.) They went faster and faster from side to side until eventually the clumsy elephant sat down. (Children sit down.) He got up slowly and the shoes were slow. (Children get up slowly and carefully.) When he was on two feet the shoes went round in circles faster and faster until suddenly they stopped. (Children go round in circles.) The elephant tiptoed slowly and then the shoes went up and down, from side to side, and around in circles faster and faster each time until they suddenly stopped. (Children tiptoe and jump up and down, move from side to side, and around in circles.) Then the shoes started to dance very gracefully. (Children dance very gracefully.) The elephant had never been so graceful. The monkey came down from the trees. The snake came out of the grass, and the lion came out of the cave. They all agreed they had never seen an elephant so graceful. When he had finished his dance he took a bow. (Children take a bow.) And bent down and kissed his shoes. He said, “Thank you, beautiful ballet shoes.” (Children kiss their shoes.)
Closure: Tell the children that the elephant is very tired and he is going to go to sleep with his ballet shoes. (Everyone lies down on the floor and kisses their ballet shoes good night. They stay very still as if they were asleep.) The teacher moves around the room trying to get the elephants to move. If an elephant moves then they have to get up and help the teacher to get the other sleeping elephants to move. They are not allowed to touch the other elephants, but they may move close and try to get them to laugh by talking to them.
For more movement stories, activities and games click here. | 738 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation
From the beginning of recorded history women have endured struggles and conflicts whenever they attempted to be in control of decisions which would alter their lifestyles. Guys were the powerful leaders and warriors, while women were the homemakers. This division of labour in family and community resulted in men having control over women's activities. In history there were exceptional women, like Susan B. Anthony or even Cleopatra, who were strong enough to disregard the cultural standards of the time and create their own conclusions; but this newspaper is all about the other women and girls. Those that had been raised to think and act in a manner that was acceptable to the dominant man in the household, whether it was a father, husband, brother, or uncle. The frequent topic of "The Yellow Wall-Paper" from Charlotte Perkins Gilman, "Declaration of Sentiments" by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and "Boys and Girls" by Alice Munro is the constant struggle of women to balance what is expected of them with their particular expectations. In her short story, Gilman addresses the matter of girls not being allowed to make their own decisions. The speaker is suffering from postpartum depression, which in 1892 was not a recognizable illness. The speaker's husband, John, is a doctor, and he sees what his wife informs him when making decisions about her care. The speaker's answer is "perhaps that is one reason I don't get well faster" (130 Gilman). John's solution would be to rent a home for your summer months and isolate her from the rest of the world. He believes she wants rest, but she thinks that her condition will get better when she'd "less opposition and more society and stimulus" (131 Gilman). John claims that only she can help herself from this condition, she must use her "will a.. . | <urn:uuid:fc8fbf2d-4cf9-4a57-a9a8-60449db23a81> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studybay.com/example-works/essay/other/1016106/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00456.warc.gz | en | 0.980205 | 388 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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... | 2 | Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation
From the beginning of recorded history women have endured struggles and conflicts whenever they attempted to be in control of decisions which would alter their lifestyles. Guys were the powerful leaders and warriors, while women were the homemakers. This division of labour in family and community resulted in men having control over women's activities. In history there were exceptional women, like Susan B. Anthony or even Cleopatra, who were strong enough to disregard the cultural standards of the time and create their own conclusions; but this newspaper is all about the other women and girls. Those that had been raised to think and act in a manner that was acceptable to the dominant man in the household, whether it was a father, husband, brother, or uncle. The frequent topic of "The Yellow Wall-Paper" from Charlotte Perkins Gilman, "Declaration of Sentiments" by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and "Boys and Girls" by Alice Munro is the constant struggle of women to balance what is expected of them with their particular expectations. In her short story, Gilman addresses the matter of girls not being allowed to make their own decisions. The speaker is suffering from postpartum depression, which in 1892 was not a recognizable illness. The speaker's husband, John, is a doctor, and he sees what his wife informs him when making decisions about her care. The speaker's answer is "perhaps that is one reason I don't get well faster" (130 Gilman). John's solution would be to rent a home for your summer months and isolate her from the rest of the world. He believes she wants rest, but she thinks that her condition will get better when she'd "less opposition and more society and stimulus" (131 Gilman). John claims that only she can help herself from this condition, she must use her "will a.. . | 393 | ENGLISH | 1 |
June is a great month. School’s out. The days are long. The weather’s warm.
Perhaps the Anglo-Saxons—who spoke that linguistic ancestor of English known as Old English—were onto something when they collectively called June and July Liða. That’s pronounced like [lee–thuh], with the character ð having the voiced th-, like this. Liða itself may mean “calm” or “mild.” On its own, June was sometimes also referred to as Ærra-Liða, which is like “ere/first Liða,” and July Æftera-Liða, or “after/second Liða.”
So, how did the six month of the year go from Liða to June?
Where did June come from?
June ultimately comes from the the Latin Iunius, “of Juno (Iuno),” referring to the Roman goddess. The J sound for the I in Latin’s Iuno emerges in French, and its spelling with the letter J doesn’t settle in English until the late 1600s.
The name Iuno itself appears to come from the Latin iuventas, “youth,” which is related to words like juvenile and rejuvenate. In ancient Rome, Iunius was the fourth month of the year in a ten-month calendar.
While Iunius was sometimes used alongside Ærra-Liða in Old English and Middle English, June takes over, along with the other ancient Roman names for the months of the year, with the spread of Christianity in England in the the Middle Ages.
Who is Juno?
So, who is Juno, you ask? Identified as a counterpart to the Greek Hera, Juno was an important and powerful ancient Italian deity who became the protector of Rome, wife of Jupiter, queen of gods, and goddess of marriage, childbirth, and fertility.
Summer weddings are pretty popular, and they may have started because of the blessing that this goddess bestowed on those wed in her sacred, namesake month.
When did June become a name?
In the United States, the given name June skyrocketed in popularity in the early twentieth century. In 1925, it was the 39th most popular name for a baby girl … a place held by the name Natalie today.
While the name fell out of popularity through the rest of the century, it has recently been back in vogue, breaking into the top 300 most popular girls names in 2015. Of course, it remains a popular choice for babies born in the month of June. | <urn:uuid:53ad2724-ec21-47d5-9a25-0a0058cc36bc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.dictionary.com/e/june/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00516.warc.gz | en | 0.980567 | 556 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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-0.09860... | 2 | June is a great month. School’s out. The days are long. The weather’s warm.
Perhaps the Anglo-Saxons—who spoke that linguistic ancestor of English known as Old English—were onto something when they collectively called June and July Liða. That’s pronounced like [lee–thuh], with the character ð having the voiced th-, like this. Liða itself may mean “calm” or “mild.” On its own, June was sometimes also referred to as Ærra-Liða, which is like “ere/first Liða,” and July Æftera-Liða, or “after/second Liða.”
So, how did the six month of the year go from Liða to June?
Where did June come from?
June ultimately comes from the the Latin Iunius, “of Juno (Iuno),” referring to the Roman goddess. The J sound for the I in Latin’s Iuno emerges in French, and its spelling with the letter J doesn’t settle in English until the late 1600s.
The name Iuno itself appears to come from the Latin iuventas, “youth,” which is related to words like juvenile and rejuvenate. In ancient Rome, Iunius was the fourth month of the year in a ten-month calendar.
While Iunius was sometimes used alongside Ærra-Liða in Old English and Middle English, June takes over, along with the other ancient Roman names for the months of the year, with the spread of Christianity in England in the the Middle Ages.
Who is Juno?
So, who is Juno, you ask? Identified as a counterpart to the Greek Hera, Juno was an important and powerful ancient Italian deity who became the protector of Rome, wife of Jupiter, queen of gods, and goddess of marriage, childbirth, and fertility.
Summer weddings are pretty popular, and they may have started because of the blessing that this goddess bestowed on those wed in her sacred, namesake month.
When did June become a name?
In the United States, the given name June skyrocketed in popularity in the early twentieth century. In 1925, it was the 39th most popular name for a baby girl … a place held by the name Natalie today.
While the name fell out of popularity through the rest of the century, it has recently been back in vogue, breaking into the top 300 most popular girls names in 2015. Of course, it remains a popular choice for babies born in the month of June. | 537 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Franz Kafka was one of the major fiction writers of the 20th century. He was born to a middle-class German-speaking Jewish family in Prague, Bohemia (presently the Czech Republic), Austria–Hungary. His unique body of writing—much of which is incomplete and which was mainly published posthumously—is considered to be among the most influential in Western literature.His stories include “The Metamorphosis” (1912) and “In the Penal Colony” (1914), while his novels are The Trial (1925), The Castle (1926) and Amerika (1927).Kafka’s first language was German, but he was also fluent in Czech. Later, Kafka acquired some knowledge of the French language and culture; one of his favorite authors was Flaubert.Kafka first studied chemistry at the Charles-Ferdinand University of Prague, but switched
after two weeks to law. This offered a range of career possibilities, which pleased his father, and required a longer course of study that gave Kafka time to take classes in German studies and art history. At the university, he joined a student club, named Lese- und Redehalle der Deutschen Studenten, which organized literary events, readings and other activities. In the end of his first year of studies, he met Max Brod, who would become a close friend of his throughout his life, together with the journalist Felix Weltsch, who also studied law. Kafka obtained the degree of Doctor of Law on 18 June 1906 and performed an obligatory year of unpaid service as law clerk for the civil and criminal courts.Kafka’s writing attracted little attention until after his death. During his lifetime, he published only a few short stories and never finished any of his novels, unless “The Metamorphosis” is considered a (short) novel. Prior to his death, Kafka wrote to his friend and literary executor Max Brod: “Dearest Max, my last request: Everything I leave behind me … in the way of diaries, manuscripts, letters (my own and others’), sketches, and so on, [is] to be burned unread.” Brod overrode Kafka’s wishes, believing that Kafka had given these directions to him specifically because Kafka knew he would not honor them—Brod had told him as much. Brod, in fact, would oversee the publication of most of Kafka’s work in his possession, which soon began to attract attention and high critical regard.Max Brod encountered significant difficulty in compiling Kafka’s notebooks into any chronological order as Kafka was known to start writing in the middle of notebooks, from the last towards the first, etc.All of Kafka’s published works, except several letters he wrote in Czech to Milena Jesenská, were written in German. | <urn:uuid:f41b3f47-5e0f-43c4-a2d3-c9abb7af10f3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bookziz.com/a/franz-kafka/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00253.warc.gz | en | 0.98681 | 597 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.0728031396... | 1 | Franz Kafka was one of the major fiction writers of the 20th century. He was born to a middle-class German-speaking Jewish family in Prague, Bohemia (presently the Czech Republic), Austria–Hungary. His unique body of writing—much of which is incomplete and which was mainly published posthumously—is considered to be among the most influential in Western literature.His stories include “The Metamorphosis” (1912) and “In the Penal Colony” (1914), while his novels are The Trial (1925), The Castle (1926) and Amerika (1927).Kafka’s first language was German, but he was also fluent in Czech. Later, Kafka acquired some knowledge of the French language and culture; one of his favorite authors was Flaubert.Kafka first studied chemistry at the Charles-Ferdinand University of Prague, but switched
after two weeks to law. This offered a range of career possibilities, which pleased his father, and required a longer course of study that gave Kafka time to take classes in German studies and art history. At the university, he joined a student club, named Lese- und Redehalle der Deutschen Studenten, which organized literary events, readings and other activities. In the end of his first year of studies, he met Max Brod, who would become a close friend of his throughout his life, together with the journalist Felix Weltsch, who also studied law. Kafka obtained the degree of Doctor of Law on 18 June 1906 and performed an obligatory year of unpaid service as law clerk for the civil and criminal courts.Kafka’s writing attracted little attention until after his death. During his lifetime, he published only a few short stories and never finished any of his novels, unless “The Metamorphosis” is considered a (short) novel. Prior to his death, Kafka wrote to his friend and literary executor Max Brod: “Dearest Max, my last request: Everything I leave behind me … in the way of diaries, manuscripts, letters (my own and others’), sketches, and so on, [is] to be burned unread.” Brod overrode Kafka’s wishes, believing that Kafka had given these directions to him specifically because Kafka knew he would not honor them—Brod had told him as much. Brod, in fact, would oversee the publication of most of Kafka’s work in his possession, which soon began to attract attention and high critical regard.Max Brod encountered significant difficulty in compiling Kafka’s notebooks into any chronological order as Kafka was known to start writing in the middle of notebooks, from the last towards the first, etc.All of Kafka’s published works, except several letters he wrote in Czech to Milena Jesenská, were written in German. | 581 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Anne Hutchinson Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Anne Hutchinson was a Puritan spiritual adviser and an influential participant in the Antinomian Controversy, which for two years, 1636 to 1638 shook the infant Massachusetts Bay Colony. Born in July 1591, Anne Hutchinson gained intense popularity with her religious beliefs, which was contrary ones established by the Puritan clergy in the Boston area. Following the teaching of her mentor, John Cotton she had accused the local minister of preaching “covenant of work” instead of “covenant of grace” and made other pronouncements that the local ministers found offensive. This was what led to the Antinomian Controversy leading her trial and subsequent banishment from the colony in 1637. In March 1638, Anne Hutchinson was also tried by the church barred.
Anne Hutchinson and her supporter resettled in Portsmouth but later settled near an ancient landmark called Split Rock, currently The Bronx in New York City. The Siwanoys massacred Anne Hutchinson and her six children in August 1643 during the Kieft’s War. She since became a key figure in the development of religious freedom in England America colonies and the history of women in ministry.
Anne Hutchinson is born Anne Marbury was born in Francis Marbury and Bridget Dryden on July 20, 1591, in Alford, Lincolnshire, England. His father was an Anglican cleric with Puritan ideology, who believed the should be highly educated, but his superiors had contrary views. Anne Hutchinson was given good education more than her other peers at the time where education was almost exclusively for the male. In 1605, the family moved to London when Anne was 15 years. Her father had gained an appointed there as vicar of the Church of Saint Martin’s. Her father died when she was 19 years in February 1611.
Anne Hutchinson moved to Alford after the death of his father and getting married in 1612. It was there that she heard of the minister John Cotton, a Puritan who has been posted to Boston. Cotton’s preaching inspired her greatly that she also began to hold meetings in her home to review sermons and provided explanations to them. With time, the Puritans decided to govern their church based on a consensus of the parishioners and relieve itself from that of the Church of England. Cotton supported though a minister of the Church of England inclined to the ideologies of the Puritans and with that, he was removed as a minister. Threatened with imprisonment, he went into hiding and later left for New England. His departure according to Anne was "great trouble unto her," and stated, "could not be at rest" until she followed Cotton to New England.
In 1634, Anne Hutchinson with her husband and ten children set for New England aboard Griffin. The family lived Shawmut Peninsula, now downtown Boston where they built a house. The family became successful there, and while her husband William Hutchinson became a town selectman and deputy to the General Court, Anne Hutchinson cared for the sick and those in need and an active midwife. Anne Hutchinson joined the Boston church, which was the most important church in the colony.
Home Bible Study Group
Anne Hutchinson with her duties as a midwife and began discussions with women in childbirth in the line of the convertibles in England. Anne Hutchinson also commenced weekly meetings in her house for the women who were interested in getting further explanations and elaborations on Cotton’s sermons. These meeting became popular, and so she started having sessions for men too. As the meeting progressed, Anne Hutchinson also began giving her own beliefs, emphasizing that only "an intuition of the Spirit" would result in one being elected by God and not through good works. Her interpretations conflicted with those of the local ministers, but attendance at her meetings kept increasing. The local minister, therefore, raised concerns of her teachings contending it may confuse the faithful.
As Anne Hutchinson continued with what was referred to as unorthodox teachings, some of the ministers in the colony began to raise concerns bringing about religious tensions, which became known as the Antinomian Controversy currently referred to as Free Grace Controversy. These theological differences continued, and all previous attempts to tone the issues down proved futile including a public warning issued by magistrate John Winthrop on October 21, 1636. The then governor Henry Vane also favored Anne’s free grace doctrine, so not much measure was melted to contain her. This however changed when the governor was voted out of office and replaced by John Winthrop. Other officials who also supported her were all voted out. Wheelwright who had been supporting Anne on this course was tried and banished from the colony, and other supporters suffered the same fate. Anne also had her own share of the trials.
On November 7, 1637, Anne Hutchinson faced a civil trial presided over by John Winthrop on charges of "traducing [slandering] the ministers" being one who "troubled the peace of the commonwealth and churches" among others. During the hearing Anne Hutchinson pronounced to the prosecutors that, “You have no power over my body, neither can you do me any harm—for I am in the hands of the eternal Jehovah, my Saviour, I am at his appointment, the bounds of my habitation are cast in heaven, no further do I esteem of any mortal man than creatures in his hand, I fear none but the great Jehovah, which hath foretold me of these things, and I do verily believe that he will deliver me out of our hands. Therefore take heed how you proceed against me—for I know that for this, you go about to do to me, God will ruin you and your posterity and this whole state.” At the end of the trial, she was banished from Boston.
She later faced church trials, which also excommunicated her from the Boston Church. Some of her followers were also banished, hence, followed her into exile. They later settled on Aquidneck Island. While there, threats were made by the Massachusetts Bay Colony to take over the Island and with that Anne Hutchinson, with her six children, son in law and others numbering 16, moved settled near an ancient landmark called Split Rock, near what became known as the Hutchinson River in northern Bronx, New York.
Settling in at the area was probably a wrong timing it was soon plunged into unrests, and Anne Hutchinson and her family became victims. The Siwanyo of New Netherland feeling been mistreated started the series of violent incidents, which became the Kieft War. During the war, though the Siwanyo chief, Wampage had given awarning for everyone to be evacuated as every house was going to be burnt. However, Anne Hutchinson and her family still occupied their house during the time of the rampage. All the household members were scalped and set on fire. The only surviving person was Anne’s nine-year-old child, Susan who was taken captive and later sold for ransom to her family based in Boston.
Anne Hutchinson married William Hutchinson on August 9, 1612, at the St Mary Woolnoth Church ib=n London. The couple had 15 children
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Richard Laurence Millington Synge | <urn:uuid:8502a0ca-0cd2-4844-a528-6a30dc21c797> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/anne-hutchinson/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00551.warc.gz | en | 0.984809 | 1,516 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.14785873889923096... | 1 | Anne Hutchinson Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
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Anne Hutchinson was a Puritan spiritual adviser and an influential participant in the Antinomian Controversy, which for two years, 1636 to 1638 shook the infant Massachusetts Bay Colony. Born in July 1591, Anne Hutchinson gained intense popularity with her religious beliefs, which was contrary ones established by the Puritan clergy in the Boston area. Following the teaching of her mentor, John Cotton she had accused the local minister of preaching “covenant of work” instead of “covenant of grace” and made other pronouncements that the local ministers found offensive. This was what led to the Antinomian Controversy leading her trial and subsequent banishment from the colony in 1637. In March 1638, Anne Hutchinson was also tried by the church barred.
Anne Hutchinson and her supporter resettled in Portsmouth but later settled near an ancient landmark called Split Rock, currently The Bronx in New York City. The Siwanoys massacred Anne Hutchinson and her six children in August 1643 during the Kieft’s War. She since became a key figure in the development of religious freedom in England America colonies and the history of women in ministry.
Anne Hutchinson is born Anne Marbury was born in Francis Marbury and Bridget Dryden on July 20, 1591, in Alford, Lincolnshire, England. His father was an Anglican cleric with Puritan ideology, who believed the should be highly educated, but his superiors had contrary views. Anne Hutchinson was given good education more than her other peers at the time where education was almost exclusively for the male. In 1605, the family moved to London when Anne was 15 years. Her father had gained an appointed there as vicar of the Church of Saint Martin’s. Her father died when she was 19 years in February 1611.
Anne Hutchinson moved to Alford after the death of his father and getting married in 1612. It was there that she heard of the minister John Cotton, a Puritan who has been posted to Boston. Cotton’s preaching inspired her greatly that she also began to hold meetings in her home to review sermons and provided explanations to them. With time, the Puritans decided to govern their church based on a consensus of the parishioners and relieve itself from that of the Church of England. Cotton supported though a minister of the Church of England inclined to the ideologies of the Puritans and with that, he was removed as a minister. Threatened with imprisonment, he went into hiding and later left for New England. His departure according to Anne was "great trouble unto her," and stated, "could not be at rest" until she followed Cotton to New England.
In 1634, Anne Hutchinson with her husband and ten children set for New England aboard Griffin. The family lived Shawmut Peninsula, now downtown Boston where they built a house. The family became successful there, and while her husband William Hutchinson became a town selectman and deputy to the General Court, Anne Hutchinson cared for the sick and those in need and an active midwife. Anne Hutchinson joined the Boston church, which was the most important church in the colony.
Home Bible Study Group
Anne Hutchinson with her duties as a midwife and began discussions with women in childbirth in the line of the convertibles in England. Anne Hutchinson also commenced weekly meetings in her house for the women who were interested in getting further explanations and elaborations on Cotton’s sermons. These meeting became popular, and so she started having sessions for men too. As the meeting progressed, Anne Hutchinson also began giving her own beliefs, emphasizing that only "an intuition of the Spirit" would result in one being elected by God and not through good works. Her interpretations conflicted with those of the local ministers, but attendance at her meetings kept increasing. The local minister, therefore, raised concerns of her teachings contending it may confuse the faithful.
As Anne Hutchinson continued with what was referred to as unorthodox teachings, some of the ministers in the colony began to raise concerns bringing about religious tensions, which became known as the Antinomian Controversy currently referred to as Free Grace Controversy. These theological differences continued, and all previous attempts to tone the issues down proved futile including a public warning issued by magistrate John Winthrop on October 21, 1636. The then governor Henry Vane also favored Anne’s free grace doctrine, so not much measure was melted to contain her. This however changed when the governor was voted out of office and replaced by John Winthrop. Other officials who also supported her were all voted out. Wheelwright who had been supporting Anne on this course was tried and banished from the colony, and other supporters suffered the same fate. Anne also had her own share of the trials.
On November 7, 1637, Anne Hutchinson faced a civil trial presided over by John Winthrop on charges of "traducing [slandering] the ministers" being one who "troubled the peace of the commonwealth and churches" among others. During the hearing Anne Hutchinson pronounced to the prosecutors that, “You have no power over my body, neither can you do me any harm—for I am in the hands of the eternal Jehovah, my Saviour, I am at his appointment, the bounds of my habitation are cast in heaven, no further do I esteem of any mortal man than creatures in his hand, I fear none but the great Jehovah, which hath foretold me of these things, and I do verily believe that he will deliver me out of our hands. Therefore take heed how you proceed against me—for I know that for this, you go about to do to me, God will ruin you and your posterity and this whole state.” At the end of the trial, she was banished from Boston.
She later faced church trials, which also excommunicated her from the Boston Church. Some of her followers were also banished, hence, followed her into exile. They later settled on Aquidneck Island. While there, threats were made by the Massachusetts Bay Colony to take over the Island and with that Anne Hutchinson, with her six children, son in law and others numbering 16, moved settled near an ancient landmark called Split Rock, near what became known as the Hutchinson River in northern Bronx, New York.
Settling in at the area was probably a wrong timing it was soon plunged into unrests, and Anne Hutchinson and her family became victims. The Siwanyo of New Netherland feeling been mistreated started the series of violent incidents, which became the Kieft War. During the war, though the Siwanyo chief, Wampage had given awarning for everyone to be evacuated as every house was going to be burnt. However, Anne Hutchinson and her family still occupied their house during the time of the rampage. All the household members were scalped and set on fire. The only surviving person was Anne’s nine-year-old child, Susan who was taken captive and later sold for ransom to her family based in Boston.
Anne Hutchinson married William Hutchinson on August 9, 1612, at the St Mary Woolnoth Church ib=n London. The couple had 15 children
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William Henry Bragg
Richard Laurence Millington Synge | 1,546 | ENGLISH | 1 |
While the Itza were one of the last unconquered native civilizations in the New World, another post-classic kingdom drew the most attention from Mexico’s Spanish conquerors: the Aztec. The Aztec capital was the magnificent city of Tenochtitlán, founded around 1325 CE by a Nahuatlspeaking, previously nomadic group called the Mexica. Tenochtitlán was composed of a network of dozens of smaller city states who used the lake environment to plant wetland gardens and used raised causeways to separate the gardens and move around the city. Some fields were raised as well, a feat which drained them and helped them contribute to supporting a population that totaled around 300,000 people (including the population of the neighboring city of Texcoco). Eventually a network of canals was created that drained fields, fed crops, and provided for navigation with canoes. Not only were these raised fields a source of multiple crops, but also the lake provided wildfowl, salamanders, and algae.
However, as the population grew to over a million, other means of support were needed, so the people looked to outside tribute. Beginning in 1428, the Mexica sought independence from their Tepanec patrons and allied with other outlying towns to form the Triple Alliance, which by 1431 dominated the basin where they made their home. The unified Aztec people were led by the Mexica ruler Itzcoatl and his advisors. In making an alliance with Texcoco, the Aztec were able to build a causeway between the cities and help improve the infrastructure of Tenochtitlán. They then began construction on the Great Temple, a central market, and a larger network of gardens or chinampas. The Great Temple would become the orienting point for the entire city and would become the site of thousands of human sacrifices.
The Aztec are perhaps best known, and may even have grown infamous (like the Toltec and others before them), for practicing human sacrifice. However, the context in which these sacrifices take place reveals that they were not conducted in a wanton or random manner. First of all, for the new Aztecs, there was little tradition of and, therefore, little opportunity for community building to draw upon. Their rise to power had to have been quick and dramatic. Furthermore, they possessed a worldview that held that even though they had achieved greatness, decline was inevitable. This view was present in their philosophy and their ceremonies—including those of sacrifice. This view was also important for ritual victims, because upon their death, they believed that they would be freed from the burdens of the uncertain human condition and become a carefree hummingbird or butterfly.
For the Aztec, ritual provided a kind of protection against excess; there was order in it, even if it was violent. Men had no independent power, and gods were very abstract in their doling out of gifts. Finally, in the Mexica worldview, the earth receives rather than gives, much like it does in the Judeo-Christian tradition. Through fertility and death, humans satisfy that hunger. The process of birth and death is not “dust to dust” but the transition from one form of flesh to another. All man can do is order his portion of this natural cycle. | <urn:uuid:e16c5075-88c7-4b07-86c3-1948f53513ae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/History/World_History/Map%3A_World_History_-_Cultures%2C_States%2C_and_Societies_to_1500_(Berger_et_al.)/10%3A_The_Americas/10.07%3A_The_Aztec | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00313.warc.gz | en | 0.982802 | 676 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.05116622895... | 2 | While the Itza were one of the last unconquered native civilizations in the New World, another post-classic kingdom drew the most attention from Mexico’s Spanish conquerors: the Aztec. The Aztec capital was the magnificent city of Tenochtitlán, founded around 1325 CE by a Nahuatlspeaking, previously nomadic group called the Mexica. Tenochtitlán was composed of a network of dozens of smaller city states who used the lake environment to plant wetland gardens and used raised causeways to separate the gardens and move around the city. Some fields were raised as well, a feat which drained them and helped them contribute to supporting a population that totaled around 300,000 people (including the population of the neighboring city of Texcoco). Eventually a network of canals was created that drained fields, fed crops, and provided for navigation with canoes. Not only were these raised fields a source of multiple crops, but also the lake provided wildfowl, salamanders, and algae.
However, as the population grew to over a million, other means of support were needed, so the people looked to outside tribute. Beginning in 1428, the Mexica sought independence from their Tepanec patrons and allied with other outlying towns to form the Triple Alliance, which by 1431 dominated the basin where they made their home. The unified Aztec people were led by the Mexica ruler Itzcoatl and his advisors. In making an alliance with Texcoco, the Aztec were able to build a causeway between the cities and help improve the infrastructure of Tenochtitlán. They then began construction on the Great Temple, a central market, and a larger network of gardens or chinampas. The Great Temple would become the orienting point for the entire city and would become the site of thousands of human sacrifices.
The Aztec are perhaps best known, and may even have grown infamous (like the Toltec and others before them), for practicing human sacrifice. However, the context in which these sacrifices take place reveals that they were not conducted in a wanton or random manner. First of all, for the new Aztecs, there was little tradition of and, therefore, little opportunity for community building to draw upon. Their rise to power had to have been quick and dramatic. Furthermore, they possessed a worldview that held that even though they had achieved greatness, decline was inevitable. This view was present in their philosophy and their ceremonies—including those of sacrifice. This view was also important for ritual victims, because upon their death, they believed that they would be freed from the burdens of the uncertain human condition and become a carefree hummingbird or butterfly.
For the Aztec, ritual provided a kind of protection against excess; there was order in it, even if it was violent. Men had no independent power, and gods were very abstract in their doling out of gifts. Finally, in the Mexica worldview, the earth receives rather than gives, much like it does in the Judeo-Christian tradition. Through fertility and death, humans satisfy that hunger. The process of birth and death is not “dust to dust” but the transition from one form of flesh to another. All man can do is order his portion of this natural cycle. | 681 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As part of his efforts to secure England, william ordered many castles, keeps, and mottes built – among them the central keep of the Tower of London, the White Tower. These fortifications allowed Normans to retreat into safety when threatened with rebellion and allowed garrisons to be protected while they occupied the countryside. The early castles were simple earth and timber constructions, later replaced with stone structures.
The battle began at about 9 am on 14 October and lasted all day, but while a broad outline is known, the exact events are obscured by contradictory accounts in the sources. Although the numbers on each side were about equal, william had both cavalry and infantry, including many archers, while Harold had only foot Soldiers and few, if any, archers. The English Soldiers formed up as a shield wall along the ridge and were at first so effective that William's army was thrown back with heavy casualties. Some of William's Breton troops panicked and fled, and some of the English troops appear to have pursued the fleeing Bretons until they themselves were attacked and destroyed by Norman cavalry. During the Bretons' FLIGHT, rumours swept through the Norman forces that the duke had been killed, but william succeeded in rallying his troops. Two further Norman retreats were feigned, to once again draw the English into pursuit and expose them to repeated attacks by the Norman cavalry. The available sources are more confused about events in the afternoon, but it appears that the decisive event was Harold's death, about which differing stories are told. william of Jumièges claimed that Harold was killed by the duke. The Bayeux Tapestry has been claimed to show Harold's death by an arrow to the eye, but that may be a later reworking of the tapestry to conform to 12th-century stories in which Harold was slain by an arrow wound to the head.
William's reign has caused historical controversy since before his death. william of Poitiers wrote glowingly of William's reign and its benefits, but the obituary notice for william in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle condemns william in harsh terms. In the years since the Conquest, politicians and other Leaders have used william and the events of his reign to illustrate political events throughout English history. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England, Archbishop Matthew Parker saw the Conquest as having corrupted a purer English Church, which Parker attempted to restore. During the 17th and 18th centuries some historians and lawyers saw William's reign as imposing a "Norman yoke" on the native Anglo-Saxons, an argument that continued during the 19th century with further elaborations along nationalistic lines. These various controversies have led to william being seen by some historians either as one of the creators of England's greatness or as inflicting one of the greatest defeats in English history. Others have viewed william as an enemy of the English constitution, or alternatively as its creator. | <urn:uuid:98b5858e-2959-475d-93dd-e75bd55629e5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.idolnetworth.com/william-the-conqueror-net-worth-55943 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00416.warc.gz | en | 0.986135 | 603 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.404249310493... | 2 | As part of his efforts to secure England, william ordered many castles, keeps, and mottes built – among them the central keep of the Tower of London, the White Tower. These fortifications allowed Normans to retreat into safety when threatened with rebellion and allowed garrisons to be protected while they occupied the countryside. The early castles were simple earth and timber constructions, later replaced with stone structures.
The battle began at about 9 am on 14 October and lasted all day, but while a broad outline is known, the exact events are obscured by contradictory accounts in the sources. Although the numbers on each side were about equal, william had both cavalry and infantry, including many archers, while Harold had only foot Soldiers and few, if any, archers. The English Soldiers formed up as a shield wall along the ridge and were at first so effective that William's army was thrown back with heavy casualties. Some of William's Breton troops panicked and fled, and some of the English troops appear to have pursued the fleeing Bretons until they themselves were attacked and destroyed by Norman cavalry. During the Bretons' FLIGHT, rumours swept through the Norman forces that the duke had been killed, but william succeeded in rallying his troops. Two further Norman retreats were feigned, to once again draw the English into pursuit and expose them to repeated attacks by the Norman cavalry. The available sources are more confused about events in the afternoon, but it appears that the decisive event was Harold's death, about which differing stories are told. william of Jumièges claimed that Harold was killed by the duke. The Bayeux Tapestry has been claimed to show Harold's death by an arrow to the eye, but that may be a later reworking of the tapestry to conform to 12th-century stories in which Harold was slain by an arrow wound to the head.
William's reign has caused historical controversy since before his death. william of Poitiers wrote glowingly of William's reign and its benefits, but the obituary notice for william in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle condemns william in harsh terms. In the years since the Conquest, politicians and other Leaders have used william and the events of his reign to illustrate political events throughout English history. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England, Archbishop Matthew Parker saw the Conquest as having corrupted a purer English Church, which Parker attempted to restore. During the 17th and 18th centuries some historians and lawyers saw William's reign as imposing a "Norman yoke" on the native Anglo-Saxons, an argument that continued during the 19th century with further elaborations along nationalistic lines. These various controversies have led to william being seen by some historians either as one of the creators of England's greatness or as inflicting one of the greatest defeats in English history. Others have viewed william as an enemy of the English constitution, or alternatively as its creator. | 610 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The service began nearly 80 years ago. With a growing number of calls to operators from people just wanting to know the time, it was decided that there should be a number people could call and be given the correct time.
So the Speaking Clock service began in Britain in 1936. It featured the voice of telephonist Ethel Jane Cain, who was chosen following a nationwide search for “golden voice”.
Cain became a hit, especially for her crisp pronunciation of the word ‘precisely,’ which is used at the start of each new minute.
In 1963, Cain was succeeded by Pat Simmons, a supervisor in a London telephone exchange. Simmons had won a competition to replace the original speaking clock voice, as well as win a £500 prize.
One of the original speaking clock machines (there were two, in case of breakdown) is on display at the British Horological Institute in Nottinghamshire. It had been a working model, but its motor failed – on the same day that Simmons died in 2005.
Answered by one of our Q&A experts, Sandra Lawrence
This article was taken from BBC History Revealed magazine | <urn:uuid:2f3fe55e-edf2-438a-8316-6ce674160687> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyextra.com/period/20th-century/who-voiced-original-first-speaking-clock-ethel-jane-cain-pat-simmons/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00529.warc.gz | en | 0.982628 | 240 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.051299955695867... | 4 | The service began nearly 80 years ago. With a growing number of calls to operators from people just wanting to know the time, it was decided that there should be a number people could call and be given the correct time.
So the Speaking Clock service began in Britain in 1936. It featured the voice of telephonist Ethel Jane Cain, who was chosen following a nationwide search for “golden voice”.
Cain became a hit, especially for her crisp pronunciation of the word ‘precisely,’ which is used at the start of each new minute.
In 1963, Cain was succeeded by Pat Simmons, a supervisor in a London telephone exchange. Simmons had won a competition to replace the original speaking clock voice, as well as win a £500 prize.
One of the original speaking clock machines (there were two, in case of breakdown) is on display at the British Horological Institute in Nottinghamshire. It had been a working model, but its motor failed – on the same day that Simmons died in 2005.
Answered by one of our Q&A experts, Sandra Lawrence
This article was taken from BBC History Revealed magazine | 242 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On July 2nd 1972, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and Pakistani President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto signed the Shimla Treaty which contained the principles which should govern future relations between both countries.
The Shimla treaty came shortly after the 1971 war the previous year, which saw the creation of a separate nation of Bangladesh. This land was earlier known as East Pakistan and was a provincial part of Pakistan. Even though the agreement came after a war, the Shimla agreement was more than just a request of withdrawal of troops and getting back prisoners of war. Under the Shimla Treaty, both countries committed to renounce the conflict which had blemished their relationship in the past and work together towards establishing peace, friendship and cooperation.
The Shimla Agreement contained a set of principles which would be mutually agreed upon by both India and Pakistan and which both countries would follow while conducting relations with each other. The principles included respect for each others national unity, political independence, sovereign equality, while not indulging in adverse propaganda.
During the Shimla agreement, Indira Gandhi insisted that an overall settlement be achieved which would cover some basic issues. This settlement would also include the Kashmir issue. Mrs. Gandhi was keen on getting back Indian territory occupied by Pakistan as well as prisoners of war before the talks reached the Kashmir debate. After this, India suggested that both countries focus on outstanding disputes if they wanted long lasting peace and that could only be done when the Kashmir issue was tackled.
Bhutto, on the other hand, wanted to address the Kashmir issue later. She demanded rather the release of prisoners of war and the trials of a few Pakistani officers charged with war crimes by Bangladesh to be dropped. Pakistan also demanded that India hand back Pakistani territory they were occupying in spite of the fact that Pakistan was illegally occupying Azad Kashmir since 1947. Hence, Pakistan tiptoed around the issue of Azad Kashmir when Indira Gandhi demanded back territory which India had occupied in 1971.
During talks about the Shimla Treaty, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto promised Indira Gandhi that Pakistan would accept the Line of Control (LoC) in Jammu and Kashmir as the de facto border and not de-stabilize it. This was not formally entered in the agreement as Bhutto said that it may cause problems for him at that stage. Mrs. Gandhi accepted the promise and hence that part was never formally entered in the agreement. Later events would prove that Pakistan never stood by that promise.
Looking at the way things were progressing, it was assumed that such a program was doomed for failure. Bhutto said that he was “not going to shut the door”, which, if he did, would lock away Pakistani territory and prisoners of war in India. But surprisingly, things changed almost overnight and the challenges both leaders were facing disappeared. The Shimla Treaty was signed on July 2nd 1972. The reason for this sudden change is still unknown. The Prime Minister of India and President of Pakistan declared the signing of the Shimla Treaty as a new beginning in the relations between both countries.
By the end of signing the treaty, Indira Gandhi had got back for India 90,000 prisoners of war and a large chunk of Pakistani territory. There was widespread displeasure in India after the signing of the treaty and Atal Bihari Vajpayee, then leader of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, called it a “sell out”. Vajpayee said that Pakistan’s agreement to not use force was of no consequence since Pakistan had made similar promises in the past as well, but never adhered to them. He also went on to say that some sort of a secret understanding had been agreed upon between Indira Gandhi and Zulfkar Ali Bhutto during the signing of the treaty.
Looking back between the relations between India and Pakistan, one can safely say that the Shimla Treaty did nothing much to preserve the relations between both countries which went on to deteriorate. The most recent was Operation Meghdoot in 1984 (in which India seized most of the inhospitable areas of the Saichen Glacier where the frontier had not been clearly defined in the agreement) and the Kargil war of 1999 (in which Pakistani soldiers and Kashmiri militants had occupied positions on the Indian side of the LoC).
Also On This Day:
1757 - Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula is captured and assassinate by Muhammad Beg at the insistence of Miran, son of Mir Zafar.
1905 - Shantiswaroop Dhavan, former Governor of West Bengal, is born.
1970 - Pandit Kunjilal Dubey, freedom fighter, educationalist and politician, passes away.
1993 - ONGC is converted into a corporation by ordinance.
1997 - Screening for Hepatitis C is made mandatory all over India. | <urn:uuid:93e131d8-8b54-4d28-ac76-e3d5a6da0764> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mapsofindia.com/on-this-day/july-2-1972-shimla-treaty-is-signed-between-indira-gandhi-and-zulfikar-ali-bhutto | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00508.warc.gz | en | 0.980382 | 996 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.295260965824... | 3 | On July 2nd 1972, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and Pakistani President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto signed the Shimla Treaty which contained the principles which should govern future relations between both countries.
The Shimla treaty came shortly after the 1971 war the previous year, which saw the creation of a separate nation of Bangladesh. This land was earlier known as East Pakistan and was a provincial part of Pakistan. Even though the agreement came after a war, the Shimla agreement was more than just a request of withdrawal of troops and getting back prisoners of war. Under the Shimla Treaty, both countries committed to renounce the conflict which had blemished their relationship in the past and work together towards establishing peace, friendship and cooperation.
The Shimla Agreement contained a set of principles which would be mutually agreed upon by both India and Pakistan and which both countries would follow while conducting relations with each other. The principles included respect for each others national unity, political independence, sovereign equality, while not indulging in adverse propaganda.
During the Shimla agreement, Indira Gandhi insisted that an overall settlement be achieved which would cover some basic issues. This settlement would also include the Kashmir issue. Mrs. Gandhi was keen on getting back Indian territory occupied by Pakistan as well as prisoners of war before the talks reached the Kashmir debate. After this, India suggested that both countries focus on outstanding disputes if they wanted long lasting peace and that could only be done when the Kashmir issue was tackled.
Bhutto, on the other hand, wanted to address the Kashmir issue later. She demanded rather the release of prisoners of war and the trials of a few Pakistani officers charged with war crimes by Bangladesh to be dropped. Pakistan also demanded that India hand back Pakistani territory they were occupying in spite of the fact that Pakistan was illegally occupying Azad Kashmir since 1947. Hence, Pakistan tiptoed around the issue of Azad Kashmir when Indira Gandhi demanded back territory which India had occupied in 1971.
During talks about the Shimla Treaty, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto promised Indira Gandhi that Pakistan would accept the Line of Control (LoC) in Jammu and Kashmir as the de facto border and not de-stabilize it. This was not formally entered in the agreement as Bhutto said that it may cause problems for him at that stage. Mrs. Gandhi accepted the promise and hence that part was never formally entered in the agreement. Later events would prove that Pakistan never stood by that promise.
Looking at the way things were progressing, it was assumed that such a program was doomed for failure. Bhutto said that he was “not going to shut the door”, which, if he did, would lock away Pakistani territory and prisoners of war in India. But surprisingly, things changed almost overnight and the challenges both leaders were facing disappeared. The Shimla Treaty was signed on July 2nd 1972. The reason for this sudden change is still unknown. The Prime Minister of India and President of Pakistan declared the signing of the Shimla Treaty as a new beginning in the relations between both countries.
By the end of signing the treaty, Indira Gandhi had got back for India 90,000 prisoners of war and a large chunk of Pakistani territory. There was widespread displeasure in India after the signing of the treaty and Atal Bihari Vajpayee, then leader of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, called it a “sell out”. Vajpayee said that Pakistan’s agreement to not use force was of no consequence since Pakistan had made similar promises in the past as well, but never adhered to them. He also went on to say that some sort of a secret understanding had been agreed upon between Indira Gandhi and Zulfkar Ali Bhutto during the signing of the treaty.
Looking back between the relations between India and Pakistan, one can safely say that the Shimla Treaty did nothing much to preserve the relations between both countries which went on to deteriorate. The most recent was Operation Meghdoot in 1984 (in which India seized most of the inhospitable areas of the Saichen Glacier where the frontier had not been clearly defined in the agreement) and the Kargil war of 1999 (in which Pakistani soldiers and Kashmiri militants had occupied positions on the Indian side of the LoC).
Also On This Day:
1757 - Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula is captured and assassinate by Muhammad Beg at the insistence of Miran, son of Mir Zafar.
1905 - Shantiswaroop Dhavan, former Governor of West Bengal, is born.
1970 - Pandit Kunjilal Dubey, freedom fighter, educationalist and politician, passes away.
1993 - ONGC is converted into a corporation by ordinance.
1997 - Screening for Hepatitis C is made mandatory all over India. | 1,014 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Epiphany invites us to celebrate Jesus who came as a light to all people, not just to some subset of the human race. Thus, the categorical exclusion of anyone contradicts the good news of Jesus Christ. Racism, stereotyping, discrimination, xenophobia, ethnic violence are all wrong.
The behavior of Herod reflects the behavior of one who is afraid. For, truly, no one is to be excluded from the light of Christ.
In the time of King Herod, after Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea, wise men from the East came to Jerusalem, asking, “Where is the child who has been born king of the Jews? For we observed his star at its rising, and have come to pay him homage.” When King Herod heard this, he was frightened, and all Jerusalem with him; and calling together all the chief priests and scribes of the people, he inquired of them where the Messiah was to be born. They told him, “In Bethlehem of Judea; for so it has been written by the prophet:
‘And you, Bethlehem, in the land of Judah,
are by no means least among the rulers of Judah;
for from you shall come a ruler
who is to shepherd my people Israel.’”
Then Herod secretly called for the wise men and learned from them the exact time when the star had appeared. Then he sent them to Bethlehem, saying, “Go and search diligently for the child; and when you have found him, bring me word so that I may also go and pay him homage.” When they had heard the king, they set out; and there, ahead of them, went the star that they had seen at its rising, until it stopped over the place where the child was. When they saw that the star had stopped, they were overwhelmed with joy. On entering the house, they saw the child with Mary his mother; and they knelt down and paid him homage. Then, opening their treasure chests, they offered him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. And having been warned in a dream not to return to Herod, they left for their own country by another road.
Now after they had left, an angel of the Lord appeared to Joseph in a dream and said, “Get up, take the child and his mother, and flee to Egypt, and remain there until I tell you; for Herod is about to search for the child, to destroy him.” Then Joseph got up, took the child and his mother by night, and went to Egypt, and remained there until the death of Herod. This was to fulfill what had been spoken by the Lord through the prophet, “Out of Egypt I have called my son.”
When Herod saw that he had been tricked by the wise men, he was infuriated, and he sent and killed all the children in and around Bethlehem who were two years old or under, according to the time that he had learned from the wise men. Then was fulfilled what had been spoken through the prophet Jeremiah:
“A voice was heard in Ramah,
wailing and loud lamentation,
Rachel weeping for her children;
she refused to be consoled, because they are no more.”
When Herod died, an angel of the Lord suddenly appeared in a dream to Joseph in Egypt and said, “Get up, take the child and his mother, and go to the land of Israel, for those who were seeking the child’s life are dead.” Then Joseph got up, took the child and his mother, and went to the land of Israel. But when he heard that Archelaus was ruling over Judea in place of his father Herod, he was afraid to go there. And after being warned in a dream, he went away to the district of Galilee. There he made his home in a town called Nazareth, so that what had been spoken through the prophets might be fulfilled, “He will be called a Nazorean.” | <urn:uuid:e120505e-83c4-43c4-8465-1a936a2b739c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lajollaunitedmethodist.org/worship/past-services/were-back/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00037.warc.gz | en | 0.992525 | 835 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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-0.0497866347432136... | 1 | Epiphany invites us to celebrate Jesus who came as a light to all people, not just to some subset of the human race. Thus, the categorical exclusion of anyone contradicts the good news of Jesus Christ. Racism, stereotyping, discrimination, xenophobia, ethnic violence are all wrong.
The behavior of Herod reflects the behavior of one who is afraid. For, truly, no one is to be excluded from the light of Christ.
In the time of King Herod, after Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea, wise men from the East came to Jerusalem, asking, “Where is the child who has been born king of the Jews? For we observed his star at its rising, and have come to pay him homage.” When King Herod heard this, he was frightened, and all Jerusalem with him; and calling together all the chief priests and scribes of the people, he inquired of them where the Messiah was to be born. They told him, “In Bethlehem of Judea; for so it has been written by the prophet:
‘And you, Bethlehem, in the land of Judah,
are by no means least among the rulers of Judah;
for from you shall come a ruler
who is to shepherd my people Israel.’”
Then Herod secretly called for the wise men and learned from them the exact time when the star had appeared. Then he sent them to Bethlehem, saying, “Go and search diligently for the child; and when you have found him, bring me word so that I may also go and pay him homage.” When they had heard the king, they set out; and there, ahead of them, went the star that they had seen at its rising, until it stopped over the place where the child was. When they saw that the star had stopped, they were overwhelmed with joy. On entering the house, they saw the child with Mary his mother; and they knelt down and paid him homage. Then, opening their treasure chests, they offered him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. And having been warned in a dream not to return to Herod, they left for their own country by another road.
Now after they had left, an angel of the Lord appeared to Joseph in a dream and said, “Get up, take the child and his mother, and flee to Egypt, and remain there until I tell you; for Herod is about to search for the child, to destroy him.” Then Joseph got up, took the child and his mother by night, and went to Egypt, and remained there until the death of Herod. This was to fulfill what had been spoken by the Lord through the prophet, “Out of Egypt I have called my son.”
When Herod saw that he had been tricked by the wise men, he was infuriated, and he sent and killed all the children in and around Bethlehem who were two years old or under, according to the time that he had learned from the wise men. Then was fulfilled what had been spoken through the prophet Jeremiah:
“A voice was heard in Ramah,
wailing and loud lamentation,
Rachel weeping for her children;
she refused to be consoled, because they are no more.”
When Herod died, an angel of the Lord suddenly appeared in a dream to Joseph in Egypt and said, “Get up, take the child and his mother, and go to the land of Israel, for those who were seeking the child’s life are dead.” Then Joseph got up, took the child and his mother, and went to the land of Israel. But when he heard that Archelaus was ruling over Judea in place of his father Herod, he was afraid to go there. And after being warned in a dream, he went away to the district of Galilee. There he made his home in a town called Nazareth, so that what had been spoken through the prophets might be fulfilled, “He will be called a Nazorean.” | 811 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The aim was to develop trade in goods from the Habsburg territories in both the Near and the Far East. However, the efforts to do so did not last long and were only moderately successful.
In order to boost overseas trade and hence also the economy of the Habsburg territories, the mercantilists of the seventeenth century advocated the establishment of trading companies. Models were provided by the East India Companies founded in England and the Netherlands around 1600. However, the three trading companies founded in the Habsburg territories between 1667 and 1722 were not particularly successful. The two Oriental Companies were meant to promote trade with the East and in particular with the Turks, but they failed as a result of both the Turkish wars and a lack of capital. The Ostend East India Company established in the Austrian Netherlands was disbanded after a few years in return for the recognition of the Pragmatic Sanction by Great Britain and the United Provinces in 1731.
It was the factories, in which the trading companies participated from time to time, that were rather more successful. In 1672 Leopold I granted Christian Sind, a burgher of Linz, the privilege of manufacturing and selling woollen goods, with this later being transferred to his successor, Mathias Kolb. This led to the establishment of the Imperial-Royal Privileged Manufactory for Woollen Wares, which provided employment for over 10,000 people, most of whom worked at home, during some periods in the middle of the eighteenth century. However, craftsmen and merchants in Linz clearly saw the factory as a threat, with the result that its owners were deprived of their rights as burghers of the city. Despite some short-lived commercial success the factory was more or less permanently in financial difficulties. Between 1717 and 1722 it was even owned by the Vienna Military Hospital and Poorhouse, in order to provide employment for beggars and the unemployed so that they could be obliged to work there. The debts which piled up led to the factory being sold to the Oriental Company in 1722, although this did not solve its financial problems. It ended up being owned by the state when Maria Theresa bought it in 1754. | <urn:uuid:10bcb8cb-fb8e-4692-959b-1cd4e257151b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/not-global-player-after-all-overseas-trade | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00438.warc.gz | en | 0.986644 | 446 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.200632244... | 1 | The aim was to develop trade in goods from the Habsburg territories in both the Near and the Far East. However, the efforts to do so did not last long and were only moderately successful.
In order to boost overseas trade and hence also the economy of the Habsburg territories, the mercantilists of the seventeenth century advocated the establishment of trading companies. Models were provided by the East India Companies founded in England and the Netherlands around 1600. However, the three trading companies founded in the Habsburg territories between 1667 and 1722 were not particularly successful. The two Oriental Companies were meant to promote trade with the East and in particular with the Turks, but they failed as a result of both the Turkish wars and a lack of capital. The Ostend East India Company established in the Austrian Netherlands was disbanded after a few years in return for the recognition of the Pragmatic Sanction by Great Britain and the United Provinces in 1731.
It was the factories, in which the trading companies participated from time to time, that were rather more successful. In 1672 Leopold I granted Christian Sind, a burgher of Linz, the privilege of manufacturing and selling woollen goods, with this later being transferred to his successor, Mathias Kolb. This led to the establishment of the Imperial-Royal Privileged Manufactory for Woollen Wares, which provided employment for over 10,000 people, most of whom worked at home, during some periods in the middle of the eighteenth century. However, craftsmen and merchants in Linz clearly saw the factory as a threat, with the result that its owners were deprived of their rights as burghers of the city. Despite some short-lived commercial success the factory was more or less permanently in financial difficulties. Between 1717 and 1722 it was even owned by the Vienna Military Hospital and Poorhouse, in order to provide employment for beggars and the unemployed so that they could be obliged to work there. The debts which piled up led to the factory being sold to the Oriental Company in 1722, although this did not solve its financial problems. It ended up being owned by the state when Maria Theresa bought it in 1754. | 479 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Despite what you might have been told about pirate crews, surgeons and musicians were among the most prized and respected members of any crew. Maybe not working together, though! Can you imagine a surgeon stitching up a cutlass slash or amputating a foot as the musician hammers out a sea shanty?
Doctors on Pirate Ships
Despite the fact that many a pirate would need the care of a doctor or surgeon in their long and dangerous careers such men were rarities aboard pirate ships. When they were on board, however, they would perform all kinds of operations from amputations to the simple dressing of wounds. They would even try to treat diseases, both sexually transmitted and non, as best they could. Nonetheless the life of pirates were fraught with danger; diseases like Malaria, Yellow Fever and Tuberculosis could not be cured. It is a testament to the skill of such men, when they were present, however that the most common cause of death for the average pirate was disease, not injury. In the absence of a pirate ship doctor or surgeon the ship’s cook or carpenter would often step into those shoes, believe it or not!
The job of a musician on a pirate ship was more esoteric; they did whatever was needed at the time to keep moral high. This could mean making hard work lighter with rhythmic jigs, cheering the men while they swabbed the decks and, of course, helping to liven up celebrations after victory. On a more tactical level musicians were also utilized in battle; they could play tunes to inspire their own crew, or even to frighten and dishearten their enemies. You see musicians were hot stuff during the Golden Age of pirates.
Considering that the Doctors and Musicians of the world were so highly prized by pirate ship crews it can be no real surprise to hear that they were often kidnapped and forced to work on pirate vessels. They would be pilfered from legitimate crews and held to ransom by the pirates, but some would choose to stay, naturally! | <urn:uuid:b8594538-099d-4c17-998c-f3dc2acafc1a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pirateshipvallarta.com/blog/sea-world/pirate-ship-surgeons-and-musicians | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00003.warc.gz | en | 0.989922 | 410 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.04496066272258... | 2 | Despite what you might have been told about pirate crews, surgeons and musicians were among the most prized and respected members of any crew. Maybe not working together, though! Can you imagine a surgeon stitching up a cutlass slash or amputating a foot as the musician hammers out a sea shanty?
Doctors on Pirate Ships
Despite the fact that many a pirate would need the care of a doctor or surgeon in their long and dangerous careers such men were rarities aboard pirate ships. When they were on board, however, they would perform all kinds of operations from amputations to the simple dressing of wounds. They would even try to treat diseases, both sexually transmitted and non, as best they could. Nonetheless the life of pirates were fraught with danger; diseases like Malaria, Yellow Fever and Tuberculosis could not be cured. It is a testament to the skill of such men, when they were present, however that the most common cause of death for the average pirate was disease, not injury. In the absence of a pirate ship doctor or surgeon the ship’s cook or carpenter would often step into those shoes, believe it or not!
The job of a musician on a pirate ship was more esoteric; they did whatever was needed at the time to keep moral high. This could mean making hard work lighter with rhythmic jigs, cheering the men while they swabbed the decks and, of course, helping to liven up celebrations after victory. On a more tactical level musicians were also utilized in battle; they could play tunes to inspire their own crew, or even to frighten and dishearten their enemies. You see musicians were hot stuff during the Golden Age of pirates.
Considering that the Doctors and Musicians of the world were so highly prized by pirate ship crews it can be no real surprise to hear that they were often kidnapped and forced to work on pirate vessels. They would be pilfered from legitimate crews and held to ransom by the pirates, but some would choose to stay, naturally! | 407 | ENGLISH | 1 |
According to archaeologists, recent excavations at the site of what was in ancient times, New York City have revealed that modern humans used a small handheld device to communicate with other humans Apparently, telepathy was unknown at the time. New York City was abandoned when the sea rose from climate warming and swamped most of the city rending it uninhabitable. At the time, many humans didn’t believe in global warming.
Researchers exploring the sunken city of Miami, Florida have found evidence that modern humans in the early 21st century used small cards made of plastic to trade or make purchases for goods. Many such cards have often been found buried with people, but their purpose has only recently been determined. Oddly enough, the cards have no known value. Most of the burial sites found in what used to be Florida contained the bodies of older adults. It’s believed that Florida was a community burial site until global warming raised the sea and inundated Florida.
A rare drawing of a four wheeled vehicle of some sort has been discovered on a 1,100-year-old paper poster at the site of the ancient city of Baltimore. It’s believed that humans of that period used these vehicles for transportation. Levitation and teletransportation were unknown during that period of ancient history. The drawing is very rare because most paper products molded when Baltimore sank.
Researchers believe that modern humans mated using a ritual known as “dating”. It’s theorized that following this ritual, the couple or couples would have sex, another ancient ritual for creating offspring. The art of designing babies in special labs was not developed until the 25th century. Modern humans stopped have sex somewhere around the 26th century, although most humans had forgone sex way before then. The matching of two people was perfected with the use of artificial intelligence sometime in the 22nd century, thus ending the ancient ritual of dating.
Archaeologists have determined that modern humans kept certain animals as pets. No one knows why since robot pets are better behaved and never need to be walked or cleaned up after, nor do they consume food. All animal life other than humans and insects became extinct somewhere around the 23rd century.
Researchers now believe that modern humans were very violent, often resulting in killing each other. This was a long-held theory that was only recently proven through excavations of ancient cities. It’s believed that violence was finally breed out of existence in the 23rd century. The last recorded war occurred sometime in the 22nd century in the Middle East. The last cyber war was in the 23rd century.
Researchers have concluded that modern humans used to send their children to institutes of higher learning in order to educate them. Knowledge through drugs was in its infancy at the time. It was thought then that children and young adults could learn by attending classes and lectures. This technique is believed to have still been popular as late as the 23rd century.
Archaeologists have now found evidence that modern humans continued to work well into the 24th century. The need for work and money ended with the invention of the modern materializers created by artificial intelligence. Sculptures and statues depicting humans working were found underwater in the ruins of what was once Los Angeles, a city in the former state of California. Sometime around the year 2105, the western part of California broke off and submerged in the Pacific Ocean following an earthquake.
Scientists have agreed to refer to the period from the year 2100 to 2600 as the First Smog Age. They warn that we must remain vigilant to avoid a second Smog Age.
Researchers have recovered two bodies from the last remaining glacier which finally melted completely. The bodies appear to be two miners who died in route to the California Gold Rush of 1848. Previous bodies were mostly skiers or hikers. | <urn:uuid:ef76847b-81af-4761-8de9-4a24a8025781> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.monteranderson-author.com/montes-blog/things-that-will-baffle-archaeologists-in-the-year-3030 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00223.warc.gz | en | 0.981557 | 781 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.49274796247482... | 11 | According to archaeologists, recent excavations at the site of what was in ancient times, New York City have revealed that modern humans used a small handheld device to communicate with other humans Apparently, telepathy was unknown at the time. New York City was abandoned when the sea rose from climate warming and swamped most of the city rending it uninhabitable. At the time, many humans didn’t believe in global warming.
Researchers exploring the sunken city of Miami, Florida have found evidence that modern humans in the early 21st century used small cards made of plastic to trade or make purchases for goods. Many such cards have often been found buried with people, but their purpose has only recently been determined. Oddly enough, the cards have no known value. Most of the burial sites found in what used to be Florida contained the bodies of older adults. It’s believed that Florida was a community burial site until global warming raised the sea and inundated Florida.
A rare drawing of a four wheeled vehicle of some sort has been discovered on a 1,100-year-old paper poster at the site of the ancient city of Baltimore. It’s believed that humans of that period used these vehicles for transportation. Levitation and teletransportation were unknown during that period of ancient history. The drawing is very rare because most paper products molded when Baltimore sank.
Researchers believe that modern humans mated using a ritual known as “dating”. It’s theorized that following this ritual, the couple or couples would have sex, another ancient ritual for creating offspring. The art of designing babies in special labs was not developed until the 25th century. Modern humans stopped have sex somewhere around the 26th century, although most humans had forgone sex way before then. The matching of two people was perfected with the use of artificial intelligence sometime in the 22nd century, thus ending the ancient ritual of dating.
Archaeologists have determined that modern humans kept certain animals as pets. No one knows why since robot pets are better behaved and never need to be walked or cleaned up after, nor do they consume food. All animal life other than humans and insects became extinct somewhere around the 23rd century.
Researchers now believe that modern humans were very violent, often resulting in killing each other. This was a long-held theory that was only recently proven through excavations of ancient cities. It’s believed that violence was finally breed out of existence in the 23rd century. The last recorded war occurred sometime in the 22nd century in the Middle East. The last cyber war was in the 23rd century.
Researchers have concluded that modern humans used to send their children to institutes of higher learning in order to educate them. Knowledge through drugs was in its infancy at the time. It was thought then that children and young adults could learn by attending classes and lectures. This technique is believed to have still been popular as late as the 23rd century.
Archaeologists have now found evidence that modern humans continued to work well into the 24th century. The need for work and money ended with the invention of the modern materializers created by artificial intelligence. Sculptures and statues depicting humans working were found underwater in the ruins of what was once Los Angeles, a city in the former state of California. Sometime around the year 2105, the western part of California broke off and submerged in the Pacific Ocean following an earthquake.
Scientists have agreed to refer to the period from the year 2100 to 2600 as the First Smog Age. They warn that we must remain vigilant to avoid a second Smog Age.
Researchers have recovered two bodies from the last remaining glacier which finally melted completely. The bodies appear to be two miners who died in route to the California Gold Rush of 1848. Previous bodies were mostly skiers or hikers. | 793 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Arab –Israeli conflict which started soon after the Second World War, in reality continues till date. It was its peak between 1945 and 1979. Territorial allocations have brought a little peace in the area but yet the control over Gaza strip, Jerusalem is still being debated. To go to its initial stages, one has to delve a little deeper into History. The British controlled Palestine and a British Mandate for Palestine was signed which was valid from 29 September 1923 - 15 May 1948. There was a demographic movement during and after the Second World War. Many Palestine Arabs left Palestine and lived as refugees, supported by the UN, in many other Arab countries. On the other hand the Jewish government encouraged Jewish immigrants from all over the world to move into Israel. The demographic make-up changed drastically in a few years.
United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) proposed partition of Palestine at the end of British Mandate. Jewish agency pressurised UN for exclusion of Arab countries and Britain in the committee. They also wanted to visit the holocaust camps to look for the survivors. The Arabs were sure that they were getting raw deal. After three months UNSCOP, which eventually had a liaison to the Arab Higher Committee, submitted its report.
- Region was partitioned for the Arabs and Jews.
- An international regime was to be stationed.
- Religious interest was to be guarded
Arabs never wanted a partition of the land so when it was done civil war started. From then till now there are wars over land. Jews went ahead with their plan. After the Arabs left Palestine, Jews occupied the deserted villages and farms. They also did not allow them to return. In 1949 there was election and Ben Gurion of the Mapai became the first Prime Minister. The Arabs who stayed back were not happy with the government and they got together to start nationalist movements. They wanted economic and social reforms and also an end to foreign interference. Political instability was the result of these movements. Also the Jews who emigrated from Arab countries were considered to be inferior and there was discrimination. The Arabs were under military rule. Civil wars and battles between Arabs and Jews ensued. Between January and July 1949 armistice agreement was signed. Today some parts of Israel are fully developed with many innovations from coming from that country. Yet the Arab part of Israel and some other parts of Jewish Israel is very backward. UN has failed in bringing peace in that area but efforts are still on and it is hoped that some stable decision will be reached at in near future. | <urn:uuid:17db1520-bb9c-4607-a44d-b47114166557> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.academicdestressor.com/arab-israeli-conflict/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00004.warc.gz | en | 0.982159 | 514 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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... | 4 | The Arab –Israeli conflict which started soon after the Second World War, in reality continues till date. It was its peak between 1945 and 1979. Territorial allocations have brought a little peace in the area but yet the control over Gaza strip, Jerusalem is still being debated. To go to its initial stages, one has to delve a little deeper into History. The British controlled Palestine and a British Mandate for Palestine was signed which was valid from 29 September 1923 - 15 May 1948. There was a demographic movement during and after the Second World War. Many Palestine Arabs left Palestine and lived as refugees, supported by the UN, in many other Arab countries. On the other hand the Jewish government encouraged Jewish immigrants from all over the world to move into Israel. The demographic make-up changed drastically in a few years.
United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) proposed partition of Palestine at the end of British Mandate. Jewish agency pressurised UN for exclusion of Arab countries and Britain in the committee. They also wanted to visit the holocaust camps to look for the survivors. The Arabs were sure that they were getting raw deal. After three months UNSCOP, which eventually had a liaison to the Arab Higher Committee, submitted its report.
- Region was partitioned for the Arabs and Jews.
- An international regime was to be stationed.
- Religious interest was to be guarded
Arabs never wanted a partition of the land so when it was done civil war started. From then till now there are wars over land. Jews went ahead with their plan. After the Arabs left Palestine, Jews occupied the deserted villages and farms. They also did not allow them to return. In 1949 there was election and Ben Gurion of the Mapai became the first Prime Minister. The Arabs who stayed back were not happy with the government and they got together to start nationalist movements. They wanted economic and social reforms and also an end to foreign interference. Political instability was the result of these movements. Also the Jews who emigrated from Arab countries were considered to be inferior and there was discrimination. The Arabs were under military rule. Civil wars and battles between Arabs and Jews ensued. Between January and July 1949 armistice agreement was signed. Today some parts of Israel are fully developed with many innovations from coming from that country. Yet the Arab part of Israel and some other parts of Jewish Israel is very backward. UN has failed in bringing peace in that area but efforts are still on and it is hoped that some stable decision will be reached at in near future. | 538 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our “Today in History” posts are always free, but if you want to support the newsletter and get the full Foreign Exchanges experience you know what you have to do:
In the waning years of the Umayyad dynasty, a caliphal army suffered a major defeat in an area that is now part of Afghanistan, to a Turkish people called the Turgesh. The defeat was serious enough to disrupt caliphal control of the region called Transoxiana (literally “across the Oxus River,” which is today known as the Amu Darya) and allowed the Turgesh to advance into the eastern Iranian region of Khurasan. The setback for the caliphate was temporary—the Arabs laid a whupping on the Turgesh later that year that led to their almost total disappearance as a threat. The setback for the Umayyad dynasty, however, was considerably more significant, because the loss of direct control over Khurasan helped set the conditions that allowed the Abbasid revolution to incubate there.
The Turgesh aren’t on the world stage very long, but we can’t very well talk about their victory without at least mentioning who they were. They’re a product of the Turkic Khanate, or Göktürk Khanate if you prefer, which controlled the Central Asian steppe from the mid-6th century through the mid-8th century, overcoming a bit of a setback in the middle of the 7th century. In the 580s a civil war split the khanate into eastern and western halves, and both then were toppled by the Tang, in 630 and 659, respectively, before the whole Turkic Khanate was revived in 682. The Turgesh are a product of the collapse of the western khanate in 659—they established their own kingdom in 699 in a part of modern Kyrgyzstan. By the 710s they were strong enough that their khan, Suluk (d. 738), decided they were ready to drive the Umayyad invaders out of parts of Transoxiana they’d only just conquered.
Beginning around 720, the Turgesh began to attack the Umayyads, and though the caliphate was obviously the larger empire and could in theory bring more forces to bear than the Turgesh, the caliphal armies were operating a long way from home in a place where they weren’t welcome. The local peoples of the region, primarily Sogdians, began revolting to coincide with stepped up Turgesh assaults—the largest of these revolts, actually led by an Arab named al-Harith b. Surayj (d. 746), tapped into simmering resentments about the treatment of non-Arabs living in the empire. Things got bad enough that in the mid-730s, the caliph, Hisham b. Abd al-Malik (d. 743) sent a former governor of Khurasan, the experienced Asad b. Abdullah al-Qasri (d. 738), back east to put a lid on it. Asad quickly was able to tamp down Harith’s revolt, then turned his attention to the Turgesh.
This map will hopefully give you some idea where we are; focus on Balkh and the nearby region of Khuttal (Cplakidas via Wikimedia Commons)
Asad attacked Khuttal, a local Iranian statelet in the vicinity of modern Tajikistan that had supported Harith and the Turgesh, but Suluk came to his ally’s aid. Asad sent his baggage train, loaded with goodies looted from Khuttal, back toward the Oxus, but when Suluk’s army showed up it appears that Asad’s forces pretty much turned and ran. Suluk’s army defeated the Arab rearguard and then pursued the main body of the army across the river. After failing to take the Arab encampment, he turned his attention to the nearby baggage train (hence the name of the battle), and his forces were able to take it after slaughtering most of the defenders.
Now that I think about it, this “Battle of the Baggage” isn’t really much of a battle, but what can you do? We’re here to talk about the aftermath, not the battle itself.
Suluk’s victory seems to have made him a little cocky, and he wound up paying for it pretty quickly. Asad, having survived the battle, ensconced himself in his Khurasanian capital, Balkh (which is a small town in northern Afghanistan today but used to be one of the largest cities in the world before successive Mongolian sackings in the 13th-14th centuries left it in ruins). There he planned to ride out the winter, as was typical Arab military practice. But Suluk, along with Harith, decided to invade Khurasan, which proved to be a mistake when Asad defeated them at the Battle of Kharistan in December. Suluk was subsequently assassinated by his men, and the Turgesh khanate plunged into civil war. Harith dropped off the map for a couple of years but resurfaced in the 740s, first as a supporter of the then-governor of Khurasan, Nasr b. Sayyar (d. 748), and then at the head of another rebellion—this time, he was defeated and killed.
Though Asad was successful in defeating the Turgesh at Kharistan, and Umayyad control over Khurasan was never really threatened, the losses he suffered to his mostly-Syrian army and allied Iranian tribes crippled the Umayyads’ ability to exert authority over Khurasan. Grievances that were already obviously high—between Arabs and non-Arabs, between Arabs of different tribes, between Syrians and everybody else—continued to build up in the province, and without a standing army capable of maintaining control by force, it was inevitable that another revolt would eventually break out. In fact, several revolts wound up breaking out, but they eventually coalesced, or were made to coalesce, around the rebellion that overthrew the Umayyads and brought the Abbasids to power. | <urn:uuid:a55e7551-0fa1-4ab8-a141-907409df6c13> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fx.substack.com/p/today-in-central-asian-history-the | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00530.warc.gz | en | 0.981107 | 1,320 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.23734666407... | 2 | Our “Today in History” posts are always free, but if you want to support the newsletter and get the full Foreign Exchanges experience you know what you have to do:
In the waning years of the Umayyad dynasty, a caliphal army suffered a major defeat in an area that is now part of Afghanistan, to a Turkish people called the Turgesh. The defeat was serious enough to disrupt caliphal control of the region called Transoxiana (literally “across the Oxus River,” which is today known as the Amu Darya) and allowed the Turgesh to advance into the eastern Iranian region of Khurasan. The setback for the caliphate was temporary—the Arabs laid a whupping on the Turgesh later that year that led to their almost total disappearance as a threat. The setback for the Umayyad dynasty, however, was considerably more significant, because the loss of direct control over Khurasan helped set the conditions that allowed the Abbasid revolution to incubate there.
The Turgesh aren’t on the world stage very long, but we can’t very well talk about their victory without at least mentioning who they were. They’re a product of the Turkic Khanate, or Göktürk Khanate if you prefer, which controlled the Central Asian steppe from the mid-6th century through the mid-8th century, overcoming a bit of a setback in the middle of the 7th century. In the 580s a civil war split the khanate into eastern and western halves, and both then were toppled by the Tang, in 630 and 659, respectively, before the whole Turkic Khanate was revived in 682. The Turgesh are a product of the collapse of the western khanate in 659—they established their own kingdom in 699 in a part of modern Kyrgyzstan. By the 710s they were strong enough that their khan, Suluk (d. 738), decided they were ready to drive the Umayyad invaders out of parts of Transoxiana they’d only just conquered.
Beginning around 720, the Turgesh began to attack the Umayyads, and though the caliphate was obviously the larger empire and could in theory bring more forces to bear than the Turgesh, the caliphal armies were operating a long way from home in a place where they weren’t welcome. The local peoples of the region, primarily Sogdians, began revolting to coincide with stepped up Turgesh assaults—the largest of these revolts, actually led by an Arab named al-Harith b. Surayj (d. 746), tapped into simmering resentments about the treatment of non-Arabs living in the empire. Things got bad enough that in the mid-730s, the caliph, Hisham b. Abd al-Malik (d. 743) sent a former governor of Khurasan, the experienced Asad b. Abdullah al-Qasri (d. 738), back east to put a lid on it. Asad quickly was able to tamp down Harith’s revolt, then turned his attention to the Turgesh.
This map will hopefully give you some idea where we are; focus on Balkh and the nearby region of Khuttal (Cplakidas via Wikimedia Commons)
Asad attacked Khuttal, a local Iranian statelet in the vicinity of modern Tajikistan that had supported Harith and the Turgesh, but Suluk came to his ally’s aid. Asad sent his baggage train, loaded with goodies looted from Khuttal, back toward the Oxus, but when Suluk’s army showed up it appears that Asad’s forces pretty much turned and ran. Suluk’s army defeated the Arab rearguard and then pursued the main body of the army across the river. After failing to take the Arab encampment, he turned his attention to the nearby baggage train (hence the name of the battle), and his forces were able to take it after slaughtering most of the defenders.
Now that I think about it, this “Battle of the Baggage” isn’t really much of a battle, but what can you do? We’re here to talk about the aftermath, not the battle itself.
Suluk’s victory seems to have made him a little cocky, and he wound up paying for it pretty quickly. Asad, having survived the battle, ensconced himself in his Khurasanian capital, Balkh (which is a small town in northern Afghanistan today but used to be one of the largest cities in the world before successive Mongolian sackings in the 13th-14th centuries left it in ruins). There he planned to ride out the winter, as was typical Arab military practice. But Suluk, along with Harith, decided to invade Khurasan, which proved to be a mistake when Asad defeated them at the Battle of Kharistan in December. Suluk was subsequently assassinated by his men, and the Turgesh khanate plunged into civil war. Harith dropped off the map for a couple of years but resurfaced in the 740s, first as a supporter of the then-governor of Khurasan, Nasr b. Sayyar (d. 748), and then at the head of another rebellion—this time, he was defeated and killed.
Though Asad was successful in defeating the Turgesh at Kharistan, and Umayyad control over Khurasan was never really threatened, the losses he suffered to his mostly-Syrian army and allied Iranian tribes crippled the Umayyads’ ability to exert authority over Khurasan. Grievances that were already obviously high—between Arabs and non-Arabs, between Arabs of different tribes, between Syrians and everybody else—continued to build up in the province, and without a standing army capable of maintaining control by force, it was inevitable that another revolt would eventually break out. In fact, several revolts wound up breaking out, but they eventually coalesced, or were made to coalesce, around the rebellion that overthrew the Umayyads and brought the Abbasids to power. | 1,324 | ENGLISH | 1 |
James Baldwin is highly regarded as one of the great writers of his time. In the “Notes of a Native Son” he describes a very influential moment in his life. The essay’s setting takes place during the Harlem riots in New York City and Detroit. The riot in New York all began due the fatal shooting of a young African American boy by a white police officer. Protesters began to protest the police brutality, but then fights and looting broke out when some protesters became unruly. Baldwin’s essay reflects upon his interactions and feelings with and about his father. He analyzes how his father affected him and talks about what kind of person his father was. He also reflects on the impact of his father’s death. All the while, within the essay, Baldwin uses different techniques in order to obtain and intrigue his readers. He primarily makes his essay a narrative. However, he also incorporates his analysis, which usually stem from his use of binaries and contrasts. His use of repetitive words also plays a big part in his style. All of those techniques all intertwined in a way that will help the reader understand Baldwin and his ideas a lot clearer. His combination of both narrative and analysis can be viewed in the very first paragraph.
Baldwin begins his essay by stating that fact that his father died on the July 29, 1943. Right after stating that fact, he mentions the rioting, which occurred in Detroit and in Harlem about a month before the death of his father. Baldwin incorporates the events that are going on around him in his narrative as a way to set up the environment for the reader. The rioting and other events that Baldwin speaks of is his way of explaining, or even rationalizing his feelings during tha...
... middle of paper ...
... to compare himself with his father. He made the riots in Harlem and Detroit versus the police share similar qualities to his relationship with his father. Baldwin’s word choosing is also very effective in Notes of a Native Son. He italicizes certain words in order to portray his emotions towards a situation without even having to go into an in-depth explanation. Lastly, Baldwin’s most obvious trait in weaving both narrative and analytical writing is the use of word repetition. He continually used the strongest word that he could think of (hate) and just repeat it over and over again. The main thing to notice is that Baldwin uses the same word not only through his narrative but also within his analysis.
Baldwin, James. “Notes of a Native Son.” 1955. James Baldwin: Collected Essays. Ed. Toni
Morrison. New York: Library of America, 1998. 63-84.
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- In his collection of essays in Nobody Knows My Name, James Baldwin uses “Fifth Avenue, Uptown” to establish the focus that African Americans no matter where they are positioned would be judged just by the color of their skin. Through his effective use of descriptive word choice, writing style and tone, Baldwin helps the reader visualize his position on the subject. He argues that “Negroes want to be treated like men” (Baldwin, 67). Baldwin gives a vivid sketch of the depressing conditions he grew up on in Fifth Avenue, Uptown by using strong descriptive words.... [tags: Nobody Knows My Name, James Baldwin]
492 words (1.4 pages)
- In My Father’s Eyes The essay “Notes of a Native Son” takes place at a very volatile time in history. The story was written during a time of hate and discrimination toward African Americans in the United States. James Baldwin, the author of this work is African American himself. His writing, along with his thoughts and ideas were greatly influenced by the events happening at the time. At the beginning of the essay, Baldwin makes a point to mention that it was the summer of 1943 and that race riots were occurring in Detroit.... [tags: James Baldwin]
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- Playgrounds of Harlem Narrative is a form of writing used by writers to convey their experiences to an audience. James Baldwin is a renowned author for bringing his experience to literature. He grew up Harlem in the 1940’s and 1950’s, a crucial point in history for America due to the escalading conflict between people of different races marked by the race riots of Harlem and Detroit. This environment that Baldwin grew up in inspires and influences him to write the narrative “Notes of a Native Son,” which is based on his experience with racism and the Jim-Crow Laws.... [tags: James Baldwin]
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- Despite discrimination, segregation, and social exile, James Baldwin was able to prevail as an African American writer during a time of prejudice and hate. James Baldwin was a very famous American author who was born in New York City on August 2, 1924 and later died in Paris on December 1st, 1987 . Although known as an important author within the USA, Baldwin spent the majority of his time in other countries including Paris, Switzerland, and Istanbul . Even though he lived abroad, the main topic of his writing often centered on the experience of being black in 20th century America.... [tags: Black people, African American, Race, White people]
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- The Fire Next Time by James Baldwin James Baldwin's book The fire Next Time opens up an entirely new world to most readers. It opens the reader to the harsh world of a black boy growing into a man in the poor city slums and all of the issues that a black man has to face. This book does more for the reader than any article published about the black's living in the poor cities in terms of exposure for the reader. The reason why it has this ability is how James Baldwin wrote it.... [tags: Papers]
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- In his work, “A Talk to Teachers,” James Baldwin poured out his point of view on how he believed American children should be taught. Throughout the essay, Baldwin focused on a specific race of school children: Negros. Perhaps this was because he himself was an African American, or even for the mere idea that Negros were the most vulnerable for never amounting to anything — according to what the American society thought during the twentieth century, specifically the 1960s when this piece was published.... [tags: education, james baldwin]
1380 words (3.9 pages)
- Collecting the Harlem Riots ?It would have been better to have left the plate glass as it had been and the goods lying in the stores. It would have been better, but it would have also have been intolerable, for Harlem needed something to smash. This quote by James Baldwin pertains to his relevant thoughts on the Harlem Riots of 1943. A copy of Newsweek from August 9,1943 described the riot in great detail, ?Within a half hour Harlem?s hoodlums were on the march. Windows of pawnshops and liquor and grocery stores were smashed and looted.... [tags: James Baldwin]
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- Cycles of Hatred James Baldwin lived during an extremely tumultuous time where hatred ruled the country. Race riots, beatings, and injustice flooded the cities that he, as well as most African Americans, was forced to live with every day. Many people, out of fright, suppressed their opposition to the blatant inequalities of the nation. However, some people refused to let themselves be put down solely because of their skin color and so they publicly announced their opposition. One such person was James Baldwin, who voiced his opinion through writing short stories about his experiences growing up as a black man.... [tags: James Baldwin]
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- James Baldwin was born in Harlem in a time where his African American decent was enough to put more challenges in front of him than the average (white) American boy faced. His father was a part of the first generation of free black men. He was a bitter, overbearing, paranoid preacher who refused change and hated the white man. Despite of his father, his color, and his lack of education, James Baldwin grew up to be a respected author of essays, plays, and novels. While claiming that he was one of the best writers of the era could be argued either way, it is hard to argue the fact that he was indeed one of the most well-known authors of the time.... [tags: James Baldwin]
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- James Arthur Baldwin James Arthur Baldwin was born the first of nine children during 1924 in Harlem. His father, David, was a clergyman and a factory worker, and was the source of all of James Baldwin's fears. Baldwin's mother, Berdis, was a homemaker. Baldwin first started writing around age fourteen as a way of seeking the love which he was missing from his family life. During this time Baldwin attended Frederick Douglas Junior High School and DeWitt Clinton High School. During his school years, Baldwin won several awards for his writings.... [tags: Biography James Baldwin Writers Essays]
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0.0611990764... | 1 | James Baldwin is highly regarded as one of the great writers of his time. In the “Notes of a Native Son” he describes a very influential moment in his life. The essay’s setting takes place during the Harlem riots in New York City and Detroit. The riot in New York all began due the fatal shooting of a young African American boy by a white police officer. Protesters began to protest the police brutality, but then fights and looting broke out when some protesters became unruly. Baldwin’s essay reflects upon his interactions and feelings with and about his father. He analyzes how his father affected him and talks about what kind of person his father was. He also reflects on the impact of his father’s death. All the while, within the essay, Baldwin uses different techniques in order to obtain and intrigue his readers. He primarily makes his essay a narrative. However, he also incorporates his analysis, which usually stem from his use of binaries and contrasts. His use of repetitive words also plays a big part in his style. All of those techniques all intertwined in a way that will help the reader understand Baldwin and his ideas a lot clearer. His combination of both narrative and analysis can be viewed in the very first paragraph.
Baldwin begins his essay by stating that fact that his father died on the July 29, 1943. Right after stating that fact, he mentions the rioting, which occurred in Detroit and in Harlem about a month before the death of his father. Baldwin incorporates the events that are going on around him in his narrative as a way to set up the environment for the reader. The rioting and other events that Baldwin speaks of is his way of explaining, or even rationalizing his feelings during tha...
... middle of paper ...
... to compare himself with his father. He made the riots in Harlem and Detroit versus the police share similar qualities to his relationship with his father. Baldwin’s word choosing is also very effective in Notes of a Native Son. He italicizes certain words in order to portray his emotions towards a situation without even having to go into an in-depth explanation. Lastly, Baldwin’s most obvious trait in weaving both narrative and analytical writing is the use of word repetition. He continually used the strongest word that he could think of (hate) and just repeat it over and over again. The main thing to notice is that Baldwin uses the same word not only through his narrative but also within his analysis.
Baldwin, James. “Notes of a Native Son.” 1955. James Baldwin: Collected Essays. Ed. Toni
Morrison. New York: Library of America, 1998. 63-84.
Need Writing Help?
Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper »
- In his collection of essays in Nobody Knows My Name, James Baldwin uses “Fifth Avenue, Uptown” to establish the focus that African Americans no matter where they are positioned would be judged just by the color of their skin. Through his effective use of descriptive word choice, writing style and tone, Baldwin helps the reader visualize his position on the subject. He argues that “Negroes want to be treated like men” (Baldwin, 67). Baldwin gives a vivid sketch of the depressing conditions he grew up on in Fifth Avenue, Uptown by using strong descriptive words.... [tags: Nobody Knows My Name, James Baldwin]
492 words (1.4 pages)
- In My Father’s Eyes The essay “Notes of a Native Son” takes place at a very volatile time in history. The story was written during a time of hate and discrimination toward African Americans in the United States. James Baldwin, the author of this work is African American himself. His writing, along with his thoughts and ideas were greatly influenced by the events happening at the time. At the beginning of the essay, Baldwin makes a point to mention that it was the summer of 1943 and that race riots were occurring in Detroit.... [tags: James Baldwin]
2257 words (6.4 pages)
- Playgrounds of Harlem Narrative is a form of writing used by writers to convey their experiences to an audience. James Baldwin is a renowned author for bringing his experience to literature. He grew up Harlem in the 1940’s and 1950’s, a crucial point in history for America due to the escalading conflict between people of different races marked by the race riots of Harlem and Detroit. This environment that Baldwin grew up in inspires and influences him to write the narrative “Notes of a Native Son,” which is based on his experience with racism and the Jim-Crow Laws.... [tags: James Baldwin]
1668 words (4.8 pages)
- Despite discrimination, segregation, and social exile, James Baldwin was able to prevail as an African American writer during a time of prejudice and hate. James Baldwin was a very famous American author who was born in New York City on August 2, 1924 and later died in Paris on December 1st, 1987 . Although known as an important author within the USA, Baldwin spent the majority of his time in other countries including Paris, Switzerland, and Istanbul . Even though he lived abroad, the main topic of his writing often centered on the experience of being black in 20th century America.... [tags: Black people, African American, Race, White people]
1536 words (4.4 pages)
- The Fire Next Time by James Baldwin James Baldwin's book The fire Next Time opens up an entirely new world to most readers. It opens the reader to the harsh world of a black boy growing into a man in the poor city slums and all of the issues that a black man has to face. This book does more for the reader than any article published about the black's living in the poor cities in terms of exposure for the reader. The reason why it has this ability is how James Baldwin wrote it.... [tags: Papers]
721 words (2.1 pages)
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1380 words (3.9 pages)
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1339 words (3.8 pages)
- Cycles of Hatred James Baldwin lived during an extremely tumultuous time where hatred ruled the country. Race riots, beatings, and injustice flooded the cities that he, as well as most African Americans, was forced to live with every day. Many people, out of fright, suppressed their opposition to the blatant inequalities of the nation. However, some people refused to let themselves be put down solely because of their skin color and so they publicly announced their opposition. One such person was James Baldwin, who voiced his opinion through writing short stories about his experiences growing up as a black man.... [tags: James Baldwin]
1384 words (4 pages)
- James Baldwin was born in Harlem in a time where his African American decent was enough to put more challenges in front of him than the average (white) American boy faced. His father was a part of the first generation of free black men. He was a bitter, overbearing, paranoid preacher who refused change and hated the white man. Despite of his father, his color, and his lack of education, James Baldwin grew up to be a respected author of essays, plays, and novels. While claiming that he was one of the best writers of the era could be argued either way, it is hard to argue the fact that he was indeed one of the most well-known authors of the time.... [tags: James Baldwin]
1676 words (4.8 pages)
- James Arthur Baldwin James Arthur Baldwin was born the first of nine children during 1924 in Harlem. His father, David, was a clergyman and a factory worker, and was the source of all of James Baldwin's fears. Baldwin's mother, Berdis, was a homemaker. Baldwin first started writing around age fourteen as a way of seeking the love which he was missing from his family life. During this time Baldwin attended Frederick Douglas Junior High School and DeWitt Clinton High School. During his school years, Baldwin won several awards for his writings.... [tags: Biography James Baldwin Writers Essays]
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A comparison of the usage of Language between the Chimney Sweeper from Songs of Innocence and Experience Even though, a hundred and twenty eight decades afterwards, lying in his grave, William Blake is still one of the greatest consequences in poetry and even daily life today. Blake's work, unrecognised during his life, but today is almost universally considered that of a genius. Northrop Frye, who undertook an analysis of Blake's entire opus, 'What is in proportion to its merits the most read body of poetry in the English Language.' Blake was born into a middle class family in 1757. The bible, being among the most worshipped yet most feared artefacts in Blake's time, has been his biggest influence in his job, and was to be his main sway before the day that he died. As Blake matured into a budding poet, artist and engraver, his parents were with him every step along the way. In 1782, Blake married Catherine Boucher, a woman he honored, loved, desired and most importantly, shared a passion in his work. Blake abhorred slavery with a passion, he also believed strongly in racial and sexual equality, but also in Blake's age, both sexual and racial equality was equally as great as hopeless. ' As all men are alike tho' infinitely various.' [William Blake.] Blake believed that innocence and experience were the two other countries of the human soul, and that true innocence was hopeless without experience. The catastrophic end to the French revolution induced Blake to get rid of faith in the goodness of mankind. As spiritual as Blake was, he thought there was a kind of bad side to religion; he thought that children lost their innocence during manipulation from a religious communit... | <urn:uuid:5a6c0e76-cb12-4113-b446-ec2f3d36a57d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studybay.com/example-works/essay/self_improvement/1013640/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00381.warc.gz | en | 0.982505 | 373 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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A comparison of the usage of Language between the Chimney Sweeper from Songs of Innocence and Experience Even though, a hundred and twenty eight decades afterwards, lying in his grave, William Blake is still one of the greatest consequences in poetry and even daily life today. Blake's work, unrecognised during his life, but today is almost universally considered that of a genius. Northrop Frye, who undertook an analysis of Blake's entire opus, 'What is in proportion to its merits the most read body of poetry in the English Language.' Blake was born into a middle class family in 1757. The bible, being among the most worshipped yet most feared artefacts in Blake's time, has been his biggest influence in his job, and was to be his main sway before the day that he died. As Blake matured into a budding poet, artist and engraver, his parents were with him every step along the way. In 1782, Blake married Catherine Boucher, a woman he honored, loved, desired and most importantly, shared a passion in his work. Blake abhorred slavery with a passion, he also believed strongly in racial and sexual equality, but also in Blake's age, both sexual and racial equality was equally as great as hopeless. ' As all men are alike tho' infinitely various.' [William Blake.] Blake believed that innocence and experience were the two other countries of the human soul, and that true innocence was hopeless without experience. The catastrophic end to the French revolution induced Blake to get rid of faith in the goodness of mankind. As spiritual as Blake was, he thought there was a kind of bad side to religion; he thought that children lost their innocence during manipulation from a religious communit... | 381 | ENGLISH | 1 |
An estimated 16,000 people died in the eruption. Titus Flavius Vespasianus , commonly known as Titus (December 30, 39 - September 13, 81), was a Roman Emperor who briefly reigned from 79 until his death in 81. Titus was the second emperor of the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96, encompassing the reigns of Titus's father Vespasian (69-79), Titus himself (79-81) and his younger brother Domitian (81-96).
Prior to becoming emperor, Titus gained renown as a military commander, serving under his father in Judaea during the First Jewish-Roman War, which was fought between 67 and 70. When Vespasian was declared emperor on July 1, 69, Titus was left in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion, which he did in 70, successfully besieging and destroying the city and the Temple of Jerusalem. For this achievement Titus was awarded a triumph; the Arch of Titus commemorates his victory to this day. Under the rule of his father, Titus gained infamy in Rome serving as prefect of the Roman imperial bodyguard, known as the Praetorian Guard, and for carrying on a controversial relationship with the Jewish queen Berenice. Despite concerns over his character, however, Titus ruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian on June 23, 79, and was considered a good emperor by Suetonius and other contemporary historians.
In this role he is best known for his public building program in Rome-completing the Flavian Amphitheatre, otherwise known as the Colosseum- and for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, the Mount Vesuvius eruption of 79 and the fire of Rome of 80. After barely two years in office, Titus died of a fever on September 13, 81.
He was deified by the Roman Senate and succeeded by his younger brother Domitian. Titus was born in Rome, probably on 30 December 39, as the eldest son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus-commonly known as Vespasian-and Domitilla the Elder. He had one younger sister, Domitilla the Younger b. 45, and one younger brother, also named Titus Flavius Domitianus b. 51, but commonly referred to as Domitian.
Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new provincial nobility during the early part of the 1st century. One such family was the gens Flavia , which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.Titus's great-grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar's civil war. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC. Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I, Titus's grandfather. By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied himself to the more prestigious patrician gens Vespasia , ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to the senatorial rank. The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor, aedile and praetor, and culminated with a consulship in 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43. What little is known of Titus's early life has been handed down to us by Suetonius, who records that he was brought up at the imperial court in the company of Britannicus, the son of emperor Claudius, who would be murdered by Nero in 55.
The story was even told that Titus was reclining next to Britannicus, the night he was murdered, and sipped of the poison that was handed to him. Further details on his education are scarce, but it seems he showed early promise in the military arts and was a skilled poet and orator both in Greek and Latin. 57 to 59 he was a military tribune in Germania. He also served in Britannia, perhaps arriving c.
60 with reinforcements needed after the revolt of Boudica. Titus then took a new wife of a much more distinguished family, Marcia Furnilla. However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition to Nero. Her uncle Barea Soranus and his daughter Servilia were among those who perished after the failed Pisonian conspiracy of 65. Some modern historians theorize that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy.Titus appears to have had multiple daughters, at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla. The only one known to have survived to adulthood was Julia Flavia, perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia. During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank of quaestor. In 66 the Jews of the Judaea Province revolted against the Roman Empire. Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, was defeated at the battle of Beth-Horon and forced to retreat from Jerusalem.
The pro-Roman king Agrippa II and his sister Berenice fled the city to Galilee where they later gave themselves up to the Romans. Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion, who was dispatched to the region at once with the fifth and tenth legions. He was later joined by Titus at Ptolemais, bringing with him the fifteenth legion.
With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans prepared to sweep across Galilee and march on Jerusalem. The history of the war was covered in dramatic detail by the Roman-Jewish historian Josephus in his work The Wars of the Jews. Josephus served as a commander in the city of Jotapata when the Roman army invaded Galilee in 67.After an exhausting siege which lasted 47 days, the city fell, with an estimated 40,000 killed and the remaining Jewish resistance committing suicide. Josephus himself surrendered to Vespasian, became a prisoner and provided the Romans with intelligence on the ongoing revolt.
By 68, the entire coast and the north of Judaea were subjugated by the Roman army, with decisive victories won at Taricheae and Gamala, where Titus distinguished himself as a skilled general. Year of the Four Emperors.Map of the Roman Empire during the Year of the Four Emperors (69 AD). Blue areas indicate provinces loyal to Vespasian and Gaius Licinius Mucianus. The last and most significant fortress of Jewish resistance was Jerusalem. However the campaign came to a sudden halt when news arrived of Nero's death.
Almost simultaneously, the Roman Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania, as Emperor of Rome. Vespasian decided to await further orders, and sent Titus to greet the new princeps. Before reaching Italy, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, governor of Lusitania, and that Vitellius and his armies in Germania were preparing to march on the capital, intent on overthrowing Otho.Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, he abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea. Meanwhile, Otho was defeated in the First Battle of Bedriacum and committed suicide. When the news spread across the armies in Judaea and Ægyptus, they took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on July 1, 69. Vespasian accepted, and through negotiations by Titus joined forces with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, governor of Syria. A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself travelled to Alexandria, leaving Titus in charge to end the Jewish rebellion. By the end of 69 the forces of Vitellius had been beaten, and Vespasian was officially declared emperor by the Senate on December 21, thus ending the Year of the Four Emperors. Destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem , Francesco Hayez, oil on canvas, 1867. Depicting the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by the Roman army. Meanwhile the Jews had become embroiled in a civil conflict of their own, splitting the resistance in the city among two factions; the Sicarii led by Simon Bar Giora, and the Zealots led by John of Gischala. Titus seized the opportunity to begin the assault on Jerusalem. The Roman army was joined by the twelfth legion, which was previously defeated under Cestius Gallus, and from Alexandria Vespasian sent Tiberius Julius Alexander, governor of Ægyptus, to act as Titus's second in command. Titus surrounded the city, with three legions (Vth, XIIth and XVth) on the western side and one (Xth) on the Mount of Olives to the east.
He put pressure on the food and water supplies of the inhabitants by allowing pilgrims to enter the city to celebrate Passover, and then refusing them egress. Jewish raids continuously harassed the Roman army, one of which nearly resulted in Titus being captured. After attempts by Josephus to negotiate a surrender had failed, the Romans resumed hostilities and quickly breached the first and second walls of the city. To intimidate the resistance, Titus ordered deserters from the Jewish side to be crucified around the city wall.By this time the Jews had been thoroughly exhausted by famine, and when the weak third wall was breached bitter street fighting ensued. The Romans finally captured the Antonia Fortress and began a frontal assault on the gates of the Temple. According to Josephus, Titus had ordered that the Temple itself should not be destroyed, but while the fighting around the gates continued a soldier hurled a torch inside one of the windows, which quickly set the entire building ablaze. The later Christian chronicler Sulpicius Severus, possibly drawing on a lost portion of Tacitus' Histories , claims that Titus favoured destruction of the Temple.
Whatever the case, the Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus's soldiers proclaimed him imperator in honor of the victory. Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of which a majority were Jewish.
97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar Giora and John of Gischala. Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean. Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory, as he claimed there is "no merit in vanquishing people forsaken by their own God". Titus' triumph after the First Jewish-Roman War was celebrated with the Arch of Titus in Rome, which shows the treasures taken from the Temple in Jerusalem, including the Menorah and the Trumpets of jericho. Unable to sail to Italy during the winter, Titus celebrated elaborate games at Caesarea Maritima and Berytus, then travelled to Zeugma on the Euphrates, where he was presented with a crown by Vologases I of Parthia.
While visiting Antioch he confirmed the traditional rights of the Jews in that city. On his way to Alexandria, he stopped in Memphis to consecrate the sacred bull Apis. According to Suetonius, this caused consternation; the ceremony required Titus to wear a diadem, which the Romans associated with kingship, and the partisanship of Titus's legions had already led to fears that he might rebel against his father. Upon his arrival in the city in 71, Titus was awarded a triumph.
Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian he rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war. Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners, and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the Menorah and the Pentateuch. Simon Bar Giora was executed in the Forum, after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter. The triumphal Arch of Titus, which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorializes the victory of Titus. The Arch of Titus, located on the Via Sacra, just to the south-east of the Forum Romanum in Rome.
With Vespasian declared emperor, Titus and his brother Domitian likewise received the title of Caesar from the Senate. In addition to sharing tribunician power with his father, Titus held seven consulships during Vespasian's reign and acted as his secretary, appearing in the Senate on his behalf. More crucially, he was appointed commander of the Praetorian Guard, ensuring their loyalty to the emperor and further solidifying Vespasian's position as a legitimate ruler. In this capacity he achieved considerable notoriety in Rome for his violent actions, frequently ordering the execution of suspected traitors on the spot. When in 79, a plot by Aulus Caecina Alienus and Eprius Marcellus to overthrow Vespasian was uncovered, Titus invited Alienus to dinner and ordered him to be stabbed before he had even left the room.
During the Jewish wars, Titus had begun a love affair with Berenice, sister of Agrippa II. The Herodians had collaborated with the Romans during the rebellion, and Berenice herself had supported Vespasian upon his campaign to become emperor. The Romans were wary of the Eastern Queen and disapproved of their relationship.
When the pair was publicly denounced by Cynics in the theatre, Titus caved in to the pressure and sent her away, but his reputation further suffered. Vespasian died of an infection on June 23 79 AD, and was immediately succeeded by his son Titus. Because of his many alleged vices, many Romans feared at this point that he would be another Nero. Against these expectations, however, Titus proved to be an effective emperor and was well-loved by the population, who praised him highly when they found that he possessed the greatest virtues instead of vices. One of his first acts as an emperor was to publicly order a halt to trials based on treason charges, which had long plagued the principate.The law of treason, or maiestas law, was originally intended to prosecute those who had corruptly'impaired the people and majesty of Rome' by any revolutionary action. Under Augustus, however, this custom had been revived and applied to cover slander or libellous writings as well, eventually leading to a long cycle of trials and executions under such emperors as Tiberius, Caligula and Nero, spawning entire networks of informers that terrorized Rome's political system for decades. Titus put an end to this practice, against himself or anyone else, declaring. It is impossible for me to be insulted or abused in any way. For I do naught that deserves censure, and I care not for what is reported falsely. As for the emperors who are dead and gone, they will avenge themselves in case anyone does them a wrong, if in very truth they are demigods and possess any power. Consequently, no senators were put to death during his reign; he thus kept to his promise that he would assume the office of Pontifex Maximus "for the purpose of keeping his hands unstained". The informants were publicly punished and banished from the city, and Titus further prevented abuses by introducing legislation that made it unlawful for persons to be tried under different laws for the same offense.
As emperor he became known for his generosity, and Suetonius states that upon realising he had brought no benefit to anyone during a whole day he remarked, Friends, I have lost a day. The 79 eruption of Mount Vesuvius completely destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum. Today plaster casts of actual victims found during excavations are on display in some of the ruins.
Although his administration was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, Titus faced a number of major disasters during his brief reign. On August 24, 79, barely two months after his accession, Mount Vesuvius erupted, resulting in the almost complete destruction of life and property in the cities and resort communities around the Bay of Naples. The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried under metres of stone and lava, killing thousands of citizens.
Additionally, he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year. During the second visit, in spring of AD 80, a fire broke out in Rome, burning large parts of the city for three days and three nights. Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the Great Fire of 64-crucially sparing the many districts of insulae-Cassius Dio records a long list of important public buildings that were destroyed, including Agrippa's Pantheon, the Temple of Jupiter, the Diribitorium, parts of Pompey's Theatre and the Saepta Julia among others. Once again, Titus personally compensated for the damaged regions.
According to Suetonius, a plague similarly struck during the fire. The nature of the disease, however, or the death toll are unknown. Meanwhile war had resumed in Britannia, where Gnaeus Julius Agricola pushed further into Caledonia and managed to establish several forts there. As a result of his actions, Titus received the title of Imperator for the fifteenth time.His reign also saw the rebellion led by Terentius Maximus, one of several false Neros who continued to appear throughout the 70s. Although Nero was primarily known as a universally hated tyrant-there is evidence that for much of his reign, he remained highly popular in the eastern provinces. Reports that Nero had in fact survived the assassination attempts were fueled by the vague circumstances surrounding his death and several prophecies foretelling his return. According to Cassius Dio, Terentius Maximus resembled Nero in voice and appearance and, like him, sang to the lyre.
Terentius established a following in Asia minor but was soon forced to flee beyond the Euphrates, taking refuge with the Parthians. In addition, sources state that Titus discovered that his brother Domitian was plotting against him but refused to have him killed or banished.
The Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum, was completed during the reign of Titus and inaugurated with spectacular games that lasted for 100 days. See Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre. Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, presently better known as the Colosseum, was begun in 70 under Vespasian and finally completed in 80 under Titus. In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the building was also conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the Jewish wars. The inaugural games lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, including gladiatorial combat, fights between wild animals (elephants and cranes), mock naval battles for which the theatre was flooded, horse races and chariot races.
During the games, wooden balls were dropped into the audience, inscribed with various prizes (clothing, gold, or even slaves), which could then be traded for the designated item. Adjacent to the amphitheatre, within the precinct of Nero's Golden House, Titus had also ordered the construction of a new public bath-house, which was to bear his name. Construction of this building was hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre.Practice of the imperial cult was revived by Titus, though apparently it met with some difficulty as Vespasian was not deified until six months after his death. To further honor and glorify the Flavian dynasty, foundations were laid for what would later become the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, which was finished by Domitian. At the closing of the games, Titus officially dedicated the amphitheatre and the baths, which was to be his final recorded act as an emperor. He set out for the Sabine territories but fell ill at the first posting station where he died of a fever, reportedly in the same farm-house as his father. Allegedly, the last words he uttered before passing away were: "I have made but one mistake". Titus had ruled the Roman Empire for just over two years, from the death of his father in 79 to his own on September 13 81. He was succeeded by Domitian, whose first act as emperor was to deify his brother. Historians have speculated on the exact nature of his death, and to which mistake Titus alluded in his final words. Philostratus writes that he was poisoned by Domitian with a sea hare, and that his death had been foretold to him by Apollonius of Tyana. Suetonius and Cassius Dio maintain he died of natural causes, but both accuse Domitian of having left the ailing Titus for dead. Consequently, Dio believes Titus's mistake refers to his failure to have his brother executed when he was found to be openly plotting against him. According to the Babylonian Talmud (Gittin 56b), an insect flew into Titus's nose and picked at his brain for seven years. He noticed that the sound of a blacksmith hammering caused the ensuing pain to abate, so he paid for blacksmiths to hammer nearby him; however, the effect wore off and the insect resumed its gnawing. When he died, they opened his skull and found the insect had grown to the size of a bird. The Talmud gives this as the cause of his death and interprets it as divine retribution for his wicked actions. Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor. All the surviving accounts from this period, many of them written by his own contemporaries, present a highly favourable view towards Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian. The Wars of the Jews offers a first-hand, eye-witness account on the Jewish rebellion and the character of Titus.
The neutrality of Josephus' writings has come into question however as he was heavily indebted to the Flavians. In 71, he arrived in Rome in the entourage of Titus, became a Roman citizen and took on the Roman nomen Flavius and praenomen Titus from his patrons. He received an annual pension and lived in the palace. It was while in Rome, and under Flavian patronage, that Josephus wrote all of his known works.
The War of the Jews is heavily slanted against the leaders of the revolt, portraying the rebellion as weak and unorganized, and even blaming the Jews for causing the war. The credibility of Josephus as a historian has subsequently come under fire.Another contemporary of Titus was Publius Cornelius Tacitus, who started his public career in 80 or 81 and credits the Flavian dynasty with his elevation. The Histories -his account of this period-was published during the reign of Trajan. Unfortunately only the first five books from this work have survived until the present day, with the text on Titus's and Domitian's reign entirely lost. Suetonius Tranquilius gives a short but highly favourable account on Titus's reign in The Lives of Twelve Caesars , emphasizing his military achievements and his generosity as Emperor, in short describing him as follows. Titus, of the same surname as his father, was the delight and darling of the human race; such surpassing ability had he, by nature, art, or good fortune, to win the affections of all men, and that, too, which is no easy task, while he was emperor.
Finally, Cassius Dio wrote his Roman History over a hundred years after the death of Titus. He shares a similar outlook as Suetonius, possibly even using the latter as a source, but is more reserved, noting. His satisfactory record may also have been due to the fact that he survived his accession but a very short time, for he was thus given no opportunity for wrongdoing. For he lived after this only two years, two months and twenty days - in addition to the thirty-nine years, five months and twenty-five days he had already lived at that time. In this respect, indeed, he is regarded as having equalled the long reign of Augustus, since it is maintained that Augustus would never have been loved had he lived a shorter time, nor Titus had he lived longer.
For Augustus, though at the outset he showed himself rather harsh because of the wars and the factional strife, was later able, in the course of time, to achieve a brilliant reputation for his kindly deeds; Titus, on the other hand, ruled with mildness and died at the height of his glory, whereas, if he had lived a long time, it might have been shown that he owes his present fame more to good fortune than to merit. Pliny the Elder, who later died during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, dedicated his Naturalis Historia to Titus. In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, in Jewish memory "Titus the Wicked" is remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of the Temple. For example, one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its destruction. The Triumph of Titus , by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1885).The composition suggests a love affair between Titus and Domitian's wife Domitia Longina (see below). The war in Judaea and the life of Titus, particularly his relationship with Berenice, have inspired writers and artists through the centuries. The bas-relief in the Arch of Titus has been influential in the depiction of the destruction of Jerusalem, with the Menorah frequently being used to symbolise the looting of the Second Temple. Bérénice , a play by Jean Racine (1670) which focuses on the love affair between Titus and Berenice. Tite et Bérénice , a play by Pierre Corneille which was in competition with Racine the same year, and concerns the same subject matter. La clemenza di Tito , an opera by Mozart, about a fictional romance between Emperor Titus and Vitellia, daughter of Vitellius.
The Josephus Trilogy , novels by Lion Feuchtwanger, about the life of Flavius Josephus and his relation with the Flavian dynasty. Der jüdische Krieg (Josephus), 1932. Die Söhne (The Jews of Rome), 1935.Der Tag wird kommen (The day will come , Josephus and the Emperor), 1942. The Marcus Didius Falco novels, which take place during the reign of Vespasian. The Roman Mysteries , a series of children's books which take place during the reign of Titus. The High School Latin textbook series Ecce Romani takes place during the reign of Titus. The Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus by Wilhelm von Kaulbach (1846).
Oil on canvas, 585 x 705 cm. An allegorical depiction of the destruction of Jerusalem, dramatically centered around the figure of Titus. The Destruction of the Temple at Jerusalem Nicolas Poussin (1637). Oil on canvas, 147 x 198,5 cm.
Depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by the Roman army led by Titus. The Destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem by Francesco Hayez (1867). Oil on canvas, 183 x 252 cm. Galleria d'Arte Moderna, Venice. Depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by the Roman army.The Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans Under the Command of Titus, A. 70 by David Roberts (1850). Oil on canvas, 136 x 197 cm. Depicts the burning and looting of Jerusalem by the Roman army under Titus. The Triumph of Titus and Vespasian by Giulio Romano (1540). Oil on wood, 170 x 120 cm. Depicts Titus and Vespasian as they ride into Rome on a triumphal chariot, preceded by a parade carrying spoils from the war in Judaea. The painting anachronistically features the Arch of Titus, which was not completed until the reign of Domitian. The Triumph of Titus by Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1885). This painting depicts the triumphal procession of Titus and his family. Alma-Tadema was known for his meticulous historical research on the ancient world. Vespasian, dressed as Pontifex Maximus, walks at the head of his family, followed by Domitian and his first wife Domitia Longina, who he had only recently married. Behind Domitian follows Titus, dressed in religious regalia. World-renowned expert numismatist, enthusiast, author and dealer in authentic ancient Greek, ancient Roman, ancient Byzantine, world coins & more. Ilya Zlobin is an independent individual who has a passion for coin collecting, research and understanding the importance of the historical context and significance all coins and objects represent.
Send me a message about this and I can update your invoice should you want this method. Getting your order to you, quickly and securely is a top priority and is taken seriously here. Great care is taken in packaging and mailing every item securely and quickly.
What is a certificate of authenticity and what guarantees do you give that the item is authentic? You will be very happy with what you get with the COA; a professional presentation of the coin, with all of the relevant information and a picture of the coin you saw in the listing. Additionally, the coin is inside it's own protective coin flip (holder), with a 2x2 inch description of the coin matching the individual number on the COA. Whether your goal is to collect or give the item as a gift, coins presented like this could be more prized and valued higher than items that were not given such care and attention to. When should I leave feedback?Please don't leave any negative feedbacks, as it happens sometimes that people rush to leave feedback before letting sufficient time for their order to arrive. The matter of fact is that any issues can be resolved, as reputation is most important to me. My goal is to provide superior products and quality of service. How and where do I learn more about collecting ancient coins? Visit the Guide on How to Use My Store. For on an overview about using my store, with additional information and links to all other parts of my store which may include educational information on topics you are looking for. The item "TITUS Genuine Ancient 80AD Silver Roman Coin for MT VESUVIUS POMPEII NGC i81411" is in sale since Tuesday, November 19, 2019. This item is in the category "Coins & Paper Money\Coins\ Ancient\Roman\ Imperial (27 BC-476 AD)". The seller is "highrating_lowprice" and is located in Rego Park, New York. This item can be shipped worldwide. | <urn:uuid:23d4d44e-8d60-4193-8162-eee0d3c0a6a4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://romancoinngc.com/en/titus-genuine-ancient-80ad-silver-roman-coin-for-mt-vesuvius-pompeii-ngc-i81411.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00379.warc.gz | en | 0.982533 | 6,508 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.33802831172943115,... | 2 | An estimated 16,000 people died in the eruption. Titus Flavius Vespasianus , commonly known as Titus (December 30, 39 - September 13, 81), was a Roman Emperor who briefly reigned from 79 until his death in 81. Titus was the second emperor of the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96, encompassing the reigns of Titus's father Vespasian (69-79), Titus himself (79-81) and his younger brother Domitian (81-96).
Prior to becoming emperor, Titus gained renown as a military commander, serving under his father in Judaea during the First Jewish-Roman War, which was fought between 67 and 70. When Vespasian was declared emperor on July 1, 69, Titus was left in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion, which he did in 70, successfully besieging and destroying the city and the Temple of Jerusalem. For this achievement Titus was awarded a triumph; the Arch of Titus commemorates his victory to this day. Under the rule of his father, Titus gained infamy in Rome serving as prefect of the Roman imperial bodyguard, known as the Praetorian Guard, and for carrying on a controversial relationship with the Jewish queen Berenice. Despite concerns over his character, however, Titus ruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian on June 23, 79, and was considered a good emperor by Suetonius and other contemporary historians.
In this role he is best known for his public building program in Rome-completing the Flavian Amphitheatre, otherwise known as the Colosseum- and for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, the Mount Vesuvius eruption of 79 and the fire of Rome of 80. After barely two years in office, Titus died of a fever on September 13, 81.
He was deified by the Roman Senate and succeeded by his younger brother Domitian. Titus was born in Rome, probably on 30 December 39, as the eldest son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus-commonly known as Vespasian-and Domitilla the Elder. He had one younger sister, Domitilla the Younger b. 45, and one younger brother, also named Titus Flavius Domitianus b. 51, but commonly referred to as Domitian.
Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new provincial nobility during the early part of the 1st century. One such family was the gens Flavia , which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.Titus's great-grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar's civil war. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC. Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I, Titus's grandfather. By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied himself to the more prestigious patrician gens Vespasia , ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to the senatorial rank. The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor, aedile and praetor, and culminated with a consulship in 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43. What little is known of Titus's early life has been handed down to us by Suetonius, who records that he was brought up at the imperial court in the company of Britannicus, the son of emperor Claudius, who would be murdered by Nero in 55.
The story was even told that Titus was reclining next to Britannicus, the night he was murdered, and sipped of the poison that was handed to him. Further details on his education are scarce, but it seems he showed early promise in the military arts and was a skilled poet and orator both in Greek and Latin. 57 to 59 he was a military tribune in Germania. He also served in Britannia, perhaps arriving c.
60 with reinforcements needed after the revolt of Boudica. Titus then took a new wife of a much more distinguished family, Marcia Furnilla. However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition to Nero. Her uncle Barea Soranus and his daughter Servilia were among those who perished after the failed Pisonian conspiracy of 65. Some modern historians theorize that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy.Titus appears to have had multiple daughters, at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla. The only one known to have survived to adulthood was Julia Flavia, perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia. During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank of quaestor. In 66 the Jews of the Judaea Province revolted against the Roman Empire. Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, was defeated at the battle of Beth-Horon and forced to retreat from Jerusalem.
The pro-Roman king Agrippa II and his sister Berenice fled the city to Galilee where they later gave themselves up to the Romans. Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion, who was dispatched to the region at once with the fifth and tenth legions. He was later joined by Titus at Ptolemais, bringing with him the fifteenth legion.
With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans prepared to sweep across Galilee and march on Jerusalem. The history of the war was covered in dramatic detail by the Roman-Jewish historian Josephus in his work The Wars of the Jews. Josephus served as a commander in the city of Jotapata when the Roman army invaded Galilee in 67.After an exhausting siege which lasted 47 days, the city fell, with an estimated 40,000 killed and the remaining Jewish resistance committing suicide. Josephus himself surrendered to Vespasian, became a prisoner and provided the Romans with intelligence on the ongoing revolt.
By 68, the entire coast and the north of Judaea were subjugated by the Roman army, with decisive victories won at Taricheae and Gamala, where Titus distinguished himself as a skilled general. Year of the Four Emperors.Map of the Roman Empire during the Year of the Four Emperors (69 AD). Blue areas indicate provinces loyal to Vespasian and Gaius Licinius Mucianus. The last and most significant fortress of Jewish resistance was Jerusalem. However the campaign came to a sudden halt when news arrived of Nero's death.
Almost simultaneously, the Roman Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania, as Emperor of Rome. Vespasian decided to await further orders, and sent Titus to greet the new princeps. Before reaching Italy, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, governor of Lusitania, and that Vitellius and his armies in Germania were preparing to march on the capital, intent on overthrowing Otho.Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, he abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea. Meanwhile, Otho was defeated in the First Battle of Bedriacum and committed suicide. When the news spread across the armies in Judaea and Ægyptus, they took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on July 1, 69. Vespasian accepted, and through negotiations by Titus joined forces with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, governor of Syria. A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself travelled to Alexandria, leaving Titus in charge to end the Jewish rebellion. By the end of 69 the forces of Vitellius had been beaten, and Vespasian was officially declared emperor by the Senate on December 21, thus ending the Year of the Four Emperors. Destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem , Francesco Hayez, oil on canvas, 1867. Depicting the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by the Roman army. Meanwhile the Jews had become embroiled in a civil conflict of their own, splitting the resistance in the city among two factions; the Sicarii led by Simon Bar Giora, and the Zealots led by John of Gischala. Titus seized the opportunity to begin the assault on Jerusalem. The Roman army was joined by the twelfth legion, which was previously defeated under Cestius Gallus, and from Alexandria Vespasian sent Tiberius Julius Alexander, governor of Ægyptus, to act as Titus's second in command. Titus surrounded the city, with three legions (Vth, XIIth and XVth) on the western side and one (Xth) on the Mount of Olives to the east.
He put pressure on the food and water supplies of the inhabitants by allowing pilgrims to enter the city to celebrate Passover, and then refusing them egress. Jewish raids continuously harassed the Roman army, one of which nearly resulted in Titus being captured. After attempts by Josephus to negotiate a surrender had failed, the Romans resumed hostilities and quickly breached the first and second walls of the city. To intimidate the resistance, Titus ordered deserters from the Jewish side to be crucified around the city wall.By this time the Jews had been thoroughly exhausted by famine, and when the weak third wall was breached bitter street fighting ensued. The Romans finally captured the Antonia Fortress and began a frontal assault on the gates of the Temple. According to Josephus, Titus had ordered that the Temple itself should not be destroyed, but while the fighting around the gates continued a soldier hurled a torch inside one of the windows, which quickly set the entire building ablaze. The later Christian chronicler Sulpicius Severus, possibly drawing on a lost portion of Tacitus' Histories , claims that Titus favoured destruction of the Temple.
Whatever the case, the Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus's soldiers proclaimed him imperator in honor of the victory. Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of which a majority were Jewish.
97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar Giora and John of Gischala. Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean. Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory, as he claimed there is "no merit in vanquishing people forsaken by their own God". Titus' triumph after the First Jewish-Roman War was celebrated with the Arch of Titus in Rome, which shows the treasures taken from the Temple in Jerusalem, including the Menorah and the Trumpets of jericho. Unable to sail to Italy during the winter, Titus celebrated elaborate games at Caesarea Maritima and Berytus, then travelled to Zeugma on the Euphrates, where he was presented with a crown by Vologases I of Parthia.
While visiting Antioch he confirmed the traditional rights of the Jews in that city. On his way to Alexandria, he stopped in Memphis to consecrate the sacred bull Apis. According to Suetonius, this caused consternation; the ceremony required Titus to wear a diadem, which the Romans associated with kingship, and the partisanship of Titus's legions had already led to fears that he might rebel against his father. Upon his arrival in the city in 71, Titus was awarded a triumph.
Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian he rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war. Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners, and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the Menorah and the Pentateuch. Simon Bar Giora was executed in the Forum, after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter. The triumphal Arch of Titus, which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorializes the victory of Titus. The Arch of Titus, located on the Via Sacra, just to the south-east of the Forum Romanum in Rome.
With Vespasian declared emperor, Titus and his brother Domitian likewise received the title of Caesar from the Senate. In addition to sharing tribunician power with his father, Titus held seven consulships during Vespasian's reign and acted as his secretary, appearing in the Senate on his behalf. More crucially, he was appointed commander of the Praetorian Guard, ensuring their loyalty to the emperor and further solidifying Vespasian's position as a legitimate ruler. In this capacity he achieved considerable notoriety in Rome for his violent actions, frequently ordering the execution of suspected traitors on the spot. When in 79, a plot by Aulus Caecina Alienus and Eprius Marcellus to overthrow Vespasian was uncovered, Titus invited Alienus to dinner and ordered him to be stabbed before he had even left the room.
During the Jewish wars, Titus had begun a love affair with Berenice, sister of Agrippa II. The Herodians had collaborated with the Romans during the rebellion, and Berenice herself had supported Vespasian upon his campaign to become emperor. The Romans were wary of the Eastern Queen and disapproved of their relationship.
When the pair was publicly denounced by Cynics in the theatre, Titus caved in to the pressure and sent her away, but his reputation further suffered. Vespasian died of an infection on June 23 79 AD, and was immediately succeeded by his son Titus. Because of his many alleged vices, many Romans feared at this point that he would be another Nero. Against these expectations, however, Titus proved to be an effective emperor and was well-loved by the population, who praised him highly when they found that he possessed the greatest virtues instead of vices. One of his first acts as an emperor was to publicly order a halt to trials based on treason charges, which had long plagued the principate.The law of treason, or maiestas law, was originally intended to prosecute those who had corruptly'impaired the people and majesty of Rome' by any revolutionary action. Under Augustus, however, this custom had been revived and applied to cover slander or libellous writings as well, eventually leading to a long cycle of trials and executions under such emperors as Tiberius, Caligula and Nero, spawning entire networks of informers that terrorized Rome's political system for decades. Titus put an end to this practice, against himself or anyone else, declaring. It is impossible for me to be insulted or abused in any way. For I do naught that deserves censure, and I care not for what is reported falsely. As for the emperors who are dead and gone, they will avenge themselves in case anyone does them a wrong, if in very truth they are demigods and possess any power. Consequently, no senators were put to death during his reign; he thus kept to his promise that he would assume the office of Pontifex Maximus "for the purpose of keeping his hands unstained". The informants were publicly punished and banished from the city, and Titus further prevented abuses by introducing legislation that made it unlawful for persons to be tried under different laws for the same offense.
As emperor he became known for his generosity, and Suetonius states that upon realising he had brought no benefit to anyone during a whole day he remarked, Friends, I have lost a day. The 79 eruption of Mount Vesuvius completely destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum. Today plaster casts of actual victims found during excavations are on display in some of the ruins.
Although his administration was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, Titus faced a number of major disasters during his brief reign. On August 24, 79, barely two months after his accession, Mount Vesuvius erupted, resulting in the almost complete destruction of life and property in the cities and resort communities around the Bay of Naples. The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried under metres of stone and lava, killing thousands of citizens.
Additionally, he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year. During the second visit, in spring of AD 80, a fire broke out in Rome, burning large parts of the city for three days and three nights. Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the Great Fire of 64-crucially sparing the many districts of insulae-Cassius Dio records a long list of important public buildings that were destroyed, including Agrippa's Pantheon, the Temple of Jupiter, the Diribitorium, parts of Pompey's Theatre and the Saepta Julia among others. Once again, Titus personally compensated for the damaged regions.
According to Suetonius, a plague similarly struck during the fire. The nature of the disease, however, or the death toll are unknown. Meanwhile war had resumed in Britannia, where Gnaeus Julius Agricola pushed further into Caledonia and managed to establish several forts there. As a result of his actions, Titus received the title of Imperator for the fifteenth time.His reign also saw the rebellion led by Terentius Maximus, one of several false Neros who continued to appear throughout the 70s. Although Nero was primarily known as a universally hated tyrant-there is evidence that for much of his reign, he remained highly popular in the eastern provinces. Reports that Nero had in fact survived the assassination attempts were fueled by the vague circumstances surrounding his death and several prophecies foretelling his return. According to Cassius Dio, Terentius Maximus resembled Nero in voice and appearance and, like him, sang to the lyre.
Terentius established a following in Asia minor but was soon forced to flee beyond the Euphrates, taking refuge with the Parthians. In addition, sources state that Titus discovered that his brother Domitian was plotting against him but refused to have him killed or banished.
The Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum, was completed during the reign of Titus and inaugurated with spectacular games that lasted for 100 days. See Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre. Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, presently better known as the Colosseum, was begun in 70 under Vespasian and finally completed in 80 under Titus. In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the building was also conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the Jewish wars. The inaugural games lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, including gladiatorial combat, fights between wild animals (elephants and cranes), mock naval battles for which the theatre was flooded, horse races and chariot races.
During the games, wooden balls were dropped into the audience, inscribed with various prizes (clothing, gold, or even slaves), which could then be traded for the designated item. Adjacent to the amphitheatre, within the precinct of Nero's Golden House, Titus had also ordered the construction of a new public bath-house, which was to bear his name. Construction of this building was hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre.Practice of the imperial cult was revived by Titus, though apparently it met with some difficulty as Vespasian was not deified until six months after his death. To further honor and glorify the Flavian dynasty, foundations were laid for what would later become the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, which was finished by Domitian. At the closing of the games, Titus officially dedicated the amphitheatre and the baths, which was to be his final recorded act as an emperor. He set out for the Sabine territories but fell ill at the first posting station where he died of a fever, reportedly in the same farm-house as his father. Allegedly, the last words he uttered before passing away were: "I have made but one mistake". Titus had ruled the Roman Empire for just over two years, from the death of his father in 79 to his own on September 13 81. He was succeeded by Domitian, whose first act as emperor was to deify his brother. Historians have speculated on the exact nature of his death, and to which mistake Titus alluded in his final words. Philostratus writes that he was poisoned by Domitian with a sea hare, and that his death had been foretold to him by Apollonius of Tyana. Suetonius and Cassius Dio maintain he died of natural causes, but both accuse Domitian of having left the ailing Titus for dead. Consequently, Dio believes Titus's mistake refers to his failure to have his brother executed when he was found to be openly plotting against him. According to the Babylonian Talmud (Gittin 56b), an insect flew into Titus's nose and picked at his brain for seven years. He noticed that the sound of a blacksmith hammering caused the ensuing pain to abate, so he paid for blacksmiths to hammer nearby him; however, the effect wore off and the insect resumed its gnawing. When he died, they opened his skull and found the insect had grown to the size of a bird. The Talmud gives this as the cause of his death and interprets it as divine retribution for his wicked actions. Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor. All the surviving accounts from this period, many of them written by his own contemporaries, present a highly favourable view towards Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian. The Wars of the Jews offers a first-hand, eye-witness account on the Jewish rebellion and the character of Titus.
The neutrality of Josephus' writings has come into question however as he was heavily indebted to the Flavians. In 71, he arrived in Rome in the entourage of Titus, became a Roman citizen and took on the Roman nomen Flavius and praenomen Titus from his patrons. He received an annual pension and lived in the palace. It was while in Rome, and under Flavian patronage, that Josephus wrote all of his known works.
The War of the Jews is heavily slanted against the leaders of the revolt, portraying the rebellion as weak and unorganized, and even blaming the Jews for causing the war. The credibility of Josephus as a historian has subsequently come under fire.Another contemporary of Titus was Publius Cornelius Tacitus, who started his public career in 80 or 81 and credits the Flavian dynasty with his elevation. The Histories -his account of this period-was published during the reign of Trajan. Unfortunately only the first five books from this work have survived until the present day, with the text on Titus's and Domitian's reign entirely lost. Suetonius Tranquilius gives a short but highly favourable account on Titus's reign in The Lives of Twelve Caesars , emphasizing his military achievements and his generosity as Emperor, in short describing him as follows. Titus, of the same surname as his father, was the delight and darling of the human race; such surpassing ability had he, by nature, art, or good fortune, to win the affections of all men, and that, too, which is no easy task, while he was emperor.
Finally, Cassius Dio wrote his Roman History over a hundred years after the death of Titus. He shares a similar outlook as Suetonius, possibly even using the latter as a source, but is more reserved, noting. His satisfactory record may also have been due to the fact that he survived his accession but a very short time, for he was thus given no opportunity for wrongdoing. For he lived after this only two years, two months and twenty days - in addition to the thirty-nine years, five months and twenty-five days he had already lived at that time. In this respect, indeed, he is regarded as having equalled the long reign of Augustus, since it is maintained that Augustus would never have been loved had he lived a shorter time, nor Titus had he lived longer.
For Augustus, though at the outset he showed himself rather harsh because of the wars and the factional strife, was later able, in the course of time, to achieve a brilliant reputation for his kindly deeds; Titus, on the other hand, ruled with mildness and died at the height of his glory, whereas, if he had lived a long time, it might have been shown that he owes his present fame more to good fortune than to merit. Pliny the Elder, who later died during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, dedicated his Naturalis Historia to Titus. In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, in Jewish memory "Titus the Wicked" is remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of the Temple. For example, one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its destruction. The Triumph of Titus , by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1885).The composition suggests a love affair between Titus and Domitian's wife Domitia Longina (see below). The war in Judaea and the life of Titus, particularly his relationship with Berenice, have inspired writers and artists through the centuries. The bas-relief in the Arch of Titus has been influential in the depiction of the destruction of Jerusalem, with the Menorah frequently being used to symbolise the looting of the Second Temple. Bérénice , a play by Jean Racine (1670) which focuses on the love affair between Titus and Berenice. Tite et Bérénice , a play by Pierre Corneille which was in competition with Racine the same year, and concerns the same subject matter. La clemenza di Tito , an opera by Mozart, about a fictional romance between Emperor Titus and Vitellia, daughter of Vitellius.
The Josephus Trilogy , novels by Lion Feuchtwanger, about the life of Flavius Josephus and his relation with the Flavian dynasty. Der jüdische Krieg (Josephus), 1932. Die Söhne (The Jews of Rome), 1935.Der Tag wird kommen (The day will come , Josephus and the Emperor), 1942. The Marcus Didius Falco novels, which take place during the reign of Vespasian. The Roman Mysteries , a series of children's books which take place during the reign of Titus. The High School Latin textbook series Ecce Romani takes place during the reign of Titus. The Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus by Wilhelm von Kaulbach (1846).
Oil on canvas, 585 x 705 cm. An allegorical depiction of the destruction of Jerusalem, dramatically centered around the figure of Titus. The Destruction of the Temple at Jerusalem Nicolas Poussin (1637). Oil on canvas, 147 x 198,5 cm.
Depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by the Roman army led by Titus. The Destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem by Francesco Hayez (1867). Oil on canvas, 183 x 252 cm. Galleria d'Arte Moderna, Venice. Depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by the Roman army.The Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans Under the Command of Titus, A. 70 by David Roberts (1850). Oil on canvas, 136 x 197 cm. Depicts the burning and looting of Jerusalem by the Roman army under Titus. The Triumph of Titus and Vespasian by Giulio Romano (1540). Oil on wood, 170 x 120 cm. Depicts Titus and Vespasian as they ride into Rome on a triumphal chariot, preceded by a parade carrying spoils from the war in Judaea. The painting anachronistically features the Arch of Titus, which was not completed until the reign of Domitian. The Triumph of Titus by Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1885). This painting depicts the triumphal procession of Titus and his family. Alma-Tadema was known for his meticulous historical research on the ancient world. Vespasian, dressed as Pontifex Maximus, walks at the head of his family, followed by Domitian and his first wife Domitia Longina, who he had only recently married. Behind Domitian follows Titus, dressed in religious regalia. World-renowned expert numismatist, enthusiast, author and dealer in authentic ancient Greek, ancient Roman, ancient Byzantine, world coins & more. Ilya Zlobin is an independent individual who has a passion for coin collecting, research and understanding the importance of the historical context and significance all coins and objects represent.
Send me a message about this and I can update your invoice should you want this method. Getting your order to you, quickly and securely is a top priority and is taken seriously here. Great care is taken in packaging and mailing every item securely and quickly.
What is a certificate of authenticity and what guarantees do you give that the item is authentic? You will be very happy with what you get with the COA; a professional presentation of the coin, with all of the relevant information and a picture of the coin you saw in the listing. Additionally, the coin is inside it's own protective coin flip (holder), with a 2x2 inch description of the coin matching the individual number on the COA. Whether your goal is to collect or give the item as a gift, coins presented like this could be more prized and valued higher than items that were not given such care and attention to. When should I leave feedback?Please don't leave any negative feedbacks, as it happens sometimes that people rush to leave feedback before letting sufficient time for their order to arrive. The matter of fact is that any issues can be resolved, as reputation is most important to me. My goal is to provide superior products and quality of service. How and where do I learn more about collecting ancient coins? Visit the Guide on How to Use My Store. For on an overview about using my store, with additional information and links to all other parts of my store which may include educational information on topics you are looking for. The item "TITUS Genuine Ancient 80AD Silver Roman Coin for MT VESUVIUS POMPEII NGC i81411" is in sale since Tuesday, November 19, 2019. This item is in the category "Coins & Paper Money\Coins\ Ancient\Roman\ Imperial (27 BC-476 AD)". The seller is "highrating_lowprice" and is located in Rego Park, New York. This item can be shipped worldwide. | 6,805 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dutchess Day School third grade teacher Lisa Stewart was reading a book about Ellis Island with a group of her students one day, as part of their study of immigration and American history. Soon, the students had devised a plan to create Ellis Island right in their classroom and invite the second and fourth graders to participate in the re-enactment as hopeful immigrants.
The Ellis Island research began in earnest, all while the children were in rehearsal for their play, a musical called We Come from Everywhere, which also focused on immigration and the American melting pot. Their fascination with Ellis Island, which at one period in time was a doorway into the country for so many families, was wrapped up in both their academic studies and their personal stories. In preparing for their play, as well as their recreation of Ellis Island, the third graders also studied their own family histories of immigration and developed a strong understanding of the huge range of cultures and ethnicities represented in the country they call home.
On March 16, the day after their play was performed for the whole school and parents, the third graders were at their stations in their own recreation of Ellis Island in their classroom, waiting the first people to “land” on their “shores.” Basing their Ellis Island experiential stations on the system in place at the original Ellis Island during the peak era of immigration, the student “immigrants” were expected to pass certain medical and vision tests, answer a long list of questions, and get their paperwork stamped in order to continue.
Because the staircase at Ellis Island became a place for immigrants to be observed for infirmities such as limps or breathing problems, the five steps leading to the third grade classroom were the first “test” people had to take. They then proceeded to the medical station, took a vision test created by the students, completed puzzles as a “brain test” of mental acuity, and were asked to interpret a photograph.
In doing their research, the students had access to copies of original documents such as passenger manifests, passports, and a variety of written documents detailing tests and processes used by the Ellis Island staff. The third graders created all their own documentation for their Ellis Island reenactment using a typewriter, as they said using a computer would not have been historically accurate. They also created passports that they handed to visitors, and inside each could be found the list of required stations where hopeful immigrants had to receive a stamp in order for them to proceed to the next station and, eventually, be approved for entry.
Some visitors were sent to medical quarantine, and provided with a diagnosis. While the majority of visitors that day were eventually “approved,” some were not – again, the young scholars wished to be historically accurate. Mrs. Stewart reports that “the students were so excited by this project that they initiated largely on their own, and so particular about their research and historical accuracy – within reason – that the second and fourth graders who visited remained completely in character and took the re-enactment very seriously. There was a lot of learning happening and everyone had a great time, too.”
Dutchess Day School is an elementary and middle school in Millbrook, NY, that provides a strong academic foundation, values children’s natural curiosity, and fosters an enduring enthusiasm for learning. To learn more visit DutchessDay.org online. | <urn:uuid:85d6e09a-5be1-4f9d-85e9-9cb0461c59e4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pawlingrecord.org/single-post/2018/05/11/Third-Graders-at-Dutchess-Day-School-Recreate-Ellis-Island | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00396.warc.gz | en | 0.989867 | 707 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.43594497442... | 2 | Dutchess Day School third grade teacher Lisa Stewart was reading a book about Ellis Island with a group of her students one day, as part of their study of immigration and American history. Soon, the students had devised a plan to create Ellis Island right in their classroom and invite the second and fourth graders to participate in the re-enactment as hopeful immigrants.
The Ellis Island research began in earnest, all while the children were in rehearsal for their play, a musical called We Come from Everywhere, which also focused on immigration and the American melting pot. Their fascination with Ellis Island, which at one period in time was a doorway into the country for so many families, was wrapped up in both their academic studies and their personal stories. In preparing for their play, as well as their recreation of Ellis Island, the third graders also studied their own family histories of immigration and developed a strong understanding of the huge range of cultures and ethnicities represented in the country they call home.
On March 16, the day after their play was performed for the whole school and parents, the third graders were at their stations in their own recreation of Ellis Island in their classroom, waiting the first people to “land” on their “shores.” Basing their Ellis Island experiential stations on the system in place at the original Ellis Island during the peak era of immigration, the student “immigrants” were expected to pass certain medical and vision tests, answer a long list of questions, and get their paperwork stamped in order to continue.
Because the staircase at Ellis Island became a place for immigrants to be observed for infirmities such as limps or breathing problems, the five steps leading to the third grade classroom were the first “test” people had to take. They then proceeded to the medical station, took a vision test created by the students, completed puzzles as a “brain test” of mental acuity, and were asked to interpret a photograph.
In doing their research, the students had access to copies of original documents such as passenger manifests, passports, and a variety of written documents detailing tests and processes used by the Ellis Island staff. The third graders created all their own documentation for their Ellis Island reenactment using a typewriter, as they said using a computer would not have been historically accurate. They also created passports that they handed to visitors, and inside each could be found the list of required stations where hopeful immigrants had to receive a stamp in order for them to proceed to the next station and, eventually, be approved for entry.
Some visitors were sent to medical quarantine, and provided with a diagnosis. While the majority of visitors that day were eventually “approved,” some were not – again, the young scholars wished to be historically accurate. Mrs. Stewart reports that “the students were so excited by this project that they initiated largely on their own, and so particular about their research and historical accuracy – within reason – that the second and fourth graders who visited remained completely in character and took the re-enactment very seriously. There was a lot of learning happening and everyone had a great time, too.”
Dutchess Day School is an elementary and middle school in Millbrook, NY, that provides a strong academic foundation, values children’s natural curiosity, and fosters an enduring enthusiasm for learning. To learn more visit DutchessDay.org online. | 677 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Plagues, Fires and Natural Disasters
St Louis has seen its fair share of disasters. Earthquakes, tornados, epidemics and fires. Some caused by the carelessness of its people and others by the mighty power of nature.
New Madrid Earthquake
The most severe of several New Madrid Earthquakes that occurred in the winter of 1811 and 1812 occurred on February 7, 1812. It is believed that the magnitude of this quake was between 7.4 - 8.0. The earthquake was felt as far away as Washington DC where church bells were said to have rung. At the epicenter of the quake in New Madrid Missouri, the town was completely destroyed and the Mississippi River was said to temporarily have run backwards because of the upward thrusting of the riverbed that created a temporary dam as well as multiple waterfalls. The quake was felt in St. Louis as well and many houses were severely damaged and their chimneys were toppled.
Great Fire of 1849
Another catastrophe for the residents of St. Louis occurred on May 7, 1849. The Great Fire of 1849 began as a small fire when one steamboat, moored along the St. Louis riverfront, caught fire. The fire spread to the other steamboats also moored along the levee and then jumped to the merchandise on the docks and the warehouses lining the riverfront. Firemen worked for 11 hours and eventually had to use gunpowder to blow up 6 buildings in front of the fire to stop its spread. When it finally ended, it had destroyed almost 15 city blocks, much of the river front's commercial district, many tons of merchandise and more than 20 steamboats. Three people lost their lives, one being a fireman who was killed while spreading the gun powder in the last building to be blown up.
Cholera Epidemic of 1849
The embers of the Great Fire had barely cooled when the Cholera Epidemic of 1849 peaked during that summer and killed almost 10% of the population of St Louis. Cholera was a relatively new disease and no one knew how it was spread or how to treat it. The first deaths from the disease were in January of 1849 and it was thought that a large influx of newly arriving German immigrants had brought the disease to St. Louis. Sanitation was extremely poor in St. Louis. With no sewer system, human waste and garbage ran right into the wells and drinking water which caused the rapid spread of the disease. It was eventually discovered that the polluted drinking water was the cause of the disease. By the end July of 1849, 4,547 cholera victims had been buried, many in the newly opened Bellefontaine Cemetery.
These two catastrophes, the fire and cholera epidemic, brought about permanent changes in St. Louis. Building standards were instituted emphasizing fireproof building materials and the streets were widened to 60 feet, all to help reduce the chance of a fire spreading. A professional fire department was also created. Sewer systems were built to keep raw sewage out of wells and the rivers. Chouteau Pond, which had become a cesspool, was drained. The practice of quarantines were mandated when it was deemed necessary.
Tornado of 1896
On May 27, 1896, a tornado came through St. Louis city and then continued on to East S.t Louis destroying or severely damaging everything in its mile wide continuous path and left over 250 confirmed dead and approximately 185 people missing. The tornado first touched ground near the St. Louis City Hospital at Lafayette and 14th and almost completely destroyed the buildings there. It continued to zigzag to Lafayette Park, uprooting the trees in the park and damaging or destroying the stately homes that surrounded the park. It then moved on to Soulard, then to the levee and crossed over the Mississippi River on to East St. Louis. In the 15 minutes of the tornado's rampage, 8,800 buildings were either damaged or completely destroyed. Steamboats were sunk along the river banks, railroad cars knocked off their tracks, power plants destroyed, churches demolished. Estimates of the damage put it over $10,000,000. At the time, it was said to have been the costliest and 3rd deadliest tornado in US history.
Photo Gallery for Plagues, Fires and Natural Disasters - click thumbnails
Events in St Louis History
St Louis Missouri Real Estate For Sale
Condos For Sale: 1019
New Construction For Sale: 631
Commercial For Sale: 2304
Acreage For Sale: 1750
Multi-Family 5+ For Sale: 96
Multi-Family 2-4 For Sale: 434
Lots For Sale: 4447
Total Properties For Sale: 24144 | <urn:uuid:78e081ce-5064-45d5-b139-ca54ee4f331b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aboutstlouis.com/local/history/plagues-fires-tornadoes-earthquakes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00163.warc.gz | en | 0.982912 | 973 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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-0.0302429... | 1 | Plagues, Fires and Natural Disasters
St Louis has seen its fair share of disasters. Earthquakes, tornados, epidemics and fires. Some caused by the carelessness of its people and others by the mighty power of nature.
New Madrid Earthquake
The most severe of several New Madrid Earthquakes that occurred in the winter of 1811 and 1812 occurred on February 7, 1812. It is believed that the magnitude of this quake was between 7.4 - 8.0. The earthquake was felt as far away as Washington DC where church bells were said to have rung. At the epicenter of the quake in New Madrid Missouri, the town was completely destroyed and the Mississippi River was said to temporarily have run backwards because of the upward thrusting of the riverbed that created a temporary dam as well as multiple waterfalls. The quake was felt in St. Louis as well and many houses were severely damaged and their chimneys were toppled.
Great Fire of 1849
Another catastrophe for the residents of St. Louis occurred on May 7, 1849. The Great Fire of 1849 began as a small fire when one steamboat, moored along the St. Louis riverfront, caught fire. The fire spread to the other steamboats also moored along the levee and then jumped to the merchandise on the docks and the warehouses lining the riverfront. Firemen worked for 11 hours and eventually had to use gunpowder to blow up 6 buildings in front of the fire to stop its spread. When it finally ended, it had destroyed almost 15 city blocks, much of the river front's commercial district, many tons of merchandise and more than 20 steamboats. Three people lost their lives, one being a fireman who was killed while spreading the gun powder in the last building to be blown up.
Cholera Epidemic of 1849
The embers of the Great Fire had barely cooled when the Cholera Epidemic of 1849 peaked during that summer and killed almost 10% of the population of St Louis. Cholera was a relatively new disease and no one knew how it was spread or how to treat it. The first deaths from the disease were in January of 1849 and it was thought that a large influx of newly arriving German immigrants had brought the disease to St. Louis. Sanitation was extremely poor in St. Louis. With no sewer system, human waste and garbage ran right into the wells and drinking water which caused the rapid spread of the disease. It was eventually discovered that the polluted drinking water was the cause of the disease. By the end July of 1849, 4,547 cholera victims had been buried, many in the newly opened Bellefontaine Cemetery.
These two catastrophes, the fire and cholera epidemic, brought about permanent changes in St. Louis. Building standards were instituted emphasizing fireproof building materials and the streets were widened to 60 feet, all to help reduce the chance of a fire spreading. A professional fire department was also created. Sewer systems were built to keep raw sewage out of wells and the rivers. Chouteau Pond, which had become a cesspool, was drained. The practice of quarantines were mandated when it was deemed necessary.
Tornado of 1896
On May 27, 1896, a tornado came through St. Louis city and then continued on to East S.t Louis destroying or severely damaging everything in its mile wide continuous path and left over 250 confirmed dead and approximately 185 people missing. The tornado first touched ground near the St. Louis City Hospital at Lafayette and 14th and almost completely destroyed the buildings there. It continued to zigzag to Lafayette Park, uprooting the trees in the park and damaging or destroying the stately homes that surrounded the park. It then moved on to Soulard, then to the levee and crossed over the Mississippi River on to East St. Louis. In the 15 minutes of the tornado's rampage, 8,800 buildings were either damaged or completely destroyed. Steamboats were sunk along the river banks, railroad cars knocked off their tracks, power plants destroyed, churches demolished. Estimates of the damage put it over $10,000,000. At the time, it was said to have been the costliest and 3rd deadliest tornado in US history.
Photo Gallery for Plagues, Fires and Natural Disasters - click thumbnails
Events in St Louis History
St Louis Missouri Real Estate For Sale
Condos For Sale: 1019
New Construction For Sale: 631
Commercial For Sale: 2304
Acreage For Sale: 1750
Multi-Family 5+ For Sale: 96
Multi-Family 2-4 For Sale: 434
Lots For Sale: 4447
Total Properties For Sale: 24144 | 1,065 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Socrates (470-399 BC)
Socrates was born to a poor Athenian family in 470 BC He spent most of
his time teaching others. One of his pupils was Plato. Socrates was a believer in
absolute truth rather than relative truth. His main interest was the process by
which people learned how to think for themselves.
He would usually talk to whoever would take the time to listen. He asked
many questions and criticized answers. His style of conversation has been given the
name Socratic dialogue. Socrates would often ask students questions without giving
them answers. When the students did give answers, he opposed them with clear
logical arguments. This method forced his students to defend their statements and
to clarify their thinking.
Socrates was the wisest philosopher of his time. He was one of three great
teachers of ancient Greece. Socrates was short and fat, with a snub nose and wide
mouth. Despite his ugly appearance, many said he was a very moral teacher and a
pleasant man to be around. Socrates married a lady named Xanthippe. She was
notorious for her sharp tongue and quick temper.
The Athenian mob and its self-serving leaders did not appreciate Socrates
and his teachings. In 399 BC, they accused him of “corrupting the young” and of
“not worshipping the gods worshipped by the state.” These men took Socrates to
trial and brought him up on charges. Socrates argued in his own defense that a
person who knew what was right would always do what was right. “A man who is
good for anything ought not to calculate the chance of living or dying; he ought only
to consider whether . . . he is doing right or wrong.”
The jury of citizens found him guilty and sentenced him to death by drinking
hemlock. Socrates did not ask for a lesser penalty and was sentenced to death. He
lived his life under the laws of his polis. He obeyed them his whole life and was not
going to change his ways in court. Socrates drank the poisonous hemlock juice and
died quietly among his grieving followers. However, before he drank the juice, he
said some parting comments of which Plato recorded. “The hour of departure has
Socrates (470-399 BC)
Socrates was born to a poor Athenian... | <urn:uuid:5a17723f-a670-4d6a-b07a-9ee34495d7a1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/socrates-10 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00435.warc.gz | en | 0.992541 | 498 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.24784497916... | 1 | Socrates (470-399 BC)
Socrates was born to a poor Athenian family in 470 BC He spent most of
his time teaching others. One of his pupils was Plato. Socrates was a believer in
absolute truth rather than relative truth. His main interest was the process by
which people learned how to think for themselves.
He would usually talk to whoever would take the time to listen. He asked
many questions and criticized answers. His style of conversation has been given the
name Socratic dialogue. Socrates would often ask students questions without giving
them answers. When the students did give answers, he opposed them with clear
logical arguments. This method forced his students to defend their statements and
to clarify their thinking.
Socrates was the wisest philosopher of his time. He was one of three great
teachers of ancient Greece. Socrates was short and fat, with a snub nose and wide
mouth. Despite his ugly appearance, many said he was a very moral teacher and a
pleasant man to be around. Socrates married a lady named Xanthippe. She was
notorious for her sharp tongue and quick temper.
The Athenian mob and its self-serving leaders did not appreciate Socrates
and his teachings. In 399 BC, they accused him of “corrupting the young” and of
“not worshipping the gods worshipped by the state.” These men took Socrates to
trial and brought him up on charges. Socrates argued in his own defense that a
person who knew what was right would always do what was right. “A man who is
good for anything ought not to calculate the chance of living or dying; he ought only
to consider whether . . . he is doing right or wrong.”
The jury of citizens found him guilty and sentenced him to death by drinking
hemlock. Socrates did not ask for a lesser penalty and was sentenced to death. He
lived his life under the laws of his polis. He obeyed them his whole life and was not
going to change his ways in court. Socrates drank the poisonous hemlock juice and
died quietly among his grieving followers. However, before he drank the juice, he
said some parting comments of which Plato recorded. “The hour of departure has
Socrates (470-399 BC)
Socrates was born to a poor Athenian... | 503 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This term, the Year 3/4s have been using the Lego WeDo kits to build and code miniature space rover robots. The students worked in pairs for the first few lessons to learn the basics of the program, then later in the term worked in teams of two or three people to create their robot.
The finished products showed remarkable creativity and every robot moved in different ways. Here are photos of some of the robots, the code that went with them, and the student comments as they reflected on their work:
We have learned to code robots to move forwards, backwards and use sensors as well (Ned).
A problem we had to solve was when the wheels were moving but then it would stop because it had no grip (Gus).
We had to double-check the instructions that it sent us – sometimes the program would tell us to the wrong robot to build. (Liam)
When we started, we made the ‘walk’ robot but it went backwards. So we had to add the wheels on to fix it. (Isaac)
Something we would change next time would be trying to have more time to make the robot because it was hard to think and add all the things we wanted, then also code to see if it worked. (Paige)
A problem we had to overcome was when we didn’t have that much time to program all that we wanted on our robot (Will M)
Something I could teach another person now would be how to code and make the sensors work (Alex).
Our team worked well when we took it in turns (Brigitte).
The robots would be useful in real life when we need something done that we can’t do (Will M).
I helped others when I showed them how to build and code the robot (Albie).
Something that made me proud was when the robot was working and it could start to move. (Alex)
Our team worked well when we found a way to make everyone included. Some of us were really strong with coding, and some of us were really strong with building (Emer)
We were able to be creative by putting two different types of robots together, like sweep and drive (Will).
I would love to learn more about coding and how to code different things. (Matt)
I was able to help my team when I built the robot. Then we wanted to add extra stuff on like a helicopter but we ran out of time. (Kai)
Someone in my team helped me to code (Mary).
Someone in my team helped me to be able to place the pieces in the correct spot (Matt).
Our goal was to make a robot and we managed to achieve our goal (Ted).
One of the most fun parts was when did coding and made the robots out of Lego (Harvey).
Something that got in the way of achieving my goals was that we didn’t have enough time (Logan).
Something we would change next time would be to include everyone’s designs (Maggie). | <urn:uuid:06ecbf34-66d6-4e16-89d1-7af82079a81d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://middle3.global2.vic.edu.au/2018/12/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00089.warc.gz | en | 0.987219 | 630 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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The finished products showed remarkable creativity and every robot moved in different ways. Here are photos of some of the robots, the code that went with them, and the student comments as they reflected on their work:
We have learned to code robots to move forwards, backwards and use sensors as well (Ned).
A problem we had to solve was when the wheels were moving but then it would stop because it had no grip (Gus).
We had to double-check the instructions that it sent us – sometimes the program would tell us to the wrong robot to build. (Liam)
When we started, we made the ‘walk’ robot but it went backwards. So we had to add the wheels on to fix it. (Isaac)
Something we would change next time would be trying to have more time to make the robot because it was hard to think and add all the things we wanted, then also code to see if it worked. (Paige)
A problem we had to overcome was when we didn’t have that much time to program all that we wanted on our robot (Will M)
Something I could teach another person now would be how to code and make the sensors work (Alex).
Our team worked well when we took it in turns (Brigitte).
The robots would be useful in real life when we need something done that we can’t do (Will M).
I helped others when I showed them how to build and code the robot (Albie).
Something that made me proud was when the robot was working and it could start to move. (Alex)
Our team worked well when we found a way to make everyone included. Some of us were really strong with coding, and some of us were really strong with building (Emer)
We were able to be creative by putting two different types of robots together, like sweep and drive (Will).
I would love to learn more about coding and how to code different things. (Matt)
I was able to help my team when I built the robot. Then we wanted to add extra stuff on like a helicopter but we ran out of time. (Kai)
Someone in my team helped me to code (Mary).
Someone in my team helped me to be able to place the pieces in the correct spot (Matt).
Our goal was to make a robot and we managed to achieve our goal (Ted).
One of the most fun parts was when did coding and made the robots out of Lego (Harvey).
Something that got in the way of achieving my goals was that we didn’t have enough time (Logan).
Something we would change next time would be to include everyone’s designs (Maggie). | 598 | ENGLISH | 1 |
THE BAG OF NUTS.
Three boys were given a bag of nuts as a Christmas present, and it was
agreed that they should be divided in proportion to their ages, which
together amounted to 171/2 years. Now the bag contained 770 nuts, and
as often as Herbert took four Robert took three, and as often as Herbert
took six Christopher took seven. The puzzle is to find out how many nuts
each had, and what were the boys' respective ages.
It will be found that when Herbert takes twelve, Robert and Christopher
will take nine and fourteen respectively, and that they will have
together taken thirty-five nuts. As 35 is contained in 770 twenty-two
times, we have merely to multiply 12, 9, and 14 by 22 to discover that
Herbert's share was 264, Robert's 198, and Christopher's 308. Then, as
the total of their ages is 171/2 years or half the sum of 12, 9, and 14,
their respective ages must be 6, 41/2, and 7 years. | <urn:uuid:fee7fc89-844e-43c0-8720-24f92fcaeeaf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.mathpuzzle.ca/PuzzleAnswers/The-Bag-Of-Nuts.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00231.warc.gz | en | 0.980215 | 225 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.02080915495... | 2 | THE BAG OF NUTS.
Three boys were given a bag of nuts as a Christmas present, and it was
agreed that they should be divided in proportion to their ages, which
together amounted to 171/2 years. Now the bag contained 770 nuts, and
as often as Herbert took four Robert took three, and as often as Herbert
took six Christopher took seven. The puzzle is to find out how many nuts
each had, and what were the boys' respective ages.
It will be found that when Herbert takes twelve, Robert and Christopher
will take nine and fourteen respectively, and that they will have
together taken thirty-five nuts. As 35 is contained in 770 twenty-two
times, we have merely to multiply 12, 9, and 14 by 22 to discover that
Herbert's share was 264, Robert's 198, and Christopher's 308. Then, as
the total of their ages is 171/2 years or half the sum of 12, 9, and 14,
their respective ages must be 6, 41/2, and 7 years. | 260 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Discus is an ancient sport. It is mentioned by Homer in his poems, "Iliad" and "Odyssey", and later as a part of the pentathlon, at the ancient Olympic Games. We created for you a unique sculpture, inspired by the depictions of sports on black-figure vases, which is then placed on a greek black marble. The relief plaque is made of brass, plated in silver solution 999°.
Dimensions: 7cm x 11cm x 3,5cm
Every item is offered in gift packaging.
Order now your own copy or offer it as a business gift.
All prices include VAT.
All of our creations are handmade and are accompanied by a certificate of authenticity and a guarantee of our workshop.
Estimated delivery time: - Greece : 5 working days
- Europe : 7 - 10 working days
- Rest of world : 10 - 28 working days
The discus throw is a track and field event in which an athlete throws a heavy disc, called a discus, in an attempt to mark a farther distance than his competitors. The sport of discus throwing dates back to ancient Greece, where the sport was prized for its display of an athlete’s precision and coordination, combined with his physical strength. Discus was one of the earliest games played in the Olympiad, along with other similar sports, such as the javelin. In art, the sport was the subject of a number of well-known ancient Greek statues, such as the Discobolus.
Discus throwing emerged in ancient Greece around 708 B.C., when the sport was added to the 18th Olympiad and it was the first element in the pentathlon, which also included jumping, wrestling, running and javelin. Shaped like a flying saucer, the ancient Greeks made discuses from lead, bronze, iron or stone. The discuses were made in varying weights, depending on whether the competitions consisted of men or boys. Discus was one of the events that didn't have a connection to military weapons in war, but it had a reputation for being an instrument of accidental death in mythology.
The technique used to throw a discus at the ancient Olympics is much the same as it is today. Officials marked a legal throw with wooden pegs and measured the distance with rods. Little is known of the distances achieved in antiquity. However, the ancient technique of discus-throwing may have been rather different. There is no evidence for anything more than a three-quarter turn, rather than the two and a half turns used today, and this may be one factor making a direct comparison difficult.
It was traditional for a discus thrower at the Olympics to present his discus to sanctuary officials after having it inscribed and dedicated to a god. Unlike today's discus competitor who throws from within a circumscribed circle, the contestant in the ancient Olympics stood inside an area called the balbis, marked off by three lines. The thrower could not step over the lines to either side, or across the line in front of him. Within the balbis, he was permitted freedom, but if he stepped outside of any of the three lines while making his throw, he was immediately disqualified.
Ancient vases with depictions of ancient Olympic sports are exhibited at the National Archaeological Museum in Athens and at the Louvre Museum in Paris.
No posts found | <urn:uuid:ffd845b7-8410-47bf-b9b7-009a8192468a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.museummasters.gr/en/discus-olympic-games.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00142.warc.gz | en | 0.980668 | 699 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.288654327392... | 4 | Discus is an ancient sport. It is mentioned by Homer in his poems, "Iliad" and "Odyssey", and later as a part of the pentathlon, at the ancient Olympic Games. We created for you a unique sculpture, inspired by the depictions of sports on black-figure vases, which is then placed on a greek black marble. The relief plaque is made of brass, plated in silver solution 999°.
Dimensions: 7cm x 11cm x 3,5cm
Every item is offered in gift packaging.
Order now your own copy or offer it as a business gift.
All prices include VAT.
All of our creations are handmade and are accompanied by a certificate of authenticity and a guarantee of our workshop.
Estimated delivery time: - Greece : 5 working days
- Europe : 7 - 10 working days
- Rest of world : 10 - 28 working days
The discus throw is a track and field event in which an athlete throws a heavy disc, called a discus, in an attempt to mark a farther distance than his competitors. The sport of discus throwing dates back to ancient Greece, where the sport was prized for its display of an athlete’s precision and coordination, combined with his physical strength. Discus was one of the earliest games played in the Olympiad, along with other similar sports, such as the javelin. In art, the sport was the subject of a number of well-known ancient Greek statues, such as the Discobolus.
Discus throwing emerged in ancient Greece around 708 B.C., when the sport was added to the 18th Olympiad and it was the first element in the pentathlon, which also included jumping, wrestling, running and javelin. Shaped like a flying saucer, the ancient Greeks made discuses from lead, bronze, iron or stone. The discuses were made in varying weights, depending on whether the competitions consisted of men or boys. Discus was one of the events that didn't have a connection to military weapons in war, but it had a reputation for being an instrument of accidental death in mythology.
The technique used to throw a discus at the ancient Olympics is much the same as it is today. Officials marked a legal throw with wooden pegs and measured the distance with rods. Little is known of the distances achieved in antiquity. However, the ancient technique of discus-throwing may have been rather different. There is no evidence for anything more than a three-quarter turn, rather than the two and a half turns used today, and this may be one factor making a direct comparison difficult.
It was traditional for a discus thrower at the Olympics to present his discus to sanctuary officials after having it inscribed and dedicated to a god. Unlike today's discus competitor who throws from within a circumscribed circle, the contestant in the ancient Olympics stood inside an area called the balbis, marked off by three lines. The thrower could not step over the lines to either side, or across the line in front of him. Within the balbis, he was permitted freedom, but if he stepped outside of any of the three lines while making his throw, he was immediately disqualified.
Ancient vases with depictions of ancient Olympic sports are exhibited at the National Archaeological Museum in Athens and at the Louvre Museum in Paris.
No posts found | 700 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1742 Tom Bell was probably the most well known product of Harvard College in America. The entire nation knew how he dressed, what he looked like, where he traveled and how he lived. Because he was one of the most wanted criminals in the country.
Bell was born in 1713 to a ship owner and captain and his wife, Thomas and Joanna Bell. They lived in Boston’s north end and the family sent the precocious Thomas to Boston Latin School. He received a classical education and was pointed toward Harvard when, in 1729, his father died. The family found itself in debt, but it struggled to pay for Thomas to attend Harvard as planned.
Thom Bell entered the college in the fall of 1730, but by 1733 his college career would reach an unceremonious ending. Sanctioned for stealing letters and lying, the final straw came when he stole a chocolate cake from a fellow student. Far behind in his studies, the college had grown tired of his promises to reform and pitched him out in the street.
Hearing the news that Harvard expelled Bell, his creditors pounced on him for unpaid bills. They sued him and won judgments against him for unpaid debts, including 30 pounds owed to his tailor for silk suits. With his name dragged through the mud, Bell followed in his father’s footsteps and went to sea aboard a chip bound for England.
A Stroller is Born
For the next several years Bell would work at sea, returning to America from time to time. He gradually realized that his education and exposure to the wealthier classes at Harvard had not gone to waste. Bell could speak Latin and read Greek, which put his education streets ahead of most people in the colonies. He could pass himself off as a gentleman, and no one would suspect he wasn’t.
So Tom Bell simply became Francis Partridge Hutchinson or Thomas Wentworth Bell or Gilbert Burnet or John Rowland or William Bowdoin or whatever name suited him as he traveled up and down the colonies from New England to North Caolina. He became notorious as the Boston “Stroller” – a con man who strives to stay one step ahead of the law.
He was not terribly successful, however. In 1738 he was sentenced to be whipped in New York City for defrauding a merchant of 50 pounds. The next year in Philadelphia, he was spotted by a man from North Carolina whom Bell had robbed years earlier. That episode landed him in prison. But Bell also gained some expertise in breaking out of jail also – a skill that would serve him well.
Travels in Barbados
With his names and description widely circulating in North America, in 1739 Bell departed America for the Carribean. In Speightstown, Barbados he undertook one of his more notorious escapades. He had passed himself off as Gilbert Burnet, son of Massachusetts’ former governor.
A Jewish family invited the well-spoken governor’s son to a family wedding. But when Bell stole from the gifts at the wedding, the young men of the family beat him. This incensed the Christian population of Speightstown, and they retaliated by destroying the Jewish Synagogue in town and driving out the Jewish families.
Bell nearly escaped Barbados unscathed, but a merchant came forward and charged Bell with impersonating the brother of Lord Fairfax of Virginia and running up an extensive tab. Again Bell was sentenced to a public whipping, but he governor of the island suspended a second sentence to brand Bell with an R on each cheek.
Tom Bell Becomes Rev. Rowland
In 1741 Bell returned to America and made his way to Princeton, N.J. Here a local man stopped Bell in the street and inquired if he wasn’t the Rev. John Rowland, a Presbyterian minister arriving from New England to preach. Bell corrected the man, who still insisted he looked exactly like Rev. Rowland. This presented Tom Bell with a golden opportunity. He proceeded to the next town and introduced himself as the Rev. Rowland. A local family invited Bell/Rowland to their home and offered him a horse to accompany them to the nearby church, where he was to preach.
The grateful “minister” accepted the use of the horse. But after traveling a ways toward the church he announced that he had left his notes behind at the house. He would return to collect them, and he asked the family to ride ahead and explain the delay. Naturally, Bell ransacked the house for any valuables and rode off, stealing the family’s horse.
Horse theft was a serious crime in 1741. Unfortunately for the real Rev. Rowland, he was traveling in Pennsylvania at the time delivering fire and brimstone sermons during a tour of religious revival meetings. When Rev. Rowland crossed into New Jersey he was tossed in jail, accused of horse stealing. Rowland was eventually cleared of the charges, but the case was another prize for Tom Bell’s trophy case.
Tom Bell Author
By 1742 Bell had returned to New England, this time to Newport. But by now the list of victims that he had duped was a long one, and no sooner had he arrived in the city than he was thrown in jail, accused by a man he had swindled on a previous visit.
From jail in Newport, Bell issued a public plea for forgiveness. He pledged to reform and promised to write a memoir to help others avoid his criminal path. It was yet another con. By 1743 he had returned to Philadelphia and was thrown in jail again for theft. By now his name was notorious and newspapers from New Hampshire to Virginia carried warnings that Tom Bell might be traveling again, looking for his next victim.
Bell continued his crimes and his sentences got more severe. A Massachusetts court convicted him of theft and sentenced him to be whipped and sold into servitude. Yet Bell always managed to escape. In one case he joined the militia, probably in lieu of jail, but soon fled. A New Jersey court convicted him of counterfeiting. And later he was sentenced to death in Massachusetts. But the sentence was not carried out.
In between legal scrapes, Bell made a living as a school master or tutor. In 1752 he again announced, this time in Virginia and South Carolina, that he planned to publish “The Travels and Adventures of the Famous Tom Bell,” but he never did. Instead, Tom Bell returned to the Caribbean and took up piracy.
The final chapter of Bell’s life came in 1771 in Kingston, Jamaica. Bell had served as chief mate on a pirate ship that had attacked a Spanish schooner, robbing it of 14,000 dollars. Bell had been arrested and was convicted, along with the ship’s captain, and sentenced to hang. Tom Bell repented one last time and killed himself before he was scheduled for execution.
Thanks to Early Americans by Carl Bridenbaugh.
If you enjoyed this article, you might like: Stephen Burroughs Counterfeiter – A Revolutionary Success Story. | <urn:uuid:7a314c20-808e-4786-957a-afa7cae37259> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/notorious-tom-bell-minister-teacher-pirate-thief/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00056.warc.gz | en | 0.987234 | 1,458 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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-0.10487... | 5 | In 1742 Tom Bell was probably the most well known product of Harvard College in America. The entire nation knew how he dressed, what he looked like, where he traveled and how he lived. Because he was one of the most wanted criminals in the country.
Bell was born in 1713 to a ship owner and captain and his wife, Thomas and Joanna Bell. They lived in Boston’s north end and the family sent the precocious Thomas to Boston Latin School. He received a classical education and was pointed toward Harvard when, in 1729, his father died. The family found itself in debt, but it struggled to pay for Thomas to attend Harvard as planned.
Thom Bell entered the college in the fall of 1730, but by 1733 his college career would reach an unceremonious ending. Sanctioned for stealing letters and lying, the final straw came when he stole a chocolate cake from a fellow student. Far behind in his studies, the college had grown tired of his promises to reform and pitched him out in the street.
Hearing the news that Harvard expelled Bell, his creditors pounced on him for unpaid bills. They sued him and won judgments against him for unpaid debts, including 30 pounds owed to his tailor for silk suits. With his name dragged through the mud, Bell followed in his father’s footsteps and went to sea aboard a chip bound for England.
A Stroller is Born
For the next several years Bell would work at sea, returning to America from time to time. He gradually realized that his education and exposure to the wealthier classes at Harvard had not gone to waste. Bell could speak Latin and read Greek, which put his education streets ahead of most people in the colonies. He could pass himself off as a gentleman, and no one would suspect he wasn’t.
So Tom Bell simply became Francis Partridge Hutchinson or Thomas Wentworth Bell or Gilbert Burnet or John Rowland or William Bowdoin or whatever name suited him as he traveled up and down the colonies from New England to North Caolina. He became notorious as the Boston “Stroller” – a con man who strives to stay one step ahead of the law.
He was not terribly successful, however. In 1738 he was sentenced to be whipped in New York City for defrauding a merchant of 50 pounds. The next year in Philadelphia, he was spotted by a man from North Carolina whom Bell had robbed years earlier. That episode landed him in prison. But Bell also gained some expertise in breaking out of jail also – a skill that would serve him well.
Travels in Barbados
With his names and description widely circulating in North America, in 1739 Bell departed America for the Carribean. In Speightstown, Barbados he undertook one of his more notorious escapades. He had passed himself off as Gilbert Burnet, son of Massachusetts’ former governor.
A Jewish family invited the well-spoken governor’s son to a family wedding. But when Bell stole from the gifts at the wedding, the young men of the family beat him. This incensed the Christian population of Speightstown, and they retaliated by destroying the Jewish Synagogue in town and driving out the Jewish families.
Bell nearly escaped Barbados unscathed, but a merchant came forward and charged Bell with impersonating the brother of Lord Fairfax of Virginia and running up an extensive tab. Again Bell was sentenced to a public whipping, but he governor of the island suspended a second sentence to brand Bell with an R on each cheek.
Tom Bell Becomes Rev. Rowland
In 1741 Bell returned to America and made his way to Princeton, N.J. Here a local man stopped Bell in the street and inquired if he wasn’t the Rev. John Rowland, a Presbyterian minister arriving from New England to preach. Bell corrected the man, who still insisted he looked exactly like Rev. Rowland. This presented Tom Bell with a golden opportunity. He proceeded to the next town and introduced himself as the Rev. Rowland. A local family invited Bell/Rowland to their home and offered him a horse to accompany them to the nearby church, where he was to preach.
The grateful “minister” accepted the use of the horse. But after traveling a ways toward the church he announced that he had left his notes behind at the house. He would return to collect them, and he asked the family to ride ahead and explain the delay. Naturally, Bell ransacked the house for any valuables and rode off, stealing the family’s horse.
Horse theft was a serious crime in 1741. Unfortunately for the real Rev. Rowland, he was traveling in Pennsylvania at the time delivering fire and brimstone sermons during a tour of religious revival meetings. When Rev. Rowland crossed into New Jersey he was tossed in jail, accused of horse stealing. Rowland was eventually cleared of the charges, but the case was another prize for Tom Bell’s trophy case.
Tom Bell Author
By 1742 Bell had returned to New England, this time to Newport. But by now the list of victims that he had duped was a long one, and no sooner had he arrived in the city than he was thrown in jail, accused by a man he had swindled on a previous visit.
From jail in Newport, Bell issued a public plea for forgiveness. He pledged to reform and promised to write a memoir to help others avoid his criminal path. It was yet another con. By 1743 he had returned to Philadelphia and was thrown in jail again for theft. By now his name was notorious and newspapers from New Hampshire to Virginia carried warnings that Tom Bell might be traveling again, looking for his next victim.
Bell continued his crimes and his sentences got more severe. A Massachusetts court convicted him of theft and sentenced him to be whipped and sold into servitude. Yet Bell always managed to escape. In one case he joined the militia, probably in lieu of jail, but soon fled. A New Jersey court convicted him of counterfeiting. And later he was sentenced to death in Massachusetts. But the sentence was not carried out.
In between legal scrapes, Bell made a living as a school master or tutor. In 1752 he again announced, this time in Virginia and South Carolina, that he planned to publish “The Travels and Adventures of the Famous Tom Bell,” but he never did. Instead, Tom Bell returned to the Caribbean and took up piracy.
The final chapter of Bell’s life came in 1771 in Kingston, Jamaica. Bell had served as chief mate on a pirate ship that had attacked a Spanish schooner, robbing it of 14,000 dollars. Bell had been arrested and was convicted, along with the ship’s captain, and sentenced to hang. Tom Bell repented one last time and killed himself before he was scheduled for execution.
Thanks to Early Americans by Carl Bridenbaugh.
If you enjoyed this article, you might like: Stephen Burroughs Counterfeiter – A Revolutionary Success Story. | 1,464 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Human Remains found buried in walls of pre-Inca archaeological site
Archaeologists have discovered human remains buried inside the walls of a pre-Inca archaeological site, challenging the belief that the site was an administrative centre for the Wari culture. The Wari are not known for burying their dead in the walls of buildings, but this practice was in fact typical of the Huamachuco culture.
The discovery was made at the Wiracochapampa archaeological site , which is located 3,000 metres above sea level in the highlands of the northern La Libertad region of Peru. It was believed to have been built by the Wari people, a Middle Horizon civilization that flourished in the south-central Andes and coastal area of modern-day Peru, from about 500 to 1000 AD. This was based on the pottery remains and architectural structures, which resemble those belonging to the Wari. However, the latest finding now challenges this conclusion.
Archaeologists found the remains of three people within the stone walls of the Wiracochapampa site. It is believed that that when the individuals died they were buried in a separate place and later on their bones were relocated to within the building walls. There was a belief among the Huamachuco culture that placing human bones in the walls made the building sacred by creating a link between the worshipped ancestors and the people living in the building.
“For us it was a surprise to find [the remains] at Wiracochapampa, as this site has traditionally been considered typical of the Wari culture,” said archaeologist Victor Tufinio. Archaeologists will now have to re-evaluate what they have long believed to be true about Wiracochapampa.
The Wiracochapampa archaeological site was abandoned without being completed, as demonstrated by some unfinished walls and rooms that were never inhabited. | <urn:uuid:522f54b7-543f-48b1-a4fe-453dcf163c19> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/human-remains-found-buried-walls-pre-inca-archaeological-site-001209 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00153.warc.gz | en | 0.983889 | 389 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.8008450269699... | 13 | Human Remains found buried in walls of pre-Inca archaeological site
Archaeologists have discovered human remains buried inside the walls of a pre-Inca archaeological site, challenging the belief that the site was an administrative centre for the Wari culture. The Wari are not known for burying their dead in the walls of buildings, but this practice was in fact typical of the Huamachuco culture.
The discovery was made at the Wiracochapampa archaeological site , which is located 3,000 metres above sea level in the highlands of the northern La Libertad region of Peru. It was believed to have been built by the Wari people, a Middle Horizon civilization that flourished in the south-central Andes and coastal area of modern-day Peru, from about 500 to 1000 AD. This was based on the pottery remains and architectural structures, which resemble those belonging to the Wari. However, the latest finding now challenges this conclusion.
Archaeologists found the remains of three people within the stone walls of the Wiracochapampa site. It is believed that that when the individuals died they were buried in a separate place and later on their bones were relocated to within the building walls. There was a belief among the Huamachuco culture that placing human bones in the walls made the building sacred by creating a link between the worshipped ancestors and the people living in the building.
“For us it was a surprise to find [the remains] at Wiracochapampa, as this site has traditionally been considered typical of the Wari culture,” said archaeologist Victor Tufinio. Archaeologists will now have to re-evaluate what they have long believed to be true about Wiracochapampa.
The Wiracochapampa archaeological site was abandoned without being completed, as demonstrated by some unfinished walls and rooms that were never inhabited. | 383 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Christian-History.org does not receive any personally identifiable information from the search bar below.
The Western Great Schism began on September 20, 1378 with the election of Clement VII in Avignon, France. He was the second pope elected by the same college of cardinals in six months, and for the first time in history there were two "legitimate" claimants to be head of the church in Rome.
Before the Western Great Schism came a time sometimes called the Babylonian Captivity of the Church; a time when the pope, the bishop of Rome, ruled not from Rome but from Avignon.
In A.D. 1294 Benedetto Gaetani was elected and took the name of Pope Boniface VIII. Europe was in great conflict at the time. In Germany, Albrecht I, son of former German king Rudolph I, was trying to regain the throne from Adolf of Nassau. England and France were threatening each other in what would eventually become the Hundred Years War.
There was also conflict over the papal throne, which the powerful Colonna family of Italy had hoped to obtain.
Boniface VIII was a skilled and experienced player of power politics, however, and he went rapidly to work. He was able to overthrow the Colonna family and seize their lands by calling a crusade. He also obtained a favorable peace with Albrecht of Hapsburg, but he was not so fortunate in France.
Long, intense political battles that don't belong on this web site raged for almost a decade with Philip IV of France, and Philip proved to be the better politician. In the midst of a losing battle, Boniface resorted to his strongest weapon, excommunication.
Philip found out about this, however, and, using an alliance with Boniface's enemies in the Colonna family, sent a party in to kidnap the pope. (It appears the mafia was at work even in the 14th century!)
Their intention was to force the pope to resign. He refused, even at threat of death. So his captors sat him backwards on a horse and paraded him through his home town.
Boniface's political failures meant he had few defenders, even in his native Italy. The battle with Philip was over.
Boniface died not long after, and Philip, not wishing to continue fighting a pope, gathered French cardinals and elected Pope Clement V in Avignon in 1305. Clement, a political puppet, never set foot in Rome during his entire papacy.
His successors continued to reside in Avignon until Pope Gregory XI returned amidst great rejoicing in 1377, some 72 years later.
If you read the dates above, you realize that the return of the pope to Rome was not terribly successful.
Gregory XI died within a year of returning to Rome, and a religious, austere man, Pope Urban VI, was chosen in his place. He seemed so holy that there was hope for reformation in the clergy, especially with the pope having returned to Rome.
The problem was that Urban VI was … well, let's just say he was something less than shrewd.
He alienated his own court—consisting mostly of bishops of other cities— by calling them traitors to Christ for abandoning their bishopric (area of authority). He followed that with similar indiscretions until no one liked him at all.
Then, he committed a fatal political blunder. He decided to take on the French by appointing a vast number of Italian cardinals so the French cardinals would be outnumbered.
And he announced it before he did it.
Reports circulated that he had gone mad, and even the Italian bishops forsook him. The entire college of cardinals gathered in Avignon, declared that they'd been forced to elect Urban, and—only six months into Urban's reign—they elected Clement VII in his place. The Italian cardinals chose not to take part in the election, but they were there and did not complain.
Suddenly, there were two popes; both duly elected, and both legitimate successors to the throne of Peter by ecclesiastical rules.
The Western Great Schism had begun.
Clement chose to make peace using a method commonly employed by popes in medievel times. He gathered an army to kill or unseat his rival.
Europe was divided over which pope to back. Their decisions were almost purely partisan political ones. If you were for France, you supported Clement VII. If you were against France, you supported Urban VI.
No solution would be coming through politics or war.
In 1394, theologians at the Unversity of Paris suggested three solutions to the Western Great Schism:
Charles VI of France decided he liked option 1. Confident for some reason that he could get the pope in Rome to resign, he tried to persuade Pope Benedict XIII to resign as well.
Benedict wasn't interested, so Charles sent an army to lay seige to Avignon. Benedict, however, was able to hold out, and Charles never accomplished his goal.
The Western Great Schism went on 31 years—through four Roman popes and two in Avignon—before a general council was finally called in 1409. The council chose to depose both popes and elect another, Pope Alexander V.
Can you guess what happened?
Both of the popes in 1409, Benedict XIII of Avignon and Gregory XII of Rome, refused to accept the council's decision.
Now there were three popes!!!
Worse, the situation did not end quickly. Alexander V died within a year, and the council elected Pope John XXIII in his place.
Both Alexander and John had attempted to reign in Pisa, Rome being occupied by Gregory, but John was unable to remain there. He was forced to flee to Germany.
Thank God for Emperor Sigismund of Germany. He agreed to protect John XXIII only on condition that he agree to another general council.
Sigismund managed to assemble that council in 1414. They, like the previous council, rejected all the current popes, and they elected Pope Martin V.
Here's what happened to the other claimants.
My newest book, Rome's Audacious Claim, was released December 1! | <urn:uuid:0847a12e-bf86-4332-924c-c66fe4a81dac> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.christian-history.org/western-great-schism.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00083.warc.gz | en | 0.986417 | 1,300 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.232461288571357... | 1 | Christian-History.org does not receive any personally identifiable information from the search bar below.
The Western Great Schism began on September 20, 1378 with the election of Clement VII in Avignon, France. He was the second pope elected by the same college of cardinals in six months, and for the first time in history there were two "legitimate" claimants to be head of the church in Rome.
Before the Western Great Schism came a time sometimes called the Babylonian Captivity of the Church; a time when the pope, the bishop of Rome, ruled not from Rome but from Avignon.
In A.D. 1294 Benedetto Gaetani was elected and took the name of Pope Boniface VIII. Europe was in great conflict at the time. In Germany, Albrecht I, son of former German king Rudolph I, was trying to regain the throne from Adolf of Nassau. England and France were threatening each other in what would eventually become the Hundred Years War.
There was also conflict over the papal throne, which the powerful Colonna family of Italy had hoped to obtain.
Boniface VIII was a skilled and experienced player of power politics, however, and he went rapidly to work. He was able to overthrow the Colonna family and seize their lands by calling a crusade. He also obtained a favorable peace with Albrecht of Hapsburg, but he was not so fortunate in France.
Long, intense political battles that don't belong on this web site raged for almost a decade with Philip IV of France, and Philip proved to be the better politician. In the midst of a losing battle, Boniface resorted to his strongest weapon, excommunication.
Philip found out about this, however, and, using an alliance with Boniface's enemies in the Colonna family, sent a party in to kidnap the pope. (It appears the mafia was at work even in the 14th century!)
Their intention was to force the pope to resign. He refused, even at threat of death. So his captors sat him backwards on a horse and paraded him through his home town.
Boniface's political failures meant he had few defenders, even in his native Italy. The battle with Philip was over.
Boniface died not long after, and Philip, not wishing to continue fighting a pope, gathered French cardinals and elected Pope Clement V in Avignon in 1305. Clement, a political puppet, never set foot in Rome during his entire papacy.
His successors continued to reside in Avignon until Pope Gregory XI returned amidst great rejoicing in 1377, some 72 years later.
If you read the dates above, you realize that the return of the pope to Rome was not terribly successful.
Gregory XI died within a year of returning to Rome, and a religious, austere man, Pope Urban VI, was chosen in his place. He seemed so holy that there was hope for reformation in the clergy, especially with the pope having returned to Rome.
The problem was that Urban VI was … well, let's just say he was something less than shrewd.
He alienated his own court—consisting mostly of bishops of other cities— by calling them traitors to Christ for abandoning their bishopric (area of authority). He followed that with similar indiscretions until no one liked him at all.
Then, he committed a fatal political blunder. He decided to take on the French by appointing a vast number of Italian cardinals so the French cardinals would be outnumbered.
And he announced it before he did it.
Reports circulated that he had gone mad, and even the Italian bishops forsook him. The entire college of cardinals gathered in Avignon, declared that they'd been forced to elect Urban, and—only six months into Urban's reign—they elected Clement VII in his place. The Italian cardinals chose not to take part in the election, but they were there and did not complain.
Suddenly, there were two popes; both duly elected, and both legitimate successors to the throne of Peter by ecclesiastical rules.
The Western Great Schism had begun.
Clement chose to make peace using a method commonly employed by popes in medievel times. He gathered an army to kill or unseat his rival.
Europe was divided over which pope to back. Their decisions were almost purely partisan political ones. If you were for France, you supported Clement VII. If you were against France, you supported Urban VI.
No solution would be coming through politics or war.
In 1394, theologians at the Unversity of Paris suggested three solutions to the Western Great Schism:
Charles VI of France decided he liked option 1. Confident for some reason that he could get the pope in Rome to resign, he tried to persuade Pope Benedict XIII to resign as well.
Benedict wasn't interested, so Charles sent an army to lay seige to Avignon. Benedict, however, was able to hold out, and Charles never accomplished his goal.
The Western Great Schism went on 31 years—through four Roman popes and two in Avignon—before a general council was finally called in 1409. The council chose to depose both popes and elect another, Pope Alexander V.
Can you guess what happened?
Both of the popes in 1409, Benedict XIII of Avignon and Gregory XII of Rome, refused to accept the council's decision.
Now there were three popes!!!
Worse, the situation did not end quickly. Alexander V died within a year, and the council elected Pope John XXIII in his place.
Both Alexander and John had attempted to reign in Pisa, Rome being occupied by Gregory, but John was unable to remain there. He was forced to flee to Germany.
Thank God for Emperor Sigismund of Germany. He agreed to protect John XXIII only on condition that he agree to another general council.
Sigismund managed to assemble that council in 1414. They, like the previous council, rejected all the current popes, and they elected Pope Martin V.
Here's what happened to the other claimants.
My newest book, Rome's Audacious Claim, was released December 1! | 1,292 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The overall climax of this play is brilliantly displayed because the realism of the discrimination and prejudice towards Jews helps us to develop a sympathetic feeling for them. Shakespeare has included the historical and incorporated the biblical references in the speeches of this play. Examples such as the story of Jacob and his sheep from the Book of Genesis Chapter 30 quoted by Shylock to justify his way of doing business.
Typically, all of the Jews in Europe experienced a lot of discrimination from Christians during the Middle Ages because of their different appearances, lifestyles, laws and their religion. Shakespeare wrote this play for the Christian audience during the Elizabethan times. They were very prejudiced towards religions that were not pure Christian and would have hated the Jews because they had supposedly “murdered” Jesus Christ. Additionally, in reference to the mythological story of the “Wondering Jew” who was condemned to an everlasting life of misery, had developed an evil character who was believed to kidnap and murder Christian children.Order now
This is a personification of exile and Christian condemnation of the Jewish people. Because of this Christians would also have a sense of xenophobia because they feared that Jews would take their land and their wealth from them. During the sixteenth century, the victimised Jews would be forced to live in dreaded isolated areas called “ghettos” by anti-Semitic leaders such as Martin Luther who was “possessed by the devil” said the Vatican chief’s exorcist. The ghettos were often densely populated and many Jews died of hunger and disease because of poverty and social restrictions.
Throughout history, many rulers, empires and nations have oppressed their Jewish populations or have attempted to eradicate them entirely such as the Holocaust during World War II when Hitler forced the Jews into concentration camps and executed them one by one.
Ultimately, the contents of this play are comedy, love and betrayal, meaning that it fulfils the audience at the time by condemning and/or serving justice to the evil characters (Shylock is the villain in this case) and the good characters are successful (which in this case is Antonio) and the audiences’ reaction to Shylock would be stereotypical and would have classified him as just another Jew.
Shylock is first introduced in the third scene of act one. His appearance was hardly noticeable and his entrance was slightly delayed. As a result of this there was great anticipation leading up to his eventual appearance.
His first confrontation was with Bassanio who arranges an agreement in which he can borrow some money from Shylock. Shylock’s attitude towards Bassanio is sincere but cautious. He says he will do business with him and negotiate with him but he will not eat with him. He declines the invitation due to the fact that he hates Christians and he cannot eat pork because of his religion.
Bassanio: If it please you to dine with us –
Shylock: …I will buy with you, sell with you, talk with you, walk with you, and so following; but I will not eat with you, drink with you, nor pray with you…
Here, Shylock explains that he cannot participate in any activities with a Christian that concerns breaking his religion’s boundaries.
Shylock is later confronted by Antonio who he has had past dealings of discrimination and business with before, as a result their emotions are sharply concealed with one another. In the play, Shylock speaks to the audience aside and insults Antonio.
Shylock : …How like a fawning publican he looks!
I hate him for he is a Christian; …
Here, Shylock angrily expresses his hatred for Antonio and the religion of Christianity. Antonio is in fact annoyed because all he wants is to borrow the money and have nothing to do with Shylock’s disturbed emotions (which have been supposedly put aside, although Shylock does not see it this way). Typically, up to the point where he says he hates him because he is a Jew it is imaginable that you can see the Elizabethan audiences mocking, booing and perhaps throwing things at him because of the austerity of their religion against others.
Shylock later begins to provoke Antonio for his personal differences between them into charging interest in the loan. But Antonio mentions that friends should not take advantage of each other by charging interest. They finally agree to the bond but Shylock will allow it only under one condition.
Shylock: …If you repay me not on such a day,
In such a place, such sum or sums as are
Expressed in the condition, let the forfeit
Be nominated for an equal pound
Of your fair flesh, to be cut off and taken
In what part of your body pleaseth me.
Antonio: Content, in faith! I’ll seal to such a bond,
And say there is much kindness in the Jew.
Here, Shylock offers “a fair trade” if his money was not returned to him in the time he wished then for an action sanctioned by a lawyer he can be allowed to cut off any part of Antonio’s body (presumably the heart!). Antonio agrees and promises to return the money in good time. The typical Elizabethan audiences’ reaction towards this would have been to object and they would mentally view him as the devil himself for taking a part of a Christian’s body.
Back in the sixteenth century, the Elizabethan audiences would not have paid attention to Shylock’s qualities which he does have in fact; he works hard for his money, he’s pious and because he knows so much about the Jewish Bible can quote from it as he did with his first scene with Antonio about Jacob looking after his Uncle Laban’s sheep. This indicates that Shylock is a well educated man. Additionally, he is a loyal man because the ring he had for Jessica was given away for monkeys and he says he would not give up that ring under any circumstances; this shows that he is not simply acquisitive but that he has a heart.
Later on in the play, Shylock meets with Solanio and Salarino who are faithful friends of Antonio and Bassanio who discuss rumours of Antonio’s wrecked ships. Once Shylock entered, he confronted them about their knowledge of his daughter’s fleeing from his house; Solanio and Salarino taunt him about her elopement with a Christian man (Lorenzo) and mock him for his losses. This quarrel eventually leads up to Shylock’s cold-blooded speech about the equilibrium of humanity between religions and his “devilish” intentions. He firstly mentions that the purpose of the bond is to get his long waited revenge on Antonio and goes on about how he was racist to him in the past and why he gives no adequate reason for this. Shylock increases the tempo and depth of his speech by emphasising the similarities between the religions.
Shylock: …fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons,
subject to the same diseases, healed by the same means,
warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer as a
Christian is? …
Here, Shylock tries to cry out a reason towards Solanio and Salarino about why the Jews do not feel the same way as Christians do in environmental situations and if they should be judged in a different way.
Additionally, his speech is further heightened by the references towards death to create suspense.
continued : …If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not
laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us,
shall we not revenge? …
Here, Shylock questions Solanio and Salarino (and quite possibly anyone else who are listening from the streets). Are the Jews not as emotional or as physical as the Christians? Are they dead inside? Have they no heart? Are they not approved to obtain revenge? Typically this speech was designed to induce the audience’s sympathy for Jews and Shylock especially.
Throughout the whole speech Shylock mentions his strong feelings about the persistence of revenge and if Christians can have revenge so can the Jews, if the laws of the Jews are fair, so should the Christian laws be; this is an added emphasis on how Jews are treated by Christians and how the equilibrium between Christianity and Judaism is further deteriorating.
Shylock obviously sees himself as a symbol of his persecuted race and therefore he intends to take revenge for the humiliation and disgrace he has suffered at the hands of the Christian law.
Throughout the course of the play, Shylock lives in depression and anger after he noticed that his daughter, Jessica stole his money and fled with Lorenzo. Shylock is seen as a villain, towards his treatment of Jessica because during his interaction with her in his house, he bosses her around, telling her to look after the interests of his house and is oblivious about the state of her emotions.
Shylock: …To gaze on Christian fools with varnished faces;
But stop my house’s ears – I mean my casements
Let not the sound of shallow foppery enter
My sober house…
Here, Shylock tells Jessica to stay in the house and it seems intentional to keep her from the outside world as the lead up to this “imprisonment” is indicated earlier on in act two, scene three where Jessica says “I am sorry thou wilt leave my father so. Our house is hell, and thou a merry devil didst rob it of some taste of tediousness…”
Speaking the line, “Our house is hell”, she explains that she is restricted to social activities and this makes her feel irritated that she is constrained in this boredom.
Indicating the line from the speech above from which he says “But stop my house’s ears” suggests that Shylock does not like music of any kind which in reference to the Middle Ages, all Christians loved music and all sorts of entertainment whereas Jews did not. This also points out a fact that Shylock is unsociable.
Furthermore, when news of Antonio’s ships failed, Shylock became confident that his bond with Antonio would be broken and he can act his revenge upon him. Shylock’s behaviour is unusually na�ve because he believes that he can win over the Christians and when the Venetian law is intended to serve the welfare of Christians.
Failing to pay Shylock back, Antonio is arrested and sent to court in which to decide his fate with Shylock holding the blade.
The trial scene at the end is quite possibly the most powerful scene in the play because it displays the betrayal of law that grants Shylock the right to cast revenge and the superiority between Christianity and Judaism. Antonio is greeted by the Duke of Venice who shows pity for him and discriminates against Shylock by saying that he can neither express pity nor mercy. The Duke addresses them both and the reasons for the forfeit of the bond are explained by Shylock when his only intentions are to make Antonio pay for he hates him is good a reason as any other therefore the Duke proceeds and introduces the lawyer’s clerk who is Nerissa in disguise and Portia who is disguised as Doctor Balthazar.
During the first half of the session, the law was on Shylock’s side as he also appears triumphant and remorseless. Shylock only explains that he wants to “own” Antonio by taking a part of his flesh and that his revenge is served. Bassanio who arrives within the hour, immediately offers Shylock six thousand ducats, twice the amount of the original finance but Shylock declines the offer and only says that he would not give in to money only to dish his revenge out on Antonio. Strictly speaking, Venetian society is made an accomplice to Shylock’s devilish intentions, and since this support does not pardon him, it can have the inevitable result of bringing everyone else down to his level and he only wants his needs to be regarded with respect like everyone else’s.
As the proceedings went on, Portia reveals her courtroom speech about the quality of mercy:
Portia: The quality of mercy is not strain’d,
It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven
Upon the place beneath: it is twice blest; …
Here, Portia says that Shylock shall have all justice and gives him the right to choose whether or not he wants or does not want to proceed with the punishment. Further on, Portia introduces images of royal power to indicate that the power of God goes above all and those who have mercy are like God himself.
continued : …Tis mightiest in the mightiest: it becomes
The throned monarch better than his crown;
His sceptre shows the force of temporal power,
The attribute to awe and majesty, …
But Shylock on the other hand is simply determined to exact his revenge upon Antonio without any offerings that may cause him to stop this.
The ideas of mercy displayed here are interesting because what Portia has mentioned here is a relativist view about mercy; Christians should “turn the other cheek” (from the New Testament) instead of doing the same to the adversary but Shylock has an absolutist view of justice which is clearly “an eye for an eye” that is derived from the Old Testament.
During the moment in which Shylock draws the blade, Portia startles Shylock by stating another rule and does not permit Shylock to withdraw from the agreement. She says that a penalty is included if blood is spilt. In a way, she has twisted the law with superior reasoning; additionally she reads the letter of law and states that he must be executed if he took more or less than a pound of flesh. Shylock painfully admits that he cannot carry it out and is crushed by the legal punishment unless the Duke showed mercy and the fact that he had lost his money to his daughter’s Christian husband, Lorenzo.
On top of that, Antonio is released and inflicts an overly harsh punishment forcing Shylock to convert to Christianity. Ultimately, he holds his faith and his life is spared but he would rather be dead because his money is distributed among his “enemies” and his revenge is wasted therefore he has not much to live for. This creates a very sympathetic emotion from the audience towards Shylock despite his lust for revenge.
To conclude, I believe that Shylock is a victim because despite the fact that he treats his daughter callously he is constantly bogged down with disrespect from the outside world which demoralises him. Although he lets his lust of vengeance overwhelm the other aspects of his life, he still possesses some heart towards others that are kind to him. That in particular encourages me to feel sympathetic towards Shylock because he may never receive a fair hearing about him since everywhere he goes he is continuously ridiculed and spat on by Christians.
To some extent, I believe that Shakespeare had intended to portray him as a victim also since the character was meant to undertake the Christian law and society of the Elizabethan age and confront some certain prejudice and intolerance. Furthermore, Shakespeare had also included a vast element of a wicked character in Shylock, representing the immorality of Jews therefore making the play in favour of the Christian audience. | <urn:uuid:319b570b-610a-4397-b871-6c735852ccb7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://artscolumbia.org/literary-arts/drama/shylock-villain-victim-shakespeares-merchant-venice-24692/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00514.warc.gz | en | 0.982123 | 3,238 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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-0.0042907148599... | 4 | The overall climax of this play is brilliantly displayed because the realism of the discrimination and prejudice towards Jews helps us to develop a sympathetic feeling for them. Shakespeare has included the historical and incorporated the biblical references in the speeches of this play. Examples such as the story of Jacob and his sheep from the Book of Genesis Chapter 30 quoted by Shylock to justify his way of doing business.
Typically, all of the Jews in Europe experienced a lot of discrimination from Christians during the Middle Ages because of their different appearances, lifestyles, laws and their religion. Shakespeare wrote this play for the Christian audience during the Elizabethan times. They were very prejudiced towards religions that were not pure Christian and would have hated the Jews because they had supposedly “murdered” Jesus Christ. Additionally, in reference to the mythological story of the “Wondering Jew” who was condemned to an everlasting life of misery, had developed an evil character who was believed to kidnap and murder Christian children.Order now
This is a personification of exile and Christian condemnation of the Jewish people. Because of this Christians would also have a sense of xenophobia because they feared that Jews would take their land and their wealth from them. During the sixteenth century, the victimised Jews would be forced to live in dreaded isolated areas called “ghettos” by anti-Semitic leaders such as Martin Luther who was “possessed by the devil” said the Vatican chief’s exorcist. The ghettos were often densely populated and many Jews died of hunger and disease because of poverty and social restrictions.
Throughout history, many rulers, empires and nations have oppressed their Jewish populations or have attempted to eradicate them entirely such as the Holocaust during World War II when Hitler forced the Jews into concentration camps and executed them one by one.
Ultimately, the contents of this play are comedy, love and betrayal, meaning that it fulfils the audience at the time by condemning and/or serving justice to the evil characters (Shylock is the villain in this case) and the good characters are successful (which in this case is Antonio) and the audiences’ reaction to Shylock would be stereotypical and would have classified him as just another Jew.
Shylock is first introduced in the third scene of act one. His appearance was hardly noticeable and his entrance was slightly delayed. As a result of this there was great anticipation leading up to his eventual appearance.
His first confrontation was with Bassanio who arranges an agreement in which he can borrow some money from Shylock. Shylock’s attitude towards Bassanio is sincere but cautious. He says he will do business with him and negotiate with him but he will not eat with him. He declines the invitation due to the fact that he hates Christians and he cannot eat pork because of his religion.
Bassanio: If it please you to dine with us –
Shylock: …I will buy with you, sell with you, talk with you, walk with you, and so following; but I will not eat with you, drink with you, nor pray with you…
Here, Shylock explains that he cannot participate in any activities with a Christian that concerns breaking his religion’s boundaries.
Shylock is later confronted by Antonio who he has had past dealings of discrimination and business with before, as a result their emotions are sharply concealed with one another. In the play, Shylock speaks to the audience aside and insults Antonio.
Shylock : …How like a fawning publican he looks!
I hate him for he is a Christian; …
Here, Shylock angrily expresses his hatred for Antonio and the religion of Christianity. Antonio is in fact annoyed because all he wants is to borrow the money and have nothing to do with Shylock’s disturbed emotions (which have been supposedly put aside, although Shylock does not see it this way). Typically, up to the point where he says he hates him because he is a Jew it is imaginable that you can see the Elizabethan audiences mocking, booing and perhaps throwing things at him because of the austerity of their religion against others.
Shylock later begins to provoke Antonio for his personal differences between them into charging interest in the loan. But Antonio mentions that friends should not take advantage of each other by charging interest. They finally agree to the bond but Shylock will allow it only under one condition.
Shylock: …If you repay me not on such a day,
In such a place, such sum or sums as are
Expressed in the condition, let the forfeit
Be nominated for an equal pound
Of your fair flesh, to be cut off and taken
In what part of your body pleaseth me.
Antonio: Content, in faith! I’ll seal to such a bond,
And say there is much kindness in the Jew.
Here, Shylock offers “a fair trade” if his money was not returned to him in the time he wished then for an action sanctioned by a lawyer he can be allowed to cut off any part of Antonio’s body (presumably the heart!). Antonio agrees and promises to return the money in good time. The typical Elizabethan audiences’ reaction towards this would have been to object and they would mentally view him as the devil himself for taking a part of a Christian’s body.
Back in the sixteenth century, the Elizabethan audiences would not have paid attention to Shylock’s qualities which he does have in fact; he works hard for his money, he’s pious and because he knows so much about the Jewish Bible can quote from it as he did with his first scene with Antonio about Jacob looking after his Uncle Laban’s sheep. This indicates that Shylock is a well educated man. Additionally, he is a loyal man because the ring he had for Jessica was given away for monkeys and he says he would not give up that ring under any circumstances; this shows that he is not simply acquisitive but that he has a heart.
Later on in the play, Shylock meets with Solanio and Salarino who are faithful friends of Antonio and Bassanio who discuss rumours of Antonio’s wrecked ships. Once Shylock entered, he confronted them about their knowledge of his daughter’s fleeing from his house; Solanio and Salarino taunt him about her elopement with a Christian man (Lorenzo) and mock him for his losses. This quarrel eventually leads up to Shylock’s cold-blooded speech about the equilibrium of humanity between religions and his “devilish” intentions. He firstly mentions that the purpose of the bond is to get his long waited revenge on Antonio and goes on about how he was racist to him in the past and why he gives no adequate reason for this. Shylock increases the tempo and depth of his speech by emphasising the similarities between the religions.
Shylock: …fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons,
subject to the same diseases, healed by the same means,
warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer as a
Christian is? …
Here, Shylock tries to cry out a reason towards Solanio and Salarino about why the Jews do not feel the same way as Christians do in environmental situations and if they should be judged in a different way.
Additionally, his speech is further heightened by the references towards death to create suspense.
continued : …If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not
laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us,
shall we not revenge? …
Here, Shylock questions Solanio and Salarino (and quite possibly anyone else who are listening from the streets). Are the Jews not as emotional or as physical as the Christians? Are they dead inside? Have they no heart? Are they not approved to obtain revenge? Typically this speech was designed to induce the audience’s sympathy for Jews and Shylock especially.
Throughout the whole speech Shylock mentions his strong feelings about the persistence of revenge and if Christians can have revenge so can the Jews, if the laws of the Jews are fair, so should the Christian laws be; this is an added emphasis on how Jews are treated by Christians and how the equilibrium between Christianity and Judaism is further deteriorating.
Shylock obviously sees himself as a symbol of his persecuted race and therefore he intends to take revenge for the humiliation and disgrace he has suffered at the hands of the Christian law.
Throughout the course of the play, Shylock lives in depression and anger after he noticed that his daughter, Jessica stole his money and fled with Lorenzo. Shylock is seen as a villain, towards his treatment of Jessica because during his interaction with her in his house, he bosses her around, telling her to look after the interests of his house and is oblivious about the state of her emotions.
Shylock: …To gaze on Christian fools with varnished faces;
But stop my house’s ears – I mean my casements
Let not the sound of shallow foppery enter
My sober house…
Here, Shylock tells Jessica to stay in the house and it seems intentional to keep her from the outside world as the lead up to this “imprisonment” is indicated earlier on in act two, scene three where Jessica says “I am sorry thou wilt leave my father so. Our house is hell, and thou a merry devil didst rob it of some taste of tediousness…”
Speaking the line, “Our house is hell”, she explains that she is restricted to social activities and this makes her feel irritated that she is constrained in this boredom.
Indicating the line from the speech above from which he says “But stop my house’s ears” suggests that Shylock does not like music of any kind which in reference to the Middle Ages, all Christians loved music and all sorts of entertainment whereas Jews did not. This also points out a fact that Shylock is unsociable.
Furthermore, when news of Antonio’s ships failed, Shylock became confident that his bond with Antonio would be broken and he can act his revenge upon him. Shylock’s behaviour is unusually na�ve because he believes that he can win over the Christians and when the Venetian law is intended to serve the welfare of Christians.
Failing to pay Shylock back, Antonio is arrested and sent to court in which to decide his fate with Shylock holding the blade.
The trial scene at the end is quite possibly the most powerful scene in the play because it displays the betrayal of law that grants Shylock the right to cast revenge and the superiority between Christianity and Judaism. Antonio is greeted by the Duke of Venice who shows pity for him and discriminates against Shylock by saying that he can neither express pity nor mercy. The Duke addresses them both and the reasons for the forfeit of the bond are explained by Shylock when his only intentions are to make Antonio pay for he hates him is good a reason as any other therefore the Duke proceeds and introduces the lawyer’s clerk who is Nerissa in disguise and Portia who is disguised as Doctor Balthazar.
During the first half of the session, the law was on Shylock’s side as he also appears triumphant and remorseless. Shylock only explains that he wants to “own” Antonio by taking a part of his flesh and that his revenge is served. Bassanio who arrives within the hour, immediately offers Shylock six thousand ducats, twice the amount of the original finance but Shylock declines the offer and only says that he would not give in to money only to dish his revenge out on Antonio. Strictly speaking, Venetian society is made an accomplice to Shylock’s devilish intentions, and since this support does not pardon him, it can have the inevitable result of bringing everyone else down to his level and he only wants his needs to be regarded with respect like everyone else’s.
As the proceedings went on, Portia reveals her courtroom speech about the quality of mercy:
Portia: The quality of mercy is not strain’d,
It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven
Upon the place beneath: it is twice blest; …
Here, Portia says that Shylock shall have all justice and gives him the right to choose whether or not he wants or does not want to proceed with the punishment. Further on, Portia introduces images of royal power to indicate that the power of God goes above all and those who have mercy are like God himself.
continued : …Tis mightiest in the mightiest: it becomes
The throned monarch better than his crown;
His sceptre shows the force of temporal power,
The attribute to awe and majesty, …
But Shylock on the other hand is simply determined to exact his revenge upon Antonio without any offerings that may cause him to stop this.
The ideas of mercy displayed here are interesting because what Portia has mentioned here is a relativist view about mercy; Christians should “turn the other cheek” (from the New Testament) instead of doing the same to the adversary but Shylock has an absolutist view of justice which is clearly “an eye for an eye” that is derived from the Old Testament.
During the moment in which Shylock draws the blade, Portia startles Shylock by stating another rule and does not permit Shylock to withdraw from the agreement. She says that a penalty is included if blood is spilt. In a way, she has twisted the law with superior reasoning; additionally she reads the letter of law and states that he must be executed if he took more or less than a pound of flesh. Shylock painfully admits that he cannot carry it out and is crushed by the legal punishment unless the Duke showed mercy and the fact that he had lost his money to his daughter’s Christian husband, Lorenzo.
On top of that, Antonio is released and inflicts an overly harsh punishment forcing Shylock to convert to Christianity. Ultimately, he holds his faith and his life is spared but he would rather be dead because his money is distributed among his “enemies” and his revenge is wasted therefore he has not much to live for. This creates a very sympathetic emotion from the audience towards Shylock despite his lust for revenge.
To conclude, I believe that Shylock is a victim because despite the fact that he treats his daughter callously he is constantly bogged down with disrespect from the outside world which demoralises him. Although he lets his lust of vengeance overwhelm the other aspects of his life, he still possesses some heart towards others that are kind to him. That in particular encourages me to feel sympathetic towards Shylock because he may never receive a fair hearing about him since everywhere he goes he is continuously ridiculed and spat on by Christians.
To some extent, I believe that Shakespeare had intended to portray him as a victim also since the character was meant to undertake the Christian law and society of the Elizabethan age and confront some certain prejudice and intolerance. Furthermore, Shakespeare had also included a vast element of a wicked character in Shylock, representing the immorality of Jews therefore making the play in favour of the Christian audience. | 3,106 | ENGLISH | 1 |
According to the Oxford Dictionary, the following two definitions refer to the use of the word epiphany:-
- The manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles as represented by the Magi (Matthew 2:1–12). Definition (1)
- A moment of sudden and great revelation/realisation. Definition (2)
Epiphany has been a recognised feast of the Western Church since the 5th century, but these days we generally associate the Magi/ Three Wise Men with our modern Christmas Eve/Day. They appear on our Christmas cards. Yet there are—and always were—Twelve Days of Christmas, with Twelfth Night marked as Epiphany Eve or sometimes Epiphany itself, depending upon which precise moment you begin to calculate the commencement of the season. For an explanation, this is a good place to start.
If ever there was a King of England who revered Epiphany (1), and all that went with it, that king was Richard II, who reigned 1377-1399. He was still a small boy, but when the Yule logs were brought in for the first Christmas of his reign, they must have been kindled with hope and excitement that he would bring healthy, wealth, happiness and prosperity to his new realm. If this was indeed the hope, there would eventually be some very unhappy people, because he was plagued by rebellions and resentful lords. And his habit of turning to a coterie of close friends, twinned with his own questionable decision-making, did not really create the best circumstances. But, initially, there was hope, and those first Yule logs of 1377 will have burned brightly. The flames would have danced and roared.
That fanciful thought aside, it is my opinion that in June 1381, when as a boy of only fourteen Richard faced a thousands-strong army of peasants at Smithfield, he underwent an epiphany (2). He rode out at the head of his retinue to face a ragtaggle peasant army led, among others, by Wat Tyler. We all know the famous scene. Tyler was cut down in front of everyone by Sir William Walworth, Mayor of London, and out of nowhere the moment became electrifyingly dangerous. Pitched battle was on the very lip of breaking out, but then Richard rode his horse forward calmly and promised to do all he could to grant the peasants’ their demands (which we today think were more than justified). It worked and the peasant army broke up to return to their homes.
Richard later went back on his word (something he was prone to do throughout his reign) but at that precise moment he’d displayed astonishing courage, and split-second decision-making. No one else in his entourage had done anything but freeze. Many things about the adult Richard II were to be criticized, but never again would his courage be questioned. Did he have an epiphany, as described in (2) above?
Certainly he was always to honour Epiphany above all other Church festivals. To begin with, he was born on that day in 1367. Another King of England who was buried on that day in 1066 was to become Richard’s favourite and most cherished saint. That king was St Edward the Confessor, whose feast day is 6th January/Epiphany, and whose great tomb in Westminster Abbey can still be seen. It’s now a shadow of its former glory because all the jewels and other decorations that once adorned it have been gradually stolen over the centuries by all forms of souvenir-seeker. But it must once have been a glorious sight, as was St Thomas à Becket’s tomb in Canterbury, which has been similarly denuded.
The Confessor had been England’s national saint until 1350, when he was supplanted by St George, and on Epiphany every year, Richard II went to worship there, usually leaving a costly gift. Such occasions must have been very impressive and colourful. Richard also had a separate little chapel built nearby, where he would worship. It is still called the Chapel of Our Lady of the Pew, and contains a niche in the wall where it is said the wonderful Wilton Diptych was placed for Richard’s prayers.
The diptych shows Richard as a child king, with St John the Baptist, St Edward the Confessor and St Edmund standing behind him as he kneels before the Virgin and Child. At the entrance of the chapel are two carved headstops of angels, one holding Richard’s royal arms, the other those of the Confesser. (Pingback https://murreyandblue.wordpress.com/2017/07/15/the-little-chapel-in-westminster-abbey-beloved-of-richard-ii/)
According to https://www.britainexpress.com/History/medieval/christmas.htm , another link between Richard II and Epiphany occurred on Twelfth Night, 1392. The citizens of London, who were not on good terms with him at the time, attempted to bury the hatchet by bestowing upon the king and queen “a one-humped camel and a pelican, novelties for the royal menagerie at the Tower of London”. Another source adds that there was a boy on the dromedary.
Richard and his much loved queen Anne of Bohemia would eventually be laid to rest together close to the Confessor. In the latter part of his reign, Richard had even had his own coat-of-arms impaled with the supposed arms of the Confessor, so there is no doubt at all that Richard II truly esteemed Epiphany and the Confessor, with whom he felt a close connection.
To the less religiously minded people of today, Epiphany is Twelfth Night, a time to party and take the Christmas decorations down – if they haven’t been removed already! The more devout will still associate it with the Magi and the Confessor.
Of course, the calendar has changed from Julian to Gregorian, and dates have moved with it. Old Twelfth Night was celebrated on 17th January. Many wassail traditions, such as the wassail cup and wassailing the cider apple trees, are associated with Twelfth Night. The Yule Log, so bright with flames in the image above, needs to burn from Christmas Eve until Twelfth Night. Charcoal from it was kept to kindle the following year’s log, and also to protect the house from thunder and lightning. There were also many delicious foods that were associated with that night, including a special cake.
In many places across the land older customs have been resumed in recent years. I don’t know when in the past they began to wassail the cider apple trees, in the hope of ensuring a supply of cider for the next harvest. Does it go back to the medieval period? Yes, according to this article
“….There are two distinct variations of wassailing. One involves groups of merrymakers going from one house to another, wassail bowl in hand, singing traditional songs and generally spreading fun and good wishes. The other form of wassailing is generally practiced in the countryside, particularly in fruit growing regions, where it is the trees that are blessed….”
“….The practice of house-wassailing continued in England throughout the Middle Ages, adapting as a way by which the feudal lord of the manor could demonstrate charitable seasonal goodwill to those who served him, by gifting money and food in exchange for the wassailers blessing and songs….”
Singing from house-to-house eventually became the carol-singing of today, but at the end of the season, not the beginning. As happens now with the Three Wise Men, who appear of Christmas cards, but are actually associated with Epiphany.
Now, to go back to the very beginning of this article, and the epiphany (2) that I feel certain happened to the young Richard II in June 1381. Until that day in Smithfield he had been confined and controlled by his uncles and government, but when Tyler was cut down in front of everyone and things turned very nasty indeed, Richard stepped into the breach by calmly taking charge.
From where did that sudden steely resolve come? He hadn’t displayed any such thing before, but….did he think of Epiphany? His day? When the Magi took gifts to the Christ Child? Did he suddenly see himself as a Christ Child too? Born to reign over all? Did he begin to understand that it was his God-given right by blood to cast aside the oppressive rule of his uncles and their government? Might such a heartstopping moment of insight been the reason for the Wilton Diptych, which shows him as a boy (when he was adult by then) anointed and royal, reaching out to accept something from the Christ Child. The reins of his kingdom, perhaps? Was this his epiphany (2)? Albeit in June.
Afterwards, in quiet moments, did he sit alone and pensive, considering who he was and how he should face the future?
It was to be another eight years before he was finally able to strike free of those who sought to keep him under their control, but I believe his first realisation of his true destiny was born that day in Smithfield.
Epiphany had one more vital role to play in Richard’s life, and that was in 1400, just after his cousin, Henry of Lancaster, had usurped the throne and consigned Richard to captivity in Pontefract. Epiphany was the date chosen by Richard’s desperate supporters to fight against the new regime and restore him to his throne.
Known as the Epiphany Rising, this revolt was doomed to defeat because of treachery within its ranks. And the eventual result was Richard’s probable murder at Pontefract, to prevent any more attempts to restore him. At least he didn’t die on Epiphany as well, but he was laid to rest on the 6th…of March, 1400.
His Twelfth Night was at an end. The bright Yule log had finally run its course, flickered and faded. | <urn:uuid:2aa6ae3e-29f8-48a2-a7dc-920682f00801> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://murreyandblue.wordpress.com/tag/richard-ii/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00264.warc.gz | en | 0.984395 | 2,130 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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-0.217476621270... | 8 | According to the Oxford Dictionary, the following two definitions refer to the use of the word epiphany:-
- The manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles as represented by the Magi (Matthew 2:1–12). Definition (1)
- A moment of sudden and great revelation/realisation. Definition (2)
Epiphany has been a recognised feast of the Western Church since the 5th century, but these days we generally associate the Magi/ Three Wise Men with our modern Christmas Eve/Day. They appear on our Christmas cards. Yet there are—and always were—Twelve Days of Christmas, with Twelfth Night marked as Epiphany Eve or sometimes Epiphany itself, depending upon which precise moment you begin to calculate the commencement of the season. For an explanation, this is a good place to start.
If ever there was a King of England who revered Epiphany (1), and all that went with it, that king was Richard II, who reigned 1377-1399. He was still a small boy, but when the Yule logs were brought in for the first Christmas of his reign, they must have been kindled with hope and excitement that he would bring healthy, wealth, happiness and prosperity to his new realm. If this was indeed the hope, there would eventually be some very unhappy people, because he was plagued by rebellions and resentful lords. And his habit of turning to a coterie of close friends, twinned with his own questionable decision-making, did not really create the best circumstances. But, initially, there was hope, and those first Yule logs of 1377 will have burned brightly. The flames would have danced and roared.
That fanciful thought aside, it is my opinion that in June 1381, when as a boy of only fourteen Richard faced a thousands-strong army of peasants at Smithfield, he underwent an epiphany (2). He rode out at the head of his retinue to face a ragtaggle peasant army led, among others, by Wat Tyler. We all know the famous scene. Tyler was cut down in front of everyone by Sir William Walworth, Mayor of London, and out of nowhere the moment became electrifyingly dangerous. Pitched battle was on the very lip of breaking out, but then Richard rode his horse forward calmly and promised to do all he could to grant the peasants’ their demands (which we today think were more than justified). It worked and the peasant army broke up to return to their homes.
Richard later went back on his word (something he was prone to do throughout his reign) but at that precise moment he’d displayed astonishing courage, and split-second decision-making. No one else in his entourage had done anything but freeze. Many things about the adult Richard II were to be criticized, but never again would his courage be questioned. Did he have an epiphany, as described in (2) above?
Certainly he was always to honour Epiphany above all other Church festivals. To begin with, he was born on that day in 1367. Another King of England who was buried on that day in 1066 was to become Richard’s favourite and most cherished saint. That king was St Edward the Confessor, whose feast day is 6th January/Epiphany, and whose great tomb in Westminster Abbey can still be seen. It’s now a shadow of its former glory because all the jewels and other decorations that once adorned it have been gradually stolen over the centuries by all forms of souvenir-seeker. But it must once have been a glorious sight, as was St Thomas à Becket’s tomb in Canterbury, which has been similarly denuded.
The Confessor had been England’s national saint until 1350, when he was supplanted by St George, and on Epiphany every year, Richard II went to worship there, usually leaving a costly gift. Such occasions must have been very impressive and colourful. Richard also had a separate little chapel built nearby, where he would worship. It is still called the Chapel of Our Lady of the Pew, and contains a niche in the wall where it is said the wonderful Wilton Diptych was placed for Richard’s prayers.
The diptych shows Richard as a child king, with St John the Baptist, St Edward the Confessor and St Edmund standing behind him as he kneels before the Virgin and Child. At the entrance of the chapel are two carved headstops of angels, one holding Richard’s royal arms, the other those of the Confesser. (Pingback https://murreyandblue.wordpress.com/2017/07/15/the-little-chapel-in-westminster-abbey-beloved-of-richard-ii/)
According to https://www.britainexpress.com/History/medieval/christmas.htm , another link between Richard II and Epiphany occurred on Twelfth Night, 1392. The citizens of London, who were not on good terms with him at the time, attempted to bury the hatchet by bestowing upon the king and queen “a one-humped camel and a pelican, novelties for the royal menagerie at the Tower of London”. Another source adds that there was a boy on the dromedary.
Richard and his much loved queen Anne of Bohemia would eventually be laid to rest together close to the Confessor. In the latter part of his reign, Richard had even had his own coat-of-arms impaled with the supposed arms of the Confessor, so there is no doubt at all that Richard II truly esteemed Epiphany and the Confessor, with whom he felt a close connection.
To the less religiously minded people of today, Epiphany is Twelfth Night, a time to party and take the Christmas decorations down – if they haven’t been removed already! The more devout will still associate it with the Magi and the Confessor.
Of course, the calendar has changed from Julian to Gregorian, and dates have moved with it. Old Twelfth Night was celebrated on 17th January. Many wassail traditions, such as the wassail cup and wassailing the cider apple trees, are associated with Twelfth Night. The Yule Log, so bright with flames in the image above, needs to burn from Christmas Eve until Twelfth Night. Charcoal from it was kept to kindle the following year’s log, and also to protect the house from thunder and lightning. There were also many delicious foods that were associated with that night, including a special cake.
In many places across the land older customs have been resumed in recent years. I don’t know when in the past they began to wassail the cider apple trees, in the hope of ensuring a supply of cider for the next harvest. Does it go back to the medieval period? Yes, according to this article
“….There are two distinct variations of wassailing. One involves groups of merrymakers going from one house to another, wassail bowl in hand, singing traditional songs and generally spreading fun and good wishes. The other form of wassailing is generally practiced in the countryside, particularly in fruit growing regions, where it is the trees that are blessed….”
“….The practice of house-wassailing continued in England throughout the Middle Ages, adapting as a way by which the feudal lord of the manor could demonstrate charitable seasonal goodwill to those who served him, by gifting money and food in exchange for the wassailers blessing and songs….”
Singing from house-to-house eventually became the carol-singing of today, but at the end of the season, not the beginning. As happens now with the Three Wise Men, who appear of Christmas cards, but are actually associated with Epiphany.
Now, to go back to the very beginning of this article, and the epiphany (2) that I feel certain happened to the young Richard II in June 1381. Until that day in Smithfield he had been confined and controlled by his uncles and government, but when Tyler was cut down in front of everyone and things turned very nasty indeed, Richard stepped into the breach by calmly taking charge.
From where did that sudden steely resolve come? He hadn’t displayed any such thing before, but….did he think of Epiphany? His day? When the Magi took gifts to the Christ Child? Did he suddenly see himself as a Christ Child too? Born to reign over all? Did he begin to understand that it was his God-given right by blood to cast aside the oppressive rule of his uncles and their government? Might such a heartstopping moment of insight been the reason for the Wilton Diptych, which shows him as a boy (when he was adult by then) anointed and royal, reaching out to accept something from the Christ Child. The reins of his kingdom, perhaps? Was this his epiphany (2)? Albeit in June.
Afterwards, in quiet moments, did he sit alone and pensive, considering who he was and how he should face the future?
It was to be another eight years before he was finally able to strike free of those who sought to keep him under their control, but I believe his first realisation of his true destiny was born that day in Smithfield.
Epiphany had one more vital role to play in Richard’s life, and that was in 1400, just after his cousin, Henry of Lancaster, had usurped the throne and consigned Richard to captivity in Pontefract. Epiphany was the date chosen by Richard’s desperate supporters to fight against the new regime and restore him to his throne.
Known as the Epiphany Rising, this revolt was doomed to defeat because of treachery within its ranks. And the eventual result was Richard’s probable murder at Pontefract, to prevent any more attempts to restore him. At least he didn’t die on Epiphany as well, but he was laid to rest on the 6th…of March, 1400.
His Twelfth Night was at an end. The bright Yule log had finally run its course, flickered and faded. | 2,113 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How Desegregation Changed Us: The Effects of Racially Mixed Schools on Students and Society
As we approach the 50 th anniversary of the landmark Supreme Court ruling, Brown v. Board of Education, many in the United States are contemplating the value of public policies that flowed from that decision, especially the desegregation of public schools. Over the last half-century we have received mixed messages about whether such efforts were worth the trouble.
From the popular press we have heard of more failures than successes - of lingering black-white test score gaps and white flight from urban school districts. Meanwhile, much of the social science research on school desegregation has been more optimistic, showing mixed test score results but a positive trend toward higher African American student achievement during the peak years of desegregation, as well as long-term academic and professional gains for African American adults who had attended racially mixed schools.
Still, much of this research consists of statistical analyses of test scores or graduation rates. It tells us little about students' actual experience in desegregated schools or what it meant to them later in life.
On a more personal level, there are books written by or about individuals who attended desegregated schools. Many of these stories, especially those from the 1950s, are inspiring. But none is conclusive in terms of the value of a public policy that affected so many lives.
What has been missing is a study that connects personal perspectives about school desegregation across different towns and schools in a systematic way. Ideally, such a study would make those perspectives relevant to a question on the minds of many Americans: Were efforts to desegregate the public schools worthwhile?
This report answers that question and others through the voices of more than 500 graduates, educators, advocates, and local policy makers who were directly involved in racially mixed public high schools in different communities 25 years ago. For the last five years we have studied six such high schools and documented what they were like in the late 1970s - some of the peak years of school desegregation in this country. To complement the rich data on these schools, we have tracked down and interviewed members of the Class of 1980 from each site.
Our central finding is that school desegregation fundamentally changed the people who lived through it, yet had a more limited impact on the larger society. Public schools faced enormous challenges during the late 1970s as educators tried to facilitate racial integration amid a society that remained segregated in terms of housing, social institutions, and often employment. Nonetheless, desegregation made the vast majority of the students who attended these schools less racially prejudiced and more comfortable around people of different backgrounds. After high school, however, their lives have been far more segregated as they re-entered a more racially divided society.
We want two emphasize two points in particular:
First, racially diverse public schools of the late 1970s were doing more than all other major institutions in our society - except perhaps the military - to bring people of different racial/ethnic backgrounds together and foster equal opportunity. But they could not, on their own, fulfill the promise of Brown. Despite the different contexts and racial demographics of the six schools we studied, they shared a significant characteristic. Namely, the schools too often reflected the racial inequality of the larger society, as re-segregation within the schools - largely through unequal access to the most challenging courses - became the norm.
In addition, the goal of most educators during this time was to teach students to be "colorblind" by ignoring issues of race. In fact, race was often a "taboo" subject in these schools. Graduates of Topeka High School do not remember any discussions in classes or assemblies about the landmark Brown v. Board of Education case that had originated just down the road from their school. As one white Topeka High graduate noted, "I probably didn't know a lot about [Brown] until I went to law school."
This lack of dialogue is ironic, since many of the students were the first in their communities to attend school with people of other races. An African American graduate of Austin High School recalled that his teachers did not allow discussions of race in their classrooms because back in the '70s everyone was "still walking on eggshells" and they wanted everyone to "just get along."
All that notwithstanding - and this is our second main point - the vast majority of graduates across racial and ethnic lines greatly valued the daily cross-racial interaction in their high schools. They found it to be one of the most meaningful experiences of their lives, the best - and sometimes the only - opportunity to meet and interact regularly with people of different backgrounds.
That's not to imply that the graduates were always satisfied with the way their schools implemented desegregation. Indeed, quite a few regretted that more was not done to promote greater racial integration and equality. They recalled re-segregation across classrooms and social groups, and many - mostly African Americans and Latinos, but some whites as well - said they were sometimes treated unfairly because of the color of their skin.
Still, in nearly every interview, blacks, whites, Latinos, and Asians discussed the value of school desegregation in shaping their views about race and helping them overcome fear and distrust of people who were different. This is, by far, the strongest finding in our data and thus it is difficult to represent with just one quote. But a white Austin High School graduate who came from an upper-middle-class family was representative when he said:
…Growing up in a racially integrated school, I think, was invaluable for me. I just feel… it helped my people skills. It gave me the ability to relate to just about any person and feel good… and to be sincere, not putting on an act… I can't put enough value on it.
Perhaps surprisingly, today as adults in their early 40s, many Class of '80 graduates, especially the white graduates, for the most part find themselves leading racially segregated lives. Most of them - e.g. 75 percent of white graduates and about 60 percent of all the graduates - reside in racially segregated neighborhoods. Virtually all of them attend one-race churches or temples and share their closest friends' ethnic or racial backgrounds. And while their workplaces tend to be their most integrated settings, many of these graduates, especially the white graduates, still work in environments in which they have little contact with people of other races. A white Shaker Heights High School alumnus who went to desegregated schools from kindergarten through 12 th grade echoed a common sentiment among the adult graduates. About his public school experience, he said: "I've never had as diverse a daily experience."
Echoing national opinion poll data, virtually all the graduates we interviewed wanted their own children to have similarly diverse school experiences. Unfortunately, they have difficulty finding desegregated schools. Moreover, they worry that, in the current, more competitive environment, they need to put academic rigor - as measured mostly by standardized tests - ahead of diversity.
Of the white interviewees who had school-aged children, only about half had them enrolled in racially diverse schools. While more of the black and Latino graduates' children were in diverse schools - about two-thirds - many noted that these schools were becoming less diverse, as desegregation plans ended and their communities experienced white flight.
A white graduate of West Charlotte High School noted, "It's amazing to me that…my parents went through segregation, I went through integration, and potentially my daughter might go back to segregation."
In this way, we found, public schools that brought people of different racial backgrounds together for even a short period of time were swimming against a tide of racial segregation in this society. As an African American graduate of John Muir High School explained, integration made her high school unique. "When you look at the yearbook page by page, there's blacks, whites, Asians, Mexicans on every…single page, and that's rare. It was rare then, and it's rare today."
National statistics and our data indicate that it is even rarer today than 25 years ago, although graduates of desegregation say it was one of the most valuable experiences of their lives. If we want to honor these experiences, we might consider the ways in which current education policies could be rewritten to facilitate more diversity in public schools and reverse the current trend toward greater segregation.
Based on our findings, we make the following policy recommendations:
- Broaden definitions of school quality and accountability to include measures other than just standardized test scores - for instance, racial diversity could be considered one measure of a "good" public school in a diverse society.
- Amend current public school choice policies, including charter school laws, to make them more supportive of parents and educators who want to start and maintain racially diverse schools.
- Expand federal and state support for school districts that are still trying to maintain desegregation through magnet schools and student transfer plans.
- Pursue non-education policies, such as housing integration and the diversification of suburbs, that will lead to increasingly diverse public schools.
A white graduate of Dwight Morrow summed it up best when he said that school desegregation had been important, but not sufficient. He argued that the movement for a more integrated society needed to be taken to the next level. "It would have had to be…a national priority."
Many of our interviewees have struggled to maintain some degree of diversity in their lives and say that in their hearts they are open to such diversity when the opportunity presents itself. In their sense of loss about the desegregation they once enjoyed in school, there is hope that our segregated society is not the way it has to be.
For the purposes of this study, we defined "diverse" as any school that had no more than 75 percent of any one racial group.
Download the report: How Desegregation Changed Us: The Effects of Racially Mixed Schools on Students and Society [Requires Adobe Acrobat Reader]
Published Thursday, Oct. 14, 2004 | <urn:uuid:4ee29805-9f4e-4e94-834b-79b78f359195> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.tc.columbia.edu/articles/2004/march/how-desegregation-changed-us-the-effects-of-racially-mixed-/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00047.warc.gz | en | 0.980312 | 2,051 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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-0.076322481... | 5 | How Desegregation Changed Us: The Effects of Racially Mixed Schools on Students and Society
As we approach the 50 th anniversary of the landmark Supreme Court ruling, Brown v. Board of Education, many in the United States are contemplating the value of public policies that flowed from that decision, especially the desegregation of public schools. Over the last half-century we have received mixed messages about whether such efforts were worth the trouble.
From the popular press we have heard of more failures than successes - of lingering black-white test score gaps and white flight from urban school districts. Meanwhile, much of the social science research on school desegregation has been more optimistic, showing mixed test score results but a positive trend toward higher African American student achievement during the peak years of desegregation, as well as long-term academic and professional gains for African American adults who had attended racially mixed schools.
Still, much of this research consists of statistical analyses of test scores or graduation rates. It tells us little about students' actual experience in desegregated schools or what it meant to them later in life.
On a more personal level, there are books written by or about individuals who attended desegregated schools. Many of these stories, especially those from the 1950s, are inspiring. But none is conclusive in terms of the value of a public policy that affected so many lives.
What has been missing is a study that connects personal perspectives about school desegregation across different towns and schools in a systematic way. Ideally, such a study would make those perspectives relevant to a question on the minds of many Americans: Were efforts to desegregate the public schools worthwhile?
This report answers that question and others through the voices of more than 500 graduates, educators, advocates, and local policy makers who were directly involved in racially mixed public high schools in different communities 25 years ago. For the last five years we have studied six such high schools and documented what they were like in the late 1970s - some of the peak years of school desegregation in this country. To complement the rich data on these schools, we have tracked down and interviewed members of the Class of 1980 from each site.
Our central finding is that school desegregation fundamentally changed the people who lived through it, yet had a more limited impact on the larger society. Public schools faced enormous challenges during the late 1970s as educators tried to facilitate racial integration amid a society that remained segregated in terms of housing, social institutions, and often employment. Nonetheless, desegregation made the vast majority of the students who attended these schools less racially prejudiced and more comfortable around people of different backgrounds. After high school, however, their lives have been far more segregated as they re-entered a more racially divided society.
We want two emphasize two points in particular:
First, racially diverse public schools of the late 1970s were doing more than all other major institutions in our society - except perhaps the military - to bring people of different racial/ethnic backgrounds together and foster equal opportunity. But they could not, on their own, fulfill the promise of Brown. Despite the different contexts and racial demographics of the six schools we studied, they shared a significant characteristic. Namely, the schools too often reflected the racial inequality of the larger society, as re-segregation within the schools - largely through unequal access to the most challenging courses - became the norm.
In addition, the goal of most educators during this time was to teach students to be "colorblind" by ignoring issues of race. In fact, race was often a "taboo" subject in these schools. Graduates of Topeka High School do not remember any discussions in classes or assemblies about the landmark Brown v. Board of Education case that had originated just down the road from their school. As one white Topeka High graduate noted, "I probably didn't know a lot about [Brown] until I went to law school."
This lack of dialogue is ironic, since many of the students were the first in their communities to attend school with people of other races. An African American graduate of Austin High School recalled that his teachers did not allow discussions of race in their classrooms because back in the '70s everyone was "still walking on eggshells" and they wanted everyone to "just get along."
All that notwithstanding - and this is our second main point - the vast majority of graduates across racial and ethnic lines greatly valued the daily cross-racial interaction in their high schools. They found it to be one of the most meaningful experiences of their lives, the best - and sometimes the only - opportunity to meet and interact regularly with people of different backgrounds.
That's not to imply that the graduates were always satisfied with the way their schools implemented desegregation. Indeed, quite a few regretted that more was not done to promote greater racial integration and equality. They recalled re-segregation across classrooms and social groups, and many - mostly African Americans and Latinos, but some whites as well - said they were sometimes treated unfairly because of the color of their skin.
Still, in nearly every interview, blacks, whites, Latinos, and Asians discussed the value of school desegregation in shaping their views about race and helping them overcome fear and distrust of people who were different. This is, by far, the strongest finding in our data and thus it is difficult to represent with just one quote. But a white Austin High School graduate who came from an upper-middle-class family was representative when he said:
…Growing up in a racially integrated school, I think, was invaluable for me. I just feel… it helped my people skills. It gave me the ability to relate to just about any person and feel good… and to be sincere, not putting on an act… I can't put enough value on it.
Perhaps surprisingly, today as adults in their early 40s, many Class of '80 graduates, especially the white graduates, for the most part find themselves leading racially segregated lives. Most of them - e.g. 75 percent of white graduates and about 60 percent of all the graduates - reside in racially segregated neighborhoods. Virtually all of them attend one-race churches or temples and share their closest friends' ethnic or racial backgrounds. And while their workplaces tend to be their most integrated settings, many of these graduates, especially the white graduates, still work in environments in which they have little contact with people of other races. A white Shaker Heights High School alumnus who went to desegregated schools from kindergarten through 12 th grade echoed a common sentiment among the adult graduates. About his public school experience, he said: "I've never had as diverse a daily experience."
Echoing national opinion poll data, virtually all the graduates we interviewed wanted their own children to have similarly diverse school experiences. Unfortunately, they have difficulty finding desegregated schools. Moreover, they worry that, in the current, more competitive environment, they need to put academic rigor - as measured mostly by standardized tests - ahead of diversity.
Of the white interviewees who had school-aged children, only about half had them enrolled in racially diverse schools. While more of the black and Latino graduates' children were in diverse schools - about two-thirds - many noted that these schools were becoming less diverse, as desegregation plans ended and their communities experienced white flight.
A white graduate of West Charlotte High School noted, "It's amazing to me that…my parents went through segregation, I went through integration, and potentially my daughter might go back to segregation."
In this way, we found, public schools that brought people of different racial backgrounds together for even a short period of time were swimming against a tide of racial segregation in this society. As an African American graduate of John Muir High School explained, integration made her high school unique. "When you look at the yearbook page by page, there's blacks, whites, Asians, Mexicans on every…single page, and that's rare. It was rare then, and it's rare today."
National statistics and our data indicate that it is even rarer today than 25 years ago, although graduates of desegregation say it was one of the most valuable experiences of their lives. If we want to honor these experiences, we might consider the ways in which current education policies could be rewritten to facilitate more diversity in public schools and reverse the current trend toward greater segregation.
Based on our findings, we make the following policy recommendations:
- Broaden definitions of school quality and accountability to include measures other than just standardized test scores - for instance, racial diversity could be considered one measure of a "good" public school in a diverse society.
- Amend current public school choice policies, including charter school laws, to make them more supportive of parents and educators who want to start and maintain racially diverse schools.
- Expand federal and state support for school districts that are still trying to maintain desegregation through magnet schools and student transfer plans.
- Pursue non-education policies, such as housing integration and the diversification of suburbs, that will lead to increasingly diverse public schools.
A white graduate of Dwight Morrow summed it up best when he said that school desegregation had been important, but not sufficient. He argued that the movement for a more integrated society needed to be taken to the next level. "It would have had to be…a national priority."
Many of our interviewees have struggled to maintain some degree of diversity in their lives and say that in their hearts they are open to such diversity when the opportunity presents itself. In their sense of loss about the desegregation they once enjoyed in school, there is hope that our segregated society is not the way it has to be.
For the purposes of this study, we defined "diverse" as any school that had no more than 75 percent of any one racial group.
Download the report: How Desegregation Changed Us: The Effects of Racially Mixed Schools on Students and Society [Requires Adobe Acrobat Reader]
Published Thursday, Oct. 14, 2004 | 2,061 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Norman invasion was inevitable. They had had amazing success in England and the rest of Britain since the Battle of Hastings in 1066 and, despite Henry II’s disinterest in Ireland, the rest of the Normans were hungry for lands and titles. So what led to the invasion in 1169? Why were they so successful, despite shorter numbers? Why didn’t the Irish unite against them and drive them out when they had the chance?
What led to the Invasion in 1169?
Ireland was a Christian country for well over 6 centuries at this stage and it existed in a world set-apart from the institutionalised church in mainland Europe and Britain. Christianity in Ireland was a mixture of old and new. The old ways of Celtic pagan rituals mixed with the new ways of Christian teachings and learning. It was it’s own unique form and there was nothing like it in the rest of the world. So things didn’t make sense for the church in Ireland when it came to be that the Bishop of Canterbury was for some reason granted imperialism over the Irish church.
The bishops of Ireland held a meeting known as “The Synod of Kells” in 1152, and agreed to secede from the English church and form their own system, seeing as Canterbury had no idea how things were done in Ireland. Canterbury was none too pleased. Within two years of the Synod of Kells, the Norman clergy had devised a plan to get Anglo-Norman ecclesiastical dominance in Ireland – by using an all out military assault. A meeting was held in Winchester where it was discussed. There was an army prepared and ready to carry out an invasion. But, despite all the eagerness, Henry II wasn’t interested and nothing came of it at this point. The English clergy were frustrated but they weren’t finished yet.
Fortunately for their cause, Hadrian IV was the pope at the time. He is special because he was the only English pope that ever was – and what a friend to have at a time when you want to invade another country! John of Salisbury managed to obtain from him full papal approval for the invasion of Ireland by England. Even with this, Henry II wasn’t interested in the crusade, he had other things on his mind. So the clergy had to bide their time and wait for their chance. This came more than a decade later, through the invitation of an Irish King, no less.
Diarmuid MacMurchadha, King of Leinster
Ruaidhrí Ó Conchubhair (Rory O’ Connor), King of Connacht, became the High King of Ireland in 1166. This absolutely did not suit Diarmuid Mac Murchadha (MacMurrough) as he was on the worst terms possible with the Ó Conchubhair family. Not only that, but Ó Ruairc (O’ Rourke), a bitter enemy, had helped Ruaidhrí take the throne. They were enemies mainly on the grounds that Diarmuid eloped with Ó Ruairc’s wife. It sounds like a soap opera.
Ó Ruairc advanced into Leinster in 1166 and Diarmuid fled the country. During the next year, Henry II granted him permission to canvass throughout England and Wales for Norman leaders to take a chance with him in Ireland. He found his success in Wales where he met Richard de Clare (Strongbow) and others who were interested in the promise of land and titles.
Diarmuid returned to Ireland the following year with a small number of Normans, Flemings and Welshmen and took back his old territories. The Normans that accompanied him were there to see what kind of resistance would be put up. Testing grounds for an invasion. When Diarmuid tried to take back the title of King of Leinster, the High King, Ruaidhrí, moved against him. Diarmuid was defeated again but in the agreement that followed, he was allowed to keep his old lands on condition that he recognised Ruaidhrí’s supremacy and abandoned his plans for recovery of Leinster.
Needless to say, Diarmuid bided his time until the following year when the scouting continued and more Normans came over to help him. Once again, Ruaidhrí moved against him and Archbishop of Dublin, Laurence O Toole, stepped in to carry out negotiations to bring peace. This resulted in the treaty of 1169. Diarmuid was recognised as king of Leinster on the understanding that he would recognise Ruaidhrí as high-king. Diarmuid also undertook, in a secret clause by Ruaidhrí, to send his foreign allies back whence they came – something the Normans had no intention doing.
Diarmuid, surprise, surprise, was a little lying snake once again. He contacted Richard de Clare (Strongbow), earl of Pembroke and Striguil and urged him to redeem his promise of aid from the negotiations of help when Diarmuid had been in Wales. It’s a wonder he kept trying, despite Ruaidhrí’s punishments.
Diarmuid offered Strongbow the succession to the throne of Leinster through the marriage of his daughter, Aoife. This wasn’t how Irish law worked (Ireland was under Brehon Law while England was under Feudal Law. Marrying a woman in Brehon law did not put you in line to inherit her father’s possessions), but Diarmuid likely knew that Strongbow didn’t know that. In fact, as Diarmuid’s ultimate aim was the High Kingship, Strongbow would think he would be in line for succession to that as well! As you can imagine, Strongbow was very impressed by these offers. And the Normans who had already gone over to Ireland informed him it was ripe for the taking. King Henry II had also given him cautious permission to venture over but he would be keeping a close eye on proceedings. So, Strongbow set sail for Ireland.
Richard de Clare, Strongbow
He landed in 1170 and immediately took the town of Waterford. He married Diarmuid’s daughter, Aoife, and then they marched on Dublin. They were on Dublin’s doorstep before word of what was going on could reach Ruaidhrí and Dublin was stormed and taken. Winter was then on the country and Strongbow retired to Waterford and Diarmuid to his winter quarters in Leinster. This was all Diarmuid would get to see done because he died the next May at Ferns and left Strongbow king of Leinster. King of Leinster, and heir to the programme of a complete conquest of Ireland. Their success in autumn and the capture of Dublin made the arrival of the Normans a matter of general concern.
“Hang on, how did Strongbow become King of Leinster if that’s not how Brehon law worked?” Good question. Strongbow had absolutely no legal right to take the kingship. However, that’s not always what matters. What mattered here was that he had an irresistible force at the time. The Normans were far, far more militarily advanced than the Irish armies due to better steel and better armour. So Strongbow was king purely by force.
High King Ruaidhrí launched a siege on Dublin with the aid of his vassals. Strongbow offered the re-submission of the 1169 agreement but Ruaidhrí had had enough of negotiations with liars and counter-offered that Strongbow could keep Dublin, Wexford and Waterford but forgo all other lands and titles. These terms were unacceptable to the Normans, so the siege continued. That is until a sortie of Strongbows men routed a larger but carelessly organised group of Ruaidhrí’s at an auspicious moment. Apparently a huge number of Ruaidhrí’s men were caught bathing in the river outside of town. A lot of the Irish army were slain and provisions enough for a whole year were captured. So ended the last united military stand in the face of the Normans.
King Henry II
By now Henry was getting worried. Here was another Norman country being set up right on his doorstep. The incredibly quick ascension to the throne of Leinster was enough to spur him into action. He came to Ireland in 1171. Strongbow wisely saw that Henry was angry and met him at Newham in Gloucestershire. Henry was not appeased by his independent ways until Strongbow offered him his Irish gains. Henry landed at Waterford and immediately started consolidating for the English monarchy. Remember, he wasn’t going to be reprimanded by the likes of the Christian powers. Thanks to the English clergy he had that papal writ in his back pocket. He gave Leinster to Strongbow as a fief but the towns of Dublin, Waterford and Wexford he retained for himself. In 1171 on November 11th, he made Dublin the official capital of Ireland.
To the worrying Irish Kings of the time, Henry was a welcome party as he strategically aligned himself to their interests. He had them believe he was there to stop the underling rascals of his from setting up shop in Ireland, which was partially true. He even publicly imprisoned a number of the invading Normans that had invaded to show his good faith. (They were, of course, later released and left go back home in secret.) Henry distributed the conquered lands to lords of his choosing to avoid any uprisings against England.
Henry organised a council of the bishops of Ireland and there he laid out a “study” that “documented” the state of affairs in Ireland. Basically, that Ireland was a cess-pool of vice, barbarianism and debauchery and Henry was spreading civilisation and sunshine. There had been no such study but the bishops of Ireland had no choice but to sign it and it was used to bring an acceptable view to the Norman invasion. Alexander III, the now Pope of the church, basically saw Ireland’s only hope of salvation to be the actions of Henry II. So Henry regained faith with the church, absolved of his past sin (he had some bad faith due to the fact that he killed the arch bishop of Canterbury), got his liege men under control in a new country and for the most part, fooled the locals into accepting him as their king. The invasion was complete and now the settling could begin.
He left in April the same year and never returned to Ireland.
Why didn’t the Irish unite against the invaders?
A good question. Unfortunately, foreign steel wasn’t uncommon in Ireland. Local kings often called in aid where they could, to strengthen their positions. As far as the other kings of Ireland were concerned, this was a matter between Ruaidhrí and Diarmuid. The fact that Diarmuid had hired steel from over seas meant little. It was only when Strongbow ascended to the throne of Leinster that they realised something serious was happening. And by then, it was far too late.
How were the Normans so successful with so few numbers?
Not difficult that. The Normans had mail armour, armoured cavalry, trained men of arms and the dreaded longbow as well as steel helmets. The Irish mainly fought with leather armour or no armour at all and often didn’t follow anything approaching a strict formation in battle. So, in essence, the Normans were fighting against a far, far inferior army and often came out victorious in scenarios where they were outnumbered 5:1 because of it. | <urn:uuid:dd174ae4-f9e9-4804-9a22-c63571391fc6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://seanchasbeag.com/the-norman-invasion/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00143.warc.gz | en | 0.987495 | 2,439 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.1651206314563... | 3 | The Norman invasion was inevitable. They had had amazing success in England and the rest of Britain since the Battle of Hastings in 1066 and, despite Henry II’s disinterest in Ireland, the rest of the Normans were hungry for lands and titles. So what led to the invasion in 1169? Why were they so successful, despite shorter numbers? Why didn’t the Irish unite against them and drive them out when they had the chance?
What led to the Invasion in 1169?
Ireland was a Christian country for well over 6 centuries at this stage and it existed in a world set-apart from the institutionalised church in mainland Europe and Britain. Christianity in Ireland was a mixture of old and new. The old ways of Celtic pagan rituals mixed with the new ways of Christian teachings and learning. It was it’s own unique form and there was nothing like it in the rest of the world. So things didn’t make sense for the church in Ireland when it came to be that the Bishop of Canterbury was for some reason granted imperialism over the Irish church.
The bishops of Ireland held a meeting known as “The Synod of Kells” in 1152, and agreed to secede from the English church and form their own system, seeing as Canterbury had no idea how things were done in Ireland. Canterbury was none too pleased. Within two years of the Synod of Kells, the Norman clergy had devised a plan to get Anglo-Norman ecclesiastical dominance in Ireland – by using an all out military assault. A meeting was held in Winchester where it was discussed. There was an army prepared and ready to carry out an invasion. But, despite all the eagerness, Henry II wasn’t interested and nothing came of it at this point. The English clergy were frustrated but they weren’t finished yet.
Fortunately for their cause, Hadrian IV was the pope at the time. He is special because he was the only English pope that ever was – and what a friend to have at a time when you want to invade another country! John of Salisbury managed to obtain from him full papal approval for the invasion of Ireland by England. Even with this, Henry II wasn’t interested in the crusade, he had other things on his mind. So the clergy had to bide their time and wait for their chance. This came more than a decade later, through the invitation of an Irish King, no less.
Diarmuid MacMurchadha, King of Leinster
Ruaidhrí Ó Conchubhair (Rory O’ Connor), King of Connacht, became the High King of Ireland in 1166. This absolutely did not suit Diarmuid Mac Murchadha (MacMurrough) as he was on the worst terms possible with the Ó Conchubhair family. Not only that, but Ó Ruairc (O’ Rourke), a bitter enemy, had helped Ruaidhrí take the throne. They were enemies mainly on the grounds that Diarmuid eloped with Ó Ruairc’s wife. It sounds like a soap opera.
Ó Ruairc advanced into Leinster in 1166 and Diarmuid fled the country. During the next year, Henry II granted him permission to canvass throughout England and Wales for Norman leaders to take a chance with him in Ireland. He found his success in Wales where he met Richard de Clare (Strongbow) and others who were interested in the promise of land and titles.
Diarmuid returned to Ireland the following year with a small number of Normans, Flemings and Welshmen and took back his old territories. The Normans that accompanied him were there to see what kind of resistance would be put up. Testing grounds for an invasion. When Diarmuid tried to take back the title of King of Leinster, the High King, Ruaidhrí, moved against him. Diarmuid was defeated again but in the agreement that followed, he was allowed to keep his old lands on condition that he recognised Ruaidhrí’s supremacy and abandoned his plans for recovery of Leinster.
Needless to say, Diarmuid bided his time until the following year when the scouting continued and more Normans came over to help him. Once again, Ruaidhrí moved against him and Archbishop of Dublin, Laurence O Toole, stepped in to carry out negotiations to bring peace. This resulted in the treaty of 1169. Diarmuid was recognised as king of Leinster on the understanding that he would recognise Ruaidhrí as high-king. Diarmuid also undertook, in a secret clause by Ruaidhrí, to send his foreign allies back whence they came – something the Normans had no intention doing.
Diarmuid, surprise, surprise, was a little lying snake once again. He contacted Richard de Clare (Strongbow), earl of Pembroke and Striguil and urged him to redeem his promise of aid from the negotiations of help when Diarmuid had been in Wales. It’s a wonder he kept trying, despite Ruaidhrí’s punishments.
Diarmuid offered Strongbow the succession to the throne of Leinster through the marriage of his daughter, Aoife. This wasn’t how Irish law worked (Ireland was under Brehon Law while England was under Feudal Law. Marrying a woman in Brehon law did not put you in line to inherit her father’s possessions), but Diarmuid likely knew that Strongbow didn’t know that. In fact, as Diarmuid’s ultimate aim was the High Kingship, Strongbow would think he would be in line for succession to that as well! As you can imagine, Strongbow was very impressed by these offers. And the Normans who had already gone over to Ireland informed him it was ripe for the taking. King Henry II had also given him cautious permission to venture over but he would be keeping a close eye on proceedings. So, Strongbow set sail for Ireland.
Richard de Clare, Strongbow
He landed in 1170 and immediately took the town of Waterford. He married Diarmuid’s daughter, Aoife, and then they marched on Dublin. They were on Dublin’s doorstep before word of what was going on could reach Ruaidhrí and Dublin was stormed and taken. Winter was then on the country and Strongbow retired to Waterford and Diarmuid to his winter quarters in Leinster. This was all Diarmuid would get to see done because he died the next May at Ferns and left Strongbow king of Leinster. King of Leinster, and heir to the programme of a complete conquest of Ireland. Their success in autumn and the capture of Dublin made the arrival of the Normans a matter of general concern.
“Hang on, how did Strongbow become King of Leinster if that’s not how Brehon law worked?” Good question. Strongbow had absolutely no legal right to take the kingship. However, that’s not always what matters. What mattered here was that he had an irresistible force at the time. The Normans were far, far more militarily advanced than the Irish armies due to better steel and better armour. So Strongbow was king purely by force.
High King Ruaidhrí launched a siege on Dublin with the aid of his vassals. Strongbow offered the re-submission of the 1169 agreement but Ruaidhrí had had enough of negotiations with liars and counter-offered that Strongbow could keep Dublin, Wexford and Waterford but forgo all other lands and titles. These terms were unacceptable to the Normans, so the siege continued. That is until a sortie of Strongbows men routed a larger but carelessly organised group of Ruaidhrí’s at an auspicious moment. Apparently a huge number of Ruaidhrí’s men were caught bathing in the river outside of town. A lot of the Irish army were slain and provisions enough for a whole year were captured. So ended the last united military stand in the face of the Normans.
King Henry II
By now Henry was getting worried. Here was another Norman country being set up right on his doorstep. The incredibly quick ascension to the throne of Leinster was enough to spur him into action. He came to Ireland in 1171. Strongbow wisely saw that Henry was angry and met him at Newham in Gloucestershire. Henry was not appeased by his independent ways until Strongbow offered him his Irish gains. Henry landed at Waterford and immediately started consolidating for the English monarchy. Remember, he wasn’t going to be reprimanded by the likes of the Christian powers. Thanks to the English clergy he had that papal writ in his back pocket. He gave Leinster to Strongbow as a fief but the towns of Dublin, Waterford and Wexford he retained for himself. In 1171 on November 11th, he made Dublin the official capital of Ireland.
To the worrying Irish Kings of the time, Henry was a welcome party as he strategically aligned himself to their interests. He had them believe he was there to stop the underling rascals of his from setting up shop in Ireland, which was partially true. He even publicly imprisoned a number of the invading Normans that had invaded to show his good faith. (They were, of course, later released and left go back home in secret.) Henry distributed the conquered lands to lords of his choosing to avoid any uprisings against England.
Henry organised a council of the bishops of Ireland and there he laid out a “study” that “documented” the state of affairs in Ireland. Basically, that Ireland was a cess-pool of vice, barbarianism and debauchery and Henry was spreading civilisation and sunshine. There had been no such study but the bishops of Ireland had no choice but to sign it and it was used to bring an acceptable view to the Norman invasion. Alexander III, the now Pope of the church, basically saw Ireland’s only hope of salvation to be the actions of Henry II. So Henry regained faith with the church, absolved of his past sin (he had some bad faith due to the fact that he killed the arch bishop of Canterbury), got his liege men under control in a new country and for the most part, fooled the locals into accepting him as their king. The invasion was complete and now the settling could begin.
He left in April the same year and never returned to Ireland.
Why didn’t the Irish unite against the invaders?
A good question. Unfortunately, foreign steel wasn’t uncommon in Ireland. Local kings often called in aid where they could, to strengthen their positions. As far as the other kings of Ireland were concerned, this was a matter between Ruaidhrí and Diarmuid. The fact that Diarmuid had hired steel from over seas meant little. It was only when Strongbow ascended to the throne of Leinster that they realised something serious was happening. And by then, it was far too late.
How were the Normans so successful with so few numbers?
Not difficult that. The Normans had mail armour, armoured cavalry, trained men of arms and the dreaded longbow as well as steel helmets. The Irish mainly fought with leather armour or no armour at all and often didn’t follow anything approaching a strict formation in battle. So, in essence, the Normans were fighting against a far, far inferior army and often came out victorious in scenarios where they were outnumbered 5:1 because of it. | 2,394 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Lawrence Toppman
You’ll occasionally hear that Mozart was ignored at the end of his life, dumped into a mass grave without a headstone because Viennese society had already begun to forget him. He died 228 years ago today (December 5), so this may be a good week to debunk hoary legends about his passing and funeral.
Accounts about the nature of his fatal illness don’t agree. Most sources point to rheumatic fever; he’d had bouts of it as a boy, and it probably came back in adulthood. His late-life symptoms of swelling and joint pain suggest a recurrence, and rheumatic fever often leads to heart disease.
He spoke at least twice of the belief that he’d been poisoned by an unidentified enemy but also repudiated that idea, as scholars do today. Theorists have suggested he had a severe deficiency of vitamin D, succumbed to a subdural hematoma or trichinosis, or filled his body with patent medicines that contained antimony.
Reports in the 19th century claimed nobody accompanied the body to the interment, partly because of terrible rain and snow. But weather journals for 1791, found long after the “dark and stormy night” narrative circulated, say the weather was calm. And it was less customary anyway for mourners at the funeral to ride out to the gravesite in the 18th century.
Emperor Joseph II had forbidden the use of headstones and encouraged burials that were simple, hygienic and inexpensive: Bodies were supposed to decay quickly, and the city of Vienna sometimes opened communal graves to replace occupants with fresh corpses. Leopold II ruled during the last years of Mozart’s life but had not changed those practices much.
Biographers also dispute whether Mozart lay in a “common” grave or a “communal” one. The former adjective simply means humble or non-aristocratic. The latter means he shared space with other bodies, at least until they were removed. He definitely landed in St. Marx Cemetery, where a statue of a weeping angel now sits at the spot thought likeliest to be his resting place. Except, perhaps, for his skull (minus the lower jaw). That, according to the Salzburg Mozarteum Foundation in his birth city, may be in their hands, though DNA testing has been inconclusive. Of course, what really matters is not the skull itself but the amazing music that came out of it. | <urn:uuid:f18a29d4-6e61-4a3b-8faa-bacb191c60f6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blogs.wdav.org/2019/12/the-myth-of-the-paupers-grave/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00349.warc.gz | en | 0.981743 | 522 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.24457977712... | 13 | By Lawrence Toppman
You’ll occasionally hear that Mozart was ignored at the end of his life, dumped into a mass grave without a headstone because Viennese society had already begun to forget him. He died 228 years ago today (December 5), so this may be a good week to debunk hoary legends about his passing and funeral.
Accounts about the nature of his fatal illness don’t agree. Most sources point to rheumatic fever; he’d had bouts of it as a boy, and it probably came back in adulthood. His late-life symptoms of swelling and joint pain suggest a recurrence, and rheumatic fever often leads to heart disease.
He spoke at least twice of the belief that he’d been poisoned by an unidentified enemy but also repudiated that idea, as scholars do today. Theorists have suggested he had a severe deficiency of vitamin D, succumbed to a subdural hematoma or trichinosis, or filled his body with patent medicines that contained antimony.
Reports in the 19th century claimed nobody accompanied the body to the interment, partly because of terrible rain and snow. But weather journals for 1791, found long after the “dark and stormy night” narrative circulated, say the weather was calm. And it was less customary anyway for mourners at the funeral to ride out to the gravesite in the 18th century.
Emperor Joseph II had forbidden the use of headstones and encouraged burials that were simple, hygienic and inexpensive: Bodies were supposed to decay quickly, and the city of Vienna sometimes opened communal graves to replace occupants with fresh corpses. Leopold II ruled during the last years of Mozart’s life but had not changed those practices much.
Biographers also dispute whether Mozart lay in a “common” grave or a “communal” one. The former adjective simply means humble or non-aristocratic. The latter means he shared space with other bodies, at least until they were removed. He definitely landed in St. Marx Cemetery, where a statue of a weeping angel now sits at the spot thought likeliest to be his resting place. Except, perhaps, for his skull (minus the lower jaw). That, according to the Salzburg Mozarteum Foundation in his birth city, may be in their hands, though DNA testing has been inconclusive. Of course, what really matters is not the skull itself but the amazing music that came out of it. | 504 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Professor Martin Seligman is known as the father of positive psychology. In his popular TED Talk, he argues that most psychologists are fixated on finding what’s “wrong” with people, while he insists on finding what’s “right.”
His theory, and the theories of so many positive psychologists, are based on a study he conducted with a large group of children who were at risk of depression. In his book, Learned Optimism, Seligman shares how he taught the children to control their negative or pessimistic thinking using Dr. Aaron Beck’s cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) model. He then followed the group of children for many years and compared them to other children who were not taught any specific way to control negative thoughts. The study showed that the children who were taught and coached were half as likely to develop anxiety and depression later in life.
Let’s say your largest client calls you out of the blue, your boss asks to see you, your child’s principal leaves you an abrupt voicemail, or a friend doesn’t give you a cheerful hello. That is the adverse event.
What is the thought that then pops into your mind? That is your belief. Usually, it’s a negative one, like, “Uh-oh! What did I do now?” or “What did my child do wrong at school?”
Read the whole story: Forbes | <urn:uuid:ff54446c-eb10-4bef-bb84-bfe709a7515c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.psychologicalscience.org/news/the-fourth-commandment-of-highly-effective-leadership-counter-your-negative-thoughts.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00296.warc.gz | en | 0.981121 | 302 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.4403468966484... | 1 | Professor Martin Seligman is known as the father of positive psychology. In his popular TED Talk, he argues that most psychologists are fixated on finding what’s “wrong” with people, while he insists on finding what’s “right.”
His theory, and the theories of so many positive psychologists, are based on a study he conducted with a large group of children who were at risk of depression. In his book, Learned Optimism, Seligman shares how he taught the children to control their negative or pessimistic thinking using Dr. Aaron Beck’s cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) model. He then followed the group of children for many years and compared them to other children who were not taught any specific way to control negative thoughts. The study showed that the children who were taught and coached were half as likely to develop anxiety and depression later in life.
Let’s say your largest client calls you out of the blue, your boss asks to see you, your child’s principal leaves you an abrupt voicemail, or a friend doesn’t give you a cheerful hello. That is the adverse event.
What is the thought that then pops into your mind? That is your belief. Usually, it’s a negative one, like, “Uh-oh! What did I do now?” or “What did my child do wrong at school?”
Read the whole story: Forbes | 275 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On 27 June 1953, the United Nations Command (UNC) and North Korean Communist forces signed an armistice ending three years of fighting in Korea. Although the American-led UNC failed to win the entire peninsula, it successfully repelled Communist attacks south of the 38th parallel. Moreover, though contrary to the 1947 Geneva Convention, which mandated the wholesale exchange of all POWs, President Truman’s policy of voluntary repatriation proved highly successful: 47,000 Chinese and North Korean prisoners of war struck a propaganda blow against their Marxist governments by choosing not to return to their homelands.
In September, however, 23 American prisoners of war also refused repatriation, sparking a nationwide debate among journalists, politicians, military officials, psychiatrists, and the soldiers themselves. During a 90-day cooling off period, the GIs were held in the neutral zone at Panmunjom, but only two changed their minds in response to entreaties by U.S. officials and letters from the GIs’ families.
The commonly accepted reason at the time was that they were brainwashed while held prisoner. This was effectively confirmed by 149 other POWs held by the Chinese/North Koreans who “reported that their captors had waged a systematic effort to break down their beliefs and entice them to collaborate”. Time and Newsweek published articles looking for defects in the 21, to explain why they were able to be brainwashed. The magazines blamed reasons such as alcoholism, STDs, low IQs, and being “diseased”.
Race played an important role throughout the nationwide debate, especially since three of the 21 nonrepatriates were black. Discussion of the black nonrepatriates in the white press highlights public perceptions of Communism and civil rights in the mid-1950s. For example, many publications noted the special effort the Chinese had made to woo black American soldiers, how they had stressed that in their Marxist nation all members of society were treated equally.
During the 90 day cooling off period all 23 US soldiers were held on neutral territory. The 2 that left the group were court martialed for desertion and collaboration, one was given a 20 year sentence and the other 10. The remaining 21 were dishonorably discharged and journeyed in China.
Once in China the soldiers were sent to a collective farm to work. Within 1.5 years three of them ran away and sought refuge at the British Embassy in Peking. By 1958, 7 more of the soldiers had left China. By 1966, only two remained in China. One of the 21 returned to the US in 1965 and explained his actions in 1953 as being motivated by “anger by the recall of his idol, General Douglas MacArthur, who favored the use of nuclear weapons to end the war. During his two years as a prisoner, he increasingly felt abandoned by America”.
One of the three black soldiers (who returned to the US in 1966) explained that discrimination in US was the reason he went to China in 1953. In 1991, he said: “Brainwashed? The Chinese unbrainwashed me. The black man had his mind brainwashed long before the Korea War”. As the soldiers trickled back to the US, an additional reason was revealed: A handful apparently had informed on their fellows while in POW camps, and rather than rejecting the economic and political situation in the United States they were simply afraid to return. | <urn:uuid:989c0bf2-9143-4c45-952f-d6ebb66e4a8a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rarehistoricalphotos.com/american-soldiers-stayed-north-korea/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00324.warc.gz | en | 0.984882 | 697 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.4981847107410... | 6 | On 27 June 1953, the United Nations Command (UNC) and North Korean Communist forces signed an armistice ending three years of fighting in Korea. Although the American-led UNC failed to win the entire peninsula, it successfully repelled Communist attacks south of the 38th parallel. Moreover, though contrary to the 1947 Geneva Convention, which mandated the wholesale exchange of all POWs, President Truman’s policy of voluntary repatriation proved highly successful: 47,000 Chinese and North Korean prisoners of war struck a propaganda blow against their Marxist governments by choosing not to return to their homelands.
In September, however, 23 American prisoners of war also refused repatriation, sparking a nationwide debate among journalists, politicians, military officials, psychiatrists, and the soldiers themselves. During a 90-day cooling off period, the GIs were held in the neutral zone at Panmunjom, but only two changed their minds in response to entreaties by U.S. officials and letters from the GIs’ families.
The commonly accepted reason at the time was that they were brainwashed while held prisoner. This was effectively confirmed by 149 other POWs held by the Chinese/North Koreans who “reported that their captors had waged a systematic effort to break down their beliefs and entice them to collaborate”. Time and Newsweek published articles looking for defects in the 21, to explain why they were able to be brainwashed. The magazines blamed reasons such as alcoholism, STDs, low IQs, and being “diseased”.
Race played an important role throughout the nationwide debate, especially since three of the 21 nonrepatriates were black. Discussion of the black nonrepatriates in the white press highlights public perceptions of Communism and civil rights in the mid-1950s. For example, many publications noted the special effort the Chinese had made to woo black American soldiers, how they had stressed that in their Marxist nation all members of society were treated equally.
During the 90 day cooling off period all 23 US soldiers were held on neutral territory. The 2 that left the group were court martialed for desertion and collaboration, one was given a 20 year sentence and the other 10. The remaining 21 were dishonorably discharged and journeyed in China.
Once in China the soldiers were sent to a collective farm to work. Within 1.5 years three of them ran away and sought refuge at the British Embassy in Peking. By 1958, 7 more of the soldiers had left China. By 1966, only two remained in China. One of the 21 returned to the US in 1965 and explained his actions in 1953 as being motivated by “anger by the recall of his idol, General Douglas MacArthur, who favored the use of nuclear weapons to end the war. During his two years as a prisoner, he increasingly felt abandoned by America”.
One of the three black soldiers (who returned to the US in 1966) explained that discrimination in US was the reason he went to China in 1953. In 1991, he said: “Brainwashed? The Chinese unbrainwashed me. The black man had his mind brainwashed long before the Korea War”. As the soldiers trickled back to the US, an additional reason was revealed: A handful apparently had informed on their fellows while in POW camps, and rather than rejecting the economic and political situation in the United States they were simply afraid to return. | 759 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pennsylvania State University Introduction Ti. Claudius Nero Germanicus b. His reign represents a turning point in the history of the Principate for a number of reasons, not the least for the manner of his accession and the implications it carried for the nature of the office. During his reign he promoted administrators who did not belong to the senatorial or equestrian classes, and was later vilified by authors who did.
Once in place, he was fairly successful, but his poor taste in women would prove his undoing. Nobody expected Claudius to become emperor.
Although he was the only surviving heir of Augustus and was the brother of the war hero, Germanicus, Claudius was a figure of fun.
Unexpectedly, the family fool had become emperor. Discovered trembling in the palace by one of his own soldiers, he was clearly reluctant and afraid.
He had good reason: Supported mainly by soldiers and courtiers, he had a rocky relationship with the Senate. Many senators supported the abortive rebellion in the Balkans in 42 AD and they featured in many of the plots against his life. Surprisingly popular Despite these dangers, Claudius worked hard at his job, starting work just after midnight every day.
It began to pay off: He also treated his people with unusual respect, apologizing to visiting pensioners when there were not enough chairs. Hardly surprising, then, that Suetonius wrote how this sort of behavior endeared him to the people.
Conquering the Brits Claudius had some real successes. Britain had resisted Roman rule for over a century, but was conquered by Claudius, who created client kingdoms to protect the frontier. He had succeeded where Caesar had failed. This was the most important addition to the empire since the time of Augustus.
Trouble and strife Even this success, however, was not enough to protect him from political danger. Here, his worst enemies would turn out to be his own wives. Claudius had simply awful taste in women. Although he adored his wife, Messalina, she was extravagant and promiscuous, with a particular weakness for the servants.
Claudius tried to turn a blind eye to her many affairs, but in 48 AD Messalina took a new lover, Gaius Silius, a nobleman. Their relationship was widely thought to be cover for a plot and Claudius was urged to take action: It was too late. The emperor was hosting a dinner party when he heard that his wife had died.
Without asking how, he called for more wine.
The next year, Claudius decided to marry again, surprising Rome by choosing his own niece, Agrippina. Oh dear This was a bad mistake.
Determined to make the most of her luck and happy to use any means necessary, Agrippina was about the only woman who could make Messalina seem a good catch. Agrippina began her quest for power by persuading Claudius to bring back Seneca from exile so that he could become tutor to her own son, Nero, the boy she planned to make an emperor.
Speeding things up Gradually Agrippina removed all her rivals and convinced Claudius to disinherit his own son, Britannicus. With Nero now heir, the only remaining obstacle was Claudius himself. Agrippina took drastic action: Claudius appeared on the brink of death, but began to recover.
Horrified, Agrippina signed up the emperor's own doctor to her cause. While pretending to help Claudius vomit his food, the doctor put a feather dipped in poison down his throat.
As Tacitus said, "Dangerous crimes bring ample reward. This would prove interesting.Early life. The son of Nero Claudius Drusus, a popular and successful Roman general, and the younger Antonia, he was the nephew of the emperor Tiberius and a grandson of Livia Drusilla, the wife of the emperor webkandii.com health, unattractive appearance, clumsiness of manner, and coarseness of taste did not recommend him for a public life.
Although he lacked a military reputation, the essential attribute of an emperor, in 43 AD Claudius undertook the conquest of Britain. He visited the island for 16 days, to preside over the capture of Colchester, the capital of the .
Claudius, in full Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, original name (until 41 ce) Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus, (born August 1, 10 bce, Lugdunum [Lyon], Gaul—died October 13, 54 ce), Roman emperor (41–54 ce), who extended Roman rule in North Africa and made Britain a province.
Claudius Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Early life. Claudius (full name Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) was born on 1st August, 10 BC, as the son of Nero Claudius Drusus, a Roman general, and his wife, webkandii.com had two siblings.
Claudius was the nephew of Emperor Tiberius. While he was still a child, his father died, and therefore Claudius was raised by his mother. Disfigured, awkward and clumsy, Claudius (10 BC – 54 AD / Reigned 41 – 54 AD) was the black sheep of his family and an unlikely emperor. Once in place, he was fairly successful, but his poor.
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0.2576965987682342... | 1 | Pennsylvania State University Introduction Ti. Claudius Nero Germanicus b. His reign represents a turning point in the history of the Principate for a number of reasons, not the least for the manner of his accession and the implications it carried for the nature of the office. During his reign he promoted administrators who did not belong to the senatorial or equestrian classes, and was later vilified by authors who did.
Once in place, he was fairly successful, but his poor taste in women would prove his undoing. Nobody expected Claudius to become emperor.
Although he was the only surviving heir of Augustus and was the brother of the war hero, Germanicus, Claudius was a figure of fun.
Unexpectedly, the family fool had become emperor. Discovered trembling in the palace by one of his own soldiers, he was clearly reluctant and afraid.
He had good reason: Supported mainly by soldiers and courtiers, he had a rocky relationship with the Senate. Many senators supported the abortive rebellion in the Balkans in 42 AD and they featured in many of the plots against his life. Surprisingly popular Despite these dangers, Claudius worked hard at his job, starting work just after midnight every day.
It began to pay off: He also treated his people with unusual respect, apologizing to visiting pensioners when there were not enough chairs. Hardly surprising, then, that Suetonius wrote how this sort of behavior endeared him to the people.
Conquering the Brits Claudius had some real successes. Britain had resisted Roman rule for over a century, but was conquered by Claudius, who created client kingdoms to protect the frontier. He had succeeded where Caesar had failed. This was the most important addition to the empire since the time of Augustus.
Trouble and strife Even this success, however, was not enough to protect him from political danger. Here, his worst enemies would turn out to be his own wives. Claudius had simply awful taste in women. Although he adored his wife, Messalina, she was extravagant and promiscuous, with a particular weakness for the servants.
Claudius tried to turn a blind eye to her many affairs, but in 48 AD Messalina took a new lover, Gaius Silius, a nobleman. Their relationship was widely thought to be cover for a plot and Claudius was urged to take action: It was too late. The emperor was hosting a dinner party when he heard that his wife had died.
Without asking how, he called for more wine.
The next year, Claudius decided to marry again, surprising Rome by choosing his own niece, Agrippina. Oh dear This was a bad mistake.
Determined to make the most of her luck and happy to use any means necessary, Agrippina was about the only woman who could make Messalina seem a good catch. Agrippina began her quest for power by persuading Claudius to bring back Seneca from exile so that he could become tutor to her own son, Nero, the boy she planned to make an emperor.
Speeding things up Gradually Agrippina removed all her rivals and convinced Claudius to disinherit his own son, Britannicus. With Nero now heir, the only remaining obstacle was Claudius himself. Agrippina took drastic action: Claudius appeared on the brink of death, but began to recover.
Horrified, Agrippina signed up the emperor's own doctor to her cause. While pretending to help Claudius vomit his food, the doctor put a feather dipped in poison down his throat.
As Tacitus said, "Dangerous crimes bring ample reward. This would prove interesting.Early life. The son of Nero Claudius Drusus, a popular and successful Roman general, and the younger Antonia, he was the nephew of the emperor Tiberius and a grandson of Livia Drusilla, the wife of the emperor webkandii.com health, unattractive appearance, clumsiness of manner, and coarseness of taste did not recommend him for a public life.
Although he lacked a military reputation, the essential attribute of an emperor, in 43 AD Claudius undertook the conquest of Britain. He visited the island for 16 days, to preside over the capture of Colchester, the capital of the .
Claudius, in full Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, original name (until 41 ce) Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus, (born August 1, 10 bce, Lugdunum [Lyon], Gaul—died October 13, 54 ce), Roman emperor (41–54 ce), who extended Roman rule in North Africa and made Britain a province.
Claudius Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Early life. Claudius (full name Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) was born on 1st August, 10 BC, as the son of Nero Claudius Drusus, a Roman general, and his wife, webkandii.com had two siblings.
Claudius was the nephew of Emperor Tiberius. While he was still a child, his father died, and therefore Claudius was raised by his mother. Disfigured, awkward and clumsy, Claudius (10 BC – 54 AD / Reigned 41 – 54 AD) was the black sheep of his family and an unlikely emperor. Once in place, he was fairly successful, but his poor.
Claudius was Roman emperor from 41 to 54 CE. After the death of Emperor Caligula and his family at the hands of the Praetorian Guard, the future Emperor Claudius was found quivering behind a set of curtains, fearing for his own life, and named emperor. | 1,200 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Overlooked is a series of obituaries about remarkable people whose deaths, beginning in 1851, went unreported in The Times.
It was January 1942, and Japanese-American civil servants in California were alarmed. Within weeks of Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor, the state government had sent an invasive questionnaire to its employees of Japanese descent.
Did they speak Japanese? Had they ever visited Japan? Were they members of any Japanese organizations?
Anti-Japanese sentiment was high, and the survey, with its accusatory tone, seemed bent on portraying the workers as untrustworthy.
Mitsuye Endo, a 22-year-old typist with the Department of Motor Vehicles, dutifully answered the questions, and that spring she was fired, along with dozens of other Nisei, or second-generation Japanese-Americans, who worked for the state.
Although born in the United States, Nisei were accused of holding Japanese citizenship as well, a sign to many Americans of potential disloyalty. Their attending Buddhist schools and their ability to read and write Japanese raised suspicions only further.
“We were given a piece of paper saying we were suspended because we were of Japanese ancestry,” Endo said in the only interview she ever gave, to John Tateishi, for his book “And Justice for All: An Oral History of the Japanese American Detention Camps” (1984).
By then President Franklin D. Roosevelt had signed Executive Order 9066, ordering the internment of about 120,000 Japanese-Americans in camps throughout the country.
Endo, who was interned with her family, would go on to become the chief plaintiff in the only United States Supreme Court case to successfully challenge Japanese incarceration during World War II. Three similar Supreme Court cases failed, most notably Korematsu v. United States, in which the justices upheld the restrictions placed on Japanese-Americans.
In Endo’s case — Ex parte Mitsuye Endo — the court unanimously ruled on Dec. 18, 1944, that the government could not detain citizens who were loyal to the United States.
Yet Endo, an unassuming woman, would never seek the spotlight, and by the time of the ruling she had never set foot in court.
Mitsuye Maureen Endo was born on May 10, 1920, in Sacramento, the second of four children of Jinshiro and Shima (Ota) Endo, Japanese immigrants. Her father was a salesman in a grocery store, her mother a homemaker. In the 1940s, the family lived and worked in one of the country’s largest and most vibrant Japantowns, a section of Sacramento with 3,400 residents and hundreds of businesses.
After the forced evacuation of Japanese-Americans, the Japanese American Citizens League, a national group, hired James Purcell, a San Francisco lawyer, to put together a case that would challenge the government and shutter the 10 detention camps it had opened. In looking for the ideal plaintiff to represent the group, he distributed a questionnaire to internees. In a stack of 100 or so responses, one stood out.
Endo had never visited Japan, had attended a Sacramento public school and was a Methodist. To top it off, her brother had served in the Army. On paper, she was perfect.
“They felt I represented a symbolic, ‘loyal’ American,” she said in “And Justice for All.”
The Endo family had been moved to a temporary relocation facility near Sacramento, then 300 miles north to the remote Tule Lake Segregation Center, near the Oregon border.
On July 13, 1942, Purcell filed a writ of habeas corpus, arguing, “If you can abrogate certain sections of the Constitution and incarcerate any person without trial or charges just because you do not like his nationality, what is to prevent from abrogating any or all of the Constitution?”
It took a year before Judge Michael J. Roche of the United States District Court in Northern California denied Endo’s freedom. The government, expecting Purcell would file an appeal, offered her release, but on one condition: She was not to return home.
“The top lawyer for the War Relocation Authority met with her in camp to offer her freedom in exchange for a commitment not to try to return to the forbidden area of the West Coast,” Eric Muller, a law professor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, said by email. “She refused the offer.”
Some of her friends and relatives accepted the offer and were released, but Endo remained incarcerated indefinitely while her case remained under appeal.
By this time, her immediate family had been transferred to the Central Utah Relocation Center in Topaz. They made do with meager food rations — “they gave them just any old thing — scraps here and there,” Endo’s daughter Terry DeRivera said in an interview — and Endo sometimes became ill. She remembered armed soldiers in towers watching them from on high.
“She was really afraid,” DeRivera said.
During her detainment Endo met her future husband, Kenneth Tsutsumi, who played the ukulele with friends to pass the time and entertain fellow detainees.
The Supreme Court heard oral arguments in her case in October 1944. That December it ruled unanimously in Endo’s favor, calling her a “concedingly loyal” citizen.
The ruling said the government had no legal right to confine people who had been screened and found to be loyal, but though it referred to the detention of Japanese-Americans as “racial discrimination,” it stopped short of defining the constitutional limits of wartime detention based on factors like race.
As Muller put it in his email, “It didn’t want, on the one hand, to approve of racial detentions, or, on the other, to hand President Roosevelt a defeat during wartime.”
In fact, the day before the court issued its ruling, the Roosevelt administration announced that Japanese-Americans could return home beginning on Jan. 1, 1945. Besides effectively closing the remaining concentration camps (though it took until the end of the year before they were entirely emptied), the Endo case has continued to be cited in matters related to the detention of United States citizens.
It was invoked in 2004, for example, in Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, a Supreme Court case that ruled that United States citizens who were detained as enemy combatants were entitled to due process and could not be barred from challenging their enemy combatant status.
Despite the Supreme Court ruling citing discrimination, anti-Japanese sentiment remained pervasive on the West Coast.
“It was not a good thing,” Endo’s daughter said. “It was a nightmare for them.”
During the war a Senate committee on Japanese resettlement released a report saying that there would be “violence and bloodshed” if internees were returned to the West Coast. It appealed to Roosevelt to keep them out of California until the end of the war.
Despite her earlier insistence on returning home, Endo decided that it wouldn’t be safe to do so. “My mom said no, she would never go back to California,” DeRivera said.
Endo and Tsutsumi moved to Chicago, where they married on Nov. 22, 1946. They raised three children in a close-knit community of Japanese-American transplants. Endo rarely spoke of the past and strove to fit in “like American apple pie,” DeRivera said.
Endo died of cancer on April 14, 2006. She was 85.
Later in life, when she was interviewed for “And Justice for All,” she marveled at how her incarceration and the subsequent court case “seemed like a dream” to her so many years later.
“When I think about it now — that my case went to the Supreme Court — I’m awed by it,” she said. “I never believed it, that I would be the one.” | <urn:uuid:264c905c-66a3-44f0-bf00-d5efb76178a0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://news-bits.xyz/2019/10/09/overlooked-no-more-mitsuye-endo-a-name-linked-to-justice-for-japanese-americans/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00263.warc.gz | en | 0.980102 | 1,714 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.4745602309703... | 2 | Overlooked is a series of obituaries about remarkable people whose deaths, beginning in 1851, went unreported in The Times.
It was January 1942, and Japanese-American civil servants in California were alarmed. Within weeks of Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor, the state government had sent an invasive questionnaire to its employees of Japanese descent.
Did they speak Japanese? Had they ever visited Japan? Were they members of any Japanese organizations?
Anti-Japanese sentiment was high, and the survey, with its accusatory tone, seemed bent on portraying the workers as untrustworthy.
Mitsuye Endo, a 22-year-old typist with the Department of Motor Vehicles, dutifully answered the questions, and that spring she was fired, along with dozens of other Nisei, or second-generation Japanese-Americans, who worked for the state.
Although born in the United States, Nisei were accused of holding Japanese citizenship as well, a sign to many Americans of potential disloyalty. Their attending Buddhist schools and their ability to read and write Japanese raised suspicions only further.
“We were given a piece of paper saying we were suspended because we were of Japanese ancestry,” Endo said in the only interview she ever gave, to John Tateishi, for his book “And Justice for All: An Oral History of the Japanese American Detention Camps” (1984).
By then President Franklin D. Roosevelt had signed Executive Order 9066, ordering the internment of about 120,000 Japanese-Americans in camps throughout the country.
Endo, who was interned with her family, would go on to become the chief plaintiff in the only United States Supreme Court case to successfully challenge Japanese incarceration during World War II. Three similar Supreme Court cases failed, most notably Korematsu v. United States, in which the justices upheld the restrictions placed on Japanese-Americans.
In Endo’s case — Ex parte Mitsuye Endo — the court unanimously ruled on Dec. 18, 1944, that the government could not detain citizens who were loyal to the United States.
Yet Endo, an unassuming woman, would never seek the spotlight, and by the time of the ruling she had never set foot in court.
Mitsuye Maureen Endo was born on May 10, 1920, in Sacramento, the second of four children of Jinshiro and Shima (Ota) Endo, Japanese immigrants. Her father was a salesman in a grocery store, her mother a homemaker. In the 1940s, the family lived and worked in one of the country’s largest and most vibrant Japantowns, a section of Sacramento with 3,400 residents and hundreds of businesses.
After the forced evacuation of Japanese-Americans, the Japanese American Citizens League, a national group, hired James Purcell, a San Francisco lawyer, to put together a case that would challenge the government and shutter the 10 detention camps it had opened. In looking for the ideal plaintiff to represent the group, he distributed a questionnaire to internees. In a stack of 100 or so responses, one stood out.
Endo had never visited Japan, had attended a Sacramento public school and was a Methodist. To top it off, her brother had served in the Army. On paper, she was perfect.
“They felt I represented a symbolic, ‘loyal’ American,” she said in “And Justice for All.”
The Endo family had been moved to a temporary relocation facility near Sacramento, then 300 miles north to the remote Tule Lake Segregation Center, near the Oregon border.
On July 13, 1942, Purcell filed a writ of habeas corpus, arguing, “If you can abrogate certain sections of the Constitution and incarcerate any person without trial or charges just because you do not like his nationality, what is to prevent from abrogating any or all of the Constitution?”
It took a year before Judge Michael J. Roche of the United States District Court in Northern California denied Endo’s freedom. The government, expecting Purcell would file an appeal, offered her release, but on one condition: She was not to return home.
“The top lawyer for the War Relocation Authority met with her in camp to offer her freedom in exchange for a commitment not to try to return to the forbidden area of the West Coast,” Eric Muller, a law professor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, said by email. “She refused the offer.”
Some of her friends and relatives accepted the offer and were released, but Endo remained incarcerated indefinitely while her case remained under appeal.
By this time, her immediate family had been transferred to the Central Utah Relocation Center in Topaz. They made do with meager food rations — “they gave them just any old thing — scraps here and there,” Endo’s daughter Terry DeRivera said in an interview — and Endo sometimes became ill. She remembered armed soldiers in towers watching them from on high.
“She was really afraid,” DeRivera said.
During her detainment Endo met her future husband, Kenneth Tsutsumi, who played the ukulele with friends to pass the time and entertain fellow detainees.
The Supreme Court heard oral arguments in her case in October 1944. That December it ruled unanimously in Endo’s favor, calling her a “concedingly loyal” citizen.
The ruling said the government had no legal right to confine people who had been screened and found to be loyal, but though it referred to the detention of Japanese-Americans as “racial discrimination,” it stopped short of defining the constitutional limits of wartime detention based on factors like race.
As Muller put it in his email, “It didn’t want, on the one hand, to approve of racial detentions, or, on the other, to hand President Roosevelt a defeat during wartime.”
In fact, the day before the court issued its ruling, the Roosevelt administration announced that Japanese-Americans could return home beginning on Jan. 1, 1945. Besides effectively closing the remaining concentration camps (though it took until the end of the year before they were entirely emptied), the Endo case has continued to be cited in matters related to the detention of United States citizens.
It was invoked in 2004, for example, in Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, a Supreme Court case that ruled that United States citizens who were detained as enemy combatants were entitled to due process and could not be barred from challenging their enemy combatant status.
Despite the Supreme Court ruling citing discrimination, anti-Japanese sentiment remained pervasive on the West Coast.
“It was not a good thing,” Endo’s daughter said. “It was a nightmare for them.”
During the war a Senate committee on Japanese resettlement released a report saying that there would be “violence and bloodshed” if internees were returned to the West Coast. It appealed to Roosevelt to keep them out of California until the end of the war.
Despite her earlier insistence on returning home, Endo decided that it wouldn’t be safe to do so. “My mom said no, she would never go back to California,” DeRivera said.
Endo and Tsutsumi moved to Chicago, where they married on Nov. 22, 1946. They raised three children in a close-knit community of Japanese-American transplants. Endo rarely spoke of the past and strove to fit in “like American apple pie,” DeRivera said.
Endo died of cancer on April 14, 2006. She was 85.
Later in life, when she was interviewed for “And Justice for All,” she marveled at how her incarceration and the subsequent court case “seemed like a dream” to her so many years later.
“When I think about it now — that my case went to the Supreme Court — I’m awed by it,” she said. “I never believed it, that I would be the one.” | 1,662 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Romeo and Juliet is a tragic play written by William Shakespeare in 1589. The play is made dramatically effective through the playwrights use of contrast There are two contrasting themes, these are love and hate, and peace and violence. Shakespeare also uses imagery, a example of his use of imagery is when Romeo first sees Juliet he says “Like a rich jewel in a Ethiope's ear.” What he's saying is that she is a bright jewel on a dark surface. This gives us the image that she is bright and everything around her is dark. Another way Shakespeare makes the play dramatically effective is using oxymoron's. This gives the play a sense of tension and confusion. Shakespeare also uses Dramatic Irony and fate. The playwright uses this to make the play really effective because we know that the play is going to end in a death which is what we hear form the prologue, and in part of the play Romeo thinks he will die. Even though the story was written many years ago, people still relate to it, they watch the films which some directors have made. The play is still relevant to audiences today, this is because people can still really hate each other, people still fall deeply in love, as did Romeo and Juliet. Some families even have some major feuds. This shows that things haven't changed. The play is still presented in theatres and it is extremely popular. Another technique the playwright uses is stage craft. If he wanted to create dramatic tension, for example he would fill up the whole of the stage with many people as this raises the sense of chaos. Then when he wanted the tension to become less he would have as many as two people on the stage.
In the start of the play, Shakespeare uses language and contrast to create mood and expectation for his audience. The first two characters that Shakespeare introduces us to in the beginning of the play are a contrast to each other. One is named Benvolio and he is a kind and loving character who wants to create peace between the two families. On the other hand there's Tybalt, who hates all the Montague's just wants to create a fight, he is a very angry man who doesn't want peace but wants to fight the Montague's which he calls his enemy. These two characters make the introduction to the play very dramatic, as it includes a lot of fighting it also has some very powerful language. As Tybalt says “What, drawn and talk of peace? I hate the word, As hell, I hate all Montague's and thee. Have at thee coward.” This part of the scene really shows us what Tybalt is like. It shows the hate and fury of his character. We are then introduced to the character Romeo. At this point of the play, he believes he is deeply in love with a character called Rosaline. His language is lacking in substance and real feelings. His language is also very saccharine. Everything which he says is too well thought through, as if he has been sitting and thinking of every little detail what he wants to say. Shakespeare also uses oxymoron's to make this scene effective. An example of this is “Here's much to do with hate, but more with love, why then o brawling love, o loving hate”. Romeo mentions love and hate which are a contrast to each other. The Shakespearean audience would believe, that Romeo is not real love. This is because he shows no emotion in what he's saying. In this part of the play, Shakespeare also uses Imagery, as Romeo, refers Rosaline to a goddess named Diana. Who is the goddess of hunting and chastity, she avoids cupids arrows. This is only a myth so the Shakespearean audience may not have believed that he was in proper love, because what he was saying isn't true.
Shakespeare continues to create a dramatically effective play, through the contrast in mood between the end of Act 1 scene 4 and Act 1 scene 5. Act 1 Scene 4 ends with Romeo telling his best friend Mercutio and his cousin Benvolio, about how he doesn't want to go to the Capulet's party, because of a dream he has had, about how the dream showed him that his evening was going to end with something tragic. This part it would make the audience very aware, as the Elizabethans were very superstitious and they believed in omens. A way in which Shakespeare makes this part of the play effective is through dramatic irony. This is effective because the audience already knows something about Romeo, that this evening may result in the death of him and other people. It then goes onto the Capulet's party which begins with panic and a lot of chaos. This is a contrast, as scene 4 ends with not many people on stage, to many people on stage, running around trying to get the party ready. It then changes from a very chaotic atmosphere to a very happy atmosphere, as everyone is in a party mood. Capulet is in a very good mood, and makes all his guests welcome. He speaks in a very jocular manner, which gets the audiences attention. He teases all his guests which would make them laugh. I would say that he puts himself down, because he says about how old he is now, and about how there is so many young men ready to pick up the ladies off their feet and dance with them. This scene is very different to the first scene we see in the play. It shows the contrast between peace and violence. As in the beginning, there is a lot of violence but at this part of the play, everyone is happy and no-one is thinking about destroying the party, or making a feud.
Romeo's romantic speech about Juliet contrasts greatly with Capulet's jocular manner, creating further drama throughout the scene. When Capulet makes his first speech he is a very teasing character. He says too the ladies, “ladies that have their toes unplagued with corns will have about with you. Ah ha, my mistresses! Which of you all will now deny to dance? She that makes dainty, she, I'll swear, hath corns; am I come near ye now?”. What Capulet is trying to say is that all the ladies have to prove that they do not have corns on their feet, by dancing with him on the dance floor. He's saying it in a nice manner, he's not being horrible, he's just teasing them, because he wants everyone to be dancing on the dance floor. Romeo then enters the party, and he immediately sees Juliet across the room, and falls in love with her. He makes a romantic speech about Juliet, and how he feels. Shakespeare's use, many different techniques such as Imagery. He refers to Juliet as a dove, which we know is small and pretty and is a symbol for love and peace. He then refers to Rosaline as a swan. Which is a lot bigger creature, and it isn't as loving, or romantic. Shakespeare also uses rhyming. The end of every line Romeo speaks rhymes. For example “Did my heart love till now? Forswear it, sight! For I ne'er saw true beauty till this night.” At this moment, Romeo is forgetting all about his love for Rosaline, which shows the Shakespearean audience that he was never in real love. Romeo's language at this stage of the play is also a contrast to his earlier talk about Rosaline. When he talked about Rosaline he referred to mythological creatures such as Cupid, and the goddess Diana. But when he talks about Juliet, he refers to Christianity references. Which would relate to the Shakespearean audience a lot more. Capulet's and Romeo's speech are a big contrast to each other, because Capulet says his in a very joy full way, and he knows what he wants to say, where as Romeos is a lot more different. Mainly because of the way that the playwright has made his speech so effective, with the use of rhyming and Imagery.
Tybalts speech about Romeo is a huge love and hate contrast to Romeo's romantic speech about Juliet. Just after Romeo's very romantic speech about Juliet, Shakespeare takes us straight to the character of Tybalt. Who has just seen Romeo at the party. His speech is very dramatic, as he wants to cause a fight with Romeo and kill him. In this part of the play the tension would become very high, as Shakespeare would fill up the stage
with lots of people. Tybalt refers to Romeo as a slave, and how it would not be a sin to kill him. This is a huge contrast between love and hate. Because we have Romeo, who is talking all about love, and Tybalt who's words are full of nothing but hate and anger towards Romeo. Another way in which Shakespeare makes this scene very effective is that Romeo is oblivious too the fact that Tybalt is threatening his presence. As in the play, there would be Romeo on one side of the stage, and Tybalt on the other. I know that at this point the audience know that something will happen, but they don't know what to expect. So they would be very on edge, because it might make them think that Romeo is already going to be killed. Because we know that something was going to happen to Romeo, after he mentions a dream he had which showed him that something bad was going to happen, if he went to the party. When Capulet finds Tybalt in his storming rage, there is a fight between the two of them. Capulet tells Tybalt to leave Romeo alone, and to let him enjoy the party, but Tybalt argues, that he shouldn't be there. There is then a power struggle at this point, because Tybalt is a older son and he is expected to inherit the Capulet's family fortune, but Capulet threatens to take away his inheritance, if he doesn't do what he says. Shakespeare's written many other plays which involve conflict over money and inheritance, such as Much ado about nothing, which involves two brothers called Don John and Don Pedro who are against each other because of inheritance.
When Romeo and Juliet meet, the tension levels change drastically. Shakespeare uses many ways to make this part of the play effective. There is a big change on stage, as we go from a high tension point with many people running around on stage, to a low tension point where we don't have as many people on stage or there is just Romeo and Juliet alone. In this scene Shakespeare uses metaphors. Romeo refers to Juliet as a shrine, and himself as a pilgrim. They also talk in a shared sonnet together. A sonnet was invented in the 13th century in Italy. It is a poetic form of love. People who have used sonnets before are Dante-Vita Nuova, and Petrach who wrote 317 sonnets in total. We also have Shakespeare who wrote many sonnets about love. In this part of the play the sonnet makes it very effective, as it means we can tell that there is a connection between the two lovers, Romeo and Juliet. Romeo and Juliet's speech is very formal and patterning it is a gentle expression of love. After there speech the nurse comes in saying, “Madam, your mother craves a word with you.” This brings the reality back. Juliet has to leave.
I think that Romeo's love which he expressed for Rosaline wasn't real. His language with Juliet shows a lot more emotion in what he is saying. One of the main reasons why I don't believe Romeo's love for Rosaline is because when he talked about her he referred to mythological creatures, which is not real. But when he talked about Juliet he talked all
about Christianity. Also Romeo compares to Juliet as a lot more things which symbolise with love. Where as he compares Rosaline to other things. I think that the Shakespearean audience would have agreed with me, that Romeo's love for Rosaline was not real. I wouldn't say it was fake, but I would say that he might have liked or loved her a little, but not as much as he said he did. I personally think that Romeo was in love with being in love, and I think that his behaviour when he though he was in love with Rosaline was very attention seeking. I think that the Shakespearean audience would have thought that Romeo was attention seeking as well. As in the beginning of the play, lady Montague is saying about how Romeo has been acting. She says that in the day Romeo just walks off himself all on his own, and at night just locks himself away and cries. In a way it sounds as if he is trying to get attention by doing this. In class we discussed about how we thought that this was normal behaviour for a teenager, and a teenager in love.
The effect of At the end of Act 1 scene 5 makes this part of the play very effective, as the tension gets even higher when Romeo and Juliet find out they are each others enemy.
Scene 5, it is when Romeo and Juliet find out that they are each others enemy. This is a very effective ending. Because they have fallen in love everything has happened. When Romeo finds out that Juliet is a Capulet he says “O dear account! My life is my foe's debt.” What he means by this is that he now owes his life to his enemy. Because he's in love with her. So it means his life is now always going to have his enemy in it. After Romeo has found out about Juliet being a Capulet, she then asks her nurse to find out who Romeo is. But she is very careful, as first she asks who another man is, before asking who Romeo is. She says to the nurse “Go ask his name: if he be married. My grave is like to be my wedding bed.” She is asking the nurse to find out if he's married, she then says that if he is already married she will die. When the nurse tells her that he is Romeo and a son of her enemy. Juliet says “My only love sprung from my only hate! Too early seen unknown and known too late! Prodigious birth of love it is to me, that I must love a loathed enemy.” What she's saying here is that she has already seen him now, and she's fallen in love with him, she says its too late she's in love with her enemy, and she can't turn back now. Juliet also introduces the theme of death as Juliet's lover. Because she says “my grave is like to be my wedding bed.” This moment for both of the characters is a very high tension point,a s they don't know what will happen to them. It will make the Shakespearean audience very uncertain on what will happen next. After finding out each others real identity, both Romeo and Juliet want to see each other again. Both of them still want to be together.
In conclusion, Act 1 scene 5 is very dramatic because of all of the techniques Shakespeare uses. Like the big contrasts of love and hate throughout the play. It would be all quiet and calm, then it would go into a big fight or argument, it just shows that Romeo and Juliet would never be able to be together in peace. I also like the way that Shakespeare uses imagery. Especially when Romeo is describing Juliet, it gives us the picture that Juliet is beautiful. I also love the way which Shakespeare has used the love sonnets. When I read the part when Romeo and Juliet first meet, the sonnets really made me feel as if there was a connection between the two of them, as if they were meant to be, but you have to bare in mind, the fact that they cannot be together because of this huge family feud. Shakespeare also uses a lot of dramatic Irony which makes the scenes very effective, because Romeo has the dream in which tells him that either him or someone else will die, and yet he just ignores it. Some of the oxymoron's which Shakespeare uses really make Romeo's speeches about Rosaline effective. They make him sound confused and as if he doesn't know what to do or say. There is other very effective and dramatic scenes such as the balcony scene which is very romantic, and before Romeo is banished to Mantua. Romeo and Juliet spend a very romantic night together. I think that Act 1 scene 5 really engages the audience as it is so romantic. It is also very eventful, especially when Tybalt starts to threaten to kill Romeo, in the middle of a party. This scene of Romeo and Juliet meeting is very crucial because if they hadn't have met there would be no story. If Romeo and Juliet's families were not enemies, then it would not be very dramatic or exciting. If we didn't have the contrast of love and hate it would make the play boring, as we wouldn't have the fights and the romance. I really enjoyed this part of the play as it is so romantic, and when I read the part of Romeo and Juliet meeting I felt as if something bad was going to happen straight after which is true, because at this point Tybalt wanted to kill him. It really built some tension, as I didn't know whether Romeo was going to get killed straight away, or whether there was going to be a fight. So there for I think that Shakespeare has made Act1 scene 5 very effective as he has used so many different techniques which people today can still emphasise with. | <urn:uuid:1859d602-82de-4212-967a-a1bf34cfbc08> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://writing-help.org/blog/romeo-and-juliet-tragic-play-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00380.warc.gz | en | 0.988392 | 3,620 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.336984157562255... | 1 | Romeo and Juliet is a tragic play written by William Shakespeare in 1589. The play is made dramatically effective through the playwrights use of contrast There are two contrasting themes, these are love and hate, and peace and violence. Shakespeare also uses imagery, a example of his use of imagery is when Romeo first sees Juliet he says “Like a rich jewel in a Ethiope's ear.” What he's saying is that she is a bright jewel on a dark surface. This gives us the image that she is bright and everything around her is dark. Another way Shakespeare makes the play dramatically effective is using oxymoron's. This gives the play a sense of tension and confusion. Shakespeare also uses Dramatic Irony and fate. The playwright uses this to make the play really effective because we know that the play is going to end in a death which is what we hear form the prologue, and in part of the play Romeo thinks he will die. Even though the story was written many years ago, people still relate to it, they watch the films which some directors have made. The play is still relevant to audiences today, this is because people can still really hate each other, people still fall deeply in love, as did Romeo and Juliet. Some families even have some major feuds. This shows that things haven't changed. The play is still presented in theatres and it is extremely popular. Another technique the playwright uses is stage craft. If he wanted to create dramatic tension, for example he would fill up the whole of the stage with many people as this raises the sense of chaos. Then when he wanted the tension to become less he would have as many as two people on the stage.
In the start of the play, Shakespeare uses language and contrast to create mood and expectation for his audience. The first two characters that Shakespeare introduces us to in the beginning of the play are a contrast to each other. One is named Benvolio and he is a kind and loving character who wants to create peace between the two families. On the other hand there's Tybalt, who hates all the Montague's just wants to create a fight, he is a very angry man who doesn't want peace but wants to fight the Montague's which he calls his enemy. These two characters make the introduction to the play very dramatic, as it includes a lot of fighting it also has some very powerful language. As Tybalt says “What, drawn and talk of peace? I hate the word, As hell, I hate all Montague's and thee. Have at thee coward.” This part of the scene really shows us what Tybalt is like. It shows the hate and fury of his character. We are then introduced to the character Romeo. At this point of the play, he believes he is deeply in love with a character called Rosaline. His language is lacking in substance and real feelings. His language is also very saccharine. Everything which he says is too well thought through, as if he has been sitting and thinking of every little detail what he wants to say. Shakespeare also uses oxymoron's to make this scene effective. An example of this is “Here's much to do with hate, but more with love, why then o brawling love, o loving hate”. Romeo mentions love and hate which are a contrast to each other. The Shakespearean audience would believe, that Romeo is not real love. This is because he shows no emotion in what he's saying. In this part of the play, Shakespeare also uses Imagery, as Romeo, refers Rosaline to a goddess named Diana. Who is the goddess of hunting and chastity, she avoids cupids arrows. This is only a myth so the Shakespearean audience may not have believed that he was in proper love, because what he was saying isn't true.
Shakespeare continues to create a dramatically effective play, through the contrast in mood between the end of Act 1 scene 4 and Act 1 scene 5. Act 1 Scene 4 ends with Romeo telling his best friend Mercutio and his cousin Benvolio, about how he doesn't want to go to the Capulet's party, because of a dream he has had, about how the dream showed him that his evening was going to end with something tragic. This part it would make the audience very aware, as the Elizabethans were very superstitious and they believed in omens. A way in which Shakespeare makes this part of the play effective is through dramatic irony. This is effective because the audience already knows something about Romeo, that this evening may result in the death of him and other people. It then goes onto the Capulet's party which begins with panic and a lot of chaos. This is a contrast, as scene 4 ends with not many people on stage, to many people on stage, running around trying to get the party ready. It then changes from a very chaotic atmosphere to a very happy atmosphere, as everyone is in a party mood. Capulet is in a very good mood, and makes all his guests welcome. He speaks in a very jocular manner, which gets the audiences attention. He teases all his guests which would make them laugh. I would say that he puts himself down, because he says about how old he is now, and about how there is so many young men ready to pick up the ladies off their feet and dance with them. This scene is very different to the first scene we see in the play. It shows the contrast between peace and violence. As in the beginning, there is a lot of violence but at this part of the play, everyone is happy and no-one is thinking about destroying the party, or making a feud.
Romeo's romantic speech about Juliet contrasts greatly with Capulet's jocular manner, creating further drama throughout the scene. When Capulet makes his first speech he is a very teasing character. He says too the ladies, “ladies that have their toes unplagued with corns will have about with you. Ah ha, my mistresses! Which of you all will now deny to dance? She that makes dainty, she, I'll swear, hath corns; am I come near ye now?”. What Capulet is trying to say is that all the ladies have to prove that they do not have corns on their feet, by dancing with him on the dance floor. He's saying it in a nice manner, he's not being horrible, he's just teasing them, because he wants everyone to be dancing on the dance floor. Romeo then enters the party, and he immediately sees Juliet across the room, and falls in love with her. He makes a romantic speech about Juliet, and how he feels. Shakespeare's use, many different techniques such as Imagery. He refers to Juliet as a dove, which we know is small and pretty and is a symbol for love and peace. He then refers to Rosaline as a swan. Which is a lot bigger creature, and it isn't as loving, or romantic. Shakespeare also uses rhyming. The end of every line Romeo speaks rhymes. For example “Did my heart love till now? Forswear it, sight! For I ne'er saw true beauty till this night.” At this moment, Romeo is forgetting all about his love for Rosaline, which shows the Shakespearean audience that he was never in real love. Romeo's language at this stage of the play is also a contrast to his earlier talk about Rosaline. When he talked about Rosaline he referred to mythological creatures such as Cupid, and the goddess Diana. But when he talks about Juliet, he refers to Christianity references. Which would relate to the Shakespearean audience a lot more. Capulet's and Romeo's speech are a big contrast to each other, because Capulet says his in a very joy full way, and he knows what he wants to say, where as Romeos is a lot more different. Mainly because of the way that the playwright has made his speech so effective, with the use of rhyming and Imagery.
Tybalts speech about Romeo is a huge love and hate contrast to Romeo's romantic speech about Juliet. Just after Romeo's very romantic speech about Juliet, Shakespeare takes us straight to the character of Tybalt. Who has just seen Romeo at the party. His speech is very dramatic, as he wants to cause a fight with Romeo and kill him. In this part of the play the tension would become very high, as Shakespeare would fill up the stage
with lots of people. Tybalt refers to Romeo as a slave, and how it would not be a sin to kill him. This is a huge contrast between love and hate. Because we have Romeo, who is talking all about love, and Tybalt who's words are full of nothing but hate and anger towards Romeo. Another way in which Shakespeare makes this scene very effective is that Romeo is oblivious too the fact that Tybalt is threatening his presence. As in the play, there would be Romeo on one side of the stage, and Tybalt on the other. I know that at this point the audience know that something will happen, but they don't know what to expect. So they would be very on edge, because it might make them think that Romeo is already going to be killed. Because we know that something was going to happen to Romeo, after he mentions a dream he had which showed him that something bad was going to happen, if he went to the party. When Capulet finds Tybalt in his storming rage, there is a fight between the two of them. Capulet tells Tybalt to leave Romeo alone, and to let him enjoy the party, but Tybalt argues, that he shouldn't be there. There is then a power struggle at this point, because Tybalt is a older son and he is expected to inherit the Capulet's family fortune, but Capulet threatens to take away his inheritance, if he doesn't do what he says. Shakespeare's written many other plays which involve conflict over money and inheritance, such as Much ado about nothing, which involves two brothers called Don John and Don Pedro who are against each other because of inheritance.
When Romeo and Juliet meet, the tension levels change drastically. Shakespeare uses many ways to make this part of the play effective. There is a big change on stage, as we go from a high tension point with many people running around on stage, to a low tension point where we don't have as many people on stage or there is just Romeo and Juliet alone. In this scene Shakespeare uses metaphors. Romeo refers to Juliet as a shrine, and himself as a pilgrim. They also talk in a shared sonnet together. A sonnet was invented in the 13th century in Italy. It is a poetic form of love. People who have used sonnets before are Dante-Vita Nuova, and Petrach who wrote 317 sonnets in total. We also have Shakespeare who wrote many sonnets about love. In this part of the play the sonnet makes it very effective, as it means we can tell that there is a connection between the two lovers, Romeo and Juliet. Romeo and Juliet's speech is very formal and patterning it is a gentle expression of love. After there speech the nurse comes in saying, “Madam, your mother craves a word with you.” This brings the reality back. Juliet has to leave.
I think that Romeo's love which he expressed for Rosaline wasn't real. His language with Juliet shows a lot more emotion in what he is saying. One of the main reasons why I don't believe Romeo's love for Rosaline is because when he talked about her he referred to mythological creatures, which is not real. But when he talked about Juliet he talked all
about Christianity. Also Romeo compares to Juliet as a lot more things which symbolise with love. Where as he compares Rosaline to other things. I think that the Shakespearean audience would have agreed with me, that Romeo's love for Rosaline was not real. I wouldn't say it was fake, but I would say that he might have liked or loved her a little, but not as much as he said he did. I personally think that Romeo was in love with being in love, and I think that his behaviour when he though he was in love with Rosaline was very attention seeking. I think that the Shakespearean audience would have thought that Romeo was attention seeking as well. As in the beginning of the play, lady Montague is saying about how Romeo has been acting. She says that in the day Romeo just walks off himself all on his own, and at night just locks himself away and cries. In a way it sounds as if he is trying to get attention by doing this. In class we discussed about how we thought that this was normal behaviour for a teenager, and a teenager in love.
The effect of At the end of Act 1 scene 5 makes this part of the play very effective, as the tension gets even higher when Romeo and Juliet find out they are each others enemy.
Scene 5, it is when Romeo and Juliet find out that they are each others enemy. This is a very effective ending. Because they have fallen in love everything has happened. When Romeo finds out that Juliet is a Capulet he says “O dear account! My life is my foe's debt.” What he means by this is that he now owes his life to his enemy. Because he's in love with her. So it means his life is now always going to have his enemy in it. After Romeo has found out about Juliet being a Capulet, she then asks her nurse to find out who Romeo is. But she is very careful, as first she asks who another man is, before asking who Romeo is. She says to the nurse “Go ask his name: if he be married. My grave is like to be my wedding bed.” She is asking the nurse to find out if he's married, she then says that if he is already married she will die. When the nurse tells her that he is Romeo and a son of her enemy. Juliet says “My only love sprung from my only hate! Too early seen unknown and known too late! Prodigious birth of love it is to me, that I must love a loathed enemy.” What she's saying here is that she has already seen him now, and she's fallen in love with him, she says its too late she's in love with her enemy, and she can't turn back now. Juliet also introduces the theme of death as Juliet's lover. Because she says “my grave is like to be my wedding bed.” This moment for both of the characters is a very high tension point,a s they don't know what will happen to them. It will make the Shakespearean audience very uncertain on what will happen next. After finding out each others real identity, both Romeo and Juliet want to see each other again. Both of them still want to be together.
In conclusion, Act 1 scene 5 is very dramatic because of all of the techniques Shakespeare uses. Like the big contrasts of love and hate throughout the play. It would be all quiet and calm, then it would go into a big fight or argument, it just shows that Romeo and Juliet would never be able to be together in peace. I also like the way that Shakespeare uses imagery. Especially when Romeo is describing Juliet, it gives us the picture that Juliet is beautiful. I also love the way which Shakespeare has used the love sonnets. When I read the part when Romeo and Juliet first meet, the sonnets really made me feel as if there was a connection between the two of them, as if they were meant to be, but you have to bare in mind, the fact that they cannot be together because of this huge family feud. Shakespeare also uses a lot of dramatic Irony which makes the scenes very effective, because Romeo has the dream in which tells him that either him or someone else will die, and yet he just ignores it. Some of the oxymoron's which Shakespeare uses really make Romeo's speeches about Rosaline effective. They make him sound confused and as if he doesn't know what to do or say. There is other very effective and dramatic scenes such as the balcony scene which is very romantic, and before Romeo is banished to Mantua. Romeo and Juliet spend a very romantic night together. I think that Act 1 scene 5 really engages the audience as it is so romantic. It is also very eventful, especially when Tybalt starts to threaten to kill Romeo, in the middle of a party. This scene of Romeo and Juliet meeting is very crucial because if they hadn't have met there would be no story. If Romeo and Juliet's families were not enemies, then it would not be very dramatic or exciting. If we didn't have the contrast of love and hate it would make the play boring, as we wouldn't have the fights and the romance. I really enjoyed this part of the play as it is so romantic, and when I read the part of Romeo and Juliet meeting I felt as if something bad was going to happen straight after which is true, because at this point Tybalt wanted to kill him. It really built some tension, as I didn't know whether Romeo was going to get killed straight away, or whether there was going to be a fight. So there for I think that Shakespeare has made Act1 scene 5 very effective as he has used so many different techniques which people today can still emphasise with. | 3,611 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The phrase up in arms means that someone is angry about something; they are upset.
Example: Larry went to the hospital because he was very ill. The doctor told him he needed to have surgery, but it would be expensive. Larry had hoped his insurance company would help cover the costs, however, he’s having problems getting them to do so. He and his family are up in arms about this. (In other words, they are very upset.)
Synonyms/Related: a chip on your shoulder, having a bone to pick
The Origin Of ‘Up In Arms’
Let’s talk about the word “arm” for a moment. It’s a word that is sometimes used in connection with weapons. For example, “firearms” refer to guns. We might also say someone is “armed,” which means they have a weapon on them. In addition, phrases like “arm yourself” and “at arms, men!” essentially mean to prepare a weapon for combat.
How did the word “arm” become associated with weapons? It’s not entirely clear, but it may have to do with the fact that in order to wield weapons, whether it’s a sword or a gun, having arms is necessary to use them. These weapons might be seen as an “add-on” to the arm, an extension of it, and so the word developed these meanings from that.
In any case, long ago if a person was “up in arms,” it meant that they had weapons equipped and were ready to fight. This phrase makes early appearances in different plays from the late 1500s. For example, it’s found in the play King Richard III by William Shakespeare, 1591:
“March on, march on, since we are up in arms;
If not to fight with foreign enemies,
Yet to beat down these rebels here at home.”
So it seems this phrase originally referred to “angry people with weapons” and then later the “weapons” part was dropped and now it has become an idiom that simply means “an angry person.”
Tip: If you liked reading about this expression, we have a list of more English phrases starting with “U” and “V” that you can check out.
- After his car broke down in the middle of the street, Winston was up in arms because he knew he was going to be late for his brother’s wedding.
- My boss is so rude! I’ve had a bone to pick with him for a long time.
- She had a chip on her shoulder ever since she was slighted by her coworker.
Note: We have the meaning and origin of hundreds of common phrases. Use the alphabetical list at the top to find them. | <urn:uuid:67a54f8d-3d0b-405a-b170-f2d88ae22997> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://knowyourphrase.com/up-in-arms | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00178.warc.gz | en | 0.987537 | 609 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.0419051796197... | 5 | The phrase up in arms means that someone is angry about something; they are upset.
Example: Larry went to the hospital because he was very ill. The doctor told him he needed to have surgery, but it would be expensive. Larry had hoped his insurance company would help cover the costs, however, he’s having problems getting them to do so. He and his family are up in arms about this. (In other words, they are very upset.)
Synonyms/Related: a chip on your shoulder, having a bone to pick
The Origin Of ‘Up In Arms’
Let’s talk about the word “arm” for a moment. It’s a word that is sometimes used in connection with weapons. For example, “firearms” refer to guns. We might also say someone is “armed,” which means they have a weapon on them. In addition, phrases like “arm yourself” and “at arms, men!” essentially mean to prepare a weapon for combat.
How did the word “arm” become associated with weapons? It’s not entirely clear, but it may have to do with the fact that in order to wield weapons, whether it’s a sword or a gun, having arms is necessary to use them. These weapons might be seen as an “add-on” to the arm, an extension of it, and so the word developed these meanings from that.
In any case, long ago if a person was “up in arms,” it meant that they had weapons equipped and were ready to fight. This phrase makes early appearances in different plays from the late 1500s. For example, it’s found in the play King Richard III by William Shakespeare, 1591:
“March on, march on, since we are up in arms;
If not to fight with foreign enemies,
Yet to beat down these rebels here at home.”
So it seems this phrase originally referred to “angry people with weapons” and then later the “weapons” part was dropped and now it has become an idiom that simply means “an angry person.”
Tip: If you liked reading about this expression, we have a list of more English phrases starting with “U” and “V” that you can check out.
- After his car broke down in the middle of the street, Winston was up in arms because he knew he was going to be late for his brother’s wedding.
- My boss is so rude! I’ve had a bone to pick with him for a long time.
- She had a chip on her shoulder ever since she was slighted by her coworker.
Note: We have the meaning and origin of hundreds of common phrases. Use the alphabetical list at the top to find them. | 550 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During then alerted teammates on shore. Because
During World War 2, the raid on Dieppe, France played a very crucial role in the future success of D-Day. Today when people talk about military disasters, it is hard to top the Dieppe Raid. It was a huge failure with many casualties and many Canadian deaths. During World War 2 on August 19, 1942, the purpose of this plan was to make a successful raid on German-occupied Europe using water then to hold Dieppe temporarily. Many of these attempts trying to capture and maintain Dieppe were failures. Throughout the duration of this raid, the Canadians were very unsuccessful and very uncoordinated with particularly poor communication from ships at sea and soldiers on land. With the raid on Dieppe poorly planned it also comes with reasons and evidence that support its failure. One key factor that ruined the Canadians plan from the beginning was that the Germans already knew about the future breach. Another very crucial role that could have given the Canadians an upper hand was that they had poor Canadian military. Lastly, Canada suffered very high casualties and deaths which really ended the raid for the Allies. One of the key factors that ultimately that ruined the plans of the Canadians is that the Germans knew about the later Canadian breach. Not many historians knew for sure how the Germans found out about the attack but they all end up back at the start when one Canadian Eastern Flank encountered a small German convoy which then alerted teammates on shore. Because of this encounter, the Berneval and Puys regiment that came ashore was quickly met with overwhelming firepower from Germans. With the Germans knowing about the attack it made it harder for opposing groups to achieve their goal, for example, the Canadian who needed the element of surprise, which they did not get. Canada’s timing and communication made everything much worse with many of their troops arriving late. Even if these events were successful it would have still failed due to the lack of reinforcements being there to assist. Another huge impact on this raid is the planning of the Canadian military. Going into this battle Canada had a horrible strategy. Their strategy was 1. Launch a Western Front in Europe. 2. Seize and maintain control over a major port for a period to prove that (a) they could do it and (b) to gain intelligence. 3. Destroy coastal defenses and strategic building during a retreat. 4. Boost Morale. As you already know, this raid didn’t end well so you should figure out that not one of these objectives were achieved. Much of reinforcements came late like the Calgary Tanks, the Essex Scottish, and Royal Hamilton Light Infantry which landed without armored support. Some landed in locations that were not assigned to them. The Canadians plan to try to win this battle was out of reach, having a horrible strategy, no previous bomb raid, no withdrawal strategy, plan was not flexible, poor communication and terrible leaders and planners. Lastly is casualties and deaths, this is usually the first thing that someone would say when talking about The Dieppe Raid. this is usually the most overwhelming part of the battle. At the beginning of the raid out of 6100 soldiers about 5000 of them were Canadian troops the remainder of troops consisted of 1000 British Commandos and 50 American Rangers. During the raid, Canada suffered heavily, from the 4963 Canadians who joined the raid only 2210 returned to England, and the majority was wounded. Altogether there was 3367 casualties, 1946 prisoners of war and 916 Canadian deaths. Most of these deaths were due to poor General and Commander knowledge of war, many of those in charge did not know what to do when it came to harsh situations. When it came near to the end of the war most of the blame was put on those in charge for what happened. It all started with the Germans seeing the Eastern Flank. If that never happened the Canadians could have done a little better but not enough to secure a victory. But with equipment, troops, and reinforcements being late it made it very hard for the Canadians to overthrow the Germans. Most deaths and casualties came from the first and second arguments above put together. | <urn:uuid:d6c8601e-be00-42f8-ab8f-1b3e1f490696> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://niagarafallshypnosiscenter.com/during-then-alerted-teammates-on-shore-because/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00388.warc.gz | en | 0.981439 | 829 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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During World War 2, the raid on Dieppe, France played a very crucial role in the future success of D-Day. Today when people talk about military disasters, it is hard to top the Dieppe Raid. It was a huge failure with many casualties and many Canadian deaths. During World War 2 on August 19, 1942, the purpose of this plan was to make a successful raid on German-occupied Europe using water then to hold Dieppe temporarily. Many of these attempts trying to capture and maintain Dieppe were failures. Throughout the duration of this raid, the Canadians were very unsuccessful and very uncoordinated with particularly poor communication from ships at sea and soldiers on land. With the raid on Dieppe poorly planned it also comes with reasons and evidence that support its failure. One key factor that ruined the Canadians plan from the beginning was that the Germans already knew about the future breach. Another very crucial role that could have given the Canadians an upper hand was that they had poor Canadian military. Lastly, Canada suffered very high casualties and deaths which really ended the raid for the Allies. One of the key factors that ultimately that ruined the plans of the Canadians is that the Germans knew about the later Canadian breach. Not many historians knew for sure how the Germans found out about the attack but they all end up back at the start when one Canadian Eastern Flank encountered a small German convoy which then alerted teammates on shore. Because of this encounter, the Berneval and Puys regiment that came ashore was quickly met with overwhelming firepower from Germans. With the Germans knowing about the attack it made it harder for opposing groups to achieve their goal, for example, the Canadian who needed the element of surprise, which they did not get. Canada’s timing and communication made everything much worse with many of their troops arriving late. Even if these events were successful it would have still failed due to the lack of reinforcements being there to assist. Another huge impact on this raid is the planning of the Canadian military. Going into this battle Canada had a horrible strategy. Their strategy was 1. Launch a Western Front in Europe. 2. Seize and maintain control over a major port for a period to prove that (a) they could do it and (b) to gain intelligence. 3. Destroy coastal defenses and strategic building during a retreat. 4. Boost Morale. As you already know, this raid didn’t end well so you should figure out that not one of these objectives were achieved. Much of reinforcements came late like the Calgary Tanks, the Essex Scottish, and Royal Hamilton Light Infantry which landed without armored support. Some landed in locations that were not assigned to them. The Canadians plan to try to win this battle was out of reach, having a horrible strategy, no previous bomb raid, no withdrawal strategy, plan was not flexible, poor communication and terrible leaders and planners. Lastly is casualties and deaths, this is usually the first thing that someone would say when talking about The Dieppe Raid. this is usually the most overwhelming part of the battle. At the beginning of the raid out of 6100 soldiers about 5000 of them were Canadian troops the remainder of troops consisted of 1000 British Commandos and 50 American Rangers. During the raid, Canada suffered heavily, from the 4963 Canadians who joined the raid only 2210 returned to England, and the majority was wounded. Altogether there was 3367 casualties, 1946 prisoners of war and 916 Canadian deaths. Most of these deaths were due to poor General and Commander knowledge of war, many of those in charge did not know what to do when it came to harsh situations. When it came near to the end of the war most of the blame was put on those in charge for what happened. It all started with the Germans seeing the Eastern Flank. If that never happened the Canadians could have done a little better but not enough to secure a victory. But with equipment, troops, and reinforcements being late it made it very hard for the Canadians to overthrow the Germans. Most deaths and casualties came from the first and second arguments above put together. | 864 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The window tax was a property tax based on the number of windows in a house. It was designed to impose tax relative to the prosperity of the taxpayer, with the logic being that the rich had bigger houses with more windows, so should pay more tax than the poor (with fewer windows). The tax was a significant social, cultural, and architectural force in England, France, Ireland and Scotland during the 18th and 19th centuries.
The tax was first introduced in England and Wales in 1696 under King William III (under an act ‘for granting to His Majesty several Rates or Duties upon Houses for making good the Deficiency of the clipped Money’). When the window tax was first introduced it was set at the rate of 2 shillings per house, plus 4 shillings for between 10-20 windows, and 8 shillings for twenty plus windows.
England’s window tax was subject to constant tinkering and revision. In 1709 for example, a new top rate of 20 shillings total was introduced for houses with 30 or more windows. In 1748 Scotland introduced a window tax, although only houses with at least seven windows or a rent of at least £5 were taxed. France followed suit in 1798 with its own window tax. The window tax was attractive to governments, and tax collectors, as it was relatively unintruisive on taxpayers, and easy to administer. All the tax collectors needed to do was basically go to the house and count the windows.
Although the community generally deemed the window tax to be equitable, it was still unpopular, because it was seen by some as a tax on ‘light and air’. Some taxpayers of course didn’t want to pay the window tax, so implemented their own tax planning. This involved bricking-up the window-spaces.
The window tax was repealed in England, Wales and Scotland in 1851 (156 years after first being introduced), and France in 1926. | <urn:uuid:2f609e6d-41f3-4fc3-afe9-cc49e18336d3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://taxfitness.com.au/Blog/window-tax-1696 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00193.warc.gz | en | 0.983602 | 403 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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0.43383485078... | 2 | The window tax was a property tax based on the number of windows in a house. It was designed to impose tax relative to the prosperity of the taxpayer, with the logic being that the rich had bigger houses with more windows, so should pay more tax than the poor (with fewer windows). The tax was a significant social, cultural, and architectural force in England, France, Ireland and Scotland during the 18th and 19th centuries.
The tax was first introduced in England and Wales in 1696 under King William III (under an act ‘for granting to His Majesty several Rates or Duties upon Houses for making good the Deficiency of the clipped Money’). When the window tax was first introduced it was set at the rate of 2 shillings per house, plus 4 shillings for between 10-20 windows, and 8 shillings for twenty plus windows.
England’s window tax was subject to constant tinkering and revision. In 1709 for example, a new top rate of 20 shillings total was introduced for houses with 30 or more windows. In 1748 Scotland introduced a window tax, although only houses with at least seven windows or a rent of at least £5 were taxed. France followed suit in 1798 with its own window tax. The window tax was attractive to governments, and tax collectors, as it was relatively unintruisive on taxpayers, and easy to administer. All the tax collectors needed to do was basically go to the house and count the windows.
Although the community generally deemed the window tax to be equitable, it was still unpopular, because it was seen by some as a tax on ‘light and air’. Some taxpayers of course didn’t want to pay the window tax, so implemented their own tax planning. This involved bricking-up the window-spaces.
The window tax was repealed in England, Wales and Scotland in 1851 (156 years after first being introduced), and France in 1926. | 424 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is apartheid?
Apartheid is a word meaning “the state of being apart”, literally “apart hood”, and was a system of racial segregation in South Africa, introduced by the South African Government from 1948 to 1994, in which the majority black inhabitants had little or no rights. Apartheid was also practised in South West Africa, administered by South Africa, until independence as Namibia in 1990.
3.5 million non-white South Africans were forced from their homes into segregated neighbourhoods. They were denied political representation and in 1970 were deprived of their citizenship. They become citizens of tribally based self-governing homelands. Four of which became, to a small degree, independent states.
Every element of their lives was segregation. Education. Medical care. Beaches etc. The black people were provided with services far inferior to those of white people. Even vehicles and services were segregated by race, even if equal facilities were not made available to all races.
During the 1960s, 70s and early 80s, the government introduced a policy of “resettlement”, to force people to move to their designated “group areas”. The most well-known was in the 1950s in Johannesburg, when 60,000 people were moved to the new township of Soweto.
The government also passed legislation that became known as ‘Petty apartheid’, which banned mixed marriages between whites and people of other races. Then an amendment to the Act forbade “unlawful racial intercourse” and “any immoral or indecent act” between a white and an African, Indian or coloured person.
Apartheid began initially under Dutch rule in colonial times, when people were classified into four racial groups, “black”, “white”, “coloured” and “Indian”. Indians and coloureds were divided further. Residential areas were also segregated. The ‘Coloured’ group being of mixed descent, many were descended from people brought to South Africa from other parts of the world as slaves.
For political reasons, the classification of “honorary white” was granted to immigrants from countries which South Africa had diplomatic and economic relations and to their descendants.
‘Coloureds’ were forced to live in separate townships, many leaving homes their families had occupied for generations. They received an inferior education, though better than that provided to Blacks.
Voting rights were denied to ‘Coloureds’ in the same way that they were denied to Blacks but in 1977 this was changed. The idea was that the ‘Coloured’ minority could be granted voting rights, but the Black majority were to become citizens of independent homelands. These separate arrangements continued until the abolition of apartheid.
Blacks were not allowed to run businesses or professional practices in areas designated as “white South Africa” unless they had a permit. They were required to move to the black “homelands” and set up businesses and practices there.
National Party leaders argued that South Africa did not comprise a single nation, but was made up of four distinct racial groups: white, black, coloured and Indian. These groups were split into 13 nations or racial federations. White people encompassed the English and Afrikaans language groups; the black populace was divided into ten such groups.
Transport and civil facilities were segregated. Black buses stopped at black bus stops and white buses at white ones.
I have my own little story here, which sticks clearly in my mind to this day. I went on a school excursion to the Motor Show in London, there I heard a word and way of life I knew nothing about.
That’s when I saw it. A bus! Not just any old bus. A bus with beautiful plush seating at the front, with wooden benches at the back, divided by a metal grille.
I asked the teacher if it was for prisoners. She told me it was a bus for export to South Africa. I further questioned “But is it for prisoners?”
It was then she explained Apartheid to me. I remember crying and being horrified. The very fact that it is so clear still in my head shows what an effect it had on me.
Trains, hospitals and ambulances were segregated. The numbers of white patients were fewer, with white doctors preferring to work in white hospitals. These conditions were much better than those in often overcrowded and understaffed black hospitals.
Blacks were excluded from living or working in white areas, unless they had a pass issued only to blacks with approved work. Spouses and children had to be left behind in black homelands. A person without a valid pass was subject to arrest and trial for being an illegal migrant, which was generally followed by deportation to their ‘homeland’ and their employer prosecuted for employing an illegal migrant. Police vans patrolled white areas to round up blacks without passes. Blacks were not allowed to employ whites in white South Africa.
Even Trade unions under apartheid were racially segregated.
The State spent ten times more per child on the education of white children than black which included separate universities .
Blacks were not allowed to buy hard liquor and could only buy a poor quality beer.
Public beaches were racially segregated.
Public swimming pools, even some pedestrian bridges, drive-in cinema parking spaces, graveyards, parks, and public toilets were segregated.
Cinemas and theatres in white areas were not allowed to admit blacks.
Most restaurants and hotels in white areas were not allowed to admit blacks except as staff.
Blacks were prohibited from attending white churches but this was never rigidly enforced and churches were one of the few places races could mix without the interference of the law.
Blacks paid tax on earnings on a much lower wage than whites.
Blacks could never buy land in white areas. In the Black areas, most of the land belonged to a “tribe”, where the local chieftain would decide how the land had to be used. As a result of this whites owned almost all the industrial and agricultural lands and much of the prized residential land.
There is more, so much more. When I started researching this subject I thought I knew what apartheid was. BOY!!! Were my eyes opened. Apartheid legislation
Let’s have a look now at Israel, which the Leftists would have us believe is an “Apartheid State”.
How on earth they can come to a conclusion like that is beyond my comprehension.
The Arab population of Israel has had the right to vote since the Declaration of the State of Israel, consequently since the first Parliament in 1949, there have always been Arab MKs (MPs), where it was confirmed that Hebrew and Arabic were the official languages of Israel.
Clearly there was no apartheid from day one.
As of 2011, 13 of the 120 members of the Israeli Parliament are Arabs, most representing Arab political parties.
One of Israel’s Supreme Court judges is an Arab. In Israel an Arab judge sent our former Jewish president to gaol. Apartheid ?
The difference between the Israeli situation and apartheid South Africa is very different in every possible way.
There are no separate doctors, nurses, dentists, teachers, schools etc. for Israelis and Arabs.
Israeli and Arab babies are born in the same delivery room, with the same facilities, attended by the same doctors and nurses, with the mothers recovering in adjoining beds in a ward. A friend had major surgery in a Jerusalem hospital: the surgeon was Jewish, the anaesthetist was Arab, the doctors and nurses who looked after him were Israelis and Arabs.
Israelis and Arabs share meals in restaurants and travel on the same trains, buses and taxis, and visit each others homes.
None of this could have happened under apartheid.
You see Arabs wherever you go on the beach, in the shopping centres, strolling the streets.
There are Arabs in all walks of life including the highest Judges and soldiers in the land. The Deputy Speaker of the Knesset in an Arab.
Amal Asad is a druze Arab Israeli IDF General.
A comprehensive list can be found here at Wikipedia
Last year’s winner of the voice was an Arab, Miss Israel was/is an Ethiopian, the runner up on Master chef was an Arab. The winner of a well know talent show this is year an Arab.
None of this would have happened under apartheid.
Here’s an interesting link Arabs Are Prominent in Israel’s Government
There are Arab parliamentarians, judges, diplomats, and IDF generals.
A huge difference between Israel and South Africa is that Arabs have the right to vote. Blacks did not. The vote means citizenship and power to change.
20% of the students at Haifa University are Arabs. I personally was amazed to see the number of girls wearing hijabs at Tel Aviv University.
If Israel was an Apartheid State, why do polls continually show that Arabs in Israel don’t want to move to the West Bank or Gaza if a Palestinian state is created there.?
In a survey conducted among 1,000 residents of Um Al-Fahm, 83% of respondents opposed the idea of transferring their city to Palestinian jurisdiction, while 11 percent supported the proposal and 6 percent did not express their position.
Of those opposed, 54% said that they were against becoming part of a Palestinian state because they wanted to continue living under a democratic regime and enjoying a good standard of living.
Of those against, 18% said that they were satisfied with their present situation, that they were born in Israel and that they were not interested in moving to any other state. Another 14% of this same group said that they were not prepared to make sacrifices for the sake of the creation of a Palestinian state. Another 11 percent cited no reason for their opposition.
No where do you see the separation of public facilities in Israel such as benches, toilets, and even train carriages as was the case in South Africa.
Israel needs to be respected as the only liberal democracy in the Middle East writes Joel Rosen
“I went back to Israel last summer as I do regularly, and visited Hebron, deep in the West Bank. As I strolled along the seafront between Jaffa and Tel Aviv, I could not help but notice Muslim, Christian and Jewish Israelis alike, all barbequing, playing on the beach, and wading out into the Mediterranean right next to each other. In South Africa, even the beaches were segregated. There were no separate benches or toilets for Muslims, and the new tram in Jerusalem did not have different sections for different ethnicities or religions in it – but it did display place names in both Arabic and Hebrew as is the case in all of Israel. As citizens, Arab-Israelis have exactly the same rights as all other Israelis do, and have 12 Members of the Knesset, Israel’s parliament, representing them. Arab-Israelis have also had representatives in the cabinet, worked in the civilservice, and served in the army. It was a Christian Palestinian Supreme Court judge, George Karra, who sentenced Moshe Katsav, a former Israeli President, to a jail term in 2010. So much for a “racist” state.”
“Muhammad Zoabi, 16, an Arab Muslim from Nazareth, is causing anger in Muslim circles, and considerable joy in Jewish ones, by stating in a unique interview that he is a Zionist and loves the state of Israel.
“I really believe that I’m a lucky Arab and a lucky human being and a lucky Middle Eastern[er] that I was born in this little tiny piece of land!”, he stated. Pointing to the Golan Heights from the window of his interviewer’s home, in the Israeli community of Massad, he noted how bad life is beyond the border, for Syrians.” | <urn:uuid:967739fc-5a9c-4403-a34f-14d85f03b377> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://jewsdownunder.com/2014/04/10/apartheid/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00264.warc.gz | en | 0.984778 | 2,490 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.4286932... | 2 | What is apartheid?
Apartheid is a word meaning “the state of being apart”, literally “apart hood”, and was a system of racial segregation in South Africa, introduced by the South African Government from 1948 to 1994, in which the majority black inhabitants had little or no rights. Apartheid was also practised in South West Africa, administered by South Africa, until independence as Namibia in 1990.
3.5 million non-white South Africans were forced from their homes into segregated neighbourhoods. They were denied political representation and in 1970 were deprived of their citizenship. They become citizens of tribally based self-governing homelands. Four of which became, to a small degree, independent states.
Every element of their lives was segregation. Education. Medical care. Beaches etc. The black people were provided with services far inferior to those of white people. Even vehicles and services were segregated by race, even if equal facilities were not made available to all races.
During the 1960s, 70s and early 80s, the government introduced a policy of “resettlement”, to force people to move to their designated “group areas”. The most well-known was in the 1950s in Johannesburg, when 60,000 people were moved to the new township of Soweto.
The government also passed legislation that became known as ‘Petty apartheid’, which banned mixed marriages between whites and people of other races. Then an amendment to the Act forbade “unlawful racial intercourse” and “any immoral or indecent act” between a white and an African, Indian or coloured person.
Apartheid began initially under Dutch rule in colonial times, when people were classified into four racial groups, “black”, “white”, “coloured” and “Indian”. Indians and coloureds were divided further. Residential areas were also segregated. The ‘Coloured’ group being of mixed descent, many were descended from people brought to South Africa from other parts of the world as slaves.
For political reasons, the classification of “honorary white” was granted to immigrants from countries which South Africa had diplomatic and economic relations and to their descendants.
‘Coloureds’ were forced to live in separate townships, many leaving homes their families had occupied for generations. They received an inferior education, though better than that provided to Blacks.
Voting rights were denied to ‘Coloureds’ in the same way that they were denied to Blacks but in 1977 this was changed. The idea was that the ‘Coloured’ minority could be granted voting rights, but the Black majority were to become citizens of independent homelands. These separate arrangements continued until the abolition of apartheid.
Blacks were not allowed to run businesses or professional practices in areas designated as “white South Africa” unless they had a permit. They were required to move to the black “homelands” and set up businesses and practices there.
National Party leaders argued that South Africa did not comprise a single nation, but was made up of four distinct racial groups: white, black, coloured and Indian. These groups were split into 13 nations or racial federations. White people encompassed the English and Afrikaans language groups; the black populace was divided into ten such groups.
Transport and civil facilities were segregated. Black buses stopped at black bus stops and white buses at white ones.
I have my own little story here, which sticks clearly in my mind to this day. I went on a school excursion to the Motor Show in London, there I heard a word and way of life I knew nothing about.
That’s when I saw it. A bus! Not just any old bus. A bus with beautiful plush seating at the front, with wooden benches at the back, divided by a metal grille.
I asked the teacher if it was for prisoners. She told me it was a bus for export to South Africa. I further questioned “But is it for prisoners?”
It was then she explained Apartheid to me. I remember crying and being horrified. The very fact that it is so clear still in my head shows what an effect it had on me.
Trains, hospitals and ambulances were segregated. The numbers of white patients were fewer, with white doctors preferring to work in white hospitals. These conditions were much better than those in often overcrowded and understaffed black hospitals.
Blacks were excluded from living or working in white areas, unless they had a pass issued only to blacks with approved work. Spouses and children had to be left behind in black homelands. A person without a valid pass was subject to arrest and trial for being an illegal migrant, which was generally followed by deportation to their ‘homeland’ and their employer prosecuted for employing an illegal migrant. Police vans patrolled white areas to round up blacks without passes. Blacks were not allowed to employ whites in white South Africa.
Even Trade unions under apartheid were racially segregated.
The State spent ten times more per child on the education of white children than black which included separate universities .
Blacks were not allowed to buy hard liquor and could only buy a poor quality beer.
Public beaches were racially segregated.
Public swimming pools, even some pedestrian bridges, drive-in cinema parking spaces, graveyards, parks, and public toilets were segregated.
Cinemas and theatres in white areas were not allowed to admit blacks.
Most restaurants and hotels in white areas were not allowed to admit blacks except as staff.
Blacks were prohibited from attending white churches but this was never rigidly enforced and churches were one of the few places races could mix without the interference of the law.
Blacks paid tax on earnings on a much lower wage than whites.
Blacks could never buy land in white areas. In the Black areas, most of the land belonged to a “tribe”, where the local chieftain would decide how the land had to be used. As a result of this whites owned almost all the industrial and agricultural lands and much of the prized residential land.
There is more, so much more. When I started researching this subject I thought I knew what apartheid was. BOY!!! Were my eyes opened. Apartheid legislation
Let’s have a look now at Israel, which the Leftists would have us believe is an “Apartheid State”.
How on earth they can come to a conclusion like that is beyond my comprehension.
The Arab population of Israel has had the right to vote since the Declaration of the State of Israel, consequently since the first Parliament in 1949, there have always been Arab MKs (MPs), where it was confirmed that Hebrew and Arabic were the official languages of Israel.
Clearly there was no apartheid from day one.
As of 2011, 13 of the 120 members of the Israeli Parliament are Arabs, most representing Arab political parties.
One of Israel’s Supreme Court judges is an Arab. In Israel an Arab judge sent our former Jewish president to gaol. Apartheid ?
The difference between the Israeli situation and apartheid South Africa is very different in every possible way.
There are no separate doctors, nurses, dentists, teachers, schools etc. for Israelis and Arabs.
Israeli and Arab babies are born in the same delivery room, with the same facilities, attended by the same doctors and nurses, with the mothers recovering in adjoining beds in a ward. A friend had major surgery in a Jerusalem hospital: the surgeon was Jewish, the anaesthetist was Arab, the doctors and nurses who looked after him were Israelis and Arabs.
Israelis and Arabs share meals in restaurants and travel on the same trains, buses and taxis, and visit each others homes.
None of this could have happened under apartheid.
You see Arabs wherever you go on the beach, in the shopping centres, strolling the streets.
There are Arabs in all walks of life including the highest Judges and soldiers in the land. The Deputy Speaker of the Knesset in an Arab.
Amal Asad is a druze Arab Israeli IDF General.
A comprehensive list can be found here at Wikipedia
Last year’s winner of the voice was an Arab, Miss Israel was/is an Ethiopian, the runner up on Master chef was an Arab. The winner of a well know talent show this is year an Arab.
None of this would have happened under apartheid.
Here’s an interesting link Arabs Are Prominent in Israel’s Government
There are Arab parliamentarians, judges, diplomats, and IDF generals.
A huge difference between Israel and South Africa is that Arabs have the right to vote. Blacks did not. The vote means citizenship and power to change.
20% of the students at Haifa University are Arabs. I personally was amazed to see the number of girls wearing hijabs at Tel Aviv University.
If Israel was an Apartheid State, why do polls continually show that Arabs in Israel don’t want to move to the West Bank or Gaza if a Palestinian state is created there.?
In a survey conducted among 1,000 residents of Um Al-Fahm, 83% of respondents opposed the idea of transferring their city to Palestinian jurisdiction, while 11 percent supported the proposal and 6 percent did not express their position.
Of those opposed, 54% said that they were against becoming part of a Palestinian state because they wanted to continue living under a democratic regime and enjoying a good standard of living.
Of those against, 18% said that they were satisfied with their present situation, that they were born in Israel and that they were not interested in moving to any other state. Another 14% of this same group said that they were not prepared to make sacrifices for the sake of the creation of a Palestinian state. Another 11 percent cited no reason for their opposition.
No where do you see the separation of public facilities in Israel such as benches, toilets, and even train carriages as was the case in South Africa.
Israel needs to be respected as the only liberal democracy in the Middle East writes Joel Rosen
“I went back to Israel last summer as I do regularly, and visited Hebron, deep in the West Bank. As I strolled along the seafront between Jaffa and Tel Aviv, I could not help but notice Muslim, Christian and Jewish Israelis alike, all barbequing, playing on the beach, and wading out into the Mediterranean right next to each other. In South Africa, even the beaches were segregated. There were no separate benches or toilets for Muslims, and the new tram in Jerusalem did not have different sections for different ethnicities or religions in it – but it did display place names in both Arabic and Hebrew as is the case in all of Israel. As citizens, Arab-Israelis have exactly the same rights as all other Israelis do, and have 12 Members of the Knesset, Israel’s parliament, representing them. Arab-Israelis have also had representatives in the cabinet, worked in the civilservice, and served in the army. It was a Christian Palestinian Supreme Court judge, George Karra, who sentenced Moshe Katsav, a former Israeli President, to a jail term in 2010. So much for a “racist” state.”
“Muhammad Zoabi, 16, an Arab Muslim from Nazareth, is causing anger in Muslim circles, and considerable joy in Jewish ones, by stating in a unique interview that he is a Zionist and loves the state of Israel.
“I really believe that I’m a lucky Arab and a lucky human being and a lucky Middle Eastern[er] that I was born in this little tiny piece of land!”, he stated. Pointing to the Golan Heights from the window of his interviewer’s home, in the Israeli community of Massad, he noted how bad life is beyond the border, for Syrians.” | 2,428 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Flea market traders sold all kinds of second-hand and new goods, which brought them into conflict with shopkeepers and the authorities.
In the towns of the early modern period it was not just a case of shopkeepers selling new goods in their shops. Second-hand traders selling used goods in the street and in specially established markets were also a fixed part of urban commerce. These markets offered a wide range of products: furniture, jewellery, books, tools, household goods and weapons. However, it was second-hand clothes that made up the largest share; they underwent numerous alterations and in many cases eventually ended up being sold on as rags to be used for manufacturing paper. Often, though, brand-new goods could be found in the markets, while the traders also took on repair work. Not infrequently such practices brought the traders into conflict with shopkeepers and the owners of small businesses, who turned to the municipal authorities. In general, second-hand goods played an important role for the lower social classes, because they could be bought cheaply from market traders. The goods that were on sale in the markets also included items that had belonged to people from the upper classes. These ‘cast-offs’ were purchased because their buyers wanted to imitate those higher up on the social ladder.
The street and market traders belonged to the lower social classes, most of them being or coming from the families of servants, journeymen, retailers and soldiers. The goods they sold had been acquired either for cash or in exchange for other goods. There was potential for conflict in the fact that prices were unregulated, as well as in the possibility that the goods traded might have been stolen – although this was very rarely the case, and that they might be contaminated in a way that would cause disease. In the course of the eighteenth century flea markets were increasingly subjected to checks and controls, because the municipal authorities wanted to create ‘order’. Some groups of people, especially women and members of ethnic and religious minorities, were increasingly excluded from the trade in second-hand goods. | <urn:uuid:750a882d-bbca-4979-b762-cbdb18c64b1d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/guaranteed-cheap-and-definitely-not-stolen-flea-markets-early-modern-period | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00087.warc.gz | en | 0.989576 | 419 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.13777384161... | 1 | Flea market traders sold all kinds of second-hand and new goods, which brought them into conflict with shopkeepers and the authorities.
In the towns of the early modern period it was not just a case of shopkeepers selling new goods in their shops. Second-hand traders selling used goods in the street and in specially established markets were also a fixed part of urban commerce. These markets offered a wide range of products: furniture, jewellery, books, tools, household goods and weapons. However, it was second-hand clothes that made up the largest share; they underwent numerous alterations and in many cases eventually ended up being sold on as rags to be used for manufacturing paper. Often, though, brand-new goods could be found in the markets, while the traders also took on repair work. Not infrequently such practices brought the traders into conflict with shopkeepers and the owners of small businesses, who turned to the municipal authorities. In general, second-hand goods played an important role for the lower social classes, because they could be bought cheaply from market traders. The goods that were on sale in the markets also included items that had belonged to people from the upper classes. These ‘cast-offs’ were purchased because their buyers wanted to imitate those higher up on the social ladder.
The street and market traders belonged to the lower social classes, most of them being or coming from the families of servants, journeymen, retailers and soldiers. The goods they sold had been acquired either for cash or in exchange for other goods. There was potential for conflict in the fact that prices were unregulated, as well as in the possibility that the goods traded might have been stolen – although this was very rarely the case, and that they might be contaminated in a way that would cause disease. In the course of the eighteenth century flea markets were increasingly subjected to checks and controls, because the municipal authorities wanted to create ‘order’. Some groups of people, especially women and members of ethnic and religious minorities, were increasingly excluded from the trade in second-hand goods. | 409 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In November 2018 under the Greenland glacier Hiawatha has been found a huge crater with a diameter of about 31 kilometers. Geologists were very surprised to find, as they already tend to think that thick layer of ice fully aligns like depression. They decided not to stop there and continued the search for other ice craters. The result was not long in coming — it turned out that not far away there is another, larger crater with a diameter of 36.5 kilometers.
It is believed that both the crater was formed by falling meteorites. On the surface of the Earth is about 200 impact craters, and a couple of harp is the only thing under a thick crust of ice. They were discovered by a group of NASA researchers, under the leadership of Joseph McGregor. For their research they used data from aircraft IceBridge, who had previously helped find the dangerous cavity under the glacier, Thwaites.
Initially the researchers assumed that the craters were formed from the same meteorite impact. Perhaps, once upon a time fell to Earth double asteroid system, and maybe one asteroid simply disintegrated into two parts during reentry. However, geologists quickly abandoned this theory: the brink of new and old crater are very different, i.e. they could not be formed at the same time.
The age of the crater Hiawatha is estimated at 100 000 years, and the second crater was probably formed in more ancient times. This is evidenced by strong erosion, possibly, initially the crater was ten times deeper and its depth was more than 800 meters. The researchers intend to study carefully the samples of rocks, as they still have doubts about its origin.
The new crater while there is no official name, but the authors want to give him the name in honor of the late scientist Stan Patterson, who restored the climatic data for the last 100,000 years by studying ice cores of Greenland. Researchers are surprised and excited at the seemingly studied along and across the Earth can you find such huge craters.
What do you think, what other such secrets is fraught with Land? Their fantastic assumptions feel free to write in comments and discuss the news more in our Telegram chat! | <urn:uuid:bad3dd3f-0c0f-4924-867f-5c073ce2db22> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.tech-news.websawa.com/under-the-ice-of-greenland-found-a-huge-crater-how-many/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00217.warc.gz | en | 0.98201 | 443 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.4059108197689... | 1 | In November 2018 under the Greenland glacier Hiawatha has been found a huge crater with a diameter of about 31 kilometers. Geologists were very surprised to find, as they already tend to think that thick layer of ice fully aligns like depression. They decided not to stop there and continued the search for other ice craters. The result was not long in coming — it turned out that not far away there is another, larger crater with a diameter of 36.5 kilometers.
It is believed that both the crater was formed by falling meteorites. On the surface of the Earth is about 200 impact craters, and a couple of harp is the only thing under a thick crust of ice. They were discovered by a group of NASA researchers, under the leadership of Joseph McGregor. For their research they used data from aircraft IceBridge, who had previously helped find the dangerous cavity under the glacier, Thwaites.
Initially the researchers assumed that the craters were formed from the same meteorite impact. Perhaps, once upon a time fell to Earth double asteroid system, and maybe one asteroid simply disintegrated into two parts during reentry. However, geologists quickly abandoned this theory: the brink of new and old crater are very different, i.e. they could not be formed at the same time.
The age of the crater Hiawatha is estimated at 100 000 years, and the second crater was probably formed in more ancient times. This is evidenced by strong erosion, possibly, initially the crater was ten times deeper and its depth was more than 800 meters. The researchers intend to study carefully the samples of rocks, as they still have doubts about its origin.
The new crater while there is no official name, but the authors want to give him the name in honor of the late scientist Stan Patterson, who restored the climatic data for the last 100,000 years by studying ice cores of Greenland. Researchers are surprised and excited at the seemingly studied along and across the Earth can you find such huge craters.
What do you think, what other such secrets is fraught with Land? Their fantastic assumptions feel free to write in comments and discuss the news more in our Telegram chat! | 461 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As first lady, she introduced many changes in dress and social attitude in gender roles: she made the upper class women of Ecuador cast off the black costumes they dressed in at the time and adopt European fashion in bright colors, and she also liberated women"s space of movement by making it acceptable for women to walk in the streets without a male guardian as company, after setting an example by doing so herself in her position as first lady, walking about in the streets in public alone or in the company of a female friend. When civil war broke out during his absence, she took control of the capital, the government and its military forces in the name of her uncle"s office and commanded the defense of Quite when it was attacked by the rebels in 1883. She was a such referred to as Generalita.
She was the first female in Ecuador to have wielded such power.
After the defeat, she was imprisoned. She was released in 1884 and forced into exile.
After her return to Ecuador in 1898, she became a leading figure in the newly founded women"s movement in Ecuador as a writer and by making speeches in feminist issues. | <urn:uuid:6b128ce9-5cf8-4a5a-a62f-688f6afc6e4d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://prabook.com/web/marieta.veintimilla/2267275 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00150.warc.gz | en | 0.989989 | 231 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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She was the first female in Ecuador to have wielded such power.
After the defeat, she was imprisoned. She was released in 1884 and forced into exile.
After her return to Ecuador in 1898, she became a leading figure in the newly founded women"s movement in Ecuador as a writer and by making speeches in feminist issues. | 236 | ENGLISH | 1 |
6 facts you probably didn't know about Emancipation in the Caribbean
Emancipation Day is seen as one of the most significant commemorations in Caribbean history. It's a celebration of freedom and liberation from a system of oppression and servitude.
While we know the significance of the day, there are a few items you may not know about the period leading up Emancipation.
Here are six things you probably didn't know about Emancipation in the British Caribbean.
1. The Caribbean achieved emancipation before the United States did
The 19th century saw the gradual evolution of emancipation sweep across the islands of the Caribbean well before the United States.
Britain was one of the catalysts in this process by first abolishing the slave trade in 1808, followed by apprenticeship and finally, emancipation in 1838.
Slaves in the United States were emancipated in 1865.
2. Slaves were emancipated but not free
Emancipation Day was officially declared on August 1, 1834, and was celebrated throughout the British Caribbean.
However, the newly 'freed' slaves were forced into a period of apprenticeship. Apprenticeship was touted as being a period to transition slaves into freedom while they earned a small stipend, however, there were little changes in treatment and working conditions under apprenticeship.
They were still expected to remain on the plantations and put in more than 10-hour days; absenteeism would result in imprisonment and the apprentices could still legally be flogged including females.
The scheme came to an end four years later after the Anti-Slavery Society petitioned and fought for its end. Parliament voted for complete emancipation (freedom without apprenticeship) to take effect from August 1, 1838.
3. Trinidad and Tobago is the first country in the world to declare Emancipation Day a national holiday
Emancipation Day was first declared as a national holiday on August 1, 1985, in Trinidad and Tobago, replacing Columbus Discovery Day which marked Christopher Columbus' arrival in Trinidad on July 31, 1498.
Trinidad and Tobago became the first country in the world to declare the day as a national public holiday.
4. There were two groups of freed slaves that existed before Emancipation
There were two ex-military groups who lived in freedom before Emancipation was officially declared.
One group was the Merikins. They were former slaves of the American south who fought with the British army in 1812 against the former colonies. For their service, they were rewarded with their freedom and land in the Princes Town and Moruga area.
The other group were Muslim soldiers born in Africa that served in the West India Regiment between 1793 and 1815. They were also granted their freedom and land in Cumuto, Valencia and Manzanilla.
5. Some slaves saw their freedom as early as 1834
Most slaves were officially freed in 1838 following the apprenticeship period. The Abolition Act immediately freed few slaves except for in the cases of Antigua and Bermuda where the colonial governments rejected apprenticeship and fully emancipated slaves in 1834.
6. There were a number of ex-slaves that freed slaves
In addition to the Merikins and African-born Muslim soldiers, there was another group--the Mandingo--that was also free. They owned land, homes, grew their own crops and saved their money to purchase the freedom of their countrymen.
Jonas Mohammed Bath was one key figure in this movement. Today, Bath Street off Picadilly Street is named after him. | <urn:uuid:22acbbfa-7927-471b-abe2-8f684f33bd55> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.looptt.com/content/5-facts-you-probably-didnt-know-about-emancipation-caribbean | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00114.warc.gz | en | 0.985258 | 745 | 4.3125 | 4 | [
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0.1568590104579925... | 3 | 6 facts you probably didn't know about Emancipation in the Caribbean
Emancipation Day is seen as one of the most significant commemorations in Caribbean history. It's a celebration of freedom and liberation from a system of oppression and servitude.
While we know the significance of the day, there are a few items you may not know about the period leading up Emancipation.
Here are six things you probably didn't know about Emancipation in the British Caribbean.
1. The Caribbean achieved emancipation before the United States did
The 19th century saw the gradual evolution of emancipation sweep across the islands of the Caribbean well before the United States.
Britain was one of the catalysts in this process by first abolishing the slave trade in 1808, followed by apprenticeship and finally, emancipation in 1838.
Slaves in the United States were emancipated in 1865.
2. Slaves were emancipated but not free
Emancipation Day was officially declared on August 1, 1834, and was celebrated throughout the British Caribbean.
However, the newly 'freed' slaves were forced into a period of apprenticeship. Apprenticeship was touted as being a period to transition slaves into freedom while they earned a small stipend, however, there were little changes in treatment and working conditions under apprenticeship.
They were still expected to remain on the plantations and put in more than 10-hour days; absenteeism would result in imprisonment and the apprentices could still legally be flogged including females.
The scheme came to an end four years later after the Anti-Slavery Society petitioned and fought for its end. Parliament voted for complete emancipation (freedom without apprenticeship) to take effect from August 1, 1838.
3. Trinidad and Tobago is the first country in the world to declare Emancipation Day a national holiday
Emancipation Day was first declared as a national holiday on August 1, 1985, in Trinidad and Tobago, replacing Columbus Discovery Day which marked Christopher Columbus' arrival in Trinidad on July 31, 1498.
Trinidad and Tobago became the first country in the world to declare the day as a national public holiday.
4. There were two groups of freed slaves that existed before Emancipation
There were two ex-military groups who lived in freedom before Emancipation was officially declared.
One group was the Merikins. They were former slaves of the American south who fought with the British army in 1812 against the former colonies. For their service, they were rewarded with their freedom and land in the Princes Town and Moruga area.
The other group were Muslim soldiers born in Africa that served in the West India Regiment between 1793 and 1815. They were also granted their freedom and land in Cumuto, Valencia and Manzanilla.
5. Some slaves saw their freedom as early as 1834
Most slaves were officially freed in 1838 following the apprenticeship period. The Abolition Act immediately freed few slaves except for in the cases of Antigua and Bermuda where the colonial governments rejected apprenticeship and fully emancipated slaves in 1834.
6. There were a number of ex-slaves that freed slaves
In addition to the Merikins and African-born Muslim soldiers, there was another group--the Mandingo--that was also free. They owned land, homes, grew their own crops and saved their money to purchase the freedom of their countrymen.
Jonas Mohammed Bath was one key figure in this movement. Today, Bath Street off Picadilly Street is named after him. | 767 | ENGLISH | 1 |
GODS AND STARS, PRIESTS AND KINGS
WE have already told what there is to tell of the social life of the Aryan tribes when they were settling down to the beginnings of civilized life; we have seen how they were associated in great households, grouped together under tribal leaders, who made a sort of informal aristocracy rather like that of the sixth form and prefects in an English boys' school; we have considered the rôle of the bards in the creation of an oral tradition, and we have glanced at their not very complex religious ideas. We may note one or two points of difference from the equivalent life of the nomadic Semites.
Like the early Aryan life, it was a life in a sort of family-tribe household. But it had differences due originally perhaps to the warmer, drier climate. Though both groups of races had cattle and sheep, the Aryans were rather herdsmen, the Semites, shepherds. The Semites had no long winter evenings and no bardic singing. They never sat in hall. They have consequently no epics. They had stories, camp-fire stories, but not verbally beautified story-recitations. The Semite also was more polygamous than the Aryan, his women less self-assertive, and the
- The Sumerians allowed much more freedom and authority to women than the Semites. They had priestess-queens, and one of their great divinities was a goddess, Ishtar. | <urn:uuid:3f6d8654-e7e6-4826-b456-7c084bdc921d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/256 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00293.warc.gz | en | 0.984319 | 312 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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WE have already told what there is to tell of the social life of the Aryan tribes when they were settling down to the beginnings of civilized life; we have seen how they were associated in great households, grouped together under tribal leaders, who made a sort of informal aristocracy rather like that of the sixth form and prefects in an English boys' school; we have considered the rôle of the bards in the creation of an oral tradition, and we have glanced at their not very complex religious ideas. We may note one or two points of difference from the equivalent life of the nomadic Semites.
Like the early Aryan life, it was a life in a sort of family-tribe household. But it had differences due originally perhaps to the warmer, drier climate. Though both groups of races had cattle and sheep, the Aryans were rather herdsmen, the Semites, shepherds. The Semites had no long winter evenings and no bardic singing. They never sat in hall. They have consequently no epics. They had stories, camp-fire stories, but not verbally beautified story-recitations. The Semite also was more polygamous than the Aryan, his women less self-assertive, and the
- The Sumerians allowed much more freedom and authority to women than the Semites. They had priestess-queens, and one of their great divinities was a goddess, Ishtar. | 308 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gerrit van Honthorst had an international reputation for attracting high-status clients. After working in Rome, he was invited to England in 1628 by Charles I and painted several royal portraits before returning to live mainly in The Hague. In Holland he became a favourite of Charles’ sister Elizabeth Stuart, depicted here. She was married to Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and in 1619 they were also crowned King and Queen of Bohemia. Deposed in the winter of 1620, they went into exile in The Hague, where she became known as the ‘Winter Queen’.
This near life-size portrait represents a new type of formal picture of Elizabeth. Made in 1642, ten years after her husband’s death, it was the first time she was depicted in the open air. She wears black for mourning, a state confirmed by the black ribbon on her right arm. Her jewellery is a combination of enormous pearls and black precious stones.
If it weren’t for the inscription on the balustrade you might not realise that this is a portrait of a queen. This lettering was actually added to the picture at a later date; the sitter’s contemporaries would have gauged her status and nobility from the portrait’s dimensions (near life-size) and her sumptuous lace and silks.
They would have also realised that she was in mourning, a state suggested by her black dress and confirmed by the black ribbon on her right arm. Her jewellery is astonishingly impressive: a combination of enormous pearls and black precious stones. The earrings had been given to her by her husband, who had died ten years previously. He was Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and she is Elizabeth Stuart, the daughter of James I of England.
She moved to Heidelberg with Frederick when they married in 1613. He was elected King of Bohemia in November 1619 and they then moved to Prague. But the following November he was defeated by a rival claimant, the Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand II. Frederick and Elizabeth went into exile in Holland and Elizabeth became known as the ‘Winter Queen’ (her brief reign began and ended in that season).
This picture was made in 1642, when Elizabeth was 46 years old. In the same year, civil war broke out in England – it would eventually lead to the execution of her brother Charles I – and her sister-in-law Queen Henrietta Maria crossed the Channel to join her in exile in The Hague. Elizabeth eventually returned to England in 1661 after the restoration of her nephew, Charles II. But she died just nine months after her return.
Gerrit van Honthorst had an international reputation for attracting high-status clients. After working in Rome, he was invited to England in 1628 by Charles I and painted several royal portraits before returning to live mainly in The Hague as painter to the Stadholder. He was also one of the artists most favoured by Elizabeth Stuart and he made numerous portraits of Frederick, Elizabeth and their children.
This full-length, near life-size example represents a new type of formal picture of Elizabeth. It shows her with a new hairstyle – the first time she had appeared without a fringe – and it was also the first time she had been depicted in the open air. The outdoor setting creates a certain grandeur, with the landscape and winding river receding into the far distance. The rosebush and what seems to be an oak tree frame her head and shoulders, and the stone balustrade and chequerboard pavement create a sort of platform in the foreground which gives the impression that she is sharing the same space as the viewer. The dog may be a symbol of fidelity as well as a portrait of a favourite pet.
The National Gallery also owns portraits of two of Elizabeth’s sons – Prince Charles Louis, Count Palatine and Prince Rupert, Count Palatine, both from the studio of Anthony van Dyck – which usually hang on either side of this painting.
Download a low-resolution copy of this image for personal use.
License and download a high-resolution image for reproductions up to A3 size from the National Gallery Picture Library.
This image is licensed for non-commercial use under a Creative Commons agreement.
Examples of non-commercial use are:
The image file is 800 pixels on the longest side.
As a charity, we depend upon the generosity of individuals to ensure the collection continues to engage and inspire. Help keep us free by making a donation today.
You must agree to the Creative Commons terms and conditions to download this image. | <urn:uuid:12352b6d-0d2e-4157-8a4c-978f85a64df6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/gerrit-van-honthorst-elizabeth-stuart-queen-of-bohemia | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00407.warc.gz | en | 0.980008 | 953 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.09534424543... | 1 | Gerrit van Honthorst had an international reputation for attracting high-status clients. After working in Rome, he was invited to England in 1628 by Charles I and painted several royal portraits before returning to live mainly in The Hague. In Holland he became a favourite of Charles’ sister Elizabeth Stuart, depicted here. She was married to Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and in 1619 they were also crowned King and Queen of Bohemia. Deposed in the winter of 1620, they went into exile in The Hague, where she became known as the ‘Winter Queen’.
This near life-size portrait represents a new type of formal picture of Elizabeth. Made in 1642, ten years after her husband’s death, it was the first time she was depicted in the open air. She wears black for mourning, a state confirmed by the black ribbon on her right arm. Her jewellery is a combination of enormous pearls and black precious stones.
If it weren’t for the inscription on the balustrade you might not realise that this is a portrait of a queen. This lettering was actually added to the picture at a later date; the sitter’s contemporaries would have gauged her status and nobility from the portrait’s dimensions (near life-size) and her sumptuous lace and silks.
They would have also realised that she was in mourning, a state suggested by her black dress and confirmed by the black ribbon on her right arm. Her jewellery is astonishingly impressive: a combination of enormous pearls and black precious stones. The earrings had been given to her by her husband, who had died ten years previously. He was Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and she is Elizabeth Stuart, the daughter of James I of England.
She moved to Heidelberg with Frederick when they married in 1613. He was elected King of Bohemia in November 1619 and they then moved to Prague. But the following November he was defeated by a rival claimant, the Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand II. Frederick and Elizabeth went into exile in Holland and Elizabeth became known as the ‘Winter Queen’ (her brief reign began and ended in that season).
This picture was made in 1642, when Elizabeth was 46 years old. In the same year, civil war broke out in England – it would eventually lead to the execution of her brother Charles I – and her sister-in-law Queen Henrietta Maria crossed the Channel to join her in exile in The Hague. Elizabeth eventually returned to England in 1661 after the restoration of her nephew, Charles II. But she died just nine months after her return.
Gerrit van Honthorst had an international reputation for attracting high-status clients. After working in Rome, he was invited to England in 1628 by Charles I and painted several royal portraits before returning to live mainly in The Hague as painter to the Stadholder. He was also one of the artists most favoured by Elizabeth Stuart and he made numerous portraits of Frederick, Elizabeth and their children.
This full-length, near life-size example represents a new type of formal picture of Elizabeth. It shows her with a new hairstyle – the first time she had appeared without a fringe – and it was also the first time she had been depicted in the open air. The outdoor setting creates a certain grandeur, with the landscape and winding river receding into the far distance. The rosebush and what seems to be an oak tree frame her head and shoulders, and the stone balustrade and chequerboard pavement create a sort of platform in the foreground which gives the impression that she is sharing the same space as the viewer. The dog may be a symbol of fidelity as well as a portrait of a favourite pet.
The National Gallery also owns portraits of two of Elizabeth’s sons – Prince Charles Louis, Count Palatine and Prince Rupert, Count Palatine, both from the studio of Anthony van Dyck – which usually hang on either side of this painting.
Download a low-resolution copy of this image for personal use.
License and download a high-resolution image for reproductions up to A3 size from the National Gallery Picture Library.
This image is licensed for non-commercial use under a Creative Commons agreement.
Examples of non-commercial use are:
The image file is 800 pixels on the longest side.
As a charity, we depend upon the generosity of individuals to ensure the collection continues to engage and inspire. Help keep us free by making a donation today.
You must agree to the Creative Commons terms and conditions to download this image. | 943 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 88 b.c. the town of Venusia, on the borders of Apulia and Lucania, which had sided with the Italian Allies in their struggle against Rome, was stormed, and more than 3,000 prisoners were taken (Diodorus 37.2.10). That may have been the occasion when Horace’s father, probably still a minor, became a slave. Although he was subsequently emancipated, and was free at the time of Horace’s birth (December 8, 65 b.c.), the poet had to endure the sneer that he was “the son of a freedman” (Sat. I.6.6,45,46; Epist. I.20.20). His mother is not mentioned; perhaps he never knew her.
In spite of these tragic events, Horace’s father had made sufficient money as an auctioneer’s agent to enable him to take his boy away from Venusia, where the local school was attended by the swaggering sons of Roman centurions (Sat. I.6.72-5), and to have him educated in the capital at a fashionable school, where he mixed with the sons of the upper class. At that time (the 50’s) Rome was plagued by gang warfare between Caesarians (led by Clodius) and Pompeians (led by Milo), which eventually led to the civil war (49-45). Then came the assassination of Caesar, after which Brutus left Italy to raise an army in the East. In Athens he recruited Horace, who was attending university in Athens along with several young aristocrats. | <urn:uuid:0200345b-afe9-49ce-a1e7-7bcbb0764e69> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL033/2004/pb_LCL033.1.xml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00245.warc.gz | en | 0.989409 | 343 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.60639268159... | 1 | In 88 b.c. the town of Venusia, on the borders of Apulia and Lucania, which had sided with the Italian Allies in their struggle against Rome, was stormed, and more than 3,000 prisoners were taken (Diodorus 37.2.10). That may have been the occasion when Horace’s father, probably still a minor, became a slave. Although he was subsequently emancipated, and was free at the time of Horace’s birth (December 8, 65 b.c.), the poet had to endure the sneer that he was “the son of a freedman” (Sat. I.6.6,45,46; Epist. I.20.20). His mother is not mentioned; perhaps he never knew her.
In spite of these tragic events, Horace’s father had made sufficient money as an auctioneer’s agent to enable him to take his boy away from Venusia, where the local school was attended by the swaggering sons of Roman centurions (Sat. I.6.72-5), and to have him educated in the capital at a fashionable school, where he mixed with the sons of the upper class. At that time (the 50’s) Rome was plagued by gang warfare between Caesarians (led by Clodius) and Pompeians (led by Milo), which eventually led to the civil war (49-45). Then came the assassination of Caesar, after which Brutus left Italy to raise an army in the East. In Athens he recruited Horace, who was attending university in Athens along with several young aristocrats. | 346 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Knighthood in the middle ages was something of a prestigious position. The knight was charged with the obligation of learning the art of war and adhering to the code of chivalry. This code demanded that the knight demonstrate bravery, loyalty, generosity, courtesy and devotion especially to his liege. It was also his primary responsibility to protect the castles and more so during the time of battle.
Three categories of people went to war in medieval times and these included foot soldiers, knights and archers. In the middle ages, the knight was protected in metallic armor and he could easily destroy the enemy foot soldiers during battle. Of all the three categories of fighters, knights were the wealthiest because it was very costly being a knight. Purchasing the armor, weapons and horse cost a fortune and most people who desired to become a knight simply could not afford it.
Knighthood was part of the feudal power structure and myriad agreements that characterized the middle ages. The knights in the middle ages would offer their military service in exchange for a fief or a piece of estate. In the later part of the middle ages, when battles continued to intensify, many people began to pay an amount of money that would keep them from serving as knights in the army of the king. Instead, these eligible knights were looking to ransack cities and pillage them. They were not looking to fight for any particular ideology. The money that they paid to the local lords was used to establish a small parallel army that would ransack and pillage cities in battle.
Code of Chivalry and Knight Weaponry
The code of chivalry is something that the knights deeply believed in and abided with. The Code required the knight to defend those who were weak and not to boast about his achievements. Knights were expected to serve both God and the king and to demonstrate humility in the presence superiors. The Code also required the knight to show mercy to defeated foe. Although the Code required the knights to protect the weak, the peasants were not considered as part the weak. The knights were often brutal to them.
The knight was the most armed of all the types of soldiers. He was often so enamored that his squire had to assist him in carrying and maintaining his weaponry. The first layer of armory was chain mail made from minute metallic rings that numbered up to 200,000. Because this armory was uncomfortable, metal plates, which shielded the legs, back, chest and arms replaced it. He wore a metal helmet to protect his head and a metal shield for his face. The entire battle suit weighed about sixty pounds.
A knight used shields for further protection during battle. These were either metallic or wooden and they would bear the knight’s family logo. The swords were the most important weapons for knighthood in the middle ages. Knights placed their swords on the left side of the waist and a dagger on the right. Other weapons that they used include axes, maces and lances as well as metal hammers.
One would become a knight through two methods. A young man could attain knighthood for showing bravery in battle while fighting in a different position such as an archer or as a foot soldier. At other times, he would be given the position of a knight just to instill courage in him. The most common way of attaining knighthood in the middle ages was that demonstrated by a noble’s son. At the tender age of eight years, a noble or knight’s son would be sent to a nearby castle to train in the position of a page.
During the training, the boy would learn skills in wrestling, body strengthening and horse riding. Importantly, he was trained in sword and spear fighting. The trainee used a quintain, a dummy made from wood to practice sword and spear skills. The dummy, which replicated a human, hung from a pole with a shield. The young trainee was required to hit the center of the shield and when he did, the dummy would make a complete spin. This is how the knight attacked his foes in the actual battle field.
In addition to the fighting techniques, the trainee also learnt how to read and write in both French and Latin. It was very important for a knight to be literate; this was part of his power and what served to place him in a higher status in society. The aspiring knight also learnt kingly etiquette so that he knew how to conduct himself in the presence of the king. The boy attained other skills such as singing and dancing.
By the time a boy was fifteen he would serve as the knight as a squire. The obligations of a squire were to dress the knight each morning, to serve meals, care for the knight’s horse and to clean his weaponry. The squire accompanied the knight almost everywhere including tournaments and in the battlefield. In addition to serving the knight, the squire continued to learn skills such as sword coordination and balance while adorning heavy armory and riding a horse too. At the age of 20, the squire would attain knighthood if he were successful in his training.
Upon successful training as a sequire, the local lord would hold a ceremony for the young knight-to-be. In the night leading to the ceremony, the young knight-to-be would don in red robes and a white tunic. All night long, he would purify his soul by praying and fasting. Meanwhile the church priest would bless his sword and leave it at the altar. Before the sun rose, the young knight would confess to the priest and then the ceremony would start.
Family and friends attended the ceremony. With the young knight-to-be kneeling before the lord, his shoulders would be tapped using the sword then he would be dubbed a knight. In the early centuries of the middle ages, the knight to be would be hit forcefully using the sword, as preparation for the future battles. | <urn:uuid:5fc6cdc7-6b01-4cfb-92db-6026be118eea> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thefinertimes.com/Middle-Ages/knighthood-in-the-middle-ages.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00036.warc.gz | en | 0.985661 | 1,210 | 4.34375 | 4 | [
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0.219686374068... | 1 | Knighthood in the middle ages was something of a prestigious position. The knight was charged with the obligation of learning the art of war and adhering to the code of chivalry. This code demanded that the knight demonstrate bravery, loyalty, generosity, courtesy and devotion especially to his liege. It was also his primary responsibility to protect the castles and more so during the time of battle.
Three categories of people went to war in medieval times and these included foot soldiers, knights and archers. In the middle ages, the knight was protected in metallic armor and he could easily destroy the enemy foot soldiers during battle. Of all the three categories of fighters, knights were the wealthiest because it was very costly being a knight. Purchasing the armor, weapons and horse cost a fortune and most people who desired to become a knight simply could not afford it.
Knighthood was part of the feudal power structure and myriad agreements that characterized the middle ages. The knights in the middle ages would offer their military service in exchange for a fief or a piece of estate. In the later part of the middle ages, when battles continued to intensify, many people began to pay an amount of money that would keep them from serving as knights in the army of the king. Instead, these eligible knights were looking to ransack cities and pillage them. They were not looking to fight for any particular ideology. The money that they paid to the local lords was used to establish a small parallel army that would ransack and pillage cities in battle.
Code of Chivalry and Knight Weaponry
The code of chivalry is something that the knights deeply believed in and abided with. The Code required the knight to defend those who were weak and not to boast about his achievements. Knights were expected to serve both God and the king and to demonstrate humility in the presence superiors. The Code also required the knight to show mercy to defeated foe. Although the Code required the knights to protect the weak, the peasants were not considered as part the weak. The knights were often brutal to them.
The knight was the most armed of all the types of soldiers. He was often so enamored that his squire had to assist him in carrying and maintaining his weaponry. The first layer of armory was chain mail made from minute metallic rings that numbered up to 200,000. Because this armory was uncomfortable, metal plates, which shielded the legs, back, chest and arms replaced it. He wore a metal helmet to protect his head and a metal shield for his face. The entire battle suit weighed about sixty pounds.
A knight used shields for further protection during battle. These were either metallic or wooden and they would bear the knight’s family logo. The swords were the most important weapons for knighthood in the middle ages. Knights placed their swords on the left side of the waist and a dagger on the right. Other weapons that they used include axes, maces and lances as well as metal hammers.
One would become a knight through two methods. A young man could attain knighthood for showing bravery in battle while fighting in a different position such as an archer or as a foot soldier. At other times, he would be given the position of a knight just to instill courage in him. The most common way of attaining knighthood in the middle ages was that demonstrated by a noble’s son. At the tender age of eight years, a noble or knight’s son would be sent to a nearby castle to train in the position of a page.
During the training, the boy would learn skills in wrestling, body strengthening and horse riding. Importantly, he was trained in sword and spear fighting. The trainee used a quintain, a dummy made from wood to practice sword and spear skills. The dummy, which replicated a human, hung from a pole with a shield. The young trainee was required to hit the center of the shield and when he did, the dummy would make a complete spin. This is how the knight attacked his foes in the actual battle field.
In addition to the fighting techniques, the trainee also learnt how to read and write in both French and Latin. It was very important for a knight to be literate; this was part of his power and what served to place him in a higher status in society. The aspiring knight also learnt kingly etiquette so that he knew how to conduct himself in the presence of the king. The boy attained other skills such as singing and dancing.
By the time a boy was fifteen he would serve as the knight as a squire. The obligations of a squire were to dress the knight each morning, to serve meals, care for the knight’s horse and to clean his weaponry. The squire accompanied the knight almost everywhere including tournaments and in the battlefield. In addition to serving the knight, the squire continued to learn skills such as sword coordination and balance while adorning heavy armory and riding a horse too. At the age of 20, the squire would attain knighthood if he were successful in his training.
Upon successful training as a sequire, the local lord would hold a ceremony for the young knight-to-be. In the night leading to the ceremony, the young knight-to-be would don in red robes and a white tunic. All night long, he would purify his soul by praying and fasting. Meanwhile the church priest would bless his sword and leave it at the altar. Before the sun rose, the young knight would confess to the priest and then the ceremony would start.
Family and friends attended the ceremony. With the young knight-to-be kneeling before the lord, his shoulders would be tapped using the sword then he would be dubbed a knight. In the early centuries of the middle ages, the knight to be would be hit forcefully using the sword, as preparation for the future battles. | 1,196 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Nonviolence in which an African American woman
Nonviolence acts have been an integral act of American History. Many peace activists, like Martin Luther King, had a huge affect on the history of America. But today I will be talking about a brave activist for peace and nonviolence known as Sojourner Truth. ” If the first woman God ever made was strong enough to turn the world upside down, these woman together ought to be able to turn it right again. “(Truth). Sojourner Truth is a former slave that became an abolitionist and women’s rights activist. She was born a slave in Dutch-speaking Ulster county. In 1843, the holy spirit told Truth to change her name. Until she was 30 years old, Truth was a slave known as Isabella. She was sold away from her parents at the age of four, and was sold and bought as a slave four times separated from her five children. During her enslavement, she was subjected to harsh labor. In 1827, Truth and her infant Sophia ran away to a nearby Dutch abolitionist family that later bought them freedom for twenty dollars (Michals).Later, Truth learned that her son, Peter, was illegally sold into slavery in Alabama. As a result, Truth decided to stand up to the slave owner and took the issue to court. Her case became the first in which an African American woman successfully challenged and won a court case against a white slave owner. However, this was only the beginning of her journey.Truth took preaching into the next level as she began travelling around the United States speaking at various conventions and meeting with important figures of high authority.In 1843, Truth walked onto the pages of American History. That year Truth headed east to Massachusetts where the movement for abolish slavery started. She became friends with many abolitionists like William Lloyd Garrison and many others. She first began by writing her autobiography to help the movement. Despite all the conflicts, Truth kept reminding her friends that their hope for justice lies in God (Family Peace Center).She later discovered her gift for oratory and began testifying against slavery. By joining the movement, Truth became the first delegate in the National Woman’s Rights Convention in Worcester. In 1851, at the Ohio Women’s Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio. The speech became known during the Civil War by the title “Ain’t I a Woman?.” Truth stood up for justice. She defended women and slaves through oratory and groundbreaking litigation. ” That man over there says that women need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best place! And ain’t I a woman? Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! And ain’t I a woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a man – when I could get it – and bear the lash as well! And ain’t I a woman? I have borne thirteen children, and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother’s grief, none but Jesus heard me! And ain’t I a woman?. “(Truth). This powerful speech was focused on the issue of Women’s Rights and addressed slavery as well. Her speech had a powerful effect that got to many of the audience.Truth met with President Abraham Lincoln, on October 29,1864. They discussed their opinions on equality in the United States. Shortly after the Civil War, Truth created a programme in which land will be granted to ex slaves. Unfortunately, the programme was not passed by congress.Regarding Woman’s life, Truth did not live long enough to see that women were blento start voting. The court case won by Truth signified the power shift along racial and gender lines. If Truth has not stood up in court against the white male slave owner , the who would? And how much longer would it have taken for that to happen? Truth went beyond just winning a single court case. We have to understand as humans who aspire to have equal rights how important it was for a black woman of the 18th and 19th century to stand and do what Truth did. Despite all the hate she received from various people Truth did not give up and continued with her journey to achieve equal rights. Truth is a role model for many people, like Oprah and Michelle Obama, who have mentioned Truth in many of their speeches. It is unfortunate that many people people do not know who Sojourner Truth is. Truthfully, I did not know who she was until I did this research paper. Truth’s achievements are reflected into society today, she broke barriers that seemed unbreakable in her time. | <urn:uuid:effb79fc-45a8-4285-8b92-d6ccc8d9e0f6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://niagarafallshypnosiscenter.com/nonviolence-in-which-an-african-american-woman/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00211.warc.gz | en | 0.985497 | 1,011 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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Nonviolence acts have been an integral act of American History. Many peace activists, like Martin Luther King, had a huge affect on the history of America. But today I will be talking about a brave activist for peace and nonviolence known as Sojourner Truth. ” If the first woman God ever made was strong enough to turn the world upside down, these woman together ought to be able to turn it right again. “(Truth). Sojourner Truth is a former slave that became an abolitionist and women’s rights activist. She was born a slave in Dutch-speaking Ulster county. In 1843, the holy spirit told Truth to change her name. Until she was 30 years old, Truth was a slave known as Isabella. She was sold away from her parents at the age of four, and was sold and bought as a slave four times separated from her five children. During her enslavement, she was subjected to harsh labor. In 1827, Truth and her infant Sophia ran away to a nearby Dutch abolitionist family that later bought them freedom for twenty dollars (Michals).Later, Truth learned that her son, Peter, was illegally sold into slavery in Alabama. As a result, Truth decided to stand up to the slave owner and took the issue to court. Her case became the first in which an African American woman successfully challenged and won a court case against a white slave owner. However, this was only the beginning of her journey.Truth took preaching into the next level as she began travelling around the United States speaking at various conventions and meeting with important figures of high authority.In 1843, Truth walked onto the pages of American History. That year Truth headed east to Massachusetts where the movement for abolish slavery started. She became friends with many abolitionists like William Lloyd Garrison and many others. She first began by writing her autobiography to help the movement. Despite all the conflicts, Truth kept reminding her friends that their hope for justice lies in God (Family Peace Center).She later discovered her gift for oratory and began testifying against slavery. By joining the movement, Truth became the first delegate in the National Woman’s Rights Convention in Worcester. In 1851, at the Ohio Women’s Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio. The speech became known during the Civil War by the title “Ain’t I a Woman?.” Truth stood up for justice. She defended women and slaves through oratory and groundbreaking litigation. ” That man over there says that women need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best place! And ain’t I a woman? Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! And ain’t I a woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a man – when I could get it – and bear the lash as well! And ain’t I a woman? I have borne thirteen children, and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother’s grief, none but Jesus heard me! And ain’t I a woman?. “(Truth). This powerful speech was focused on the issue of Women’s Rights and addressed slavery as well. Her speech had a powerful effect that got to many of the audience.Truth met with President Abraham Lincoln, on October 29,1864. They discussed their opinions on equality in the United States. Shortly after the Civil War, Truth created a programme in which land will be granted to ex slaves. Unfortunately, the programme was not passed by congress.Regarding Woman’s life, Truth did not live long enough to see that women were blento start voting. The court case won by Truth signified the power shift along racial and gender lines. If Truth has not stood up in court against the white male slave owner , the who would? And how much longer would it have taken for that to happen? Truth went beyond just winning a single court case. We have to understand as humans who aspire to have equal rights how important it was for a black woman of the 18th and 19th century to stand and do what Truth did. Despite all the hate she received from various people Truth did not give up and continued with her journey to achieve equal rights. Truth is a role model for many people, like Oprah and Michelle Obama, who have mentioned Truth in many of their speeches. It is unfortunate that many people people do not know who Sojourner Truth is. Truthfully, I did not know who she was until I did this research paper. Truth’s achievements are reflected into society today, she broke barriers that seemed unbreakable in her time. | 1,001 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today in Dutch History: An Example of Faith
Today in 1944, the Gestapo arrested the ten Boom family for hiding Jews and members of the Resistance in their Haarlem home. The ten Booms were devout members of the Dutch Reformed Church and their faith guided them to care for their fellow man. Before the war, the ten Booms cared for the poor, including providing for orphans and teaching crafts to young women. Even before the Occupation, the ten Booms were vocal opponents of anti-semitism.
The ten Booms resisted Nazi rule from the beginning. Caspar ten Boom, the eighty-year-old father, wore a yellow star in protest. In 1942, Caspar and his two daughters started to shelter escaping Jews in their house, obtaining food via a connection in the rationing department. The Resistance became aware of their activities and built a hiding place and an alert system. Countless Jews and Resistance fighters took refuge there during the next two years.
In 1944, they were betrayed by a Dutch collaborator. Caspar and his daughters were arrested, along with his son and grandson, who were visiting. Caspar died after ten days in prison and his son Willem died of TB he contracted in prison. His grandson Christiaan and his daughter Betsie died in concentration. His youngest daughter, Corrie ten Boom, was sent to Ravensbruck with Betsie and was released due to a clerical error shortly after Betsie’s death. She returned home in poor health during the Hunger Winter, when the Northern Netherlands was starving, but immediately opened her doors to the disabled.
Corrie ten Boom wrote about her family in a book called “The Hiding Place”, which was later made into a movie with Julie Harris. She also toured extensively to speak about her experiences. She described faith as what compelled her family to risk death on behalf of others, as well as the thing that carried her family through. When Betsie was dying amidst the suffering of Ravensbruck, she told Corrie, “There is no pit so deep that He is not deeper still.”
The ten Boom family stands as a beacon of faith through action and caring for all people. | <urn:uuid:e7b3ea82-b13e-4882-b179-0e848e734f51> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ask-a-badass.com/blamsterdam/tenboom/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00019.warc.gz | en | 0.990857 | 456 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.18668752908... | 2 | Today in Dutch History: An Example of Faith
Today in 1944, the Gestapo arrested the ten Boom family for hiding Jews and members of the Resistance in their Haarlem home. The ten Booms were devout members of the Dutch Reformed Church and their faith guided them to care for their fellow man. Before the war, the ten Booms cared for the poor, including providing for orphans and teaching crafts to young women. Even before the Occupation, the ten Booms were vocal opponents of anti-semitism.
The ten Booms resisted Nazi rule from the beginning. Caspar ten Boom, the eighty-year-old father, wore a yellow star in protest. In 1942, Caspar and his two daughters started to shelter escaping Jews in their house, obtaining food via a connection in the rationing department. The Resistance became aware of their activities and built a hiding place and an alert system. Countless Jews and Resistance fighters took refuge there during the next two years.
In 1944, they were betrayed by a Dutch collaborator. Caspar and his daughters were arrested, along with his son and grandson, who were visiting. Caspar died after ten days in prison and his son Willem died of TB he contracted in prison. His grandson Christiaan and his daughter Betsie died in concentration. His youngest daughter, Corrie ten Boom, was sent to Ravensbruck with Betsie and was released due to a clerical error shortly after Betsie’s death. She returned home in poor health during the Hunger Winter, when the Northern Netherlands was starving, but immediately opened her doors to the disabled.
Corrie ten Boom wrote about her family in a book called “The Hiding Place”, which was later made into a movie with Julie Harris. She also toured extensively to speak about her experiences. She described faith as what compelled her family to risk death on behalf of others, as well as the thing that carried her family through. When Betsie was dying amidst the suffering of Ravensbruck, she told Corrie, “There is no pit so deep that He is not deeper still.”
The ten Boom family stands as a beacon of faith through action and caring for all people. | 454 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why do Anne and her mother fight? anne's conflict with her mother.
Anne is a typical pre-teen who wants to be treated more as an adult and less like a child. She is somewhat jealous of her older sister Margot, who in her eyes, has more priveleges. Mrs. Frank scolds Anne and wants her to be more compliant in their new living situation. Mrs. Frank is also afraid they will be found out by the Nazis if bickering between the family members is heard in the warehouse below.
Anne and the rest of her family came from a privileged background. Mrs. Frank has to conform to a new set of rules as do the rest of the Frank family members. Margot has made the adjustment, but Anne has not. This and the normal adolescent struggles between children and parents create tension between Anne and Mrs. Edith Frank.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:1fd179f1-90af-462e-a160-3297897b71b8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/why-do-anne-her-mother-fight-87903 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00420.warc.gz | en | 0.983877 | 187 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.4635308384... | 1 | Why do Anne and her mother fight? anne's conflict with her mother.
Anne is a typical pre-teen who wants to be treated more as an adult and less like a child. She is somewhat jealous of her older sister Margot, who in her eyes, has more priveleges. Mrs. Frank scolds Anne and wants her to be more compliant in their new living situation. Mrs. Frank is also afraid they will be found out by the Nazis if bickering between the family members is heard in the warehouse below.
Anne and the rest of her family came from a privileged background. Mrs. Frank has to conform to a new set of rules as do the rest of the Frank family members. Margot has made the adjustment, but Anne has not. This and the normal adolescent struggles between children and parents create tension between Anne and Mrs. Edith Frank.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 181 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Wikijunior:World War II/Enigma
In World War I, the British managed to break the German codes. This let them listen in to important messages being sent from Germany to the soldiers. After the war, the British cryptanalysts (someone who breaks codes and ciphers) carried on listening to German messages. Then in 1926 they started to receive coded messages that they couldn't crack. This was because the Germans had started using a new machine for coding their messages called Enigma. The story of how Enigma was cracked is an exciting one. The men and women who solved the problem were war winners because the Germans never knew the British and their allies were reading every secret. The effort to crack Enigma led to the invention of modern electronic computers too.
What was Enigma?Edit
Enigma was a machine for turning a "plain text" message into a "coded message", and turning it back into plain text again. The person using the machine typed a message onto a keyboard that looked just like the one on computers you use in school today. After the person typed the letter, Enigma passed the letter through rotors and a plug board which changed the letter into a different one that was then shown on the lamp board. The person wrote down the new letter - this was now in code. Then, as each letter was typed in, the rotors moved forward one click, changing the code that was being used. Once the whole message had been typed in and the coded message copied out, it would be sent out. This could be by telephone, radio or written down, it didn't matter.
You might think that if you had an Enigma machine you could just turn coded messages back into plain text messages, known as decoding. But it wasn't that easy. How Enigma changed a letter would be different based on how the rotors and plug board were set up. If you didn't know the original settings, you couldn't decode the message.
The Germans used to send out code books that had a day key for each day. This told people using Enigma how to set up their plug board and rotors. So, if you captured a code book and you had an Enigma machine, you could read messages. Because the Germans knew they might lose a code book (even though everyone had orders to burn them if they thought they would be caught), each book only had a month of codes in it. That way, at the worst, their messages could be read for one month. To make messages even tougher to read, the day key was only used to code the first three letters of the message. Then these first three letters were used as a new part of the code, called the message key, for just that message. That is, every message had its own special code!
How was it cracked?Edit
The Poles break it by handEdit
The first people to try and crack Enigma were the Poles. The Germans had invaded Poland in World War I, and they were worried it would happen again. So they worked hard to break the code. At first they thought it was unbreakable, but then their chief code breaker, Marian Rejewski, had an idea.
The Germans were sending the message key twice to make sure it was read properly. Let's say the message key was "ABC", the Germans would enter "ABCABC" into the Enigma machine. Because the rotors move, this would be coded differently each time, maybe as "DGHYIU". It's pretty complicated to explain, but this difference in the coding lets the code breaker understand something about the way the Enigma has been set up. Rejewski found a way to work out how the Germans had set the rotors and plug board from a small number of coded messages. To turn this into a useful way of quickly breaking the code he had to write down the 105,456 different ways an Enigma could be set up. Bet you wouldn't like to have to do that for homework!
This wasn't the end of the problem for code breakers. Soon after Rejewski's success, the Germans changed the way they set up Enigma, meaning he would have to rewrite his whole book of settings. Instead of doing this he invented a machine that could automatically check the settings. He called it a bombe. Another feature of Enigma is that the rotors (there are three) can be swapped around. Because that means there are six different ways the rotors could be put into the machine sending the secret message, there have to be six bombes working away to check for the right settings to decode the message.
The bombes worked well until 1938, just before the beginning of World War II. Then the Germans gave all Enigma users two more rotors, so they now had a choice of five to put in the three slots. This meant that Rejewski would need 60 bombes. Not only that but the number of plug board cables went up from six to ten. Together, these meant that the Poles could no longer read the messages.
The British and French get involvedEdit
The Poles knew war was coming and that they didn't have the time or money to solve the new Enigma codes. So, the head of the Polish code breaking team went to meet his friends from Britain and France. He told them all about the code breaking efforts and gave them a bombe as well. Just three weeks later Germany attacked Poland and World War II began.
The British code breakers were based at a beautiful mansion house called Bletchley Park. This was to keep them away from other people who they might accidentally tell about their code breaking efforts. It was just as important to keep code breaking success quiet as it was to break the codes in the first place. If the Germans knew their code was broken, they'd just change it.
The most famous person who worked at Bletchley Park was Alan Turing. His friends believed he was a genius. His first idea to help crack the new, stronger, Enigma was to look for patterns in German messages. He realised quickly that German submarines often sent a weather report in their messages. So, the code breakers would try and break the coded message by guessing that the first word was "wetter" (the German for "weather"). But this still meant they had to check billions of possible rotor and plug board settings.
Then Turing had his brainwave - the spark of genius that many think helped more than anything else to win the war. He worked out a way to wire up a machine so that the plug board made no difference. So instead of having to check 159,000,000,000,000,000,000 (that's a HUGE number) settings, he only had to check 17,576. And then he set up the machine so it lit up bulbs when it found a match. So, Turing's machine could break the code in about five hours - a fantastic achievement. But this still relied on having a clue to the code (like "wetter"). So the British set about ways of making sure messages sent by the Germans would have clues.
One way this was done was to drop sea mines. When they were found by the Germans, they would radio the location back to base. The British would read the message which was bound to contain the location of the mine. But the British already knew the location because they dropped the mine! This allowed them to use this location as a clue to break the code.
How did it help?Edit
To give you an idea of how important the code breaking was, during the Battle of Britain the people at Bletchley Park were able to warn of bombing raids, how many airplanes the Germans had lost and so on. This let the RAF plan which German airplanes they should attack, and which they should ignore.
It let the Royal Navy find all the German submarines that were sinking ships in the Atlantic Ocean, and sink them quickly.
The British mined German rivers so they couldn't be used for shipping. Whenever the Germans reported that they'd cleared some mines, the British read the message and just dropped more mines!
Before D-Day, the allies knew where every major German army unit was based and how strong they were, letting them plan the attack in the safest way.
Winston Churchill, the British leader certainly knew how important the code breakers were. Once they wrote to him asking for more money and people to help their efforts. Churchill was very busy running the war but he found time to send this message the same day:
- "ACTION THIS DAY
- "Make sure they have all they want on extreme priority and report to me that this has been done". | <urn:uuid:fb3e4f3f-4522-474c-bcbf-0a9ae1dd1293> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikijunior:World_War_II/Enigma | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00399.warc.gz | en | 0.98481 | 1,785 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.07755251973867... | 3 | Wikijunior:World War II/Enigma
In World War I, the British managed to break the German codes. This let them listen in to important messages being sent from Germany to the soldiers. After the war, the British cryptanalysts (someone who breaks codes and ciphers) carried on listening to German messages. Then in 1926 they started to receive coded messages that they couldn't crack. This was because the Germans had started using a new machine for coding their messages called Enigma. The story of how Enigma was cracked is an exciting one. The men and women who solved the problem were war winners because the Germans never knew the British and their allies were reading every secret. The effort to crack Enigma led to the invention of modern electronic computers too.
What was Enigma?Edit
Enigma was a machine for turning a "plain text" message into a "coded message", and turning it back into plain text again. The person using the machine typed a message onto a keyboard that looked just like the one on computers you use in school today. After the person typed the letter, Enigma passed the letter through rotors and a plug board which changed the letter into a different one that was then shown on the lamp board. The person wrote down the new letter - this was now in code. Then, as each letter was typed in, the rotors moved forward one click, changing the code that was being used. Once the whole message had been typed in and the coded message copied out, it would be sent out. This could be by telephone, radio or written down, it didn't matter.
You might think that if you had an Enigma machine you could just turn coded messages back into plain text messages, known as decoding. But it wasn't that easy. How Enigma changed a letter would be different based on how the rotors and plug board were set up. If you didn't know the original settings, you couldn't decode the message.
The Germans used to send out code books that had a day key for each day. This told people using Enigma how to set up their plug board and rotors. So, if you captured a code book and you had an Enigma machine, you could read messages. Because the Germans knew they might lose a code book (even though everyone had orders to burn them if they thought they would be caught), each book only had a month of codes in it. That way, at the worst, their messages could be read for one month. To make messages even tougher to read, the day key was only used to code the first three letters of the message. Then these first three letters were used as a new part of the code, called the message key, for just that message. That is, every message had its own special code!
How was it cracked?Edit
The Poles break it by handEdit
The first people to try and crack Enigma were the Poles. The Germans had invaded Poland in World War I, and they were worried it would happen again. So they worked hard to break the code. At first they thought it was unbreakable, but then their chief code breaker, Marian Rejewski, had an idea.
The Germans were sending the message key twice to make sure it was read properly. Let's say the message key was "ABC", the Germans would enter "ABCABC" into the Enigma machine. Because the rotors move, this would be coded differently each time, maybe as "DGHYIU". It's pretty complicated to explain, but this difference in the coding lets the code breaker understand something about the way the Enigma has been set up. Rejewski found a way to work out how the Germans had set the rotors and plug board from a small number of coded messages. To turn this into a useful way of quickly breaking the code he had to write down the 105,456 different ways an Enigma could be set up. Bet you wouldn't like to have to do that for homework!
This wasn't the end of the problem for code breakers. Soon after Rejewski's success, the Germans changed the way they set up Enigma, meaning he would have to rewrite his whole book of settings. Instead of doing this he invented a machine that could automatically check the settings. He called it a bombe. Another feature of Enigma is that the rotors (there are three) can be swapped around. Because that means there are six different ways the rotors could be put into the machine sending the secret message, there have to be six bombes working away to check for the right settings to decode the message.
The bombes worked well until 1938, just before the beginning of World War II. Then the Germans gave all Enigma users two more rotors, so they now had a choice of five to put in the three slots. This meant that Rejewski would need 60 bombes. Not only that but the number of plug board cables went up from six to ten. Together, these meant that the Poles could no longer read the messages.
The British and French get involvedEdit
The Poles knew war was coming and that they didn't have the time or money to solve the new Enigma codes. So, the head of the Polish code breaking team went to meet his friends from Britain and France. He told them all about the code breaking efforts and gave them a bombe as well. Just three weeks later Germany attacked Poland and World War II began.
The British code breakers were based at a beautiful mansion house called Bletchley Park. This was to keep them away from other people who they might accidentally tell about their code breaking efforts. It was just as important to keep code breaking success quiet as it was to break the codes in the first place. If the Germans knew their code was broken, they'd just change it.
The most famous person who worked at Bletchley Park was Alan Turing. His friends believed he was a genius. His first idea to help crack the new, stronger, Enigma was to look for patterns in German messages. He realised quickly that German submarines often sent a weather report in their messages. So, the code breakers would try and break the coded message by guessing that the first word was "wetter" (the German for "weather"). But this still meant they had to check billions of possible rotor and plug board settings.
Then Turing had his brainwave - the spark of genius that many think helped more than anything else to win the war. He worked out a way to wire up a machine so that the plug board made no difference. So instead of having to check 159,000,000,000,000,000,000 (that's a HUGE number) settings, he only had to check 17,576. And then he set up the machine so it lit up bulbs when it found a match. So, Turing's machine could break the code in about five hours - a fantastic achievement. But this still relied on having a clue to the code (like "wetter"). So the British set about ways of making sure messages sent by the Germans would have clues.
One way this was done was to drop sea mines. When they were found by the Germans, they would radio the location back to base. The British would read the message which was bound to contain the location of the mine. But the British already knew the location because they dropped the mine! This allowed them to use this location as a clue to break the code.
How did it help?Edit
To give you an idea of how important the code breaking was, during the Battle of Britain the people at Bletchley Park were able to warn of bombing raids, how many airplanes the Germans had lost and so on. This let the RAF plan which German airplanes they should attack, and which they should ignore.
It let the Royal Navy find all the German submarines that were sinking ships in the Atlantic Ocean, and sink them quickly.
The British mined German rivers so they couldn't be used for shipping. Whenever the Germans reported that they'd cleared some mines, the British read the message and just dropped more mines!
Before D-Day, the allies knew where every major German army unit was based and how strong they were, letting them plan the attack in the safest way.
Winston Churchill, the British leader certainly knew how important the code breakers were. Once they wrote to him asking for more money and people to help their efforts. Churchill was very busy running the war but he found time to send this message the same day:
- "ACTION THIS DAY
- "Make sure they have all they want on extreme priority and report to me that this has been done". | 1,807 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(c. 200 – January 20, 250)
Almost nothing is historically certain about Sebastian except that he was a Roman martyr, was venerated in Milan even in the time of Saint Ambrose and was buried on the Appian Way, probably near the present Basilica of St. Sebastian. Devotion to him spread rapidly, and he is mentioned in several martyrologies as early as 350. The legend of Saint Sebastian is important in art, and there is a vast iconography. Scholars now agree that a pious fable has Sebastian entering the Roman army because only there could he assist the martyrs without arousing suspicion. Finally he was found out, brought before Emperor Diocletian and delivered to Mauritanian archers to be shot to death. His body was pierced with arrows, and he was left for dead. But he was found still alive by those who came to bury him. He recovered, but refused to flee. One day he took up a position near where the emperor was to pass. He accosted the emperor, denouncing him for his cruelty to Christians. This time the sentence of death was carried out. Sebastian was beaten to death with clubs. He was buried on the Appian Way, close to the catacombs that bear his name. | <urn:uuid:13f5282f-c9dc-4aee-a7a3-9868123da16a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://afcmaustralia.com.au/saint-of-the-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00504.warc.gz | en | 0.991376 | 257 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | (c. 200 – January 20, 250)
Almost nothing is historically certain about Sebastian except that he was a Roman martyr, was venerated in Milan even in the time of Saint Ambrose and was buried on the Appian Way, probably near the present Basilica of St. Sebastian. Devotion to him spread rapidly, and he is mentioned in several martyrologies as early as 350. The legend of Saint Sebastian is important in art, and there is a vast iconography. Scholars now agree that a pious fable has Sebastian entering the Roman army because only there could he assist the martyrs without arousing suspicion. Finally he was found out, brought before Emperor Diocletian and delivered to Mauritanian archers to be shot to death. His body was pierced with arrows, and he was left for dead. But he was found still alive by those who came to bury him. He recovered, but refused to flee. One day he took up a position near where the emperor was to pass. He accosted the emperor, denouncing him for his cruelty to Christians. This time the sentence of death was carried out. Sebastian was beaten to death with clubs. He was buried on the Appian Way, close to the catacombs that bear his name. | 269 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For the longest time, scientists believed that Neanderthals were a subspecies of Homo sapiens and even categorized them under the name Homo sapiens neanderthalensis. With the development of science, genetic analysis and the finding of ever more and more remains of these ancient inhabitants of Earth, one thing becomes clear.
Even though we share a common ancestor with Neanderthals, as well as some genes, resulting from crossbreeding between Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons during the migration of prehistoric man from Africa into Europe, we are definitely not direct descendants of Neanderthals.
Excavations in a cave system in Gibraltar reveal a part of the everyday routine of Neanderthals, which brings them considerably closer to modern man. It has become evident that the primitive inhabitants of our planet loved their homes and remained at the "family hearth" for quite a lot of time.
Neanderthals were not nomads that simply migrated along with their prey, counting on the cover provided by temporary shelters. Quite the contrary, they went on hunting trips, taking some of their primitive weapons with them to small caves, a sort of "hunting lodges".
Once the food for the tribe was assured, they returned back to the large caves, which they thought of as their home. This conclusion was reached by archaeologists from the University of Oxford, who carried out excavations in the caves in Gibraltar.
4 large caves were investigated during the excavations. A large number of various types of hunting weapons and tools for the home were found. The experts were impressed by the great quantity of artifacts discovered in such a small area.
Among the uncovered items, there were numerous stone tools and fireplaces, hide scrapers, tools for opening mussel shells, as well as many remains of seals, wild goats and deer. Carbon dating of the artifacts helped to determine their approximate age - 24 000 years.
Besides on the tools and remains, carbon dating was done on the sedimentary layers of 4 of the largest caves on the island. The data from the investigation of the caves, especially the largest of these - Gorham's Cave, showed that the sediments had a high organic content.
This proves, without a shadow of a doubt, that Neanderthals did not simply use the caves as a temporary shelter. They inhabited them permanently. Their cave was their permanent home, for them and for the generations to come after them.
Neanderthals kept to their home and stereotypes until they were displaced (according to some recent investigations, eaten) by Homo sapiens coming from Africa.See more | <urn:uuid:a8e5fba3-5cbd-40c9-a88b-427867f1e502> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mysteries24.com/n4-49068-My_Cave_is_my_Castle | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00319.warc.gz | en | 0.980805 | 525 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.5546649098396301,... | 2 | For the longest time, scientists believed that Neanderthals were a subspecies of Homo sapiens and even categorized them under the name Homo sapiens neanderthalensis. With the development of science, genetic analysis and the finding of ever more and more remains of these ancient inhabitants of Earth, one thing becomes clear.
Even though we share a common ancestor with Neanderthals, as well as some genes, resulting from crossbreeding between Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons during the migration of prehistoric man from Africa into Europe, we are definitely not direct descendants of Neanderthals.
Excavations in a cave system in Gibraltar reveal a part of the everyday routine of Neanderthals, which brings them considerably closer to modern man. It has become evident that the primitive inhabitants of our planet loved their homes and remained at the "family hearth" for quite a lot of time.
Neanderthals were not nomads that simply migrated along with their prey, counting on the cover provided by temporary shelters. Quite the contrary, they went on hunting trips, taking some of their primitive weapons with them to small caves, a sort of "hunting lodges".
Once the food for the tribe was assured, they returned back to the large caves, which they thought of as their home. This conclusion was reached by archaeologists from the University of Oxford, who carried out excavations in the caves in Gibraltar.
4 large caves were investigated during the excavations. A large number of various types of hunting weapons and tools for the home were found. The experts were impressed by the great quantity of artifacts discovered in such a small area.
Among the uncovered items, there were numerous stone tools and fireplaces, hide scrapers, tools for opening mussel shells, as well as many remains of seals, wild goats and deer. Carbon dating of the artifacts helped to determine their approximate age - 24 000 years.
Besides on the tools and remains, carbon dating was done on the sedimentary layers of 4 of the largest caves on the island. The data from the investigation of the caves, especially the largest of these - Gorham's Cave, showed that the sediments had a high organic content.
This proves, without a shadow of a doubt, that Neanderthals did not simply use the caves as a temporary shelter. They inhabited them permanently. Their cave was their permanent home, for them and for the generations to come after them.
Neanderthals kept to their home and stereotypes until they were displaced (according to some recent investigations, eaten) by Homo sapiens coming from Africa.See more | 531 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Asked in History of Russia
Why did the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks split in 1903?
December 24, 2010 9:48PM
They completely disagreed on how the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party was to be formed. Julius Martov, then in charge of the party, wanted it to be as large as possible with relatively few restrictions. This would be more in keeping with Karl Marx's idea of a large but united proletarian revolution.
Lenin felt the party should be a tightly knit small organization of professional revolutionaries. He felt this was the way to keep Tsarist spies out of the organization.
At the Party Congress in Brussels, Belgium, the dispute over this issue became very heated and Lenin formed his own faction called the Bolsheviks.
They did not split completely in 1903, but the Bolsheviks did hold their own meetings while at the same time participating in the RSDLP. A few years later, the Bolsheviks formally severed ties and became their own party. | <urn:uuid:8f747255-131f-41f6-be4b-1f015de2426f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.answers.com/Q/Why_did_the_Bolsheviks_and_the_Mensheviks_split_in_1903 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00382.warc.gz | en | 0.982144 | 197 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.3182253... | 1 | Asked in History of Russia
Why did the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks split in 1903?
December 24, 2010 9:48PM
They completely disagreed on how the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party was to be formed. Julius Martov, then in charge of the party, wanted it to be as large as possible with relatively few restrictions. This would be more in keeping with Karl Marx's idea of a large but united proletarian revolution.
Lenin felt the party should be a tightly knit small organization of professional revolutionaries. He felt this was the way to keep Tsarist spies out of the organization.
At the Party Congress in Brussels, Belgium, the dispute over this issue became very heated and Lenin formed his own faction called the Bolsheviks.
They did not split completely in 1903, but the Bolsheviks did hold their own meetings while at the same time participating in the RSDLP. A few years later, the Bolsheviks formally severed ties and became their own party. | 213 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Zheng He was a Chinese explorer, mariner, and fleet admiral, and was a devout Muslim.
When Zheng He was a child he was captured by Ming armies and was brought to the capital of china. He was working as a slave to prince Zhu Di.
Zheng He rose up in the ranks of the slaves and became a close adviser of the prince, Zhu Di. When Zhu Di became emperor, he wanted to show the world china's power, so he instructed Zheng He to explore the world.
Zheng He built some of the largest wooden ships in the world. He had over 200 ships and 28000 men. He led 7 voyages that sailed throughout Asia and East Africa.
During Zheng He's voyages he established trade relations with foreign envoys from over 25 different countries. He also brought back goods such as ivory, camels, gold, and a giraffe.
Also, because Zheng He was a devout Muslim, he completed the Hajj on one of his journeys. Zheng He's voyages have had an effect on the rest of the world by extending China's glory and by spreading Islam along the way. | <urn:uuid:92fc7bbf-01ca-4c57-abc9-b2abdf055bbd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/a0c0dc62/zheng-he | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00216.warc.gz | en | 0.988726 | 235 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | Zheng He was a Chinese explorer, mariner, and fleet admiral, and was a devout Muslim.
When Zheng He was a child he was captured by Ming armies and was brought to the capital of china. He was working as a slave to prince Zhu Di.
Zheng He rose up in the ranks of the slaves and became a close adviser of the prince, Zhu Di. When Zhu Di became emperor, he wanted to show the world china's power, so he instructed Zheng He to explore the world.
Zheng He built some of the largest wooden ships in the world. He had over 200 ships and 28000 men. He led 7 voyages that sailed throughout Asia and East Africa.
During Zheng He's voyages he established trade relations with foreign envoys from over 25 different countries. He also brought back goods such as ivory, camels, gold, and a giraffe.
Also, because Zheng He was a devout Muslim, he completed the Hajj on one of his journeys. Zheng He's voyages have had an effect on the rest of the world by extending China's glory and by spreading Islam along the way. | 239 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Old Exchange Building and Provost located at East Bay and Broad Streets was built originally as the Royal Exchange in 1771. The building completed in 1771, the Exchange and Custom House was the social, cultural center, and economic center of the colony. It is said to be the last public building commissioned by the British in the colonies. The building was made a National Historical Landmark in 1973.
The Exchange and Provost was a very pivotal building in colonial Charleston, many significant events of the American Revolution and early Federal period occurred at the Exchange and Provost.
As Charleston became the South's largest port, the Exchange and Custom House was built from 1767 to 1771. This building became necessary due to the growing shipping industry in Charleston. The building also served as a customs house, a post office, public market, meeting place, and a bank. More interestingly it was used by the British as barracks and the basement as a prison during the Revolutionary War.
Before the Exchange building was built the Half Moon Battery existed in its location. At one point the Half Moon Battery imprisoned pirates who were looting the incoming ships, most notably Stede Bonnet who was under the command of Blackbeard. Later on, the Exchange was used to house confiscated tea after the Tea Act protests in 1774. George Washington even held a ball in the Exchange in 1791. After the U.S. Customs House was built in 1879 shipping business was no longer conducted there.
The Exchange house suffered heavy artillery damage at the hands of the Union Army during the Civil War and endured sizable damage during the 1886 Earthquake.
By 1913 the building was given to the Daughters of the American Revolution to be preserved as a historical monument. Many of the rooms are now used as offices and DAR meeting rooms. The basement, however, was revamped as a dungeon for tour groups. The Old Exchange offers public tours of its three floors that highlight various aspects of Charleston history during the Colonial and Revolutionary eras The building is now a living museum and represents a myriad of historical periods for Charleston from the Revolutionary War to present day. Today, the Exchange house is still owned by the South Carolina Society of the Daughters of American Revolution. | <urn:uuid:e7ce2afc-cb22-475d-b3c8-52c07d651aeb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/431 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00274.warc.gz | en | 0.981872 | 443 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.298348337411880... | 1 | The Old Exchange Building and Provost located at East Bay and Broad Streets was built originally as the Royal Exchange in 1771. The building completed in 1771, the Exchange and Custom House was the social, cultural center, and economic center of the colony. It is said to be the last public building commissioned by the British in the colonies. The building was made a National Historical Landmark in 1973.
The Exchange and Provost was a very pivotal building in colonial Charleston, many significant events of the American Revolution and early Federal period occurred at the Exchange and Provost.
As Charleston became the South's largest port, the Exchange and Custom House was built from 1767 to 1771. This building became necessary due to the growing shipping industry in Charleston. The building also served as a customs house, a post office, public market, meeting place, and a bank. More interestingly it was used by the British as barracks and the basement as a prison during the Revolutionary War.
Before the Exchange building was built the Half Moon Battery existed in its location. At one point the Half Moon Battery imprisoned pirates who were looting the incoming ships, most notably Stede Bonnet who was under the command of Blackbeard. Later on, the Exchange was used to house confiscated tea after the Tea Act protests in 1774. George Washington even held a ball in the Exchange in 1791. After the U.S. Customs House was built in 1879 shipping business was no longer conducted there.
The Exchange house suffered heavy artillery damage at the hands of the Union Army during the Civil War and endured sizable damage during the 1886 Earthquake.
By 1913 the building was given to the Daughters of the American Revolution to be preserved as a historical monument. Many of the rooms are now used as offices and DAR meeting rooms. The basement, however, was revamped as a dungeon for tour groups. The Old Exchange offers public tours of its three floors that highlight various aspects of Charleston history during the Colonial and Revolutionary eras The building is now a living museum and represents a myriad of historical periods for Charleston from the Revolutionary War to present day. Today, the Exchange house is still owned by the South Carolina Society of the Daughters of American Revolution. | 475 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William McKinleyWilliam McKinley (born William McKinley Jr., January 29, 1843 – September 14, 1901) was the 25th president of the United States, serving from March 4, 1897, until his assassination six months into his second term. During his presidency, McKinley led the nation to victory in the Spanish–American War, raised protective tariffs to promote American industry and kept the nation on the gold standard in a rejection of free silver (effectively, expansionary monetary policy).
McKinley was the last president to have served in the American Civil War and the only one to have started the war as an enlisted soldier, beginning as a private in the Union Army and ending as a brevet major. After the war, he settled in Canton, Ohio, where he practiced law and married Ida Saxton. In 1876, he was elected to Congress, where he became the Republican Party's expert on the protective tariff, which he promised would bring prosperity. His 1890 McKinley Tariff was highly controversial, which together with a Democratic redistricting aimed at gerrymandering him out of office led to his defeat in the Democratic landslide of 1890. He was elected governor of Ohio in 1891 and 1893, steering a moderate course between capital and labor interests. With the aid of his close adviser Mark Hanna, he secured the Republican nomination for president in 1896 amid a deep economic depression. He defeated his Democratic rival William Jennings Bryan after a front porch campaign in which he advocated "sound money" (the gold standard unless altered by international agreement) and promised that high tariffs would restore prosperity.
Rapid economic growth marked McKinley's presidency. He promoted the 1897 Dingley Tariff to protect manufacturers and factory workers from foreign competition and in 1900 secured the passage of the Gold Standard Act. McKinley hoped to persuade Spain to grant independence to rebellious Cuba without conflict, but when negotiation failed he led the nation into the Spanish-American War of 1898. The United States victory was quick and decisive. As part of the peace settlement, Spain turned over to the United States its main overseas colonies of Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines while Cuba was promised independence, but at that time remained under the control of the United States Army. The United States annexed the independent Republic of Hawaii in 1898 and it became a United States territory.
Historians regard McKinley's 1896 victory as a realigning election in which the political stalemate of the post-Civil War era gave way to the Republican-dominated Fourth Party System, which began with the Progressive Era. McKinley defeated Bryan again in the 1900 presidential election in a campaign focused on imperialism, protectionism and free silver. His legacy was suddenly cut short when he was shot on September 6, 1901 by Leon Czolgosz, a second-generation Polish-American with anarchist leanings. McKinley died eight days later and was succeeded by his Vice President Theodore Roosevelt. As an innovator of American interventionism and pro-business sentiment, McKinley's presidency is generally considered above average, though his highly positive public perception was soon overshadowed by Roosevelt. Provided by Wikipedia | <urn:uuid:6044bad1-89b2-4f79-8c97-44acc21858ce> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://juvcat.txwes.edu/vufind/Author/Home?author=McKinley%2C+William%2C+1843-1901 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00491.warc.gz | en | 0.980922 | 628 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.60766088... | 1 | William McKinleyWilliam McKinley (born William McKinley Jr., January 29, 1843 – September 14, 1901) was the 25th president of the United States, serving from March 4, 1897, until his assassination six months into his second term. During his presidency, McKinley led the nation to victory in the Spanish–American War, raised protective tariffs to promote American industry and kept the nation on the gold standard in a rejection of free silver (effectively, expansionary monetary policy).
McKinley was the last president to have served in the American Civil War and the only one to have started the war as an enlisted soldier, beginning as a private in the Union Army and ending as a brevet major. After the war, he settled in Canton, Ohio, where he practiced law and married Ida Saxton. In 1876, he was elected to Congress, where he became the Republican Party's expert on the protective tariff, which he promised would bring prosperity. His 1890 McKinley Tariff was highly controversial, which together with a Democratic redistricting aimed at gerrymandering him out of office led to his defeat in the Democratic landslide of 1890. He was elected governor of Ohio in 1891 and 1893, steering a moderate course between capital and labor interests. With the aid of his close adviser Mark Hanna, he secured the Republican nomination for president in 1896 amid a deep economic depression. He defeated his Democratic rival William Jennings Bryan after a front porch campaign in which he advocated "sound money" (the gold standard unless altered by international agreement) and promised that high tariffs would restore prosperity.
Rapid economic growth marked McKinley's presidency. He promoted the 1897 Dingley Tariff to protect manufacturers and factory workers from foreign competition and in 1900 secured the passage of the Gold Standard Act. McKinley hoped to persuade Spain to grant independence to rebellious Cuba without conflict, but when negotiation failed he led the nation into the Spanish-American War of 1898. The United States victory was quick and decisive. As part of the peace settlement, Spain turned over to the United States its main overseas colonies of Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines while Cuba was promised independence, but at that time remained under the control of the United States Army. The United States annexed the independent Republic of Hawaii in 1898 and it became a United States territory.
Historians regard McKinley's 1896 victory as a realigning election in which the political stalemate of the post-Civil War era gave way to the Republican-dominated Fourth Party System, which began with the Progressive Era. McKinley defeated Bryan again in the 1900 presidential election in a campaign focused on imperialism, protectionism and free silver. His legacy was suddenly cut short when he was shot on September 6, 1901 by Leon Czolgosz, a second-generation Polish-American with anarchist leanings. McKinley died eight days later and was succeeded by his Vice President Theodore Roosevelt. As an innovator of American interventionism and pro-business sentiment, McKinley's presidency is generally considered above average, though his highly positive public perception was soon overshadowed by Roosevelt. Provided by Wikipedia | 693 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Horatii and Curiatii
In the ancient Roman legend of the kingdom era, the Horatii were triplet warriors who lived during the reign of Tullus Hostilius. The accounts of their epic clash with the Curiatii and the murder of their sister by Publius, the sole survivor of the battle, appear in the writings of Livy.
War with Alba LongaEdit
Livy recounts this tale in the first book of his History of Rome. During the Roman king Tullus Hostilius' war with the neighboring city of Alba Longa, it was agreed that fighting a costly war between their armies would leave the door open for an Etruscan invasion. Sabine dictator Mettius Fufetius appealed to Tullus Hostilius that the conflict should be settled by a fight to the death between the Roman Horatii triplets and their Alban counterparts, known as the Curiatii. They met on the battlefield between the lines as the two armies and their countrymen looked on.
With so much at stake, both sides fought bravely. The Horatii had wounded all three Curiatii, but two of the Romans were killed in the process. That left their brother Publius alone and surrounded by the three Albans. Though he was uninjured, Publius realized he stood no chance against all three of his enemies together. So he began to run across the battlefield instead. The Albans pursued him, each as fast as their individual injuries permitted. This was exactly what he had hoped they would do, and after they had gone far enough, he saw that the Curiatii had become staggered and were separated from each another. His plan had worked perfectly. He turned and launched a furious attack on the first, least-injured Curiatius and slew him.
The Roman spectators, who, moments before, had been sure of defeat, began cheering wildly as the Albans began shouting at the Curiatii to regroup in the face of Publius' onslaught. But before they could, the Horatius caught up to the second Curiatius and killed him as his brother, helpless, looked on. The final Curiatius was physically spent from his wounds and the chase. His hope had been crushed by watching both of his brothers die. He managed to unsteadily stand his ground and faced the Horatius, who was heartened by his wildly successful strategy and confident of his imminent victory. Publius declared that he had killed the first two Curiatii for his fallen brothers. He would kill this last one for the Roman cause and their rule over the Albans. He thrust his sword down the Alban's throat and took the armor of his slain enemies as the spoils of his victory.
Afterwards, the Alban dictator Mettius honored the treaty and Alba Longa briefly accepted Roman rule, before provoking a war with the Fidenates and betraying Rome.
Homecoming of PubliusEdit
The victorious Horatius returned to a hero's welcome. Before the war had broken out, Publius' sister, Camilla, had been engaged to one of the Alban triplets. When she saw the cloak that she herself had woven and given to the Curiatius on her brother's shoulder, now stained with his blood, she realized that her betrothed had been slain. Camilla was overcome with grief and began wailing and crying out his name. Proclaiming that no Roman woman should mourn Rome's fallen enemies, Publius killed his sister on the spot.
For his crime, he was condemned to death. On the advice of a jurist named Tullus, Publius appealed to one of the popular assemblies. In defense of his son, the Horatius' father, also Publius, spoke of the recent victory and entreated them to spare his last surviving son (his fourth son, a brother of the Horatii, had also died). The assembly was persuaded and Publius' sentence was commuted. This may be the source of the Roman tradition of allowing the condemned to appeal their sentences to the populace.
Publius the elder was required to offer a sacrifice to atone for his son's crime and from that time forward, the Horatia family made it a tradition to offer the same. The spoils of the victory were hung in a place that became known as Pila Horatia. A wooden beam was erected on the slope of the Oppian Hill, which was called the Sororium Tigillum (Sister's Beam). It symbolized a yoke, under which Publius the younger was made to pass. It remained standing long after his death. | <urn:uuid:b02a4eac-38f5-4c64-8b8a-596094ff5a8c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatii | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00183.warc.gz | en | 0.99006 | 975 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.433070927858352... | 1 | Horatii and Curiatii
In the ancient Roman legend of the kingdom era, the Horatii were triplet warriors who lived during the reign of Tullus Hostilius. The accounts of their epic clash with the Curiatii and the murder of their sister by Publius, the sole survivor of the battle, appear in the writings of Livy.
War with Alba LongaEdit
Livy recounts this tale in the first book of his History of Rome. During the Roman king Tullus Hostilius' war with the neighboring city of Alba Longa, it was agreed that fighting a costly war between their armies would leave the door open for an Etruscan invasion. Sabine dictator Mettius Fufetius appealed to Tullus Hostilius that the conflict should be settled by a fight to the death between the Roman Horatii triplets and their Alban counterparts, known as the Curiatii. They met on the battlefield between the lines as the two armies and their countrymen looked on.
With so much at stake, both sides fought bravely. The Horatii had wounded all three Curiatii, but two of the Romans were killed in the process. That left their brother Publius alone and surrounded by the three Albans. Though he was uninjured, Publius realized he stood no chance against all three of his enemies together. So he began to run across the battlefield instead. The Albans pursued him, each as fast as their individual injuries permitted. This was exactly what he had hoped they would do, and after they had gone far enough, he saw that the Curiatii had become staggered and were separated from each another. His plan had worked perfectly. He turned and launched a furious attack on the first, least-injured Curiatius and slew him.
The Roman spectators, who, moments before, had been sure of defeat, began cheering wildly as the Albans began shouting at the Curiatii to regroup in the face of Publius' onslaught. But before they could, the Horatius caught up to the second Curiatius and killed him as his brother, helpless, looked on. The final Curiatius was physically spent from his wounds and the chase. His hope had been crushed by watching both of his brothers die. He managed to unsteadily stand his ground and faced the Horatius, who was heartened by his wildly successful strategy and confident of his imminent victory. Publius declared that he had killed the first two Curiatii for his fallen brothers. He would kill this last one for the Roman cause and their rule over the Albans. He thrust his sword down the Alban's throat and took the armor of his slain enemies as the spoils of his victory.
Afterwards, the Alban dictator Mettius honored the treaty and Alba Longa briefly accepted Roman rule, before provoking a war with the Fidenates and betraying Rome.
Homecoming of PubliusEdit
The victorious Horatius returned to a hero's welcome. Before the war had broken out, Publius' sister, Camilla, had been engaged to one of the Alban triplets. When she saw the cloak that she herself had woven and given to the Curiatius on her brother's shoulder, now stained with his blood, she realized that her betrothed had been slain. Camilla was overcome with grief and began wailing and crying out his name. Proclaiming that no Roman woman should mourn Rome's fallen enemies, Publius killed his sister on the spot.
For his crime, he was condemned to death. On the advice of a jurist named Tullus, Publius appealed to one of the popular assemblies. In defense of his son, the Horatius' father, also Publius, spoke of the recent victory and entreated them to spare his last surviving son (his fourth son, a brother of the Horatii, had also died). The assembly was persuaded and Publius' sentence was commuted. This may be the source of the Roman tradition of allowing the condemned to appeal their sentences to the populace.
Publius the elder was required to offer a sacrifice to atone for his son's crime and from that time forward, the Horatia family made it a tradition to offer the same. The spoils of the victory were hung in a place that became known as Pila Horatia. A wooden beam was erected on the slope of the Oppian Hill, which was called the Sororium Tigillum (Sister's Beam). It symbolized a yoke, under which Publius the younger was made to pass. It remained standing long after his death. | 964 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The article “Maryland teen develops system with NASA” by Gabriel Popkin is about a teenager from Maryland that developed a program to help NASA beyond what they expected. Liza Goldberg was trying to do research at NASA at age 14, but the program only accepted kids at 16 years old. Two satellite scientists saw the request and thought that Goldberg could help them detect where mangroves were using a satellite. Originally Goldberg was in complete shock and awe of being at NASA. She grew more accustomed to being there and completed 10,000 classifications in a week showing scientists that she was ready for something more. Goldberg was very influenced by a news post that showed that a 30 mile stretch of mangroves had died as well as knowing that more than half of the Earth’s mangroves had disappeared. Inspired to do more than just analyze the disappearances, she wanted to create a solution. Liza did more than expected by she created a program which could detect where mangroves were being threatened before they were. These trees are very important to the environment because they nurture seafood that humans eat as well as store mass amounts of carbon. The technology measures different things that can help Goldberg and other researchers know what is going on around that certain area. One of the measured items is rainfall. Goldberg’s satellite has different colored pixels for different mounts of rain. Liza’s work is incredible, but there was another satellite warning for tropical forests, but that specific system could not determine rain from mangroves. Her work was so incredible, Goldberg got to speak in one of the biggests science meetings in the world. There are still more steps ahead, but Liza Goldberg’s accomplishments are beyond belief. I chose this article because it is crazy that a teenage girl was able to join NASA below age that NASA was accepting kids at. It is even greater that she went above and beyond and created a program that can help prevent mangrove deaths. I find that it is very interesting how Goldberg saw an issue, was so motivated to help and created something so fantastic. This information is connected to science because mangroves are very important for ecosystems and it involves NASA, which is a national science organization. The article is very important to me and other teenagers to show that we can make a difference. Additionally, the information can help those studying mangroves to know that there is a way to know when they are in danger, so that the person can stop it. I really liked this article and recommend it to those who are younger and interested in science. | <urn:uuid:01940713-f096-473f-9917-fe61da1115f1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://maryelizabethbodycare.com/the-mangroves-were-using-a-satellite-originally-goldberg-was/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00380.warc.gz | en | 0.985346 | 520 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.343878358... | 4 | The article “Maryland teen develops system with NASA” by Gabriel Popkin is about a teenager from Maryland that developed a program to help NASA beyond what they expected. Liza Goldberg was trying to do research at NASA at age 14, but the program only accepted kids at 16 years old. Two satellite scientists saw the request and thought that Goldberg could help them detect where mangroves were using a satellite. Originally Goldberg was in complete shock and awe of being at NASA. She grew more accustomed to being there and completed 10,000 classifications in a week showing scientists that she was ready for something more. Goldberg was very influenced by a news post that showed that a 30 mile stretch of mangroves had died as well as knowing that more than half of the Earth’s mangroves had disappeared. Inspired to do more than just analyze the disappearances, she wanted to create a solution. Liza did more than expected by she created a program which could detect where mangroves were being threatened before they were. These trees are very important to the environment because they nurture seafood that humans eat as well as store mass amounts of carbon. The technology measures different things that can help Goldberg and other researchers know what is going on around that certain area. One of the measured items is rainfall. Goldberg’s satellite has different colored pixels for different mounts of rain. Liza’s work is incredible, but there was another satellite warning for tropical forests, but that specific system could not determine rain from mangroves. Her work was so incredible, Goldberg got to speak in one of the biggests science meetings in the world. There are still more steps ahead, but Liza Goldberg’s accomplishments are beyond belief. I chose this article because it is crazy that a teenage girl was able to join NASA below age that NASA was accepting kids at. It is even greater that she went above and beyond and created a program that can help prevent mangrove deaths. I find that it is very interesting how Goldberg saw an issue, was so motivated to help and created something so fantastic. This information is connected to science because mangroves are very important for ecosystems and it involves NASA, which is a national science organization. The article is very important to me and other teenagers to show that we can make a difference. Additionally, the information can help those studying mangroves to know that there is a way to know when they are in danger, so that the person can stop it. I really liked this article and recommend it to those who are younger and interested in science. | 518 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The jaguar is a close relative of the Asiatic leopard and must have had a common ancestor within the last 5 million years. The South American tapir is obviously closely related to the Malayan tapir and must also have had a common ancestor within he last 5 million years. How did the leopard and tapir, typically tropical species, get from Asia to South America?
An obvious route would be the land route via the Bering Straits and the southern shore of Alaska which was used by humans about 15,000 years ago when the Ice Age had lowered sea level, but both animals are tropical and it is hard to believe they would have chosen such an icy route. The jaguar and tapir have in any case been separated from their Asiatic relatives for a lot longer than 15,000 years. I am wondering whether they could have arrived via a different route from the one chosen by the earliest human inhabitants of the Americas. Can anyone throw any light on this?
Continental drift played a part in isolating Old World monkeys from South American monkeys and setting Australia adrift carrying only marsupials, so is there a possibility that when Africa and Amazonia were closer together, immigration from Africa could have taken place, bearing in mind that there were times when sea levels were much lower? | <urn:uuid:bf95e609-9b88-4f90-88dd-f9722d741416> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://earthscience.stackexchange.com/questions/18518/migration-routes-for-animals-from-asia-to-america | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00073.warc.gz | en | 0.985716 | 267 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.16081555... | 4 | The jaguar is a close relative of the Asiatic leopard and must have had a common ancestor within the last 5 million years. The South American tapir is obviously closely related to the Malayan tapir and must also have had a common ancestor within he last 5 million years. How did the leopard and tapir, typically tropical species, get from Asia to South America?
An obvious route would be the land route via the Bering Straits and the southern shore of Alaska which was used by humans about 15,000 years ago when the Ice Age had lowered sea level, but both animals are tropical and it is hard to believe they would have chosen such an icy route. The jaguar and tapir have in any case been separated from their Asiatic relatives for a lot longer than 15,000 years. I am wondering whether they could have arrived via a different route from the one chosen by the earliest human inhabitants of the Americas. Can anyone throw any light on this?
Continental drift played a part in isolating Old World monkeys from South American monkeys and setting Australia adrift carrying only marsupials, so is there a possibility that when Africa and Amazonia were closer together, immigration from Africa could have taken place, bearing in mind that there were times when sea levels were much lower? | 269 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Indian Removal Act
Facts, information and articles about Indian Removal Act, from American History
Indian Removal Act summary: After demanding both political and military action on removing Native American Indians from the southern states of America in 1829, President Andrew Jackson signed this into law on May 28, 1830. Although it only gave the right to negotiate for their withdrawal from areas to the east of the Mississippi river and that relocation was supposed to be voluntary, all of the pressure was there to make this all but inevitable. All the tribal leaders agreed after Jackson’s landslide election victory in 1832.
It is generally acknowledged that this act spelled the end of Indian Rights to live in those states under their own traditional laws. They were forced to assimilate and concede to US law or leave their homelands. The Indian Nations themselves were force to move and ended up in Oklahoma.
The five major tribes affected were the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole. These were called The Civilised Tribes that had already taken on a degree of integration into a more modern westernised culture, such as developing written language and learning to read and write.
It overturned the more concessionary attitude of ex-President George Washington that aimed for ‘acculturation’ after debate with the Indian Nations. Even in those distant times, there was heated debate in congress with such famous names as the future president Abraham Lincoln and Davy Crockett speaking out against it. Now it is considered with serious negativity by all involved.
Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act
The great Cherokee Nation that had fought the young Andrew Jackson back in 1788 now faced an even more powerful and determined man who was intent on taking their land. But where in the past they had resorted to guns, tomahawks, and scalping knives, now they chose to challenge him in a court of law. They were not called a “civilized nation” for nothing. Many of their leaders were well educated; many more could read and write; they had their own written language, thanks to Sequoyah, a constitution, schools, and their own newspaper. And they had adopted many skills of the white man to improve their living conditions. Why should they be expelled from their lands when they no longer threatened white settlements and could compete with them on many levels? They intended to fight their ouster, and they figured they had many ways to do it. As a last resort they planned to bring suit before the Supreme Court.
Prior to that action, they sent a delegation to Washington to plead their cause. They petitioned Congress to protect them against the unjust laws of Georgia that had decreed that they were subject to its sovereignty and under its complete jurisdiction. They even approached the president, but he curtly informed them that there was nothing he could do in their quarrel with the state, a statement that shocked and amazed them.
So the Cherokees hired William Wirt to take their case to the Supreme Court. In the celebrated Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, Wirt instituted suit for an injunction that would permit the Cherokees to remain in Georgia without interference by the state. He argued that they constituted an independent nation and had been so regarded by the United States in its many treaties with them.
Speaking for the majority of the court, Chief Justice John Marshall handed down his decision on March 18, 1831. Not surprisingly, as a great American nationalist, he rejected Wirt’s argument that the Cherokees were a sovereign nation, but he also rejected Jackson’s claim that they were subject to state law. The Indians were “domestic dependent nations,” he ruled, subject to the United States as a ward to a guardian. Indian territory was part of the United States but not subject to action by individual states.
When the Cherokees read Marshall’s decision, they had honestly believed that the Nation had won the case, that Georgia lacked authority to control their lives and property, and that the courts would protect them. The Supreme Court, the principal chief told his people, decided “in our favor.” So they stayed right where they were, and missionaries encouraged them to stand fast.
They figured without Andrew Jackson—the man the Cherokees called “Sharp Knife”—and the authorities of Georgia, the government would have to honor their wishes. Then in late December 1830, the state passed another law prohibiting white men from entering Indian country after March 1, 1831, without a license from the state. This move was obviously intended to keep interfering clergymen from inciting the Indians to disobey Georgia law. Eleven such missionaries were arrested for violating the recent statute, nine of whom accepted pardons from the governor in return for a promise that they would cease violating Georgia law. But Samuel A. Worcester and Dr. Elizur Butler refused the pardon, and Judge Augustin S.J. Clayton sentenced them to the state penitentiary, “there to endure hard labor for the term of four years.” They appealed the verdict and their case came before the Supreme Court.
On March 3, 1832, Marshall again ruled in Worcester v. Georgia, declaring all the laws of Georgia dealing with the Cherokees unconstitutional, null, void, and of no effect. In addition, he issued a formal mandate two days later ordering the state’s superior court to reverse its decision and free the two men.
Jackson was presently involved in a confrontation with South Carolina over the passage of the Tariffs of 1828 and 1832. The state had nullified the acts and threatened to secede from the Union if force were used to make it comply with them. The last thing Jackson needed was a confrontation with another state, so he quietly nudged Georgia into obeying the court order and freeing Butler and Worcester. A number of well-placed officials in both the state and national governments lent a hand and the governor, Wilson Lumpkin, released the two men on January 14, 1833.
With the annoying problem of the two missionaries out of the way, both Georgia and Jackson continued to lean on the Cherokees to get them removed. They claimed that “some of the most vicious and base characters that the adjoining states can produce” squatted on their land and stole “horses and other property,” and formed a link with as many “bad citizens” of the Cherokee Nation “as they can associate into their club.” Missionaries decried what was happening to the Cherokees. If only “whites would not molest them,” wrote Dr. Elizur Butler in The Missionary Herald. They have made remarkable progress in the last dozen years and if left alone they can and will complete the process toward a “civilized life.”
But allowing eastern Indians full control of their eastern lands was virtually impossible in the 1830s. There was not army enough or will enough by the American people to bring it about. As Jackson constantly warned, squatters would continue to invade and occupy the land they wanted; then, if they were attacked, they would turn to the state government for protection that usually ended in violence. All this under the guise of bringing “civilization” to the wilderness.
Even so, the Cherokees had a strong leader who had not yet given up the fight. They were led by the wily, tough, and determined John Ross, a blue-eyed, brown-haired mixed-blood who was only one-eighth Cherokee. Nonetheless he was the principal chief, and a most powerful force within the Nation. He was rich, lived in a fine house attended by black slaves, and had influence over the annuities the United States paid to the tribal government for former land cessions. His appearance and lifestyle were distinctly white; in all other respects he was Indian.
From the beginning of Jackson’s administration Ross urged his people to stand their ground and remain united. “Friends,” he told them, “I have great hopes in your firmness and that you will hold fast to the place where you were raised. If you all unite together and be of one mind there is no danger.” And the Cherokees cheered his determination. They approved wholeheartedly of his leadership and they took comfort in what he said. So, with the Nation solidly behind him, Ross resolutely resisted any thought of leading his people from their ancient land into a godforsaken wilderness.
Still the Cherokees held out, even though even they had begun to feel the unrelenting pressure. A so-called Treaty Party emerged within the Nation, made up of chiefs and headmen who understood Jackson’s inflexible will and had decided to bow to his wishes and try to get the best treaty possible. They were led by very capable, hard-headed, and pragmatic men, including the Speaker of the Cherokee National Council, Major Ridge; his son, the educated and politically ambitious John Ridge; and the editor of the Cherokee Phoenix, Elias Boudinot.
John Ridge took a leading role in the emergence of the Treaty Party, for when the Worcester decision was first handed down, he instantly recognized that Chief Justice Marshall had rendered an opinion that abandoned the Cherokees to their inevitable fate. So he went to Jackson and asked him point-blank whether the power of the United States would be exerted to force Georgia into respecting Indian rights and property. The president assured him that the government would do nothing. He then advised Ridge most earnestly to go home and urge his people to move themselves west. Dejected, the chief left the president with the melancholy conviction that he had been told the truth. From that moment, he was convinced that the only alternative to save his people from moral and physical death, was to make the best terms they could with the government and move out of the limits of the states. This conviction he did not fail to make known to his friends, and hence rose the “Treaty Party.”
The members of this Treaty Party certainly risked their lives in pressing for removal, and indeed all of them were subsequently marked for assassination. Not too many years later, Elias Boudinot and John Ridge were slain with knives and tomahawks in the midst of their families, while Major Ridge was ambushed and shot to death.
John Ross, on the other hand, would not yield. As head of the National Party that opposed removal, he was shrewd enough to recognize immediately that the president would attempt to play one party off against the other. “The object of the President is unfolded & made too plain to be misunderstood,” he told the Nation. “It is to create divisions among ourselves, break down our government, our press & our treasury, that our cries may not be heard abroad; that we may be deprived of the means of sending delegations to Washington City to make known our grievances before Congress . . . and break down the government which you [Cherokees] have, by your own free will & choice, established for the security of your freedom & common welfare.”
Under the circumstance, Ross decided to go to Washington and request a meeting with the president in order to try again to arrange some accommodation that would prevent the mass relocation of his people to what was now the new Indian Territory, which Congress had created in 1834 and which eventually became the state of Oklahoma. He was tormented by the knowledge that his people would be condemned to a prairie “badly watered and only skirted on the margin of water courses and poor ridges with copes of wood.” Worse, districts would be laid out for some “fifteen or twenty different tribes, and all speaking different languages, and cherishing a variety of habits and customs, a portion civilized, another half civilized and others uncivilized, and these congregated tribes of Indians to be regulated under the General Government, by no doubt white rulers.” The very thought of it sent shivers through Ross’s entire body.
Since he had fought with Jackson at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend during the Creek War, he reckoned that his service during that battle would provide him with a degree of leverage in speaking with the president. And, as principal chief, he could speak with the duly constituted authority of the Cherokee Nation as established under the Cherokee Constitution of 1827. He had another reason for requesting the interview. He had heard a rumor that Jackson had commissioned the Reverend John F. Schermerhorn, an ambitious cleric who had assisted in the removal of the Seminoles from Florida, to negotiate with Ridge and his associates and see if a deal could be worked out that would result in a treaty. Definitely alarmed, Ross asked to speak with the President at which time he said he would submit his own proposal for a treaty.
Jackson never liked Ross. He called him “a great villain.” Unlike Ridge and Boudinot, said Jackson, the principal chief headed a mixed-blood elite, and was intent on centralizing power in his own hands and diverting the annuities to those who would advance his authority and their economic self-interests. Real Indians were full-blooded Indians, not half-breeds, he declared. They were hunters, they were true warriors who, like Ridge and Boudinot, understood the president’s concern for his red children and wished to prevent the calamity of certain annihilation that would ensue if they did not heed his pleas to move west. As for Ross’s authority under the Cherokee Constitution, Jackson denied that it existed. He said that this so-called Constitution provided for an election in 1832 and it had not been held. Instead the principal chief had simply filled the National Council with his henchmen— another indication, claimed Jackson, of an elitist clique who ruled the Nation and disregarded the interests of the majority of the people.
Despite his feelings about the chief, Jackson decided to grant Ross’s request for a meeting. Above all else, he wanted Cherokee removal and if that meant seeing this “great villain” and hearing about his proposal for relocating the tribe, then he would do it. As a consummate politician, Jackson understood the value of playing one party off against another, so when he granted the interview, he directed that Schermerhorn suspend his negotiations with the Treaty Party and wait for the outcome of his interview with the principal chief.
In fact, Jackson and Ross were much alike. Both were wily, tough, determined, obsessed with protecting the interests of their respective peoples, and markedly dignified and polite when they came together in the White House on Wednesday, February 5, 1834. It was exactly noon when the principal chief arrived, and the Great Father greeted him with the respect due Ross’s position. The chief returned the compliment. For a few minutes, their conversation touched on pleasantries, then they got down to the matter and began playing a political game that involved the lives of thousands, both Native Americans and white settlers.
Unfortunately, despite his many talents and keen intelligence, Ross was no match for the president. He simply lacked the resources of his adversary.
The principal chief opened with an impassioned plea. “Your Cherokee children are in deep distress,” he said, “because they are left at the mercy of the white robber and assassin” and receive no redress from the Georgia courts. That state, he declared, has not only “surveyed and lotteried off” Cherokee land to her citizens but legislated as though Cherokees were intruders in their own country.
Jackson just listened. Then the principal chief acted imprudently and made impossible demands on the president. To start, he insisted that in any treaty the Nation must retain some of their land along the borders of Tennessee, Alabama, and Georgia—land that had already been occupied by white settlers. He even included a small tract in North Carolina. He then required assurances that the United States government would protect the Cherokees with federal troops in the new and old settlements for a period of five years.
Jackson could scarcely believe what was being demanded of him. Under other circumstances, he would have acted up a storm in an attempt to frighten and cower the chief. But on this occasion he decided against it. Instead, in a calm and quiet but determined voice, he told Ross that nothing short of an entire removal of the Cherokee Nation from all their land east of the Mississippi would be acceptable.
Having run into a stone wall, Ross headed in another direction. In view of the gold that had recently been discovered in Georgia and North Carolina, he wanted $20 million for all their eastern land plus reimbursement for losses sustained by the Nation for violations of former treaties by the United States. He also asked for indemnities for claims under the 1817 and 1819 Cherokee treaties. The total amount almost equaled the national debt.
On hearing this, Jackson also changed direction. His voice hardened, his intense blue eyes flared, and the muscles in his face tightened and registered his growing displeasure. Obviously the principal chief had not caught the president’s meaning when he rejected the first demand. Jackson snapped at Ross, rejected the proposal as “preposterous” and warned Ross that the Great Father was not to be trifled with. If these demands were the best the chief could offer then there was no point in continuing the discussion.
That brought Ross up short. Completely surprised by Jackson’s reaction, he reaffirmed his own sincerity, and to prove it he offered to accept any award the Senate of the United States might recommend. Apparently, the chief was attempting to set up a bidding contest between the upper house and the chief executive. Surprisingly, Jackson accepted the offer and assured Ross that he would go as far as the Senate in any award that might be proposed. And on that conciliatory note, the interview ended.
In less than a week, Ross received his answer about what the Senate would offer. John P. King of Georgia chaired the Committee on Indian Affairs that considered the question. That was bad enough. Then the committee came up with an offer of $5 million. The figure shocked the principal chief. Jackson probably knew beforehand what would happen and therefore agreed to Ross’s suggestion. Now the Indian was faced with rejecting the money outright or accepting this paltry sum and thereby losing credibility with his people. Naturally, he chose the former course. He claimed he had been misunderstood, that he could not possibly agree to such an amount, and that his reputation among the Cherokees would be shattered if he consented to it. He left Washington an angry and bitter man.
Having disposed of Ross, Jackson turned back to Schermerhorn and instructed him to renew the negotiations with the Treaty Party. With little difficulty, the cleric managed to arrange a draft removal treaty signed on March 14, 1835, by Schermerhorn, John Ridge, Elias Boudinot, and a small delegation of Cherokees. After due notice, the treaty was submitted to the Cherokee National Council at New Echota, Georgia, for approval and sent to the president for submission to the Senate. The draft stipulated that the Cherokees surrender to the United States all its land east of the Mississippi River for a sum of $5 million, an amount that one modern historian has called “unprecedented generosity.” This cession comprised nearly 8 million acres of land in western North Carolina, northern Georgia, northeastern Alabama, and eastern Tennessee. A schedule of removal provided that the Cherokees would be resettled in the west and receive regular payments for subsistence, claims, and spoliations, and would be issued blankets, kettles, and rifles.
At approximately the same time this draft treaty was drawn up and considered at New Echota, a large delegation of Cherokee chiefs—in the desperate hope that their assembled presence would make a difference and prevent the treaty from going forward to the Senate —went to Washington and asked to speak to the Great Father. In contrast to his grudging granting of Ross’s request, Jackson was anxious to meet the delegation and give the chiefs one of his celebrated “talks.”
The Indians arrived at the White House at the designated hour, and Jackson treated them with marked respect, as though they really were dignitaries of a foreign nation. Yet he did not remotely say or do anything that would indicate an acceptance of their independence or sovereignty. Once the Indians had assembled, they faced the president as he began his talk.
“Brothers, I have long viewed your condition with great interest. For many years, I have been acquainted with your people, and under all variety of circumstances, in peace and war. Your fathers are well known to me …. Listen to me, therefore, as your fathers have listened ….”
Jackson paused. He turned from side to side to look at and take in all the Cherokees standing around him. After a few moments, he began again.
“You are now placed in the midst of a white population …. You are now subject to the same laws which govern the citizens of Georgia and Alabama. You are liable to prosecutions for offenses, and to civil actions for a breach of any of your contracts. Most of your people are uneducated, and are liable to be brought into collision at all times with your white neighbors. Your young men are acquiring habits of intoxication. With strong passions . . . they are frequently driven to excesses which must eventually terminate in their ruin. The game has disappeared among you, and you must depend upon agriculture and the mechanic arts for support. And yet, a large portion of your people have acquired little or no property in the soil itself …. How, under these circumstances, can you live in the country you now occupy? Your condition must become worse and worse, and you will ultimately disappear, as so many tribes have done before you.”
These were his usual arguments, but he judged them essential for success.
“You have not listened to me,” he scolded. “You went to the courts for relief. You turned away from your Great Father. And what happened? After years of litigation, you received little satisfaction from the Supreme Court and succeeded in earning the enmity of many whites. “I have no motive, Brothers, to deceive you,” he said. ‘” am sincerely desirous to promote your welfare. Listen to me, therefore, while I tell you that you cannot remain where you are now …. It [is] impossible that you can flourish in the midst of a civilized community. You have but one remedy within your reach. And that is to remove to the West and join your countrymen, who are already established there. The choice is yours. May the great spirit teach you how to choose.”
Jackson then concluded by reminding them of the fate of the Creeks, that once great and proud Nation. How broken and reduced in circumstances their lives had now become because they resisted. It was a not-so-subtle threat that also struck home. “Think then of these things,” he concluded. ‘Shut your ears to bad counsels. Look at your condition as it now is, and then consider what it will be if you follow the advice I give you.”
That ended the talk, and the Indians filed from the room more disappointed and depressed than ever. Jackson would not budge, and they knew their kinsmen were dead set against removal. It was a stalemate that could end only in tragedy.
Meanwhile, Schermerhorn called a “council of all the people” to meet him at New Echota in Georgia during the third week of December 1835 to approve the draft treaty, making sure that a large contingent of Treaty Party members attended. Like Jackson, he had the temerity to warn other Cherokees that if they stayed away their absence would be considered a vote of consent for the draft.
Despite the threat and the warning, practically the entire Nation stayed away. As a consequence, the treaty was approved on December 28 by the unbelievably low number of 79 to 7. The numbers represented only the merest fraction of the Nation. A vast majority—perhaps fifteen-sixteenths of the entire population—presumably opposed it and showed their opposition by staying away. The entire process was fraudulent, but that hardly mattered. Jackson had the treaty he wanted, and he did not hesitate to so inform the Senate. The Treaty of New Echota closely, but not completely, resembled the draft treaty in that the Cherokees surrendered all their eastern land and received $4.5 million in return. They would be paid for improvements, removed at government expense, and maintained for two years. Removal was to take place within two years from the date of the treaty’s approval by the Senate and president.
A short while later, some 12,000 Cherokees signed a resolution denouncing the Treaty of New Echota and forwarded it to the Senate. Even the North Carolina Cherokees, in a separate action, added 3,250 signatures to a petition urging the Senate to reject it. But Jackson was assured by the Treaty Party that ‘a majority of the people’ approved the document ‘and all are willing peaceable to yield to the treaty and abide by it. Such information convinced the president that the principal chief and his “half breed” cohorts had coerced the Cherokees into staying away from New Echota under threat of physical violence.
At New Echota the Treaty Party selected a Committee of Thirteen to carry the treaty to Washington and they were empowered to act on any alteration required by the president or the U.S. Senate. This Committee invited Ross to join the group and either support the treaty or insist on such alterations as to make it acceptable. ‘But to their appeal [Ross] returned no answer,’ which further convinced the President that the treaty represented the genuine interests and the will of the majority of Cherokees.
Although Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, Edward Everett, and other senators spoke fervently against the treaty in the Senate, a two-thirds majority of 31 members voted for it and 15 against. It carried by a single vote on May 18. Jackson added his signature on May 23, 1836, and proclaimed the Treaty of New Echota in force.
And they had two years—that is until May 23, 1838—to cross over the Mississippi and take up their new residence in the Indian Territory. But every day of that two-year period John Ross fought the inevitable. He demanded to see the president and insisted that Jackson recognize the authority of the duly-elected National Council, but Sharp Knife would have none of him and turned him away. Back home the principal chief advised his people to ignore the treaty and stay put. “We will not recognize the forgery palmed off upon the world as a treaty by a knot of unauthorized individuals,’ he cried, ‘nor stir one step with reference to that false paper.”
Not everyone listened to him. They knew Andrew Jackson better. Some 2,000 Cherokees resigned themselves to the inevitable, packed their belongings, and headed west. The rest, the vast majority of the tribe, could not bear to leave their homeland and chose to hope that their principal chief would somehow work the miracle that would preserve their country to them.
But their fate could not have been worse. When the two-year grace period expired and Jackson had left office, his hand-picked successor, President Martin Van Buren, ordered the removal to begin. Militiamen charged into the Cherokee country and drove the Cherokees from their cabins and houses. With rifles and bayonets, they rounded up the Indians and placed them in prison stockades that had been erected “for gathering in and holding the Indians preparatory to removal.” These poor, frightened and benighted innocents, while having supper in their homes, “were startled by the sudden gleam of bayonets in the doorway and rose up to be driven with blows and oaths along the weary miles of trail which led to the stockade. Men were seized in the fields, women were taken from their wheels and children from their play.” As they turned for one last glimpse of their homes, they frequently saw them in flames, set ablaze by the lawless rabble who followed the soldiers, scavenging what they could. These outlaws stole the cattle and other livestock and even desecrated graves in their search for silver pendants and other valuables. They looted and burned. Said one Georgia volunteer who later served in the Confederate army: “I fought through the Civil War and have seen men shot to pieces and slaughtered by thousands, but the Cherokee removal was the cruelest I ever saw.”
In a single week, some 17,000 Cherokees were rounded up and herded into what was surely a concentration camp. Many sickened and died while they awaited transport to the west. In June, the first contingent of about a thousand Indians boarded a steamboat and sailed down the Tennessee River on the first lap of their westward journey. Then they were boxed like animals into railroad cars drawn by two locomotives. Again there were many deaths on account of the oppressive heat and cramped conditions in the cars. For the last leg of the journey, the Cherokees walked. Small wonder they came to call this 800-mile nightmare “The Trail of Tears.” Of the approximately 18,000 Cherokees who were removed, at least 4,000 died in the stockades along the way, and some say the figure actually reached 8,000. By the middle of June 1838, the general in charge of the Georgia militia proudly reported that not a single Cherokee remained in the state except as prisoners in the stockade.
At every step of their long journey to the Indian Territory, the Cherokees were robbed and cheated by contractors, lawyers, agents, speculators, and anyone wielding local police power. Food supplied by the government disappeared or arrived in short supply. The commanding officer, General Winfield Scott, and a few other generals “were concerned about their reputation for humaneness,” says one modern historian, “and probably even for the Cherokee. There just wasn’t much they could do about it.” As a result many died needlessly. “Oh! The misery and wretchedness that presents itself to our view in going among these people,” wrote one man. “Sir, I have witnessed entire families prostrated with sickness—not one able to give help to the other, and these poor people were made the instruments of enriching a few unprincipled and wicked contractors.”
And this, too, is part of Andrew Jackson’s legacy. Although it has been pointed out many times that he was no longer president of the United States when the Trail of Tears occurred and had never intended such a monstrous result of his policy, that hardly excuses him. It was his insistence on the speedy removal of the Cherokees, even after he had left office, that brought about this horror. From his home outside Nashville, he regularly badgered Van Buren about enforcing the treaty. He had become obsessed about removal. He warned that Ross would exert every effort and means available to him to get the treaty rescinded or delayed and that, he said, must be blocked. But the new president assured him that nothing would interfere with the exodus of the Cherokees and that no extension of the two-year grace period would be tolerated under any circumstance.
Principal Chief John Ross also shares a portion of blame for this unspeakable tragedy. He continued his defiance even after the deadline for removal had passed. He encouraged his people to keep up their resistance, despite every sign that no appreciable help would be forthcoming from the American people or anyone else; and he watched as they suffered the awful consequences of his intransigence.
Despite the obscene treatment accorded the Cherokees by the government, the tribe not only survived but endured. As Jackson predicted, they escaped the fate of many extinct eastern tribes. Cherokees today have their tribal identity, a living language, and at least three governmental bodies to provide for their needs. Would that the Yemassee, Mohegans, Pequots, Delawares, Narragansetts, and other such tribes could say the same.
Excerpted from Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars by Robert V. Remini. Copyright Robert V. Remini, 2001. Reprinted by arrangement with Viking Penguin, a division of Penguin Putnam, Inc. The excerpt was originally published in August 2001 issue of American History Magazine. For more great articles, subscribe to American History magazine today! | <urn:uuid:d33e844e-79a4-41b0-a0c5-3c5744b5d38a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historynet.com/indian-removal-act | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00199.warc.gz | en | 0.985063 | 6,756 | 4.46875 | 4 | [
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Facts, information and articles about Indian Removal Act, from American History
Indian Removal Act summary: After demanding both political and military action on removing Native American Indians from the southern states of America in 1829, President Andrew Jackson signed this into law on May 28, 1830. Although it only gave the right to negotiate for their withdrawal from areas to the east of the Mississippi river and that relocation was supposed to be voluntary, all of the pressure was there to make this all but inevitable. All the tribal leaders agreed after Jackson’s landslide election victory in 1832.
It is generally acknowledged that this act spelled the end of Indian Rights to live in those states under their own traditional laws. They were forced to assimilate and concede to US law or leave their homelands. The Indian Nations themselves were force to move and ended up in Oklahoma.
The five major tribes affected were the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole. These were called The Civilised Tribes that had already taken on a degree of integration into a more modern westernised culture, such as developing written language and learning to read and write.
It overturned the more concessionary attitude of ex-President George Washington that aimed for ‘acculturation’ after debate with the Indian Nations. Even in those distant times, there was heated debate in congress with such famous names as the future president Abraham Lincoln and Davy Crockett speaking out against it. Now it is considered with serious negativity by all involved.
Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act
The great Cherokee Nation that had fought the young Andrew Jackson back in 1788 now faced an even more powerful and determined man who was intent on taking their land. But where in the past they had resorted to guns, tomahawks, and scalping knives, now they chose to challenge him in a court of law. They were not called a “civilized nation” for nothing. Many of their leaders were well educated; many more could read and write; they had their own written language, thanks to Sequoyah, a constitution, schools, and their own newspaper. And they had adopted many skills of the white man to improve their living conditions. Why should they be expelled from their lands when they no longer threatened white settlements and could compete with them on many levels? They intended to fight their ouster, and they figured they had many ways to do it. As a last resort they planned to bring suit before the Supreme Court.
Prior to that action, they sent a delegation to Washington to plead their cause. They petitioned Congress to protect them against the unjust laws of Georgia that had decreed that they were subject to its sovereignty and under its complete jurisdiction. They even approached the president, but he curtly informed them that there was nothing he could do in their quarrel with the state, a statement that shocked and amazed them.
So the Cherokees hired William Wirt to take their case to the Supreme Court. In the celebrated Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, Wirt instituted suit for an injunction that would permit the Cherokees to remain in Georgia without interference by the state. He argued that they constituted an independent nation and had been so regarded by the United States in its many treaties with them.
Speaking for the majority of the court, Chief Justice John Marshall handed down his decision on March 18, 1831. Not surprisingly, as a great American nationalist, he rejected Wirt’s argument that the Cherokees were a sovereign nation, but he also rejected Jackson’s claim that they were subject to state law. The Indians were “domestic dependent nations,” he ruled, subject to the United States as a ward to a guardian. Indian territory was part of the United States but not subject to action by individual states.
When the Cherokees read Marshall’s decision, they had honestly believed that the Nation had won the case, that Georgia lacked authority to control their lives and property, and that the courts would protect them. The Supreme Court, the principal chief told his people, decided “in our favor.” So they stayed right where they were, and missionaries encouraged them to stand fast.
They figured without Andrew Jackson—the man the Cherokees called “Sharp Knife”—and the authorities of Georgia, the government would have to honor their wishes. Then in late December 1830, the state passed another law prohibiting white men from entering Indian country after March 1, 1831, without a license from the state. This move was obviously intended to keep interfering clergymen from inciting the Indians to disobey Georgia law. Eleven such missionaries were arrested for violating the recent statute, nine of whom accepted pardons from the governor in return for a promise that they would cease violating Georgia law. But Samuel A. Worcester and Dr. Elizur Butler refused the pardon, and Judge Augustin S.J. Clayton sentenced them to the state penitentiary, “there to endure hard labor for the term of four years.” They appealed the verdict and their case came before the Supreme Court.
On March 3, 1832, Marshall again ruled in Worcester v. Georgia, declaring all the laws of Georgia dealing with the Cherokees unconstitutional, null, void, and of no effect. In addition, he issued a formal mandate two days later ordering the state’s superior court to reverse its decision and free the two men.
Jackson was presently involved in a confrontation with South Carolina over the passage of the Tariffs of 1828 and 1832. The state had nullified the acts and threatened to secede from the Union if force were used to make it comply with them. The last thing Jackson needed was a confrontation with another state, so he quietly nudged Georgia into obeying the court order and freeing Butler and Worcester. A number of well-placed officials in both the state and national governments lent a hand and the governor, Wilson Lumpkin, released the two men on January 14, 1833.
With the annoying problem of the two missionaries out of the way, both Georgia and Jackson continued to lean on the Cherokees to get them removed. They claimed that “some of the most vicious and base characters that the adjoining states can produce” squatted on their land and stole “horses and other property,” and formed a link with as many “bad citizens” of the Cherokee Nation “as they can associate into their club.” Missionaries decried what was happening to the Cherokees. If only “whites would not molest them,” wrote Dr. Elizur Butler in The Missionary Herald. They have made remarkable progress in the last dozen years and if left alone they can and will complete the process toward a “civilized life.”
But allowing eastern Indians full control of their eastern lands was virtually impossible in the 1830s. There was not army enough or will enough by the American people to bring it about. As Jackson constantly warned, squatters would continue to invade and occupy the land they wanted; then, if they were attacked, they would turn to the state government for protection that usually ended in violence. All this under the guise of bringing “civilization” to the wilderness.
Even so, the Cherokees had a strong leader who had not yet given up the fight. They were led by the wily, tough, and determined John Ross, a blue-eyed, brown-haired mixed-blood who was only one-eighth Cherokee. Nonetheless he was the principal chief, and a most powerful force within the Nation. He was rich, lived in a fine house attended by black slaves, and had influence over the annuities the United States paid to the tribal government for former land cessions. His appearance and lifestyle were distinctly white; in all other respects he was Indian.
From the beginning of Jackson’s administration Ross urged his people to stand their ground and remain united. “Friends,” he told them, “I have great hopes in your firmness and that you will hold fast to the place where you were raised. If you all unite together and be of one mind there is no danger.” And the Cherokees cheered his determination. They approved wholeheartedly of his leadership and they took comfort in what he said. So, with the Nation solidly behind him, Ross resolutely resisted any thought of leading his people from their ancient land into a godforsaken wilderness.
Still the Cherokees held out, even though even they had begun to feel the unrelenting pressure. A so-called Treaty Party emerged within the Nation, made up of chiefs and headmen who understood Jackson’s inflexible will and had decided to bow to his wishes and try to get the best treaty possible. They were led by very capable, hard-headed, and pragmatic men, including the Speaker of the Cherokee National Council, Major Ridge; his son, the educated and politically ambitious John Ridge; and the editor of the Cherokee Phoenix, Elias Boudinot.
John Ridge took a leading role in the emergence of the Treaty Party, for when the Worcester decision was first handed down, he instantly recognized that Chief Justice Marshall had rendered an opinion that abandoned the Cherokees to their inevitable fate. So he went to Jackson and asked him point-blank whether the power of the United States would be exerted to force Georgia into respecting Indian rights and property. The president assured him that the government would do nothing. He then advised Ridge most earnestly to go home and urge his people to move themselves west. Dejected, the chief left the president with the melancholy conviction that he had been told the truth. From that moment, he was convinced that the only alternative to save his people from moral and physical death, was to make the best terms they could with the government and move out of the limits of the states. This conviction he did not fail to make known to his friends, and hence rose the “Treaty Party.”
The members of this Treaty Party certainly risked their lives in pressing for removal, and indeed all of them were subsequently marked for assassination. Not too many years later, Elias Boudinot and John Ridge were slain with knives and tomahawks in the midst of their families, while Major Ridge was ambushed and shot to death.
John Ross, on the other hand, would not yield. As head of the National Party that opposed removal, he was shrewd enough to recognize immediately that the president would attempt to play one party off against the other. “The object of the President is unfolded & made too plain to be misunderstood,” he told the Nation. “It is to create divisions among ourselves, break down our government, our press & our treasury, that our cries may not be heard abroad; that we may be deprived of the means of sending delegations to Washington City to make known our grievances before Congress . . . and break down the government which you [Cherokees] have, by your own free will & choice, established for the security of your freedom & common welfare.”
Under the circumstance, Ross decided to go to Washington and request a meeting with the president in order to try again to arrange some accommodation that would prevent the mass relocation of his people to what was now the new Indian Territory, which Congress had created in 1834 and which eventually became the state of Oklahoma. He was tormented by the knowledge that his people would be condemned to a prairie “badly watered and only skirted on the margin of water courses and poor ridges with copes of wood.” Worse, districts would be laid out for some “fifteen or twenty different tribes, and all speaking different languages, and cherishing a variety of habits and customs, a portion civilized, another half civilized and others uncivilized, and these congregated tribes of Indians to be regulated under the General Government, by no doubt white rulers.” The very thought of it sent shivers through Ross’s entire body.
Since he had fought with Jackson at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend during the Creek War, he reckoned that his service during that battle would provide him with a degree of leverage in speaking with the president. And, as principal chief, he could speak with the duly constituted authority of the Cherokee Nation as established under the Cherokee Constitution of 1827. He had another reason for requesting the interview. He had heard a rumor that Jackson had commissioned the Reverend John F. Schermerhorn, an ambitious cleric who had assisted in the removal of the Seminoles from Florida, to negotiate with Ridge and his associates and see if a deal could be worked out that would result in a treaty. Definitely alarmed, Ross asked to speak with the President at which time he said he would submit his own proposal for a treaty.
Jackson never liked Ross. He called him “a great villain.” Unlike Ridge and Boudinot, said Jackson, the principal chief headed a mixed-blood elite, and was intent on centralizing power in his own hands and diverting the annuities to those who would advance his authority and their economic self-interests. Real Indians were full-blooded Indians, not half-breeds, he declared. They were hunters, they were true warriors who, like Ridge and Boudinot, understood the president’s concern for his red children and wished to prevent the calamity of certain annihilation that would ensue if they did not heed his pleas to move west. As for Ross’s authority under the Cherokee Constitution, Jackson denied that it existed. He said that this so-called Constitution provided for an election in 1832 and it had not been held. Instead the principal chief had simply filled the National Council with his henchmen— another indication, claimed Jackson, of an elitist clique who ruled the Nation and disregarded the interests of the majority of the people.
Despite his feelings about the chief, Jackson decided to grant Ross’s request for a meeting. Above all else, he wanted Cherokee removal and if that meant seeing this “great villain” and hearing about his proposal for relocating the tribe, then he would do it. As a consummate politician, Jackson understood the value of playing one party off against another, so when he granted the interview, he directed that Schermerhorn suspend his negotiations with the Treaty Party and wait for the outcome of his interview with the principal chief.
In fact, Jackson and Ross were much alike. Both were wily, tough, determined, obsessed with protecting the interests of their respective peoples, and markedly dignified and polite when they came together in the White House on Wednesday, February 5, 1834. It was exactly noon when the principal chief arrived, and the Great Father greeted him with the respect due Ross’s position. The chief returned the compliment. For a few minutes, their conversation touched on pleasantries, then they got down to the matter and began playing a political game that involved the lives of thousands, both Native Americans and white settlers.
Unfortunately, despite his many talents and keen intelligence, Ross was no match for the president. He simply lacked the resources of his adversary.
The principal chief opened with an impassioned plea. “Your Cherokee children are in deep distress,” he said, “because they are left at the mercy of the white robber and assassin” and receive no redress from the Georgia courts. That state, he declared, has not only “surveyed and lotteried off” Cherokee land to her citizens but legislated as though Cherokees were intruders in their own country.
Jackson just listened. Then the principal chief acted imprudently and made impossible demands on the president. To start, he insisted that in any treaty the Nation must retain some of their land along the borders of Tennessee, Alabama, and Georgia—land that had already been occupied by white settlers. He even included a small tract in North Carolina. He then required assurances that the United States government would protect the Cherokees with federal troops in the new and old settlements for a period of five years.
Jackson could scarcely believe what was being demanded of him. Under other circumstances, he would have acted up a storm in an attempt to frighten and cower the chief. But on this occasion he decided against it. Instead, in a calm and quiet but determined voice, he told Ross that nothing short of an entire removal of the Cherokee Nation from all their land east of the Mississippi would be acceptable.
Having run into a stone wall, Ross headed in another direction. In view of the gold that had recently been discovered in Georgia and North Carolina, he wanted $20 million for all their eastern land plus reimbursement for losses sustained by the Nation for violations of former treaties by the United States. He also asked for indemnities for claims under the 1817 and 1819 Cherokee treaties. The total amount almost equaled the national debt.
On hearing this, Jackson also changed direction. His voice hardened, his intense blue eyes flared, and the muscles in his face tightened and registered his growing displeasure. Obviously the principal chief had not caught the president’s meaning when he rejected the first demand. Jackson snapped at Ross, rejected the proposal as “preposterous” and warned Ross that the Great Father was not to be trifled with. If these demands were the best the chief could offer then there was no point in continuing the discussion.
That brought Ross up short. Completely surprised by Jackson’s reaction, he reaffirmed his own sincerity, and to prove it he offered to accept any award the Senate of the United States might recommend. Apparently, the chief was attempting to set up a bidding contest between the upper house and the chief executive. Surprisingly, Jackson accepted the offer and assured Ross that he would go as far as the Senate in any award that might be proposed. And on that conciliatory note, the interview ended.
In less than a week, Ross received his answer about what the Senate would offer. John P. King of Georgia chaired the Committee on Indian Affairs that considered the question. That was bad enough. Then the committee came up with an offer of $5 million. The figure shocked the principal chief. Jackson probably knew beforehand what would happen and therefore agreed to Ross’s suggestion. Now the Indian was faced with rejecting the money outright or accepting this paltry sum and thereby losing credibility with his people. Naturally, he chose the former course. He claimed he had been misunderstood, that he could not possibly agree to such an amount, and that his reputation among the Cherokees would be shattered if he consented to it. He left Washington an angry and bitter man.
Having disposed of Ross, Jackson turned back to Schermerhorn and instructed him to renew the negotiations with the Treaty Party. With little difficulty, the cleric managed to arrange a draft removal treaty signed on March 14, 1835, by Schermerhorn, John Ridge, Elias Boudinot, and a small delegation of Cherokees. After due notice, the treaty was submitted to the Cherokee National Council at New Echota, Georgia, for approval and sent to the president for submission to the Senate. The draft stipulated that the Cherokees surrender to the United States all its land east of the Mississippi River for a sum of $5 million, an amount that one modern historian has called “unprecedented generosity.” This cession comprised nearly 8 million acres of land in western North Carolina, northern Georgia, northeastern Alabama, and eastern Tennessee. A schedule of removal provided that the Cherokees would be resettled in the west and receive regular payments for subsistence, claims, and spoliations, and would be issued blankets, kettles, and rifles.
At approximately the same time this draft treaty was drawn up and considered at New Echota, a large delegation of Cherokee chiefs—in the desperate hope that their assembled presence would make a difference and prevent the treaty from going forward to the Senate —went to Washington and asked to speak to the Great Father. In contrast to his grudging granting of Ross’s request, Jackson was anxious to meet the delegation and give the chiefs one of his celebrated “talks.”
The Indians arrived at the White House at the designated hour, and Jackson treated them with marked respect, as though they really were dignitaries of a foreign nation. Yet he did not remotely say or do anything that would indicate an acceptance of their independence or sovereignty. Once the Indians had assembled, they faced the president as he began his talk.
“Brothers, I have long viewed your condition with great interest. For many years, I have been acquainted with your people, and under all variety of circumstances, in peace and war. Your fathers are well known to me …. Listen to me, therefore, as your fathers have listened ….”
Jackson paused. He turned from side to side to look at and take in all the Cherokees standing around him. After a few moments, he began again.
“You are now placed in the midst of a white population …. You are now subject to the same laws which govern the citizens of Georgia and Alabama. You are liable to prosecutions for offenses, and to civil actions for a breach of any of your contracts. Most of your people are uneducated, and are liable to be brought into collision at all times with your white neighbors. Your young men are acquiring habits of intoxication. With strong passions . . . they are frequently driven to excesses which must eventually terminate in their ruin. The game has disappeared among you, and you must depend upon agriculture and the mechanic arts for support. And yet, a large portion of your people have acquired little or no property in the soil itself …. How, under these circumstances, can you live in the country you now occupy? Your condition must become worse and worse, and you will ultimately disappear, as so many tribes have done before you.”
These were his usual arguments, but he judged them essential for success.
“You have not listened to me,” he scolded. “You went to the courts for relief. You turned away from your Great Father. And what happened? After years of litigation, you received little satisfaction from the Supreme Court and succeeded in earning the enmity of many whites. “I have no motive, Brothers, to deceive you,” he said. ‘” am sincerely desirous to promote your welfare. Listen to me, therefore, while I tell you that you cannot remain where you are now …. It [is] impossible that you can flourish in the midst of a civilized community. You have but one remedy within your reach. And that is to remove to the West and join your countrymen, who are already established there. The choice is yours. May the great spirit teach you how to choose.”
Jackson then concluded by reminding them of the fate of the Creeks, that once great and proud Nation. How broken and reduced in circumstances their lives had now become because they resisted. It was a not-so-subtle threat that also struck home. “Think then of these things,” he concluded. ‘Shut your ears to bad counsels. Look at your condition as it now is, and then consider what it will be if you follow the advice I give you.”
That ended the talk, and the Indians filed from the room more disappointed and depressed than ever. Jackson would not budge, and they knew their kinsmen were dead set against removal. It was a stalemate that could end only in tragedy.
Meanwhile, Schermerhorn called a “council of all the people” to meet him at New Echota in Georgia during the third week of December 1835 to approve the draft treaty, making sure that a large contingent of Treaty Party members attended. Like Jackson, he had the temerity to warn other Cherokees that if they stayed away their absence would be considered a vote of consent for the draft.
Despite the threat and the warning, practically the entire Nation stayed away. As a consequence, the treaty was approved on December 28 by the unbelievably low number of 79 to 7. The numbers represented only the merest fraction of the Nation. A vast majority—perhaps fifteen-sixteenths of the entire population—presumably opposed it and showed their opposition by staying away. The entire process was fraudulent, but that hardly mattered. Jackson had the treaty he wanted, and he did not hesitate to so inform the Senate. The Treaty of New Echota closely, but not completely, resembled the draft treaty in that the Cherokees surrendered all their eastern land and received $4.5 million in return. They would be paid for improvements, removed at government expense, and maintained for two years. Removal was to take place within two years from the date of the treaty’s approval by the Senate and president.
A short while later, some 12,000 Cherokees signed a resolution denouncing the Treaty of New Echota and forwarded it to the Senate. Even the North Carolina Cherokees, in a separate action, added 3,250 signatures to a petition urging the Senate to reject it. But Jackson was assured by the Treaty Party that ‘a majority of the people’ approved the document ‘and all are willing peaceable to yield to the treaty and abide by it. Such information convinced the president that the principal chief and his “half breed” cohorts had coerced the Cherokees into staying away from New Echota under threat of physical violence.
At New Echota the Treaty Party selected a Committee of Thirteen to carry the treaty to Washington and they were empowered to act on any alteration required by the president or the U.S. Senate. This Committee invited Ross to join the group and either support the treaty or insist on such alterations as to make it acceptable. ‘But to their appeal [Ross] returned no answer,’ which further convinced the President that the treaty represented the genuine interests and the will of the majority of Cherokees.
Although Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, Edward Everett, and other senators spoke fervently against the treaty in the Senate, a two-thirds majority of 31 members voted for it and 15 against. It carried by a single vote on May 18. Jackson added his signature on May 23, 1836, and proclaimed the Treaty of New Echota in force.
And they had two years—that is until May 23, 1838—to cross over the Mississippi and take up their new residence in the Indian Territory. But every day of that two-year period John Ross fought the inevitable. He demanded to see the president and insisted that Jackson recognize the authority of the duly-elected National Council, but Sharp Knife would have none of him and turned him away. Back home the principal chief advised his people to ignore the treaty and stay put. “We will not recognize the forgery palmed off upon the world as a treaty by a knot of unauthorized individuals,’ he cried, ‘nor stir one step with reference to that false paper.”
Not everyone listened to him. They knew Andrew Jackson better. Some 2,000 Cherokees resigned themselves to the inevitable, packed their belongings, and headed west. The rest, the vast majority of the tribe, could not bear to leave their homeland and chose to hope that their principal chief would somehow work the miracle that would preserve their country to them.
But their fate could not have been worse. When the two-year grace period expired and Jackson had left office, his hand-picked successor, President Martin Van Buren, ordered the removal to begin. Militiamen charged into the Cherokee country and drove the Cherokees from their cabins and houses. With rifles and bayonets, they rounded up the Indians and placed them in prison stockades that had been erected “for gathering in and holding the Indians preparatory to removal.” These poor, frightened and benighted innocents, while having supper in their homes, “were startled by the sudden gleam of bayonets in the doorway and rose up to be driven with blows and oaths along the weary miles of trail which led to the stockade. Men were seized in the fields, women were taken from their wheels and children from their play.” As they turned for one last glimpse of their homes, they frequently saw them in flames, set ablaze by the lawless rabble who followed the soldiers, scavenging what they could. These outlaws stole the cattle and other livestock and even desecrated graves in their search for silver pendants and other valuables. They looted and burned. Said one Georgia volunteer who later served in the Confederate army: “I fought through the Civil War and have seen men shot to pieces and slaughtered by thousands, but the Cherokee removal was the cruelest I ever saw.”
In a single week, some 17,000 Cherokees were rounded up and herded into what was surely a concentration camp. Many sickened and died while they awaited transport to the west. In June, the first contingent of about a thousand Indians boarded a steamboat and sailed down the Tennessee River on the first lap of their westward journey. Then they were boxed like animals into railroad cars drawn by two locomotives. Again there were many deaths on account of the oppressive heat and cramped conditions in the cars. For the last leg of the journey, the Cherokees walked. Small wonder they came to call this 800-mile nightmare “The Trail of Tears.” Of the approximately 18,000 Cherokees who were removed, at least 4,000 died in the stockades along the way, and some say the figure actually reached 8,000. By the middle of June 1838, the general in charge of the Georgia militia proudly reported that not a single Cherokee remained in the state except as prisoners in the stockade.
At every step of their long journey to the Indian Territory, the Cherokees were robbed and cheated by contractors, lawyers, agents, speculators, and anyone wielding local police power. Food supplied by the government disappeared or arrived in short supply. The commanding officer, General Winfield Scott, and a few other generals “were concerned about their reputation for humaneness,” says one modern historian, “and probably even for the Cherokee. There just wasn’t much they could do about it.” As a result many died needlessly. “Oh! The misery and wretchedness that presents itself to our view in going among these people,” wrote one man. “Sir, I have witnessed entire families prostrated with sickness—not one able to give help to the other, and these poor people were made the instruments of enriching a few unprincipled and wicked contractors.”
And this, too, is part of Andrew Jackson’s legacy. Although it has been pointed out many times that he was no longer president of the United States when the Trail of Tears occurred and had never intended such a monstrous result of his policy, that hardly excuses him. It was his insistence on the speedy removal of the Cherokees, even after he had left office, that brought about this horror. From his home outside Nashville, he regularly badgered Van Buren about enforcing the treaty. He had become obsessed about removal. He warned that Ross would exert every effort and means available to him to get the treaty rescinded or delayed and that, he said, must be blocked. But the new president assured him that nothing would interfere with the exodus of the Cherokees and that no extension of the two-year grace period would be tolerated under any circumstance.
Principal Chief John Ross also shares a portion of blame for this unspeakable tragedy. He continued his defiance even after the deadline for removal had passed. He encouraged his people to keep up their resistance, despite every sign that no appreciable help would be forthcoming from the American people or anyone else; and he watched as they suffered the awful consequences of his intransigence.
Despite the obscene treatment accorded the Cherokees by the government, the tribe not only survived but endured. As Jackson predicted, they escaped the fate of many extinct eastern tribes. Cherokees today have their tribal identity, a living language, and at least three governmental bodies to provide for their needs. Would that the Yemassee, Mohegans, Pequots, Delawares, Narragansetts, and other such tribes could say the same.
Excerpted from Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars by Robert V. Remini. Copyright Robert V. Remini, 2001. Reprinted by arrangement with Viking Penguin, a division of Penguin Putnam, Inc. The excerpt was originally published in August 2001 issue of American History Magazine. For more great articles, subscribe to American History magazine today! | 6,690 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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King of England, born 1133; died 6 July, 1189; was in his earlier life commonly known as Henry Fitz-Empress from the fact that his mother Matilda, daughter of Henry I, was first married to the Emperor Henry V. Henry himself, however, was the son of her second husband, Geoffrey Plantagenet, and inherited from him the three important fiefs of Anjou, Touraine, and Maine. Soon after his birth the English Witan were made to swear fealty to the infant prince as heir to the throne of England, but when Henry I died, in 1135, both Norman and English barons, who greatly disliked Geoffrey Plantagenet, lent their support to the rival claimant, Stephen of Blois. Despite the confusion and civil war which marked the ensuing years, young Henry seems to have been well educated, partly in England, partly abroad. When he was sixteen he was knighted at Carlisle by King David of Scotland, when he was eighteen he succeeded to Normandy and Anjou, when nineteen he married Eleanor of Aquitaine, the divorced wife of Louis VII of France, and secured her inheritance, and when he was twenty he came to England and forced King Stephen to submit to terms. It is plain that when, a year later, upon Stephen's death, he succeeded to the English crown, men felt that they had no novice to deal with either in diplomacy or in war. Whether through the accident of heredity or through conscious imitation, Henry II at once took up with signal success that work of constitutional and legal reform which marked the administration of his grandfather, Henry I. The Angevin Henry was not a hero or a patriot as we understand the terms nowadays, but he was, as Stubbs has said, "a far-seeing King who recognized that the well-being of the nation was the surest foundation of his own power". At home, then, he set to work from the beginning to face a series of problems which had never yet been settled, the question of Scotland, the question of Wales, the frauds of fiscal officers, the defects of royal justice, and the encroachments of the feudal courts. In all these undertakings he was loyally seconded by his new chancellor, one who had been cordially recommended to him by Archbishop Theobald and one who was sufficiently near his own age to share his vigour and his enthusiasm. There is but one voice amongst contemporaries to render homage to the strong and beneficial government carried on by Henry and his chancellor Thomas Becket during seven or eight years. All dangerous resistance was crushed, the numberless feudal castles were surrendered, and the turbulent barons were not unwilling to acquiesce in the security and order imparted by the reorganized machinery of the exchequer and by a more comprehensive system of judicial administration. The details cannot be given here. The reforms were largely embodied in the "Assizes" issued later in the reign, but in most cases the work of reorganization had been set on foot from the beginning. As regards foreign policy Henry found himself possessed of dominions such as no English king before him had ever known. Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Aquitaine were united to the English crown in 1154, and before twenty years had passed Nantes, Quercy, Brittany, and Toulouse had all practically fallen under English rule. It has recently been maintained (by Hardegan, "Imperialpolitik Heinrichs II.", 1905) that Henry deliberately adopted a policy of competing with the emperor and that he made the empire itself, as Giraldus Cambrensis seems to state (Opera, VIII, 157), the object of his ambition, being invited thereto both by the whole of Italy and by the city of Rome. If this be an exaggerated view, it is nevertheless certain that Henry occupied a foremost position in Europe, and that England for the first time exerted an influence which was felt all over the Continent.
The prosperity which smiled on Henry's early years seems in a strange way to have been broken by his quarrel with his former favourite and chancellor. He whom we now honour as St. Thomas of Canterbury was raised to the archbishopric at his royal master's desire in 1162. It is probable that Henry was influenced in his choice of a primate by the anticipation of conflicts with the Church. No doubt he was already planning his attack on the jurisdiction of the Courts-Christian, and it is also probable enough that Thomas himself had divined it. This, if true, would explain the plainly expressed forebodings which the future archbishop uttered on hearing of his nomination. The story of the famous Constitutions of Clarendon has already been given in some little detail in the article ENGLAND (Vol. V, p. 436). In his attack on the jurisdiction of the spiritual courts Henry may have desired sincerely to remedy an abuse, but the extent of that abuse has been very much exaggerated by the anti-papal sympathies of Anglican historians, more especially of so influential a writer as Bishop Stubbs. Henry's masterful and passionate nature was undoubtedly embittered by what he deemed the ingratitude of his former favourite -- even St. Thomas's resignation of the chancellorship, on being made archbishop, had deeply mortified him -- but when, as the climax of six years of persecution which followed the saint's rejection of the Constitutions of Clarendon, the archbishop was brutally murdered on 29 December, 1170, there is no reason to doubt that Henry's remorse was sincere. His submission to the humiliating penance, which he performed barefoot at the martyr's shrine in 1174, was an example to all Europe. When the news came that on that very day the Scottish king, who was supporting a dangerous insurrection in the North, had been taken prisoner at Alnwick, men not unnaturally regarded it as a mark of the Divine favour. It is not impossible, and has been recently suggested by L. Delisle, that the restoration of the style "Dei gratia Rex Anglorum" ( by the grace of God King of the English), which is observable in the royal charters after 1172, may be due to intensified religious feeling. In any case there is no sufficient reason for saying with Stubbs that St. Thomas was responsible for a grievous change in Henry's character towards the close of his life. The misconduct and rebellion of his sons, probably at the instigation of his queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, are amply sufficient to account for some measure of bitterness and vindictiveness. On the other hand, after Henry by his penance had owned himself beaten upon the question of the Church Courts, his legal and constitutional reforms (such as those which developed the germs of trial by jury, the circuits of the travelling justices, etc.) were pushed on more actively than ever. This fact forms a strong argument for the view that St. Thomas was resisting nothing which was essential to the well-being of the kingdom. Moreover, it is in these last years of Henry's life that we find the most attractive presentment of his character in his relations with the Carthusian, St. Hugh of Lincoln, a saint whom the king himself had promoted to his bishopric. St. Hugh evidently had a tender feeling for Henry, and he was not a man to connive at wickedness. Again, the list of Henry's religious foundations is a considerable one, even apart from the three houses established in the commutation of his vow. Moreover, at the very end of his life he seems to have been sincere in his interest in the crusade, while his organization of the "Saladin Tithe", like that of the "Scutage" at the beginning of the reign, marked an epoch in the history of English taxation. The conquest of Ireland which Henry had projected in 1156 and for which he obtained a Bull from Pope Adrian IV was carried out later with the full sanction of Pope Alexander III, preserved to us in letters of unquestionable authenticity which concede in substance all that was granted by the disputed Bull of Adrian. The death of Henry was sad and tragic, embittered as it was by the rebellion of his sons Richard and John, but he received the last sacraments before the end came. "I think", says William of Newburgh , "that God wished to punish him severely in this life in order to show mercy to him in the next."
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King of England, born 1133; died 6 July, 1189; was in his earlier life commonly known as Henry Fitz-Empress from the fact that his mother Matilda, daughter of Henry I, was first married to the Emperor Henry V. Henry himself, however, was the son of her second husband, Geoffrey Plantagenet, and inherited from him the three important fiefs of Anjou, Touraine, and Maine. Soon after his birth the English Witan were made to swear fealty to the infant prince as heir to the throne of England, but when Henry I died, in 1135, both Norman and English barons, who greatly disliked Geoffrey Plantagenet, lent their support to the rival claimant, Stephen of Blois. Despite the confusion and civil war which marked the ensuing years, young Henry seems to have been well educated, partly in England, partly abroad. When he was sixteen he was knighted at Carlisle by King David of Scotland, when he was eighteen he succeeded to Normandy and Anjou, when nineteen he married Eleanor of Aquitaine, the divorced wife of Louis VII of France, and secured her inheritance, and when he was twenty he came to England and forced King Stephen to submit to terms. It is plain that when, a year later, upon Stephen's death, he succeeded to the English crown, men felt that they had no novice to deal with either in diplomacy or in war. Whether through the accident of heredity or through conscious imitation, Henry II at once took up with signal success that work of constitutional and legal reform which marked the administration of his grandfather, Henry I. The Angevin Henry was not a hero or a patriot as we understand the terms nowadays, but he was, as Stubbs has said, "a far-seeing King who recognized that the well-being of the nation was the surest foundation of his own power". At home, then, he set to work from the beginning to face a series of problems which had never yet been settled, the question of Scotland, the question of Wales, the frauds of fiscal officers, the defects of royal justice, and the encroachments of the feudal courts. In all these undertakings he was loyally seconded by his new chancellor, one who had been cordially recommended to him by Archbishop Theobald and one who was sufficiently near his own age to share his vigour and his enthusiasm. There is but one voice amongst contemporaries to render homage to the strong and beneficial government carried on by Henry and his chancellor Thomas Becket during seven or eight years. All dangerous resistance was crushed, the numberless feudal castles were surrendered, and the turbulent barons were not unwilling to acquiesce in the security and order imparted by the reorganized machinery of the exchequer and by a more comprehensive system of judicial administration. The details cannot be given here. The reforms were largely embodied in the "Assizes" issued later in the reign, but in most cases the work of reorganization had been set on foot from the beginning. As regards foreign policy Henry found himself possessed of dominions such as no English king before him had ever known. Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Aquitaine were united to the English crown in 1154, and before twenty years had passed Nantes, Quercy, Brittany, and Toulouse had all practically fallen under English rule. It has recently been maintained (by Hardegan, "Imperialpolitik Heinrichs II.", 1905) that Henry deliberately adopted a policy of competing with the emperor and that he made the empire itself, as Giraldus Cambrensis seems to state (Opera, VIII, 157), the object of his ambition, being invited thereto both by the whole of Italy and by the city of Rome. If this be an exaggerated view, it is nevertheless certain that Henry occupied a foremost position in Europe, and that England for the first time exerted an influence which was felt all over the Continent.
The prosperity which smiled on Henry's early years seems in a strange way to have been broken by his quarrel with his former favourite and chancellor. He whom we now honour as St. Thomas of Canterbury was raised to the archbishopric at his royal master's desire in 1162. It is probable that Henry was influenced in his choice of a primate by the anticipation of conflicts with the Church. No doubt he was already planning his attack on the jurisdiction of the Courts-Christian, and it is also probable enough that Thomas himself had divined it. This, if true, would explain the plainly expressed forebodings which the future archbishop uttered on hearing of his nomination. The story of the famous Constitutions of Clarendon has already been given in some little detail in the article ENGLAND (Vol. V, p. 436). In his attack on the jurisdiction of the spiritual courts Henry may have desired sincerely to remedy an abuse, but the extent of that abuse has been very much exaggerated by the anti-papal sympathies of Anglican historians, more especially of so influential a writer as Bishop Stubbs. Henry's masterful and passionate nature was undoubtedly embittered by what he deemed the ingratitude of his former favourite -- even St. Thomas's resignation of the chancellorship, on being made archbishop, had deeply mortified him -- but when, as the climax of six years of persecution which followed the saint's rejection of the Constitutions of Clarendon, the archbishop was brutally murdered on 29 December, 1170, there is no reason to doubt that Henry's remorse was sincere. His submission to the humiliating penance, which he performed barefoot at the martyr's shrine in 1174, was an example to all Europe. When the news came that on that very day the Scottish king, who was supporting a dangerous insurrection in the North, had been taken prisoner at Alnwick, men not unnaturally regarded it as a mark of the Divine favour. It is not impossible, and has been recently suggested by L. Delisle, that the restoration of the style "Dei gratia Rex Anglorum" ( by the grace of God King of the English), which is observable in the royal charters after 1172, may be due to intensified religious feeling. In any case there is no sufficient reason for saying with Stubbs that St. Thomas was responsible for a grievous change in Henry's character towards the close of his life. The misconduct and rebellion of his sons, probably at the instigation of his queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, are amply sufficient to account for some measure of bitterness and vindictiveness. On the other hand, after Henry by his penance had owned himself beaten upon the question of the Church Courts, his legal and constitutional reforms (such as those which developed the germs of trial by jury, the circuits of the travelling justices, etc.) were pushed on more actively than ever. This fact forms a strong argument for the view that St. Thomas was resisting nothing which was essential to the well-being of the kingdom. Moreover, it is in these last years of Henry's life that we find the most attractive presentment of his character in his relations with the Carthusian, St. Hugh of Lincoln, a saint whom the king himself had promoted to his bishopric. St. Hugh evidently had a tender feeling for Henry, and he was not a man to connive at wickedness. Again, the list of Henry's religious foundations is a considerable one, even apart from the three houses established in the commutation of his vow. Moreover, at the very end of his life he seems to have been sincere in his interest in the crusade, while his organization of the "Saladin Tithe", like that of the "Scutage" at the beginning of the reign, marked an epoch in the history of English taxation. The conquest of Ireland which Henry had projected in 1156 and for which he obtained a Bull from Pope Adrian IV was carried out later with the full sanction of Pope Alexander III, preserved to us in letters of unquestionable authenticity which concede in substance all that was granted by the disputed Bull of Adrian. The death of Henry was sad and tragic, embittered as it was by the rebellion of his sons Richard and John, but he received the last sacraments before the end came. "I think", says William of Newburgh , "that God wished to punish him severely in this life in order to show mercy to him in the next."
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Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | 1,931 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Presentation on theme: "6. 5 Q1: Why did emperor Leo III forbid the use of icons in 730"— Presentation transcript:
1 6. 5 Q1: Why did emperor Leo III forbid the use of icons in 730 6.5 Q1: Why did emperor Leo III forbid the use of icons in 730? How did the Pope react?Leo III forbid the use of Icons in 730 which made the Roman catholic church mad. Leo banned icons because he believed that people were worshiping the icons not those represented by it. After Leo made it official the Pope became furious. He was so mad that he excommunicated the emperor from the church.
2 6.5 Q2 :what event in 800 increased the tension between the east and west? In the 800 the Pope made a major mistake. At that time the Byzantine empire was controlled by a woman named Irene. The Pope refused to crown empress Irene just because she was a woman. Instead he crowns Charlemagne, also to defend what is left of western Rome. This had Byzantine people filled with rage as they felt they should be ruling the Roman empire.
3 6.5 Q3: How did the relationship between the Eastern Orthodox church and the Roman Catholic church change in 1054?In 1054 the relationship between these two churches hit rock bottom. It started when patriarch Cerularius decided that their church should be the most powerful church. He started putting this to effect by closing any church that worshipped with western rites. Pope Leo didn’t agree and then sent a cardinal to excommunicate him. Cerularius then excommunicates the cardinal. The churches split apart and would only come back together 110 years later.
4 Reading notes section 6.21. Why was Constantinople ideally located to be the capital of the Byzantine Empire?- Constantinople became the capital of the Byzantine Empire because it was on a peninsula( surrounded by water on all three sides) making it easier to defend. Also because it stood at the crossroads of Europe and Asia making it an ideal location for trading. Finally because it was a wealthy city making it a good capital overall.
5 2. What were some of Constantinople’s main features? - Constantinople’s main features included being rich, religious, having good harbors, and lots of luxury items. Although the city was rich most commoners were in poverty. To make up for this the emperor made a lot of public works to give people who needed it jobs. Also since it was on a peninsula it had really good and big harbors.
6 3. What was daily life like in Constantinople? - The daily life in Constantinople was more advanced than in most places because of all the public works. One thing that made daily special was the fact that they actually had a sewer system unlike most cities. This made daily a lot more simple. Another thing people did was attend chariot races and make bets on them.
7 The picture on the right side is found at http://www. kidspast reading notesWhat was the relationship between religion and government in the Byzantine Empire?When Constantine built his new capital he intended it to be the religious center of the empire as well as the seat of government. He even called bishops together to help settle religious disputes in council. The Byzantines believed Christianity wasn’t just a religion but the foundation of their empire. The Eastern Orthodox Church itself, based on Jesus Christ but also based off the work of bishops in early Christian councils.
8 6.4 reading notesHow did the Eastern Orthodox Church play a central role in daily life of Byzantines?The picture above can be found atThe church and state were combined into one all-powerful body because the Byzantines viewed their emperor as a living representative of God an Jesus Christ. Since the religion was state wide, the Byzantine people were united in a common belief. The church played a central role in daily life so most people attended church regularly. From birth, to death, religious sacraments gave shape to you. | <urn:uuid:ef728739-d6ba-4308-bc80-d65feb5033fd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://slideplayer.com/slide/4885563/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00087.warc.gz | en | 0.981692 | 829 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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-0.09288762... | 2 | Presentation on theme: "6. 5 Q1: Why did emperor Leo III forbid the use of icons in 730"— Presentation transcript:
1 6. 5 Q1: Why did emperor Leo III forbid the use of icons in 730 6.5 Q1: Why did emperor Leo III forbid the use of icons in 730? How did the Pope react?Leo III forbid the use of Icons in 730 which made the Roman catholic church mad. Leo banned icons because he believed that people were worshiping the icons not those represented by it. After Leo made it official the Pope became furious. He was so mad that he excommunicated the emperor from the church.
2 6.5 Q2 :what event in 800 increased the tension between the east and west? In the 800 the Pope made a major mistake. At that time the Byzantine empire was controlled by a woman named Irene. The Pope refused to crown empress Irene just because she was a woman. Instead he crowns Charlemagne, also to defend what is left of western Rome. This had Byzantine people filled with rage as they felt they should be ruling the Roman empire.
3 6.5 Q3: How did the relationship between the Eastern Orthodox church and the Roman Catholic church change in 1054?In 1054 the relationship between these two churches hit rock bottom. It started when patriarch Cerularius decided that their church should be the most powerful church. He started putting this to effect by closing any church that worshipped with western rites. Pope Leo didn’t agree and then sent a cardinal to excommunicate him. Cerularius then excommunicates the cardinal. The churches split apart and would only come back together 110 years later.
4 Reading notes section 6.21. Why was Constantinople ideally located to be the capital of the Byzantine Empire?- Constantinople became the capital of the Byzantine Empire because it was on a peninsula( surrounded by water on all three sides) making it easier to defend. Also because it stood at the crossroads of Europe and Asia making it an ideal location for trading. Finally because it was a wealthy city making it a good capital overall.
5 2. What were some of Constantinople’s main features? - Constantinople’s main features included being rich, religious, having good harbors, and lots of luxury items. Although the city was rich most commoners were in poverty. To make up for this the emperor made a lot of public works to give people who needed it jobs. Also since it was on a peninsula it had really good and big harbors.
6 3. What was daily life like in Constantinople? - The daily life in Constantinople was more advanced than in most places because of all the public works. One thing that made daily special was the fact that they actually had a sewer system unlike most cities. This made daily a lot more simple. Another thing people did was attend chariot races and make bets on them.
7 The picture on the right side is found at http://www. kidspast reading notesWhat was the relationship between religion and government in the Byzantine Empire?When Constantine built his new capital he intended it to be the religious center of the empire as well as the seat of government. He even called bishops together to help settle religious disputes in council. The Byzantines believed Christianity wasn’t just a religion but the foundation of their empire. The Eastern Orthodox Church itself, based on Jesus Christ but also based off the work of bishops in early Christian councils.
8 6.4 reading notesHow did the Eastern Orthodox Church play a central role in daily life of Byzantines?The picture above can be found atThe church and state were combined into one all-powerful body because the Byzantines viewed their emperor as a living representative of God an Jesus Christ. Since the religion was state wide, the Byzantine people were united in a common belief. The church played a central role in daily life so most people attended church regularly. From birth, to death, religious sacraments gave shape to you. | 853 | ENGLISH | 1 |
About Omar Khayyam (from wikipedia):
Omar Khayyám (18 May 1048–1131) was a Persian mathematician, astronomer, philosopher and poet. He also wrote treatises on mechanics, geography, and music.
Born in Nishapur, at a young age he moved to Samarkand and obtained his education there, afterwards he moved to Bukhara and became established as one of the major mathematicians and astronomers of the medieval period. Recognized as the author of one of the most important treatises on algebra before modern times as reflected in his Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra giving a geometric method for solving cubic equations by intersecting a hyperbola with a circle. He contributed to a calendar reform.
His significance as a philosopher and teacher, and his few remaining philosophical works, have not received the same attention as his scientific and poetic writings. Zamakhshari referred to him as “the philosopher of the world”. Many sources have testified that he taught for decades the philosophy of Ibn Sina in Nishapur where Khayyám was born and buried and where his mausoleum today remains a masterpiece of Iranian architecture visited by many people every year.
Outside Iran and Persian speaking countries, Khayyám has had an impact on literature and societies through the translation of his works and popularization by other scholars. The greatest such impact was in English-speaking countries; the English scholar Thomas Hyde (1636–1703) was the first non-Persian to study him. The most influential of all was Edward FitzGerald (1809–83), who made Khayyám the most famous poet of the East in the West through his celebrated translation and adaptations of Khayyám’s rather small number of quatrains (rubaiyaas) in Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám. | <urn:uuid:18c97bd3-c174-496e-b2d8-e4365d8c01d0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gohd.com.sg/shop/the-rubaiyat-of-omar-khayyam-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00176.warc.gz | en | 0.982858 | 397 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.249871656298637... | 2 | About Omar Khayyam (from wikipedia):
Omar Khayyám (18 May 1048–1131) was a Persian mathematician, astronomer, philosopher and poet. He also wrote treatises on mechanics, geography, and music.
Born in Nishapur, at a young age he moved to Samarkand and obtained his education there, afterwards he moved to Bukhara and became established as one of the major mathematicians and astronomers of the medieval period. Recognized as the author of one of the most important treatises on algebra before modern times as reflected in his Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra giving a geometric method for solving cubic equations by intersecting a hyperbola with a circle. He contributed to a calendar reform.
His significance as a philosopher and teacher, and his few remaining philosophical works, have not received the same attention as his scientific and poetic writings. Zamakhshari referred to him as “the philosopher of the world”. Many sources have testified that he taught for decades the philosophy of Ibn Sina in Nishapur where Khayyám was born and buried and where his mausoleum today remains a masterpiece of Iranian architecture visited by many people every year.
Outside Iran and Persian speaking countries, Khayyám has had an impact on literature and societies through the translation of his works and popularization by other scholars. The greatest such impact was in English-speaking countries; the English scholar Thomas Hyde (1636–1703) was the first non-Persian to study him. The most influential of all was Edward FitzGerald (1809–83), who made Khayyám the most famous poet of the East in the West through his celebrated translation and adaptations of Khayyám’s rather small number of quatrains (rubaiyaas) in Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám. | 393 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Shutting down the coal industry is vital for fighting climate change. The fuel source that has been an essential part of life for well over a century just isn’t a sustainable option for a variety or reasons. But shutting down the mines and plants leaves people and their communities in the cold. Germany is a masterclass in powering down the coal industry without leaving anyone behind.
Germany shut down their black coal industry when mining became unsustainable and has pledged to shut down their brown coal mines by 2038 to meet the Paris Climate Accord. The answer to doing this without leaving a slew on unemployed people is government innervation and massive infrastructure.
The country placed all mines under one body then slowly closed them down. Workers who wanted to stay with coal were moved to new mines. Others were retrained in new fields or given bonuses for early retirement. Transportation and education networks were built around former coal communities so they wouldn’t be left behind. Other countries could take a lesson from Germany’s work. | <urn:uuid:d54e10b0-9d3a-4ab6-8375-f21bc1537c72> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.redferret.net/?p=60197 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00497.warc.gz | en | 0.980455 | 202 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.3815748095512... | 6 | Shutting down the coal industry is vital for fighting climate change. The fuel source that has been an essential part of life for well over a century just isn’t a sustainable option for a variety or reasons. But shutting down the mines and plants leaves people and their communities in the cold. Germany is a masterclass in powering down the coal industry without leaving anyone behind.
Germany shut down their black coal industry when mining became unsustainable and has pledged to shut down their brown coal mines by 2038 to meet the Paris Climate Accord. The answer to doing this without leaving a slew on unemployed people is government innervation and massive infrastructure.
The country placed all mines under one body then slowly closed them down. Workers who wanted to stay with coal were moved to new mines. Others were retrained in new fields or given bonuses for early retirement. Transportation and education networks were built around former coal communities so they wouldn’t be left behind. Other countries could take a lesson from Germany’s work. | 197 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Strangely, though, that's not why the team that ended up publishing a recent study in the Journal of Natural History began their project. A paper from the 1980s had mentioned that the Goliath tadpoles eat only one particular plant species, but according to Mark-Oliver Rödel, a herpetologist at the Leibniz Institute for Evolutionary and Biodiversity Research, he and his colleagues thought that was nonsense. The plant in question didn't fully overlap with the frogs' territory, and it would be extremely unusual for tadpoles to only eat one plant. But Goliath frogs are endangered, in part because they're hunted for food and to keep as pets, so it was time to find out for sure just how precarious their food supply might be. "We needed to know more about the biology of the species just to make sure we know what to do," Rödel explains, "in case a captive breeding program might be the last chance for the Goliaths' survival in the future." | <urn:uuid:a6c87388-ccc0-45ae-9f70-4201bbdbb17c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.popsci.com/goliath-frogs-build-nests/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00219.warc.gz | en | 0.981371 | 209 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.1298449933528900... | 1 | Strangely, though, that's not why the team that ended up publishing a recent study in the Journal of Natural History began their project. A paper from the 1980s had mentioned that the Goliath tadpoles eat only one particular plant species, but according to Mark-Oliver Rödel, a herpetologist at the Leibniz Institute for Evolutionary and Biodiversity Research, he and his colleagues thought that was nonsense. The plant in question didn't fully overlap with the frogs' territory, and it would be extremely unusual for tadpoles to only eat one plant. But Goliath frogs are endangered, in part because they're hunted for food and to keep as pets, so it was time to find out for sure just how precarious their food supply might be. "We needed to know more about the biology of the species just to make sure we know what to do," Rödel explains, "in case a captive breeding program might be the last chance for the Goliaths' survival in the future." | 216 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Men and women were almost completely dehumanized during this genocide, but their psyche survived it. In the course of his discovery of the meaning of life he decides to hopefully help those in pain and sufferings find their meaning as well.
It is like life itself — any person may dream about changes in own life, while the leader changes it without dreaming. In the second chapter, however, this narrator changes to a mere bystander. This derivation is chosen because logotherapy is centered on a human's primary motivation to search for the means in which he exists.
Frankl teaches future leaders that the more one forgets himself, giving himself to serving the important business or love to another human being, the merrier he is a human and the merrier he realizes himself. As we have all learned in history classes throughout our lives, the conditions of these camps were blatantly abhorrent, and it is a surprise that people made it out of these camps alive.
This is portrayed everywhere, as people are viewed scrabbling about, trying to pick up the latest fashion, or newest household look.
In other words, he posits the individuality of meaning and presents it as unique to each person. | <urn:uuid:195b459e-4eeb-4315-9e81-222e9ddd36c5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://puzaginejeh.ettroisptitspointscompagnie.com/frankl-mans-search-for-meaning-essay630038013pw.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00127.warc.gz | en | 0.980971 | 241 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.1593092679977417... | 2 | Men and women were almost completely dehumanized during this genocide, but their psyche survived it. In the course of his discovery of the meaning of life he decides to hopefully help those in pain and sufferings find their meaning as well.
It is like life itself — any person may dream about changes in own life, while the leader changes it without dreaming. In the second chapter, however, this narrator changes to a mere bystander. This derivation is chosen because logotherapy is centered on a human's primary motivation to search for the means in which he exists.
Frankl teaches future leaders that the more one forgets himself, giving himself to serving the important business or love to another human being, the merrier he is a human and the merrier he realizes himself. As we have all learned in history classes throughout our lives, the conditions of these camps were blatantly abhorrent, and it is a surprise that people made it out of these camps alive.
This is portrayed everywhere, as people are viewed scrabbling about, trying to pick up the latest fashion, or newest household look.
In other words, he posits the individuality of meaning and presents it as unique to each person. | 240 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Early Federal Aid
By Gordon W. Gunderson
- Early Federal Aid
- Commodity Donation Program
- W.P.A. Assistance
- N.Y.A. Assistance
- Effects of World War II
- Authorization of Federal funds
Although both state and local legislation authorized local school districts to provide meals for children through various means, it soon became evident that local governments and school district boards could not provide the funds necessary to carry the increasing load. Supplementary contributions by charitable organizations and individuals did not suffice. Aid from Federal sources became inevitable.
The earliest Federal aid came from the Reconstruction Finance Corporation in 1932 and 1933 when it granted loans to several towns in southwestern Missouri to cover the cost of labor employed in preparing and serving school lunches. Such Federal assistance was expanded to other areas in 1933 and 1934 under the operations of the Civil Works Administration and the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, reaching into 39 states and covering the employment of 7,442 women.
The depression of the 1930s brought on widespread unemployment. Millions of people in the cities lost their jobs and were without means of support for themselves and their families. They were obliged to seek help through public assistance programs.
Much of the production of the farm went begging for a market, surpluses of farm products continued to mount, prices of farm products declined to a point where farm income provided only a meager subsistence. Millions of school children were unable to pay for their school lunches, and with but limited family resources to provide meals at home, the danger of malnutrition among children became a national concern. Federal assistance became essential, and Congressional action was taken in 1935 to aid both agriculture and the school lunch program.
P.L. 320 passed by the 74th Congress and approved August 24, 1936, made available to the Secretary of Agriculture an amount of money equal to 30 percent of the gross receipts from duties collected under the customs laws during each calendar year. The sums were to be maintained in a separate fund to be used by the Secretary to encourage the domestic consumption of certain agricultural commodities (usually those in surplus supply) by diverting them from the normal channels of trade and commerce. The object of this legislation was to remove price-depressing surplus foods from the market through government purchase and dispose of them through exports and domestic donations to consumers in such a way as not to interfere with normal sales.
Needy families and school lunch programs became constructive outlets for the commodities purchased by the USDA under the terms of such legislation. Many needy school children could not afford to pay for lunches and were sorely in need of supplementary foods from a nutritional standpoint. Thus they would be using foods at school which would not otherwise be purchased in the marketplace and farmers would be helped by obtaining an outlet for their products at a reasonable price. The purchase and distribution program was assigned in 1935 to the Federal Surplus Commodities Corporation which had been established in 1933 as the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation to distribute surplus pork, dairy products, and wheat to the needy. In March 1937, there were 3,839 schools receiving commodities for lunch programs serving 342,031 children daily. Two years later, the number of schools participating had grown to 14,075 and the number of children had risen to 892,259.
In a still further effort to be of assistance, the Federal Surplus Commodities Corporation (and later the Surplus Marketing Administration) employed a special representative in each state in 1939-1940 to work with state and local school authorities, Parent-Teacher Associations, mothers' clubs and similar organizations in an effort to expand the school lunch program.
The growth of the program from 1939 to 1942 is evidence of the success of their efforts. During that period the number of schools participating increased by 78,841, and the number of pupils participating increased by 5,272,540. The 1941-42 school year became the peak year in participation and in the use of commodities in school lunch programs before the effects of World War II upon the food supply became evident. During that year, 454 million pounds of food valued at over $21 million were allotted to schools.
The distribution of commodities was made possible through the teamwork of federal, state and local governmental units. Vast quantities of foods were distributed to needy families and charitable institutions, in addition to those distributed to schools. It was essential, therefore, to have an effective administrative organization at each level of government as well as physical facilities to care for the warehousing, packaging and distribution of the foods.
At the state level, a director of commodity distribution was responsible for the proper administration of the program, including the ordering of the foods from the Government, arranging for proper warehousing at strategic points throughout the state, setting up and maintaining adequate records to account for the receipt and distribution of all foods shipped into the state, and reporting to the Federal Government from time to time as required.
Generally, foods were received in carload lots and placed in storage at various warehouses. From these points, they were transferred (generally by truck) to county warehouses maintained by the county agencies. From this point they were either distributed by truck to the individual families and schools entitled to receive them, or such recipients called at the county warehouse for their allotments.
Before an agency such as a school board, P.T.A., mothers' club, or other civic or social organization sponsoring a school lunch program could receive surplus commodities, it was required to enter into a written agreement with the state distributing agency providing substantially:
- That the commodities would be used for preparation of school lunches on the school premises.
- That the commodities would not be sold or exchanged.
- That the food purchases would not discontinued or curtailed because of the receipt of surplus foods.
- That the program would not be operated for profit.
- That the children who could not pay for their meals would not be segregated or discriminated against and would not be identified to their peers.
- That proper warehousing would be provided and proper accounting would be rendered for all foods received.
At first, commodities were allotted to schools based upon the number of undernourished and underprivileged children participating in the program. However, this was soon changed to an allotment based on the total number of children participating in the program.
The maximum quantity of any food that any school could receive was based upon a maximum quantity per child per month established by USDA. This method of allocation persists to this day, with the exception that for some items the allocation is unlimited if the supply is adequate.
Although the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, the Civil Works Administration and the Federal Emergency Relief Administration provided some financial assistance in payment of labor employed in the school lunch program from 1932 to 1934, it was not until the advent of the Works Progress Administration (later changed to Work Projects Administration) that a very substantial contribution from Federal sources became available in this area of program operations. This agency was created in 1935 to provide work for needy persons on public works projects.
School lunch work was assigned to the Community Service Division of W.P.A. Since there were unemployed, needy women in nearly every city, town, village and rural community of the country, the preparation and serving of school lunches became a very ready area of employment to which such women could be assigned. In addition, they could be employed as bakers, clerks, typists, etc. where the size and nature of the program warranted.
The work was under the direction of a W.P.A. supervisor at the state level. This supervisor, in turn, had a supporting staff of district and local school lunch supervisors who called on the workers in the individual schools to give them needed direction and help. The supervisory staff was generally chosen from people who had special knowledge and abilities in food service. Menus, recipes, and manuals were developed at the state and district supervisory levels which were of inestimable value to the local cooks and helpers in the performance of their duties and did much to improve the quality of the meals served as well as to set standards for equipment, sanitation, and safety in the lunch program. With much of the labor being provided without cost to a school district, lunch prices were held to a minimum, more children participated and the natural outcome was a very rapid expansion in the program throughout the Nation.
In some areas, projects involving canning foods for the lunch program were undertaken during the summer months when schools were not in session. At times, this involved the preservation of fresh fruits or vegetables received as surplus items, while in some school districts and communities garden projects were set up to provide additional foods for the school lunch program. Some of these foods were canned by personnel employed by the W.P.A.
In March 1941, W.P.A school lunch programs were in operation in all states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico, providing help in 23,160 schools serving an average of nearly 2 million lunches daily, and employing 64,298 persons.
The National Youth Administration was another Federal agency which also provided assistance to the school lunch program. This agency was also founded in 1935, having as its purpose job training for unemployed youth and providing part-time work for needy students. Since they could be employed only under adult supervision, N.Y.A employees did not manage lunch programs but supplied much needed assistance as part-time helpers. They also supplied help in making tables, chairs and other equipment for the lunchroom. In April, 1941 over 16,000 youths were employed in school lunch projects in 42 states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico.
In February 1942, the school lunch program operating under the assistance from W.P.A and N.Y.A and receiving donated foods reached 92,916 schools serving 6 million children daily.
The effect of World War II upon the nation's economy was making itself evident, however. As defense industries provided work for more and more people, W.P.A payrolls declined sharply, and the agency's activities came to a close in the early part of 1943.
The huge supply of food required for the support of U.S. Armed Forces and allies soon drained off farm surpluses, except for a few sporadic over-supplies of some items from time to time. Consequently, the kinds and quantities of foods available for distribution to school lunch programs became comparatively negligible, dropping from the high of 454 million pounds in 1942 to 93 million pounds in 1944. Labor supplied by W.P.A had been completely eliminated. The effect upon the school lunch program was dramatically shown.
By April 1944, there were only 34,064 schools serving some 5 million children in the program. But a further decline was not to occur.
The 78th Congress in July 1943 enacted Public Law 129, amending Section 32 of the Agricultural Act of 1935, authorizing the expenditure of Section 32 funds not in excess of $60 million for maintaining the school lunch and school milk programs during the fiscal year July 1, 1943, to June 30, 1944.
This assistance was in the form of cash subsidy payments to school lunch sponsors for the purchase of food for the program. No part of the funds could be used for the payment of labor or for the purchase of equipment. Without it the decline in participation previously noted would undoubtedly have been even more drastic. It took time to reach schools with the information, place the procedures into operation, and re-establish programs which had closed down.
The following year there was an improvement in legislation and a further expansion of the program. Under the provisions of Public Law 367, the 78th Congress again set aside $50 million of Section 32 funds for carrying on the school lunch program in 1944-45, and extended the authority to include child care centers. For the first time, the legislation also provided some details as to conditions under which Federal assistance could be received:
- Cash payments could not exceed the cost of food purchased for use in the program.
- Accurate records of cost of food had to be maintained.
- Total payments of Federal funds in any state could not exceed the total amount provided for food purchases by the school lunch sponsors, school districts, or other sources within the state, including the value of donated services and supplies.
Again for the 1945-46 school year, the same amount was appropriated as in the previous year, but the legislation included a provision that not more than two percent of the funds allotted to any state could be used for lunch programs in child care centers. Because of a rapid expansion of the program, Congress appropriated an additional $7.5 million in December 1945, in order to continue the payments to schools until the end of the school year. By April 1946, the program had expanded to include 45,119 schools serving 6.7 million children daily, representing an increase of some 11,000 schools and about 1.5 million children over the 1943-44 school year. | <urn:uuid:7f08f7e7-bc69-462d-a264-0e35c2ee99c4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.fns.usda.gov/nslp/history_4 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00509.warc.gz | en | 0.98097 | 2,623 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.128124862909... | 1 | Early Federal Aid
By Gordon W. Gunderson
- Early Federal Aid
- Commodity Donation Program
- W.P.A. Assistance
- N.Y.A. Assistance
- Effects of World War II
- Authorization of Federal funds
Although both state and local legislation authorized local school districts to provide meals for children through various means, it soon became evident that local governments and school district boards could not provide the funds necessary to carry the increasing load. Supplementary contributions by charitable organizations and individuals did not suffice. Aid from Federal sources became inevitable.
The earliest Federal aid came from the Reconstruction Finance Corporation in 1932 and 1933 when it granted loans to several towns in southwestern Missouri to cover the cost of labor employed in preparing and serving school lunches. Such Federal assistance was expanded to other areas in 1933 and 1934 under the operations of the Civil Works Administration and the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, reaching into 39 states and covering the employment of 7,442 women.
The depression of the 1930s brought on widespread unemployment. Millions of people in the cities lost their jobs and were without means of support for themselves and their families. They were obliged to seek help through public assistance programs.
Much of the production of the farm went begging for a market, surpluses of farm products continued to mount, prices of farm products declined to a point where farm income provided only a meager subsistence. Millions of school children were unable to pay for their school lunches, and with but limited family resources to provide meals at home, the danger of malnutrition among children became a national concern. Federal assistance became essential, and Congressional action was taken in 1935 to aid both agriculture and the school lunch program.
P.L. 320 passed by the 74th Congress and approved August 24, 1936, made available to the Secretary of Agriculture an amount of money equal to 30 percent of the gross receipts from duties collected under the customs laws during each calendar year. The sums were to be maintained in a separate fund to be used by the Secretary to encourage the domestic consumption of certain agricultural commodities (usually those in surplus supply) by diverting them from the normal channels of trade and commerce. The object of this legislation was to remove price-depressing surplus foods from the market through government purchase and dispose of them through exports and domestic donations to consumers in such a way as not to interfere with normal sales.
Needy families and school lunch programs became constructive outlets for the commodities purchased by the USDA under the terms of such legislation. Many needy school children could not afford to pay for lunches and were sorely in need of supplementary foods from a nutritional standpoint. Thus they would be using foods at school which would not otherwise be purchased in the marketplace and farmers would be helped by obtaining an outlet for their products at a reasonable price. The purchase and distribution program was assigned in 1935 to the Federal Surplus Commodities Corporation which had been established in 1933 as the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation to distribute surplus pork, dairy products, and wheat to the needy. In March 1937, there were 3,839 schools receiving commodities for lunch programs serving 342,031 children daily. Two years later, the number of schools participating had grown to 14,075 and the number of children had risen to 892,259.
In a still further effort to be of assistance, the Federal Surplus Commodities Corporation (and later the Surplus Marketing Administration) employed a special representative in each state in 1939-1940 to work with state and local school authorities, Parent-Teacher Associations, mothers' clubs and similar organizations in an effort to expand the school lunch program.
The growth of the program from 1939 to 1942 is evidence of the success of their efforts. During that period the number of schools participating increased by 78,841, and the number of pupils participating increased by 5,272,540. The 1941-42 school year became the peak year in participation and in the use of commodities in school lunch programs before the effects of World War II upon the food supply became evident. During that year, 454 million pounds of food valued at over $21 million were allotted to schools.
The distribution of commodities was made possible through the teamwork of federal, state and local governmental units. Vast quantities of foods were distributed to needy families and charitable institutions, in addition to those distributed to schools. It was essential, therefore, to have an effective administrative organization at each level of government as well as physical facilities to care for the warehousing, packaging and distribution of the foods.
At the state level, a director of commodity distribution was responsible for the proper administration of the program, including the ordering of the foods from the Government, arranging for proper warehousing at strategic points throughout the state, setting up and maintaining adequate records to account for the receipt and distribution of all foods shipped into the state, and reporting to the Federal Government from time to time as required.
Generally, foods were received in carload lots and placed in storage at various warehouses. From these points, they were transferred (generally by truck) to county warehouses maintained by the county agencies. From this point they were either distributed by truck to the individual families and schools entitled to receive them, or such recipients called at the county warehouse for their allotments.
Before an agency such as a school board, P.T.A., mothers' club, or other civic or social organization sponsoring a school lunch program could receive surplus commodities, it was required to enter into a written agreement with the state distributing agency providing substantially:
- That the commodities would be used for preparation of school lunches on the school premises.
- That the commodities would not be sold or exchanged.
- That the food purchases would not discontinued or curtailed because of the receipt of surplus foods.
- That the program would not be operated for profit.
- That the children who could not pay for their meals would not be segregated or discriminated against and would not be identified to their peers.
- That proper warehousing would be provided and proper accounting would be rendered for all foods received.
At first, commodities were allotted to schools based upon the number of undernourished and underprivileged children participating in the program. However, this was soon changed to an allotment based on the total number of children participating in the program.
The maximum quantity of any food that any school could receive was based upon a maximum quantity per child per month established by USDA. This method of allocation persists to this day, with the exception that for some items the allocation is unlimited if the supply is adequate.
Although the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, the Civil Works Administration and the Federal Emergency Relief Administration provided some financial assistance in payment of labor employed in the school lunch program from 1932 to 1934, it was not until the advent of the Works Progress Administration (later changed to Work Projects Administration) that a very substantial contribution from Federal sources became available in this area of program operations. This agency was created in 1935 to provide work for needy persons on public works projects.
School lunch work was assigned to the Community Service Division of W.P.A. Since there were unemployed, needy women in nearly every city, town, village and rural community of the country, the preparation and serving of school lunches became a very ready area of employment to which such women could be assigned. In addition, they could be employed as bakers, clerks, typists, etc. where the size and nature of the program warranted.
The work was under the direction of a W.P.A. supervisor at the state level. This supervisor, in turn, had a supporting staff of district and local school lunch supervisors who called on the workers in the individual schools to give them needed direction and help. The supervisory staff was generally chosen from people who had special knowledge and abilities in food service. Menus, recipes, and manuals were developed at the state and district supervisory levels which were of inestimable value to the local cooks and helpers in the performance of their duties and did much to improve the quality of the meals served as well as to set standards for equipment, sanitation, and safety in the lunch program. With much of the labor being provided without cost to a school district, lunch prices were held to a minimum, more children participated and the natural outcome was a very rapid expansion in the program throughout the Nation.
In some areas, projects involving canning foods for the lunch program were undertaken during the summer months when schools were not in session. At times, this involved the preservation of fresh fruits or vegetables received as surplus items, while in some school districts and communities garden projects were set up to provide additional foods for the school lunch program. Some of these foods were canned by personnel employed by the W.P.A.
In March 1941, W.P.A school lunch programs were in operation in all states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico, providing help in 23,160 schools serving an average of nearly 2 million lunches daily, and employing 64,298 persons.
The National Youth Administration was another Federal agency which also provided assistance to the school lunch program. This agency was also founded in 1935, having as its purpose job training for unemployed youth and providing part-time work for needy students. Since they could be employed only under adult supervision, N.Y.A employees did not manage lunch programs but supplied much needed assistance as part-time helpers. They also supplied help in making tables, chairs and other equipment for the lunchroom. In April, 1941 over 16,000 youths were employed in school lunch projects in 42 states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico.
In February 1942, the school lunch program operating under the assistance from W.P.A and N.Y.A and receiving donated foods reached 92,916 schools serving 6 million children daily.
The effect of World War II upon the nation's economy was making itself evident, however. As defense industries provided work for more and more people, W.P.A payrolls declined sharply, and the agency's activities came to a close in the early part of 1943.
The huge supply of food required for the support of U.S. Armed Forces and allies soon drained off farm surpluses, except for a few sporadic over-supplies of some items from time to time. Consequently, the kinds and quantities of foods available for distribution to school lunch programs became comparatively negligible, dropping from the high of 454 million pounds in 1942 to 93 million pounds in 1944. Labor supplied by W.P.A had been completely eliminated. The effect upon the school lunch program was dramatically shown.
By April 1944, there were only 34,064 schools serving some 5 million children in the program. But a further decline was not to occur.
The 78th Congress in July 1943 enacted Public Law 129, amending Section 32 of the Agricultural Act of 1935, authorizing the expenditure of Section 32 funds not in excess of $60 million for maintaining the school lunch and school milk programs during the fiscal year July 1, 1943, to June 30, 1944.
This assistance was in the form of cash subsidy payments to school lunch sponsors for the purchase of food for the program. No part of the funds could be used for the payment of labor or for the purchase of equipment. Without it the decline in participation previously noted would undoubtedly have been even more drastic. It took time to reach schools with the information, place the procedures into operation, and re-establish programs which had closed down.
The following year there was an improvement in legislation and a further expansion of the program. Under the provisions of Public Law 367, the 78th Congress again set aside $50 million of Section 32 funds for carrying on the school lunch program in 1944-45, and extended the authority to include child care centers. For the first time, the legislation also provided some details as to conditions under which Federal assistance could be received:
- Cash payments could not exceed the cost of food purchased for use in the program.
- Accurate records of cost of food had to be maintained.
- Total payments of Federal funds in any state could not exceed the total amount provided for food purchases by the school lunch sponsors, school districts, or other sources within the state, including the value of donated services and supplies.
Again for the 1945-46 school year, the same amount was appropriated as in the previous year, but the legislation included a provision that not more than two percent of the funds allotted to any state could be used for lunch programs in child care centers. Because of a rapid expansion of the program, Congress appropriated an additional $7.5 million in December 1945, in order to continue the payments to schools until the end of the school year. By April 1946, the program had expanded to include 45,119 schools serving 6.7 million children daily, representing an increase of some 11,000 schools and about 1.5 million children over the 1943-44 school year. | 2,795 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Northern women (Women who fought for the Union) played the role enhancing the shipment of supplies to the troops who were fighting the war. They organized food stuffs which they distributed to the troop members. It entailed baking of bread of cake and the cultivation of the vegetable and fruit gardens for the soldiers. Furthermore, the women also provided clothing and bedding for the soldiers. They tailored the uniforms and knitted cold wears for the soldiers. Moreover, these women also facilitated the collection of funds for the soldiers through a series of organized fundraisers to provide the necessary finances for the stocking of medical supplies. However, there are also those women who took to the battle field to provide medical care to the soldiers who were wounded in the process off the war.
The Southern women on the other hand fought for the confederacy which at the time had limited resources as compared to the Northern states. The women on this side too ensured that their soldiers did not go hungry by cooking and supplying them with meals at regular intervals. Moreover, some of the women became cooks in the battle field. The confederacy women sewed clothes for the soldiers and provided medical services as untrained nurses to wounded soldiers in the battle field and in their homes and even wrote letters to and on behalf of the soldiers to their families.
The civil war helped shape the destiny of women and define their pl...
... middle of paper ...
...n which they would be sent out to scope the area around and beyond where the Union’s army had made camp. This was a necessary measure to ensure that the enemy was always in view. There are even reports that during these scouting sprees, the black led party raids to sections of the confederacy. Some of them later become to be used as agents.
In the Union army, many freed blacks that had been recruited died out due to the injuries sustained at war, death at the battle grounds. Most of them however succumbed to illnesses that were as result of the diseases encountered in the battle field. They did not receive the same kind of quality care that the white soldiers received. The black slaves on the other hand, especially who fought in the confederacy, were given the preposition of becoming free as long as their masters agreed. Legislation was made to that effect.
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- Women in the Civil War From eighteen sixteen one to eighteen sixteen five, America experienced the bloodiest war since it was first founded. For years the country was unified as one but after a certain man was elected as the sixteenth president. The southern states decided to seceded from the northern states, due to Abrams Lincolns stance on slavery, which contained the possibly to liberate the slaves and to abolish slavery itself. Due to the southerner’s dependency on slavery, which was mainly for free labor, and seeing them as property rather than people with the fact that the southerners wanted it to remain that way, naturally lead to the decision of them leaving and leave they did.... [tags: American Civil War, Confederate States of America]
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1622 words (4.6 pages) | <urn:uuid:0b3ffce9-6cd3-4d40-873d-59ce55644770> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.123helpme.com/women-during-the-civil-war-preview.asp?id=702942 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00377.warc.gz | en | 0.981553 | 1,866 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.1596997976303... | 1 | The Northern women (Women who fought for the Union) played the role enhancing the shipment of supplies to the troops who were fighting the war. They organized food stuffs which they distributed to the troop members. It entailed baking of bread of cake and the cultivation of the vegetable and fruit gardens for the soldiers. Furthermore, the women also provided clothing and bedding for the soldiers. They tailored the uniforms and knitted cold wears for the soldiers. Moreover, these women also facilitated the collection of funds for the soldiers through a series of organized fundraisers to provide the necessary finances for the stocking of medical supplies. However, there are also those women who took to the battle field to provide medical care to the soldiers who were wounded in the process off the war.
The Southern women on the other hand fought for the confederacy which at the time had limited resources as compared to the Northern states. The women on this side too ensured that their soldiers did not go hungry by cooking and supplying them with meals at regular intervals. Moreover, some of the women became cooks in the battle field. The confederacy women sewed clothes for the soldiers and provided medical services as untrained nurses to wounded soldiers in the battle field and in their homes and even wrote letters to and on behalf of the soldiers to their families.
The civil war helped shape the destiny of women and define their pl...
... middle of paper ...
...n which they would be sent out to scope the area around and beyond where the Union’s army had made camp. This was a necessary measure to ensure that the enemy was always in view. There are even reports that during these scouting sprees, the black led party raids to sections of the confederacy. Some of them later become to be used as agents.
In the Union army, many freed blacks that had been recruited died out due to the injuries sustained at war, death at the battle grounds. Most of them however succumbed to illnesses that were as result of the diseases encountered in the battle field. They did not receive the same kind of quality care that the white soldiers received. The black slaves on the other hand, especially who fought in the confederacy, were given the preposition of becoming free as long as their masters agreed. Legislation was made to that effect.
Need Writing Help?
Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper »
- Women in the Civil War From eighteen sixteen one to eighteen sixteen five, America experienced the bloodiest war since it was first founded. For years the country was unified as one but after a certain man was elected as the sixteenth president. The southern states decided to seceded from the northern states, due to Abrams Lincolns stance on slavery, which contained the possibly to liberate the slaves and to abolish slavery itself. Due to the southerner’s dependency on slavery, which was mainly for free labor, and seeing them as property rather than people with the fact that the southerners wanted it to remain that way, naturally lead to the decision of them leaving and leave they did.... [tags: American Civil War, Confederate States of America]
1247 words (3.6 pages)
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- Two articles were published in a Mississippi based newspaper in May and August of 1862 praising women for their efforts to assist soldiers stating that they “deserve high praise for the promptitude with which they have met the poor, hungry, suffering soldiers”1 and latter stating that “Heaven will reward them”.2 Upon first reading these quotes they may seem confusing or out of place for their time. However, a deeper look into the roles that women took on during the Civil War reveals a deep connection between the war efforts and the alteration of women’s gender roles in American Society.... [tags: Gender role, Woman, Gender, American Civil War]
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- In the advent of the Civil war in the year 1861, for the first time America witnessed a change dynamics of a War as women willingly joined the course in the fight alongside the men. In fact there are some women who even dressed up like men so that they could only take an active role in the battlefields. The Northern women (Women who fought for the Union) played the role enhancing the shipment of supplies to the troops who were fighting the war. They organized food stuffs which they distributed to the troop members.... [tags: American Civil War, Slavery in the United States]
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- Women During the Civil War " I want something to do ' Write a book,' Qouth the author of my being. Don't know enough, sir. First live, then write.' Try teaching again,' suggested my mother. No thank you, ma'am, ten years of that is enough.' Take a husband like my Darby, and fulfill your mission,' said sister Joan. Can't afford expensive luxuries, Mrs. Coobiddy.' Go nurse the soldiers,' said my young brother, Tom. I will!' (Harper 14)." This is a dialog of Louisa May Alcott with her relatives.... [tags: History Females Civil War]
1280 words (3.7 pages)
- Women suffrage groups saw advances for women as war work increased. There was an initial resistance to hire women to do the work traditionally known as men’s work. However, with the loss of men to complete these jobs businesses had an urgent need for workers and had no choice but to turn to the women workers. Women worked in civil service, factories, auto mechanics, and took over other jobs traditionally know to be men’s jobs. Women also fought to be able to provide positions as doctors and nurses in the military but faced objectives with the military.... [tags: Gender role, Gender, Transgender, World War II]
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- Supporters of women in combat roles have recently witnessed a historic decision announced by Defense Secretary Ash Carter in December 2015, which all positions will now be opened to women in the military forces (mostly effecting the Army and Marines). Critics opposed to the change say the United States military will be degraded, lose its effectives and jeopardizes our military because of the past and present forced integration of women in the combat ranks. Other scholars say that the integration of women is evolutionary and that we are all created equal.... [tags: Military, Army, Soldier, Armed forces]
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1622 words (4.6 pages) | 1,861 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Patrick Boniface on the deaths in battle of regal warriors.
According to a popular Czech tradition, before he committed himself to combat in a battle already lost, King John the Blind said, ‘God forbid that a Bohemian king should ever flee from a fight.’
Jang de Blannen (John the Blind) was born on 10 August 1296 and became the Count of Luxembourg in 1309. The following year he was crowned King of Bohemia. He also had a claim to be King of Poland.
The eldest son of the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII, his life was dominated by a struggle to maintain control over his territory, despite being without his sight for well over a decade.
John was brought up in the environs of Paris and taught by French clergy in the classic style; yet, despite the French upbringing, John’s destiny would see him deeply involved in the politics of Germany.
Aged 14, his father arranged a marriage between his son and Elizabeth, sister of the deceased King Wenceslaus III of Bohemia.
The wedding was a glittering affair staged in Speyer, after which the two teenagers made their way to Prague, accompanied by the Archbishop of Mainz. He was to guide the newlyweds on purely Czech issues.
WAR AND DIPLOMACY
Henry VII’s plan had always been to depose the reigning King Henry of Carinthia and, by sending imperial regiments to accompany John and Elizabeth, this task was easily achieved: the invaders gained control of Prague on 3 December 1310.
Together with his team of advisers, John got to grips with the troubles affecting the Czech state and in short order he had stabilised them. In so doing, he became one of the seven prince electors of the Holy Roman Empire, and, in succession of Wenceslaus III, a claimant to the Polish and Hungarian thrones. (The prince-electors had, since the 13th century, had the privilege of electing the King of the Romans, who would then be crowned by the Pope as the Holy Roman Emperor.)
John, however, was deeply disliked and mistrusted by much of the Czech nobility, as he was considered an ‘alien’. His marriage was not a success either, and he soon gave up the administration of Bohemia for a life of travel across Europe.
His military campaigns saw him, as a rival of King Wladyslaw I for the Polish crown, lend his support to the Teutonic Knights, who raised a crusade against the pagan Lithuanians during the Polish-Teutonic War of 1326-1332.
In 1326, John the Blind marched against Kraków. In doing so, he vassalised many of the Duchies of Silesia. Further military campaigns were waged against Russia, Hungary, England, and Austria, as well as in northern Italy in the Tyrol region.
His Bohemian empire expanded northwards throughout his lifetime, incorporating the regions of Upper Lusatia and much of Lombardy. These campaigns across Europe cost him popularity back at home, with his lavish expenditure and heavy taxation impoverishing his country.
John lost his sight around the age of 39, in 1336, due to ophthalmia contracted during a crusade in Lithuania. Despite his blindness, John still saw himself as a statesman of power and influence; and in 1337, with the outbreak of the Hundred Years War, he allied himself with King Philip VI of France.
FIGHTING AGAINST THE ODDS
King John the Blind joined the forces of the French at the battlefield of Crécy in 1346. On 26 August, he was part of the Genoese van, commanded by Antonio Doria and Carlo Grimaldi.
The Duke d’Alençon led the knights on horses, including the blind King John. His horse was strapped on either side to two of his most trusted knights, also on horseback. King John was not the only king to ride into battle that day: his son, the King of the Romans, and the displaced King of Majorca were also in the force, while King Philip led the rearguard.
The assault started at 4pm, when the French marched towards the English position. Above them, the sky was filled with foreboding rainclouds. The bowmen remained where they were and, seeing the advancing French forces, fired volley after volley.
The air was filled with arrows, with one witness saying, ‘The English archers each stepped forth one pace, drew the bowstring to his ear, and let their arrows fly; so wholly and so thick that it seemed as snow.’
After such an onslaught, the French retreated into the advancing second wave of French forces. Attempted advance after attempted advance was held back by deadly accurate archery. It was during one of these volleys that King John the Blind was struck down, alongside his two attendant knights, as he charged forward into the fray.
Following his death, John’s body was taken to Kloster Altmünster in Luxembourg. The Abbey was destroyed in 1543, and John the Blind’s remains were moved to Kloster Neumünster.
Later, during the French Revolution, John’s remains were salvaged by the Boch industrial family and hidden in an attic room in Meltlach on the Saar River at the behest of the Abbey’s monks.
Pierre-Joseph Boch met Prince Frederick William of Prussia on a visit to the Rhineland in 1833, and offered the remains as a gift to the Prince, who accepted them and had a funeral chapel built to house them near Kastel-Staadt, on a rock above the town.
The bones of John the Blind had one further journey to make. In 1945, the Luxembourg Government took a chance to possess the remains and, in a cloak-and-dagger operation, took them to the Notre-Dame Cathedral in Luxembourg, where they rest to this day.
To read the full analysis, get a copy of the issue from your local Barnes & Noble or W H Smith, or click here to subscribe to the magazine and have it sent straight to your door every month. | <urn:uuid:8e17496e-2a5f-4639-9508-87bbee154695> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.military-history.org/articles/royal-deaths-john-the-blind.htm/amp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00547.warc.gz | en | 0.983686 | 1,297 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | Patrick Boniface on the deaths in battle of regal warriors.
According to a popular Czech tradition, before he committed himself to combat in a battle already lost, King John the Blind said, ‘God forbid that a Bohemian king should ever flee from a fight.’
Jang de Blannen (John the Blind) was born on 10 August 1296 and became the Count of Luxembourg in 1309. The following year he was crowned King of Bohemia. He also had a claim to be King of Poland.
The eldest son of the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII, his life was dominated by a struggle to maintain control over his territory, despite being without his sight for well over a decade.
John was brought up in the environs of Paris and taught by French clergy in the classic style; yet, despite the French upbringing, John’s destiny would see him deeply involved in the politics of Germany.
Aged 14, his father arranged a marriage between his son and Elizabeth, sister of the deceased King Wenceslaus III of Bohemia.
The wedding was a glittering affair staged in Speyer, after which the two teenagers made their way to Prague, accompanied by the Archbishop of Mainz. He was to guide the newlyweds on purely Czech issues.
WAR AND DIPLOMACY
Henry VII’s plan had always been to depose the reigning King Henry of Carinthia and, by sending imperial regiments to accompany John and Elizabeth, this task was easily achieved: the invaders gained control of Prague on 3 December 1310.
Together with his team of advisers, John got to grips with the troubles affecting the Czech state and in short order he had stabilised them. In so doing, he became one of the seven prince electors of the Holy Roman Empire, and, in succession of Wenceslaus III, a claimant to the Polish and Hungarian thrones. (The prince-electors had, since the 13th century, had the privilege of electing the King of the Romans, who would then be crowned by the Pope as the Holy Roman Emperor.)
John, however, was deeply disliked and mistrusted by much of the Czech nobility, as he was considered an ‘alien’. His marriage was not a success either, and he soon gave up the administration of Bohemia for a life of travel across Europe.
His military campaigns saw him, as a rival of King Wladyslaw I for the Polish crown, lend his support to the Teutonic Knights, who raised a crusade against the pagan Lithuanians during the Polish-Teutonic War of 1326-1332.
In 1326, John the Blind marched against Kraków. In doing so, he vassalised many of the Duchies of Silesia. Further military campaigns were waged against Russia, Hungary, England, and Austria, as well as in northern Italy in the Tyrol region.
His Bohemian empire expanded northwards throughout his lifetime, incorporating the regions of Upper Lusatia and much of Lombardy. These campaigns across Europe cost him popularity back at home, with his lavish expenditure and heavy taxation impoverishing his country.
John lost his sight around the age of 39, in 1336, due to ophthalmia contracted during a crusade in Lithuania. Despite his blindness, John still saw himself as a statesman of power and influence; and in 1337, with the outbreak of the Hundred Years War, he allied himself with King Philip VI of France.
FIGHTING AGAINST THE ODDS
King John the Blind joined the forces of the French at the battlefield of Crécy in 1346. On 26 August, he was part of the Genoese van, commanded by Antonio Doria and Carlo Grimaldi.
The Duke d’Alençon led the knights on horses, including the blind King John. His horse was strapped on either side to two of his most trusted knights, also on horseback. King John was not the only king to ride into battle that day: his son, the King of the Romans, and the displaced King of Majorca were also in the force, while King Philip led the rearguard.
The assault started at 4pm, when the French marched towards the English position. Above them, the sky was filled with foreboding rainclouds. The bowmen remained where they were and, seeing the advancing French forces, fired volley after volley.
The air was filled with arrows, with one witness saying, ‘The English archers each stepped forth one pace, drew the bowstring to his ear, and let their arrows fly; so wholly and so thick that it seemed as snow.’
After such an onslaught, the French retreated into the advancing second wave of French forces. Attempted advance after attempted advance was held back by deadly accurate archery. It was during one of these volleys that King John the Blind was struck down, alongside his two attendant knights, as he charged forward into the fray.
Following his death, John’s body was taken to Kloster Altmünster in Luxembourg. The Abbey was destroyed in 1543, and John the Blind’s remains were moved to Kloster Neumünster.
Later, during the French Revolution, John’s remains were salvaged by the Boch industrial family and hidden in an attic room in Meltlach on the Saar River at the behest of the Abbey’s monks.
Pierre-Joseph Boch met Prince Frederick William of Prussia on a visit to the Rhineland in 1833, and offered the remains as a gift to the Prince, who accepted them and had a funeral chapel built to house them near Kastel-Staadt, on a rock above the town.
The bones of John the Blind had one further journey to make. In 1945, the Luxembourg Government took a chance to possess the remains and, in a cloak-and-dagger operation, took them to the Notre-Dame Cathedral in Luxembourg, where they rest to this day.
To read the full analysis, get a copy of the issue from your local Barnes & Noble or W H Smith, or click here to subscribe to the magazine and have it sent straight to your door every month. | 1,300 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This Day in History… July 31, 1803
John (Johan) Ericsson was born on July 31, 1803, in Värmland, Sweden.
From a young age, Ericsson and his brother Nils showed an aptitude for canal building. Their talent was discovered by the architect of the Gota Canal, who hired them as cadets of mechanics in the Royal Navy.
By the time he was 14, Ericsson was working as an independent surveyor. Three years later he joined the Swedish Army. He reached the rank of lieutenant and continued to work as a surveyor. When he wasn’t working, Ericsson built a heat engine that used the heat from a fire instead of steam to function. Ericsson soon realized he wanted to dedicate his time to building things and resigned from the army. He went to England in 1826 but his heat engine didn’t gain the support he had hoped.
Undeterred by this setback, Ericsson put more time into inventing. He developed improvements to steam engines, including improving the heating process to provide more oxygen. In 1829, he worked with John Braithwaite to build the Novelty steam locomotive for a trial run of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The Novelty was well received, but it didn’t win the competition. Ericsson and Braithwaite designed two more steam locomotives, but neither was purchased.
While some of Ericsson’s inventions around this time failed, some proved successful. He invented a surface condenser that enabled steamers to recover freshwater for its boilers while in the ocean. He also created a pressure-activated fathomer. However, these were considered minor successes and Ericsson spent some time in debtors’ prison.
Ericsson then turned to ship design. While the British Navy rejected his new propeller design, that led him to meet American Captain Robert Stockton. He encouraged Ericsson to come to America, where it would be better received. So Ericsson moved to New York in 1839 and was eventually charged with building a 700-ton sloop that became the USS Princeton. It took three years to build and was one of the most advanced warships of the day, winning a speed record in 1843. However, over time Stockton had worked to gain more credit for the ship than he deserved, going so far as to design a new gun. But Stockton’s gun was faulty and killed two American politicians during a firing demonstration. Stockton blamed the issue on Ericsson, preventing him from getting paid.
Ericsson soon began working with Cornelius H. DeLamater, who owned an Iron Works. Ericsson was free to experiment all he wanted there. He built his first iron steamboat and his first hot-air invention while there. In the 1830s Ericsson invested a good deal of time in hot-air engines. While his first few failed, he eventually found success in his caloric boilerless engines.
After the Civil War began, the Confederacy converted the USS Merrimack into an ironclad ship, leading the Union to call for one of their own. Though Ericsson resented the navy for his previous treatment, he was encouraged to submit a design and presented the USS Monitor. His design was unusual, inspired by Swedish lumber rafts, but it was accepted, built, and launched within about 100 days. Just days after it was launched in March 1862, it battled the CSS Virginia (the former USS Merrimack) at the Battle of Hampton Roads. While the battle ended in a stalemate with neither ship able to sink the other, Ericsson’s design was considered a success and several more monitors were ordered. Several features of the Monitor would be included in future warships around the world, particularly the rotating turret, which is still seen on warships today.
Ericsson went on to design other naval ships and weapons, including a torpedo boat and “sun engines” that used solar energy for hot air engines. He died on March 8, 1889, the anniversary of the Battle of Hampton Roads. In accordance with his wishes, Ericsson’s remains were returned to Sweden. He was sent on a naval escort with 100,000 bystanders watching as the ship departed.
Click here to see what else happened on This Day in History. | <urn:uuid:6e758f1c-68fc-4c0c-9644-923a4fb6cac8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mysticstamp.com/info/happy-birthday-to-a-swedish-born-inventor-who-designed-the-uss-monitor/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00199.warc.gz | en | 0.987428 | 888 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.134577885270118... | 1 | This Day in History… July 31, 1803
John (Johan) Ericsson was born on July 31, 1803, in Värmland, Sweden.
From a young age, Ericsson and his brother Nils showed an aptitude for canal building. Their talent was discovered by the architect of the Gota Canal, who hired them as cadets of mechanics in the Royal Navy.
By the time he was 14, Ericsson was working as an independent surveyor. Three years later he joined the Swedish Army. He reached the rank of lieutenant and continued to work as a surveyor. When he wasn’t working, Ericsson built a heat engine that used the heat from a fire instead of steam to function. Ericsson soon realized he wanted to dedicate his time to building things and resigned from the army. He went to England in 1826 but his heat engine didn’t gain the support he had hoped.
Undeterred by this setback, Ericsson put more time into inventing. He developed improvements to steam engines, including improving the heating process to provide more oxygen. In 1829, he worked with John Braithwaite to build the Novelty steam locomotive for a trial run of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The Novelty was well received, but it didn’t win the competition. Ericsson and Braithwaite designed two more steam locomotives, but neither was purchased.
While some of Ericsson’s inventions around this time failed, some proved successful. He invented a surface condenser that enabled steamers to recover freshwater for its boilers while in the ocean. He also created a pressure-activated fathomer. However, these were considered minor successes and Ericsson spent some time in debtors’ prison.
Ericsson then turned to ship design. While the British Navy rejected his new propeller design, that led him to meet American Captain Robert Stockton. He encouraged Ericsson to come to America, where it would be better received. So Ericsson moved to New York in 1839 and was eventually charged with building a 700-ton sloop that became the USS Princeton. It took three years to build and was one of the most advanced warships of the day, winning a speed record in 1843. However, over time Stockton had worked to gain more credit for the ship than he deserved, going so far as to design a new gun. But Stockton’s gun was faulty and killed two American politicians during a firing demonstration. Stockton blamed the issue on Ericsson, preventing him from getting paid.
Ericsson soon began working with Cornelius H. DeLamater, who owned an Iron Works. Ericsson was free to experiment all he wanted there. He built his first iron steamboat and his first hot-air invention while there. In the 1830s Ericsson invested a good deal of time in hot-air engines. While his first few failed, he eventually found success in his caloric boilerless engines.
After the Civil War began, the Confederacy converted the USS Merrimack into an ironclad ship, leading the Union to call for one of their own. Though Ericsson resented the navy for his previous treatment, he was encouraged to submit a design and presented the USS Monitor. His design was unusual, inspired by Swedish lumber rafts, but it was accepted, built, and launched within about 100 days. Just days after it was launched in March 1862, it battled the CSS Virginia (the former USS Merrimack) at the Battle of Hampton Roads. While the battle ended in a stalemate with neither ship able to sink the other, Ericsson’s design was considered a success and several more monitors were ordered. Several features of the Monitor would be included in future warships around the world, particularly the rotating turret, which is still seen on warships today.
Ericsson went on to design other naval ships and weapons, including a torpedo boat and “sun engines” that used solar energy for hot air engines. He died on March 8, 1889, the anniversary of the Battle of Hampton Roads. In accordance with his wishes, Ericsson’s remains were returned to Sweden. He was sent on a naval escort with 100,000 bystanders watching as the ship departed.
Click here to see what else happened on This Day in History. | 913 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lubin was mentioned in historical sources in 1267 as a market settlement belonging to the Trzebnica monastery. Town rights was granted to it at the end of the 13th or early 14th century. At that time, the town developed quickly, especially during the reign of Louis I, the Duke of Legnica and Brzeg. In the initial period, immediately after the town was founded, it was only defended by an earth rampart and a palisade, because in the document of John of Ścinawa from 1319 the town ramparts were strengthened by the burghers. Bricked city walls were built in the years 1348 – 1358, i.e. during the period of increased construction activity falling under the rule of Duke Louis I.
In the 15th and 16th centuries, when the use of firearms in siege operations became widespread, there was a need to modernize and expand existing fortifications. At that time, both the walls and towers were raised, and also equipped with loop holes for the use of small arms. Lubin became one of the better fortified cities in Silesia and largely thanks to this he successfully resisted the Hussite invasion twice in 1428 and 1431.
In the 1750s, the removing of damages of the city fortifications that they suffered during the Thirty Years’ War began. They were quite large since only four towers could have defensive functions. During this period, the wooden bridge leading to the castle was replaced by a new stone one.
In the eighteenth century the city walls lost their military significance, which was why they were covered by the owners of plots next to the fortifications. Interestingly, however, when at the end of the 1850s the authorities wanted to demolish the fortifications to facilitate communication, this project met with considerable opposition from the townspeople. Ultimately, demolitions were carried out on a smaller scale. In 1821, the city gates were demolished, only in the tower at the Głogów Gate a museum was established, and a green belt was established on the outside of the fortifications.
The walls surrounded the town on a plan similar to an elongated quadrangle with a gentle arch on the north-west side. In the east, they approached the castle protruding beyond the defensive perimeter, but they did not connect directly to it, because the castle was separated by a ditch with a bridge over it and the wall of the stronghold itself. The whole town was protected by a moat and an earth rampart, doubled in the second half of the 15th century.
The height of the defensive walls was from 5 to 6 meters, and the thickness from 1.4-1.5 meters in the upper part to over 2 meters in the ground part. The ground part was made of erratic stones laid in equal layers, while the upper parts were made of gothic bricks. Originally, the culmination of the walls was a battlement and a wooden porch intended for defenders from the town side. In the fifteenth century, the walls were raised and equipped with loop holes. The old battlements were walled up then, and new ones were created above.
The defensive functions of the walls were strengthened by 15 closed and open from the inside, rectangular towers, spaced every 40-50 meters (within the effective range of the crossbow shot). Their even spacing was disturbed only on the eastern section, between the Legnica Gate and the south-eastern corner of the town, where the distances between the towers were smaller: about 25 meters. Also on the north side there was an irregular spacing, where between the castle and the Ścinawska Gate there was only one tower. The length of the towers was 8 meters, they were protruding in front of the wall face 1.5-2 meters and higher than the crown of the wall by at least 2 meters. Just like in the wall, a wall-walk ran through them, to which, due to differences in height, stairs or separate entrances inside the tower had to lead. Their extension beyond the perimeter allowed fire not only straight ahead, but also parallel to the wall line. From the town side, half-towers were devoid of walls (or they were of a lighter, half-timbered structure) to make it difficult to defend the enemy in the event of a capture, and also for reasons of lower construction costs.
Not all towers were identical. In the south-west corner there was a bit different: brick, full, on a stone pedestal measuring 7.4 x 4.3 meters. In the 15th century it was raised by an upper floor with a decorative brick cornice. It was deprived of battlement whose role was taken over by loop holes. It can be assumed that similar towers were located in other corners of the town, except for the castle corner. In appearance, also the tower on the north side differed from the others, the first west of the Ścianawska Gate. It was taller than the others and covered with a hip roof. It is possible that it was built in the 15th century to strengthen the gate and increase the observation and guard role.
Three gates guarded the entrances to the town: Głogów Gate, Ścinawska Gate and Legnica Gate, also called Wrocławska. The most fortified was the Głogów Gate, consisting of a massive four-sided gate tower, a gatehouse attached to it from the north, and a foregate extended towards the earth rampart. The gatehouse had a vaulted passage about 6 meters high for horse riders and a smaller pedestrian gate. It was closed by a drawbridge over a moat, before which there were two more ditches with wooden bridges. The gate tower was erected on a square plan with a side length of 7.4 meters, a height of 18-20 meters (initially it was lower, about 10 meters).
Other gates had no gate towers, only foregates and double moats. The longest foregate preceded the Ścinawska Gate, creating a brick neck 25 meters long. At the end of the fourteenth century, a pedestrian gate was pierced in the southern part of the walls, which led from the church square to the cemetery moved outside the walls. It was also secured with a small foregate or gatehouse protruding from the face of the walls. An additional defensive reinforcement of the gate was a square tower next to it, raised at the end of the 15th century and transformed into a tall belfry, with which it was connected by a suspended, brick porch with a parish church.
Up to now, the defensive walls have been preserved on a significant section of the perimeter of the old town, including two towers in the southern section and 4 towers in the northern section of the wall. In addition, you can admire the Głogów Tower from the mid-fourteenth century and the tower at the parish church, built in the end of the fifteenth century and transformed into a belfry.
Pilch J., Leksykon zabytków architektury Dolnego Śląska, Warszawa 2005.
Przyłęcki M., Mury obronne miast Dolnego Śląska, Wrocław 1970.
Steinborn B., Lubin, Warszawa 1969. | <urn:uuid:7dc5646f-ed5f-474b-ad6a-f75f4137ef17> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://medievalheritage.eu/en/main-page/heritage/poland/lubin-city-defensive-walls/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00341.warc.gz | en | 0.983598 | 1,534 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.2224686890... | 10 | Lubin was mentioned in historical sources in 1267 as a market settlement belonging to the Trzebnica monastery. Town rights was granted to it at the end of the 13th or early 14th century. At that time, the town developed quickly, especially during the reign of Louis I, the Duke of Legnica and Brzeg. In the initial period, immediately after the town was founded, it was only defended by an earth rampart and a palisade, because in the document of John of Ścinawa from 1319 the town ramparts were strengthened by the burghers. Bricked city walls were built in the years 1348 – 1358, i.e. during the period of increased construction activity falling under the rule of Duke Louis I.
In the 15th and 16th centuries, when the use of firearms in siege operations became widespread, there was a need to modernize and expand existing fortifications. At that time, both the walls and towers were raised, and also equipped with loop holes for the use of small arms. Lubin became one of the better fortified cities in Silesia and largely thanks to this he successfully resisted the Hussite invasion twice in 1428 and 1431.
In the 1750s, the removing of damages of the city fortifications that they suffered during the Thirty Years’ War began. They were quite large since only four towers could have defensive functions. During this period, the wooden bridge leading to the castle was replaced by a new stone one.
In the eighteenth century the city walls lost their military significance, which was why they were covered by the owners of plots next to the fortifications. Interestingly, however, when at the end of the 1850s the authorities wanted to demolish the fortifications to facilitate communication, this project met with considerable opposition from the townspeople. Ultimately, demolitions were carried out on a smaller scale. In 1821, the city gates were demolished, only in the tower at the Głogów Gate a museum was established, and a green belt was established on the outside of the fortifications.
The walls surrounded the town on a plan similar to an elongated quadrangle with a gentle arch on the north-west side. In the east, they approached the castle protruding beyond the defensive perimeter, but they did not connect directly to it, because the castle was separated by a ditch with a bridge over it and the wall of the stronghold itself. The whole town was protected by a moat and an earth rampart, doubled in the second half of the 15th century.
The height of the defensive walls was from 5 to 6 meters, and the thickness from 1.4-1.5 meters in the upper part to over 2 meters in the ground part. The ground part was made of erratic stones laid in equal layers, while the upper parts were made of gothic bricks. Originally, the culmination of the walls was a battlement and a wooden porch intended for defenders from the town side. In the fifteenth century, the walls were raised and equipped with loop holes. The old battlements were walled up then, and new ones were created above.
The defensive functions of the walls were strengthened by 15 closed and open from the inside, rectangular towers, spaced every 40-50 meters (within the effective range of the crossbow shot). Their even spacing was disturbed only on the eastern section, between the Legnica Gate and the south-eastern corner of the town, where the distances between the towers were smaller: about 25 meters. Also on the north side there was an irregular spacing, where between the castle and the Ścinawska Gate there was only one tower. The length of the towers was 8 meters, they were protruding in front of the wall face 1.5-2 meters and higher than the crown of the wall by at least 2 meters. Just like in the wall, a wall-walk ran through them, to which, due to differences in height, stairs or separate entrances inside the tower had to lead. Their extension beyond the perimeter allowed fire not only straight ahead, but also parallel to the wall line. From the town side, half-towers were devoid of walls (or they were of a lighter, half-timbered structure) to make it difficult to defend the enemy in the event of a capture, and also for reasons of lower construction costs.
Not all towers were identical. In the south-west corner there was a bit different: brick, full, on a stone pedestal measuring 7.4 x 4.3 meters. In the 15th century it was raised by an upper floor with a decorative brick cornice. It was deprived of battlement whose role was taken over by loop holes. It can be assumed that similar towers were located in other corners of the town, except for the castle corner. In appearance, also the tower on the north side differed from the others, the first west of the Ścianawska Gate. It was taller than the others and covered with a hip roof. It is possible that it was built in the 15th century to strengthen the gate and increase the observation and guard role.
Three gates guarded the entrances to the town: Głogów Gate, Ścinawska Gate and Legnica Gate, also called Wrocławska. The most fortified was the Głogów Gate, consisting of a massive four-sided gate tower, a gatehouse attached to it from the north, and a foregate extended towards the earth rampart. The gatehouse had a vaulted passage about 6 meters high for horse riders and a smaller pedestrian gate. It was closed by a drawbridge over a moat, before which there were two more ditches with wooden bridges. The gate tower was erected on a square plan with a side length of 7.4 meters, a height of 18-20 meters (initially it was lower, about 10 meters).
Other gates had no gate towers, only foregates and double moats. The longest foregate preceded the Ścinawska Gate, creating a brick neck 25 meters long. At the end of the fourteenth century, a pedestrian gate was pierced in the southern part of the walls, which led from the church square to the cemetery moved outside the walls. It was also secured with a small foregate or gatehouse protruding from the face of the walls. An additional defensive reinforcement of the gate was a square tower next to it, raised at the end of the 15th century and transformed into a tall belfry, with which it was connected by a suspended, brick porch with a parish church.
Up to now, the defensive walls have been preserved on a significant section of the perimeter of the old town, including two towers in the southern section and 4 towers in the northern section of the wall. In addition, you can admire the Głogów Tower from the mid-fourteenth century and the tower at the parish church, built in the end of the fifteenth century and transformed into a belfry.
Pilch J., Leksykon zabytków architektury Dolnego Śląska, Warszawa 2005.
Przyłęcki M., Mury obronne miast Dolnego Śląska, Wrocław 1970.
Steinborn B., Lubin, Warszawa 1969. | 1,567 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Death march. A term many associate with the end of the Holocaust. Less well known is that the first death march took place years earlier in December 1939, three months after the Nazis had invaded Poland.On December 1, 1939, the Jews of Chelm were marched 53 km. to Hrubieszów, a town that today sits close to the Ukrainian border. This week, a hundred descendants of those who survived the ordeal traced their ancestors’ footsteps.The trip, which took place from November 29 to December 3, was organized by the Chelm Veterans Organization. According to the group’s chairman Benzie Levkovich, the commemoration was organized because this part of Holocaust history has “simply ‘disappeared’ between history pages.”In an interview with The Jerusalem Post last week, Levkovich explained that, “there are studies and information about the death marches at the end of the war in 1945, but very few know that only three months after the war broke out” – on September 10, 1939 – the first death march took place.“About 4,500 Jewish men were gathered, and within three to four days, most were killed,” he said, either by the Nazis or the conditions.“We took the same route as those who were murdered,” Levkovich said. “They were people in regular clothes who were wearing ordinary civilian shoes, and had to walk fast and even run in a muddy road where the depth of the mud sometimes reached 20 to 30 cm... it was impossible to move through it; to continue walking through it they had to remove their shoes, which meant they would have to walk the rest of the way with socks or barefoot.“Those who couldn’t keep up were beaten and shot,” he said.When the Nazis would rest, they would split the group into smaller groups 150 or 250 and warned that if anyone tried to flee, they would be shot. Once they arrived in Hrubieszów, the Jews of Chelm were hidden in a barn so they could not alert the local Jews that they were about to share a similar fate.Levkovich explained that they were all marched to a nearby river on what was then the Russian border and told to run to the Russian soldiers on the other side shouting “long live Stalin.”They were refused entry by the Russians; three days later, they were transferred back to German-occupied Poland where they were shot.Some tried to escape back to the Russian side by crossing into the freezing river. Of the 4,500 Jews who were initially sent on the death march, only a few hundred survived.At one of the mass graves on the route where the memorial march stopped, “we said kaddish and said the six words [of the Shema] together. The last thing they said before they were killed, was ‘Hear, O Israel: the Lord is our God, the Lord is One.’”For Harry Sharon, who recently found out that his father Noah Szumacher survived the march, taking part in the trip was “very personal.”Sharon told the Post that he was born in Melbourne, and both his parents were Holocaust survivors.“My dad died in 1957, and I didn’t know much. I didn’t know he was on the death march or that he had had a wife and two children,” he said. “I wanted to find out for myself… I thought he may have been on this death march.” This was confirmed a few weeks ago, “when I went to the National Library in Jerusalem and found that he had written about what happened to him for The Forward, which was then a Yiddish newspaper.“He wrote a letter some time between 1942 and 1943 describing it,” Sharon said, adding that today he is still looking to find the actual letter.“What I can’t comprehend is that if they wanted to kill the Jews, why did they make them march? It was sadistic,” Sharon added.He said that the group, who mainly traveled by bus, also visited Sobibor where “I questioned if my family was killed there, or if they were killed in the [Chelm] Ghetto.“At the Chelm cemetery, we had an emotional ceremony where we said kaddish, and I found the original tombstone of my great-grandmother,” he continued. “I also found the address of my grandparents and where my father stayed just before the war.”What hit Sharon hard was the total absence of Jews in these places today.“Almost half the population in Chelm and Hrubieszów [before the war] were Jewish, and now there’s no one,” he added.Asked how we can encourage the younger generation to remember and commemorate the events of the Holocaust, Levkovich said education is key.“Proper education should be implemented in both Israel and the Diaspora, and among the younger generation,” he said. “We think it is appropriate to introduce the first death march into textbooks in Israel, and that the events on Holocaust [Remembrance] Day must mention the atrocities, such as the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, the concentration camps and the decision of the Wannsee Conference [which] led to the mass murder of Jews.”He said that they are also hoping to find at least 10,000 of the 15,000 Jews of Chelm who perished in the Holocaust.“So far we have found 3,000 names, and I want to do this project as a joint activity between school students in Chelm and in Israel,” he added.Levkovich stressed that he hopes “Eli Wiesel’s words ‘never again’ will be a major signpost” for future generations. | <urn:uuid:168b4574-3632-4f93-acda-22e2e503288a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/Descendants-of-first-death-march-in-Chelm-retrace-families-footsteps-609999 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00360.warc.gz | en | 0.990109 | 1,234 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.47593501210212... | 1 | Death march. A term many associate with the end of the Holocaust. Less well known is that the first death march took place years earlier in December 1939, three months after the Nazis had invaded Poland.On December 1, 1939, the Jews of Chelm were marched 53 km. to Hrubieszów, a town that today sits close to the Ukrainian border. This week, a hundred descendants of those who survived the ordeal traced their ancestors’ footsteps.The trip, which took place from November 29 to December 3, was organized by the Chelm Veterans Organization. According to the group’s chairman Benzie Levkovich, the commemoration was organized because this part of Holocaust history has “simply ‘disappeared’ between history pages.”In an interview with The Jerusalem Post last week, Levkovich explained that, “there are studies and information about the death marches at the end of the war in 1945, but very few know that only three months after the war broke out” – on September 10, 1939 – the first death march took place.“About 4,500 Jewish men were gathered, and within three to four days, most were killed,” he said, either by the Nazis or the conditions.“We took the same route as those who were murdered,” Levkovich said. “They were people in regular clothes who were wearing ordinary civilian shoes, and had to walk fast and even run in a muddy road where the depth of the mud sometimes reached 20 to 30 cm... it was impossible to move through it; to continue walking through it they had to remove their shoes, which meant they would have to walk the rest of the way with socks or barefoot.“Those who couldn’t keep up were beaten and shot,” he said.When the Nazis would rest, they would split the group into smaller groups 150 or 250 and warned that if anyone tried to flee, they would be shot. Once they arrived in Hrubieszów, the Jews of Chelm were hidden in a barn so they could not alert the local Jews that they were about to share a similar fate.Levkovich explained that they were all marched to a nearby river on what was then the Russian border and told to run to the Russian soldiers on the other side shouting “long live Stalin.”They were refused entry by the Russians; three days later, they were transferred back to German-occupied Poland where they were shot.Some tried to escape back to the Russian side by crossing into the freezing river. Of the 4,500 Jews who were initially sent on the death march, only a few hundred survived.At one of the mass graves on the route where the memorial march stopped, “we said kaddish and said the six words [of the Shema] together. The last thing they said before they were killed, was ‘Hear, O Israel: the Lord is our God, the Lord is One.’”For Harry Sharon, who recently found out that his father Noah Szumacher survived the march, taking part in the trip was “very personal.”Sharon told the Post that he was born in Melbourne, and both his parents were Holocaust survivors.“My dad died in 1957, and I didn’t know much. I didn’t know he was on the death march or that he had had a wife and two children,” he said. “I wanted to find out for myself… I thought he may have been on this death march.” This was confirmed a few weeks ago, “when I went to the National Library in Jerusalem and found that he had written about what happened to him for The Forward, which was then a Yiddish newspaper.“He wrote a letter some time between 1942 and 1943 describing it,” Sharon said, adding that today he is still looking to find the actual letter.“What I can’t comprehend is that if they wanted to kill the Jews, why did they make them march? It was sadistic,” Sharon added.He said that the group, who mainly traveled by bus, also visited Sobibor where “I questioned if my family was killed there, or if they were killed in the [Chelm] Ghetto.“At the Chelm cemetery, we had an emotional ceremony where we said kaddish, and I found the original tombstone of my great-grandmother,” he continued. “I also found the address of my grandparents and where my father stayed just before the war.”What hit Sharon hard was the total absence of Jews in these places today.“Almost half the population in Chelm and Hrubieszów [before the war] were Jewish, and now there’s no one,” he added.Asked how we can encourage the younger generation to remember and commemorate the events of the Holocaust, Levkovich said education is key.“Proper education should be implemented in both Israel and the Diaspora, and among the younger generation,” he said. “We think it is appropriate to introduce the first death march into textbooks in Israel, and that the events on Holocaust [Remembrance] Day must mention the atrocities, such as the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, the concentration camps and the decision of the Wannsee Conference [which] led to the mass murder of Jews.”He said that they are also hoping to find at least 10,000 of the 15,000 Jews of Chelm who perished in the Holocaust.“So far we have found 3,000 names, and I want to do this project as a joint activity between school students in Chelm and in Israel,” he added.Levkovich stressed that he hopes “Eli Wiesel’s words ‘never again’ will be a major signpost” for future generations. | 1,194 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Before his compositions were rediscovered, JS Bach was not known as a composer (as CPE Bach was) but as one of the foremost improvisers and performers of his time.
What is known about JS Bach's improvisational technique?
At that time, improvisation was a common practice. Actually, when keyboard instruments started to be used, its music was not even written. Everything was improvised. Keyboard music started as accompaniment for choirs, etc. Therefore, the keyboard performer would often rely on a voice score or whatever and improvise a second voice or whatever from that. When they started to notate music for keyboard, they didn't have a proper way to do it.
This feels like ancient ages to us, but for Bach it was not that far away. Bach and his contemporaries come from that tradition. Bach was probably able to improvise the kind of music that he wrote, since composition and performance was not detached as it is today. Bach would probably be able to improvise a little invention on the clavichord, or a complete fugue on the organ, or a continuo accompaniment for a soloist, a Choral preludium from a Choral, also transpose an accompaniment for a singer... He would probably improvise pretty much the same kind of stuff that he wrote on paper, only that, perhaps, without the formal strictness and complexity of the written works. In fact, many works or parts of works written by Bach may come from improvisations that he later wrote down and elaborated.
As a latecomer to this discussion I would like to share some of my own experience and discoveries on my journey as an organ improviser. If composing can be compared to the authoring of a piece of literature such as a novel or poem, improvising is more akin to conversation or an off-the-cuff speech. The first principle is to acquire the musical language -in this case - of J.S.Bach in the same way that he studied the musical language of Vivaldi, Buxtehude and others. Bach's Preludes and Toccatas provide excellent examples of figuration that you can try over simple chord progressions of, say up to eight bars long. It also helps to be able to do this in all major and minor keys. Try clothing a hymn or chorale in the same way with a toccata figure. This is only for starters. Don't forget that Bach is now seen as one of the greatest of Baroque musicians. If your efforts are even vaguely recognisable as being derived from Bach's style your are doing well. Good luck! - Wilmarc
We may not know from recordings how JS Bach improvised but we can make some guesses. Bach played the organ in churches and so we might rightfully guess that the current practice of European church organists had its origin in the corpus of practice of Bach's time. I've answered this possible practice here:
Does improvisation in the classical idiom differ significantly from jazz and folk improvisation? | <urn:uuid:58c299d6-8bfd-4422-836a-af3bda5857d9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://music.stackexchange.com/questions/22729/how-did-js-bach-improvise/53258 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00041.warc.gz | en | 0.982655 | 624 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.0567559115588... | 1 | Before his compositions were rediscovered, JS Bach was not known as a composer (as CPE Bach was) but as one of the foremost improvisers and performers of his time.
What is known about JS Bach's improvisational technique?
At that time, improvisation was a common practice. Actually, when keyboard instruments started to be used, its music was not even written. Everything was improvised. Keyboard music started as accompaniment for choirs, etc. Therefore, the keyboard performer would often rely on a voice score or whatever and improvise a second voice or whatever from that. When they started to notate music for keyboard, they didn't have a proper way to do it.
This feels like ancient ages to us, but for Bach it was not that far away. Bach and his contemporaries come from that tradition. Bach was probably able to improvise the kind of music that he wrote, since composition and performance was not detached as it is today. Bach would probably be able to improvise a little invention on the clavichord, or a complete fugue on the organ, or a continuo accompaniment for a soloist, a Choral preludium from a Choral, also transpose an accompaniment for a singer... He would probably improvise pretty much the same kind of stuff that he wrote on paper, only that, perhaps, without the formal strictness and complexity of the written works. In fact, many works or parts of works written by Bach may come from improvisations that he later wrote down and elaborated.
As a latecomer to this discussion I would like to share some of my own experience and discoveries on my journey as an organ improviser. If composing can be compared to the authoring of a piece of literature such as a novel or poem, improvising is more akin to conversation or an off-the-cuff speech. The first principle is to acquire the musical language -in this case - of J.S.Bach in the same way that he studied the musical language of Vivaldi, Buxtehude and others. Bach's Preludes and Toccatas provide excellent examples of figuration that you can try over simple chord progressions of, say up to eight bars long. It also helps to be able to do this in all major and minor keys. Try clothing a hymn or chorale in the same way with a toccata figure. This is only for starters. Don't forget that Bach is now seen as one of the greatest of Baroque musicians. If your efforts are even vaguely recognisable as being derived from Bach's style your are doing well. Good luck! - Wilmarc
We may not know from recordings how JS Bach improvised but we can make some guesses. Bach played the organ in churches and so we might rightfully guess that the current practice of European church organists had its origin in the corpus of practice of Bach's time. I've answered this possible practice here:
Does improvisation in the classical idiom differ significantly from jazz and folk improvisation? | 618 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History about the Indo-Aryans and the Vedic period
This article aims to explore the Vedic culture from the perspective of the SSC CGS/CHSL and banking examinations.
Indo-Aryan Sanskrit speakers entered north-western India from the Indo-Iranian region.
They were semi-nomadic agriculturists and hence their initial settlements were in the valleys of the north-west and Punjab which is referred to as Sapta Sindhava. After a while, they relocated to the Indo-Gangetic plains.
By the 6th century B.C, they occupied the entire of North India which was referred to as Aryavarta.
Period between 1500 B.C and 600 B.C is divided into:
- The early-Vedic period (Rigvedic period) – 1500 B.C to 1000 B.C.
- The later Vedic Period – 1000 B.C- 600 B.C.
The Vedic Culture is divided into 2 groups – Aryans and Dravidians
The Vedic Culture is also divided into 4 Varnas – Brahamana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra
Brahmans are the religious group which included scholars and well-educated people of that era and hence were the most respected. Kshatriya is the tribe that protected and fought for the welfare of the Kingdom. Vaishyas is the tribe that was responsible for agriculture, cattle rearing and other occupations. Shudra is the least respected tribe amongst them all that was involved in doing menial jobs.
The Vedic Literature comprises of 4 Vedas which are considered to be the backbone of the Hindu religion. They are:
- Rigveda: Also known as the book of Mantras, It is the first written Veda which consists of 1028 hymns. This further consists of:
- The Samhita – hymns to the deities
- The Brahamans– commentaries on the hymns
- The Aranyakas– forest books
- Upanishads– these contain the central concepts and ideas of Hinduism. They contain texts which deal with concepts such as the soul, the origin of the world, etc.
- Yajurveda: Also known as the book of rituals, it consists of rituals to be observed
- Samaveda: Also known as the book of Chanting, it consists of chants which need to be enunciated during a sacrifice. The roots of Indian Music are believed to be in the Samaveda.
- Atharvaveda: Also known as the book of spell, it contains the details of rituals or the rites of passage.
Read more: Marie Curie, the woman who made history!
Besides these Vedas, there are epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata:
- Ramayana: written by Rishi Valmiki, It consists of 24000 verses and is estimated to be written around 7th century BC.
- Mahabharata: written by Vedvyasa, it is estimated to have been written between the 8th and 9th centuries BC and is considered to be the 5th Veda. It is the longest written epic poem consisting of 200,000 individual verse-lines.
The basic unit of the society in the early Vedic period was the family that was also known as a Kula. It followed a patriarchal structure and the head of the family was known as the Kulapa. Only sons had the right to inherit their father’s property.
A group of Kula’s was called a Grama and the leader of a Grama was called a Gramani.
The highest political unit in the Rigved era was called Jana or tribe. There were several tribal kingdoms during the rigvedic period such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus, and Purus.
The head of a kingdom was called Rajan who was assisted by a Purohita(priest) and a Senani(commander).
The people were largely mobilized in 2 bodies – The Sabha (council of elders) and the Samiti (a general assembly of the entire people).
Women were given equal opportunities as men for their development in the Rigved era.
Wheat, barley and milk and its products constituted the diet of the people in this era.
Practices of child marriage and sati were not present.
Cattle rearing was the main occupation of people in this era.
Trade was a major economic activity and was conducted through the barter system.
There were no temples and no idol worship during the early Vedic period.
Most important gods to be worshiped during the Rigved era were Indra (thunder) and Agni (fire). Other gods were Prithvi (Earth), Vayu (wind) and Varuna (rain).
Lord Varuna is supposed to be the upholder of natural order.
Read more: How does the Supreme Court of India Work?
Later Vedic period
The later Vedic period was when the social system became more rigid.
Varna system became prominent during this time and birth of a girl was considered to be a bad omen.
Women weren’t allowed access to education and child marriage had become prevalent during this time.
Women were not allowed to participate in assemblies and were considered subordinate in our society.
The social division of people into Brahmans, kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras became extremely rigid and occupations became hereditary.
For more such informative articles stay tuned to OWN Guru. | <urn:uuid:a2f1350d-9097-43e5-b0b3-3d64817ec16f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.ownguru.com/blog/vedic-culture/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00127.warc.gz | en | 0.983601 | 1,175 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.18802300095... | 4 | History about the Indo-Aryans and the Vedic period
This article aims to explore the Vedic culture from the perspective of the SSC CGS/CHSL and banking examinations.
Indo-Aryan Sanskrit speakers entered north-western India from the Indo-Iranian region.
They were semi-nomadic agriculturists and hence their initial settlements were in the valleys of the north-west and Punjab which is referred to as Sapta Sindhava. After a while, they relocated to the Indo-Gangetic plains.
By the 6th century B.C, they occupied the entire of North India which was referred to as Aryavarta.
Period between 1500 B.C and 600 B.C is divided into:
- The early-Vedic period (Rigvedic period) – 1500 B.C to 1000 B.C.
- The later Vedic Period – 1000 B.C- 600 B.C.
The Vedic Culture is divided into 2 groups – Aryans and Dravidians
The Vedic Culture is also divided into 4 Varnas – Brahamana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra
Brahmans are the religious group which included scholars and well-educated people of that era and hence were the most respected. Kshatriya is the tribe that protected and fought for the welfare of the Kingdom. Vaishyas is the tribe that was responsible for agriculture, cattle rearing and other occupations. Shudra is the least respected tribe amongst them all that was involved in doing menial jobs.
The Vedic Literature comprises of 4 Vedas which are considered to be the backbone of the Hindu religion. They are:
- Rigveda: Also known as the book of Mantras, It is the first written Veda which consists of 1028 hymns. This further consists of:
- The Samhita – hymns to the deities
- The Brahamans– commentaries on the hymns
- The Aranyakas– forest books
- Upanishads– these contain the central concepts and ideas of Hinduism. They contain texts which deal with concepts such as the soul, the origin of the world, etc.
- Yajurveda: Also known as the book of rituals, it consists of rituals to be observed
- Samaveda: Also known as the book of Chanting, it consists of chants which need to be enunciated during a sacrifice. The roots of Indian Music are believed to be in the Samaveda.
- Atharvaveda: Also known as the book of spell, it contains the details of rituals or the rites of passage.
Read more: Marie Curie, the woman who made history!
Besides these Vedas, there are epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata:
- Ramayana: written by Rishi Valmiki, It consists of 24000 verses and is estimated to be written around 7th century BC.
- Mahabharata: written by Vedvyasa, it is estimated to have been written between the 8th and 9th centuries BC and is considered to be the 5th Veda. It is the longest written epic poem consisting of 200,000 individual verse-lines.
The basic unit of the society in the early Vedic period was the family that was also known as a Kula. It followed a patriarchal structure and the head of the family was known as the Kulapa. Only sons had the right to inherit their father’s property.
A group of Kula’s was called a Grama and the leader of a Grama was called a Gramani.
The highest political unit in the Rigved era was called Jana or tribe. There were several tribal kingdoms during the rigvedic period such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus, and Purus.
The head of a kingdom was called Rajan who was assisted by a Purohita(priest) and a Senani(commander).
The people were largely mobilized in 2 bodies – The Sabha (council of elders) and the Samiti (a general assembly of the entire people).
Women were given equal opportunities as men for their development in the Rigved era.
Wheat, barley and milk and its products constituted the diet of the people in this era.
Practices of child marriage and sati were not present.
Cattle rearing was the main occupation of people in this era.
Trade was a major economic activity and was conducted through the barter system.
There were no temples and no idol worship during the early Vedic period.
Most important gods to be worshiped during the Rigved era were Indra (thunder) and Agni (fire). Other gods were Prithvi (Earth), Vayu (wind) and Varuna (rain).
Lord Varuna is supposed to be the upholder of natural order.
Read more: How does the Supreme Court of India Work?
Later Vedic period
The later Vedic period was when the social system became more rigid.
Varna system became prominent during this time and birth of a girl was considered to be a bad omen.
Women weren’t allowed access to education and child marriage had become prevalent during this time.
Women were not allowed to participate in assemblies and were considered subordinate in our society.
The social division of people into Brahmans, kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras became extremely rigid and occupations became hereditary.
For more such informative articles stay tuned to OWN Guru. | 1,155 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the great disasters of history is the sinking of the Titanic. The amazing thing about the history of the Titanic is the fact that this ship was built to be invincible.
The Titanic was by far the largest ship ever built, with a length of 900 feet. The ship was intended to transport a large number of people on it across the Atlantic Ocean. A horrible accident led to the sinking of the Titanic in 1912 while on its maiden voyage across the Atlantic. Since it sank, there has been a lot of controversy about what really caused it to sink.
Ethics and AI
Upon entering ethics, we have to talk about whether this ship was really a good idea to build it and what were all the failures that added to the sinking and death of so many passengers.
For this reason we have developed this project to focus not only on who was to blame for this great historical disaster, but also place ourselves in the position of the passengers. In the Titanic a so-called microenvironment was generated where we meet people, with different situations of social class, gender, age and family situation. It is here that Artificial Intelligence can help us to really find out how much it conditioned you to survive these variables.
A fantastic situation to study with our students and thanks to Artificial Intelligence give us the possibility of being able to get a ticket for the Titanic today. Seeing with an 80% effectiveness model whether or not we would have survived based on our current factors.
Real data of the Sinking.
Data studied and analyzed with students of 2º of Baccalaureate.
- 700 survivors among 2235 passengers.
It can be clearly seen that the third class implies a very high rate of not surviving in the Titanic.
Logically the study of sex in the passengers of the Titanic together with that of the age is fundamental for the creation of the model.
The Titanic had three stops before leaving for New York. Southamptom, Cheriburg and Queenstown. Thanks to the study we have done with my high school students we realized that the place of embarkation was also a variable to take into account for the prediction model.
After the analyzes collected from the public database in which 1300 registered passengers are located, we were able to ascertain that the variables that could give us the highest prediction index were the result.
Age, sex, ticket class, boarding place and if our passenger was traveling alone or accompanied.
Here I share the code and the database of the passengers in case you want to use it. link
Ethical data of the Sinking.
Captain Smith ignored seven warnings from his crew and other icebergs on the route they traced. If he had asked for the ship to slow down then at once the Titanic disaster would not have happened
The first idea was that the captain carelessly drove the ship at speeds too high while crossing the iceberg. Since the ship was supposedly indestructible, this was obviously a plausible reason.
The manager and director of the White Star Line was aboard the Titanic. The competition to cross the Atlantic was fierce between maritime companies and the White Star Line wanted to prove that they could cross the Atlantic in six days.
To comply with this schedule, the Titanic could not afford to reduce speed. For this reason it was believed that Ismay put pressure on Captain Smith to maintain the speed of the ship
The belief that the ship was unsinkable was due, in part, to the fact that the Titanic had sixteen watertight compartments. However, the compartments did not reach as high as they should have. The White Star Line did not want them to go up because this would have reduced the living space in first class. If Mr. Andrews, the ship's architect, had insisted on making them at the right height, then perhaps the Titanic would not have succumbed that night.
The construction of the Titanic
- 269,1 meters long, 28,2 meters maximum width and 18 meters high from the waterline to the deck of the ship.
- A gross weight of 46,000 tons.
- The steel plate of the Titanic hull had a nominal thickness of 1.875 cm.
Another theory emerged that the metal that was used to build the ship was too weak for ocean conditions. The last theory was that the screws that held together the steel slabs that formed the Titanic were too short, which caused the steel to tear more easily than it should.
- Most second and third class passengers approached the sinking ship when water entered their compartments. Unethical act?
- Should the crew have treated all passengers equally?
- The Titanic was receiving warnings from other 60 ships hours before the collision
- The ship was sailing at full speed (22 knots), on a moonless night. The design speed was 21 knots.
- There was space on deck for twice as many lifeboats. Concept supported by the decision of the “unsinkable ship” | <urn:uuid:b96cea22-bb14-426e-b448-7c1ac24ee795> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.europeanvalley.es/noticias/el-titanic-ia-y-una-de-clase-de-valores-eticos/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00478.warc.gz | en | 0.980647 | 1,004 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.10211551189422607... | 1 | One of the great disasters of history is the sinking of the Titanic. The amazing thing about the history of the Titanic is the fact that this ship was built to be invincible.
The Titanic was by far the largest ship ever built, with a length of 900 feet. The ship was intended to transport a large number of people on it across the Atlantic Ocean. A horrible accident led to the sinking of the Titanic in 1912 while on its maiden voyage across the Atlantic. Since it sank, there has been a lot of controversy about what really caused it to sink.
Ethics and AI
Upon entering ethics, we have to talk about whether this ship was really a good idea to build it and what were all the failures that added to the sinking and death of so many passengers.
For this reason we have developed this project to focus not only on who was to blame for this great historical disaster, but also place ourselves in the position of the passengers. In the Titanic a so-called microenvironment was generated where we meet people, with different situations of social class, gender, age and family situation. It is here that Artificial Intelligence can help us to really find out how much it conditioned you to survive these variables.
A fantastic situation to study with our students and thanks to Artificial Intelligence give us the possibility of being able to get a ticket for the Titanic today. Seeing with an 80% effectiveness model whether or not we would have survived based on our current factors.
Real data of the Sinking.
Data studied and analyzed with students of 2º of Baccalaureate.
- 700 survivors among 2235 passengers.
It can be clearly seen that the third class implies a very high rate of not surviving in the Titanic.
Logically the study of sex in the passengers of the Titanic together with that of the age is fundamental for the creation of the model.
The Titanic had three stops before leaving for New York. Southamptom, Cheriburg and Queenstown. Thanks to the study we have done with my high school students we realized that the place of embarkation was also a variable to take into account for the prediction model.
After the analyzes collected from the public database in which 1300 registered passengers are located, we were able to ascertain that the variables that could give us the highest prediction index were the result.
Age, sex, ticket class, boarding place and if our passenger was traveling alone or accompanied.
Here I share the code and the database of the passengers in case you want to use it. link
Ethical data of the Sinking.
Captain Smith ignored seven warnings from his crew and other icebergs on the route they traced. If he had asked for the ship to slow down then at once the Titanic disaster would not have happened
The first idea was that the captain carelessly drove the ship at speeds too high while crossing the iceberg. Since the ship was supposedly indestructible, this was obviously a plausible reason.
The manager and director of the White Star Line was aboard the Titanic. The competition to cross the Atlantic was fierce between maritime companies and the White Star Line wanted to prove that they could cross the Atlantic in six days.
To comply with this schedule, the Titanic could not afford to reduce speed. For this reason it was believed that Ismay put pressure on Captain Smith to maintain the speed of the ship
The belief that the ship was unsinkable was due, in part, to the fact that the Titanic had sixteen watertight compartments. However, the compartments did not reach as high as they should have. The White Star Line did not want them to go up because this would have reduced the living space in first class. If Mr. Andrews, the ship's architect, had insisted on making them at the right height, then perhaps the Titanic would not have succumbed that night.
The construction of the Titanic
- 269,1 meters long, 28,2 meters maximum width and 18 meters high from the waterline to the deck of the ship.
- A gross weight of 46,000 tons.
- The steel plate of the Titanic hull had a nominal thickness of 1.875 cm.
Another theory emerged that the metal that was used to build the ship was too weak for ocean conditions. The last theory was that the screws that held together the steel slabs that formed the Titanic were too short, which caused the steel to tear more easily than it should.
- Most second and third class passengers approached the sinking ship when water entered their compartments. Unethical act?
- Should the crew have treated all passengers equally?
- The Titanic was receiving warnings from other 60 ships hours before the collision
- The ship was sailing at full speed (22 knots), on a moonless night. The design speed was 21 knots.
- There was space on deck for twice as many lifeboats. Concept supported by the decision of the “unsinkable ship” | 1,014 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Rights of Slaves
During the enlightenment and the French Revolution, controversies arose over the issue of slavery. The trading of slaves was increasing. In 1783, under five thousand slaves were being transported and by 1792, the number was well above thirty thousand. Slaves were transported from Africa to small islands where they worked in fields producing sugar, cocoa, coffee and tobacco for France. After the Declaration of the Rights of Man, adopted by the French National Assembly, stated that “All men are born and remain free and equal in rights”, controversies developed over whether this applied to slaves. Those addressing the issue argue that slavery affects economic, social and political order.
Reasons were given to justify slavery. People defend slavery on the grounds that it had economic importance, not only for the colonies but for the French economy also. A delegate from Bordeaux argues that the wealth of France can be credited to the colonies and without the support of the slaves, the colonies will be lost and France’s economy would collapse. France needed the colonies and the colonies needed slaves, therefore, the argument was made that in order to keep the colonies, the slaves needed to be kept. A delegate of the owners of property in the French Colonies of America believes that the slaves benefited by living in the colonies. They were living under a more “humane” government and were working under more mild conditions.
Advocates against slavery, such as Rousseau, felt that the use of slaves was inhumane and that it was degrading to the human race. Jacques Necker, in his speech, opening the meeting of the estates general, said that he believed that slaves are being used as a barbaric object of trade. He mentioned that slaves were equal to the French in their thought and their ability to suffer. Olympia de Gourges reasoned that everyone is equal. By discriminating against slaves, he felt that it throws off a balance of nature. Louis de Jaucourt believed that all humans deserve to have dignity , and in order to achieve this every one needs liberty. Slavery was consitered undignified and therefore was against the laws of nature.
The slaves did not receive any political representation in the government. Count Mirabeau, in his speech for the National Assembly, demanded to know how twenty white people had the authority to represent slaves, when they were elected by white people. He didn’t believe that they should be excluded. Maximilien Robspierre feels that the declaration of the Rights of Man applies to the slaves. He was not willing to accept the planters threats to the Assembly to change the laws to their private interest. Even economic disaster was preferable to him. The rights of the slaves was more important.
Charles de Lameth appears to have a solution which often is used in difficult situations. In a speech in 1790, he suggested to form a committee to study the problem and come up with a plan. He was obviously stalling for time, hoping for a compromise. The Rights of man inevitably took president over economic issues. There is often a conflict between money and profit and the dignity and the liberty of men. France was struggling to find the right solution during the enlightenment and the French Revolution. The enlightenment and French Revolution ideas did not correspond to the economic realities in the colonies. | <urn:uuid:176d1cf6-b573-4dec-a378-6afd3113e18f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://essay.ua-referat.com/The_Rights_Of_Slaves_During_The_French | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00137.warc.gz | en | 0.982157 | 672 | 4.34375 | 4 | [
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During the enlightenment and the French Revolution, controversies arose over the issue of slavery. The trading of slaves was increasing. In 1783, under five thousand slaves were being transported and by 1792, the number was well above thirty thousand. Slaves were transported from Africa to small islands where they worked in fields producing sugar, cocoa, coffee and tobacco for France. After the Declaration of the Rights of Man, adopted by the French National Assembly, stated that “All men are born and remain free and equal in rights”, controversies developed over whether this applied to slaves. Those addressing the issue argue that slavery affects economic, social and political order.
Reasons were given to justify slavery. People defend slavery on the grounds that it had economic importance, not only for the colonies but for the French economy also. A delegate from Bordeaux argues that the wealth of France can be credited to the colonies and without the support of the slaves, the colonies will be lost and France’s economy would collapse. France needed the colonies and the colonies needed slaves, therefore, the argument was made that in order to keep the colonies, the slaves needed to be kept. A delegate of the owners of property in the French Colonies of America believes that the slaves benefited by living in the colonies. They were living under a more “humane” government and were working under more mild conditions.
Advocates against slavery, such as Rousseau, felt that the use of slaves was inhumane and that it was degrading to the human race. Jacques Necker, in his speech, opening the meeting of the estates general, said that he believed that slaves are being used as a barbaric object of trade. He mentioned that slaves were equal to the French in their thought and their ability to suffer. Olympia de Gourges reasoned that everyone is equal. By discriminating against slaves, he felt that it throws off a balance of nature. Louis de Jaucourt believed that all humans deserve to have dignity , and in order to achieve this every one needs liberty. Slavery was consitered undignified and therefore was against the laws of nature.
The slaves did not receive any political representation in the government. Count Mirabeau, in his speech for the National Assembly, demanded to know how twenty white people had the authority to represent slaves, when they were elected by white people. He didn’t believe that they should be excluded. Maximilien Robspierre feels that the declaration of the Rights of Man applies to the slaves. He was not willing to accept the planters threats to the Assembly to change the laws to their private interest. Even economic disaster was preferable to him. The rights of the slaves was more important.
Charles de Lameth appears to have a solution which often is used in difficult situations. In a speech in 1790, he suggested to form a committee to study the problem and come up with a plan. He was obviously stalling for time, hoping for a compromise. The Rights of man inevitably took president over economic issues. There is often a conflict between money and profit and the dignity and the liberty of men. France was struggling to find the right solution during the enlightenment and the French Revolution. The enlightenment and French Revolution ideas did not correspond to the economic realities in the colonies. | 671 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It must be remembered that Christianity emerged from Judaism, but not on a straight line. Following the laws made by their God to help govern their life is pivotal.
All three believe that Jerusalem is the center of their religion and it is recognized by each as a sacred place. The three religious beliefs share similar patriarchs and origins that have roots to Abraham. Christianity also teaches that God became a human being in the person of Jesus Christ so he could lay down his life to pay the price for our sins Romans ;2 Corinthians The differences that exist between Islam and Judaism are apparent, however, these are less distinct when a comparison is made between Christianity and Judaism.
Though Judaism only recognizes Jesus Christ as a good teacher, and perhaps even a prophet of God. Christian also believe that there is a judgment after death, and that Christ will return to judge the living and dead. | <urn:uuid:f307e550-a86a-4478-877f-d68518eeb5fd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://xuherobehovovaxig.whatshanesaid.com/christianity-and-judaism-similarities-and-differences-essay183165213za.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00117.warc.gz | en | 0.985572 | 174 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.1891324818134308... | 2 | It must be remembered that Christianity emerged from Judaism, but not on a straight line. Following the laws made by their God to help govern their life is pivotal.
All three believe that Jerusalem is the center of their religion and it is recognized by each as a sacred place. The three religious beliefs share similar patriarchs and origins that have roots to Abraham. Christianity also teaches that God became a human being in the person of Jesus Christ so he could lay down his life to pay the price for our sins Romans ;2 Corinthians The differences that exist between Islam and Judaism are apparent, however, these are less distinct when a comparison is made between Christianity and Judaism.
Though Judaism only recognizes Jesus Christ as a good teacher, and perhaps even a prophet of God. Christian also believe that there is a judgment after death, and that Christ will return to judge the living and dead. | 172 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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