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One of the technological advancements that intrigued me the most from what we have learned this semester is the evolution of sound. Although we take sound in film for granted today, this was not the case when films first started being made at the end of the nineteenth century. I think that it is important to learn about the process of how sound came to be what it is today because it shows the dedication that moviemakers put into the creation of a project that helped shape cultures across the globe, especially the American culture. I particularly enjoyed learning about the different ways in which producers struggled in trying to produce sound, such as in hiding microphones, yet still picking up sound, or in controlling volume. One example of this is present in the movie Singing in the Rain, which came out in 1952. When trying to film the movie, the character Lina Lamont is having trouble understanding that the microphones present only pick up sound when it is in close proximity. I have included a link to a video below for reference. When the film was aired, it produced a great response from the audience as it was very comical to hear which sounds were surprising the loudest, such as Lina’s pearls, compared to other more appropriate sounds such as dialogue, and also how some of the speech got lost.
One thing that I thought was very important was the fact that the emergence of sound also allowed for the creation of whole new genres of film. Some of these included musicals, of course, and also screwball comedies and gangster films. Sound also paved the way for horror movies by offering a crucial component that helped enhance the “edge of your seat” effects on the viewer. I find it fascinating that before films had sound embedded in them, orchestras used to accompany films in the audience.
From the films that we had the opportunity to watch in class, I found that sound was particularly important, or played an interesting role, in Bringing Up Baby and Gentlemen Prefer Blondes. In Bringing Up Baby, the producers played with sound in a way such that the audience could understand that the leopard was present without actually showing the animal on screen. The were able to do this because the audience could hear the roar of the leopard in the background. This would never have been possible without the development of sound. In Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, the musical numbers and meanings behind conversations would not have been possible without the use of sound. Lorelei and Dorothy perform several acts that are extravagant and simply would not have had the same effect if the audience could not hear the lyrics and thrilling music. This is also true for the musical number that the olympic team carries out. Sound was also crucial for the conversations between the characters. Dorothy offers advice to Lorelei on several occasions, and the two of them also work together to uncover a scheme that Gus Edmond’s father, with the help of his PI, Ernie Malone, has planted against Lorelei. This complicated situation would have been impossible for the audience to understand without knowing what each character was thinking, which was made known through their conversations with each other.
I think that sound plays a key role in what movies are today and I found it very interesting to learn about the process of how it came to be what we know it as today.
Singing in the Rain Lina Lamont scene:
“Sutori.” Sutori, www.sutori.com/story/evolution-of-sound-technology-in-film–QLsHDeWcXurhpqmxmvSjW2zx. | <urn:uuid:5094996d-627c-439b-b934-9af54e1277c0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://classblogs19.iac.gatech.edu/1102wtfa/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00078.warc.gz | en | 0.983066 | 744 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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-0.0860963... | 3 | One of the technological advancements that intrigued me the most from what we have learned this semester is the evolution of sound. Although we take sound in film for granted today, this was not the case when films first started being made at the end of the nineteenth century. I think that it is important to learn about the process of how sound came to be what it is today because it shows the dedication that moviemakers put into the creation of a project that helped shape cultures across the globe, especially the American culture. I particularly enjoyed learning about the different ways in which producers struggled in trying to produce sound, such as in hiding microphones, yet still picking up sound, or in controlling volume. One example of this is present in the movie Singing in the Rain, which came out in 1952. When trying to film the movie, the character Lina Lamont is having trouble understanding that the microphones present only pick up sound when it is in close proximity. I have included a link to a video below for reference. When the film was aired, it produced a great response from the audience as it was very comical to hear which sounds were surprising the loudest, such as Lina’s pearls, compared to other more appropriate sounds such as dialogue, and also how some of the speech got lost.
One thing that I thought was very important was the fact that the emergence of sound also allowed for the creation of whole new genres of film. Some of these included musicals, of course, and also screwball comedies and gangster films. Sound also paved the way for horror movies by offering a crucial component that helped enhance the “edge of your seat” effects on the viewer. I find it fascinating that before films had sound embedded in them, orchestras used to accompany films in the audience.
From the films that we had the opportunity to watch in class, I found that sound was particularly important, or played an interesting role, in Bringing Up Baby and Gentlemen Prefer Blondes. In Bringing Up Baby, the producers played with sound in a way such that the audience could understand that the leopard was present without actually showing the animal on screen. The were able to do this because the audience could hear the roar of the leopard in the background. This would never have been possible without the development of sound. In Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, the musical numbers and meanings behind conversations would not have been possible without the use of sound. Lorelei and Dorothy perform several acts that are extravagant and simply would not have had the same effect if the audience could not hear the lyrics and thrilling music. This is also true for the musical number that the olympic team carries out. Sound was also crucial for the conversations between the characters. Dorothy offers advice to Lorelei on several occasions, and the two of them also work together to uncover a scheme that Gus Edmond’s father, with the help of his PI, Ernie Malone, has planted against Lorelei. This complicated situation would have been impossible for the audience to understand without knowing what each character was thinking, which was made known through their conversations with each other.
I think that sound plays a key role in what movies are today and I found it very interesting to learn about the process of how it came to be what we know it as today.
Singing in the Rain Lina Lamont scene:
“Sutori.” Sutori, www.sutori.com/story/evolution-of-sound-technology-in-film–QLsHDeWcXurhpqmxmvSjW2zx. | 721 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Company Town Faces Starvation during the Pullman Strike
George Pullman, owner of the Pullman Palace Car Company, exemplified the paternalistic "welfare capitalist." Believing that labor unrest was caused by poor pay and living conditions, he initially paid his workers high wages and housed them in a company town (named Pullman) on the outskirts of Chicago, complete with company-owned houses, stores, free education and a library stocked with books from Pullman's personal collection. But the fortunes of both company and town began to go downhill during the economic depression in the early 1890s. When wage cuts prompted Pullman workers to strike in May 1894, out-of-work employees and their families faced starvation. This series of letters documents Pullman citizens' desperate appeals to the Governor of Illinois, John P. Altgeld, and Altgeld's unheeded request that Pullman himself help to alleviate the situation.
August 17, 1894.
To His Excellency, the Governor of the State of Illinois:
We, the people of Pullman, who, by the greed and oppression of George M. Pullman, have been brought to a condition where starvation stares us in the face, do hereby appeal to you for aid in this our hour of need. We have been refused employment and have no means of leaving this vicinity, and our families are starving. Our places have been filled with workmen from all over the United States, brought here by the Pullman Company, and the surplus were turned away to walk the streets and starve also. There are over 1600 families here in destitution and want, and their condition is pitiful. We have exhausted all the means at our command to feed them, and we now make this appeal to you as a last resource. Trusting that God will influence you in our behalf and that you will give this your prompt attention, we remain, Yours in distress,
THE STARVING CITIZENS OF PULLMAN
F. E. POLLANS, L. J. NEWELL, THEO. RODHE,
August 19, 1894.
To George M. Pullman, President Pullman Palace Car Co., Chicago:
Sir:—I have received numerous reports to the effect that there is great distress at Pullman. To-day I received a formal appeal as Governor from a committee of the Pullman people for aid. They state that sixteen hundred families including women and children, are starving; that they cannot get work and have not the means to go elsewhere; that your company has brought men from all over the United States to fill their places. Now these people live in your town and were your employees. Some of them worked for your company for many years. They must be people of industry and character or you would not have kept them. Many of them have practically given their lives to you. It is claimed they struck because after years of toil their loaves were so reduced that their children went hungry. Assuming that they were wrong and foolish, they had yet served you long and well and you must feel some interest in them. They do not stand on the same footing with you, so that much must be overlooked. The State of Illinois has not the least desire to meddle in the affairs of your company, but it cannot allow a whole community within its borders to perish of hunger. The local overseer of the poor has been appealed to, but there is a limit to what he can do. I cannot help them very much at present. So unless relief comes from some other source I shall either have to call an extra session of the Legislature to make special appropriations, or else issue an appeal to the humane people of the State to give bread to your recent employees. It seems to me that you would prefer to relieve the situation yourself, especially as it has just cost the State upwards of fifty thousand dollars to protect your property, and both the State and the public have suffered enormous loss and expense on account of disturbances that grew out of trouble between your company and its workmen. I am going to Chicago to-night to make a personal investigation before taking any official action. I will be at my office in the Unity block at 10 a.m. to-morrow, and shall be glad to hear from you if you care to make any reply.
JOHN P. ALTGELD, Governor.
August 21st 1894.
Mr. George M. Pullman, President Pullman Car Company, Chicago, Ill.:
Sir:—I have examined the conditions at Pullman yesterday, visited even the kitchens and bedrooms of many of the people. Two representatives of your company were with me and we found the distress as great as it was represented. The men are hungry and the women and children are actually suffering. They have been living on charity for a number of months and it is exhausted. Men who had worked for your company for more than ten years had to apply to the relief society in two weeks after the work stopped….
Something must be done at once. The case differs from instances of destitution found elsewhere, for generally there is somebody in the neighborhood able to give relief; this is not the case at Pullman. Even those who have gone to work are so exhausted that they cannot help their neighbors if they would. I repeat now that it seems to me your company cannot afford to have me appeal to the charity and humanity of the State to save the lives of your old employes. Four-fifths of those people are women and children. No matter what caused this distress, it must be met. Yours, respectfully,
JOHN P. ALTGELD.
Chicago, August 21st, 1894.
George M. Pullman, Esq., President Pullman Palace Car Company, City.
Sir:—I have your answer to my communication of this morning. I see by it that your company refuses to do anything toward relieving the situation at Pullman….I cannot enter into a discussion with you as to the merits of the controversy between you and your former workmen. It is not my business to fix the moral responsibility in this case. There are nearly six thousand people suffering for the want of food—they were your employees—four-fifths of them women and children—some of these people have worked for you for more than twelve years. I assumed that even if they were wrong and had been foolish, you would not be willing to see them perish. I also assumed that as the State had just been to a large expense to protect your property you would not want to have the public shoulder the burden of relieving distress in your town. As you refuse to do anything to relieve suffering in this case, I am compelled to appeal to the humanity of the people of Illinois to do so.
JOHN P. ALTGELD
Creator | John Altgeld
Item Type | Diary/Letter
Cite This document | John Altgeld, “A Company Town Faces Starvation during the Pullman Strike,” HERB: Resources for Teachers, accessed January 22, 2020, https://herb.ashp.cuny.edu/items/show/687. | <urn:uuid:b9f9091a-1b1a-4458-8330-0914c908aad6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://herb.ashp.cuny.edu/items/show/687 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00393.warc.gz | en | 0.981692 | 1,468 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.302992522716... | 1 | A Company Town Faces Starvation during the Pullman Strike
George Pullman, owner of the Pullman Palace Car Company, exemplified the paternalistic "welfare capitalist." Believing that labor unrest was caused by poor pay and living conditions, he initially paid his workers high wages and housed them in a company town (named Pullman) on the outskirts of Chicago, complete with company-owned houses, stores, free education and a library stocked with books from Pullman's personal collection. But the fortunes of both company and town began to go downhill during the economic depression in the early 1890s. When wage cuts prompted Pullman workers to strike in May 1894, out-of-work employees and their families faced starvation. This series of letters documents Pullman citizens' desperate appeals to the Governor of Illinois, John P. Altgeld, and Altgeld's unheeded request that Pullman himself help to alleviate the situation.
August 17, 1894.
To His Excellency, the Governor of the State of Illinois:
We, the people of Pullman, who, by the greed and oppression of George M. Pullman, have been brought to a condition where starvation stares us in the face, do hereby appeal to you for aid in this our hour of need. We have been refused employment and have no means of leaving this vicinity, and our families are starving. Our places have been filled with workmen from all over the United States, brought here by the Pullman Company, and the surplus were turned away to walk the streets and starve also. There are over 1600 families here in destitution and want, and their condition is pitiful. We have exhausted all the means at our command to feed them, and we now make this appeal to you as a last resource. Trusting that God will influence you in our behalf and that you will give this your prompt attention, we remain, Yours in distress,
THE STARVING CITIZENS OF PULLMAN
F. E. POLLANS, L. J. NEWELL, THEO. RODHE,
August 19, 1894.
To George M. Pullman, President Pullman Palace Car Co., Chicago:
Sir:—I have received numerous reports to the effect that there is great distress at Pullman. To-day I received a formal appeal as Governor from a committee of the Pullman people for aid. They state that sixteen hundred families including women and children, are starving; that they cannot get work and have not the means to go elsewhere; that your company has brought men from all over the United States to fill their places. Now these people live in your town and were your employees. Some of them worked for your company for many years. They must be people of industry and character or you would not have kept them. Many of them have practically given their lives to you. It is claimed they struck because after years of toil their loaves were so reduced that their children went hungry. Assuming that they were wrong and foolish, they had yet served you long and well and you must feel some interest in them. They do not stand on the same footing with you, so that much must be overlooked. The State of Illinois has not the least desire to meddle in the affairs of your company, but it cannot allow a whole community within its borders to perish of hunger. The local overseer of the poor has been appealed to, but there is a limit to what he can do. I cannot help them very much at present. So unless relief comes from some other source I shall either have to call an extra session of the Legislature to make special appropriations, or else issue an appeal to the humane people of the State to give bread to your recent employees. It seems to me that you would prefer to relieve the situation yourself, especially as it has just cost the State upwards of fifty thousand dollars to protect your property, and both the State and the public have suffered enormous loss and expense on account of disturbances that grew out of trouble between your company and its workmen. I am going to Chicago to-night to make a personal investigation before taking any official action. I will be at my office in the Unity block at 10 a.m. to-morrow, and shall be glad to hear from you if you care to make any reply.
JOHN P. ALTGELD, Governor.
August 21st 1894.
Mr. George M. Pullman, President Pullman Car Company, Chicago, Ill.:
Sir:—I have examined the conditions at Pullman yesterday, visited even the kitchens and bedrooms of many of the people. Two representatives of your company were with me and we found the distress as great as it was represented. The men are hungry and the women and children are actually suffering. They have been living on charity for a number of months and it is exhausted. Men who had worked for your company for more than ten years had to apply to the relief society in two weeks after the work stopped….
Something must be done at once. The case differs from instances of destitution found elsewhere, for generally there is somebody in the neighborhood able to give relief; this is not the case at Pullman. Even those who have gone to work are so exhausted that they cannot help their neighbors if they would. I repeat now that it seems to me your company cannot afford to have me appeal to the charity and humanity of the State to save the lives of your old employes. Four-fifths of those people are women and children. No matter what caused this distress, it must be met. Yours, respectfully,
JOHN P. ALTGELD.
Chicago, August 21st, 1894.
George M. Pullman, Esq., President Pullman Palace Car Company, City.
Sir:—I have your answer to my communication of this morning. I see by it that your company refuses to do anything toward relieving the situation at Pullman….I cannot enter into a discussion with you as to the merits of the controversy between you and your former workmen. It is not my business to fix the moral responsibility in this case. There are nearly six thousand people suffering for the want of food—they were your employees—four-fifths of them women and children—some of these people have worked for you for more than twelve years. I assumed that even if they were wrong and had been foolish, you would not be willing to see them perish. I also assumed that as the State had just been to a large expense to protect your property you would not want to have the public shoulder the burden of relieving distress in your town. As you refuse to do anything to relieve suffering in this case, I am compelled to appeal to the humanity of the people of Illinois to do so.
JOHN P. ALTGELD
Creator | John Altgeld
Item Type | Diary/Letter
Cite This document | John Altgeld, “A Company Town Faces Starvation during the Pullman Strike,” HERB: Resources for Teachers, accessed January 22, 2020, https://herb.ashp.cuny.edu/items/show/687. | 1,481 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The giant stone statues on faraway Easter Island are one of the most iconic images of ancient sculptures in the Pacific Ocean. This island located off of the coast of Chile contains hundred of statues that appear to be stone heads with angular, sloping faces sitting on the ground. For a long time, little was known about the reason for these stone heads. However, there is actually far more to the statues than what is visible above ground, and archaeologists are beginning to uncover their secrets.
Easter Island is a very remote location that is 2,000 miles from any continents. In 1250 CE, it was home to the Rapu Nai people, who were responsible for carving all of these giant statues. The statues are called Moai, and there are 887 of them on the island. The tallest is over 30 feet tall, and there are many others of various sizes that are scattered about the island. They are so heavy that it is still unknown how the statues were moved into place. According to ancient legend, the statues were given divine powers, so they could come alive and walk into place.
It turns out that the iconic Easter Island Heads are not just heads after all. Instead, they are massive stone statues of full figures. The rest of the statue is buried underground, so only the neck and heads of the statues are visible. Surprisingly, these statues were not slowly covered up with sand and dirt over the centuries. Instead, the Rapu Nai intentionally dug deep holes and buried the Moai statues up to their necks. The scientists still do not know why the statues were buried, but this unusual practice has kept them very well preserved.
When uncovered, the statues are shown to have a long torso with slender arms and long fingers that join together at the hips. The statues end right below the hips, which are covered in a loincloth that reveals the top of the buttocks in the back. The only moai statue that has legs is one that was set farther away from the rest of the statues. It is much smaller and made from a different type of stone, and this statue is a kneeling figure with its legs tucked beneath its torso.
Though the top part of the Moai were worn smooth by the weather over time, the parts of the Moai that were protected by being buried were covered in elaborate carvings. These carvings seem to be petroglyphs, an unknown form of writing. If it is ever translated, it may reveal more knowledge about the Rapu Nai people and their incredible carvings.
Originally, the Moai faced inland, so that they could oversee and guard the lands. They represent ancestors that the Rapu Nai saw as guardian spirits or gods. Different clans had their own statues, and when they got into fights, they would try to destroy their enemies’ Moai. Though the Rapu Nai no longer live on Easter Island, the Moai continue to keep watch over the land. | <urn:uuid:b9b31e7a-a0a1-4e4d-ba2b-d344e6c95974> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.greenvillegazette.com/p/archeologists-uncover-shocking-discovery-below-easter-island-heads-and-it-changes-everything-115016/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00519.warc.gz | en | 0.983177 | 603 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.872715473... | 3 | The giant stone statues on faraway Easter Island are one of the most iconic images of ancient sculptures in the Pacific Ocean. This island located off of the coast of Chile contains hundred of statues that appear to be stone heads with angular, sloping faces sitting on the ground. For a long time, little was known about the reason for these stone heads. However, there is actually far more to the statues than what is visible above ground, and archaeologists are beginning to uncover their secrets.
Easter Island is a very remote location that is 2,000 miles from any continents. In 1250 CE, it was home to the Rapu Nai people, who were responsible for carving all of these giant statues. The statues are called Moai, and there are 887 of them on the island. The tallest is over 30 feet tall, and there are many others of various sizes that are scattered about the island. They are so heavy that it is still unknown how the statues were moved into place. According to ancient legend, the statues were given divine powers, so they could come alive and walk into place.
It turns out that the iconic Easter Island Heads are not just heads after all. Instead, they are massive stone statues of full figures. The rest of the statue is buried underground, so only the neck and heads of the statues are visible. Surprisingly, these statues were not slowly covered up with sand and dirt over the centuries. Instead, the Rapu Nai intentionally dug deep holes and buried the Moai statues up to their necks. The scientists still do not know why the statues were buried, but this unusual practice has kept them very well preserved.
When uncovered, the statues are shown to have a long torso with slender arms and long fingers that join together at the hips. The statues end right below the hips, which are covered in a loincloth that reveals the top of the buttocks in the back. The only moai statue that has legs is one that was set farther away from the rest of the statues. It is much smaller and made from a different type of stone, and this statue is a kneeling figure with its legs tucked beneath its torso.
Though the top part of the Moai were worn smooth by the weather over time, the parts of the Moai that were protected by being buried were covered in elaborate carvings. These carvings seem to be petroglyphs, an unknown form of writing. If it is ever translated, it may reveal more knowledge about the Rapu Nai people and their incredible carvings.
Originally, the Moai faced inland, so that they could oversee and guard the lands. They represent ancestors that the Rapu Nai saw as guardian spirits or gods. Different clans had their own statues, and when they got into fights, they would try to destroy their enemies’ Moai. Though the Rapu Nai no longer live on Easter Island, the Moai continue to keep watch over the land. | 610 | ENGLISH | 1 |
With these ways you can increase your child's concentration and boost memory
ByMindstood Staff March 24, 2019
As a parent making sure that your child builds a solid foundation for learning both in the classroom and beyond that. No parent likes to see their children fail or stay behind in any part of life, and the best way to get them ready will start from when they are still young. The performance of your child depends on your own contribution and how they concentrate and developed a good memory has a lot to do with you.
A child will get the best results and grades in school if they have a high level of concentration and also have a good memory. This will help them to be at their ultimate best in school and out of school too. Some children might be lucky to be born with such skills but others need to develop it over time, master it and then becomes a skill to them. To make things easier, here are ways in which parents can contribute to develop their children's concentration power and boost their memory.
To be able to retain something in your memory it has to be understood before, give your child the freedom and make them feel it's okay to ask whatever questions they might have. This will also help them develop concentration skills and problem-solving skills. A child turns to retain what they want to know about.
Create rhymes and songs to teach
You can develop your child's concentration by helping them create a rhyme or song of what they are learning. This will help them stay focus because it's an interesting way to learn and secondly it will help them retain it in their memory as they'll be able to remember the rhyme or song always.
Make their learning exciting
Make your child love learning with the way you teach them or help them learn. You can take them at times to the library so they can get some books, to the museum, show them videos and even look for other playful methods for them to learn. These things are sure to make them happy which will make then focus and it will stick in their memory because of the fun and excitement.
Use visual aids
Encourage your child to learn by providing visual aids assistance for them. You can create flashcards with images on them which will help them remember the information more. You can create visual aids in a colorful manner and include their favorite cartoon character on them. This will make them be concentrated and easily remember what they studied.
You should be able to make their own examples
In order for your child to easily remember what they studied, let them make their own examples of what they have studied. By making an example linked to something they know or from their own experience. It makes the understanding process much easier and remember it won't be that hard.
Let your child teach you
Children will love to act like their teachers and you can use that advantage to help them. By asking them to teach you, you'll be able to see how much they are able to remember what they have learned. Then go back to the material to see how right they were and correct them where they went wrong. You can ask them to teach even their siblings and they'll love the feeling in that position.
Every parent always wants the best for their children and no one will help them and teach them more than you. They might go to school to learn but they'll learn more from you and easily because you are their parents. So why not use these tips to develop their concentration and boost their memory?. | <urn:uuid:88d151fa-a8a8-449f-8de0-037ca597c2fa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mindstood.com/health-fitness/with-these-ways-you-can-increase-your-child-s-concentration-and-boost-memory | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00052.warc.gz | en | 0.981365 | 708 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.5872997641563416... | 1 | With these ways you can increase your child's concentration and boost memory
ByMindstood Staff March 24, 2019
As a parent making sure that your child builds a solid foundation for learning both in the classroom and beyond that. No parent likes to see their children fail or stay behind in any part of life, and the best way to get them ready will start from when they are still young. The performance of your child depends on your own contribution and how they concentrate and developed a good memory has a lot to do with you.
A child will get the best results and grades in school if they have a high level of concentration and also have a good memory. This will help them to be at their ultimate best in school and out of school too. Some children might be lucky to be born with such skills but others need to develop it over time, master it and then becomes a skill to them. To make things easier, here are ways in which parents can contribute to develop their children's concentration power and boost their memory.
To be able to retain something in your memory it has to be understood before, give your child the freedom and make them feel it's okay to ask whatever questions they might have. This will also help them develop concentration skills and problem-solving skills. A child turns to retain what they want to know about.
Create rhymes and songs to teach
You can develop your child's concentration by helping them create a rhyme or song of what they are learning. This will help them stay focus because it's an interesting way to learn and secondly it will help them retain it in their memory as they'll be able to remember the rhyme or song always.
Make their learning exciting
Make your child love learning with the way you teach them or help them learn. You can take them at times to the library so they can get some books, to the museum, show them videos and even look for other playful methods for them to learn. These things are sure to make them happy which will make then focus and it will stick in their memory because of the fun and excitement.
Use visual aids
Encourage your child to learn by providing visual aids assistance for them. You can create flashcards with images on them which will help them remember the information more. You can create visual aids in a colorful manner and include their favorite cartoon character on them. This will make them be concentrated and easily remember what they studied.
You should be able to make their own examples
In order for your child to easily remember what they studied, let them make their own examples of what they have studied. By making an example linked to something they know or from their own experience. It makes the understanding process much easier and remember it won't be that hard.
Let your child teach you
Children will love to act like their teachers and you can use that advantage to help them. By asking them to teach you, you'll be able to see how much they are able to remember what they have learned. Then go back to the material to see how right they were and correct them where they went wrong. You can ask them to teach even their siblings and they'll love the feeling in that position.
Every parent always wants the best for their children and no one will help them and teach them more than you. They might go to school to learn but they'll learn more from you and easily because you are their parents. So why not use these tips to develop their concentration and boost their memory?. | 702 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Christian-History.org does not receive any personally identifiable information from the search bar below.
by John Dempsey
William Tyndale (1494-1536) was an amazing man of God. He is known, variously, as "The Father of the English Bible" and the true hero of the English Reformation. He is one of the most important and influential men in Britain's history.
William Tyndale charged the church officials of his time with practices and teachings that were of the world and against the teachings of Christ and the apostles. For instance, they held political power in a kingdom of this world, something Christ refused. It is contrary to his teaching that his kingdom is not of this world and to the example of the apostles and their churches.
Involved in these ecclesiastical offices of temporal power was the exalting of one over the other, using the power of threats of prison, torture and death to persons that even included their friends, family and acquaintances. He submits, in The Practice of the Prelates and other writings, that the clear teaching and example of Christ is to humbly seek through love and service to change men's hearts, submitting to all temporal authorities, while refusing to be part of the rulership of the kingdoms of the physical world. Forcing men to obey through fear of force and destruction—"with violence above the cruelness of heathen tyrants,"—he saw as the opposite of Christ's way, and the way of his churches.
The leaders of Christ's kingdom are to seek to serve; not to be served, to beg for money or to live in luxury at the expense of others, as was a common practice among the "prelates," or church officials at that time, including beggar monks, indulgence sellers, as well as officials collecting tithes and taxes imposed by the church.
While taking on the title of "servant of servants," William Tyndale observes, the pope, is rather, in fact, "tyrant of tyrants," ruling by the physical sword, rather than ruling humbly by the sword of the spirit, which is the Word of God. Prelates should be humbly living out and preaching this Word, rather than putting to death those who do. They were choosing, instead, to supplant the Word by their traditions and laws of the pope.
(In England, as well as elsewhere in Europe, the Roman Catholic Church held sway. They promoted the superstition that any commoner reading the scripture in their common language was accursed of God and doomed.)
William Tyndale further stated, based on histories available to him—like Platina's Lives of the Popes—that popes had arisen gradually, from deacons who, handling the churches' monies along with their worldly masters' monies (where they learned their administrative abilities), used money and intrigue to buy their way into offices of priests and bishops, where they used their prestige to gain more power and money. These kind of men, over a few centuries, consolidated their power by ecclesiastic and political scheming and posturing to gain the upper tiers of power and wealth. Eventually they used deceit and skill with weak emperors to replace God's power in the minds of men and kings with their own, until they became more powerful than kings.
He said that, rather than saving souls, well over 4 million men had been sacrificed in the bloody wars instigated since the popes had gained independent power in the early 7th century.
For these reasons, and the fact that he found nowhere to publish God's truth in his native language, he left and eventually went to Wittemberg, where Luther was. There the Reformation and printing presses allowed him to begin printing an English language Bible.
A scholar, teacher, author and Bible translator, William Tyndale was born around 1494 in the area "about the borders of Wales," according to his contemporary, John Foxe.
He was a member of a noble family that included an uncle who was an English knight and baron and who answered directly to the king. They numbered among them two men who turned down the kingship of Bohemia (several kings of Bohemia ruled other lands and were also Holy Roman Emperors).
Studying at Oxford, he became a Bachelor of Arts and, later, Master of Arts, when most people were still illiterate. William was not only fluent in the Biblical languages of Greek, Hebrew and Latin, but also French, Italian, Spanish and German, in addition to English. Later, he went to Cambridge to pursue his doctorate, but quit to follow his heart and become one of history's most influential people.
Well-connected, well-educated, highborn, and seemingly fearless, he could have chosen a life of power and relative luxury. Instead, he chose to follow where truth, his conscience, and his God led him: to a life of conflict with the rich and powerful religionists and leaders of his day (including Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, Archbishop of York, and eventually Lord Chancellor Sir Thomas More, the pope, and King Henry VIII). This inevitably led to his imprisonment and execution at the hands of the King Henry VIII.
What drives a man like this to such a life?
William Tyndale cared.
Starting as a Roman Catholic cleric, William Tyndale studied the biblical texts in depth in their original languages as well as writings of other men who sought the truth of God. In the process of discussing his findings with his fellow clerics, he discovered that most of them, along with their leaders, cared more for power, wealth, prestige and an easy life of relative luxury (at the expense of the poor commoners) than what God thought.
So he offended them.
Rather than compromise the truth and offend God, he offended them and their leaders, both in person, as recorded by Foxe and others, and in just about everything he wrote. In Practice of the Prelates he made a parallel between the Jewish rulers who slew Jesus and the religious leaders of his day, calling them "blind leaders of the blind," who were wicked, hardened, and "obstinate hypocrites."
He said that the duty of religious leaders was to set an example and teach God's truth, love, joy and mercy. Conversely, he accused them of robbing widows, stealing from the poor, and keeping people in ignorance; using false doctrines to enslave the people to themselves and their purposes.
His accusations made them angry, and like their predecessors did his Master, they murdered him.
Everyone that lived with William Tyndale attested to his good character.
It is stated by some historians that the reason more is not known about his immediate family and home town is that he purposely was careful to say little about them; he did not want them to be persecuted for his actions.
Foxe records him as leaving "Master Welch," in whose home he was living as a tutor to his children because, having defied the pope in public, staying might cause Welch and his family to suffer for Tyndale's stand.
This, despite the fact that he apparently had nowhere planned to live, shows love and character.
Foxe also writes about William Tyndale that ...
He did this out of the desire to help them defend themselves against the teachings of the religious leaders of the day, which were used to rob them and take advantage of them.
"Oh Lord, open the King of England's eyes!" he cried out, just before the hangman strangled him. This was his final request, his heart's cry being that the king would no longer be in league with the religious leaders in keeping the truth of God's Word, as recorded in the scriptures, from the English people, so that they might be free to follow God's law of love, rather than be manipulated and blinded by the "evil churchmen."
Yes, he is a martyr: I have chosen, however, to spend most of the article on his inspiring life, his great heart, and all that he accomplished in his 40 short years on this earth. Martyrdom, for William Tyndale, was the expected and natural outcome of his dedication. It was, he likely thought, probably just a matter of time, as he hinted at in his famous statement:
William Tyndale's efforts tore open the door to "vulgar" translations; renderings of the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures in the languages that the common people could read.
Within 4 years of Tyndale's death, King Henry VIII, who had carried out the religious leaders' push to murder him, authorized and published his own English Bible, allowing several others to circulate freely, all of which were largely based on William Tyndale's translations. Even the enemy of translations in the vernacular, the Roman Catholic Church, published an English version of the New Testament by 1582, and released the Old Testament by 1610.
William Tyndale, a spiritual man full of faith and love, left what is perhaps the greatest legacy of any Englishman. The Scripture talks about God lifting us "out of darkness into his marvelous light." Not only by his writings, but by his life, Tyndale opened the door to that light for all to see. His work and sacrifice helped lead to greater liberty and freedom of knowledge among the English people, whether highborn or common, until today.
The truth set the people free from tyranny and oppression. Historically, the world would not have been the same if this self-denying hero had not set in motion the chain of events that led to England's world legacy. Spiritually, he brought us the truth, giving us a chance to choose, whatever choices we might make, and calling us to a life of loving sacrifice.
How many people have come to learn of our God and his Christ, because he cared enough to give his life?
Next time you look at your copy of the Bible, maybe you'll think of this great man with thankfulness to God for him and his work. Maybe he'll even inspire you to go forward and do great things in God. I'm inspired!
If you like this article, I encourage you to read more written by and about this great man. He is not only interesting and inspiring, but full of insight into Scripture and into a life that blesses others and is pleasing and acceptable to God.
Here are a few suggestions:
My newest book, Rome's Audacious Claim, was released December 1! | <urn:uuid:a5baecce-a5c5-496e-93d2-60dfa3b424ef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.christian-history.org/william-tyndale.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00148.warc.gz | en | 0.986897 | 2,158 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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-0.002599846571683... | 1 | Christian-History.org does not receive any personally identifiable information from the search bar below.
by John Dempsey
William Tyndale (1494-1536) was an amazing man of God. He is known, variously, as "The Father of the English Bible" and the true hero of the English Reformation. He is one of the most important and influential men in Britain's history.
William Tyndale charged the church officials of his time with practices and teachings that were of the world and against the teachings of Christ and the apostles. For instance, they held political power in a kingdom of this world, something Christ refused. It is contrary to his teaching that his kingdom is not of this world and to the example of the apostles and their churches.
Involved in these ecclesiastical offices of temporal power was the exalting of one over the other, using the power of threats of prison, torture and death to persons that even included their friends, family and acquaintances. He submits, in The Practice of the Prelates and other writings, that the clear teaching and example of Christ is to humbly seek through love and service to change men's hearts, submitting to all temporal authorities, while refusing to be part of the rulership of the kingdoms of the physical world. Forcing men to obey through fear of force and destruction—"with violence above the cruelness of heathen tyrants,"—he saw as the opposite of Christ's way, and the way of his churches.
The leaders of Christ's kingdom are to seek to serve; not to be served, to beg for money or to live in luxury at the expense of others, as was a common practice among the "prelates," or church officials at that time, including beggar monks, indulgence sellers, as well as officials collecting tithes and taxes imposed by the church.
While taking on the title of "servant of servants," William Tyndale observes, the pope, is rather, in fact, "tyrant of tyrants," ruling by the physical sword, rather than ruling humbly by the sword of the spirit, which is the Word of God. Prelates should be humbly living out and preaching this Word, rather than putting to death those who do. They were choosing, instead, to supplant the Word by their traditions and laws of the pope.
(In England, as well as elsewhere in Europe, the Roman Catholic Church held sway. They promoted the superstition that any commoner reading the scripture in their common language was accursed of God and doomed.)
William Tyndale further stated, based on histories available to him—like Platina's Lives of the Popes—that popes had arisen gradually, from deacons who, handling the churches' monies along with their worldly masters' monies (where they learned their administrative abilities), used money and intrigue to buy their way into offices of priests and bishops, where they used their prestige to gain more power and money. These kind of men, over a few centuries, consolidated their power by ecclesiastic and political scheming and posturing to gain the upper tiers of power and wealth. Eventually they used deceit and skill with weak emperors to replace God's power in the minds of men and kings with their own, until they became more powerful than kings.
He said that, rather than saving souls, well over 4 million men had been sacrificed in the bloody wars instigated since the popes had gained independent power in the early 7th century.
For these reasons, and the fact that he found nowhere to publish God's truth in his native language, he left and eventually went to Wittemberg, where Luther was. There the Reformation and printing presses allowed him to begin printing an English language Bible.
A scholar, teacher, author and Bible translator, William Tyndale was born around 1494 in the area "about the borders of Wales," according to his contemporary, John Foxe.
He was a member of a noble family that included an uncle who was an English knight and baron and who answered directly to the king. They numbered among them two men who turned down the kingship of Bohemia (several kings of Bohemia ruled other lands and were also Holy Roman Emperors).
Studying at Oxford, he became a Bachelor of Arts and, later, Master of Arts, when most people were still illiterate. William was not only fluent in the Biblical languages of Greek, Hebrew and Latin, but also French, Italian, Spanish and German, in addition to English. Later, he went to Cambridge to pursue his doctorate, but quit to follow his heart and become one of history's most influential people.
Well-connected, well-educated, highborn, and seemingly fearless, he could have chosen a life of power and relative luxury. Instead, he chose to follow where truth, his conscience, and his God led him: to a life of conflict with the rich and powerful religionists and leaders of his day (including Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, Archbishop of York, and eventually Lord Chancellor Sir Thomas More, the pope, and King Henry VIII). This inevitably led to his imprisonment and execution at the hands of the King Henry VIII.
What drives a man like this to such a life?
William Tyndale cared.
Starting as a Roman Catholic cleric, William Tyndale studied the biblical texts in depth in their original languages as well as writings of other men who sought the truth of God. In the process of discussing his findings with his fellow clerics, he discovered that most of them, along with their leaders, cared more for power, wealth, prestige and an easy life of relative luxury (at the expense of the poor commoners) than what God thought.
So he offended them.
Rather than compromise the truth and offend God, he offended them and their leaders, both in person, as recorded by Foxe and others, and in just about everything he wrote. In Practice of the Prelates he made a parallel between the Jewish rulers who slew Jesus and the religious leaders of his day, calling them "blind leaders of the blind," who were wicked, hardened, and "obstinate hypocrites."
He said that the duty of religious leaders was to set an example and teach God's truth, love, joy and mercy. Conversely, he accused them of robbing widows, stealing from the poor, and keeping people in ignorance; using false doctrines to enslave the people to themselves and their purposes.
His accusations made them angry, and like their predecessors did his Master, they murdered him.
Everyone that lived with William Tyndale attested to his good character.
It is stated by some historians that the reason more is not known about his immediate family and home town is that he purposely was careful to say little about them; he did not want them to be persecuted for his actions.
Foxe records him as leaving "Master Welch," in whose home he was living as a tutor to his children because, having defied the pope in public, staying might cause Welch and his family to suffer for Tyndale's stand.
This, despite the fact that he apparently had nowhere planned to live, shows love and character.
Foxe also writes about William Tyndale that ...
He did this out of the desire to help them defend themselves against the teachings of the religious leaders of the day, which were used to rob them and take advantage of them.
"Oh Lord, open the King of England's eyes!" he cried out, just before the hangman strangled him. This was his final request, his heart's cry being that the king would no longer be in league with the religious leaders in keeping the truth of God's Word, as recorded in the scriptures, from the English people, so that they might be free to follow God's law of love, rather than be manipulated and blinded by the "evil churchmen."
Yes, he is a martyr: I have chosen, however, to spend most of the article on his inspiring life, his great heart, and all that he accomplished in his 40 short years on this earth. Martyrdom, for William Tyndale, was the expected and natural outcome of his dedication. It was, he likely thought, probably just a matter of time, as he hinted at in his famous statement:
William Tyndale's efforts tore open the door to "vulgar" translations; renderings of the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures in the languages that the common people could read.
Within 4 years of Tyndale's death, King Henry VIII, who had carried out the religious leaders' push to murder him, authorized and published his own English Bible, allowing several others to circulate freely, all of which were largely based on William Tyndale's translations. Even the enemy of translations in the vernacular, the Roman Catholic Church, published an English version of the New Testament by 1582, and released the Old Testament by 1610.
William Tyndale, a spiritual man full of faith and love, left what is perhaps the greatest legacy of any Englishman. The Scripture talks about God lifting us "out of darkness into his marvelous light." Not only by his writings, but by his life, Tyndale opened the door to that light for all to see. His work and sacrifice helped lead to greater liberty and freedom of knowledge among the English people, whether highborn or common, until today.
The truth set the people free from tyranny and oppression. Historically, the world would not have been the same if this self-denying hero had not set in motion the chain of events that led to England's world legacy. Spiritually, he brought us the truth, giving us a chance to choose, whatever choices we might make, and calling us to a life of loving sacrifice.
How many people have come to learn of our God and his Christ, because he cared enough to give his life?
Next time you look at your copy of the Bible, maybe you'll think of this great man with thankfulness to God for him and his work. Maybe he'll even inspire you to go forward and do great things in God. I'm inspired!
If you like this article, I encourage you to read more written by and about this great man. He is not only interesting and inspiring, but full of insight into Scripture and into a life that blesses others and is pleasing and acceptable to God.
Here are a few suggestions:
My newest book, Rome's Audacious Claim, was released December 1! | 2,149 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sacrifice of Children was a Babylonian Institution
by Estéban Trujillo de Gutiérrez
” … But although the Assyrian kings are fond of boasting of their exploits in massacring or torturing their defeated enemies in honour of Assur, we find no allusions in the inscriptions of the historical period to human sacrifice.
That human sacrifices, however, were known as far back as the Accadian era, is shown by a bilingual text (K5139) which enjoins the abgal, or “chief prophet,” to declare that the father must give the life of his child for the sin of his own soul, the child’s head for his head, the child’s neck for his neck, the child’s breast for his breast.
The text not only proves that the idea of vicarious punishment was already conceived of; it also proves that the sacrifice of children was a Babylonian institution.
In the great work on astronomy called The Observations of Bel, we are told that “on the high-places the son is burnt.” The offering was consequently by fire, as in Phoenicia.
The sacrifices were accompanied, sometimes by hymns or incantations, sometimes by prayers. The prayers were all prescribed, and a large number of them have been preserved.”
A.H. Sayce, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by the Religion of the Ancient Babylonians, 5th ed., London, 1898, p. 78. | <urn:uuid:dd7f2f07-ac03-44ca-bbef-abe7102f5bb8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://therealsamizdat.com/2015/03/22/sacrifice-of-children-was-a-babylonian-institution/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00085.warc.gz | en | 0.98048 | 321 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.3984922468... | 12 | Sacrifice of Children was a Babylonian Institution
by Estéban Trujillo de Gutiérrez
” … But although the Assyrian kings are fond of boasting of their exploits in massacring or torturing their defeated enemies in honour of Assur, we find no allusions in the inscriptions of the historical period to human sacrifice.
That human sacrifices, however, were known as far back as the Accadian era, is shown by a bilingual text (K5139) which enjoins the abgal, or “chief prophet,” to declare that the father must give the life of his child for the sin of his own soul, the child’s head for his head, the child’s neck for his neck, the child’s breast for his breast.
The text not only proves that the idea of vicarious punishment was already conceived of; it also proves that the sacrifice of children was a Babylonian institution.
In the great work on astronomy called The Observations of Bel, we are told that “on the high-places the son is burnt.” The offering was consequently by fire, as in Phoenicia.
The sacrifices were accompanied, sometimes by hymns or incantations, sometimes by prayers. The prayers were all prescribed, and a large number of them have been preserved.”
A.H. Sayce, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by the Religion of the Ancient Babylonians, 5th ed., London, 1898, p. 78. | 308 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Guillaume - William - was born in Falaise, Normandy around the year 1028. His parents were Robert the Magnificent, Duke of Normandy and Herleva, a tanner's daughter.
Although William was an illegitimate child (his parents were not married), he inherited his father's title 'Duke of Normandy.' William was just eight years old when he became Duke of Normandy, following the death of his father.
In 1050, he married Matilda, daughter of the Count of Flanders. It is said that Matilda and her ladies created the famous Bayeux Tapestry. In French, it is sometimes referred to as la Tapisserie de la Reine Mathilde. It is around 70 metres long and can be seen in Bayeux, Normandy.
The tapestry portrays events relating to the Norman invasion of England.
Queen Matilda - la Reine Mathilde - must have been very proud of her husband to create such an enormous piece of intricate work! Below is a section of the tapestry.
Important news! The President of France, Emmanuel Macron, has promised to lend the tapestry to the United Kingdom in the near future!
It will probably be exhibited in the British Museum, London.
In January 1066, the English king known as Edward the Confessor died and a new king of England was crowned. The new king was Harold Godwinson, also known as Harold II.
In Normandy, Duke William was furious! William believed that he should be the new English king instead of Harold.
The old king - Edward the Confessor - had no children to succeed him. William claimed that Edward had promised the English throne to him. There was no way that he was going to tolerate Harold stealing the title of King of England! So, William decided to take what he believed was rightfully his by invading England.
In September 1066, William landed in England with his army. On 14 October 1066, the English army was defeated by the Normans in the Battle of Hastings. It was during this battle that King Harold was killed. This was the start of the Norman Conquest of England.
William of Normandy seized the English throne and was crowned William I, King of England on Christmas Day 1066 in Westminster Abbey.
William earned the nickname William the Conqueror or Guillaume le Conquérant in French.
He introduced the French language to England and as a result, many of the words we use in English today have either come from French or are influenced by French.
William is famous for building lots of castles and churches. A famous Norman castle is the White Tower, part of the Tower of London.
William is well-known for arranging the compilation of the Domesday Book. This was the recording of how much land and wealth belonged to the landowners of England. It was an enormous task.
The information was collected by surveyors who travelled around England. The information was completed in 1086. It is kept in the Public Records Office in London.
The old English word 'dom' means 'judgement' or 'reckoning.' 'Domesday' actually means 'the day of judgement' so that wealthy landowners could be taxed justly according to their wealth.
William of Normandy died in 1087 following an injury when he fell from his horse. He was laid to rest in the Abbaye aux Hommes in Caen, Normandy.
An interesting fact: In the year of the Battle of Hastings, 1066, Halley's Comet appeared in the sky. It is even depicted in the famous Bayeux Tapestry. This event was interpreted by William as a sign from God that it was a good time to initiate his invasion of England! On the other hand, it was considered an ill omen for King Harold.
Below, you can see the section of the tapestry where the comet is visible. It is called 'stella' meaning 'star' and you can see people pointing at it. | <urn:uuid:d45d8e7e-54f8-40a8-8993-a858cf0fe407> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.euroclub-schools.org/william-the-conqueror | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00163.warc.gz | en | 0.983861 | 823 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.42414081096... | 11 | Guillaume - William - was born in Falaise, Normandy around the year 1028. His parents were Robert the Magnificent, Duke of Normandy and Herleva, a tanner's daughter.
Although William was an illegitimate child (his parents were not married), he inherited his father's title 'Duke of Normandy.' William was just eight years old when he became Duke of Normandy, following the death of his father.
In 1050, he married Matilda, daughter of the Count of Flanders. It is said that Matilda and her ladies created the famous Bayeux Tapestry. In French, it is sometimes referred to as la Tapisserie de la Reine Mathilde. It is around 70 metres long and can be seen in Bayeux, Normandy.
The tapestry portrays events relating to the Norman invasion of England.
Queen Matilda - la Reine Mathilde - must have been very proud of her husband to create such an enormous piece of intricate work! Below is a section of the tapestry.
Important news! The President of France, Emmanuel Macron, has promised to lend the tapestry to the United Kingdom in the near future!
It will probably be exhibited in the British Museum, London.
In January 1066, the English king known as Edward the Confessor died and a new king of England was crowned. The new king was Harold Godwinson, also known as Harold II.
In Normandy, Duke William was furious! William believed that he should be the new English king instead of Harold.
The old king - Edward the Confessor - had no children to succeed him. William claimed that Edward had promised the English throne to him. There was no way that he was going to tolerate Harold stealing the title of King of England! So, William decided to take what he believed was rightfully his by invading England.
In September 1066, William landed in England with his army. On 14 October 1066, the English army was defeated by the Normans in the Battle of Hastings. It was during this battle that King Harold was killed. This was the start of the Norman Conquest of England.
William of Normandy seized the English throne and was crowned William I, King of England on Christmas Day 1066 in Westminster Abbey.
William earned the nickname William the Conqueror or Guillaume le Conquérant in French.
He introduced the French language to England and as a result, many of the words we use in English today have either come from French or are influenced by French.
William is famous for building lots of castles and churches. A famous Norman castle is the White Tower, part of the Tower of London.
William is well-known for arranging the compilation of the Domesday Book. This was the recording of how much land and wealth belonged to the landowners of England. It was an enormous task.
The information was collected by surveyors who travelled around England. The information was completed in 1086. It is kept in the Public Records Office in London.
The old English word 'dom' means 'judgement' or 'reckoning.' 'Domesday' actually means 'the day of judgement' so that wealthy landowners could be taxed justly according to their wealth.
William of Normandy died in 1087 following an injury when he fell from his horse. He was laid to rest in the Abbaye aux Hommes in Caen, Normandy.
An interesting fact: In the year of the Battle of Hastings, 1066, Halley's Comet appeared in the sky. It is even depicted in the famous Bayeux Tapestry. This event was interpreted by William as a sign from God that it was a good time to initiate his invasion of England! On the other hand, it was considered an ill omen for King Harold.
Below, you can see the section of the tapestry where the comet is visible. It is called 'stella' meaning 'star' and you can see people pointing at it. | 838 | ENGLISH | 1 |
James Monroe, the fifth President of the United States and the last president who was a Founding Father was born at Monroe’s Creek, Westmoreland County, Virginia, April 28, 1758.
He was first tutored at home by his mother Elizabeth and between the ages of 11 and 16, he studied at Campbell town Academy. Upon the death of his father in 1774, Monroe inherited a small plantation and slaves, officially joining the ruling class of the planter elite in Virginia. Just 16 years old, he formed a close relationship with his maternal uncle, the influential Judge Joseph Jones, who had been educated at the Inns of Court in London and was the executor of his father’s estate. That same year, Monroe enrolled in the College of William and Mary.
In early 1776, about a year and a half after his enrollment, Monroe dropped out of college and joined the 3rd Virginia Regiment under General George Washington in the Revolutionary War. He was not 19 years old when, as a lieutenant at the Battle of Trenton, he led a squad of men who captured a Hessian battery as it was about to open fire. During the battle, both Monroe and George Washington were wounded. After recuperating from his wound, Monroe joined the Virginia Militia in 1777, appointed as a lieutenant colonel, and served until 1780. He never returned to school.
Afterward, he studied law with George Wythe, the first American law professor, and then moved to Richmond, Virginia to study law with Thomas Jefferson. In 1780 the British invaded Richmond, and as Governor, Jefferson commissioned Monroe as a colonel to command the militia and act as a liaison to the Continental Army in North Carolina. Afterward, Monroe resumed studying law under Jefferson. In 1782 he was elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses, and the next year, when 25 years old, was a delegate to the Continental Congress.
James Monroe married Elizabeth Kortright (1768–1830) on February 16, 1786, in New York City. He had met her while serving with the Continental Congress, which then met in New York, the temporary capital of the new nation. The couple would have three children.
He was the ambassador to France in 1794, but his course displeased the administration and he was recalled. From 1799 to 1802 he was governor of Virginia, and, in the latter year, was sent to France by President Thomas Jefferson to negotiate the purchase of Louisiana. In 1811 he was again governor of Virginia but served only four months as he was appointed the secretary of State by President James Madison. He also served as Secretary of War at the same time, and, as the treasury was empty, pledged his private means for the defense of New Orleans during the War of 1812.
Facing little opposition from the fractured Federalist Party, Monroe was easily elected president in 1816, winning over 80 percent of the electoral vote. He would serve from 1817 to 1825. Monroe was of plain, simple manners, of excellent judgment and of the highest integrity. While his career did not stamp him as a man of genius, it proved him to be that which in his situation is better—an absolutely “safe” man to trust with the highest office in the gift of the American people. Under Monroe, the United States made greater advancement than during any previous decade.
Everything united to make his administration successful. The Federal party having disappeared, its members either stopped voting or joined the Republicans. Since, therefore, everybody seemed to be agreed in his political views, the period is often referred to as “the era of good feeling,” a condition altogether too ideal to continue long. He is most noted for his proclamation in 1823 of the Monroe Doctrine, which stated that the United States would not tolerate further European intervention in the Americas.
Compiled and edited by Kathy Weiser/Legends of America, updated September 2019.
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0.548427164554596... | 2 | James Monroe, the fifth President of the United States and the last president who was a Founding Father was born at Monroe’s Creek, Westmoreland County, Virginia, April 28, 1758.
He was first tutored at home by his mother Elizabeth and between the ages of 11 and 16, he studied at Campbell town Academy. Upon the death of his father in 1774, Monroe inherited a small plantation and slaves, officially joining the ruling class of the planter elite in Virginia. Just 16 years old, he formed a close relationship with his maternal uncle, the influential Judge Joseph Jones, who had been educated at the Inns of Court in London and was the executor of his father’s estate. That same year, Monroe enrolled in the College of William and Mary.
In early 1776, about a year and a half after his enrollment, Monroe dropped out of college and joined the 3rd Virginia Regiment under General George Washington in the Revolutionary War. He was not 19 years old when, as a lieutenant at the Battle of Trenton, he led a squad of men who captured a Hessian battery as it was about to open fire. During the battle, both Monroe and George Washington were wounded. After recuperating from his wound, Monroe joined the Virginia Militia in 1777, appointed as a lieutenant colonel, and served until 1780. He never returned to school.
Afterward, he studied law with George Wythe, the first American law professor, and then moved to Richmond, Virginia to study law with Thomas Jefferson. In 1780 the British invaded Richmond, and as Governor, Jefferson commissioned Monroe as a colonel to command the militia and act as a liaison to the Continental Army in North Carolina. Afterward, Monroe resumed studying law under Jefferson. In 1782 he was elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses, and the next year, when 25 years old, was a delegate to the Continental Congress.
James Monroe married Elizabeth Kortright (1768–1830) on February 16, 1786, in New York City. He had met her while serving with the Continental Congress, which then met in New York, the temporary capital of the new nation. The couple would have three children.
He was the ambassador to France in 1794, but his course displeased the administration and he was recalled. From 1799 to 1802 he was governor of Virginia, and, in the latter year, was sent to France by President Thomas Jefferson to negotiate the purchase of Louisiana. In 1811 he was again governor of Virginia but served only four months as he was appointed the secretary of State by President James Madison. He also served as Secretary of War at the same time, and, as the treasury was empty, pledged his private means for the defense of New Orleans during the War of 1812.
Facing little opposition from the fractured Federalist Party, Monroe was easily elected president in 1816, winning over 80 percent of the electoral vote. He would serve from 1817 to 1825. Monroe was of plain, simple manners, of excellent judgment and of the highest integrity. While his career did not stamp him as a man of genius, it proved him to be that which in his situation is better—an absolutely “safe” man to trust with the highest office in the gift of the American people. Under Monroe, the United States made greater advancement than during any previous decade.
Everything united to make his administration successful. The Federal party having disappeared, its members either stopped voting or joined the Republicans. Since, therefore, everybody seemed to be agreed in his political views, the period is often referred to as “the era of good feeling,” a condition altogether too ideal to continue long. He is most noted for his proclamation in 1823 of the Monroe Doctrine, which stated that the United States would not tolerate further European intervention in the Americas.
Compiled and edited by Kathy Weiser/Legends of America, updated September 2019.
Morris, Charles; A New history of the United States: The greater Republic; 1899 | 887 | ENGLISH | 1 |
If Jefferson Davis and others could have had their way, camels might have become as much a symbol of Texas ingenuity and grit as the Longhorn or the mustang. Mules, oxen and other beasts of burden might have found themselves ignominiously unemployed when it came to time to cross American deserts and mountains. Rodeos and horse tracks would look a lot different, and cowboys would have a whole different set of skills. It could have happened.
That it didn’t work out that way isn’t wholly the fault of the camels. They proved more than adequate for the tasks assigned them but Davis, Robert E. Lee (who was charged with protecting the camels for a time when he was stationed in Texas) and indeed the entire country was forced to focus on other matters – mainly a little episode in our history known as the American Civil War.
Davis, a U.S. Senator who would later serve as the U.S. Secretary of War, had long supported the annexation of Texas but transportation in the rougher portions of the state, especially West Texas, was problematic. Accepting the commonly held notion that most of the Western U.S. was a Great American Desert, Davis thought camels might be the solution.
As Secretary of War, Davis’ first annual report to President Franklin Pierce included some lobbying on behalf of the humble and hard-working dromedary: “Napoleon when in Egypt used with marked success the dromedary in subduing the Arabs whose habits and country were very similar to those of the mounted Indians of our Western plains. France is about to adopt the dromedary in Algeria. For like military purposes, for expresses and for reconnaisances, it is believed that the dromedary will fill a want now seriously felt in our military service.”
In 1857, Davis helped add $30,000 to the appropriation bill for the “purchase of camels and the importation of dromedaries, to be employed for military purposes.”
And so it came to pass that 32 camels, mostly single-humped Arabian dromedaries along with a two-humped Bactrian and hybrids of the two, along with one calf born at sea, arrived at the historic but now defunct port city of Indianola in the spring of 1857.
Maj. H.C. Wayne, who bought the camels during a trafficking foray up and down the North African coast, brought them to Texas, eventually settling at Camp Verde near present-day Kerrville. From that base of operations those camels, along with a second group from Egypt, went the camels to work with the same accepting nonchalance for which they are known.
Wayne’s first test was an expedition of six camels from Camp Verde to San Antonio; the camels passed with flying colors. “From this trial it will be seen that the six camels transported over the same ground and distance the weights of two six mule wagons, and gained on them 42 ½ hours in time.”
Other reports confirmed the fact that camels were up to about any task assigned them. Skeptics might have been persuaded by a trip to the Big Bend region of Texas, a rugged and arid land that had defeated previous expeditions.
For the camels, the trip was pretty much a walk in the park. The camels at one point traveled more than 100 miles in four days without water, which allowed the human members of the expedition to save their water without a need to share it with horses or mules as would have been the case in a traditional trip to those parts. The group eventually found water and it was reported that the camels “arrived at the water in good condition and showed no evidence of unusual distress.”
In response to complaints from pioneers who found westbound travel more than a little perilous, not to mention downright difficult, Lieutenant Edward Beale was instructed to take a caravan from Texas to California. Like Wayne and others, Beale saw a lot to like in the camels.
He wrote: “They are the most docile, patient and easily managed creatures in the world and infinitely more workable than mules.”
Not all the camels made it back to Texas from California. A few stayed in the Golden State and were seen there as late as the 1890, wandering aimlessly about the deserts in what might be characterized as a typically laid-back California attitude.
The Great Camel Experiment died from neglect, as did the camels from a couple of other subsequent shipments of camels to the state. As hostilities between the North and South escalated, Jefferson Davis became president of the Confederacy. Robert E. Lee refused to fight against his home state and also joined the Confederacy. U.S. officials were quick to wash their hands of any enterprise that had Davis’ fingerprints on it, and the camel experiment faded into history.
Some of the animals were sold to a circus. Bethel Coopwood bought 66 of the camels at an auction with the idea of using them to haul mail to Mexico City; the idea never panned out and Coopwood gave up his camels to repay a loan. Like old soldiers, the Texas camels faded away.
While it may be surmised that Texas and the United States missed a good opportunity when it let the camel experiment die, that’s probably not the case. We can only imagine what kind of havoc camels would have wreaked on native vegetation. And while reports from military officers were laudatory, not everyone was so fond of the camels. They smelled bad and could be extremely foul-tempered. Camels also have an annoying habit of puking on people who displease them. Even the most stubborn of mules won’t resort to pukery.
Horses hate camels too. “The chief objection to using camels as beasts of burden in Texas is that horses usually run away at the sight of them,” one observer wrote. “This is bad for the horse and worse for the pilot of the camel if the owners of the horses should have his pistol with him.”
Using camels in the American deserts and mountains was an idea whose time came, and we can be glad for that because it added a colorful chapter to our history, but we can be just as glad the time for that idea passed. It’s just hard to imagine the Seventh Cavalry riding to the rescue on a bunch of camels. | <urn:uuid:f185d070-6946-46ae-8106-20886846d381> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.claycoppedge.com/the-great-camel-experiment | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00171.warc.gz | en | 0.981122 | 1,361 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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... | 12 | If Jefferson Davis and others could have had their way, camels might have become as much a symbol of Texas ingenuity and grit as the Longhorn or the mustang. Mules, oxen and other beasts of burden might have found themselves ignominiously unemployed when it came to time to cross American deserts and mountains. Rodeos and horse tracks would look a lot different, and cowboys would have a whole different set of skills. It could have happened.
That it didn’t work out that way isn’t wholly the fault of the camels. They proved more than adequate for the tasks assigned them but Davis, Robert E. Lee (who was charged with protecting the camels for a time when he was stationed in Texas) and indeed the entire country was forced to focus on other matters – mainly a little episode in our history known as the American Civil War.
Davis, a U.S. Senator who would later serve as the U.S. Secretary of War, had long supported the annexation of Texas but transportation in the rougher portions of the state, especially West Texas, was problematic. Accepting the commonly held notion that most of the Western U.S. was a Great American Desert, Davis thought camels might be the solution.
As Secretary of War, Davis’ first annual report to President Franklin Pierce included some lobbying on behalf of the humble and hard-working dromedary: “Napoleon when in Egypt used with marked success the dromedary in subduing the Arabs whose habits and country were very similar to those of the mounted Indians of our Western plains. France is about to adopt the dromedary in Algeria. For like military purposes, for expresses and for reconnaisances, it is believed that the dromedary will fill a want now seriously felt in our military service.”
In 1857, Davis helped add $30,000 to the appropriation bill for the “purchase of camels and the importation of dromedaries, to be employed for military purposes.”
And so it came to pass that 32 camels, mostly single-humped Arabian dromedaries along with a two-humped Bactrian and hybrids of the two, along with one calf born at sea, arrived at the historic but now defunct port city of Indianola in the spring of 1857.
Maj. H.C. Wayne, who bought the camels during a trafficking foray up and down the North African coast, brought them to Texas, eventually settling at Camp Verde near present-day Kerrville. From that base of operations those camels, along with a second group from Egypt, went the camels to work with the same accepting nonchalance for which they are known.
Wayne’s first test was an expedition of six camels from Camp Verde to San Antonio; the camels passed with flying colors. “From this trial it will be seen that the six camels transported over the same ground and distance the weights of two six mule wagons, and gained on them 42 ½ hours in time.”
Other reports confirmed the fact that camels were up to about any task assigned them. Skeptics might have been persuaded by a trip to the Big Bend region of Texas, a rugged and arid land that had defeated previous expeditions.
For the camels, the trip was pretty much a walk in the park. The camels at one point traveled more than 100 miles in four days without water, which allowed the human members of the expedition to save their water without a need to share it with horses or mules as would have been the case in a traditional trip to those parts. The group eventually found water and it was reported that the camels “arrived at the water in good condition and showed no evidence of unusual distress.”
In response to complaints from pioneers who found westbound travel more than a little perilous, not to mention downright difficult, Lieutenant Edward Beale was instructed to take a caravan from Texas to California. Like Wayne and others, Beale saw a lot to like in the camels.
He wrote: “They are the most docile, patient and easily managed creatures in the world and infinitely more workable than mules.”
Not all the camels made it back to Texas from California. A few stayed in the Golden State and were seen there as late as the 1890, wandering aimlessly about the deserts in what might be characterized as a typically laid-back California attitude.
The Great Camel Experiment died from neglect, as did the camels from a couple of other subsequent shipments of camels to the state. As hostilities between the North and South escalated, Jefferson Davis became president of the Confederacy. Robert E. Lee refused to fight against his home state and also joined the Confederacy. U.S. officials were quick to wash their hands of any enterprise that had Davis’ fingerprints on it, and the camel experiment faded into history.
Some of the animals were sold to a circus. Bethel Coopwood bought 66 of the camels at an auction with the idea of using them to haul mail to Mexico City; the idea never panned out and Coopwood gave up his camels to repay a loan. Like old soldiers, the Texas camels faded away.
While it may be surmised that Texas and the United States missed a good opportunity when it let the camel experiment die, that’s probably not the case. We can only imagine what kind of havoc camels would have wreaked on native vegetation. And while reports from military officers were laudatory, not everyone was so fond of the camels. They smelled bad and could be extremely foul-tempered. Camels also have an annoying habit of puking on people who displease them. Even the most stubborn of mules won’t resort to pukery.
Horses hate camels too. “The chief objection to using camels as beasts of burden in Texas is that horses usually run away at the sight of them,” one observer wrote. “This is bad for the horse and worse for the pilot of the camel if the owners of the horses should have his pistol with him.”
Using camels in the American deserts and mountains was an idea whose time came, and we can be glad for that because it added a colorful chapter to our history, but we can be just as glad the time for that idea passed. It’s just hard to imagine the Seventh Cavalry riding to the rescue on a bunch of camels. | 1,332 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In shock generator to the ‘student’ . The
In 1962, Stanley Milgram
shocked the entire world with his study on obedience and personal conscience.
He was a psychologist at Yale University who devised an experiment famously
known as ‘The Milgram Experiment’. Milgram selected volunteers by advertising
in the newspaper asking for male participants to be a part in a study about
learning and memory. The real motive behind the experiment was not disclosed to
these participants as he wanted to get genuine behaviors from them.
When these participants arrived at the lab, they were told that they were going
to be taking part in a study that was trying to look at the effects of
punishment on learning.
There were two participants involved in the study who were to randomly select
from a hat to decide who would be the ‘learner’ and who would be the ‘teacher’.
However, one of the participants was working with the experimenter and choosing
the roles from the hat was not so random since he was given a fixed role as the
‘learner’. This means that the actual participant always got the ‘teacher’
role. While the ‘teacher’ was watching, the experimenter connected a shock
generator to the ‘student’ . The ‘teacher’ was then taken to another room with
no visual contact with the ‘learner’ and were introduced to a shock box with a
number of switches in ascending order where the first switch was labelled 15
volts and the last 450 volts which was considered to be extremely intense
shock. He was then asked to teach the ‘learner’ some word pairs where learner
would be shocked every time he gave a wrong answer. If the ‘learner’ gave
correct answer, the ‘teacher’ was to continue and if not, he was to announce
the voltage and then give them a shock at increasing increments for every wrong
answer. The ‘learner’ was to act as he was in pain by screaming loudly and
begging the ‘teacher’ to let him out of there. The experimenter stood behind
the subject encouraging them to continue with the punishments even if they seem
distressed and was to give a series of prods to make sure that the subjects
continue with the test. | <urn:uuid:9b12f6d8-a7c7-4fe5-b47c-2dc9076b954c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://weatherbird.net/in-shock-generator-to-the-student-the/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00004.warc.gz | en | 0.984136 | 504 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.36521664261817... | 1 | In shock generator to the ‘student’ . The
In 1962, Stanley Milgram
shocked the entire world with his study on obedience and personal conscience.
He was a psychologist at Yale University who devised an experiment famously
known as ‘The Milgram Experiment’. Milgram selected volunteers by advertising
in the newspaper asking for male participants to be a part in a study about
learning and memory. The real motive behind the experiment was not disclosed to
these participants as he wanted to get genuine behaviors from them.
When these participants arrived at the lab, they were told that they were going
to be taking part in a study that was trying to look at the effects of
punishment on learning.
There were two participants involved in the study who were to randomly select
from a hat to decide who would be the ‘learner’ and who would be the ‘teacher’.
However, one of the participants was working with the experimenter and choosing
the roles from the hat was not so random since he was given a fixed role as the
‘learner’. This means that the actual participant always got the ‘teacher’
role. While the ‘teacher’ was watching, the experimenter connected a shock
generator to the ‘student’ . The ‘teacher’ was then taken to another room with
no visual contact with the ‘learner’ and were introduced to a shock box with a
number of switches in ascending order where the first switch was labelled 15
volts and the last 450 volts which was considered to be extremely intense
shock. He was then asked to teach the ‘learner’ some word pairs where learner
would be shocked every time he gave a wrong answer. If the ‘learner’ gave
correct answer, the ‘teacher’ was to continue and if not, he was to announce
the voltage and then give them a shock at increasing increments for every wrong
answer. The ‘learner’ was to act as he was in pain by screaming loudly and
begging the ‘teacher’ to let him out of there. The experimenter stood behind
the subject encouraging them to continue with the punishments even if they seem
distressed and was to give a series of prods to make sure that the subjects
continue with the test. | 467 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Maori and Polynesian: their origin, history and culture
Tattooing the Face was a Fine Art
Tattooing the Face was a Fine Art
(14) And this suggests that one of the motifs of the art was sexual; it was intended to increase the influence of the individual over the imagination of the other sex, an intention brought out more clearly by the body tattooings page 188of the Samoans, Tongans, and other islanders. In New Zealand the concentration of all the resources of the art upon the face would alone reveal that there had been a revolution in clothing through the change in climate; a man has no passionate longing any more than a woman to decorate what will never be seen. The islanders had little or no face-tattooing; there was sufficient canvas for the artist in the broad skin-expanses otherwise exposed in the tropics. That the Maoris still continued to tattoo other parts shows their tropical origin and their habit of stripping for war and for work, that had followed them even into the bracing climate of New Zealand. Some of the tattooings of the Polynesians seem to be a reminiscence of garments or body-coverings; the Easter Island women and some of the men of some other islands have an imitation of stockings and sandals or mocassins, and others an imitation of drawers; it looks as if in migrating from a colder climate to a warmer the body-coverings were discarded, and tattooed imitations were substituted. It is even said that the Polynesians who came to New Zealand had no tattooing on the face, but only about the thighs.
(15) Be this as it may, it was face-tattooing that ultimately became the essential of a warrior, and on it the finest art of the race was concentrated. This may have been due to the custom of preserving the heads of friends to mourn over, but it was still more due to the necessity of wearing body raiment in the colder winters of the new country. At any rate, the thigh-tattooing degenerated into a conventional pattern pretty much the same on all bodies. The face patterns are infinitely varied, and especially marked by the beauty and delicacy of their details and the grace of their general effect.
(16) And that there were true artists amongst the operators is evident not merely from the results, but from the de-page 189scription of an operator and his work given by Earle, the draughtsman to the Beagle Expedition. He had been a slave; but men from all parts and all tribes crowded to him to have their faces beautified, and he had grown wealthy and influential. This indicates that, though there was so much that was tapu, or sacred, about the operation, the conquering immigrants accustomed themselves to the conquered and lowborn operating, an indication that goes far to confirm the evidences that the fine art was acquired from some aboriginal race. The greater beauty and variety of the forms and details than in house-decoration, or even canoe-carving, shows the effect on art of an untrammelled career for the artists. Special families were devoted to carving. But in tattooing it was the individual that succeeded, and won both wealth and fame; the talent was allowed a free career, in spite of birth or environment. And the artist knew that his works would have enduring fame; the faces he had done would touch the hearts of generation after generation, for the heads would be preserved as heirlooms in a family, like the portraits of ancestors in Europe, done by great painters. | <urn:uuid:eec2b8c9-ee7d-4e82-9260-f4ba352a0bfb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-BroMaor-t1-body1-d14-d6.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00354.warc.gz | en | 0.981974 | 751 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.655348956584930... | 1 | Maori and Polynesian: their origin, history and culture
Tattooing the Face was a Fine Art
Tattooing the Face was a Fine Art
(14) And this suggests that one of the motifs of the art was sexual; it was intended to increase the influence of the individual over the imagination of the other sex, an intention brought out more clearly by the body tattooings page 188of the Samoans, Tongans, and other islanders. In New Zealand the concentration of all the resources of the art upon the face would alone reveal that there had been a revolution in clothing through the change in climate; a man has no passionate longing any more than a woman to decorate what will never be seen. The islanders had little or no face-tattooing; there was sufficient canvas for the artist in the broad skin-expanses otherwise exposed in the tropics. That the Maoris still continued to tattoo other parts shows their tropical origin and their habit of stripping for war and for work, that had followed them even into the bracing climate of New Zealand. Some of the tattooings of the Polynesians seem to be a reminiscence of garments or body-coverings; the Easter Island women and some of the men of some other islands have an imitation of stockings and sandals or mocassins, and others an imitation of drawers; it looks as if in migrating from a colder climate to a warmer the body-coverings were discarded, and tattooed imitations were substituted. It is even said that the Polynesians who came to New Zealand had no tattooing on the face, but only about the thighs.
(15) Be this as it may, it was face-tattooing that ultimately became the essential of a warrior, and on it the finest art of the race was concentrated. This may have been due to the custom of preserving the heads of friends to mourn over, but it was still more due to the necessity of wearing body raiment in the colder winters of the new country. At any rate, the thigh-tattooing degenerated into a conventional pattern pretty much the same on all bodies. The face patterns are infinitely varied, and especially marked by the beauty and delicacy of their details and the grace of their general effect.
(16) And that there were true artists amongst the operators is evident not merely from the results, but from the de-page 189scription of an operator and his work given by Earle, the draughtsman to the Beagle Expedition. He had been a slave; but men from all parts and all tribes crowded to him to have their faces beautified, and he had grown wealthy and influential. This indicates that, though there was so much that was tapu, or sacred, about the operation, the conquering immigrants accustomed themselves to the conquered and lowborn operating, an indication that goes far to confirm the evidences that the fine art was acquired from some aboriginal race. The greater beauty and variety of the forms and details than in house-decoration, or even canoe-carving, shows the effect on art of an untrammelled career for the artists. Special families were devoted to carving. But in tattooing it was the individual that succeeded, and won both wealth and fame; the talent was allowed a free career, in spite of birth or environment. And the artist knew that his works would have enduring fame; the faces he had done would touch the hearts of generation after generation, for the heads would be preserved as heirlooms in a family, like the portraits of ancestors in Europe, done by great painters. | 741 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Obverse: CONSTANTINVS IVN NOB C; Laureate Bust of Constantine II Facing Right
Reverse: CAESARVM NOSTRORVM; Wreath Encircling the Text, VOT X
Constantine II was born in 316 A.D., the eldest son of Constantine the Great and his second wife, Fausta. When the empire was divided upon the death of his father in A. D. 337 between him and his brothers Constantius II, Constans I, he inherited Gaul and most of Western Europe. Together with his brothers, Constantine II systematically murdered any of his relatives that he considered a threat to his throne. They left their young cousin Julian alive, however, and Julian ultimately did lead a successful revolt and become emperor. Part of the arrangements made between the three brothers included Constantine II acting as regent for Constans, who was considered somewhat young to rule in his own right. In 340, Constantine II and Constans got into an argument over the administration of Italy. Constantine II gathered an army to go chastise his brother, but was soundly defeated in the battle that took place near the city of Aquileia, in the North of Italy close to the western slopes of the Julian Alps. Constantine II was killed in the battle after bitter fighting.
How many hands have touched a coin in your pocket or purse? What eras and lands have the coin traversed on its journey into our possession? As we reach into our pockets to pull out some change, we rarely hesitate to think of who might have touched the coin before us, or where the coin will venture to after it leaves our hands. More than money, coins are a symbol of the state that struck them, of a specific time and location, whether contemporary currencies or artifacts of a long forgotten empire. This stunning hand-struck coin reveals an expertise of craftsmanship and intricate sculptural detail that is often lacking in contemporary machine-made currencies. This ancient coin is a memorial to the Emperor Constantine II, passed from the hands of civilization to civilization, from generation to generation that still appears as vibrant today as the day it was struck. | <urn:uuid:7cb3692d-ace5-4918-b8f8-5ecb0c3ac4ff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.barakatgallery.com/store/index.cfm/FuseAction/ItemDetails/UserID/0/CFID/132675321/CFTOKEN/43524737/CategoryID/48/SubCategoryID/638/ItemID/16022.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00382.warc.gz | en | 0.980026 | 436 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.50351464748382... | 1 | Obverse: CONSTANTINVS IVN NOB C; Laureate Bust of Constantine II Facing Right
Reverse: CAESARVM NOSTRORVM; Wreath Encircling the Text, VOT X
Constantine II was born in 316 A.D., the eldest son of Constantine the Great and his second wife, Fausta. When the empire was divided upon the death of his father in A. D. 337 between him and his brothers Constantius II, Constans I, he inherited Gaul and most of Western Europe. Together with his brothers, Constantine II systematically murdered any of his relatives that he considered a threat to his throne. They left their young cousin Julian alive, however, and Julian ultimately did lead a successful revolt and become emperor. Part of the arrangements made between the three brothers included Constantine II acting as regent for Constans, who was considered somewhat young to rule in his own right. In 340, Constantine II and Constans got into an argument over the administration of Italy. Constantine II gathered an army to go chastise his brother, but was soundly defeated in the battle that took place near the city of Aquileia, in the North of Italy close to the western slopes of the Julian Alps. Constantine II was killed in the battle after bitter fighting.
How many hands have touched a coin in your pocket or purse? What eras and lands have the coin traversed on its journey into our possession? As we reach into our pockets to pull out some change, we rarely hesitate to think of who might have touched the coin before us, or where the coin will venture to after it leaves our hands. More than money, coins are a symbol of the state that struck them, of a specific time and location, whether contemporary currencies or artifacts of a long forgotten empire. This stunning hand-struck coin reveals an expertise of craftsmanship and intricate sculptural detail that is often lacking in contemporary machine-made currencies. This ancient coin is a memorial to the Emperor Constantine II, passed from the hands of civilization to civilization, from generation to generation that still appears as vibrant today as the day it was struck. | 445 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Wednesday of the Passion Week is often called “Silent Wednesday.” The dominant thought about this day was that it served as the day Judas used for arranging the betrayal of Jesus. It seems appropriate that a man who sought riches through betrayal of the Messiah sent from God would receive silence as his reward.
Judas Iscariot is a tragic figure
Judas is derived from Judah, which means, “Jehovah leads.” Is there a more paradoxical name given in history? We know that Judas was from Judah (southern Israel) from the fact that his last name is a geographic reference. Judas’ last name is Iscariot, which is a compound word made up of “ish” (man) and “Kerioth” – a city in southern Judea see Joshua 15:25). Therefore, Judas is the “man from Kerioth.” Out of the twelve disciples, Judas was the only disciple who did not come from the Galilee region. Kerioth was in Judah. Judah was known for its affluence and, therefore, Judas was most likely was from an affluent culture. For this reason, it is understandable that Judas was given charge of overseeing the treasury for the disciples (see John 12:6). All of the other disciples were somehow connected to one another prior to following Christ (a brother, friend, family member), but the connection Judas had is a mystery. How and when did he begin to follow Jesus? We simply do not know.
Judas must have seemed very spiritual
Judas healed people. Judas stayed with Christ when the crowd left (John 6:66-71). When Jesus spoke of betrayal at the Last Supper, not one of the disciples seemed to consider Judas to be the one who would betray Him (see John 13:21-25). As a matter of fact, Judas is never mentioned by any of the other disciples as being deficient in faith in any way. Other than Christ (see John 6:64), Judas was a master at hypocrisy!
What would drive Judas to betray Christ?
It seems that the root issue was money. Judas had followed Christ for three years. Judas had endured persecution, hunger, endless talks from Jesus around the fire, a life abandoned to the cause of the Kingdom of Heaven, and for what? Jesus was now speaking of leaving and death (see Matt.26:2). How could Judas redeem the three years he had put in? He was a known follower of Christ and that type of reputation would follow him. Judas had hitched his wagon to Christ, and now it was clear Jesus was not going to restore the powerful Kingdom that had been long anticipated and Judas would soon be on the run. Judas needed a nest egg and fast. Since Judas had seen Jesus face a hostile mob and simply walk away when they tried to kill Him (see Luke 4:28-30), he must have thought betraying Christ would lead to one more opportunity for Jesus to escape but this time Judas would be the richer for it, thirty pieces of silver richer! Judas made his way to those who would pay the most, the religious leaders who hated Jesus with a passion (see Matt.12:14). It must have seemed like the perfect plan!
Judas was self-deluding
Tragically, Judas did not realize a fundamental problem with sin — it creates an alternate reality based on personal desire. As Judas developed his plan to betray Jesus he entered into a world of personal delusion. He began to forge his own reality based on how to get what he most wanted. He constructed an imaginary world in which He would win, in which nothing could go wrong.
The world is replete with people who thought they could get away with something, but then only find themselves wondering how they could have been so wrong or, even worse, trying to figure out how to not get caught the next time. For Judas there was no next time. Judas was living in the moment. Judas did get an outcome for his betrayal; Judas killed himself and his name is now forever associated with the spiritual bankrupt. | <urn:uuid:435fc4a2-8ce9-41ca-be60-ca05bd90dc42> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://forgodsfame.org/2010/03/31/its-wednesday-of-the-passion-week-2/?shared=email&msg=fail | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00296.warc.gz | en | 0.987761 | 871 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.1027374491... | 3 | Wednesday of the Passion Week is often called “Silent Wednesday.” The dominant thought about this day was that it served as the day Judas used for arranging the betrayal of Jesus. It seems appropriate that a man who sought riches through betrayal of the Messiah sent from God would receive silence as his reward.
Judas Iscariot is a tragic figure
Judas is derived from Judah, which means, “Jehovah leads.” Is there a more paradoxical name given in history? We know that Judas was from Judah (southern Israel) from the fact that his last name is a geographic reference. Judas’ last name is Iscariot, which is a compound word made up of “ish” (man) and “Kerioth” – a city in southern Judea see Joshua 15:25). Therefore, Judas is the “man from Kerioth.” Out of the twelve disciples, Judas was the only disciple who did not come from the Galilee region. Kerioth was in Judah. Judah was known for its affluence and, therefore, Judas was most likely was from an affluent culture. For this reason, it is understandable that Judas was given charge of overseeing the treasury for the disciples (see John 12:6). All of the other disciples were somehow connected to one another prior to following Christ (a brother, friend, family member), but the connection Judas had is a mystery. How and when did he begin to follow Jesus? We simply do not know.
Judas must have seemed very spiritual
Judas healed people. Judas stayed with Christ when the crowd left (John 6:66-71). When Jesus spoke of betrayal at the Last Supper, not one of the disciples seemed to consider Judas to be the one who would betray Him (see John 13:21-25). As a matter of fact, Judas is never mentioned by any of the other disciples as being deficient in faith in any way. Other than Christ (see John 6:64), Judas was a master at hypocrisy!
What would drive Judas to betray Christ?
It seems that the root issue was money. Judas had followed Christ for three years. Judas had endured persecution, hunger, endless talks from Jesus around the fire, a life abandoned to the cause of the Kingdom of Heaven, and for what? Jesus was now speaking of leaving and death (see Matt.26:2). How could Judas redeem the three years he had put in? He was a known follower of Christ and that type of reputation would follow him. Judas had hitched his wagon to Christ, and now it was clear Jesus was not going to restore the powerful Kingdom that had been long anticipated and Judas would soon be on the run. Judas needed a nest egg and fast. Since Judas had seen Jesus face a hostile mob and simply walk away when they tried to kill Him (see Luke 4:28-30), he must have thought betraying Christ would lead to one more opportunity for Jesus to escape but this time Judas would be the richer for it, thirty pieces of silver richer! Judas made his way to those who would pay the most, the religious leaders who hated Jesus with a passion (see Matt.12:14). It must have seemed like the perfect plan!
Judas was self-deluding
Tragically, Judas did not realize a fundamental problem with sin — it creates an alternate reality based on personal desire. As Judas developed his plan to betray Jesus he entered into a world of personal delusion. He began to forge his own reality based on how to get what he most wanted. He constructed an imaginary world in which He would win, in which nothing could go wrong.
The world is replete with people who thought they could get away with something, but then only find themselves wondering how they could have been so wrong or, even worse, trying to figure out how to not get caught the next time. For Judas there was no next time. Judas was living in the moment. Judas did get an outcome for his betrayal; Judas killed himself and his name is now forever associated with the spiritual bankrupt. | 878 | ENGLISH | 1 |
New fossils discovered preserved in amber have revealed that lice have been feeding on much larger hosts for some 100 million years. Scientists had been itching to close what had been a gap in the fossil record.
Scientists had speculated that feathered dinosaurs were preyed upon by lice, but they'd found little evidence — until now.
A set of diminutive bugs from just the period in question was spotted in amber samples from Myanmar, a report in the science journal Nature reveals.
Read more: Colossal flying reptile discovered in Canada
Scientists from Beijing's Capital Normal University found 10 of the tiny insects in well-preserved downy feathers that — Jurassic Park-style — were trapped in plant resin some 100 million years ago.
While paleontologists had suspected that parasites preyed on feathered dinosaurs in the Mesozoic era, they had not been able to plug an obvious gap in the fossil record.
Such small bugs are unlikely to create their own fossils, and when they do, they're hard to spot.
The Beijing team had looked through some 1,000 pieces of amber over a period of roughly five years. They noticed the lice in only two of the samples.
The feathers appeared to have been damaged and one of the insects even appeared to be in the act of feeding on a feather.
Details of the study were also published by the online magazine of the journal Science.
Evolutionary biologist Julie Allen told the magazine that the find was "very, very cool and very exciting for the louse community."
"Having an actual fossil—and not only this old, but feeding on feathers? That's spectacular."
The insects, roughly twice the width of a human hair, are somewhat different from today's lice, with less sophisticated mouthparts.
"They look a bit weird, but they definitely have louse-y features," Allen told Science.
It's thought that the lice probably didn't bite their host's skin and so wouldn't have itched, but damage to feathers could have bothered the dinosaurs.
"Now we know that feathered dinosaurs not only had feathers, they also had parasites — and they most likely had ways they tried to get rid of them," Allen said. | <urn:uuid:3614163d-2d45-40ce-9c96-9dc35e902b90> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.dw.com/en/fossils-show-feathered-dinosaurs-had-a-lousy-life/a-51634980 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00550.warc.gz | en | 0.986857 | 455 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.20196072757... | 1 | New fossils discovered preserved in amber have revealed that lice have been feeding on much larger hosts for some 100 million years. Scientists had been itching to close what had been a gap in the fossil record.
Scientists had speculated that feathered dinosaurs were preyed upon by lice, but they'd found little evidence — until now.
A set of diminutive bugs from just the period in question was spotted in amber samples from Myanmar, a report in the science journal Nature reveals.
Read more: Colossal flying reptile discovered in Canada
Scientists from Beijing's Capital Normal University found 10 of the tiny insects in well-preserved downy feathers that — Jurassic Park-style — were trapped in plant resin some 100 million years ago.
While paleontologists had suspected that parasites preyed on feathered dinosaurs in the Mesozoic era, they had not been able to plug an obvious gap in the fossil record.
Such small bugs are unlikely to create their own fossils, and when they do, they're hard to spot.
The Beijing team had looked through some 1,000 pieces of amber over a period of roughly five years. They noticed the lice in only two of the samples.
The feathers appeared to have been damaged and one of the insects even appeared to be in the act of feeding on a feather.
Details of the study were also published by the online magazine of the journal Science.
Evolutionary biologist Julie Allen told the magazine that the find was "very, very cool and very exciting for the louse community."
"Having an actual fossil—and not only this old, but feeding on feathers? That's spectacular."
The insects, roughly twice the width of a human hair, are somewhat different from today's lice, with less sophisticated mouthparts.
"They look a bit weird, but they definitely have louse-y features," Allen told Science.
It's thought that the lice probably didn't bite their host's skin and so wouldn't have itched, but damage to feathers could have bothered the dinosaurs.
"Now we know that feathered dinosaurs not only had feathers, they also had parasites — and they most likely had ways they tried to get rid of them," Allen said. | 446 | ENGLISH | 1 |
While the Great Depression of the 1930’s had a huge impact on pretty much everyone the workers in the U.S. were particularly affected by the devastating loss of jobs and economic deterioration. The women of their period were particularly hard hit. In 1933 there were almost two million women who were unemployed. Married women were discriminated against more than other women and wages plummeted. Some women who were lucky enough to still hold jobs made less than five dollars a week and workplace conditions were inhumane in many cases. In the garment industry it became particularly horrific and sweatshops became the norm.
There were a few women during this era who stepped up and became activists to fight for the women, better wages, the elimination of sweatshops and the formation of unions. One of those brave women was Rosa Perotta.
Rosa Pesotta was born on November 10th, 1896, in the Russian Ukraine. When she was seventeen, she followed her older sister, Esther, to America to avoid an arranged marriage. Once in New York, she soon found work in a Manhattan shirtwaist factory and joined the International Ladies Garment Workers Union (ILGWU), Local 25. It was one of the most powerful Unions of the era.
The Union soon recognized Rose’s organizational abilities and enlisted her to organize the women garment workers. In 1915 she helped to set up an education department within the Union and was soon elected to Local 25’s Executive Board. In 1933 she traveled to Los Angeles to organize for the Union. Los Angeles was a traditionally anti-union city. She was persuasive though and met with great success which ultimately resulted in election as vice president of the ILGWU. This young anarchist was often sent to many fierce, anti-union factories and was the only paid woman organizer in the male dominated Union. She had to fight to get her voice heard within her Union as well as outside. She was deeply committed to women in the workplace and that made her an outsider or sorts which was something she had to deal with constantly during her career. Questioning male authority within the Union also eventuated in her being labeled as a “troublemaker.” It was completely socially unacceptable for women to be outspoken, leaders, or hold positions of leadership. Yet, Rosa did all three.
She was the only "woman organizer" helping at the United Auto Workers strike in Flint, Michigan, and at the Akron rubber workers strike in the late 1930s. It was her job to raise the morale of the strikers by working with the wives, daughters, and sisters. She often spoke at meetings of the strikers and led them in union songs. She also filmed the strikes with her movie camera, and the workers were eager to pose for her, thus increasing her familiarity with the strikers. Rosa played an important role in the Flint sit-down strike. She was involved in the negotiations and diligently supported the strikers. During this strike thugs attacked and beat her, causing a lifelong hearing impairment. When the strike was finally settled, she was one of the CIO and UAW leaders who led the workers out.
In many cases women had subservient and powerless roles in the 1930s. Pesotta dared to step out of the role society gave her. She is one of the few women who made it past the bastions of male power in the 1930s and tried to instill her own brand of feminism into the labor movement.
In 1944, she made the decision not to run for a fourth term as Union vice president and returned to her old shop as a sewing machine operator. She also wrote and published two memoirs, Bread Upon the Waters, and Days of Our Lives. | <urn:uuid:44728f12-5408-4062-883a-66a96458197c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.herstory-online.com/single-post/2019/12/19/The-Woman-Organizer | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00131.warc.gz | en | 0.992624 | 745 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.06331764161586761... | 3 | While the Great Depression of the 1930’s had a huge impact on pretty much everyone the workers in the U.S. were particularly affected by the devastating loss of jobs and economic deterioration. The women of their period were particularly hard hit. In 1933 there were almost two million women who were unemployed. Married women were discriminated against more than other women and wages plummeted. Some women who were lucky enough to still hold jobs made less than five dollars a week and workplace conditions were inhumane in many cases. In the garment industry it became particularly horrific and sweatshops became the norm.
There were a few women during this era who stepped up and became activists to fight for the women, better wages, the elimination of sweatshops and the formation of unions. One of those brave women was Rosa Perotta.
Rosa Pesotta was born on November 10th, 1896, in the Russian Ukraine. When she was seventeen, she followed her older sister, Esther, to America to avoid an arranged marriage. Once in New York, she soon found work in a Manhattan shirtwaist factory and joined the International Ladies Garment Workers Union (ILGWU), Local 25. It was one of the most powerful Unions of the era.
The Union soon recognized Rose’s organizational abilities and enlisted her to organize the women garment workers. In 1915 she helped to set up an education department within the Union and was soon elected to Local 25’s Executive Board. In 1933 she traveled to Los Angeles to organize for the Union. Los Angeles was a traditionally anti-union city. She was persuasive though and met with great success which ultimately resulted in election as vice president of the ILGWU. This young anarchist was often sent to many fierce, anti-union factories and was the only paid woman organizer in the male dominated Union. She had to fight to get her voice heard within her Union as well as outside. She was deeply committed to women in the workplace and that made her an outsider or sorts which was something she had to deal with constantly during her career. Questioning male authority within the Union also eventuated in her being labeled as a “troublemaker.” It was completely socially unacceptable for women to be outspoken, leaders, or hold positions of leadership. Yet, Rosa did all three.
She was the only "woman organizer" helping at the United Auto Workers strike in Flint, Michigan, and at the Akron rubber workers strike in the late 1930s. It was her job to raise the morale of the strikers by working with the wives, daughters, and sisters. She often spoke at meetings of the strikers and led them in union songs. She also filmed the strikes with her movie camera, and the workers were eager to pose for her, thus increasing her familiarity with the strikers. Rosa played an important role in the Flint sit-down strike. She was involved in the negotiations and diligently supported the strikers. During this strike thugs attacked and beat her, causing a lifelong hearing impairment. When the strike was finally settled, she was one of the CIO and UAW leaders who led the workers out.
In many cases women had subservient and powerless roles in the 1930s. Pesotta dared to step out of the role society gave her. She is one of the few women who made it past the bastions of male power in the 1930s and tried to instill her own brand of feminism into the labor movement.
In 1944, she made the decision not to run for a fourth term as Union vice president and returned to her old shop as a sewing machine operator. She also wrote and published two memoirs, Bread Upon the Waters, and Days of Our Lives. | 776 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Romeo Montague – A Tragic Hero
A tragic hero is an individual who is facing conflicts which put a halt to what he/she is aiming to do. Romeo faces many conflicts that halt him from doing what he is destined to do. Romeo in the play Romeo and Juliet is a tragic hero, because he is doomed from the start and becomes spiritually and physically wounded. In Romeo’s time, with Juliet he must really think things through carefully or he will have to suffer for more than he deserves. He will not be able to live a life like his last now that he has gotten in a relationship with a enemy and her family. A particular and important tragic hero would be Romeo proudly.
He wishes to have a clean, fun life, although he is struck with many conflicts that prohibit him from doing what he is destined to do. When Romeo murdered Tybalt for killing his friend Mercutio, he knows in his mind there is no turning back once the sword has extended past Tybalt’s body after this there will be no second thoughts about banishing or hanging the subject. Of course, Romeo gets banished, “Immediately we do exile him hence” (Rom. 3. 1). Also, when he is in the marriage process with Juliet, he can not fathom they are of separate families and are not supposed to get married.
In addition, when entering the house of the Montagues Romeo is becoming more and more sceptical as his stay gets longer, until he sees the love of his dreams, Juliet. Romeo has had many things happen to him, in this evidence, banishment. Also, in the play Romeo and Juliet, Romeo is both spiritually and physically/emotionally wounded. Romeo can not catch a break; he is always having to watch his back, especially now that he got involved with an arch rival (Juliet). During Romeo’s time with Juliet he is pounded with many conflicts that ruin him physically and spiritually.
Once being when he is banished from Verona and is unable to come back to his love, and this is a direct quote from Romeo’s lips giving an idea of his reaction; “Ha, banishment Be merciful say ‘death’… ” (Rom. 3. 3. 12). Romeo does not realize that being in this situation can deeply scar him. Furthermore, when Romeo murdered Tybalt as mentioned above, he regrets his actions instantly. Afterwards, Romeo feels he should not live after this horrific act. In addition, When Romeo drinks the harmful poison, he mentioned a few lines, cringed, and died. He was physically wounded in this particular part in the play.
Romeo has to face many heart breaking incidences that cause him to suffer physically and spiritually. Moreover, Romeo must suffer far more than he deserves if he wants to get what he asked for. Romeo used to live a clean life until he went to the party which changed his whole life forever. After meeting Juliet, he was never the same. He couldn’t just relax without having to worry about Tybalt irritating him. When Romeo and Tybalt fought, Romeo ended up killing him and when the Prince found out, he was banished from Verona for doing his crime, fighting for his best friend, Mercutio even though it was to avenge his death in an act of justice.
The fight was originally started by Tybalt then it turned into a rampage; afterwards, he must hide from the the people of Verona due to his banishment. Romeo and Juliet must marry in secret or they will not be able to live their dream together. At first, the Friar Lawrence did not believe in the forbidden marriage of the two but he later on finds this to be a good idea to perhaps bring the families together, so he marries the couple. Later on in the play, Romeo and Juliet become frightened. Friar Lawrence then makes the decision to fake Juliet’s death.
When Romeo finds out about Juliet’s death, he does not take it well and decides to kill himself, with poison. This quote will determine what Romeo is feeling, what state he’s in, “O, I am fortune’s fool” (Rom. 3. 1. 142). Romeo knows he cannot have Juliet without paying a consequence. So, he accepts the consequence and goes on to marry Juliet. Romeo, in the play Romeo and Juliet is a tragic hero and is doomed from the start. The families will continue fighting, but the two lovers, Romeo and Juliet must avoid the feud. This battle in particular will strike Romeo with a harder blow.
Romeo and Juliet is an excellent story line, it shows different proportions of everything included in the story. Romeo and Juliet are fighting a losing battle. No matter how hard they try, or how much of a secret they keep, they will still never be able to live their life happily. The two will not accept the fact that they are not meant to be together. All of these points sum up the collaborative information and supporting information that Romeo is indeed a tragic hero. He is faced with many problems that he cannot resolve. | <urn:uuid:9eeb1ce3-4b9a-420d-a332-63cac1b31519> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/romeo-montague-a-tragic-hero-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00028.warc.gz | en | 0.980191 | 1,065 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.5430080294609... | 1 | Romeo Montague – A Tragic Hero
A tragic hero is an individual who is facing conflicts which put a halt to what he/she is aiming to do. Romeo faces many conflicts that halt him from doing what he is destined to do. Romeo in the play Romeo and Juliet is a tragic hero, because he is doomed from the start and becomes spiritually and physically wounded. In Romeo’s time, with Juliet he must really think things through carefully or he will have to suffer for more than he deserves. He will not be able to live a life like his last now that he has gotten in a relationship with a enemy and her family. A particular and important tragic hero would be Romeo proudly.
He wishes to have a clean, fun life, although he is struck with many conflicts that prohibit him from doing what he is destined to do. When Romeo murdered Tybalt for killing his friend Mercutio, he knows in his mind there is no turning back once the sword has extended past Tybalt’s body after this there will be no second thoughts about banishing or hanging the subject. Of course, Romeo gets banished, “Immediately we do exile him hence” (Rom. 3. 1). Also, when he is in the marriage process with Juliet, he can not fathom they are of separate families and are not supposed to get married.
In addition, when entering the house of the Montagues Romeo is becoming more and more sceptical as his stay gets longer, until he sees the love of his dreams, Juliet. Romeo has had many things happen to him, in this evidence, banishment. Also, in the play Romeo and Juliet, Romeo is both spiritually and physically/emotionally wounded. Romeo can not catch a break; he is always having to watch his back, especially now that he got involved with an arch rival (Juliet). During Romeo’s time with Juliet he is pounded with many conflicts that ruin him physically and spiritually.
Once being when he is banished from Verona and is unable to come back to his love, and this is a direct quote from Romeo’s lips giving an idea of his reaction; “Ha, banishment Be merciful say ‘death’… ” (Rom. 3. 3. 12). Romeo does not realize that being in this situation can deeply scar him. Furthermore, when Romeo murdered Tybalt as mentioned above, he regrets his actions instantly. Afterwards, Romeo feels he should not live after this horrific act. In addition, When Romeo drinks the harmful poison, he mentioned a few lines, cringed, and died. He was physically wounded in this particular part in the play.
Romeo has to face many heart breaking incidences that cause him to suffer physically and spiritually. Moreover, Romeo must suffer far more than he deserves if he wants to get what he asked for. Romeo used to live a clean life until he went to the party which changed his whole life forever. After meeting Juliet, he was never the same. He couldn’t just relax without having to worry about Tybalt irritating him. When Romeo and Tybalt fought, Romeo ended up killing him and when the Prince found out, he was banished from Verona for doing his crime, fighting for his best friend, Mercutio even though it was to avenge his death in an act of justice.
The fight was originally started by Tybalt then it turned into a rampage; afterwards, he must hide from the the people of Verona due to his banishment. Romeo and Juliet must marry in secret or they will not be able to live their dream together. At first, the Friar Lawrence did not believe in the forbidden marriage of the two but he later on finds this to be a good idea to perhaps bring the families together, so he marries the couple. Later on in the play, Romeo and Juliet become frightened. Friar Lawrence then makes the decision to fake Juliet’s death.
When Romeo finds out about Juliet’s death, he does not take it well and decides to kill himself, with poison. This quote will determine what Romeo is feeling, what state he’s in, “O, I am fortune’s fool” (Rom. 3. 1. 142). Romeo knows he cannot have Juliet without paying a consequence. So, he accepts the consequence and goes on to marry Juliet. Romeo, in the play Romeo and Juliet is a tragic hero and is doomed from the start. The families will continue fighting, but the two lovers, Romeo and Juliet must avoid the feud. This battle in particular will strike Romeo with a harder blow.
Romeo and Juliet is an excellent story line, it shows different proportions of everything included in the story. Romeo and Juliet are fighting a losing battle. No matter how hard they try, or how much of a secret they keep, they will still never be able to live their life happily. The two will not accept the fact that they are not meant to be together. All of these points sum up the collaborative information and supporting information that Romeo is indeed a tragic hero. He is faced with many problems that he cannot resolve. | 1,043 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slaves played an important role in Athenian society during the 5th Century BC. They performed tasks which allowed male Athenian citizens to have time to themselves and so they were able to participate actively in the Democracy aspect of society, they helped out the wife with domestic chores. Without slaves Athenian males struggled to keep up with the daily duties they were required to participate in during the day which caused them stress and put them under huge amounts of pressure. The institution of slavery in Athens ran well, with enormous numbers of slaves moving to the city from other areas of the globe to find work. Generally slaves were treated well in Athens but this depended on their employment and owner.
Slaves came from other countries from around the globe and were obtained by Athenians through markets. Many slaves came from the Balkans, from Thrace and Illyria and around the Black Sea area, although some slaves came from Turkey or the Middle East. Sometimes slaves were born into slavery but generally slaves were captured at war. When a town was defeated, those who survived were taken to one of the main slave markets in the Island of Delos in the Aegean Sea where they were sold into Slavery. A few of the slaves sold at these markets had been kidnapped, and several of them were even sold into slavery if their parents were poor. Some slaves originated from other Greek states, Thucydides writes that when the Athenians captured the Greek island of Melos, they enslaved all the women and children on the island. Athenians obtained their slaves by buying them from slave markets and they were chosen based on their strength, skill and looks.
Slaves were classed as ‘living tools’ and were on the margin of human society. Even though a slave had no basic rights, they regarded as a full member of a household by Athenian citizens; they were introduced to the worship of family gods and took part in religious festivals. A wife also had to care for sick slaves. A...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | <urn:uuid:6006e304-4ee1-4256-8ab5-736afd096658> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/5Th-Century-Bc-Athens-Slaves-63609436.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00446.warc.gz | en | 0.99536 | 410 | 4.6875 | 5 | [
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0.53850609064102... | 1 | Slaves played an important role in Athenian society during the 5th Century BC. They performed tasks which allowed male Athenian citizens to have time to themselves and so they were able to participate actively in the Democracy aspect of society, they helped out the wife with domestic chores. Without slaves Athenian males struggled to keep up with the daily duties they were required to participate in during the day which caused them stress and put them under huge amounts of pressure. The institution of slavery in Athens ran well, with enormous numbers of slaves moving to the city from other areas of the globe to find work. Generally slaves were treated well in Athens but this depended on their employment and owner.
Slaves came from other countries from around the globe and were obtained by Athenians through markets. Many slaves came from the Balkans, from Thrace and Illyria and around the Black Sea area, although some slaves came from Turkey or the Middle East. Sometimes slaves were born into slavery but generally slaves were captured at war. When a town was defeated, those who survived were taken to one of the main slave markets in the Island of Delos in the Aegean Sea where they were sold into Slavery. A few of the slaves sold at these markets had been kidnapped, and several of them were even sold into slavery if their parents were poor. Some slaves originated from other Greek states, Thucydides writes that when the Athenians captured the Greek island of Melos, they enslaved all the women and children on the island. Athenians obtained their slaves by buying them from slave markets and they were chosen based on their strength, skill and looks.
Slaves were classed as ‘living tools’ and were on the margin of human society. Even though a slave had no basic rights, they regarded as a full member of a household by Athenian citizens; they were introduced to the worship of family gods and took part in religious festivals. A wife also had to care for sick slaves. A...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | 407 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This is our English Tuition for Creative Writing material, free-to-use to teach your child story telling and composition. In this English tuition material, we would read the passage to the children, and come up with a few questions below that will help eduKate students to think about the story and investigate further the complexities that can be wrung out from the story. It helps your child to see the fun in writing, to enjoy complex ideas embedded into moral stories.
Jack and the Beanstalk
Once upon a time there lived a poor widow and her son Jack. One day, Jack’s mother told him to sell their only cow. Jack went to the market and on the way he met a man who wanted to buy his cow. Jack asked, “What will you give me in return for my cow?” The man answered, “I will give you five magic beans!” Jack took the magic beans and gave the man the cow. But when he reached home, Jack’s mother was very angry. She said, “You fool! He took away your cow and gave you some beans!” She threw the beans out of the window. Jack was very sad and went to sleep without dinner.
The next day, when Jack woke up in the morning and looked out of the window, he saw that a huge beanstalk had grown from his magic beans! He climbed up the beanstalk and reached a kingdom in the sky. There lived a giant and his wife. Jack went inside the house and found the giant’s wife in the kitchen. Jack said, “Could you please give me something to eat? I am so hungry!” The kind wife gave him bread and some milk.
While he was eating, the giant came home. The giant was very big and looked very fearsome. Jack was terrified and went and hid inside. The giant cried, “Fee-fifo-fum, I smell the blood of an Englishman. Be he alive, or be he dead, I’ll grind his bones to make my bread!” The wife said, “There is no boy in here!” So, the giant ate his food and then went to his room. He took out his sacks of gold coins, counted them and kept them aside. Then he went to sleep. In the night, Jack crept out of his hiding place, took one sack of gold coins and climbed down the beanstalk. At home, he gave the coins to his mother. His mother was very happy and they lived well for sometime.
Jack climbed the beanstalk and went to the giant’s house again. Once again, Jack asked the giant’s wife for food, but while he was eating the giant returned. Jack leapt up in fright and went and hid under the bed. The giant cried, “Fee-fifo-fum, I smell the blood of an Englishman. Be he alive, or be he dead, I’ll grind his bones to make my bread!” The wife said, “There is no boy in here!” The giant ate his food and went to his room. There, he took out a hen. He shouted, “Lay!” and the hen laid a golden egg. When the giant fell asleep, Jack took the hen and climbed down the beanstalk. Jack’s mother was very happy with him.
After some days, Jack once again climbed the beanstalk and went to the giant’s castle. For the third time, Jack met the giant’s wife and asked for some food. Once again, the giant’s wife gave him bread and milk. But while Jack was eating, the giant came home. “Fee-fi-fo-fum, I smell the blood of an Englishman. Be he alive, or be he dead, I’ll grind his bones to make my bread!” cried the giant. “Don’t be silly! There is no boy in here!” said his wife.
The giant had a magical harp that could play beautiful songs. While the giant slept, Jack took the harp and was about to leave. Suddenly, the magic harp cried, “Help master! A boy is stealing me!” The giant woke up and saw Jack with the harp. Furious, he ran after Jack. But Jack was too fast for him. He ran down the beanstalk and reached home. The giant followed him down. Jack quickly ran inside his house and fetched an axe. He began to chop the beanstalk. The giant fell and died.
Jack and his mother were now very rich and they lived happily ever after.
Appeared in 1734 as “The Story of Jack Spriggins and the Enchanted Bean”. According to researchers at the universities in Durham and Lisbon, the story originated more than 5,000 years ago, based on a widespread archaic story form which is now classified by folklorists as ATU 328 The Boy Who Stole Ogre’s Treasure.
The giant’s cry “Fee! Fie! Foe! Fum! I smell the blood of an Englishman” appears in William Shakespeare’s early-17th-century King Lear in the form “Fie, foh, and fum, I smell the blood of a British man.” (Act 3, Scene 4), and something similar also appears in “Jack the Giant Killer”.
Controversy: The original story portrays a “hero” gaining the sympathy of a man’s wife, hiding in his house, robbing, and finally killing him. In Tabart’s moralised version, a fairy woman explains to Jack that the giant had robbed and killed his father justifying Jack’s actions as retribution. (Andrew Lang follows this version in the Red Fairy Book of 1890.) Jacobs gave no justification because there was none in the version he had heard as a child and maintained that children know that robbery and murder are wrong without being told in a fairy tale, but did give a subtle retributive tone to it by making reference to the giant’s previous meals of stolen oxen and young children. Many modern interpretations have followed Tabart and made the giant a villain, terrorising smaller folk and stealing from them, so that Jack becomes a legitimate protagonist.
Things to talk about to your child
- This is a mixed moral story where a child robs/steals and kills. At first, the story delivers a simplistic view but dig deeper, and we find that there is more to the story than we see.
- Why Jack would exchange the cow for the magic beans? Swindled? Naive? Investment?
- Why did Jack believe the beans was worth a cow? In olden days, the cow would be worth a lot of money and a prized possession, giving an impression that Jack and his mother did not start off poor. Before this story started, they would have been doing fairly well as farmers and fallen on hard times before they resort to selling off everything. Is there a parallel to present life?
- Where is the father?
- The beanstalk represents shortcuts in life, and taking it always leads to certain mishaps. Curiosity kills the cat as Jack climbs up the beanstalk and eventually steals the gold for himself. Creating a series of events that culminates in the death of the giant.
- Lying giantess to cover up for Jack. What does the giantess represent in our lives?
- What does the giant represent in our lives?
- What did the giant do to Jack so far for us to think he is a bad person? Nothing much really.
- How can Jack’s mother not get suspicious they suddenly have money now? Is Jack’s mother a nice person after coming to so much wealth suddenly and not oppose and reprimand Jack? Plus there is a huge beanstalk for all to see in their backyard.
- Greed makes Jack climb up the stalk again, instead of working hard and earning his own money. Then he proceeds to steal another from the giant.
- He repeats the exact same thing again, and again, with Jack learning from his past experience. This means that he is making use of the giantess’ kindness so that he can steal again! Plus Jack’s mom I happy with him. Is that the right kind of parenting?
- He finally chops the tree down killing off the giant. Desperate times? An extreme behaviour?
- The story ends with Jack and his mother living happily ever after. No repercussion from killing someone? Did the bad people get away with murder?
- His magic beans investment in the beans actually paid off.
- Prepared by eduKate Singapore
- For English lessons with us,
- Yuet Ling +65 82226327
- Email: firstname.lastname@example.org
Printable version for your kids. | <urn:uuid:d08156f5-0d4e-4192-90e3-00e9daff2762> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://edukatepunggol.com/2017/12/11/creative-writing-story-book-analysis-for-your-child-jack-and-the-beanstalk/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00484.warc.gz | en | 0.981961 | 1,888 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.091756671... | 4 | This is our English Tuition for Creative Writing material, free-to-use to teach your child story telling and composition. In this English tuition material, we would read the passage to the children, and come up with a few questions below that will help eduKate students to think about the story and investigate further the complexities that can be wrung out from the story. It helps your child to see the fun in writing, to enjoy complex ideas embedded into moral stories.
Jack and the Beanstalk
Once upon a time there lived a poor widow and her son Jack. One day, Jack’s mother told him to sell their only cow. Jack went to the market and on the way he met a man who wanted to buy his cow. Jack asked, “What will you give me in return for my cow?” The man answered, “I will give you five magic beans!” Jack took the magic beans and gave the man the cow. But when he reached home, Jack’s mother was very angry. She said, “You fool! He took away your cow and gave you some beans!” She threw the beans out of the window. Jack was very sad and went to sleep without dinner.
The next day, when Jack woke up in the morning and looked out of the window, he saw that a huge beanstalk had grown from his magic beans! He climbed up the beanstalk and reached a kingdom in the sky. There lived a giant and his wife. Jack went inside the house and found the giant’s wife in the kitchen. Jack said, “Could you please give me something to eat? I am so hungry!” The kind wife gave him bread and some milk.
While he was eating, the giant came home. The giant was very big and looked very fearsome. Jack was terrified and went and hid inside. The giant cried, “Fee-fifo-fum, I smell the blood of an Englishman. Be he alive, or be he dead, I’ll grind his bones to make my bread!” The wife said, “There is no boy in here!” So, the giant ate his food and then went to his room. He took out his sacks of gold coins, counted them and kept them aside. Then he went to sleep. In the night, Jack crept out of his hiding place, took one sack of gold coins and climbed down the beanstalk. At home, he gave the coins to his mother. His mother was very happy and they lived well for sometime.
Jack climbed the beanstalk and went to the giant’s house again. Once again, Jack asked the giant’s wife for food, but while he was eating the giant returned. Jack leapt up in fright and went and hid under the bed. The giant cried, “Fee-fifo-fum, I smell the blood of an Englishman. Be he alive, or be he dead, I’ll grind his bones to make my bread!” The wife said, “There is no boy in here!” The giant ate his food and went to his room. There, he took out a hen. He shouted, “Lay!” and the hen laid a golden egg. When the giant fell asleep, Jack took the hen and climbed down the beanstalk. Jack’s mother was very happy with him.
After some days, Jack once again climbed the beanstalk and went to the giant’s castle. For the third time, Jack met the giant’s wife and asked for some food. Once again, the giant’s wife gave him bread and milk. But while Jack was eating, the giant came home. “Fee-fi-fo-fum, I smell the blood of an Englishman. Be he alive, or be he dead, I’ll grind his bones to make my bread!” cried the giant. “Don’t be silly! There is no boy in here!” said his wife.
The giant had a magical harp that could play beautiful songs. While the giant slept, Jack took the harp and was about to leave. Suddenly, the magic harp cried, “Help master! A boy is stealing me!” The giant woke up and saw Jack with the harp. Furious, he ran after Jack. But Jack was too fast for him. He ran down the beanstalk and reached home. The giant followed him down. Jack quickly ran inside his house and fetched an axe. He began to chop the beanstalk. The giant fell and died.
Jack and his mother were now very rich and they lived happily ever after.
Appeared in 1734 as “The Story of Jack Spriggins and the Enchanted Bean”. According to researchers at the universities in Durham and Lisbon, the story originated more than 5,000 years ago, based on a widespread archaic story form which is now classified by folklorists as ATU 328 The Boy Who Stole Ogre’s Treasure.
The giant’s cry “Fee! Fie! Foe! Fum! I smell the blood of an Englishman” appears in William Shakespeare’s early-17th-century King Lear in the form “Fie, foh, and fum, I smell the blood of a British man.” (Act 3, Scene 4), and something similar also appears in “Jack the Giant Killer”.
Controversy: The original story portrays a “hero” gaining the sympathy of a man’s wife, hiding in his house, robbing, and finally killing him. In Tabart’s moralised version, a fairy woman explains to Jack that the giant had robbed and killed his father justifying Jack’s actions as retribution. (Andrew Lang follows this version in the Red Fairy Book of 1890.) Jacobs gave no justification because there was none in the version he had heard as a child and maintained that children know that robbery and murder are wrong without being told in a fairy tale, but did give a subtle retributive tone to it by making reference to the giant’s previous meals of stolen oxen and young children. Many modern interpretations have followed Tabart and made the giant a villain, terrorising smaller folk and stealing from them, so that Jack becomes a legitimate protagonist.
Things to talk about to your child
- This is a mixed moral story where a child robs/steals and kills. At first, the story delivers a simplistic view but dig deeper, and we find that there is more to the story than we see.
- Why Jack would exchange the cow for the magic beans? Swindled? Naive? Investment?
- Why did Jack believe the beans was worth a cow? In olden days, the cow would be worth a lot of money and a prized possession, giving an impression that Jack and his mother did not start off poor. Before this story started, they would have been doing fairly well as farmers and fallen on hard times before they resort to selling off everything. Is there a parallel to present life?
- Where is the father?
- The beanstalk represents shortcuts in life, and taking it always leads to certain mishaps. Curiosity kills the cat as Jack climbs up the beanstalk and eventually steals the gold for himself. Creating a series of events that culminates in the death of the giant.
- Lying giantess to cover up for Jack. What does the giantess represent in our lives?
- What does the giant represent in our lives?
- What did the giant do to Jack so far for us to think he is a bad person? Nothing much really.
- How can Jack’s mother not get suspicious they suddenly have money now? Is Jack’s mother a nice person after coming to so much wealth suddenly and not oppose and reprimand Jack? Plus there is a huge beanstalk for all to see in their backyard.
- Greed makes Jack climb up the stalk again, instead of working hard and earning his own money. Then he proceeds to steal another from the giant.
- He repeats the exact same thing again, and again, with Jack learning from his past experience. This means that he is making use of the giantess’ kindness so that he can steal again! Plus Jack’s mom I happy with him. Is that the right kind of parenting?
- He finally chops the tree down killing off the giant. Desperate times? An extreme behaviour?
- The story ends with Jack and his mother living happily ever after. No repercussion from killing someone? Did the bad people get away with murder?
- His magic beans investment in the beans actually paid off.
- Prepared by eduKate Singapore
- For English lessons with us,
- Yuet Ling +65 82226327
- Email: firstname.lastname@example.org
Printable version for your kids. | 1,768 | ENGLISH | 1 |
La Grande Armée (in English, the Big or Grand Army) is the French military term for the main force in a military campaign. In practice, however, the phrase is inextricably linked with the multi-national armies gathered by Napoleon I in his campaigns of the early nineteenth century (see Napoleonic Wars).
Napoleon first attached the name to the army numbering some 200,000 men slated for the invasion of Britain during the period from 1803 to August 1805. The army was assembling at Boulogne on the French coast of the English Channel to this end but was hurriedly ordered across the Rhine into southern Germany by Napoleon upon his discovery the Prussian and Austrian armies were preparing to invade France.
La Grande Armée originally consisted of six corps under the command of Napoleon's marshals. As Napoleon's might spread across Europe, the army grew in size. It reached its maximum size of 600,000 men in 1812 at the start of the invasion of Russia against the Sixth Coalition. At that the army consisted of
- Around 300,000 Frenchmen, Belgians and Dutchmen.
- 95,000 Poles
- 25,000 Italians
- 24,000 Bavarians
- 20,000 Saxons
- 17,000 Westphalians
- 20,000 Prussians
- 35,000 Austrians
- 15,000 Swiss
- 3,500 Croatians
With the exception of the Polish and Austrian corps, each contingent was commanded by French generals.
Forces of La Grande Armée
In Napoleon's army, there were four separate types of cavalry:
- Cuirassiers: These were the heavy cavalry, equipped almost like knights with a heavy cuirass (breastplate) and a brass and iron helmet. Because of the weight, both the trooper and horse had to be big and strong, and could consequently put a lot of force behind the charge.
- Dragoons: The Dragoons were the mainstay of the French cavalry, and were used for both battle and scouting. Because of their versitility, they were armed not only with traditional sabres, but also pistols and carbines, enabling them to fight as infantry.
- Hussars: Hussars were both the eyes and egos of the Napoleonic armies. Tactically, they were used as scouts and a screen for the army to keep their commanders informed of enemy moves while denying the same information to the foe.
- Lancers: Some of the most feared cavalry in Bonaparte's armies were the Polish lancers. Lancers were excellent against infantry in square - where their lances could outreach the infantry bayonets - and also in hunting down a routed enemy.
- Line Infantry: The bulk of the army was made of standard line infantry. Infantry regiments were known as demi-brigades and were made of three or four battalions.
- Light Infantry: The voltigeur companies began to be added to French line regiments in 1801. The voltigeurs were usually nimble fighters whose job it was to advance in front of the attack and try to disrupt enemy formations or artillery crews. Later, separate light infantry regiments were formed.
- Imperial Guard: France's Imperial Guard was the elite military force of its time and grew out of the Garde des Consuls and Garde Consulaire. Napoleon Bonaparte wanted it as the example for the army to follow and also as a force that had fought with him over several campaigns and was utterly loyal to him. Usually kept in reserve, the Guard was often thrown in to a battle as the killing blow. Of course, the morale of line troops soared when the Grumblers moved forward into the fray.
As one would expect with the Emperor being a former artillery officer, France's cannon made up the backbone of the ground forces. The French guns were generally used in massed batteries to soften up enemy formations before being subjected to the closer attention of the infantry or cavalry. Superb gun-crew training allowed Bonaparte to move the weapons at great speed to either bolster a weakening defensive position, or else hammer a potential break in enemy lines. In general, French guns were 4-pounders, 8-pounders or 12-pounders, with the lighter calibres being phased out and replaced by 6-pounders later in the wars. French cannons had brass barrels and their carriages, wheels and limbers were painted olive-green.
While the glory of battle went to the cavalry and infantry, the bridge builders of Napoleon Bonaparte's army - the pontonniers - were an indispensable part of the military machine. Their main contribution was helping the emperor to get his forces across water obstacles by erecting pontoon bridges. The skills of his pontonniers allowed Bonaparte to outflank enemy positions by crossing rivers where the enemy least expected and, in the case of the great retreat from Moscow, saved the army from complete annihilation at the Beresina. They may not have had the glory, but Bonaparte clearly valued his pontonniers and had 14 companies commissioned into his armies. | <urn:uuid:b8c9bdb6-1a3a-4ebb-b2b2-1e29babeb154> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.statemaster.com/encyclopedia/La-Grande-Armee | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00546.warc.gz | en | 0.981561 | 1,056 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.14628016948699... | 1 | La Grande Armée (in English, the Big or Grand Army) is the French military term for the main force in a military campaign. In practice, however, the phrase is inextricably linked with the multi-national armies gathered by Napoleon I in his campaigns of the early nineteenth century (see Napoleonic Wars).
Napoleon first attached the name to the army numbering some 200,000 men slated for the invasion of Britain during the period from 1803 to August 1805. The army was assembling at Boulogne on the French coast of the English Channel to this end but was hurriedly ordered across the Rhine into southern Germany by Napoleon upon his discovery the Prussian and Austrian armies were preparing to invade France.
La Grande Armée originally consisted of six corps under the command of Napoleon's marshals. As Napoleon's might spread across Europe, the army grew in size. It reached its maximum size of 600,000 men in 1812 at the start of the invasion of Russia against the Sixth Coalition. At that the army consisted of
- Around 300,000 Frenchmen, Belgians and Dutchmen.
- 95,000 Poles
- 25,000 Italians
- 24,000 Bavarians
- 20,000 Saxons
- 17,000 Westphalians
- 20,000 Prussians
- 35,000 Austrians
- 15,000 Swiss
- 3,500 Croatians
With the exception of the Polish and Austrian corps, each contingent was commanded by French generals.
Forces of La Grande Armée
In Napoleon's army, there were four separate types of cavalry:
- Cuirassiers: These were the heavy cavalry, equipped almost like knights with a heavy cuirass (breastplate) and a brass and iron helmet. Because of the weight, both the trooper and horse had to be big and strong, and could consequently put a lot of force behind the charge.
- Dragoons: The Dragoons were the mainstay of the French cavalry, and were used for both battle and scouting. Because of their versitility, they were armed not only with traditional sabres, but also pistols and carbines, enabling them to fight as infantry.
- Hussars: Hussars were both the eyes and egos of the Napoleonic armies. Tactically, they were used as scouts and a screen for the army to keep their commanders informed of enemy moves while denying the same information to the foe.
- Lancers: Some of the most feared cavalry in Bonaparte's armies were the Polish lancers. Lancers were excellent against infantry in square - where their lances could outreach the infantry bayonets - and also in hunting down a routed enemy.
- Line Infantry: The bulk of the army was made of standard line infantry. Infantry regiments were known as demi-brigades and were made of three or four battalions.
- Light Infantry: The voltigeur companies began to be added to French line regiments in 1801. The voltigeurs were usually nimble fighters whose job it was to advance in front of the attack and try to disrupt enemy formations or artillery crews. Later, separate light infantry regiments were formed.
- Imperial Guard: France's Imperial Guard was the elite military force of its time and grew out of the Garde des Consuls and Garde Consulaire. Napoleon Bonaparte wanted it as the example for the army to follow and also as a force that had fought with him over several campaigns and was utterly loyal to him. Usually kept in reserve, the Guard was often thrown in to a battle as the killing blow. Of course, the morale of line troops soared when the Grumblers moved forward into the fray.
As one would expect with the Emperor being a former artillery officer, France's cannon made up the backbone of the ground forces. The French guns were generally used in massed batteries to soften up enemy formations before being subjected to the closer attention of the infantry or cavalry. Superb gun-crew training allowed Bonaparte to move the weapons at great speed to either bolster a weakening defensive position, or else hammer a potential break in enemy lines. In general, French guns were 4-pounders, 8-pounders or 12-pounders, with the lighter calibres being phased out and replaced by 6-pounders later in the wars. French cannons had brass barrels and their carriages, wheels and limbers were painted olive-green.
While the glory of battle went to the cavalry and infantry, the bridge builders of Napoleon Bonaparte's army - the pontonniers - were an indispensable part of the military machine. Their main contribution was helping the emperor to get his forces across water obstacles by erecting pontoon bridges. The skills of his pontonniers allowed Bonaparte to outflank enemy positions by crossing rivers where the enemy least expected and, in the case of the great retreat from Moscow, saved the army from complete annihilation at the Beresina. They may not have had the glory, but Bonaparte clearly valued his pontonniers and had 14 companies commissioned into his armies. | 1,107 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"The cowards never started and the weak died along the way" This is very true pertaining to the Plymouth Pilgrims, who clearly had to possess courage, strength, and faith to make such a journey to America. .
The Pilgrims, or Separatists, of England wanted complete division from the Angelican Church. This Church of England was strict and was the one and only church that was tolerated in England. People who, like the Pilgrims, wanted freedom from the church, were faced with the decision to either inevitably face hard, often tortured death, or make the long, grueling journey to America. In 1607, the Pilgrims made their first attempt to leave England bound for Amsterdam. William Bradford spoke of "the hardness of the place and country." The only occupations available to English immigrants were those in low-paying jobs such as cloth-making, and other labor-intensive occupations. Some of the English who had fled to Holland expended their funds and "returned to the prisons of England rather than endure the hardships in Holland." After several more attempts to leave, the Pilgrims succeeded in getting a patent from the London Virginia Company. They started off to the New World on the Mayflower, where the conditions were just as harsh as they were in England and Holland, if not more. The Mayflower was a merchant ship, but it managed to hold 102 passengers and 30 crewmembers. There was little privacy, and being battered and bruised by the beams and walls of the ship was a common passenger injury during storms. After docking, the Pilgrims had to start their new settlement at Plymouth. The Pilgrims faced many hardships in America, and many died from the cold, hunger, and disease in the early years. Failure frequently splintered the hopes of the early settlers. Many knew a "starving time". Governor Bradford accredited distress to a combination of bad planning, the wilderness, and sheer bad luck. | <urn:uuid:e3c3e114-2fee-4bee-aa2e-1cd2132ce262> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/97889.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00345.warc.gz | en | 0.985992 | 396 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.26414304... | 4 | "The cowards never started and the weak died along the way" This is very true pertaining to the Plymouth Pilgrims, who clearly had to possess courage, strength, and faith to make such a journey to America. .
The Pilgrims, or Separatists, of England wanted complete division from the Angelican Church. This Church of England was strict and was the one and only church that was tolerated in England. People who, like the Pilgrims, wanted freedom from the church, were faced with the decision to either inevitably face hard, often tortured death, or make the long, grueling journey to America. In 1607, the Pilgrims made their first attempt to leave England bound for Amsterdam. William Bradford spoke of "the hardness of the place and country." The only occupations available to English immigrants were those in low-paying jobs such as cloth-making, and other labor-intensive occupations. Some of the English who had fled to Holland expended their funds and "returned to the prisons of England rather than endure the hardships in Holland." After several more attempts to leave, the Pilgrims succeeded in getting a patent from the London Virginia Company. They started off to the New World on the Mayflower, where the conditions were just as harsh as they were in England and Holland, if not more. The Mayflower was a merchant ship, but it managed to hold 102 passengers and 30 crewmembers. There was little privacy, and being battered and bruised by the beams and walls of the ship was a common passenger injury during storms. After docking, the Pilgrims had to start their new settlement at Plymouth. The Pilgrims faced many hardships in America, and many died from the cold, hunger, and disease in the early years. Failure frequently splintered the hopes of the early settlers. Many knew a "starving time". Governor Bradford accredited distress to a combination of bad planning, the wilderness, and sheer bad luck. | 399 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Modern Foreign Languages
At Airedale Junior School we learn:
Look at what we have been learning in French:
Famous In This Field:
Marie Curie was a Polish-born physicist, chemist, and one of the most famous scientists of her time. Together with her husband Pierre, she was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1903, and she went on to win another in 1911.
Marie Sklodowska was born in Warsaw on 7 November 1867, the daughter of a teacher. In 1891, she went to Paris to study physics and mathematics at the Sorbonne where she met Pierre Curie, professor of the School of Physics. They were married in 1895.
The Curies worked together investigating radioactivity. In July 1898, the Curies announced the discovery of a new chemical element, polonium. At the end of the year, they announced the discovery of another, radium. The Curies, along with Becquerel, were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1903.
Pierre's life was cut short in 1906 when he was knocked down and killed by a carriage. Marie took over his teaching post, becoming the first woman to teach at the Sorbonne. She received a second Nobel Prize, for Chemistry, in 1911.
The Curie's research was crucial in the development of x-rays in surgery. During World War One Curie helped to equip ambulances with x-ray equipment, which she herself drove to the front lines.
Despite her success, Marie continued to face great opposition from male scientists in France, and she never received significant financial benefits from her work. By the late 1920s, her health was beginning to deteriorate. She died on 4 July 1934 from leukaemia, caused by exposure to high-energy radiation from her research. The Curies' eldest daughter Irene was herself a scientist and winner of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry | <urn:uuid:054a2db2-0280-49f1-b1b9-0a6c6e745a26> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://airedalejuniorschool.co.uk/modern-foreign-languages/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00037.warc.gz | en | 0.987525 | 390 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.48356354236602... | 3 | Modern Foreign Languages
At Airedale Junior School we learn:
Look at what we have been learning in French:
Famous In This Field:
Marie Curie was a Polish-born physicist, chemist, and one of the most famous scientists of her time. Together with her husband Pierre, she was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1903, and she went on to win another in 1911.
Marie Sklodowska was born in Warsaw on 7 November 1867, the daughter of a teacher. In 1891, she went to Paris to study physics and mathematics at the Sorbonne where she met Pierre Curie, professor of the School of Physics. They were married in 1895.
The Curies worked together investigating radioactivity. In July 1898, the Curies announced the discovery of a new chemical element, polonium. At the end of the year, they announced the discovery of another, radium. The Curies, along with Becquerel, were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1903.
Pierre's life was cut short in 1906 when he was knocked down and killed by a carriage. Marie took over his teaching post, becoming the first woman to teach at the Sorbonne. She received a second Nobel Prize, for Chemistry, in 1911.
The Curie's research was crucial in the development of x-rays in surgery. During World War One Curie helped to equip ambulances with x-ray equipment, which she herself drove to the front lines.
Despite her success, Marie continued to face great opposition from male scientists in France, and she never received significant financial benefits from her work. By the late 1920s, her health was beginning to deteriorate. She died on 4 July 1934 from leukaemia, caused by exposure to high-energy radiation from her research. The Curies' eldest daughter Irene was herself a scientist and winner of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry | 423 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Funeral procession was an element of the death rituals in Ancient Egypt. After 70 days following the death of a person, an elaborate funeral procession headed towards the designated tomb of the deceased. These large processions must have been quite dramatic and would have provided the deceased with a spectacular memorial before burial. The mummy was placed in a coffin on a bier protected by effigies of gods. Oxen pull the sledge through the desert following the musicians who headed the procession. Milk was poured in front of it to make it easier for the sled to move smoothly. A curious object that forms part of the procession from the Middle Kingdom onwards is the tekenu .In the Middle Kingdom, it appears to be a wrapped figure that is either crouching or in the fetal position, with only the head showing. In the New Kingdom, the tekenu is shown as an entirely wrapped bundle, or with the head and sometimes an arm exposed. However, the role of the tekenu in the funerary ritual is enigmatic. Wailing mourners followed the procession accompanied by priests, some of whom wore animal masks. The jackal-masked impersonator of the god Anubis was a key figure in these death rituals. Servants or slaves followed carrying the items that would be buried with the mummy in the tomb. The possessions of the deceased included furniture, clothes, jewelry and cosmetics. A fresh foreleg of a sacrificial calf, poultry, meat and vegetables were also taken for the death sacrifices. The procession terminated when the location of the tomb was reached and the 'Opening of the Mouth' ritual commenced. This rite was one of the most important death rituals of the Ancient Egyptians.
They hold the belief that the death rituals performed during these ceremonies revived the mummified senses of the deceased so that he could eat, drink and speak in the next world. The mysterious Opening of the Mouth death rituals were performed using the main tools of the embalmer and the coffin maker. A priest touched the mouth, eyes, ears and nose with an adze in order to awaken the senses of the deceased and could accept the food sacrifices. A close member of the family burned incense. Garlands of flowers were sometimes draped around the neck of the coffin. Cosmetics were applied to the likeness painted on the anthropoid coffin. When the Opening of the Mouth Ceremony and the other death rituals had been completed, the coffin was finally placed in a sarcophagus and sealed in the tomb. The Ancient Egyptian death rituals often ended with a feast and a celebration as the deceased had started his/her journey into the glorious afterlife. Many mummies were provided with some form of funerary literature to take with them to the afterlife.
Most funerary literature consists of lists of spells and instructions for navigating the afterlife. During the Old Kingdom, only the pharaoh had access to this material, which scholars refer to as the Pyramid Texts. The Pyramid Texts are a collection of spells to help the pharaoh in the afterlife. Pharaoh Unas was the first to use this collection of spells, as he and a few subsequent pharaohs had them carved on the walls of their pyramids. In the First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom, some of the Pyramid Text spells also were found in burial chambers of high officials and on many coffins, where they begin to evolve into what scholars call the Coffin Texts. In this period, the noblemen and many non-royal Egyptians began to have access to funerary literature, which later evolved into the well-known Book of the Dead. By the time of the New Kingdom, any Egyptian who could afford a Book of the Dead was able to take along to the afterlife a list of spells and instructions that would ensure safe passage.
Priests were dressed in a certain way, as they enchanted magic spells and hymns, made offerings, and burnt incenses for the deceased. In the procession, too, were porters bearing gifts to be placed in the tomb. These mortuary accouterments believed essential for a happy afterlife might be furniture, weapons, jewelry, food, linens - any or all of those things that were made to provide comfort and happiness to the deceased in the earthly life. Other people were dressed in dark blue and they wailed for the deceased. The Egyptians had such a love for life that it was important for them to continue that enjoyment even after death. That is why elaborate burials were part of the acceptance of death. People were not preoccupied with death, but they did spend much time preparing for the time when their life on this earth would cease and they would enter the afterlife. When all the rituals were complete, the mummy was sealed within the coffin then placed in the burial chamber then the tomb was sealed. Special sacred dances were also probably performed as part of the funerary ritual. The most famous of these is the 'MWW' dance. This dance is associated with the sacred city of Buto in the Delta, the site of an important shrine. The dancers, wearing tall openwork reed headdresses, went through a ritual dance that would help maintain the deceased soul in the Hereafter.
Rituals on the Day of Burial
After the process of mummification is complete, the deceased's relatives took the mummy from the embalmers. The Day of Burial was the occasion for a series of acts and rituals which correspond to the modern notion of the “funeral”. Funerary processions are pictured on the walls of several tombs , and are alluded to in ancient texts including a description found in the Tomb of Djehuty. Additionally, this is described and illustrated in many tombs and funerary papyri, particularly those of the New Kingdom. Some have interpreted such depictions as incorporating episodes which would in reality have happened at other times. That is, they believed that they refer to the transportation of the body to the embalmer’s workshop or to the symbolic journeys to places of pilgrimage, such as Abydos. The funeral was a highly-ritualized procedure. The mummy in the coffin was taken from the deceased’s house either carried by servants or put in a shrine-shaped catafalque. This was mounted on a boat-shaped base, the whole edifice resting on a sledge drawn either by oxen or by male friends of the deceased. At the funeral of kings, the catafalque was pulled by high officials. Sometimes, the coffin was transported on a wheeled cart.
The catafalque, adorned with floral bouquets, was generally the focus of the procession. The deceased's relatives and friends taking part in the procession observed the formality of the mourning which began immediately after death. At the burial of a man of wealth, there would be also professional mourners. In addition to these groups, there were sometimes two women who personified Isis and Nephthys, the mourners of Osiris. Also present at the procession were the embalmer and various priests, headed by a lector priest carrying a scroll, from where the appropriate incantations were read out. Servants brought the burial good, particular attention being given to the Canopic container, which was dragged on a sledge. Since most tombs were on the West Bank (Luxor), it was usually necessary to cross the Nile.
At the river the coffin was placed on a boat, towed by rowing boats. The coffin was laid beneath a canopy in the middle, with the two principal lamenting women on the prow and the stern. Crossing the river, the boat reached the West Bank, where it was received into the 'Wabt'. The Wabt (perhaps the same in which embalming took place) was the place where the mummy was subjected to purifying rituals, before resuming the journey to the tomb. At the tomb, a further series of rituals took place. Dancers performed a ritual dance wearing tall headdresses made of vegetal material. Brief processions were made representing journeys to different cult centers in Egypt, which were represented by chapels. This included a visit to Sais, with rituals believed to be driven from the ceremonies enacted at the burials of the Pre-Dynastic rulers of Buto in Lower Egypt. Finally, both the tekenu and the canopic container were brought to the tomb's entrance.
The Opening of the Mouth
Reaching the tomb which is considered the threshold of the next world, the sakhu rituals were performed to bring about the transfiguration of the deceased. This was the moment for the most important funerary rites, namely, the Opening of the Mouth, the basic purpose of which was to re-animate the mummy. This originated as a ritual to endow statues with the capacity to support the living Ka, and so to receive offerings. By the Old Kingdom, it had been adapted from a statue-rite to a one performed on the mummy, its purpose being to restore to the dead the use of mouth, eyes, ears and nose enabling him to see, hear, breathe. This will help the deceased receive nourishment to sustain his Ka, Ba and other none physical aspects during the seventy-day interval between death and burial. Possibly, the activity of his senses was imagined to be suspended until the mummification process was complete. The Opening of the Mouth, however, renewed the relationship between these aspects and the corpse.
Depictions of the ritual from the New Kingdom show the mummy placed upright on a patch of clean sand at the entrance to the tomb. The liturgy was recited while the appropriate acts were varied out. Purifications and offerings similar to those performed in temple rites were enacted. The most important episodes were those adapted from original statue-ritual, involving the priest touching the mouth of the mummy-mask with chisel, an adze and other implements, including a bifurcate object called pesesh-kef, by which the faculties are symbolically renewed. The ritual was directed by an official called the Sem-Priest. This individual, originally the eldest son of the king, acted as the intermediary between the deceased and the Netherworld. Through his filial relationship to the deceased, like that of Horus to Osiris, the identification of the dead man with the resurrected god was strengthened. From the New Kingdom onwards, this role was often conceived as being carried out by Anubis; at least, he is often depicted taking a part, either holding the mummy upright while the ritual is performed or bending over the mummy on its bier, holding the adze and actually carrying out the ritual himself. The Pyramid Texts contained the words that were uttered at the Opening of the Mouth ritual.
In the New Kingdom, a revised version of the ritual was produced, illustrated with seventy five individual scenes, copies of which are found in several tombs, notably that of Seti I (c. 1294-1279 BC). In the Valley of the Kings, the main elements of the revised version were purification, the sacrifice of the bull, the mouth opening itself and the representation of the offerings. The ritual ended with an invocation to the gods at the placing of the mummy or a statue inside the tomb. Because of the importance of the Opening of the Mouth rituals, some tombs were sometimes supplied with a set of implements which enable the deceased to perform the ritual for himself should the need arise. In the Old Kingdom, these implements were usually models, set into stone slabs with receptacles specially cut to receive them. More elaborate models of some of the implements and vessels are known from the New Kingdom, and some of the tombs have also been found to contain groups of objects related to the ritual. The Tomb of Tjanehebu (XXVI Dynasty) at Saqqara contained a group of implements, including a sekhem scepter, the ram-headed serpent rods called wer-hekau instruments, and models of vessels in faience, calcite and wood.
The Offering Ritual
The Offering Ritual allows the deceased receive nourishment for eternity. It was performed for the first time immediately after the Opening of the Mouth, and, like the later, it involved several individual rituals: purifications, libations, burning of incense, and the presentation of food and drink. Actual food and drink were placed on the offering table of the chapel, and the "Htp-di-nsw" Formula was pronounced. This was the most important ritual in long term, since it was the one to ensure the continued survival of the deceased. For this reason, it was repeated after the burial.
The last procedure in the burial rituals is the actual burial. The body, along with its funerary goods, was placed in the tomb and the entrance to the burial chamber was sealed. Cattle were slaughtered, and the choicest parts of the animal were offered to the dead. The remainder was consumed by the relatives and mourners at a feast. The remnants of this banquet were sometimes ritually buried. From a deposit found in the Valley of the Kings, we know that the guests at Tutankhamen's funeral feast consumed beef, sheep or goat, duck and goose. Then the participants withdrew, returning to their homes, while final rituals to protect the tomb were performed.
Mourners and Their Importance
On the Day of Burial, the deceased's relatives and friends taking part in the procession observed the formality of the mourning which began immediately after death. Herodotus describes how the female relatives of the deceased repeatedly smear their head with dust and sometimes also the face, then leave the corpse in the house and themselves wander through the town beating their breasts with garments girt up and revealing their breasts. Male mourners beat their breasts separately, also with their garments girt up. Old kingdom scenes show men and women segregating in mourning: women stayed indoors while men went outside. At the burial of a man of wealth, there would be also professional mourners. The deceased was accompanied on the way to burial by two female mourners (usually from the family of the deceased), one at his head and the other at his feet, personifying goddesses Isis and Nephthys, the mourners of Osiris.
In the New Kingdom, depictions of the dead man’s widow are often shown kneeling beside the mummy, at the foot of the coffin. Scenes showing the officiating priest to be male were also common at this era. New Kingdom scenes depict women as the most conspicuous mourners: they are shown involved in lamentation, with disheveled hair, exposed breasts, open mouths, and contorted postures. This conveyed a highly specific ‘semaphore’ of grief. In many cases female mourners outnumbered the male ones, and it is possible that in addition to members of the family, there were also professional female mourners. Stele from Deir el-Medina was dedicated by a women and her daughter who both use mourner as a title, suggesting that this was their occupation. On the other hand, Herodotus says that men generally adopted a less dramatic pose, squatting on the ground with their faces downcast. In a gesture described in the story of Sinuhe, the courtiers who lament the death of the king sit ‘head-on-knee’.
In depiction, there are countless examples of scenes showing groups of mourners accompanying the procession, which attest the importance of the role they played over times in Ancient Egypt. Details from the wall paintings in the Tomb of Ramose depict groups of hired, professional women in blue (the prescribed color for mourning dresses), mourning the death of the tomb's owner. In the Pyramid Texts, some detailed descriptions of the lamentation for Osiris and the role of mourners read: "They beat their flesh for you, they smite their hands for you, they dishevel their hair for you".
Inside their tombs, Ancient Egyptians used to put funerary equipments. Varying from each tomb, such equipments were placed around the body of the deceased. According to texts, images and archaeological data, funerary equipments depended on the rank and economic means of the individual. Provisions for a proper burial included – among other objects– a secure receptacle for the mummified remains, food, offerings, protective figures, servant statues as well as shabtis. In addition to being emblems of statues and objects for actual use in the afterlife, some equipment also functioned symbolically to help in resurrection and to offer protection to the deceased. Like a temple, a tomb was a place in which cult practices would be performed and Egyptians were putting statues and offerings for the deceased. They also put funerary equipments in tombs to serve the deceased in the afterlife. Some examples of the Egyptian funerary equipments throughout the history of Egypt are: seal amulets, protective amulets, pottery and stone vessels and vases, sarcophagi, coffins, furniture, cloths, jewelry, warlike tools, statuettes of deities and shabtis, canopic jars, funerary cones, as well as a variety of funerary figurines.
The Evolution of Canopic Containers
The idea of including vases in the tombs had existed since the Pre-Dynastic Era, but they were not serving as canopic jars. Rather, some of them were jars used to contain libations, oils and perfumes. In The Old Kingdom, there were canopic chests in some tombs at Saqqara and elsewhere belonging to the Second and Third Dynasties. At some tombs of high officials there were niches cut into the south wall of the burial chamber to preserve the dead body's viscera. These canopic niches or pits were no longer provided in tombs after the Fourth Dynasty. The viscera were placed instead in separate pieces. The earliest example is the alabaster chest made for the burial of Queen Hetepheres I, mother of King Khufu. This canopic chest had the shape of a square with flat or domed lids, carved from calicite. It was divided into four square compartments, each of which contained a biological mass that almost certainly was part of her internal organs. The canopic chests holding the jars were cut from soft stone, or carved from the tomb's actual wall or floor. However, from the Sixth Dynasty, granite examples have been discovered in royal tombs sunk into pits in the floor at the southeast foot of the sarcophagus.
The viscera remains had been soaked in resin and when solidified, took the shape of a jar. By the First Intermediate period, canopic jars were made with human-headed stoppers, instead of a flat or domed shape. During the Middle Kingdom, canopic jars were made of pottery, wood or stone. The most characteristic feature in the form of the jars was the squareness of the shoulders, a form which does not seem to occur after the Eighteenth Dynasty. The lids were often human-headed, sometimes of wood stuccoed and painted. In the royal tombs, the chests containing the jars were adorned. In occasional tombs, the viscera were wrapped in a bundle enveloped by a mask with a human face. By The Second Intermediate Period, some chests bore a figure of a jackal, representing Anubis, the Egyptian god of embalmment. At this stage, there was a change in the traditional coffins used to bury the dead (particularly royalty) in Egypt. No longer were all coffins rectangular. Rather, they took on the form of the human body.
There are also some examples of canopic chests that took the shape of a human body. In the New Kingdom ─particularly in the Eighteenth Dynasty─ the rectangular-shaped canopic chests expanded into shrines, still having a curved roof. It was at this time that canopic jar stoppers carried the symbols of the Four Sons of Hours, each of which usually housed certain visceral organs. However, it should be noted that, along with the rest of Egyptian religion, even the customs related to canopic equipment were altered during the reign of the Heretic King, Akhenaten, during the Eighteenth Dynasty. This became standard practice in the reign of Ramesses II (of the Nineteenth Dynasty). Texts on these objects provide the names and titles of the King, as well as those of Aten. However, the traditional gods and goddesses of burial were omitted. Here, a hawk, the earliest embodiment of the Sun-god, acted as protector at the canopic chest's corners. But the divine ladies reappear in the equipment of his probable son, Tutankhamun.
The chests made for private individuals were usually of painted wood; those for kings were of calcite. With Tutankhamun's canopic equipment, the goddesses not only cover the corners of the stone chest, but as gilded wooden statues, they were believed to guard the great gilded wooden shrine that enclosed the canopic chest. The chest itself was a solid block with four cylindrical compartments sealed with lids in the shape of the king's head (though probably not of Tutankhamun himself).
By the Twentieth Dynasty, some changes were made to the canopic jars; they became tall and slender, without the pronounced shoulder. During the Third Intermediate Period ─particularly in the Twenty-First Dynasty─ the viscera were simply wrapped and returned to the body. Canopic jars, however, continued as empty symbols, dummy jars, occasionally even containing carved substitutes for the viscera. During the early part of the Late Period, some burials reveal a short-lived return to the use of canopic jars for visceral storage. However, some confusion of heads between each of the Sons is found, particularly on coffins, although also found on canopic jars. Thus in the Twenty-Second or Twenty-Third Dynasties, Duamutef and Qebehsenuef could swap heads, as could Duamutef and Hapy. Thereafter, canopic jars, which had now been in use for thousands of years, finally came to an end sometime during the Ptolemaic (Greek) Period. The chest that had formerly housed them grew into a heavily adorned, enlarged structure bearing carvings or paintings of the figures formerly dedicated to canopic jar stoppers. Few of these contained viscera.
A very few Ptolemaic jars are known, but they appear to have been superseded by small but tall chests resembling shrines. They were brightly painted, decorated with images of the genii, and surmounted by small statues of a squatting hawk. However, even prior to the Roman occupation of Egypt, these too disappeared forever from the funerary practices of the Ancients.
Role of Priests, Scribes, Artists, Craftsmen, Artisans, and Other Helpers
The staff known as `Ka-Priests` or `Servants of the Ka-Sprit` of the deceased, varied in number according to the wealth of the donor. After the New Kingdom, these priests were often termed `Water-Pourers`. In the tomb`s entrance, their most common function was to pour water for refreshment of the dead. Ideally, the office of a Ka-Priest was performed by the eldest son and heir of the deceased, echoing the services undertaken by Horus on behalf of his slain father Osiris. This indicates that the cult provided occupations and some financial security for descendants. The funerary cults of the nobility were more extensive, with many priests bound to the cult. The priests preparing the mummy were not the only busy ones during the process of mummification. Although the tomb preparation usually had begun long before the person`s actual death, now (by the death of a person), there was a deadline, and craftsmen, workers, and artists should work quickly.
There was much to be placed in the tomb that a dead person would need in the afterlife. Furniture and statuettes were readied; wall paintings of religious or daily scenes prepared; and lists of food or prayers finished. Through a magical process, these models, pictures and lists would become the real thing when needed in the afterlife. The artisans who were engaged meanwhile in all the activities essential to proper burial might number in the hundreds. The construction and decoration of the tomb, if not already completed by the deceased during his lifetime, presented an enormous task. Woodworkers were constructing the coffin –or a series of coffins, each to fit within another– tailored to measure. Artists were busy decorating the coffins.
The fine painting on the coffins was rarely done directly on the wood, but rather on a smooth plaster coating of whiting and glue over linen glued to the wood. The beautiful colors on many cases are pigments from minerals found in Egypt, often covered with a clear varnish. Countless other helpers were engaged in constructing and assembling the numerous articles to be deposited with the mummy when it was laid to rest in the tomb. An extremely important task also undertaken during the 70 days of mummification was the preparation by priests or scribes of magical texts to be placed in the tomb.
These texts, now known as the `Book of the Dead` were written on papyrus rolls varying in length from a few sheets to many sheets, some rolls approaching a length of one hundred feet. Often they were exquisitely illustrated in color. The chapters forming the Book of the Dead contained information necessary to the deceased in overcoming obstacles on his journey and in gaining admittance to the afterworld. As in a temple, the ritual actions of hymns, prayers and offerings required a priestly staff attached to the cult and containing source of income to fund both personnel and offerings. | <urn:uuid:e83e804e-d582-498d-b6fa-d33b8480e869> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://egyptopia.com/en/articles/Egypt/Death-Rituals-the-Funeral-Procession-in-Ancient-Egypt.s.29.13387/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00478.warc.gz | en | 0.980396 | 5,307 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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-0.062753990292... | 17 | The Funeral procession was an element of the death rituals in Ancient Egypt. After 70 days following the death of a person, an elaborate funeral procession headed towards the designated tomb of the deceased. These large processions must have been quite dramatic and would have provided the deceased with a spectacular memorial before burial. The mummy was placed in a coffin on a bier protected by effigies of gods. Oxen pull the sledge through the desert following the musicians who headed the procession. Milk was poured in front of it to make it easier for the sled to move smoothly. A curious object that forms part of the procession from the Middle Kingdom onwards is the tekenu .In the Middle Kingdom, it appears to be a wrapped figure that is either crouching or in the fetal position, with only the head showing. In the New Kingdom, the tekenu is shown as an entirely wrapped bundle, or with the head and sometimes an arm exposed. However, the role of the tekenu in the funerary ritual is enigmatic. Wailing mourners followed the procession accompanied by priests, some of whom wore animal masks. The jackal-masked impersonator of the god Anubis was a key figure in these death rituals. Servants or slaves followed carrying the items that would be buried with the mummy in the tomb. The possessions of the deceased included furniture, clothes, jewelry and cosmetics. A fresh foreleg of a sacrificial calf, poultry, meat and vegetables were also taken for the death sacrifices. The procession terminated when the location of the tomb was reached and the 'Opening of the Mouth' ritual commenced. This rite was one of the most important death rituals of the Ancient Egyptians.
They hold the belief that the death rituals performed during these ceremonies revived the mummified senses of the deceased so that he could eat, drink and speak in the next world. The mysterious Opening of the Mouth death rituals were performed using the main tools of the embalmer and the coffin maker. A priest touched the mouth, eyes, ears and nose with an adze in order to awaken the senses of the deceased and could accept the food sacrifices. A close member of the family burned incense. Garlands of flowers were sometimes draped around the neck of the coffin. Cosmetics were applied to the likeness painted on the anthropoid coffin. When the Opening of the Mouth Ceremony and the other death rituals had been completed, the coffin was finally placed in a sarcophagus and sealed in the tomb. The Ancient Egyptian death rituals often ended with a feast and a celebration as the deceased had started his/her journey into the glorious afterlife. Many mummies were provided with some form of funerary literature to take with them to the afterlife.
Most funerary literature consists of lists of spells and instructions for navigating the afterlife. During the Old Kingdom, only the pharaoh had access to this material, which scholars refer to as the Pyramid Texts. The Pyramid Texts are a collection of spells to help the pharaoh in the afterlife. Pharaoh Unas was the first to use this collection of spells, as he and a few subsequent pharaohs had them carved on the walls of their pyramids. In the First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom, some of the Pyramid Text spells also were found in burial chambers of high officials and on many coffins, where they begin to evolve into what scholars call the Coffin Texts. In this period, the noblemen and many non-royal Egyptians began to have access to funerary literature, which later evolved into the well-known Book of the Dead. By the time of the New Kingdom, any Egyptian who could afford a Book of the Dead was able to take along to the afterlife a list of spells and instructions that would ensure safe passage.
Priests were dressed in a certain way, as they enchanted magic spells and hymns, made offerings, and burnt incenses for the deceased. In the procession, too, were porters bearing gifts to be placed in the tomb. These mortuary accouterments believed essential for a happy afterlife might be furniture, weapons, jewelry, food, linens - any or all of those things that were made to provide comfort and happiness to the deceased in the earthly life. Other people were dressed in dark blue and they wailed for the deceased. The Egyptians had such a love for life that it was important for them to continue that enjoyment even after death. That is why elaborate burials were part of the acceptance of death. People were not preoccupied with death, but they did spend much time preparing for the time when their life on this earth would cease and they would enter the afterlife. When all the rituals were complete, the mummy was sealed within the coffin then placed in the burial chamber then the tomb was sealed. Special sacred dances were also probably performed as part of the funerary ritual. The most famous of these is the 'MWW' dance. This dance is associated with the sacred city of Buto in the Delta, the site of an important shrine. The dancers, wearing tall openwork reed headdresses, went through a ritual dance that would help maintain the deceased soul in the Hereafter.
Rituals on the Day of Burial
After the process of mummification is complete, the deceased's relatives took the mummy from the embalmers. The Day of Burial was the occasion for a series of acts and rituals which correspond to the modern notion of the “funeral”. Funerary processions are pictured on the walls of several tombs , and are alluded to in ancient texts including a description found in the Tomb of Djehuty. Additionally, this is described and illustrated in many tombs and funerary papyri, particularly those of the New Kingdom. Some have interpreted such depictions as incorporating episodes which would in reality have happened at other times. That is, they believed that they refer to the transportation of the body to the embalmer’s workshop or to the symbolic journeys to places of pilgrimage, such as Abydos. The funeral was a highly-ritualized procedure. The mummy in the coffin was taken from the deceased’s house either carried by servants or put in a shrine-shaped catafalque. This was mounted on a boat-shaped base, the whole edifice resting on a sledge drawn either by oxen or by male friends of the deceased. At the funeral of kings, the catafalque was pulled by high officials. Sometimes, the coffin was transported on a wheeled cart.
The catafalque, adorned with floral bouquets, was generally the focus of the procession. The deceased's relatives and friends taking part in the procession observed the formality of the mourning which began immediately after death. At the burial of a man of wealth, there would be also professional mourners. In addition to these groups, there were sometimes two women who personified Isis and Nephthys, the mourners of Osiris. Also present at the procession were the embalmer and various priests, headed by a lector priest carrying a scroll, from where the appropriate incantations were read out. Servants brought the burial good, particular attention being given to the Canopic container, which was dragged on a sledge. Since most tombs were on the West Bank (Luxor), it was usually necessary to cross the Nile.
At the river the coffin was placed on a boat, towed by rowing boats. The coffin was laid beneath a canopy in the middle, with the two principal lamenting women on the prow and the stern. Crossing the river, the boat reached the West Bank, where it was received into the 'Wabt'. The Wabt (perhaps the same in which embalming took place) was the place where the mummy was subjected to purifying rituals, before resuming the journey to the tomb. At the tomb, a further series of rituals took place. Dancers performed a ritual dance wearing tall headdresses made of vegetal material. Brief processions were made representing journeys to different cult centers in Egypt, which were represented by chapels. This included a visit to Sais, with rituals believed to be driven from the ceremonies enacted at the burials of the Pre-Dynastic rulers of Buto in Lower Egypt. Finally, both the tekenu and the canopic container were brought to the tomb's entrance.
The Opening of the Mouth
Reaching the tomb which is considered the threshold of the next world, the sakhu rituals were performed to bring about the transfiguration of the deceased. This was the moment for the most important funerary rites, namely, the Opening of the Mouth, the basic purpose of which was to re-animate the mummy. This originated as a ritual to endow statues with the capacity to support the living Ka, and so to receive offerings. By the Old Kingdom, it had been adapted from a statue-rite to a one performed on the mummy, its purpose being to restore to the dead the use of mouth, eyes, ears and nose enabling him to see, hear, breathe. This will help the deceased receive nourishment to sustain his Ka, Ba and other none physical aspects during the seventy-day interval between death and burial. Possibly, the activity of his senses was imagined to be suspended until the mummification process was complete. The Opening of the Mouth, however, renewed the relationship between these aspects and the corpse.
Depictions of the ritual from the New Kingdom show the mummy placed upright on a patch of clean sand at the entrance to the tomb. The liturgy was recited while the appropriate acts were varied out. Purifications and offerings similar to those performed in temple rites were enacted. The most important episodes were those adapted from original statue-ritual, involving the priest touching the mouth of the mummy-mask with chisel, an adze and other implements, including a bifurcate object called pesesh-kef, by which the faculties are symbolically renewed. The ritual was directed by an official called the Sem-Priest. This individual, originally the eldest son of the king, acted as the intermediary between the deceased and the Netherworld. Through his filial relationship to the deceased, like that of Horus to Osiris, the identification of the dead man with the resurrected god was strengthened. From the New Kingdom onwards, this role was often conceived as being carried out by Anubis; at least, he is often depicted taking a part, either holding the mummy upright while the ritual is performed or bending over the mummy on its bier, holding the adze and actually carrying out the ritual himself. The Pyramid Texts contained the words that were uttered at the Opening of the Mouth ritual.
In the New Kingdom, a revised version of the ritual was produced, illustrated with seventy five individual scenes, copies of which are found in several tombs, notably that of Seti I (c. 1294-1279 BC). In the Valley of the Kings, the main elements of the revised version were purification, the sacrifice of the bull, the mouth opening itself and the representation of the offerings. The ritual ended with an invocation to the gods at the placing of the mummy or a statue inside the tomb. Because of the importance of the Opening of the Mouth rituals, some tombs were sometimes supplied with a set of implements which enable the deceased to perform the ritual for himself should the need arise. In the Old Kingdom, these implements were usually models, set into stone slabs with receptacles specially cut to receive them. More elaborate models of some of the implements and vessels are known from the New Kingdom, and some of the tombs have also been found to contain groups of objects related to the ritual. The Tomb of Tjanehebu (XXVI Dynasty) at Saqqara contained a group of implements, including a sekhem scepter, the ram-headed serpent rods called wer-hekau instruments, and models of vessels in faience, calcite and wood.
The Offering Ritual
The Offering Ritual allows the deceased receive nourishment for eternity. It was performed for the first time immediately after the Opening of the Mouth, and, like the later, it involved several individual rituals: purifications, libations, burning of incense, and the presentation of food and drink. Actual food and drink were placed on the offering table of the chapel, and the "Htp-di-nsw" Formula was pronounced. This was the most important ritual in long term, since it was the one to ensure the continued survival of the deceased. For this reason, it was repeated after the burial.
The last procedure in the burial rituals is the actual burial. The body, along with its funerary goods, was placed in the tomb and the entrance to the burial chamber was sealed. Cattle were slaughtered, and the choicest parts of the animal were offered to the dead. The remainder was consumed by the relatives and mourners at a feast. The remnants of this banquet were sometimes ritually buried. From a deposit found in the Valley of the Kings, we know that the guests at Tutankhamen's funeral feast consumed beef, sheep or goat, duck and goose. Then the participants withdrew, returning to their homes, while final rituals to protect the tomb were performed.
Mourners and Their Importance
On the Day of Burial, the deceased's relatives and friends taking part in the procession observed the formality of the mourning which began immediately after death. Herodotus describes how the female relatives of the deceased repeatedly smear their head with dust and sometimes also the face, then leave the corpse in the house and themselves wander through the town beating their breasts with garments girt up and revealing their breasts. Male mourners beat their breasts separately, also with their garments girt up. Old kingdom scenes show men and women segregating in mourning: women stayed indoors while men went outside. At the burial of a man of wealth, there would be also professional mourners. The deceased was accompanied on the way to burial by two female mourners (usually from the family of the deceased), one at his head and the other at his feet, personifying goddesses Isis and Nephthys, the mourners of Osiris.
In the New Kingdom, depictions of the dead man’s widow are often shown kneeling beside the mummy, at the foot of the coffin. Scenes showing the officiating priest to be male were also common at this era. New Kingdom scenes depict women as the most conspicuous mourners: they are shown involved in lamentation, with disheveled hair, exposed breasts, open mouths, and contorted postures. This conveyed a highly specific ‘semaphore’ of grief. In many cases female mourners outnumbered the male ones, and it is possible that in addition to members of the family, there were also professional female mourners. Stele from Deir el-Medina was dedicated by a women and her daughter who both use mourner as a title, suggesting that this was their occupation. On the other hand, Herodotus says that men generally adopted a less dramatic pose, squatting on the ground with their faces downcast. In a gesture described in the story of Sinuhe, the courtiers who lament the death of the king sit ‘head-on-knee’.
In depiction, there are countless examples of scenes showing groups of mourners accompanying the procession, which attest the importance of the role they played over times in Ancient Egypt. Details from the wall paintings in the Tomb of Ramose depict groups of hired, professional women in blue (the prescribed color for mourning dresses), mourning the death of the tomb's owner. In the Pyramid Texts, some detailed descriptions of the lamentation for Osiris and the role of mourners read: "They beat their flesh for you, they smite their hands for you, they dishevel their hair for you".
Inside their tombs, Ancient Egyptians used to put funerary equipments. Varying from each tomb, such equipments were placed around the body of the deceased. According to texts, images and archaeological data, funerary equipments depended on the rank and economic means of the individual. Provisions for a proper burial included – among other objects– a secure receptacle for the mummified remains, food, offerings, protective figures, servant statues as well as shabtis. In addition to being emblems of statues and objects for actual use in the afterlife, some equipment also functioned symbolically to help in resurrection and to offer protection to the deceased. Like a temple, a tomb was a place in which cult practices would be performed and Egyptians were putting statues and offerings for the deceased. They also put funerary equipments in tombs to serve the deceased in the afterlife. Some examples of the Egyptian funerary equipments throughout the history of Egypt are: seal amulets, protective amulets, pottery and stone vessels and vases, sarcophagi, coffins, furniture, cloths, jewelry, warlike tools, statuettes of deities and shabtis, canopic jars, funerary cones, as well as a variety of funerary figurines.
The Evolution of Canopic Containers
The idea of including vases in the tombs had existed since the Pre-Dynastic Era, but they were not serving as canopic jars. Rather, some of them were jars used to contain libations, oils and perfumes. In The Old Kingdom, there were canopic chests in some tombs at Saqqara and elsewhere belonging to the Second and Third Dynasties. At some tombs of high officials there were niches cut into the south wall of the burial chamber to preserve the dead body's viscera. These canopic niches or pits were no longer provided in tombs after the Fourth Dynasty. The viscera were placed instead in separate pieces. The earliest example is the alabaster chest made for the burial of Queen Hetepheres I, mother of King Khufu. This canopic chest had the shape of a square with flat or domed lids, carved from calicite. It was divided into four square compartments, each of which contained a biological mass that almost certainly was part of her internal organs. The canopic chests holding the jars were cut from soft stone, or carved from the tomb's actual wall or floor. However, from the Sixth Dynasty, granite examples have been discovered in royal tombs sunk into pits in the floor at the southeast foot of the sarcophagus.
The viscera remains had been soaked in resin and when solidified, took the shape of a jar. By the First Intermediate period, canopic jars were made with human-headed stoppers, instead of a flat or domed shape. During the Middle Kingdom, canopic jars were made of pottery, wood or stone. The most characteristic feature in the form of the jars was the squareness of the shoulders, a form which does not seem to occur after the Eighteenth Dynasty. The lids were often human-headed, sometimes of wood stuccoed and painted. In the royal tombs, the chests containing the jars were adorned. In occasional tombs, the viscera were wrapped in a bundle enveloped by a mask with a human face. By The Second Intermediate Period, some chests bore a figure of a jackal, representing Anubis, the Egyptian god of embalmment. At this stage, there was a change in the traditional coffins used to bury the dead (particularly royalty) in Egypt. No longer were all coffins rectangular. Rather, they took on the form of the human body.
There are also some examples of canopic chests that took the shape of a human body. In the New Kingdom ─particularly in the Eighteenth Dynasty─ the rectangular-shaped canopic chests expanded into shrines, still having a curved roof. It was at this time that canopic jar stoppers carried the symbols of the Four Sons of Hours, each of which usually housed certain visceral organs. However, it should be noted that, along with the rest of Egyptian religion, even the customs related to canopic equipment were altered during the reign of the Heretic King, Akhenaten, during the Eighteenth Dynasty. This became standard practice in the reign of Ramesses II (of the Nineteenth Dynasty). Texts on these objects provide the names and titles of the King, as well as those of Aten. However, the traditional gods and goddesses of burial were omitted. Here, a hawk, the earliest embodiment of the Sun-god, acted as protector at the canopic chest's corners. But the divine ladies reappear in the equipment of his probable son, Tutankhamun.
The chests made for private individuals were usually of painted wood; those for kings were of calcite. With Tutankhamun's canopic equipment, the goddesses not only cover the corners of the stone chest, but as gilded wooden statues, they were believed to guard the great gilded wooden shrine that enclosed the canopic chest. The chest itself was a solid block with four cylindrical compartments sealed with lids in the shape of the king's head (though probably not of Tutankhamun himself).
By the Twentieth Dynasty, some changes were made to the canopic jars; they became tall and slender, without the pronounced shoulder. During the Third Intermediate Period ─particularly in the Twenty-First Dynasty─ the viscera were simply wrapped and returned to the body. Canopic jars, however, continued as empty symbols, dummy jars, occasionally even containing carved substitutes for the viscera. During the early part of the Late Period, some burials reveal a short-lived return to the use of canopic jars for visceral storage. However, some confusion of heads between each of the Sons is found, particularly on coffins, although also found on canopic jars. Thus in the Twenty-Second or Twenty-Third Dynasties, Duamutef and Qebehsenuef could swap heads, as could Duamutef and Hapy. Thereafter, canopic jars, which had now been in use for thousands of years, finally came to an end sometime during the Ptolemaic (Greek) Period. The chest that had formerly housed them grew into a heavily adorned, enlarged structure bearing carvings or paintings of the figures formerly dedicated to canopic jar stoppers. Few of these contained viscera.
A very few Ptolemaic jars are known, but they appear to have been superseded by small but tall chests resembling shrines. They were brightly painted, decorated with images of the genii, and surmounted by small statues of a squatting hawk. However, even prior to the Roman occupation of Egypt, these too disappeared forever from the funerary practices of the Ancients.
Role of Priests, Scribes, Artists, Craftsmen, Artisans, and Other Helpers
The staff known as `Ka-Priests` or `Servants of the Ka-Sprit` of the deceased, varied in number according to the wealth of the donor. After the New Kingdom, these priests were often termed `Water-Pourers`. In the tomb`s entrance, their most common function was to pour water for refreshment of the dead. Ideally, the office of a Ka-Priest was performed by the eldest son and heir of the deceased, echoing the services undertaken by Horus on behalf of his slain father Osiris. This indicates that the cult provided occupations and some financial security for descendants. The funerary cults of the nobility were more extensive, with many priests bound to the cult. The priests preparing the mummy were not the only busy ones during the process of mummification. Although the tomb preparation usually had begun long before the person`s actual death, now (by the death of a person), there was a deadline, and craftsmen, workers, and artists should work quickly.
There was much to be placed in the tomb that a dead person would need in the afterlife. Furniture and statuettes were readied; wall paintings of religious or daily scenes prepared; and lists of food or prayers finished. Through a magical process, these models, pictures and lists would become the real thing when needed in the afterlife. The artisans who were engaged meanwhile in all the activities essential to proper burial might number in the hundreds. The construction and decoration of the tomb, if not already completed by the deceased during his lifetime, presented an enormous task. Woodworkers were constructing the coffin –or a series of coffins, each to fit within another– tailored to measure. Artists were busy decorating the coffins.
The fine painting on the coffins was rarely done directly on the wood, but rather on a smooth plaster coating of whiting and glue over linen glued to the wood. The beautiful colors on many cases are pigments from minerals found in Egypt, often covered with a clear varnish. Countless other helpers were engaged in constructing and assembling the numerous articles to be deposited with the mummy when it was laid to rest in the tomb. An extremely important task also undertaken during the 70 days of mummification was the preparation by priests or scribes of magical texts to be placed in the tomb.
These texts, now known as the `Book of the Dead` were written on papyrus rolls varying in length from a few sheets to many sheets, some rolls approaching a length of one hundred feet. Often they were exquisitely illustrated in color. The chapters forming the Book of the Dead contained information necessary to the deceased in overcoming obstacles on his journey and in gaining admittance to the afterworld. As in a temple, the ritual actions of hymns, prayers and offerings required a priestly staff attached to the cult and containing source of income to fund both personnel and offerings. | 5,275 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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The Minoan civilisation was a civilization on Crete, an island near Greece. It began in the Bronze Age between 3000 and 2700 BC, and lasted to about 1450 BC. The Minoan civilisation is famous for its sea trading and well planned cities. The Minoans had an agricultural system which relied mainly on olives and grapes. Their religion worshiped mostly goddesses. The Minoan civilisation was later replaced by the Mycenaean culture.
The Minoans also had control over Thera and Rhodes, two Greek islands, along with having had some control over the coast of Turkey.
Minoan Architecture[edit | edit source]
The Minoans built houses of stone and brick, but their most elaborate buildings were palaces and shrines of stone. Uniquely in the Mediterranean, the Minoans did not build defensive walls around their cities. Instead, their palaces had many open porches lined with red columns, and many windows to admit the Mediterranean sunlight. They adorned the edges of their roofs with curving ornaments that looked like bull's horns. Each of their palaces centered around a large open courtyard, where they held dances and athletic events. Many of the palace walls were covered with frescoes, or paintings in which the paint is mixed with the plaster on the wall. Some frescoes showed men and women, ships, farmers, fishermen, dancers, nobles, and all sorts of people living very elegant, happy lives. Others showed dolphins leaping in the sea, or imaginary animals like griffins, which are half-lion and half-eagle. Many frescoes show a sport commonly known as "bull-jumping", whereby the competitors would try to somersault over an angry bull as it charged around. Whether this practice was religious or a sport is unknown. Some people think it might be mythological and may have never happened at all.
Eating[edit | edit source]
The island of Crete was rich in natural resources. They had access to wood, copper, farmland, stone and coastal areas. The Minoans were successful with farming and grew grain, herbs, olives and fruit. Much of the spare food was traded to make money for the island.
Writing[edit | edit source]
The Minoans used a style of writing that scholars today call Linear A. Towards the end of Minoan Civilization a new style of writing began to appear in Crete and elsewhere on mainland Greece. This was named Linear B. Unfortunately there are not enough examples of Linear A to enable us to decipher the script at present. Linear B, however, was deciphered in the 1950s by Michael Ventris who discovered that it was in fact a very early form of Ancient Greek, used at that time by the Mycenaeans. The presence of clay tablets with the Linear B script in Crete suggests the presence of Mycenaeans on the island during that last part of Minoan civilization, though it cannot be said with any certainty in what capacity they were present on the island. It is possible that after the collapse of Minoan civilization the Mycenaeans invaded Crete and took over the island.
The Minoans wrote their language on long, thin tablets of clay with a stylus or stick. The writing has lots of different symbols, and scholars believe it is a type of writing called a syllabary, in which one symbol stands for a consonant-vowel combination. There are many Linear A symbols that may stand for whole words, though, because many of the tablets were found in storage rooms where the Minoans kept supplies of food, drink and equipment. The tablets which have come down to us exist because they were "fired" in the high temperatures created by the fires that destroyed the main palaces of Minoan Crete.
Beliefs[edit | edit source]
Because no one knows how to read Linear A, no one knows exactly what the Minoans believed. Because there are so many women in the frescoes on the walls of Minoan palaces, some people think that women ruled the Minoans. It is possible that they worshipped a female god, because there are very few statues of male gods at Minoan archaeological sites, while there are a great many female goddess statues.
One of the most common types of Minoan goddess statue is of a woman, wearing traditional Minoan clothing - the skirt and bodice. However, two snakes twine around her arms, and a bird of some sort perches on top of the crown on her head. Some of these statues are made of pottery; others are made of ivory and gold. They are found at a great many sites all around Crete and on some other Mediterranean islands.
Another god that the Minoans may have worshipped was a sea-god. Many Minoan palaces are adorned with curving shapes of stone that look like the horns of a bull. These horns may represent just the bull, but some scholars believe they mean more than that. The Greeks told stories about a king of Crete who had a very dangerous monster with a bull's head trapped under his palace, and that the monster, called the Minotaur, regularly ate both men and women. Scholars think this may have been a story about a Minoan god who accepted human sacrifices.
History[edit | edit source]
Small, basic tribes of people lived on the island from around 6000 BC. They lived this way for thousands of years, until in 2000 BC they rapidly advanced into the first civilization of Europe. The reason for this is not known, but some people think that Egyptians may have traveled to Crete and bought ideas and technology with them. The Minoans were successful because of their farming and fishing - they were not a military power. They also controlled the trade in the Aegean Sea and this made them very rich. Their navy was one of the strongest in the world and because of this they did not have to build walls or towers on their island. The Minoans suffered from natural disasters. The palace of Knossos was destroyed in 1700 BC and rebuilt. Around 1550 BC, the volcano Thera erupted and may have caused a tidal wave which devastated the coast of the Minoan kingdom. From then onwards, their control of trade weakened and they were not so successful. Many people believe that the Minoans were eventually invaded by barbarians who attacked mainland Greece first and then Crete itself. The civilization had died out by 1000 BC.
In around 1550 BC, a volcano on the island of Thera ninety miles north of Crete erupted, and blew two-thirds of a whole island into ash and flying rock and hot gas. The volcano caused an earthquake, which knocked down many buildings on Crete and killed many people. Afterwards, a tidal wave rolled out from Thera, and washed several miles inland on Crete. The palaces and other monuments of the Minoans were further damaged, many people died during the earthquake and the tidal wave, the Minoans themselves entered a period of decline.
Sometime around 1480 BC, another Civilization from mainland Greece crossed the sea, and invaded Crete. The Minoans were still recovering from the Earthquake and tidal wave, they didn't know that another Civilization was coming to destroy them, they tried to defend the town but the army was still weak they failed, the other civilization conquered the ruined towns and built their own palaces to replace those destroyed in the earthquake and tidal wave. They used the Minoan alphabet to write their own language, called Linear B, and took control of the Minoan towns, fields, and fishing grounds for themselves. Another theory is that the Minoans were not invaded until much later, and had continued to survive, despite not being as successful as before.
Although some of the people on Crete today might be descendants of the Minoans, the Minoan culture has vanished completely. The legacy of Linear A, the writing system, has still not been translated and continues to be a mystery.
Mythology[edit | edit source]
There are two famous Minoans in mythology. The first is King Minos, from whom these people and their civilization are named by scholars today. King Minos was believed to be a just and honest ruler, and the ancient Greeks believed that when he died, the king of the underworld made him a judge over the dead. The second famous Minoan is Ariadne, king Minos's daughter, who helped Theseus, a Greek hero, defeat and kill the Minotaur, and later became the wife of the god Dionysus. | <urn:uuid:c54bf256-c8ac-4070-a84f-5ad5f7b3e6aa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.vikidia.org/wiki/Minoan_civilization | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00010.warc.gz | en | 0.983355 | 1,799 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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Join Vikidia: create your account now and improve it!
The Minoan civilisation was a civilization on Crete, an island near Greece. It began in the Bronze Age between 3000 and 2700 BC, and lasted to about 1450 BC. The Minoan civilisation is famous for its sea trading and well planned cities. The Minoans had an agricultural system which relied mainly on olives and grapes. Their religion worshiped mostly goddesses. The Minoan civilisation was later replaced by the Mycenaean culture.
The Minoans also had control over Thera and Rhodes, two Greek islands, along with having had some control over the coast of Turkey.
Minoan Architecture[edit | edit source]
The Minoans built houses of stone and brick, but their most elaborate buildings were palaces and shrines of stone. Uniquely in the Mediterranean, the Minoans did not build defensive walls around their cities. Instead, their palaces had many open porches lined with red columns, and many windows to admit the Mediterranean sunlight. They adorned the edges of their roofs with curving ornaments that looked like bull's horns. Each of their palaces centered around a large open courtyard, where they held dances and athletic events. Many of the palace walls were covered with frescoes, or paintings in which the paint is mixed with the plaster on the wall. Some frescoes showed men and women, ships, farmers, fishermen, dancers, nobles, and all sorts of people living very elegant, happy lives. Others showed dolphins leaping in the sea, or imaginary animals like griffins, which are half-lion and half-eagle. Many frescoes show a sport commonly known as "bull-jumping", whereby the competitors would try to somersault over an angry bull as it charged around. Whether this practice was religious or a sport is unknown. Some people think it might be mythological and may have never happened at all.
Eating[edit | edit source]
The island of Crete was rich in natural resources. They had access to wood, copper, farmland, stone and coastal areas. The Minoans were successful with farming and grew grain, herbs, olives and fruit. Much of the spare food was traded to make money for the island.
Writing[edit | edit source]
The Minoans used a style of writing that scholars today call Linear A. Towards the end of Minoan Civilization a new style of writing began to appear in Crete and elsewhere on mainland Greece. This was named Linear B. Unfortunately there are not enough examples of Linear A to enable us to decipher the script at present. Linear B, however, was deciphered in the 1950s by Michael Ventris who discovered that it was in fact a very early form of Ancient Greek, used at that time by the Mycenaeans. The presence of clay tablets with the Linear B script in Crete suggests the presence of Mycenaeans on the island during that last part of Minoan civilization, though it cannot be said with any certainty in what capacity they were present on the island. It is possible that after the collapse of Minoan civilization the Mycenaeans invaded Crete and took over the island.
The Minoans wrote their language on long, thin tablets of clay with a stylus or stick. The writing has lots of different symbols, and scholars believe it is a type of writing called a syllabary, in which one symbol stands for a consonant-vowel combination. There are many Linear A symbols that may stand for whole words, though, because many of the tablets were found in storage rooms where the Minoans kept supplies of food, drink and equipment. The tablets which have come down to us exist because they were "fired" in the high temperatures created by the fires that destroyed the main palaces of Minoan Crete.
Beliefs[edit | edit source]
Because no one knows how to read Linear A, no one knows exactly what the Minoans believed. Because there are so many women in the frescoes on the walls of Minoan palaces, some people think that women ruled the Minoans. It is possible that they worshipped a female god, because there are very few statues of male gods at Minoan archaeological sites, while there are a great many female goddess statues.
One of the most common types of Minoan goddess statue is of a woman, wearing traditional Minoan clothing - the skirt and bodice. However, two snakes twine around her arms, and a bird of some sort perches on top of the crown on her head. Some of these statues are made of pottery; others are made of ivory and gold. They are found at a great many sites all around Crete and on some other Mediterranean islands.
Another god that the Minoans may have worshipped was a sea-god. Many Minoan palaces are adorned with curving shapes of stone that look like the horns of a bull. These horns may represent just the bull, but some scholars believe they mean more than that. The Greeks told stories about a king of Crete who had a very dangerous monster with a bull's head trapped under his palace, and that the monster, called the Minotaur, regularly ate both men and women. Scholars think this may have been a story about a Minoan god who accepted human sacrifices.
History[edit | edit source]
Small, basic tribes of people lived on the island from around 6000 BC. They lived this way for thousands of years, until in 2000 BC they rapidly advanced into the first civilization of Europe. The reason for this is not known, but some people think that Egyptians may have traveled to Crete and bought ideas and technology with them. The Minoans were successful because of their farming and fishing - they were not a military power. They also controlled the trade in the Aegean Sea and this made them very rich. Their navy was one of the strongest in the world and because of this they did not have to build walls or towers on their island. The Minoans suffered from natural disasters. The palace of Knossos was destroyed in 1700 BC and rebuilt. Around 1550 BC, the volcano Thera erupted and may have caused a tidal wave which devastated the coast of the Minoan kingdom. From then onwards, their control of trade weakened and they were not so successful. Many people believe that the Minoans were eventually invaded by barbarians who attacked mainland Greece first and then Crete itself. The civilization had died out by 1000 BC.
In around 1550 BC, a volcano on the island of Thera ninety miles north of Crete erupted, and blew two-thirds of a whole island into ash and flying rock and hot gas. The volcano caused an earthquake, which knocked down many buildings on Crete and killed many people. Afterwards, a tidal wave rolled out from Thera, and washed several miles inland on Crete. The palaces and other monuments of the Minoans were further damaged, many people died during the earthquake and the tidal wave, the Minoans themselves entered a period of decline.
Sometime around 1480 BC, another Civilization from mainland Greece crossed the sea, and invaded Crete. The Minoans were still recovering from the Earthquake and tidal wave, they didn't know that another Civilization was coming to destroy them, they tried to defend the town but the army was still weak they failed, the other civilization conquered the ruined towns and built their own palaces to replace those destroyed in the earthquake and tidal wave. They used the Minoan alphabet to write their own language, called Linear B, and took control of the Minoan towns, fields, and fishing grounds for themselves. Another theory is that the Minoans were not invaded until much later, and had continued to survive, despite not being as successful as before.
Although some of the people on Crete today might be descendants of the Minoans, the Minoan culture has vanished completely. The legacy of Linear A, the writing system, has still not been translated and continues to be a mystery.
Mythology[edit | edit source]
There are two famous Minoans in mythology. The first is King Minos, from whom these people and their civilization are named by scholars today. King Minos was believed to be a just and honest ruler, and the ancient Greeks believed that when he died, the king of the underworld made him a judge over the dead. The second famous Minoan is Ariadne, king Minos's daughter, who helped Theseus, a Greek hero, defeat and kill the Minotaur, and later became the wife of the god Dionysus. | 1,835 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
Charles VI, byname Charles the Well-beloved or the Mad, French Charles le Bien-aimé orL’insensé, (born Dec. 3, 1368, Paris, France—died Oct. 21, 1422, Paris), king of France who throughout his long reign (1380–1422) remained largely a figurehead, first because he was still a boy when he took the throne and later because of his periodic fits of madness.
Crowned on October 25, 1380, at Reims at the age of 11, Charles remained under the tutelage of his uncles until his declaration to rule alone in 1388. During those early years France was ruled by his uncles and their creation, the administrative Council of 12. Philip the Bold of Burgundy conducted the council from 1382. The marriage of Isabella of Bavaria to Charles (July 17, 1385) was arranged by Philip, who had inherited the countship of Flanders and needed German allies to offset English intervention there. Philip also induced Charles to support Jeanne of Brabant, the aunt of Philip’s wife, and to lead an expedition in August 1388 against Duke William of Gelderland; Charles, however, made a speedy peace with William and returned to France.
It was then (November 2, 1388) that Charles made his decision to rule alone. His uncles withdrew, and the former officials of his father, Charles V, took over. Governmental reorganization and reforms were initiated, and a number of ordinances were promulgated in early 1389. The following winter Charles visited the antipope Clement VII in Avignon, France, and discussed plans to install Clement as pope in Rome and thus enhance French power in Italy. Reports of those plans brought about the resumption of negotiations with England, which had been at war with France since 1337 (the Hundred Years’ War). England’s king Richard II favoured the Roman pope Boniface IX. While efforts were being made for peace in 1392, however, Charles became ill with a fever and convulsions, the first of his 44 attacks of madness. The attacks lasted from three to nine months and were interspersed with three- to five-month periods of sanity for the remainder of his life.
Royal authority waned, and the dukes of Burgundy and Orléans began to vie for power. The Burgundians, led by John the Fearless, successor of Philip the Bold, arranged the murder of Louis, duc d’Orléans, in 1407 and allied themselves with King Henry V of England, who won the Battle of Agincourt (1415) against the French. In December 1418 Charles, the 15-year-old dauphin, proclaimed himself regent, but in May 1420, under Isabella’s influence, Charles VI signed the Treaty of Troyes for the marriage of his daughter Catherine of Valois to Henry V of England, who was declared regent of France and heir to the French throne (as if the dauphin were not his son). After Charles VI’s death in 1422, the country north of the Loire was under the control of England, while southern France, excluding English Aquitaine, was loyal to the dauphin as Charles VII.
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
France: Charles VICharles VI (reigned 1380–1422) was a minor when he succeeded his father. His uncles, each possessed of the ambition and resources to pursue independent policies, assumed control of the government. Louis II, duc d’Anjou, soon removed himself from influence by seeking the throne…
United Kingdom: The French war…that Henry would marry Catherine, Charles VI’s daughter. He was to be heir to the French throne, and that throne was to descend to his heirs in perpetuity. But Charles VI’s son, the Dauphin, was not a party to the treaty, and so the war continued. Henry, still wanting money…
Hundred Years' War: Richard II and Charles VI…by children: Richard II and Charles VI (son of Charles V). England was divided and weakened by the political and constitutional struggles between Richard and his opponents; this conflict was further complicated by the outbreak of first major popular rebellion in English history. A poll tax was imposed to pay… | <urn:uuid:e4afb54c-37bb-4481-8b1f-f9290548f2d5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-VI-king-of-France | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00412.warc.gz | en | 0.981479 | 959 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.016233457... | 3 | Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
Charles VI, byname Charles the Well-beloved or the Mad, French Charles le Bien-aimé orL’insensé, (born Dec. 3, 1368, Paris, France—died Oct. 21, 1422, Paris), king of France who throughout his long reign (1380–1422) remained largely a figurehead, first because he was still a boy when he took the throne and later because of his periodic fits of madness.
Crowned on October 25, 1380, at Reims at the age of 11, Charles remained under the tutelage of his uncles until his declaration to rule alone in 1388. During those early years France was ruled by his uncles and their creation, the administrative Council of 12. Philip the Bold of Burgundy conducted the council from 1382. The marriage of Isabella of Bavaria to Charles (July 17, 1385) was arranged by Philip, who had inherited the countship of Flanders and needed German allies to offset English intervention there. Philip also induced Charles to support Jeanne of Brabant, the aunt of Philip’s wife, and to lead an expedition in August 1388 against Duke William of Gelderland; Charles, however, made a speedy peace with William and returned to France.
It was then (November 2, 1388) that Charles made his decision to rule alone. His uncles withdrew, and the former officials of his father, Charles V, took over. Governmental reorganization and reforms were initiated, and a number of ordinances were promulgated in early 1389. The following winter Charles visited the antipope Clement VII in Avignon, France, and discussed plans to install Clement as pope in Rome and thus enhance French power in Italy. Reports of those plans brought about the resumption of negotiations with England, which had been at war with France since 1337 (the Hundred Years’ War). England’s king Richard II favoured the Roman pope Boniface IX. While efforts were being made for peace in 1392, however, Charles became ill with a fever and convulsions, the first of his 44 attacks of madness. The attacks lasted from three to nine months and were interspersed with three- to five-month periods of sanity for the remainder of his life.
Royal authority waned, and the dukes of Burgundy and Orléans began to vie for power. The Burgundians, led by John the Fearless, successor of Philip the Bold, arranged the murder of Louis, duc d’Orléans, in 1407 and allied themselves with King Henry V of England, who won the Battle of Agincourt (1415) against the French. In December 1418 Charles, the 15-year-old dauphin, proclaimed himself regent, but in May 1420, under Isabella’s influence, Charles VI signed the Treaty of Troyes for the marriage of his daughter Catherine of Valois to Henry V of England, who was declared regent of France and heir to the French throne (as if the dauphin were not his son). After Charles VI’s death in 1422, the country north of the Loire was under the control of England, while southern France, excluding English Aquitaine, was loyal to the dauphin as Charles VII.
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
France: Charles VICharles VI (reigned 1380–1422) was a minor when he succeeded his father. His uncles, each possessed of the ambition and resources to pursue independent policies, assumed control of the government. Louis II, duc d’Anjou, soon removed himself from influence by seeking the throne…
United Kingdom: The French war…that Henry would marry Catherine, Charles VI’s daughter. He was to be heir to the French throne, and that throne was to descend to his heirs in perpetuity. But Charles VI’s son, the Dauphin, was not a party to the treaty, and so the war continued. Henry, still wanting money…
Hundred Years' War: Richard II and Charles VI…by children: Richard II and Charles VI (son of Charles V). England was divided and weakened by the political and constitutional struggles between Richard and his opponents; this conflict was further complicated by the outbreak of first major popular rebellion in English history. A poll tax was imposed to pay… | 992 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The relationship between Austria and Russia was without hint of conflict in the first half of the nineteenth century. Austrians wept with joy when Russia offered military assistance against the Hungarians, and the Austrian Emperor traveled to Warsaw, where he knelt on one knee to kiss the Tsar's hand. The two powers signed an agreement to conduct their foreign policies “only together and in a perfect spirit of solidarity,” and the Tsar told foreign diplomats, “when I speak of Russia, I speak of Austria as well.” Yet, in the latter half of the nineteenth century, the two empires were in constant tension, and often directly at odds. Russia offered aid and support against Austrian interests, first to Sardinia and Prussia, enabling those states to form Italy and Germany, and later to Serbia and other Balkan powers, leading to the World War. This dramatic shift in Russian policy towards Austria happened suddenly in the 1850s and did not result from changes in national capabilities or material interests; what brought it about?
Another important shift in European politics occurred during the Great Eastern Crisis in 1876. Germany and Russia had previously had the closest of relations, while Germany and Austria had fought a war a decade before. Yet, during the Great Eastern Crisis, a rift formed between Germany and Russia, while Germany and Austria–Hungary drew closer together. The German statesman, Otto von Bismarck, was convinced that the words his ambassador to Russia had uttered to the Tsar had brought about this “new situation” in Europe. Soon after, Germany signed the alliance with Austria that lasted until both Empires were destroyed fighting side by side in the cataclysm of the First World War. What did produce this new situation and how did it then convince Germany and Austria to bind themselves in a rare, permanent alliance despite having recently fought each other in a war?
The twentieth century contains many examples of similar shifts in leaders’ beliefs and policies with lasting consequences. At the turn of the century, for instance, Russo-Austrian relations were merely conflictual, but by 1914, the Austrian emperor had come to believe that Russian policy aimed at “the destruction of my empire.” Austrian statesmen, who had previously rated Germany an unreliable ally, came to believe instead during the July Crisis that Germany could be relied upon in an existential struggle. | <urn:uuid:781d4e40-a31c-431d-97f5-4c210d437b18> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://core-cms.prod.aop.cambridge.org/core/search?filters%5BauthorTerms%5D=F.%20Tr%C3%A4ger&eventCode=SE-AU | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00528.warc.gz | en | 0.980239 | 478 | 4.28125 | 4 | [
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0.44216817617... | 1 | The relationship between Austria and Russia was without hint of conflict in the first half of the nineteenth century. Austrians wept with joy when Russia offered military assistance against the Hungarians, and the Austrian Emperor traveled to Warsaw, where he knelt on one knee to kiss the Tsar's hand. The two powers signed an agreement to conduct their foreign policies “only together and in a perfect spirit of solidarity,” and the Tsar told foreign diplomats, “when I speak of Russia, I speak of Austria as well.” Yet, in the latter half of the nineteenth century, the two empires were in constant tension, and often directly at odds. Russia offered aid and support against Austrian interests, first to Sardinia and Prussia, enabling those states to form Italy and Germany, and later to Serbia and other Balkan powers, leading to the World War. This dramatic shift in Russian policy towards Austria happened suddenly in the 1850s and did not result from changes in national capabilities or material interests; what brought it about?
Another important shift in European politics occurred during the Great Eastern Crisis in 1876. Germany and Russia had previously had the closest of relations, while Germany and Austria had fought a war a decade before. Yet, during the Great Eastern Crisis, a rift formed between Germany and Russia, while Germany and Austria–Hungary drew closer together. The German statesman, Otto von Bismarck, was convinced that the words his ambassador to Russia had uttered to the Tsar had brought about this “new situation” in Europe. Soon after, Germany signed the alliance with Austria that lasted until both Empires were destroyed fighting side by side in the cataclysm of the First World War. What did produce this new situation and how did it then convince Germany and Austria to bind themselves in a rare, permanent alliance despite having recently fought each other in a war?
The twentieth century contains many examples of similar shifts in leaders’ beliefs and policies with lasting consequences. At the turn of the century, for instance, Russo-Austrian relations were merely conflictual, but by 1914, the Austrian emperor had come to believe that Russian policy aimed at “the destruction of my empire.” Austrian statesmen, who had previously rated Germany an unreliable ally, came to believe instead during the July Crisis that Germany could be relied upon in an existential struggle. | 479 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pennsylvania’s first and only official woman leader served as acting proprietor of the Province for 14 years.
Born in Bristol, England, to a family of wealthy Quaker merchants. She was the only child out of 9 to reach adulthood, and as the sole heir of the family business, she learned the trade, which included accounting and management skills. At the age of 25, she married 52 years old Pennsylvania founder William Penn, and 3 years later, the couple moved to Philadelphia, where William Penn served as governor of the province of Pennsylvania. As opposed to other women of the era, Hannah Callowhill wasn’t an ordinary housewife and was deeply involved in the colony affairs, making connections with government officials and men in power.
Two years after the Penn’s arrived in America, they had to return to England because of financial issues, and Callowhill Penn, with the help of her father’s fortune, managed to keep the colony from falling into ruins.
In 1712, her husband suffered a series of strokes that affected his mental and physical health, so for the six years till his death, Callowhill Penn took control of both family and all the colony matters. She paid her husband’s debts and managed his financial and legal affairs, which sometimes included forging his signature and writing letters in his name. In 1718 William Penn passed away, and in his will, he gave his wife full control of his possessions as well as the colony. Penn’s oldest son from his first marriage tried to dismiss his father’s will and to gain control of the colony, but the Board of Trade and the Assembly of Pennsylvania sided with Callowhill Penn, and at age 47, she officially became the acting proprietor of the Province, a position she served for 8 years until her death.
More Interesting Anecdotes:
- She had 8 children.
- She made the 3-month journey to America while pregnant with her first child.
- As the acting proprietor of Pennsylvania, Callowhill Penn fought for women’s right to inherit their husband’s estate.
- March 12th, 2013, was named “Hannah Callowhill Penn Day” in Pennsylvania.
- A portrait of her was on display in the Pennsylvania governor’s office, alongside her husband’s portrait and portraits of other early leaders of Pennsylvania. Still, after a few months, it was hanged down and sent into storage.
- Callowhill Street in Philadelphia is named in her honor. | <urn:uuid:025e3d99-e4fe-40dc-b19f-f022d9570322> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wanderwomenproject.com/women/hannah-callowhill-penn/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00124.warc.gz | en | 0.986272 | 526 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.312893241643905... | 3 | Pennsylvania’s first and only official woman leader served as acting proprietor of the Province for 14 years.
Born in Bristol, England, to a family of wealthy Quaker merchants. She was the only child out of 9 to reach adulthood, and as the sole heir of the family business, she learned the trade, which included accounting and management skills. At the age of 25, she married 52 years old Pennsylvania founder William Penn, and 3 years later, the couple moved to Philadelphia, where William Penn served as governor of the province of Pennsylvania. As opposed to other women of the era, Hannah Callowhill wasn’t an ordinary housewife and was deeply involved in the colony affairs, making connections with government officials and men in power.
Two years after the Penn’s arrived in America, they had to return to England because of financial issues, and Callowhill Penn, with the help of her father’s fortune, managed to keep the colony from falling into ruins.
In 1712, her husband suffered a series of strokes that affected his mental and physical health, so for the six years till his death, Callowhill Penn took control of both family and all the colony matters. She paid her husband’s debts and managed his financial and legal affairs, which sometimes included forging his signature and writing letters in his name. In 1718 William Penn passed away, and in his will, he gave his wife full control of his possessions as well as the colony. Penn’s oldest son from his first marriage tried to dismiss his father’s will and to gain control of the colony, but the Board of Trade and the Assembly of Pennsylvania sided with Callowhill Penn, and at age 47, she officially became the acting proprietor of the Province, a position she served for 8 years until her death.
More Interesting Anecdotes:
- She had 8 children.
- She made the 3-month journey to America while pregnant with her first child.
- As the acting proprietor of Pennsylvania, Callowhill Penn fought for women’s right to inherit their husband’s estate.
- March 12th, 2013, was named “Hannah Callowhill Penn Day” in Pennsylvania.
- A portrait of her was on display in the Pennsylvania governor’s office, alongside her husband’s portrait and portraits of other early leaders of Pennsylvania. Still, after a few months, it was hanged down and sent into storage.
- Callowhill Street in Philadelphia is named in her honor. | 513 | ENGLISH | 1 |
André Antoine (31 January 1858 – 23 October 1943) was a French actor, theatre manager, film director, author, and critic who is considered the father of modern mise en scène in France.
The work of the Theatre Libre was said to embrace both Realism and Naturalism. In theatre, Realism is generally thought to be a 19th-century movement which uses dramatic and stylistic conventions to bring authenticity and ‘real life’ to performances and drama texts while Naturalism is commonly seen as an extension to this where an attempt is made to create a perfect illusion of reality. Naturalism is often said to be driven by Darwinism and its view of humans as behavioral creatures shaped by heredity and environment. Antoine believed that our environment determines our character and he would often start rehearsals by creating the set, settings or environment which would then allow his actors to explore their characters and their behaviors with greater authenticity. Often he would only hire untrained actors (a practice still common with young film makers) since he believed that the professional actors of his time could not realistically portray real people.
Google Images Photographs of Antoine.
Last updated by | <urn:uuid:8776e54d-6f98-4d0d-b8e3-c33156a4428f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://theatrelinks.com/andre-antoine/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00260.warc.gz | en | 0.983091 | 241 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.2542369067668915,... | 3 | André Antoine (31 January 1858 – 23 October 1943) was a French actor, theatre manager, film director, author, and critic who is considered the father of modern mise en scène in France.
The work of the Theatre Libre was said to embrace both Realism and Naturalism. In theatre, Realism is generally thought to be a 19th-century movement which uses dramatic and stylistic conventions to bring authenticity and ‘real life’ to performances and drama texts while Naturalism is commonly seen as an extension to this where an attempt is made to create a perfect illusion of reality. Naturalism is often said to be driven by Darwinism and its view of humans as behavioral creatures shaped by heredity and environment. Antoine believed that our environment determines our character and he would often start rehearsals by creating the set, settings or environment which would then allow his actors to explore their characters and their behaviors with greater authenticity. Often he would only hire untrained actors (a practice still common with young film makers) since he believed that the professional actors of his time could not realistically portray real people.
Google Images Photographs of Antoine.
Last updated by | 241 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A LEXANDER, the son of Philip of Macedonia and Olympias, was born on the same night that the great temple of Diana at Ephesus, in Asia Minor, was burned. It is said that while the temple was burning sooth-sayers ran up and down the streets of Ephesus, crying out that the night had brought forth sad disaster to Asia. This was true of the birth of Alexander as well as of the burning of the temple.
Alexander was educated chiefly by the famous Greek philosopher, Aristotle. The young prince was an earnest pupil. It is said that he could recite the Iliad of Homer from beginning to end.
He excelled also in athletic sports. The horses of Thessaly, a state of Greece adjoining Macedonia, were famed for their speed and spirit. While Alexander was still a boy a fine Thessalian horse was offered to his father at a very high price. Philip wished to have the animal tried, but the horse was so wild that every one was afraid of him. Philip was about to send him away when Alexander offered to ride him. The king gave him permission. Alexander had noticed that the animal was afraid of his own shadow. He therefore seized the plunging horse and turned his head toward the sun, so that his shadow fell behind him. Then patting his neck and speaking gently to him, he leaped upon his back and soon completely tamed him.
ALEXANDER TAMES BUCEPHALUS
The head of the horse was supposed to have some likeness to that of an ox, so he was called Bucephalus, or Oxhead. He became Alexander's favorite horse and carried his master through many a march and many a battle.
Alexander's ambition was shown at an early age. While he was yet a mere boy he made up his mind to conquer the world, and when he learned from Aristotle that there were many other worlds in the universe, he was greatly saddened by the thought that he had not yet conquered one.
As Philip went on making one conquest after another Alexander became alarmed. "Why," he cried one day, "my father will leave nothing for me to do!"
However, when he became king, he found enough to do. First of all there were other claimants to the throne besides himself. Some of them Alexander put to death. Others fled the country. He learned that Thebes and other Greek states were thinking of throwing off the Macedonian yoke. He therefore gathered a large army and marched to Thebes at the head of it. The Thebans were over-awed and submitted to him without resistance. The Athenians, in spite of Demosthenes' advice, sent a messenger to him while he was at Thebes, offering their submission. A little later the Greeks met in general council at Corinth and gave him, as they had given Philip, the command of the expedition that was to be undertaken against Persia. Sparta alone refused to agree in the vote.
Alexander returned to Macedonia and marched against some Thracian tribes in the northern part of his dominions. While he was subduing them a report of his death reached Greece, and Thebes again took up arms. Suddenly Alexander appeared in Greece with his victorious army. He took Thebes by assault and pulled to the ground every building in the city except the house once occupied by the famous poet Pindar. Six thousand of the inhabitants were put to death; a few escaped by flight and the rest were sold as slaves.
A LEXANDER now began to prepare for the great expedition against Persia, which had so long been planned. Soon his army was ready to march. It consisted of less than 35,000 men, but with these he boldly crossed the Hellespont.
He landed on the Asiatic coast not far from the site of ancient Troy. From the plain of Troy he marched to the river Granicus, on the bank of which he fought his first battle with the Persians.
The Persian army was completely routed, and its commander killed himself rather than face the disgrace of his defeat. The great city of Sardis, the stronghold of the Persians in western Asia Minor, now opened its gates to the conqueror.
The following spring Alexander advanced into the province of Phrygia. In a temple in the city of Gordium was kept the chariot of Gordius, once a famous Phrygian king. The yoke of the chariot was fastened to the pole by a knot of tough fibre. The knot was said to have been tied by Gordius himself. It was very puzzling. An oracle had declared that whoever should untie it would become the master of Asia. Instead of trying to untie it Alexander cut it with one stroke of his sword. The people of Asia Minor took this as an omen that he was to be their master and offered him but little resistance.
Beyond the mountains in southeastern Asia Minor, the "Great King," Darius was waiting for the Greeks with an enormous army. He became impatient and crossed the mountains into Cilicia. A battle was fought at Issus, but the Persians were no match for the Greeks. The battle ended with overwhelming defeat to the army of Darius and he fled from the battle-field. He left not only his baggage and treasure, but his wife and mother and children, all of whom fell into Alexander's hands. These captives were treated with much respect and kindness by the conqueror.
THE FAMILY OF DARIUS AT ALEXANDER'S FEET
Soon after the battle at Issus Damascus was captured. Alexander then moved against Tyre, a famous port of Syria, whose trade was with every land and whose merchants were princes. So great were the resources of the city that it withstood a siege of seven months; but at the end of that time it fell into Alexander's hand and thirty thousand of its citizens were captured and made slaves.
From Tyre Alexander marched toward Egypt. On the way he passed through the Holy Land. When he reached Jerusalem he was met by a friendly procession of priests and Levites, who came out from the gates of the city, with the high priest at their head, to bid the conqueror welcome.
Egypt, like the Holy Land, was won without a battle. The people were weary of Persian rule.
In Egypt Alexander did one of his wisest acts. He founded a city near the mouth of the Nile to be a great trading port. It is still called Alexandria after its founder. Another wise act on Alexander's part was to invite the Jews to settle in his new city. He saw that they were wonderful traders; and, as he expected, they made Alexandria a greater commercial city than Tyre.
In the spring of the year 331 B.C. Alexander again set out in pursuit of Darius, who had now collected another large army.
In October, not far from a place called Arbela, in Persia, the forces of Darius and Alexander met in their last great battle. Darius had done everything he could to insure the defeat of the Greeks. His army was said to number a million men. One division of it had two hundred chariots, to the wheels of which scythes were attached. The scythes went round with the wheels and were expected to mow down the Greeks like grass. In another division of the army were fifteen trained elephants that were intended to rush wildly among the Greeks and trample them down.
But the scythe-armed chariots, the elephants, and the million men were alike unsuccessful. The vast host was completely routed, and Darius turned his chariot and fled.
From Arbela Alexander pushed on to Babylon, whose brazen gates were thrown open to him. Susa, another great city of the Empire, surrendered without resistance. Then, to make his conquest complete he marched on to Persepolis, the magnificent capital of Persia proper. This city, with its immense treasure of silver and gold, fell into his hands. Five thousand camels and ten thousand mule-carts carried away the spoils, the value of which is said to have been $150,000,000.
Alexander pursued Darius, but before he overtook him the Great King was murdered by one of his own satraps. Alexander had the body buried with royal honors and punished the satrap with death.
The Empire of Persia now lay at Alexander's feet, and the work for which the expedition had set out was finished. The young king, however, had no desire to return to Macedonia. He had conquered the East, but the East had also conquered him. He had become a slave to its ways of living. His old simple Macedonian tastes had been laid aside and his life was given up to pleasure.
S OON, however, he undertook another conquest and at the head of his veteran soldiers advanced eastward into Bactria and added this province to his dominions. Among the Bactrian captives was a beautiful princess named Roxana, who became his bride.
Southeast of Persia lay India, a vast empire rich in gold and diamonds. Alexander desired to add it to his conquests.
Great mountain ranges enclose India on the north and northwest. Crossing these are passes, through which travelers from Central Asia must go to reach India.
Alexander went by the way of Khaiber Pass and marched steadily onward till he reached the river Hydaspes. Here an Indian king, named Porus, engaged him in battle. Porus proved to be the most desperate fighter Alexander had met with in all Asia. When the Indian was at length overpowered and captured and brought before the conqueror, Alexander asked him how he expected to be treated.
PORUS BEFORE ALEXANDER
"Like a king," replied Porus.
"That you certainly shall be," said Alexander. And so he was, for it was the habit of Alexander to treat honorably all whom he conquered.
On the bank of the River Hydaspes Alexander had the misfortune to lose his horse Bucephalus. At the place where the animal died the conqueror founded a city which he named Bucephala in honor of his favorite.
The conqueror was not able to go on with his Indian campaign. His soldiers were worn out with marching and fighting and insisted that they would go no farther, and so, much against his will, Alexander was obliged to lead them back to Persia.
The return march was one of great hardship. At the mouth of the Indus Alexander sent the fleet to sail along the coast and up the Persian Gulf, while he led the land forces toward Susa and Babylon. The army had to march through a country which was hot, dry and barren. The men suffered dreadfully and Alexander shared their sufferings.
Shortly after reaching Babylon he was attacked by a fever, which he had not the strength to resist.
Around his death-bed were gathered his generals. They asked him whom he wished to succeed him. He drew his signet ring from his finger and handed it to Perdiccas with the words, "To the strongest." A little later he had ceased to breathe.
THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER
Thus passed away one of the greatest soldiers the world has ever known. At the time of his death, 323 B.C., he was only thirty-two years old. His victories had been won and his conquests had been made in the short space of twelve years. | <urn:uuid:d8384595-cb7b-47f6-ae38-e0f5f627d947> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/displayitem.php?item=books/haaren/greece/alexander | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00421.warc.gz | en | 0.993227 | 2,358 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.3997878432273865,... | 1 | A LEXANDER, the son of Philip of Macedonia and Olympias, was born on the same night that the great temple of Diana at Ephesus, in Asia Minor, was burned. It is said that while the temple was burning sooth-sayers ran up and down the streets of Ephesus, crying out that the night had brought forth sad disaster to Asia. This was true of the birth of Alexander as well as of the burning of the temple.
Alexander was educated chiefly by the famous Greek philosopher, Aristotle. The young prince was an earnest pupil. It is said that he could recite the Iliad of Homer from beginning to end.
He excelled also in athletic sports. The horses of Thessaly, a state of Greece adjoining Macedonia, were famed for their speed and spirit. While Alexander was still a boy a fine Thessalian horse was offered to his father at a very high price. Philip wished to have the animal tried, but the horse was so wild that every one was afraid of him. Philip was about to send him away when Alexander offered to ride him. The king gave him permission. Alexander had noticed that the animal was afraid of his own shadow. He therefore seized the plunging horse and turned his head toward the sun, so that his shadow fell behind him. Then patting his neck and speaking gently to him, he leaped upon his back and soon completely tamed him.
ALEXANDER TAMES BUCEPHALUS
The head of the horse was supposed to have some likeness to that of an ox, so he was called Bucephalus, or Oxhead. He became Alexander's favorite horse and carried his master through many a march and many a battle.
Alexander's ambition was shown at an early age. While he was yet a mere boy he made up his mind to conquer the world, and when he learned from Aristotle that there were many other worlds in the universe, he was greatly saddened by the thought that he had not yet conquered one.
As Philip went on making one conquest after another Alexander became alarmed. "Why," he cried one day, "my father will leave nothing for me to do!"
However, when he became king, he found enough to do. First of all there were other claimants to the throne besides himself. Some of them Alexander put to death. Others fled the country. He learned that Thebes and other Greek states were thinking of throwing off the Macedonian yoke. He therefore gathered a large army and marched to Thebes at the head of it. The Thebans were over-awed and submitted to him without resistance. The Athenians, in spite of Demosthenes' advice, sent a messenger to him while he was at Thebes, offering their submission. A little later the Greeks met in general council at Corinth and gave him, as they had given Philip, the command of the expedition that was to be undertaken against Persia. Sparta alone refused to agree in the vote.
Alexander returned to Macedonia and marched against some Thracian tribes in the northern part of his dominions. While he was subduing them a report of his death reached Greece, and Thebes again took up arms. Suddenly Alexander appeared in Greece with his victorious army. He took Thebes by assault and pulled to the ground every building in the city except the house once occupied by the famous poet Pindar. Six thousand of the inhabitants were put to death; a few escaped by flight and the rest were sold as slaves.
A LEXANDER now began to prepare for the great expedition against Persia, which had so long been planned. Soon his army was ready to march. It consisted of less than 35,000 men, but with these he boldly crossed the Hellespont.
He landed on the Asiatic coast not far from the site of ancient Troy. From the plain of Troy he marched to the river Granicus, on the bank of which he fought his first battle with the Persians.
The Persian army was completely routed, and its commander killed himself rather than face the disgrace of his defeat. The great city of Sardis, the stronghold of the Persians in western Asia Minor, now opened its gates to the conqueror.
The following spring Alexander advanced into the province of Phrygia. In a temple in the city of Gordium was kept the chariot of Gordius, once a famous Phrygian king. The yoke of the chariot was fastened to the pole by a knot of tough fibre. The knot was said to have been tied by Gordius himself. It was very puzzling. An oracle had declared that whoever should untie it would become the master of Asia. Instead of trying to untie it Alexander cut it with one stroke of his sword. The people of Asia Minor took this as an omen that he was to be their master and offered him but little resistance.
Beyond the mountains in southeastern Asia Minor, the "Great King," Darius was waiting for the Greeks with an enormous army. He became impatient and crossed the mountains into Cilicia. A battle was fought at Issus, but the Persians were no match for the Greeks. The battle ended with overwhelming defeat to the army of Darius and he fled from the battle-field. He left not only his baggage and treasure, but his wife and mother and children, all of whom fell into Alexander's hands. These captives were treated with much respect and kindness by the conqueror.
THE FAMILY OF DARIUS AT ALEXANDER'S FEET
Soon after the battle at Issus Damascus was captured. Alexander then moved against Tyre, a famous port of Syria, whose trade was with every land and whose merchants were princes. So great were the resources of the city that it withstood a siege of seven months; but at the end of that time it fell into Alexander's hand and thirty thousand of its citizens were captured and made slaves.
From Tyre Alexander marched toward Egypt. On the way he passed through the Holy Land. When he reached Jerusalem he was met by a friendly procession of priests and Levites, who came out from the gates of the city, with the high priest at their head, to bid the conqueror welcome.
Egypt, like the Holy Land, was won without a battle. The people were weary of Persian rule.
In Egypt Alexander did one of his wisest acts. He founded a city near the mouth of the Nile to be a great trading port. It is still called Alexandria after its founder. Another wise act on Alexander's part was to invite the Jews to settle in his new city. He saw that they were wonderful traders; and, as he expected, they made Alexandria a greater commercial city than Tyre.
In the spring of the year 331 B.C. Alexander again set out in pursuit of Darius, who had now collected another large army.
In October, not far from a place called Arbela, in Persia, the forces of Darius and Alexander met in their last great battle. Darius had done everything he could to insure the defeat of the Greeks. His army was said to number a million men. One division of it had two hundred chariots, to the wheels of which scythes were attached. The scythes went round with the wheels and were expected to mow down the Greeks like grass. In another division of the army were fifteen trained elephants that were intended to rush wildly among the Greeks and trample them down.
But the scythe-armed chariots, the elephants, and the million men were alike unsuccessful. The vast host was completely routed, and Darius turned his chariot and fled.
From Arbela Alexander pushed on to Babylon, whose brazen gates were thrown open to him. Susa, another great city of the Empire, surrendered without resistance. Then, to make his conquest complete he marched on to Persepolis, the magnificent capital of Persia proper. This city, with its immense treasure of silver and gold, fell into his hands. Five thousand camels and ten thousand mule-carts carried away the spoils, the value of which is said to have been $150,000,000.
Alexander pursued Darius, but before he overtook him the Great King was murdered by one of his own satraps. Alexander had the body buried with royal honors and punished the satrap with death.
The Empire of Persia now lay at Alexander's feet, and the work for which the expedition had set out was finished. The young king, however, had no desire to return to Macedonia. He had conquered the East, but the East had also conquered him. He had become a slave to its ways of living. His old simple Macedonian tastes had been laid aside and his life was given up to pleasure.
S OON, however, he undertook another conquest and at the head of his veteran soldiers advanced eastward into Bactria and added this province to his dominions. Among the Bactrian captives was a beautiful princess named Roxana, who became his bride.
Southeast of Persia lay India, a vast empire rich in gold and diamonds. Alexander desired to add it to his conquests.
Great mountain ranges enclose India on the north and northwest. Crossing these are passes, through which travelers from Central Asia must go to reach India.
Alexander went by the way of Khaiber Pass and marched steadily onward till he reached the river Hydaspes. Here an Indian king, named Porus, engaged him in battle. Porus proved to be the most desperate fighter Alexander had met with in all Asia. When the Indian was at length overpowered and captured and brought before the conqueror, Alexander asked him how he expected to be treated.
PORUS BEFORE ALEXANDER
"Like a king," replied Porus.
"That you certainly shall be," said Alexander. And so he was, for it was the habit of Alexander to treat honorably all whom he conquered.
On the bank of the River Hydaspes Alexander had the misfortune to lose his horse Bucephalus. At the place where the animal died the conqueror founded a city which he named Bucephala in honor of his favorite.
The conqueror was not able to go on with his Indian campaign. His soldiers were worn out with marching and fighting and insisted that they would go no farther, and so, much against his will, Alexander was obliged to lead them back to Persia.
The return march was one of great hardship. At the mouth of the Indus Alexander sent the fleet to sail along the coast and up the Persian Gulf, while he led the land forces toward Susa and Babylon. The army had to march through a country which was hot, dry and barren. The men suffered dreadfully and Alexander shared their sufferings.
Shortly after reaching Babylon he was attacked by a fever, which he had not the strength to resist.
Around his death-bed were gathered his generals. They asked him whom he wished to succeed him. He drew his signet ring from his finger and handed it to Perdiccas with the words, "To the strongest." A little later he had ceased to breathe.
THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER
Thus passed away one of the greatest soldiers the world has ever known. At the time of his death, 323 B.C., he was only thirty-two years old. His victories had been won and his conquests had been made in the short space of twelve years. | 2,353 | ENGLISH | 1 |
7 Years War
The long inter-colonial struggle had brought Britain less success in America than might have been expected. The English in America outnumbered the French twelve to one, but their fourteen disunited and uncooperative colonies were ill organized for war by comparison with New France. The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) had given the British Nova Scotia, but they had failed to make headway against the colony on the St. Lawrence. As the Seven Years' War rolled on, the rival empires were struggling for the control of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. The British colonies were exposed to the imminent danger of being contained, between the Alleghenies and the Atlantic coast, by a chain of French military posts connecting Canada with Louisiana. The very first shots of the war were fired in the Ohio Valley in 1754, between French outposts and troops commanded by Colonel George Washington, who had been sent by the governor of Virginia to warn the French off. Washington attacked a French patrol and then was forced to surrender to the main body of the French forces and return to Virginia.
In 1755 the British government intervened on a large scale in the inter-colonial conflict. Edward Braddock was sent out as Commander in, Chief, and the British Army, represented by two regular infantry battalions, made its first attempt at operating actively in America. The expedition, advancing on Fort Duquesne, was disastrously defeated at the hands of an inferior French and Indian force. The next two years witnessed a largely unrelieved series of British disasters. The French commander Dieskau did meet defeat on Lake George a couple of months after Braddock's reverse, but in 1756 a new general, the Marquis du Montcalm, arrived from France. His first move was against Oswego, the only British post on the shores of the Great Lakes, which he captured quickly. In 1757 he took Fort William Henry, on Lake George, and ended for that year any idea of a British advance on Montreal. The British commander in-chief, Lord Loudoun, did not venture to deliver an attack on the great French naval fortress of Louisbourg in Cape Breton Island because he was doubtful whether his naval support was equal to mastering the French ships based there. | <urn:uuid:02e19e9d-0b57-49c3-8b23-178a7e96b765> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.canadahistory.ca/sections/war/7%20Years%20War/7_Years_War.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00536.warc.gz | en | 0.982722 | 455 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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The long inter-colonial struggle had brought Britain less success in America than might have been expected. The English in America outnumbered the French twelve to one, but their fourteen disunited and uncooperative colonies were ill organized for war by comparison with New France. The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) had given the British Nova Scotia, but they had failed to make headway against the colony on the St. Lawrence. As the Seven Years' War rolled on, the rival empires were struggling for the control of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. The British colonies were exposed to the imminent danger of being contained, between the Alleghenies and the Atlantic coast, by a chain of French military posts connecting Canada with Louisiana. The very first shots of the war were fired in the Ohio Valley in 1754, between French outposts and troops commanded by Colonel George Washington, who had been sent by the governor of Virginia to warn the French off. Washington attacked a French patrol and then was forced to surrender to the main body of the French forces and return to Virginia.
In 1755 the British government intervened on a large scale in the inter-colonial conflict. Edward Braddock was sent out as Commander in, Chief, and the British Army, represented by two regular infantry battalions, made its first attempt at operating actively in America. The expedition, advancing on Fort Duquesne, was disastrously defeated at the hands of an inferior French and Indian force. The next two years witnessed a largely unrelieved series of British disasters. The French commander Dieskau did meet defeat on Lake George a couple of months after Braddock's reverse, but in 1756 a new general, the Marquis du Montcalm, arrived from France. His first move was against Oswego, the only British post on the shores of the Great Lakes, which he captured quickly. In 1757 he took Fort William Henry, on Lake George, and ended for that year any idea of a British advance on Montreal. The British commander in-chief, Lord Loudoun, did not venture to deliver an attack on the great French naval fortress of Louisbourg in Cape Breton Island because he was doubtful whether his naval support was equal to mastering the French ships based there. | 472 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In ancient Greece, factories producing crafts generated loads of profits, and this motivated the owners to employ slaves to work in them. The economy of Greece largely depended on various crafts and the cheapest ways to employ labor was to assign jobs to slaves. In one of the factories owned by a politician named Demosthenes, there were as many as 30 slaves at a given time. These slaves produced swords. There was a famous Greek writer called Lysias who also ran a factory employing around 120 slaves.
12. There were certain signs to differentiate between a slave and a free citizen
There was no fixed rule of dress code that had to be followed by slaves in ancient Greece. Actually it was difficult to make a distinction between a citizen and a slave. However, sometimes, women slaves appeared with short haircuts as opposed to free women citizens that often showcased long hair. Similarly, some slaves bore marks like tattoos and scars to get identified easily.
Though, a Greek slave could get freedom after paying his debts to his master, yet, he or she could never enjoy legal rights as free citizens. But, some slaves could exercise a few rights depending on the profession they chose. Their children, if fathered by a master did not enjoy rights. Slaves had no right to own any property.
The plight of slaves in ancient Greece was quite the same as those of other countries and civilizations. But, these people also had different occupations depending on which they were treated differently. Though, this practice of keeping slaves seems like a debauchery in modern times, but, it wasn’t so in ancient ages. Hope you all have enjoyed reading our post of 13 facts about slavery in ancient Greece. You are welcome to add on to the information by way of comments! Bye. | <urn:uuid:71d731ac-e0e9-4662-82d5-ba6a6e3f3c08> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyly.com/greek-history/facts-about-slavery-in-ancient-greece/3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00256.warc.gz | en | 0.990107 | 357 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.39486920... | 2 | In ancient Greece, factories producing crafts generated loads of profits, and this motivated the owners to employ slaves to work in them. The economy of Greece largely depended on various crafts and the cheapest ways to employ labor was to assign jobs to slaves. In one of the factories owned by a politician named Demosthenes, there were as many as 30 slaves at a given time. These slaves produced swords. There was a famous Greek writer called Lysias who also ran a factory employing around 120 slaves.
12. There were certain signs to differentiate between a slave and a free citizen
There was no fixed rule of dress code that had to be followed by slaves in ancient Greece. Actually it was difficult to make a distinction between a citizen and a slave. However, sometimes, women slaves appeared with short haircuts as opposed to free women citizens that often showcased long hair. Similarly, some slaves bore marks like tattoos and scars to get identified easily.
Though, a Greek slave could get freedom after paying his debts to his master, yet, he or she could never enjoy legal rights as free citizens. But, some slaves could exercise a few rights depending on the profession they chose. Their children, if fathered by a master did not enjoy rights. Slaves had no right to own any property.
The plight of slaves in ancient Greece was quite the same as those of other countries and civilizations. But, these people also had different occupations depending on which they were treated differently. Though, this practice of keeping slaves seems like a debauchery in modern times, but, it wasn’t so in ancient ages. Hope you all have enjoyed reading our post of 13 facts about slavery in ancient Greece. You are welcome to add on to the information by way of comments! Bye. | 362 | ENGLISH | 1 |
GRAMMAR AND MECHANICS. Active and Passive Voice. Voice refers to the form of a verb that indicates when a grammatical subject performs the action. Active and passive voice: exercises with answers online, PDF worksheets and grammar rules. Examples: We speak English in this shop. - English is spoken in. Compare active voice and passive voice in different tenses. The Passive Voice—Form. Tense. Active. Passive = Be + Past Participle. Simple Present.
|Language:||English, Spanish, Dutch|
|Distribution:||Free* [*Registration needed]|
INTRODUCTION. The passive of an active tense is formed by putting the verb to be into the same tense as the active verb and adding the past. ACTIVE vs. PASSIVE VOICE. Problem. Beginning or inattentive writers tend to overuse passive voice, which can weaken their prose, lead to the omission of. Page 1 on 5. Active and Passive Voice. Active Voice. In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject acts.
Passive: Shall I not be helped by you? Active: Will they accept our invitation? Passive: Will our invitation be accepted by them? Passive: The invitation shall not have been accepted by us.
Active: She will have finished her work. Passive: Her work will have been finished by her. Active: They will have elected him their leader.
Passive: He will have been elected their leader by them. Changing an interrogative sentence into the passive Active: Will she have cooked the food?
Passive: Will the food have been cooked by her? Active: Will they have received our letter? Passive: Will our letter have been received by them? Active: Will they have caught the train?
Passive: Will the train have been caught by them? Active: Who will have opposed you? The continuous is as follows. Other continuous tenses are normally used in the active voice, not in the passive.
A new house is being built in our street. A new house was being built in our street.
In all the examples above the agent is not mentioned. We do not know who has written the letter or opened the shop. Flowers were planted in the garden. We do not know who did it. If we want to say who planted the flowers we mention the agent at the end of the sentence and use the preposition by. The flowers were planted by my mother. The window was smashed with a stone.
The stone is not the agent. We do not know who smashed the window. We only know how he or she did it. If there are both direct and indirect objects in the active voice My friend sent me a letter , the indirect object my friend , not the direct object a letter , becomes the subject in the passive voice.
My friend sent me a letter.
I was sent a letter by my friend. A letter was sent to me by my friend. This sentence does not sound natural in English. They offer Trevor a place. In the active voice some verbs are followed by the bare infinitive infinitive without to. In the passive form we use most such verbs with the infinitive with to.
We saw them come. She made him do it. They were seen to come.
He was made to do it. They let us go. The passive is used: If the action is more important then the agent. A demonstration has been held.
This theatre was built in The important thing is what happened, not who did it. If the agent is not known. He was offered a job. Someone offered him the job. They are supposed to be good students.
Some teachers suppose that. A new house is built in our street. The house is finished. They are building it these days, it is not finished. I was being introduced to Mrs.
Jones when her husband arrived. Her husband arrived in the middle of the introduction. When her husband arrived I was introduced to Mrs. Her husband arrived first and then she introduced me. This form is typical of an impersonal and formal style, that is why you can often find it in public notices, announcements, instructions or scientific articles.
English is spoken in this shop. Visitors are not allowed to smoke. The seal must be removed. In a less formal style the active voice is more usual. He was seen in Dover. In the English language this form is more frequent than in many other languages.
Moreover, you can find some stuctures in English which are not possible in some languages. I am told that you are going to have a baby. It is thought that the crises will end soon. Gerunds and infinitives If-conditional Time clauses Relative clauses Direct indirect object Indirect questions Reported speech. What you can find on this page: | <urn:uuid:efb83e7e-0f9d-42dd-b6da-902733e20a22> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://usaascvb.info/readers/active-voice-and-passive-voice-pdf-2553.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00226.warc.gz | en | 0.980211 | 1,001 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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-0.053724244236... | 1 | GRAMMAR AND MECHANICS. Active and Passive Voice. Voice refers to the form of a verb that indicates when a grammatical subject performs the action. Active and passive voice: exercises with answers online, PDF worksheets and grammar rules. Examples: We speak English in this shop. - English is spoken in. Compare active voice and passive voice in different tenses. The Passive Voice—Form. Tense. Active. Passive = Be + Past Participle. Simple Present.
|Language:||English, Spanish, Dutch|
|Distribution:||Free* [*Registration needed]|
INTRODUCTION. The passive of an active tense is formed by putting the verb to be into the same tense as the active verb and adding the past. ACTIVE vs. PASSIVE VOICE. Problem. Beginning or inattentive writers tend to overuse passive voice, which can weaken their prose, lead to the omission of. Page 1 on 5. Active and Passive Voice. Active Voice. In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject acts.
Passive: Shall I not be helped by you? Active: Will they accept our invitation? Passive: Will our invitation be accepted by them? Passive: The invitation shall not have been accepted by us.
Active: She will have finished her work. Passive: Her work will have been finished by her. Active: They will have elected him their leader.
Passive: He will have been elected their leader by them. Changing an interrogative sentence into the passive Active: Will she have cooked the food?
Passive: Will the food have been cooked by her? Active: Will they have received our letter? Passive: Will our letter have been received by them? Active: Will they have caught the train?
Passive: Will the train have been caught by them? Active: Who will have opposed you? The continuous is as follows. Other continuous tenses are normally used in the active voice, not in the passive.
A new house is being built in our street. A new house was being built in our street.
In all the examples above the agent is not mentioned. We do not know who has written the letter or opened the shop. Flowers were planted in the garden. We do not know who did it. If we want to say who planted the flowers we mention the agent at the end of the sentence and use the preposition by. The flowers were planted by my mother. The window was smashed with a stone.
The stone is not the agent. We do not know who smashed the window. We only know how he or she did it. If there are both direct and indirect objects in the active voice My friend sent me a letter , the indirect object my friend , not the direct object a letter , becomes the subject in the passive voice.
My friend sent me a letter.
I was sent a letter by my friend. A letter was sent to me by my friend. This sentence does not sound natural in English. They offer Trevor a place. In the active voice some verbs are followed by the bare infinitive infinitive without to. In the passive form we use most such verbs with the infinitive with to.
We saw them come. She made him do it. They were seen to come.
He was made to do it. They let us go. The passive is used: If the action is more important then the agent. A demonstration has been held.
This theatre was built in The important thing is what happened, not who did it. If the agent is not known. He was offered a job. Someone offered him the job. They are supposed to be good students.
Some teachers suppose that. A new house is built in our street. The house is finished. They are building it these days, it is not finished. I was being introduced to Mrs.
Jones when her husband arrived. Her husband arrived in the middle of the introduction. When her husband arrived I was introduced to Mrs. Her husband arrived first and then she introduced me. This form is typical of an impersonal and formal style, that is why you can often find it in public notices, announcements, instructions or scientific articles.
English is spoken in this shop. Visitors are not allowed to smoke. The seal must be removed. In a less formal style the active voice is more usual. He was seen in Dover. In the English language this form is more frequent than in many other languages.
Moreover, you can find some stuctures in English which are not possible in some languages. I am told that you are going to have a baby. It is thought that the crises will end soon. Gerunds and infinitives If-conditional Time clauses Relative clauses Direct indirect object Indirect questions Reported speech. What you can find on this page: | 969 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thorab is the head of a tribe of Kuchi nomads. For thousands of years, the Kuchi (pronounced Kutshie) have lived as semi-nomads in Afghanistan and the surrounding countries. During summer, they live in mountain regions where there is fresh grass for their animals. But as winter approaches, they move to the valleys. This sometimes involves traveling huge distances and it's not uncommon for them to be on the road for six weeks or more.
During the time of the Taliban regime, Afghanistan suffered a devastating drought. Many Kuchi tribes lost nearly all of their herds, particularly sheep. But even thousands of camels – normally the pride of the Kuchi and well used to dry conditions – perished. Thorab's clans were among those who were left totally impoverished by the terrible conditions.
To allow them to regain their herds of sheep, which form the basis of their livelihoods, Shelter Now, working in conjunction with tribal leaders, devised a microloan project. The idea was that they would receive sheep “on loan”, paying back the money at a later date. This is how it works:
Credit in the form of sheep
The project began in 2007 with 50 families. Each family was given 5 ewes, and one in three families also received a ram. Six months later the first lambs were born, who in turn became pregnant themselves just six months later. The money for the original ewes had to be paid back after 12 months and was then given to other families from the same clan. In addition to these new families, another 40 families were also given 5 ewes each. So one year later, the money was redistributed to 90 new families; fresh loans were also given to another 30 families. After that, no new money was given out.
So now 120 new families a year are benefiting from the project and their sheep are reproducing well. The first families will soon have herds of around 50 sheep each, which is enough to ensure their livelihood. But not all families in the clan have received sheep yet...
Ewes seeking more rams!
When Thorab heard that Udo Stolte was in Kabul in September 2011, he came to visit and report a problem: he says his people are very happy with the project and the sheep are reproducing well. But he says they need more rams. Already last year they didn't have enough. They currently need 40 new rams. Each one costs around 170 Euro. Altogether that is around 7,000 Euro. Unfortunately we don't have the money at the moment. Nevertheless, we are paying out 5,000 Euro in advance – in the hope that donors will come forward to cover these costs. (Please quote “Sheep Project” when making a donation). | <urn:uuid:1079a85a-b4ab-4bf1-aef7-5b854fc1682d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.shelternow.org.au/single-post/2011/09/29/Sheep-project-going-strong | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00286.warc.gz | en | 0.985171 | 572 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.10068299621343... | 6 | Thorab is the head of a tribe of Kuchi nomads. For thousands of years, the Kuchi (pronounced Kutshie) have lived as semi-nomads in Afghanistan and the surrounding countries. During summer, they live in mountain regions where there is fresh grass for their animals. But as winter approaches, they move to the valleys. This sometimes involves traveling huge distances and it's not uncommon for them to be on the road for six weeks or more.
During the time of the Taliban regime, Afghanistan suffered a devastating drought. Many Kuchi tribes lost nearly all of their herds, particularly sheep. But even thousands of camels – normally the pride of the Kuchi and well used to dry conditions – perished. Thorab's clans were among those who were left totally impoverished by the terrible conditions.
To allow them to regain their herds of sheep, which form the basis of their livelihoods, Shelter Now, working in conjunction with tribal leaders, devised a microloan project. The idea was that they would receive sheep “on loan”, paying back the money at a later date. This is how it works:
Credit in the form of sheep
The project began in 2007 with 50 families. Each family was given 5 ewes, and one in three families also received a ram. Six months later the first lambs were born, who in turn became pregnant themselves just six months later. The money for the original ewes had to be paid back after 12 months and was then given to other families from the same clan. In addition to these new families, another 40 families were also given 5 ewes each. So one year later, the money was redistributed to 90 new families; fresh loans were also given to another 30 families. After that, no new money was given out.
So now 120 new families a year are benefiting from the project and their sheep are reproducing well. The first families will soon have herds of around 50 sheep each, which is enough to ensure their livelihood. But not all families in the clan have received sheep yet...
Ewes seeking more rams!
When Thorab heard that Udo Stolte was in Kabul in September 2011, he came to visit and report a problem: he says his people are very happy with the project and the sheep are reproducing well. But he says they need more rams. Already last year they didn't have enough. They currently need 40 new rams. Each one costs around 170 Euro. Altogether that is around 7,000 Euro. Unfortunately we don't have the money at the moment. Nevertheless, we are paying out 5,000 Euro in advance – in the hope that donors will come forward to cover these costs. (Please quote “Sheep Project” when making a donation). | 597 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The beginning of a horrifying era, many would say. The disgusting nature of human cruelty, some today would not disagree with. Just because they are laws, are they correct? Separating humans from other humans because of skin tone may sound a bit ridiculous now, but from about the 1880s in to the 1960s segregation laws were enforced, leaving the colored men, women and even children away from and humiliated by the White man. The laws that were created forced colored or black people to eat in different places, drink from different water fountains, and even be incarcerated in different prisons.
Enforcing the laws of African-Americans to be separated from any form of Caucasian person is usually referred to as the “Jim Crow” legislation, which was not very common until the final ten years of the nineteenth century. Before, though, in 1881, this law was enacted on by Tennessee, that forced African-Americans to ride in separate sections of a train, where whites and blacks had no communication. For this the state is said to be the creator of the Jim Crow legislation.
Over fifty years after the Supreme Court declared that schools that have been segregated are “inherently unequal”. For most, this rough problem is a result of the increasing pervasiveness and popularity among an unreachable goal that has become part of all American schooling. Many parts of history that follow the transformation of different schools trying to attain a separate but equal way of learning show the negative impact toward students that surrounded these problems. The Jim Crow era brought many horrible ideas that made teachers have duties in a negative way.
After a half-century was over, segregation was over in American schooling. Even because of this “end” of segregation, many schools are beginning to go back to old habits and starting to divide students because of their heritage and background. Many big cities have started to go through this process, and for many of them that is only one problem, poverty is on the rise in these schools making segregation just more of an issue to many of the students.
The Supreme Court of 1896 went on to allow the beginning of segregation at school in the US calling it “separate but equal” which supposedly abided with the Constitution. When they decided to do this and apply it into everyday life we begin to see that the laws of Jim Crow start to show up. After it had begun, they spread all over onto other states and many welcomed the hate and shame this brought onto the country, growing with segregation without even noticing in all of the schools across America.
Now obviously these laws kept growing and growing, and as they grew they became more and more gruesome and disturbing. Professors at Universities rarely discussed what white supremacy was all about at that time and what was morally correct. The people as a whole all for the most part came to agree that the new Eugenics movement was the correct way to go at the time, many also... | <urn:uuid:59867efa-a7d1-4f5d-bc85-462c9c0b2692> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-laws-of-the-south-1860s | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00035.warc.gz | en | 0.983483 | 599 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.3102416098117828... | 1 | The beginning of a horrifying era, many would say. The disgusting nature of human cruelty, some today would not disagree with. Just because they are laws, are they correct? Separating humans from other humans because of skin tone may sound a bit ridiculous now, but from about the 1880s in to the 1960s segregation laws were enforced, leaving the colored men, women and even children away from and humiliated by the White man. The laws that were created forced colored or black people to eat in different places, drink from different water fountains, and even be incarcerated in different prisons.
Enforcing the laws of African-Americans to be separated from any form of Caucasian person is usually referred to as the “Jim Crow” legislation, which was not very common until the final ten years of the nineteenth century. Before, though, in 1881, this law was enacted on by Tennessee, that forced African-Americans to ride in separate sections of a train, where whites and blacks had no communication. For this the state is said to be the creator of the Jim Crow legislation.
Over fifty years after the Supreme Court declared that schools that have been segregated are “inherently unequal”. For most, this rough problem is a result of the increasing pervasiveness and popularity among an unreachable goal that has become part of all American schooling. Many parts of history that follow the transformation of different schools trying to attain a separate but equal way of learning show the negative impact toward students that surrounded these problems. The Jim Crow era brought many horrible ideas that made teachers have duties in a negative way.
After a half-century was over, segregation was over in American schooling. Even because of this “end” of segregation, many schools are beginning to go back to old habits and starting to divide students because of their heritage and background. Many big cities have started to go through this process, and for many of them that is only one problem, poverty is on the rise in these schools making segregation just more of an issue to many of the students.
The Supreme Court of 1896 went on to allow the beginning of segregation at school in the US calling it “separate but equal” which supposedly abided with the Constitution. When they decided to do this and apply it into everyday life we begin to see that the laws of Jim Crow start to show up. After it had begun, they spread all over onto other states and many welcomed the hate and shame this brought onto the country, growing with segregation without even noticing in all of the schools across America.
Now obviously these laws kept growing and growing, and as they grew they became more and more gruesome and disturbing. Professors at Universities rarely discussed what white supremacy was all about at that time and what was morally correct. The people as a whole all for the most part came to agree that the new Eugenics movement was the correct way to go at the time, many also... | 596 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The history of income taxes: life’s one certainty creates considerable doubt
Although it has been said many times that “nothing can be said to be certain, except death and taxes,” a century ago paying income taxes was much different than it is today. And another thing is certain – income tax policy likely will keep changing.
Through 1860, Americans did not pay individual income taxes. Instead, the government collected revenue through excise taxes, like the whiskey tax. The government started collecting income taxes from citizens with at least $800 of annual income starting in 1861 to help fund the Civil War, but repealed the tax a decade later after the war had ended.
When Congress tried to implement another income tax in 1894, the Supreme Court ruled the tax unconstitutional even though it had upheld the income tax during the Civil War. This led to the ratification of the 16th amendment in 1913, allowing for a federal income tax. With just one percent of Americans began paying a one percent tax on their net income, the income tax system used today was born.
While the top tax rate jumped to 77 percent in 1918, most Americans still did not have to pay income taxes or file a tax return through the 1930s. Americans with net income of $3,000 or more had to file a tax return, but fewer than 6 percent met this threshold. Those who were required to file usually had their local IRS office prepare their return by the March 1 filing deadline. Early DIYers could do their own taxes following just one page of instructions. A century later, instructions for form 1040 reached 207 pages.
By the middle of the 20th century, more changes were underfoot. Employers started to withhold taxes from employee wages in 1943. The tax deadline moved to April 15 in 1954. By then, more than three-fourths of Americans had an income tax obligation and they paid $29.5 billion in income taxes, up from $420 million two decades earlier. As more Americans were required to pay income taxes, they couldn’t rely as much on a local IRS office to prepare and file their tax returns.
In Kansas City, the IRS discontinued its local tax preparation services in 1955, the same year that Richard and Henry Bloch decided to advertise their United Business Company’s tax preparation services in the Kansas City Star. United Business Company primarily focused on bookkeeping for small businesses but offered tax preparation as a courtesy to clients. Within weeks, the company grossed nearly a third of the annual volume United Business Company had taken years to develop. H&R Block was born and opened offices in New York City the following year, where the IRS was next discontinuing its tax preparation services.
By the early 1960s, taxpayers had to look beyond the IRS to complete their income tax returns. It was also in the 60s that the IRS opened its National Computer Center, although the IRS would not accept electronically filed tax returns until 1986.
While income taxes have changed over the last century, that change has only contributed to another universal truth put so well by Albert Einstein: “The hardest thing in the world to understand is the income tax.”
Get W-4 tax form help for those short-term or part-time jobs that come with all the tax planning – and then some – that full-time jobs require. | <urn:uuid:8d0d2de7-8c63-484e-a2b5-39af8acb1684> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.hrblock.com/tax-center/newsroom/income/the-history-of-income-tax/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00084.warc.gz | en | 0.981592 | 678 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.2512387037... | 4 | The history of income taxes: life’s one certainty creates considerable doubt
Although it has been said many times that “nothing can be said to be certain, except death and taxes,” a century ago paying income taxes was much different than it is today. And another thing is certain – income tax policy likely will keep changing.
Through 1860, Americans did not pay individual income taxes. Instead, the government collected revenue through excise taxes, like the whiskey tax. The government started collecting income taxes from citizens with at least $800 of annual income starting in 1861 to help fund the Civil War, but repealed the tax a decade later after the war had ended.
When Congress tried to implement another income tax in 1894, the Supreme Court ruled the tax unconstitutional even though it had upheld the income tax during the Civil War. This led to the ratification of the 16th amendment in 1913, allowing for a federal income tax. With just one percent of Americans began paying a one percent tax on their net income, the income tax system used today was born.
While the top tax rate jumped to 77 percent in 1918, most Americans still did not have to pay income taxes or file a tax return through the 1930s. Americans with net income of $3,000 or more had to file a tax return, but fewer than 6 percent met this threshold. Those who were required to file usually had their local IRS office prepare their return by the March 1 filing deadline. Early DIYers could do their own taxes following just one page of instructions. A century later, instructions for form 1040 reached 207 pages.
By the middle of the 20th century, more changes were underfoot. Employers started to withhold taxes from employee wages in 1943. The tax deadline moved to April 15 in 1954. By then, more than three-fourths of Americans had an income tax obligation and they paid $29.5 billion in income taxes, up from $420 million two decades earlier. As more Americans were required to pay income taxes, they couldn’t rely as much on a local IRS office to prepare and file their tax returns.
In Kansas City, the IRS discontinued its local tax preparation services in 1955, the same year that Richard and Henry Bloch decided to advertise their United Business Company’s tax preparation services in the Kansas City Star. United Business Company primarily focused on bookkeeping for small businesses but offered tax preparation as a courtesy to clients. Within weeks, the company grossed nearly a third of the annual volume United Business Company had taken years to develop. H&R Block was born and opened offices in New York City the following year, where the IRS was next discontinuing its tax preparation services.
By the early 1960s, taxpayers had to look beyond the IRS to complete their income tax returns. It was also in the 60s that the IRS opened its National Computer Center, although the IRS would not accept electronically filed tax returns until 1986.
While income taxes have changed over the last century, that change has only contributed to another universal truth put so well by Albert Einstein: “The hardest thing in the world to understand is the income tax.”
Get W-4 tax form help for those short-term or part-time jobs that come with all the tax planning – and then some – that full-time jobs require. | 723 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Few indeed of mankindıs achievements are accomplished alone. Yet for each achievement, one individual is invariably singled out and lauded as the hero. For example, the Conquest of Mt. Everest is credited to Sir Edmund Hillary. There may be a few who say, ³yes, but he was accompanied by a Sherpa,² but how many of them can recall that Sherpa's name, Tensing Norgay?
Commander, then Captain, Robert E. Pearyıs 1909 polar expedition is another case in point. In the physical discovery of the North Pole Peary was accompanied by five other individuals, four Inuit and one other American. The relegation of the four Inuit companions; Ootah, Egingwah, Seegloo, and Ooqueah; to a footnote of history is a similar case to that of Tensing Norgay and can be chalked up to nationalism, but why was the other American forgotten? Matthew A. Henson was relatively forgotten because he was an African-American.
The general publicıs ignorance of Matthew Henson is even more remarkable because in fact he was the first person, let alone American, to set foot on the Earthıs North Pole. Furthermore, he led most of the way from base camp to the Pole and the very expeditionıs success was in great measure due to his abilities. There were, of course, some, unblinded by prejudice, who took notice of his achievements. In an April 1920 National Geographic Article Admiral Donald B. MacMillan said of Henson,
He was indispensable to Peary and of more real value than the combined services of all four White men...With years of experience equal to that of Peary himself, an expert dog driver, a master mechanic, physically strong and most popular with the Eskimos, talking the language like a native, clean, full of grit, he went to the Pole with Peary because he was easily the most efficient of all Pearyıs assistants.In 1947, Bradley Robinson, son of a member of the New York Explorerıs Club of which Perry was president and from which Henson was denied membership, wrote a book about Henson entitled Dark Companion. Robinson grew up hearing his father speak of highly of Matthew Henson. His book was based on interviews with Explorer club members, who commonly held the belief that Matthew Henson had made the Poleıs discovery possible. Peary in a forward to an early edition of Hensonıs autobiography wrote, ³The example and experience of Matthew Henson... is only another one of the multiplying illustrations of the fact that race, or color, or bringing-up, or environment, count nothing against a determined heart, if it is backed and aided by intelligence.²
A brief biographical sketch of Matthew Henson:
Matthew Henson was born in Maryland on August 8, 1866, shortly after the conclusion of the Civil War. He was orphaned at the early age of seven at which time he left for Washington D.C. where he lived with relatives and completed school up to sixth grade, the extent of his formal education. He worked some menial jobs, as were available to black Americans, but soon went to sea signing on as a cabin boy. He advanced quickly and by the end of his first voyage was rated as an Able-bodied Seaman. Heading out to sea opened up the world to him; in his travels he went to China, Japan, Manila, North Africa, Spain, France, and Southern Russia. Though limited in his formal education, he proved adept at languages and in learning various trades.
In 1888 while in Washington D.C., he met Peary, then a lieutenant and civil engineer in the U.S. Navy. Peary described Henson as possessing a ³greater than average intelligence and pluck². Shortly thereafter, Peary hired him on as his personal assistant for an expedition to Nicaragua and Panama as part of the Panama Canal project. Thus began Peary and Hensonıs relationship that culminated in the triumph of April 6, 1909.
Henson made his first polar expedition with Peary in 1891. This was Pearyıs second polar expedition; his first had been made before Peary had met Henson. In the seventeen following years there were a total of seven additional expeditions; Henson was a member of each one. Henson proved to be an invaluable asset to Peary, of all of the explorers, Peary himself included, only Henson became fluent in the Inuit language. Henson immersed himself in the Inuit customs and practices adapting with alacrity to his new environment. Amongst the Inuit, with whom they lived off-and-on during those seventeen years of exploration, Henson became known as Mahripaluq, ³Matt, the kind one.²
During those years of exploration Henson honed his arctic survival abilities. It is to Hensonıs skills and fortitude that Peary himself owed his life after the 1899 expedition. During this expedition Peary nearly froze off his feet; all but one of his toes fell off. Henson rescued Peary and brought them both back alive from the frozen wastes of the polar ice cap.
In between expeditions Henson returned to a segregated country. The egalitarianism of the North was left behind. Frequently he worked as a porter at railway stations. In 1897, however, he worked as an assistant to the curator at the Natural History Museum in organizing and setting up the Arctic collection due to his intimate knowledge of the Inuit world. At the time Henson was most likely the foremost expert on Inuit culture and language in the United States.
After the successful 1909 expedition Henson retired from exploration. In 1912 he published his own autobiographical account of the expedition, A Negro Explorer at the North Pole. The remainder of his life was spent at odd jobs and lecturing, mostly to African-American audiences. He died in 1955 and was buried in Woodlawn Cemetery. His nation finally remembered this unsung hero and on April 6, 1988 he was reinterred next to Commander Peary at the Arlington National Cemetery with full honors.
Hensonıs own words:
There is an irresistible fascination about the regions of northernmost Grant Land that is impossible for me to describe. Having no poetry in my soul, and being somewhat hardened by years of experience in that inhospitable country, words proper to give you an idea of its unique beauty do not come to mind. Imagine gorgeous bleakness, beautiful blankness.In spite of the hardships and obstacles to success Matthew Henson encountered in his life he persevered. In the end he lived the dizzying experience of setting foot on the Earthıs apex, silently receiving the accolades of all mankind from all generations as the Earth truly turned about him. His example clearly demonstrates that racial difference is no barrier to great human achievement nor can societal prejudice hold back the magnificent. | <urn:uuid:64e42d6d-a491-4f2f-96b9-1ef71c167ff2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.jinxmagazine.com/henson.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00065.warc.gz | en | 0.980051 | 1,430 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.34280762076377... | 3 | Few indeed of mankindıs achievements are accomplished alone. Yet for each achievement, one individual is invariably singled out and lauded as the hero. For example, the Conquest of Mt. Everest is credited to Sir Edmund Hillary. There may be a few who say, ³yes, but he was accompanied by a Sherpa,² but how many of them can recall that Sherpa's name, Tensing Norgay?
Commander, then Captain, Robert E. Pearyıs 1909 polar expedition is another case in point. In the physical discovery of the North Pole Peary was accompanied by five other individuals, four Inuit and one other American. The relegation of the four Inuit companions; Ootah, Egingwah, Seegloo, and Ooqueah; to a footnote of history is a similar case to that of Tensing Norgay and can be chalked up to nationalism, but why was the other American forgotten? Matthew A. Henson was relatively forgotten because he was an African-American.
The general publicıs ignorance of Matthew Henson is even more remarkable because in fact he was the first person, let alone American, to set foot on the Earthıs North Pole. Furthermore, he led most of the way from base camp to the Pole and the very expeditionıs success was in great measure due to his abilities. There were, of course, some, unblinded by prejudice, who took notice of his achievements. In an April 1920 National Geographic Article Admiral Donald B. MacMillan said of Henson,
He was indispensable to Peary and of more real value than the combined services of all four White men...With years of experience equal to that of Peary himself, an expert dog driver, a master mechanic, physically strong and most popular with the Eskimos, talking the language like a native, clean, full of grit, he went to the Pole with Peary because he was easily the most efficient of all Pearyıs assistants.In 1947, Bradley Robinson, son of a member of the New York Explorerıs Club of which Perry was president and from which Henson was denied membership, wrote a book about Henson entitled Dark Companion. Robinson grew up hearing his father speak of highly of Matthew Henson. His book was based on interviews with Explorer club members, who commonly held the belief that Matthew Henson had made the Poleıs discovery possible. Peary in a forward to an early edition of Hensonıs autobiography wrote, ³The example and experience of Matthew Henson... is only another one of the multiplying illustrations of the fact that race, or color, or bringing-up, or environment, count nothing against a determined heart, if it is backed and aided by intelligence.²
A brief biographical sketch of Matthew Henson:
Matthew Henson was born in Maryland on August 8, 1866, shortly after the conclusion of the Civil War. He was orphaned at the early age of seven at which time he left for Washington D.C. where he lived with relatives and completed school up to sixth grade, the extent of his formal education. He worked some menial jobs, as were available to black Americans, but soon went to sea signing on as a cabin boy. He advanced quickly and by the end of his first voyage was rated as an Able-bodied Seaman. Heading out to sea opened up the world to him; in his travels he went to China, Japan, Manila, North Africa, Spain, France, and Southern Russia. Though limited in his formal education, he proved adept at languages and in learning various trades.
In 1888 while in Washington D.C., he met Peary, then a lieutenant and civil engineer in the U.S. Navy. Peary described Henson as possessing a ³greater than average intelligence and pluck². Shortly thereafter, Peary hired him on as his personal assistant for an expedition to Nicaragua and Panama as part of the Panama Canal project. Thus began Peary and Hensonıs relationship that culminated in the triumph of April 6, 1909.
Henson made his first polar expedition with Peary in 1891. This was Pearyıs second polar expedition; his first had been made before Peary had met Henson. In the seventeen following years there were a total of seven additional expeditions; Henson was a member of each one. Henson proved to be an invaluable asset to Peary, of all of the explorers, Peary himself included, only Henson became fluent in the Inuit language. Henson immersed himself in the Inuit customs and practices adapting with alacrity to his new environment. Amongst the Inuit, with whom they lived off-and-on during those seventeen years of exploration, Henson became known as Mahripaluq, ³Matt, the kind one.²
During those years of exploration Henson honed his arctic survival abilities. It is to Hensonıs skills and fortitude that Peary himself owed his life after the 1899 expedition. During this expedition Peary nearly froze off his feet; all but one of his toes fell off. Henson rescued Peary and brought them both back alive from the frozen wastes of the polar ice cap.
In between expeditions Henson returned to a segregated country. The egalitarianism of the North was left behind. Frequently he worked as a porter at railway stations. In 1897, however, he worked as an assistant to the curator at the Natural History Museum in organizing and setting up the Arctic collection due to his intimate knowledge of the Inuit world. At the time Henson was most likely the foremost expert on Inuit culture and language in the United States.
After the successful 1909 expedition Henson retired from exploration. In 1912 he published his own autobiographical account of the expedition, A Negro Explorer at the North Pole. The remainder of his life was spent at odd jobs and lecturing, mostly to African-American audiences. He died in 1955 and was buried in Woodlawn Cemetery. His nation finally remembered this unsung hero and on April 6, 1988 he was reinterred next to Commander Peary at the Arlington National Cemetery with full honors.
Hensonıs own words:
There is an irresistible fascination about the regions of northernmost Grant Land that is impossible for me to describe. Having no poetry in my soul, and being somewhat hardened by years of experience in that inhospitable country, words proper to give you an idea of its unique beauty do not come to mind. Imagine gorgeous bleakness, beautiful blankness.In spite of the hardships and obstacles to success Matthew Henson encountered in his life he persevered. In the end he lived the dizzying experience of setting foot on the Earthıs apex, silently receiving the accolades of all mankind from all generations as the Earth truly turned about him. His example clearly demonstrates that racial difference is no barrier to great human achievement nor can societal prejudice hold back the magnificent. | 1,447 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Staff Writer
Doctors and rehab program professionals have known for some time that attention deficit hyperactivity disorder increases a person’s chances of developing a chemical dependency. However, a study indicates that gender may also be an important factor.
After studying a group of more than 1,500 young people throughout their teen years, researchers from the University of Helsinki found that ADHD was more common in boys. However, the condition was more predictive of addiction in girls.
Boys who were rated by their teachers and parents as being impulsive were also more likely to later experience addiction.
The findings are important, the researchers said, because it has long been assumed that all young people with ADHD were at a greater risk of chemical dependency. However, the new information could help parents and healthcare workers more accurately predict these problems in children at younger age, allowing for earlier interventions.
The team said that preventing young people from developing addictions early on in their lives could be important in helping children transition into adulthood and build successful lives. | <urn:uuid:da3d5380-91e9-4393-94e1-2313ca51d3e1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.drug-rehabs.com/education/girls-with-adhd-may-be-more-prone-to-addiction/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00006.warc.gz | en | 0.986575 | 205 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.23686428368091583,
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0.53288161754608... | 3 | By Staff Writer
Doctors and rehab program professionals have known for some time that attention deficit hyperactivity disorder increases a person’s chances of developing a chemical dependency. However, a study indicates that gender may also be an important factor.
After studying a group of more than 1,500 young people throughout their teen years, researchers from the University of Helsinki found that ADHD was more common in boys. However, the condition was more predictive of addiction in girls.
Boys who were rated by their teachers and parents as being impulsive were also more likely to later experience addiction.
The findings are important, the researchers said, because it has long been assumed that all young people with ADHD were at a greater risk of chemical dependency. However, the new information could help parents and healthcare workers more accurately predict these problems in children at younger age, allowing for earlier interventions.
The team said that preventing young people from developing addictions early on in their lives could be important in helping children transition into adulthood and build successful lives. | 202 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Silk Road was a by-word for rich caravans, but primarily it was the name of the network of trade routes that, in ancient times, led from China through Central Asia to Europe.
It is believed that the imperial envoy of the powerful Chinese Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty first passed through several routes which would make up the future Silk Road in the second century BC.
The emperor sent his faithful servant, Zhang Qian, to make contact with the distant tribe of Yuezhi (now in modern Tajikistan). He hoped to ally with these brave warriors in the fight against the Xiongnu, who were constantly attacking territories belonging to the Chinese Empire.
For this mission, Qian was accompanied by a group of a hundred soldiers. Unfortunately, the Xiongnu captured him. He spent ten years in captivity.
However, the Xiongnu were a nomadic people, and they did not have traditional prisons, so his imprisonment was not as we might imagine it. In fact, Qian ended up marrying one of the women of the tribe, who gave birth to a son. He also gained influence with the Xiongnu leader.
Qian had given his word to the emperor and this, to him, was as strong as a commandment; he had to strive to fulfill it for as long as he breathed. Consequently, Qian kept trying to escape for ten years, finally succeeding and managing to reach the Yuezhi.
He was met with disappointment because the Yuezhi had changed during his time in captivity; they had decided to live in peace with the neighboring tribes. Qian could not achieve anything.
Faced with such failure, he decided to return to China, but on the way back he was again captured by the Xiongnu and brought him back to his wife and son. A year later, the ruler of the Xiongnu died, after which Qian again succeeded in escaping. This time, he returned to his homeland safely, with his family in tow.
Тhis first journey along the Silk Road had lasted for more than thirty years. Only one other man returned with Qian from his original entourage.
Qian related his journey to his emperor, describing the sophisticated civilizations he had encountered in the west and the unusual products that they used. He even mentioned the strong horses they possessed. The emperor was thrilled by such news and immediately ordered that routes to those lands be created.
Sometime later, to the west, the mighty Roman Empire was also trying to find a way to those lands that supplied such fabulous silk. To begin with, silk in Rome was used only as a decoration; no clothes were made from it. But that soon changed, and it became an item of great value.
Wanting to get as much silk as possible, the Romans organized several conquests and expeditions to the east. But they were constantly attacked by various nomadic tribes and were unable to establish safe trade routes to the silk lands.
One Roman centurion had a particularly interesting journey. He had plans to reach Serica by traveling to a section of the northern route of the Silk Road which was north of the Black Sea.
Serica was what the Romans called the northern parts of China, namely those parts that were reached by the overland routes of the Silk Road in contrast with southern China and the southern parts of Asia which could be reached via maritime routes.
The first stage of his journey was to cross the Black Sea. However, he was convinced by the Parthians not to do that. They told him that sailing across the Black Sea would take him three months with a good wind but two years with adverse weather conditions.
According to the Romans, Serica was located somewhere “between the lands inhabited by Scythians and India.” There were numerous incredible stories about the Seres people. Strabo wrote that they lived for 200 years. Some stories even mentioned that thanks to the air, climate, and a healthy diet (which included drinking only water), they lived for 300 years.
According to Pliny, they were people with a greater sense of fairness than other humans. They had flaxen hair, blue eyes, and strange voices. According to Tacitus, anyone who knew how to make something as precious as silk surely had high morales.
The Chinese also had a similar opinion about the Romans from whom they received such colorful glass. They thought that the Romans were miracle-makers, ruled by the royal mercy, who had a law for everything.
In the works of Chinese writers, there are descriptions of Romans as tall, olive-skinned people with long beards, all dressed in silk. This final point might have had some truth in it as the Romans were mad about silk. According to Pliny the Elder, 100 million sesterces (about 18,000 pounds of gold) flowed out of the Roman Empire each year to India, Arabia, and the Seres of the Far East for buying luxury goods, primarily silk.
Each empire had a high opinion of the other, and they both tried to find the Silk Road which was used by smaller merchant nations and the kingdoms between them. These territories kept the Silk Road a secret. The Parthians, Kushans, and Sogdians were careful to protect their profitable role as trade intermediaries.
Obviously, the powerful empires knew about the existence of the other, but officially, their citizens never met. However, certain pieces of evidence indicated that some minor direct contact might have existed.
During the Medieval Period, the Arabs became particularly skilled in trade on the Silk Road. To preserve their favorable position, they did not allow direct trading on a large scale between the nations of the Mediterranean Basin and the nations of Central and East/Southeast Asia.
The Arabs traded cinnamon from Ceylon, black pepper from India, as well as dealing with tea, paper, sugar, pearls, and everything that one or the other region did not have.
A huge amount of money flowed into the hands of Arab merchants. Some of this was due to the fact that when a caravan passed through the Middle East, a considerable amount of money had to be paid to the Arab authorities for taxes and protection.
“The Silk Road” was a name coined in 1877 by Ferdinand von Richthofen. But silk or other material products were not the only things that passed along the Silk Road. Ideas, religions, customs, ways of dressing, crafts, arts, and philosophies all made the journey as well.
Another Article From Us: Soviet Town Hidden on the Edge of the Earth
The ancient world was much more globalized than modern society believes, and traces of such exchanges between the older civilizations are still visible today along the routes of the Silk Road. | <urn:uuid:93bb4f56-5530-48fe-9f02-6e4d7e1e4474> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.abandonedspaces.com/public/silk-road.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00533.warc.gz | en | 0.989869 | 1,377 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.430205434560775... | 9 | The Silk Road was a by-word for rich caravans, but primarily it was the name of the network of trade routes that, in ancient times, led from China through Central Asia to Europe.
It is believed that the imperial envoy of the powerful Chinese Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty first passed through several routes which would make up the future Silk Road in the second century BC.
The emperor sent his faithful servant, Zhang Qian, to make contact with the distant tribe of Yuezhi (now in modern Tajikistan). He hoped to ally with these brave warriors in the fight against the Xiongnu, who were constantly attacking territories belonging to the Chinese Empire.
For this mission, Qian was accompanied by a group of a hundred soldiers. Unfortunately, the Xiongnu captured him. He spent ten years in captivity.
However, the Xiongnu were a nomadic people, and they did not have traditional prisons, so his imprisonment was not as we might imagine it. In fact, Qian ended up marrying one of the women of the tribe, who gave birth to a son. He also gained influence with the Xiongnu leader.
Qian had given his word to the emperor and this, to him, was as strong as a commandment; he had to strive to fulfill it for as long as he breathed. Consequently, Qian kept trying to escape for ten years, finally succeeding and managing to reach the Yuezhi.
He was met with disappointment because the Yuezhi had changed during his time in captivity; they had decided to live in peace with the neighboring tribes. Qian could not achieve anything.
Faced with such failure, he decided to return to China, but on the way back he was again captured by the Xiongnu and brought him back to his wife and son. A year later, the ruler of the Xiongnu died, after which Qian again succeeded in escaping. This time, he returned to his homeland safely, with his family in tow.
Тhis first journey along the Silk Road had lasted for more than thirty years. Only one other man returned with Qian from his original entourage.
Qian related his journey to his emperor, describing the sophisticated civilizations he had encountered in the west and the unusual products that they used. He even mentioned the strong horses they possessed. The emperor was thrilled by such news and immediately ordered that routes to those lands be created.
Sometime later, to the west, the mighty Roman Empire was also trying to find a way to those lands that supplied such fabulous silk. To begin with, silk in Rome was used only as a decoration; no clothes were made from it. But that soon changed, and it became an item of great value.
Wanting to get as much silk as possible, the Romans organized several conquests and expeditions to the east. But they were constantly attacked by various nomadic tribes and were unable to establish safe trade routes to the silk lands.
One Roman centurion had a particularly interesting journey. He had plans to reach Serica by traveling to a section of the northern route of the Silk Road which was north of the Black Sea.
Serica was what the Romans called the northern parts of China, namely those parts that were reached by the overland routes of the Silk Road in contrast with southern China and the southern parts of Asia which could be reached via maritime routes.
The first stage of his journey was to cross the Black Sea. However, he was convinced by the Parthians not to do that. They told him that sailing across the Black Sea would take him three months with a good wind but two years with adverse weather conditions.
According to the Romans, Serica was located somewhere “between the lands inhabited by Scythians and India.” There were numerous incredible stories about the Seres people. Strabo wrote that they lived for 200 years. Some stories even mentioned that thanks to the air, climate, and a healthy diet (which included drinking only water), they lived for 300 years.
According to Pliny, they were people with a greater sense of fairness than other humans. They had flaxen hair, blue eyes, and strange voices. According to Tacitus, anyone who knew how to make something as precious as silk surely had high morales.
The Chinese also had a similar opinion about the Romans from whom they received such colorful glass. They thought that the Romans were miracle-makers, ruled by the royal mercy, who had a law for everything.
In the works of Chinese writers, there are descriptions of Romans as tall, olive-skinned people with long beards, all dressed in silk. This final point might have had some truth in it as the Romans were mad about silk. According to Pliny the Elder, 100 million sesterces (about 18,000 pounds of gold) flowed out of the Roman Empire each year to India, Arabia, and the Seres of the Far East for buying luxury goods, primarily silk.
Each empire had a high opinion of the other, and they both tried to find the Silk Road which was used by smaller merchant nations and the kingdoms between them. These territories kept the Silk Road a secret. The Parthians, Kushans, and Sogdians were careful to protect their profitable role as trade intermediaries.
Obviously, the powerful empires knew about the existence of the other, but officially, their citizens never met. However, certain pieces of evidence indicated that some minor direct contact might have existed.
During the Medieval Period, the Arabs became particularly skilled in trade on the Silk Road. To preserve their favorable position, they did not allow direct trading on a large scale between the nations of the Mediterranean Basin and the nations of Central and East/Southeast Asia.
The Arabs traded cinnamon from Ceylon, black pepper from India, as well as dealing with tea, paper, sugar, pearls, and everything that one or the other region did not have.
A huge amount of money flowed into the hands of Arab merchants. Some of this was due to the fact that when a caravan passed through the Middle East, a considerable amount of money had to be paid to the Arab authorities for taxes and protection.
“The Silk Road” was a name coined in 1877 by Ferdinand von Richthofen. But silk or other material products were not the only things that passed along the Silk Road. Ideas, religions, customs, ways of dressing, crafts, arts, and philosophies all made the journey as well.
Another Article From Us: Soviet Town Hidden on the Edge of the Earth
The ancient world was much more globalized than modern society believes, and traces of such exchanges between the older civilizations are still visible today along the routes of the Silk Road. | 1,369 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Insurance companies have started using credit ratings of their policyholders to determine risk. Drivers with good credit scores get lower insurance premiums, as it is believed that they are more financially stable, more responsible and have the financial means to better maintain their vehicles. Those with lower credit scores can have their premiums raised or insurance canceled outright. It has been shown that good drivers with spotty credit records could be charged higher premiums than bad drivers with good credit records.
A compulsory car insurance scheme was first introduced in the United Kingdom with the Road Traffic Act 1930. This ensured that all vehicle owners and drivers had to be insured for their liability for injury or death to third parties whilst their vehicle was being used on a public road. Germany enacted similar legislation in 1939 called the "Act on the Implementation of Compulsory Insurance for Motor Vehicle Owners." | <urn:uuid:f3f3ec0a-3733-456f-83d9-aa02c535c611> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://autoinsurance4women.com/cheapautoinsurance1/calculator-car-insurance-houston-tx-companies-car-insurance-usaa.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00185.warc.gz | en | 0.980335 | 166 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
-0.25644931197166443,
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0.09557075053... | 1 | Insurance companies have started using credit ratings of their policyholders to determine risk. Drivers with good credit scores get lower insurance premiums, as it is believed that they are more financially stable, more responsible and have the financial means to better maintain their vehicles. Those with lower credit scores can have their premiums raised or insurance canceled outright. It has been shown that good drivers with spotty credit records could be charged higher premiums than bad drivers with good credit records.
A compulsory car insurance scheme was first introduced in the United Kingdom with the Road Traffic Act 1930. This ensured that all vehicle owners and drivers had to be insured for their liability for injury or death to third parties whilst their vehicle was being used on a public road. Germany enacted similar legislation in 1939 called the "Act on the Implementation of Compulsory Insurance for Motor Vehicle Owners." | 172 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Physical Development in Infants & Toddlers
Your baby has a lot of developing to do in the first years of his life and you will be constantly amazed at how much he changes and learns during this time. He will work hard on his physical development from the day he is born and you will be extra proud when he reaches certain milestones along the journey 1.
Building up Muscles
Your baby may only be able to lie in the position you have placed her during the first weeks of her life, but somehow she knows that she has to exercise as much as she can to get those muscles ready for greater things. She will start trying to lift that heavy head to build up her neck muscles and her legs will be moving all the time -- preparing for the day when they will hold her up. If you lie her on her front, you will notice her start to lift her head and chest off the ground, exercising her back and tummy for the day she sits up on her own.
Before they learn to walk, most babies will find another method of moving around. Many start by rolling from front to back and back to front -- this may become a favorite game as you try to change his diaper. This movement can happen between three and six months, although all infants are different. Crawling on all fours is an image associated with babies and this milestone typically takes place around the age of 6 to 9 months; however, many babies never crawl. Other inventive methods your infant may choose before the walking stage include shuffling on his bottom or moving along on his tummy like a caterpillar.
Learning to Walk
That magical moment when your infant takes his first steps and becomes a toddler is an exciting moment and milestone. It is often less significant as it sounds because rather than just getting up and walking one day, your infant will most likely move towards this goal one tiny stage at a time. He will start by taking his own weight as you hold his hands, then supporting himself with furniture, standing for a few seconds unaided, walking or "cruising" by holding onto furniture and finally taking one tiny step every now and again (probably never when there is an audience!). It is often a while after this first step before you can actually say he is walking and then when he does -- well, watch out!
Fine Motor Skills
Your infant's or toddler's fine motor skills refer to her ability to control the small muscles in her hands and fingers. As a baby, she will practice these by playing with her own hands and working out how she can move them herself. This will then develop into an ability to grasp small toys, hold onto them and shake them. She will also learn to press buttons on toys to start music or make lights flash. Toddlers can fine-tune these skills with activities such as modeling play dough, using a crayon or building bricks.
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Your baby has a lot of developing to do in the first years of his life and you will be constantly amazed at how much he changes and learns during this time. He will work hard on his physical development from the day he is born and you will be extra proud when he reaches certain milestones along the journey 1.
Building up Muscles
Your baby may only be able to lie in the position you have placed her during the first weeks of her life, but somehow she knows that she has to exercise as much as she can to get those muscles ready for greater things. She will start trying to lift that heavy head to build up her neck muscles and her legs will be moving all the time -- preparing for the day when they will hold her up. If you lie her on her front, you will notice her start to lift her head and chest off the ground, exercising her back and tummy for the day she sits up on her own.
Before they learn to walk, most babies will find another method of moving around. Many start by rolling from front to back and back to front -- this may become a favorite game as you try to change his diaper. This movement can happen between three and six months, although all infants are different. Crawling on all fours is an image associated with babies and this milestone typically takes place around the age of 6 to 9 months; however, many babies never crawl. Other inventive methods your infant may choose before the walking stage include shuffling on his bottom or moving along on his tummy like a caterpillar.
Learning to Walk
That magical moment when your infant takes his first steps and becomes a toddler is an exciting moment and milestone. It is often less significant as it sounds because rather than just getting up and walking one day, your infant will most likely move towards this goal one tiny stage at a time. He will start by taking his own weight as you hold his hands, then supporting himself with furniture, standing for a few seconds unaided, walking or "cruising" by holding onto furniture and finally taking one tiny step every now and again (probably never when there is an audience!). It is often a while after this first step before you can actually say he is walking and then when he does -- well, watch out!
Fine Motor Skills
Your infant's or toddler's fine motor skills refer to her ability to control the small muscles in her hands and fingers. As a baby, she will practice these by playing with her own hands and working out how she can move them herself. This will then develop into an ability to grasp small toys, hold onto them and shake them. She will also learn to press buttons on toys to start music or make lights flash. Toddlers can fine-tune these skills with activities such as modeling play dough, using a crayon or building bricks.
- Digital Vision./Photodisc/Getty Images | 592 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Indians and the tepee
TI = apartment or life
PI = inhabit, live
The tepee, which most people only know from the Native Americans, was also available in a more primitive form here in Europe during the Palaeolithic. This teepee-like fire tent became «Lacalled vvu ». But this was a much smaller, cone-shaped tent. The shell was made of thick skins and leather skins. The Tipis of the natives of North America became known to us only with the expeditions of the Spaniards, as they penetrated into the North American steppe.
The term tepee, is mistakenly used for other tents of nomadic peoples. However, the tipi has typical features that stand out clearly from these other, rather primitive and smoky dwellings. What many do not know is that the shape of a tepee is not symmetrical, but a tapered cone. On the less steep side of the teepee has smoke flaps, which serve as a flue of the fire. Often we also hear the name "Wigwam" for the Indian tents. This designation, however, applies to the tents of the eastern Indian tribes. The wigwam is a domed hut covered with grass and mats.
The first cloth tepees, as we know and use them today, first appear in America around 1800. Since the canvas is lighter than leather, the Indians began to sew tepees to a greater extent. They reached a diameter of 6-7m and even 9m. The Indians used to transport their tents with the help of dogs and simple sliding tow, a type of sledge. Later, they used for the transport horses that were first introduced by the Spaniards and were first hunted by the Indians and then used for load and riding. They facilitated the transport and it was possible to travel longer distances.
Another major influence on the spread of today's tepees was the relocation of many tribes that originally inhabited the more northern and eastern areas of the Americas (the Cree, Blackfoot, Dakota, Arapah and other tribes). Beginning of 19. By the 19th century, most of the so-called prairie Indians had settled in the new hunting grounds, where they appreciated the advantages of the modern tepee, the simplicity of construction, and easy transportation.
Originally the tents were made of bison skins. After the eradication of these wild cattle the leather was replaced by canvas, whereby with only small deviations the same cut was used. The tipis were almost invariably aligned with the entrance to the east to the rising sun. The steeper back defy so the strong west winds, which prevailed on the open levels similar to ours. The sun is the donor of all life and it was therefore greatly appreciated by the Indians.
We distinguish between two basic types according to the number of rods. For example, the tribes of the Crow or Blackfoot used four poles. This teepee had a different cut than the three-rod tent, the Dakota Indians. The cut is easier and more practical and has become established in the modern teepees.
The size of the tepee adapted to the corresponding use. A child tipi had a diameter up to 2.5m even for their favorite dogs were built small tepees. The adults lived in tepees with a diameter of up to 5m. The typical family teepee had a size of about 5.5m. It was not until the fabric tent panels that tipi with a diameter of over 7m were built. | <urn:uuid:7274f683-aaa4-4808-b128-41a844cb2138> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.zeltwelt.ch/tipi/geschichte/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00499.warc.gz | en | 0.980175 | 719 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.306358695... | 4 | The Indians and the tepee
TI = apartment or life
PI = inhabit, live
The tepee, which most people only know from the Native Americans, was also available in a more primitive form here in Europe during the Palaeolithic. This teepee-like fire tent became «Lacalled vvu ». But this was a much smaller, cone-shaped tent. The shell was made of thick skins and leather skins. The Tipis of the natives of North America became known to us only with the expeditions of the Spaniards, as they penetrated into the North American steppe.
The term tepee, is mistakenly used for other tents of nomadic peoples. However, the tipi has typical features that stand out clearly from these other, rather primitive and smoky dwellings. What many do not know is that the shape of a tepee is not symmetrical, but a tapered cone. On the less steep side of the teepee has smoke flaps, which serve as a flue of the fire. Often we also hear the name "Wigwam" for the Indian tents. This designation, however, applies to the tents of the eastern Indian tribes. The wigwam is a domed hut covered with grass and mats.
The first cloth tepees, as we know and use them today, first appear in America around 1800. Since the canvas is lighter than leather, the Indians began to sew tepees to a greater extent. They reached a diameter of 6-7m and even 9m. The Indians used to transport their tents with the help of dogs and simple sliding tow, a type of sledge. Later, they used for the transport horses that were first introduced by the Spaniards and were first hunted by the Indians and then used for load and riding. They facilitated the transport and it was possible to travel longer distances.
Another major influence on the spread of today's tepees was the relocation of many tribes that originally inhabited the more northern and eastern areas of the Americas (the Cree, Blackfoot, Dakota, Arapah and other tribes). Beginning of 19. By the 19th century, most of the so-called prairie Indians had settled in the new hunting grounds, where they appreciated the advantages of the modern tepee, the simplicity of construction, and easy transportation.
Originally the tents were made of bison skins. After the eradication of these wild cattle the leather was replaced by canvas, whereby with only small deviations the same cut was used. The tipis were almost invariably aligned with the entrance to the east to the rising sun. The steeper back defy so the strong west winds, which prevailed on the open levels similar to ours. The sun is the donor of all life and it was therefore greatly appreciated by the Indians.
We distinguish between two basic types according to the number of rods. For example, the tribes of the Crow or Blackfoot used four poles. This teepee had a different cut than the three-rod tent, the Dakota Indians. The cut is easier and more practical and has become established in the modern teepees.
The size of the tepee adapted to the corresponding use. A child tipi had a diameter up to 2.5m even for their favorite dogs were built small tepees. The adults lived in tepees with a diameter of up to 5m. The typical family teepee had a size of about 5.5m. It was not until the fabric tent panels that tipi with a diameter of over 7m were built. | 723 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The American colonies were dependent on Britain for trade and for protection but were left to govern themselves for the most part. Politically the colonies were not happy because they could not expand further west, economically they felt oppressed by the British with all the taxes being place on them, and ideologically because of the governing of The seven year war was a power struggle between Great Britain, France Was it right for Great Britain to tax the colonists or were the colonists right to revolt.
This lead to The American Revolution which was inevitably arisen from three major problems: power, glory, and greed. While acquiring wealth was the primary imperial goal for the British, French, and Spanish, the way they made money varied and each country had secondary goals that differed from one another.Hostilities grew at an alarming rate within the interior of the country due in part to an Indian uprising The seven year war was a power struggle between Great Britain, France Formulate a thesis statement 12 Samples Although the British, French, and Spanish had economic, political, and religious goals in North America, they adapted their goals over time based on the realities of the geographic regions they settled. The battles between the two colonies began when the Royal Charters had encouraged the British to expand their territory westward, but the colonists faced two opponents in their drive the French and Indians. The American Revolution was indeed a revolution, because its conclusion brought change. Soldiers on Britain's side during the French and Indian War were mostly colonists from England who wished simply to From the mid s through The French and Indian war was named after the British opponents, the French and Indian even though Native Americans fought on both sides. England made war unavoidable with its unwillingness to negotiate, heavy taxation of the colonists that violated their rights, and strict trading policies. Set the background with a sentence or two. When the Europeans arrived, they held different values than the Native Americans. The American people were faced with multiple acts and taxes that violated and took away their rights. The French and Indian war impacted the British and the Colonies in terms of global connections, governance, civic ideals and practices, and economics; all of which are four The American Revolution was a political revolution because the values of government because government changed from a monarchy to a republic.
There were many policies that were within the theory The music of the era served as a social commentary on the political concerns of the period aside from entertainment.
Parliament needed to think of something quickly to fund the English war debts. After the war was over inthe political, economic and ideological relations between Britain and its American colonies were altered.
Throughout history, these alliances The protests in Boston acted as the cornerstones for the revolution.In the early s, France's expansion into the Ohio River valley repeatedly brought it into conflict with the claims of the British colonies, especially Virginia. The British government sent troops to defend the interests of the colonists. The French and Indian War had great effect on the politics, economics, and ideology of the American colonies. The American War of Independence lasted for eight years and over time the War tore American and British relationships apart The defeat of the French in the war gave the British a bittersweet upper hand in the massive economic factors and it also gave the British a gigantic stretch of political control of the American Colonists. Local politics, practices, social customs, religious beliefs, and economic interests had gone so far from the English ways. One war that fought for independence was the American Revolution. Why did it happen and how did it happen? There were many factors and events that led to the American Revolution. While acquiring wealth was the primary imperial goal for the British, French, and Spanish, the way they made money varied and each country had secondary goals that differed from one another. It was the last of four North American wars waged from to between the British and the French. These changes in the relationship of the Colonies and Britain were such a huge deal that, when combined, they led up to the American Revolution. Although the war itself occurred from
The Colonists felt they they were consistently being used for monetary gain by England starting after the French and Indian War. It took place in the emotions and thoughts of the Americans. | <urn:uuid:6a1f55f2-f21d-4dc3-b2b2-7467cfebe92a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://zebavagoqisoh.ettroisptitspointscompagnie.com/thesis-statement-for-political-relationship-between-england-and-american-colonies-after-the-french-a18334884mu.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00061.warc.gz | en | 0.98272 | 842 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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This lead to The American Revolution which was inevitably arisen from three major problems: power, glory, and greed. While acquiring wealth was the primary imperial goal for the British, French, and Spanish, the way they made money varied and each country had secondary goals that differed from one another.Hostilities grew at an alarming rate within the interior of the country due in part to an Indian uprising The seven year war was a power struggle between Great Britain, France Formulate a thesis statement 12 Samples Although the British, French, and Spanish had economic, political, and religious goals in North America, they adapted their goals over time based on the realities of the geographic regions they settled. The battles between the two colonies began when the Royal Charters had encouraged the British to expand their territory westward, but the colonists faced two opponents in their drive the French and Indians. The American Revolution was indeed a revolution, because its conclusion brought change. Soldiers on Britain's side during the French and Indian War were mostly colonists from England who wished simply to From the mid s through The French and Indian war was named after the British opponents, the French and Indian even though Native Americans fought on both sides. England made war unavoidable with its unwillingness to negotiate, heavy taxation of the colonists that violated their rights, and strict trading policies. Set the background with a sentence or two. When the Europeans arrived, they held different values than the Native Americans. The American people were faced with multiple acts and taxes that violated and took away their rights. The French and Indian war impacted the British and the Colonies in terms of global connections, governance, civic ideals and practices, and economics; all of which are four The American Revolution was a political revolution because the values of government because government changed from a monarchy to a republic.
There were many policies that were within the theory The music of the era served as a social commentary on the political concerns of the period aside from entertainment.
Parliament needed to think of something quickly to fund the English war debts. After the war was over inthe political, economic and ideological relations between Britain and its American colonies were altered.
Throughout history, these alliances The protests in Boston acted as the cornerstones for the revolution.In the early s, France's expansion into the Ohio River valley repeatedly brought it into conflict with the claims of the British colonies, especially Virginia. The British government sent troops to defend the interests of the colonists. The French and Indian War had great effect on the politics, economics, and ideology of the American colonies. The American War of Independence lasted for eight years and over time the War tore American and British relationships apart The defeat of the French in the war gave the British a bittersweet upper hand in the massive economic factors and it also gave the British a gigantic stretch of political control of the American Colonists. Local politics, practices, social customs, religious beliefs, and economic interests had gone so far from the English ways. One war that fought for independence was the American Revolution. Why did it happen and how did it happen? There were many factors and events that led to the American Revolution. While acquiring wealth was the primary imperial goal for the British, French, and Spanish, the way they made money varied and each country had secondary goals that differed from one another. It was the last of four North American wars waged from to between the British and the French. These changes in the relationship of the Colonies and Britain were such a huge deal that, when combined, they led up to the American Revolution. Although the war itself occurred from
The Colonists felt they they were consistently being used for monetary gain by England starting after the French and Indian War. It took place in the emotions and thoughts of the Americans. | 846 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sensation and Weber-Fechter Laws. This is the overview of entire psych/soc section. And this is the overview of 6A which is the first. So we're looking at these concepts in this lecture. In terms of sensory processing, there is a difference between sensation and perception. Show Transcript
You likely already know this and if you didn't you probably could guess the difference. But let's go over it anyway. So, a sensation is the stimulation of the actual sensory receptors on the body or in the body. And that results in neural impulse activity.
And it's triggered with or by something in the environment. Whereas perception is what happens at the level of the brain. So that's the filtering, prioritizing, and the subjective interpretations of what has been presented. And there are more than two ways actually that stimuli produce changes in the nervous system.
There are two that I think are important to highlight for the MCAT. One is what's often called Sensory Adaptation and I've also seen it as Habituation. Habituation is a little broader so I mean Habituation can mean all sorts of stuff. But Sensory Adaptation for sure, sometimes called Habituation, is when stimuli are perceived to be less strong once your senses adjust.
The sound of a loud lawn mower outside sounds really loud when it starts and over time it's almost kinda like you feel like you're blocking it out a little bit and part of it probably is that. But there's also this, your neurological and brain process that has to do with neurotransmitter changes and that's kind of a different language or a different set of lessons.
But anyway this happens, right? Also the smell of grass, yeah. I think we can all relate to that phenomenon of going outside and noticing, that, wows. That's really a strong smell of fresh grass, especially if it's maybe spring and you haven't smelled fresh grass in a while.
I mean, I live in California, so it's kinda year round, but I used to live in Idaho and Maine so anyway. One more example. Then there's sensitization which is just the opposite. So this is when a particular stimulus causes a stronger reaction then it once did.
And this is frequently seen in people who've experienced trauma or strong emotional experiences, such as a gunshot going off blocks away and the person is sensitized to that particular sound. And has a very strong, sometimes even what is called a startle response to the sound of the gunshot. There's also something called Cross Sensitization that can occur.
And this is when an acquired sensitivity to a sound, or anything really affecting the body like a drug can result in sensitivities to experiences the brain perceives as similar. And, yeah, so there are tons of examples of this in terms of pharmacology. And it can also just be in terms of sound. So, a sound that doesn't really sound that much like a gunshot but maybe it's kind of loud and concise like a gunshot.
And if you're already sensitized to guns, you might also be sensitized to other types of sound. That's very, very frequent among PTSD folks to the point where some PTSD people have difficulties with all loud noises or with noises that others might not perceive as loud at all. Something called the Absolute Detection Threshold, and that's just the lowest level of intensity at which a stimulus is detectable by an individual.
Below this, there is no sensation. This is a kinda fun chart. You might have seen it before. It's been reproduced many a times, it's an old one. And this is just kind of looking at what would be the absolute threshold for vision, candle flame 30 miles away.
It's kinda hard to believe, but I'm sure they did some sort of test on that, okay. Hearing tick of a watch 20 feet away. Taste 1 teaspoon of sugar in 2 gallons of water. Smell 1 drop of perfume in an apartment. Touch a bee's wing falling on your cheek from 1 centimeter above, okay. So I'm not sure exactly how scientific this is, right?
There are many different variables, we know nothing about this study. But it's kind of poetic and cute. Signal Detection Theory says that, first of all, it's extremely broad. It's used a lot now in psychology really I think almost as like a whole category of thought and study. So it's a theory, but it's really big.
Okay, multiple factors influence whether an individual will detect a stimulus, including the intensity of the stimulus. Any kind of competing stimuli in the environment, and also the unique traits and experiences of that individual. Now before signal detection, signal detection theory, there was Weber's Law.
So this is going back to the mid-1800s. And before giving you a definition, I'll just go through a little example. Question. Will you be able to perceive the difference in weight? You hold out your hand. I put a quarter in it.
I tell you to close your eyes, and then somehow I put something else in your hand without you detecting the movement or the sensation. So already there are some problems with this study, but if there was a way to do that basically you would detect the difference in weight. Or if I put one coin in your hand first and then put two that were smooshed together on your hand again, asked you, heavier, lighter or the same, you'd know it was heavier most likely.
However, if you have a 5 kg dumbbell and I put that same quarter on the dumbbell, you won't be able to detect the difference in weight. The definition, then, of Weber's Law is that there is a ratio relationship between the original intensity of something and the threshold at which humans can perceive a change in intensity. Now, it's often called the Just Noticeable Difference.
And is all dependent on how intense is the beginning object. This is the equation for it, not sure you would need to know it, but there it is and compared to a lot of the physics equations, this is like kind of like baby physics, right? So you'll be able just to recognize that I think. Let's say that your initial stimulus was 10 pounds and we're looking at weight.
The constant ratio for weight is, it's actually a little less than this, but let's just say it's 10%. If I put something in your hand or on your head or who knows what that was 12 pounds you would be able to detect that because that is larger than 10%. And there was a 100 pounds, I put something that was a 100 and, well, yeah, it could be, yeah, let's do 105 pounds.
Most likely, you might be able to, right? Cuz that's 5%, so you might be able to. But it's also possible that that would be under the just noticeable difference, so the level of detection. Here's another way of looking at it. And so this would be the background intensity, meaning what are we starting out with.
And then this would be the level if we're looking at 10%. Of an increase at which you would be able to perceive there was a difference. So once you get to 11, you would notice there was a difference. If you're at 100, 110. One thing about Weber's Law is that it was devised to apply to a variety of sense modalities so not just weight but auditory and visual, weight tends to be, it's just easier to measure.
There are just so many factors that go into sound and vision. So weight's a good one to go through with this set of examples. Now, it's called, though, sometimes, Weber-Fechner laws, there were two combined. Weber-Fechner Fechner was actually the one who coined Weber's Law. He was one of his students, that was in 1850.
And so although it was inspired by Weber, it was actually Fechner who wrote it up. And Fechner is also known for this term, ''psychophysics'' which is an MCAT topic, it's on that list I showed you at the beginning. He coined the specialty and it's also just kind of like a field of investigation. And it's an area in psychology, usually its like in neuropysch, or biopsych or cognitive psych, that investigates how stimuli affect sensations and perceptions.
And it was actually kind of side note sort of interesting I think, the psychophysics term was Inspired Freud, I've read in sources, to use his term psychoanalytic. So I don't know, maybe a little bit of a stretch, but I've heard that connection be argued for. And his work, Fechner's, was important in the eventual creation of the decibel by Bell in 1929.
Now Fechner had a bunch, well he had like one other really famous law and many, many, many other theories. But eventually he started to graph all of this in terms of logarithms. But the Weber Law is a very simple ratio and that's the one that's important for you to know. The just noticeable difference has been applied a lot in marketing to study Consumer Behavior.
So let's say you are in the business of, I don't know, I was gonna say frozen pizza but it looks like it's probably a hot pizza. You make pizzas, that's your job. And you and your company are trying to cut costs. So you think about, let's make it just a little bit smaller. Or let's make some of the ingredients just a little bit cheaper.
You want to make sure if you make those changes that you're making changes that are smaller than the just noticeable difference. Right, if you're trying to cheat, well, that wasn't nice, but if you are trying to not lose customers. Okay, however if you are advertising the latest and the greatest addition to your product, you want it to be a big enough change that people will appreciate the change.
You don't want to change a couple of ingredients and have nobody be able to detect the difference. So there are tons of theories on just noticeable difference in consumer behavior and I can absolutely imagine that coming up in an MCAT question. Let's do a question here. Okay which of the following is an example of sensory adaptation?
A, You used to wake up at night whenever a siren went off, but since you moved to the city, you don't notice them. Yeah, maybe. I mean, I don't know, we're talking about multiple days here and weeks. I don't know if that's the same thing as a lawnmower outside, but let's say maybe. B, It used to bother you that the person down the hall clears his throat several times an hour, but you reasoned he might have a health problem.
So it no longer bothers you. No. This is like conscious stuff. This is cognitive. This is all sorts of nice empathy. But, no. C, You ate too many Doritos as a kid, and now you can't stand the taste.
No. That's based on, that's based on memory. It's not about adaptation of the senses, it's more of a learning type situation rather than a sensory situation. So actually it is this, it's A. And that is one example. Of course when you're asleep you're not conscious.
This is something that your whole sensory system adapts to, when you're exposed to louder noises over time. Okay, so, good luck with your study, and I'll talk to you later. | <urn:uuid:5800f6f8-2bd0-4755-ab30-7d10d52d36f5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mcat.magoosh.com/lessons/2705-sensation-and-weber-s-law-perception-series | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00435.warc.gz | en | 0.981905 | 2,410 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.31380939483642... | 1 | Sensation and Weber-Fechter Laws. This is the overview of entire psych/soc section. And this is the overview of 6A which is the first. So we're looking at these concepts in this lecture. In terms of sensory processing, there is a difference between sensation and perception. Show Transcript
You likely already know this and if you didn't you probably could guess the difference. But let's go over it anyway. So, a sensation is the stimulation of the actual sensory receptors on the body or in the body. And that results in neural impulse activity.
And it's triggered with or by something in the environment. Whereas perception is what happens at the level of the brain. So that's the filtering, prioritizing, and the subjective interpretations of what has been presented. And there are more than two ways actually that stimuli produce changes in the nervous system.
There are two that I think are important to highlight for the MCAT. One is what's often called Sensory Adaptation and I've also seen it as Habituation. Habituation is a little broader so I mean Habituation can mean all sorts of stuff. But Sensory Adaptation for sure, sometimes called Habituation, is when stimuli are perceived to be less strong once your senses adjust.
The sound of a loud lawn mower outside sounds really loud when it starts and over time it's almost kinda like you feel like you're blocking it out a little bit and part of it probably is that. But there's also this, your neurological and brain process that has to do with neurotransmitter changes and that's kind of a different language or a different set of lessons.
But anyway this happens, right? Also the smell of grass, yeah. I think we can all relate to that phenomenon of going outside and noticing, that, wows. That's really a strong smell of fresh grass, especially if it's maybe spring and you haven't smelled fresh grass in a while.
I mean, I live in California, so it's kinda year round, but I used to live in Idaho and Maine so anyway. One more example. Then there's sensitization which is just the opposite. So this is when a particular stimulus causes a stronger reaction then it once did.
And this is frequently seen in people who've experienced trauma or strong emotional experiences, such as a gunshot going off blocks away and the person is sensitized to that particular sound. And has a very strong, sometimes even what is called a startle response to the sound of the gunshot. There's also something called Cross Sensitization that can occur.
And this is when an acquired sensitivity to a sound, or anything really affecting the body like a drug can result in sensitivities to experiences the brain perceives as similar. And, yeah, so there are tons of examples of this in terms of pharmacology. And it can also just be in terms of sound. So, a sound that doesn't really sound that much like a gunshot but maybe it's kind of loud and concise like a gunshot.
And if you're already sensitized to guns, you might also be sensitized to other types of sound. That's very, very frequent among PTSD folks to the point where some PTSD people have difficulties with all loud noises or with noises that others might not perceive as loud at all. Something called the Absolute Detection Threshold, and that's just the lowest level of intensity at which a stimulus is detectable by an individual.
Below this, there is no sensation. This is a kinda fun chart. You might have seen it before. It's been reproduced many a times, it's an old one. And this is just kind of looking at what would be the absolute threshold for vision, candle flame 30 miles away.
It's kinda hard to believe, but I'm sure they did some sort of test on that, okay. Hearing tick of a watch 20 feet away. Taste 1 teaspoon of sugar in 2 gallons of water. Smell 1 drop of perfume in an apartment. Touch a bee's wing falling on your cheek from 1 centimeter above, okay. So I'm not sure exactly how scientific this is, right?
There are many different variables, we know nothing about this study. But it's kind of poetic and cute. Signal Detection Theory says that, first of all, it's extremely broad. It's used a lot now in psychology really I think almost as like a whole category of thought and study. So it's a theory, but it's really big.
Okay, multiple factors influence whether an individual will detect a stimulus, including the intensity of the stimulus. Any kind of competing stimuli in the environment, and also the unique traits and experiences of that individual. Now before signal detection, signal detection theory, there was Weber's Law.
So this is going back to the mid-1800s. And before giving you a definition, I'll just go through a little example. Question. Will you be able to perceive the difference in weight? You hold out your hand. I put a quarter in it.
I tell you to close your eyes, and then somehow I put something else in your hand without you detecting the movement or the sensation. So already there are some problems with this study, but if there was a way to do that basically you would detect the difference in weight. Or if I put one coin in your hand first and then put two that were smooshed together on your hand again, asked you, heavier, lighter or the same, you'd know it was heavier most likely.
However, if you have a 5 kg dumbbell and I put that same quarter on the dumbbell, you won't be able to detect the difference in weight. The definition, then, of Weber's Law is that there is a ratio relationship between the original intensity of something and the threshold at which humans can perceive a change in intensity. Now, it's often called the Just Noticeable Difference.
And is all dependent on how intense is the beginning object. This is the equation for it, not sure you would need to know it, but there it is and compared to a lot of the physics equations, this is like kind of like baby physics, right? So you'll be able just to recognize that I think. Let's say that your initial stimulus was 10 pounds and we're looking at weight.
The constant ratio for weight is, it's actually a little less than this, but let's just say it's 10%. If I put something in your hand or on your head or who knows what that was 12 pounds you would be able to detect that because that is larger than 10%. And there was a 100 pounds, I put something that was a 100 and, well, yeah, it could be, yeah, let's do 105 pounds.
Most likely, you might be able to, right? Cuz that's 5%, so you might be able to. But it's also possible that that would be under the just noticeable difference, so the level of detection. Here's another way of looking at it. And so this would be the background intensity, meaning what are we starting out with.
And then this would be the level if we're looking at 10%. Of an increase at which you would be able to perceive there was a difference. So once you get to 11, you would notice there was a difference. If you're at 100, 110. One thing about Weber's Law is that it was devised to apply to a variety of sense modalities so not just weight but auditory and visual, weight tends to be, it's just easier to measure.
There are just so many factors that go into sound and vision. So weight's a good one to go through with this set of examples. Now, it's called, though, sometimes, Weber-Fechner laws, there were two combined. Weber-Fechner Fechner was actually the one who coined Weber's Law. He was one of his students, that was in 1850.
And so although it was inspired by Weber, it was actually Fechner who wrote it up. And Fechner is also known for this term, ''psychophysics'' which is an MCAT topic, it's on that list I showed you at the beginning. He coined the specialty and it's also just kind of like a field of investigation. And it's an area in psychology, usually its like in neuropysch, or biopsych or cognitive psych, that investigates how stimuli affect sensations and perceptions.
And it was actually kind of side note sort of interesting I think, the psychophysics term was Inspired Freud, I've read in sources, to use his term psychoanalytic. So I don't know, maybe a little bit of a stretch, but I've heard that connection be argued for. And his work, Fechner's, was important in the eventual creation of the decibel by Bell in 1929.
Now Fechner had a bunch, well he had like one other really famous law and many, many, many other theories. But eventually he started to graph all of this in terms of logarithms. But the Weber Law is a very simple ratio and that's the one that's important for you to know. The just noticeable difference has been applied a lot in marketing to study Consumer Behavior.
So let's say you are in the business of, I don't know, I was gonna say frozen pizza but it looks like it's probably a hot pizza. You make pizzas, that's your job. And you and your company are trying to cut costs. So you think about, let's make it just a little bit smaller. Or let's make some of the ingredients just a little bit cheaper.
You want to make sure if you make those changes that you're making changes that are smaller than the just noticeable difference. Right, if you're trying to cheat, well, that wasn't nice, but if you are trying to not lose customers. Okay, however if you are advertising the latest and the greatest addition to your product, you want it to be a big enough change that people will appreciate the change.
You don't want to change a couple of ingredients and have nobody be able to detect the difference. So there are tons of theories on just noticeable difference in consumer behavior and I can absolutely imagine that coming up in an MCAT question. Let's do a question here. Okay which of the following is an example of sensory adaptation?
A, You used to wake up at night whenever a siren went off, but since you moved to the city, you don't notice them. Yeah, maybe. I mean, I don't know, we're talking about multiple days here and weeks. I don't know if that's the same thing as a lawnmower outside, but let's say maybe. B, It used to bother you that the person down the hall clears his throat several times an hour, but you reasoned he might have a health problem.
So it no longer bothers you. No. This is like conscious stuff. This is cognitive. This is all sorts of nice empathy. But, no. C, You ate too many Doritos as a kid, and now you can't stand the taste.
No. That's based on, that's based on memory. It's not about adaptation of the senses, it's more of a learning type situation rather than a sensory situation. So actually it is this, it's A. And that is one example. Of course when you're asleep you're not conscious.
This is something that your whole sensory system adapts to, when you're exposed to louder noises over time. Okay, so, good luck with your study, and I'll talk to you later. | 2,414 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Get Lokasenna essential facts below. View Videos or join the Lokasenna discussion. Add Lokasenna to your PopFlock.com topic list for future reference or share this resource on social media.
A depiction of Loki quarreling with the gods (1895) by Lorenz Frølich.
Lokasenna ("Loki's flyting," "Loki's wrangling," "Loki's quarrel") is one of the poems of the Poetic Edda. The poem presents flyting between the gods and Loki. It is written in the ljóðaháttr metre, typical for wisdom verse.
Loki, amongst other things, accuses the gods of moralistic sexual impropriety, the practice of seiðr (sorcery), and bias. Not ostensibly the most serious of allegations, these elements are, however, said ultimately to lead to the onset of Ragnarök in the Eddic poem Völuspá. However, Lokasenna does not directly state that Loki's binding is as a consequence of the killing of Baldr. This is explicitly stated only in Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda.
Lee M. Hollander, in his introduction to his translation of the poem, claims that it was in no sense a popular lay and suggests we should not necessarily believe that the accusations of the "sly god" were an accepted part of the lore.
The setting is a feast given by the sea god Ægir. (In continuity, the prose introduction says: "Ægir, also named Gymir, had made ale for the Æsir, when he had received the great kettle of which was told" (see Hymiskviða). Thor did not attend, but his wife Sif came in his stead as did Bragi and his wife Iðunn. Tyr, by this time one-handed as a consequence of his sacrifice of his hand in the shackling of Loki's son, the wolf Fenrisulfr, attended, as did Niord and his wife Skaði, Freyr and Freyja, as well as Vidar, the son of Odin. Many other Vanir, Æsir, and also elves were there.
The servants of Ægir, Fimafeng and Eldir, did a thorough job of welcoming the guests; Loki was jealous of the praise being heaped upon them and slew Fimafeng. The gods were angry with Loki and drove him out of the hall, before returning to their carousing. On returning Loki encountered Eldir.
He threatened him and bade him reveal what the gods were talking about in their cups. Eldir's response was that they were discussing their might at arms, and that Loki was not welcomed.
Loki then enters the hall of Ægir after trading insults and threats with Eldir. A hush falls. Loki calls upon the rules of hospitality, demanding a seat and ale. Bragi then responds that he is unwelcome. Loki demands fulfillment of an ancient oath sworn with Odin that they should drink together. Odin asked his son Vidar to make a space for Loki.
Vidar rises and pours a drink for Loki. Before Loki drains his draught, he utters a toast to the gods but pointedly excludes Bragi from it. Bragi offers Loki a horse, a ring and a sword to placate him; Loki, however, is spoiling for a fight, and insults Bragi by questioning his courage. Bragi's response is that it would be contrary to the rules of correct behaviour to fight within his hosts' hall, but were they back in Asgard then things would be different. Iðunn, Bragi's wife, holds him back. Loki then insults Iðunn, calling her sexually loose. Gefjon is the next to speak and then Loki turns his spite on her. Odin then attempts to take a grip, as do (in turn), Freyja, Njord, Tyr, Freyr and Byggvir. The exchanges between Odin and Loki are particularly vitriolic.
Eventually Thor turns up at the party, and he is not to be placated, nor withheld. Alternating with Loki's insults to him, he says four times that he will use his hammer to knock Loki's head off if he continues. Loki replies that for Thor alone he will leave the hall, because his threats are the only ones he fears. He then leaves.
Finally there is a short piece of prose summarizing the tale of Loki's binding, which is told in fuller form in the Gylfaginning section of Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda. Loki is chased by the gods, and caught after an unsuccessful attempt at disguising himself as a salmon. The entrails of his son Nari are used to bind him to three rocks above which Skaði places a serpent to drip venom on him. Loki's wife Sigyn remains by his side with a bowl to catch the venom; however, whenever she leaves to empty the bowl, venom falls on Loki, causing him to writhe in agony; this writhing was said to be the cause of earthquakes. The text says that Loki's other son, Narfi, was turned into a wolf, but does not make clear that he tears his brother apart; also in the Gylfaginning version it is a son of Loki named Váli whom the Æsir transform into a wolf and who kills Narfi. Some editors have therefore chosen to read the names Nari and Narvi as a mistake in the manuscript, and transcribe Nari as Váli. Nari and Narfi are otherwise considered to be variations of the same name. | <urn:uuid:6211c98b-ec8d-43a7-a5b7-efa799af1301> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Lokasenna | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00141.warc.gz | en | 0.981185 | 1,190 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.39898222684860... | 1 | Get Lokasenna essential facts below. View Videos or join the Lokasenna discussion. Add Lokasenna to your PopFlock.com topic list for future reference or share this resource on social media.
A depiction of Loki quarreling with the gods (1895) by Lorenz Frølich.
Lokasenna ("Loki's flyting," "Loki's wrangling," "Loki's quarrel") is one of the poems of the Poetic Edda. The poem presents flyting between the gods and Loki. It is written in the ljóðaháttr metre, typical for wisdom verse.
Loki, amongst other things, accuses the gods of moralistic sexual impropriety, the practice of seiðr (sorcery), and bias. Not ostensibly the most serious of allegations, these elements are, however, said ultimately to lead to the onset of Ragnarök in the Eddic poem Völuspá. However, Lokasenna does not directly state that Loki's binding is as a consequence of the killing of Baldr. This is explicitly stated only in Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda.
Lee M. Hollander, in his introduction to his translation of the poem, claims that it was in no sense a popular lay and suggests we should not necessarily believe that the accusations of the "sly god" were an accepted part of the lore.
The setting is a feast given by the sea god Ægir. (In continuity, the prose introduction says: "Ægir, also named Gymir, had made ale for the Æsir, when he had received the great kettle of which was told" (see Hymiskviða). Thor did not attend, but his wife Sif came in his stead as did Bragi and his wife Iðunn. Tyr, by this time one-handed as a consequence of his sacrifice of his hand in the shackling of Loki's son, the wolf Fenrisulfr, attended, as did Niord and his wife Skaði, Freyr and Freyja, as well as Vidar, the son of Odin. Many other Vanir, Æsir, and also elves were there.
The servants of Ægir, Fimafeng and Eldir, did a thorough job of welcoming the guests; Loki was jealous of the praise being heaped upon them and slew Fimafeng. The gods were angry with Loki and drove him out of the hall, before returning to their carousing. On returning Loki encountered Eldir.
He threatened him and bade him reveal what the gods were talking about in their cups. Eldir's response was that they were discussing their might at arms, and that Loki was not welcomed.
Loki then enters the hall of Ægir after trading insults and threats with Eldir. A hush falls. Loki calls upon the rules of hospitality, demanding a seat and ale. Bragi then responds that he is unwelcome. Loki demands fulfillment of an ancient oath sworn with Odin that they should drink together. Odin asked his son Vidar to make a space for Loki.
Vidar rises and pours a drink for Loki. Before Loki drains his draught, he utters a toast to the gods but pointedly excludes Bragi from it. Bragi offers Loki a horse, a ring and a sword to placate him; Loki, however, is spoiling for a fight, and insults Bragi by questioning his courage. Bragi's response is that it would be contrary to the rules of correct behaviour to fight within his hosts' hall, but were they back in Asgard then things would be different. Iðunn, Bragi's wife, holds him back. Loki then insults Iðunn, calling her sexually loose. Gefjon is the next to speak and then Loki turns his spite on her. Odin then attempts to take a grip, as do (in turn), Freyja, Njord, Tyr, Freyr and Byggvir. The exchanges between Odin and Loki are particularly vitriolic.
Eventually Thor turns up at the party, and he is not to be placated, nor withheld. Alternating with Loki's insults to him, he says four times that he will use his hammer to knock Loki's head off if he continues. Loki replies that for Thor alone he will leave the hall, because his threats are the only ones he fears. He then leaves.
Finally there is a short piece of prose summarizing the tale of Loki's binding, which is told in fuller form in the Gylfaginning section of Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda. Loki is chased by the gods, and caught after an unsuccessful attempt at disguising himself as a salmon. The entrails of his son Nari are used to bind him to three rocks above which Skaði places a serpent to drip venom on him. Loki's wife Sigyn remains by his side with a bowl to catch the venom; however, whenever she leaves to empty the bowl, venom falls on Loki, causing him to writhe in agony; this writhing was said to be the cause of earthquakes. The text says that Loki's other son, Narfi, was turned into a wolf, but does not make clear that he tears his brother apart; also in the Gylfaginning version it is a son of Loki named Váli whom the Æsir transform into a wolf and who kills Narfi. Some editors have therefore chosen to read the names Nari and Narvi as a mistake in the manuscript, and transcribe Nari as Váli. Nari and Narfi are otherwise considered to be variations of the same name. | 1,178 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The First World War
c) The Following were equally important reasons why the stalemate on
the Western Front was finally broken:
new technology like the tank
the American entry into the war
the blockading of German ports
the German offensive in March 1918
Explain how far you agree with this statement.
All of the reasons suggested above do play a part in why the stalemate
on the Western Front was finally broken. Although, each reason stated
is not equally important and there are other reasons as to why the
stalemate did break and these must be considered also.
The first suggested reason to be considered was the use of new
technology, yet, however advance the technology was, precautions and
counter-actions were then made almost immediately so that, in effect,
the technology itself became stalemated.
Machine guns mowed down on comers, but as "no-man's-land" crossing was
considered suicidal and so was very unadvisable, most soldiers did not
attempt to cross, so the stalemate continued. Tanks were introduced to
cross "no-man's-land" but commanders could not use them effectively
until 1917 and even then, they sunk in the mud. The few that did
cross, unfortunately when they arrived at the enemy trenches they were
almost immediately destroyed and so the stalemate continued.
Gas was a vicious discovery to the new technology; poison gas,
chlorine gas and mustard gas were used to disable opposition,
although, gas was only used effectively if weather conditions were
right (winds affected the way the gas blew) and gas was then countered
by the invention of the gas mask. Attack by air became popular, yet as
new as the technology was, it was not advanced enough to be successful
and was countered by air-raid precautions.
Attack by sea was also encouraged, U-boats were made to destroy import
boats, unfortunately most of these boats turned out to be highly armed
attack ships in disguise read to destroy the U-boats. Ships that did
manage to siege successfully were in effect unsuccessful because of
the rationing and recycling efforts made by the British and their
allies. So overall, the new technology helped but none of the new
weaponry was war winning and most definitely not as important as the
other factors to the ending of the stalemate.
The United States entry to the war in April 1917 was due to the
Zimmerman telegram intercepted by the British intelligence and this
telegram was from Germany to Mexico encouraging Mexico to reclaim
states taken from them by America.
The United States entry into the war brought millions of fresh, new,
eager men and plentiful supplies. These supplies were all helpful and
most of the supplies (as America was and still is a highly
technologically advanced country) were of the new technology mentioned
earlier. This abundance of... | <urn:uuid:980c5ae9-7238-421c-be58-1889a88b9f56> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/1st-world-war | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00501.warc.gz | en | 0.983161 | 604 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.532035946... | 1 | The First World War
c) The Following were equally important reasons why the stalemate on
the Western Front was finally broken:
new technology like the tank
the American entry into the war
the blockading of German ports
the German offensive in March 1918
Explain how far you agree with this statement.
All of the reasons suggested above do play a part in why the stalemate
on the Western Front was finally broken. Although, each reason stated
is not equally important and there are other reasons as to why the
stalemate did break and these must be considered also.
The first suggested reason to be considered was the use of new
technology, yet, however advance the technology was, precautions and
counter-actions were then made almost immediately so that, in effect,
the technology itself became stalemated.
Machine guns mowed down on comers, but as "no-man's-land" crossing was
considered suicidal and so was very unadvisable, most soldiers did not
attempt to cross, so the stalemate continued. Tanks were introduced to
cross "no-man's-land" but commanders could not use them effectively
until 1917 and even then, they sunk in the mud. The few that did
cross, unfortunately when they arrived at the enemy trenches they were
almost immediately destroyed and so the stalemate continued.
Gas was a vicious discovery to the new technology; poison gas,
chlorine gas and mustard gas were used to disable opposition,
although, gas was only used effectively if weather conditions were
right (winds affected the way the gas blew) and gas was then countered
by the invention of the gas mask. Attack by air became popular, yet as
new as the technology was, it was not advanced enough to be successful
and was countered by air-raid precautions.
Attack by sea was also encouraged, U-boats were made to destroy import
boats, unfortunately most of these boats turned out to be highly armed
attack ships in disguise read to destroy the U-boats. Ships that did
manage to siege successfully were in effect unsuccessful because of
the rationing and recycling efforts made by the British and their
allies. So overall, the new technology helped but none of the new
weaponry was war winning and most definitely not as important as the
other factors to the ending of the stalemate.
The United States entry to the war in April 1917 was due to the
Zimmerman telegram intercepted by the British intelligence and this
telegram was from Germany to Mexico encouraging Mexico to reclaim
states taken from them by America.
The United States entry into the war brought millions of fresh, new,
eager men and plentiful supplies. These supplies were all helpful and
most of the supplies (as America was and still is a highly
technologically advanced country) were of the new technology mentioned
earlier. This abundance of... | 598 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Americans have shown a great concern in higher education since early colonial times. Research asserts that 75 percent of all educational buildings were built in 20 years. The most significant historical changes, which took place in 1785-1890 in the U.S. higher education, had the great impact on its future development and establishment. Many people considered higher education as a way to get higher status in society. Initially, only persons from elite classes were able to get higher education. Later, many rural youths entered colleges and universities with the aim to escape the farm (Thelin, 2011, p.78).
The research asserts that the period of 1785-1890 was the time of geographical extension of higher education in the United States, as well as implementing new types of institutions and programs. This features characterized the diversity of American higher education. The demand of better educational opportunities goes back to early colonial times. Benjamin Franklin was one of the first, who made propositions to make improvements in this sphere of life underlining the importance of higher education in agriculture, economics, mechanical arts and other professions, which were so necessary for all social classes. The Morrill Act of 1862 is known as a starting point of changing the American educational system. Justin Smith Morrill was the founder of this act, which was also called Land-Grand Act. Under this act, land was given to the towns to develop educational institutions, because land was cheaper than money (Thelin, 2011, p.76). This act was adopted under the influence of the Civil War. First of all, Morrill paid his attention on the development of agricultural and technical education. The USA was then mainly a rural country. There was a need in educated specialists. Higher education was prone to improve people`s equality and freedom as well as their social status. In the early 1800s, researches were devoted to the towns in order to develop educational institutions. The available information asserts that one of the most preferable towns was Oxford, Ohio, which has become home of American academies, colleges and universities. The Morrill Act of 1862 was of the greatest importance in the establishment of higher education, especially agricultural and technical.
According to the research, the government support was given mainly to the undeveloped eastern part of the country. For example, in New York, 145 educational institutions were established, called seminaries (Durst, 2012). Agricultural and technical education was a popular enterprise that gave the youths an opportunity to get education and come back to their farms as highly qualified specialists. The Industrial Revolution (1820-1870) was of the great importance to the development of agricultural and technical education. Substantial evidence of institutional and student diversity was observed during that period. According to the research, many agricultural and technical students were older than 18-22 years of age. This fact reflects a connection between higher education and the regional economy and demography (Thelin, 2011, p. 53). Institutions, which provided training, were founded by state governments or private donors. Agriculture and civil engineering were the disciplines that attracted a lot of students, because the country needed such professionals for the future growth of economy and agriculture Coy & Cross, 1999, p.234). Colleges and universities, which provided training and gave degrees to their students, were opened all over the country. This was a great contribution into the development of higher education in the USA.
In conclusion, the period of 1785-1890 was of great importance for the development of higher education in the United States, particularly agricultural and technical. The higher educational system, which was established under the Morrill Act of 1862, is still working today. A lot of educational institutions that were opened all over the country gave students the opportunity to study different disciplines, thus making contribution into the development of the national economy and agriculture. | <urn:uuid:01adc740-e0d3-4882-a418-45ce0f1eda17> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freeessays.page/higher-education-1785-1890/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00294.warc.gz | en | 0.982857 | 767 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.157029092311... | 5 | Americans have shown a great concern in higher education since early colonial times. Research asserts that 75 percent of all educational buildings were built in 20 years. The most significant historical changes, which took place in 1785-1890 in the U.S. higher education, had the great impact on its future development and establishment. Many people considered higher education as a way to get higher status in society. Initially, only persons from elite classes were able to get higher education. Later, many rural youths entered colleges and universities with the aim to escape the farm (Thelin, 2011, p.78).
The research asserts that the period of 1785-1890 was the time of geographical extension of higher education in the United States, as well as implementing new types of institutions and programs. This features characterized the diversity of American higher education. The demand of better educational opportunities goes back to early colonial times. Benjamin Franklin was one of the first, who made propositions to make improvements in this sphere of life underlining the importance of higher education in agriculture, economics, mechanical arts and other professions, which were so necessary for all social classes. The Morrill Act of 1862 is known as a starting point of changing the American educational system. Justin Smith Morrill was the founder of this act, which was also called Land-Grand Act. Under this act, land was given to the towns to develop educational institutions, because land was cheaper than money (Thelin, 2011, p.76). This act was adopted under the influence of the Civil War. First of all, Morrill paid his attention on the development of agricultural and technical education. The USA was then mainly a rural country. There was a need in educated specialists. Higher education was prone to improve people`s equality and freedom as well as their social status. In the early 1800s, researches were devoted to the towns in order to develop educational institutions. The available information asserts that one of the most preferable towns was Oxford, Ohio, which has become home of American academies, colleges and universities. The Morrill Act of 1862 was of the greatest importance in the establishment of higher education, especially agricultural and technical.
According to the research, the government support was given mainly to the undeveloped eastern part of the country. For example, in New York, 145 educational institutions were established, called seminaries (Durst, 2012). Agricultural and technical education was a popular enterprise that gave the youths an opportunity to get education and come back to their farms as highly qualified specialists. The Industrial Revolution (1820-1870) was of the great importance to the development of agricultural and technical education. Substantial evidence of institutional and student diversity was observed during that period. According to the research, many agricultural and technical students were older than 18-22 years of age. This fact reflects a connection between higher education and the regional economy and demography (Thelin, 2011, p. 53). Institutions, which provided training, were founded by state governments or private donors. Agriculture and civil engineering were the disciplines that attracted a lot of students, because the country needed such professionals for the future growth of economy and agriculture Coy & Cross, 1999, p.234). Colleges and universities, which provided training and gave degrees to their students, were opened all over the country. This was a great contribution into the development of higher education in the USA.
In conclusion, the period of 1785-1890 was of great importance for the development of higher education in the United States, particularly agricultural and technical. The higher educational system, which was established under the Morrill Act of 1862, is still working today. A lot of educational institutions that were opened all over the country gave students the opportunity to study different disciplines, thus making contribution into the development of the national economy and agriculture. | 833 | ENGLISH | 1 |
DAILY LIFE FOR THE CRO-MAGNON PEOPLE IN ICE AGE EUROPE
By Tim Lambert
The Cro-Magnon people
About 35,000 years ago modern humans entered Europe. (They are sometimes called Cro-Magnons). At that time Europe was in the grip of an ice age. Scandinavia and most of the British Isles were permanently covered in ice. (In fact of course they were not islands at that time. Great Britain and Ireland were connected to each other and to mainland Europe by land). Switzerland was also permanently coated in ice. Forests only grew in the extreme south of Europe and most of it was covered in tundra or grassland.
Ice Age life
In this harsh environment Cro-Magnon men hunted mammoth, reindeer, red deer, bison and wild horses. They invented the spear thrower, which allowed them to hurl spears much further than before. The Cro-Magnons also used bows and arrows. They also fished using harpoons tipped with bone points.
Although we often call them cave men in fact caves were absent from much of Europe. In those places the Cro-Magnons made tents using mammoth bones as supports.
The Cro-Magnons were not stupid or brutish. On the contrary they were highly skilled at making efficient tools from stone, bone, wood and antler. Physically they were exactly the same as modern humans. They looked just like us. The Cro-Magnons made warm clothes such as trousers, coats and boots from animal skins using bone needles.
The Cro-Magnons also made pendants from animal teeth (from fox, bear and wolf) and from ivory. They also made necklaces of ivory beads and shells. They may also have painted or tattooed themselves.
The Cro-Magnons buried their dead. Bodies were sometimes covered in red ocher. We don't know why although it has been suggested that the red ocher represented the blood of the living.
Nothing is known about their social organisation but they probably lived in small groups with a nomadic lifestyle. However when the ice age ended a new way of life evolved. Human beings began farming.
Ice Age Art
The Cro-Magnons were also an artistic people. They made small statuettes from ivory, bone, and stone. Some of the statuettes are of pregnant women. They are sometimes called Venuses. We don't know what they were for but they may have been fertility charms.
The Cro-Magnons are most famous for their cave paintings. We are not sure what the paintings were made for but they are impressive. Colors include black, red, yellow and white. The Cro-Magnons used charcoal, ocher, and manganese to make them. Curiously humans were rarely painted on cave walls but many animals were. They include horses, bison, mammoths, reindeer, bears, and rhinoceroses. There is nothing crude about the paintings. On the contrary, the people who made them were highly skilled.
We don't know what the cave paintings were for but they may have been for sympathetic magic. Primitive peoples often believed that if a model or painting was made of a person or animal and a spell was cast on it that would somehow influence the real thing. Perhaps the cave paintings of animals were made so spells could be cast on them to make hunting them easier. | <urn:uuid:3340b1be-d0f4-4591-9d45-6c70bddb5aad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://localhistories.org/cro-magnon.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00049.warc.gz | en | 0.989905 | 700 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.20860207080841... | 1 | DAILY LIFE FOR THE CRO-MAGNON PEOPLE IN ICE AGE EUROPE
By Tim Lambert
The Cro-Magnon people
About 35,000 years ago modern humans entered Europe. (They are sometimes called Cro-Magnons). At that time Europe was in the grip of an ice age. Scandinavia and most of the British Isles were permanently covered in ice. (In fact of course they were not islands at that time. Great Britain and Ireland were connected to each other and to mainland Europe by land). Switzerland was also permanently coated in ice. Forests only grew in the extreme south of Europe and most of it was covered in tundra or grassland.
Ice Age life
In this harsh environment Cro-Magnon men hunted mammoth, reindeer, red deer, bison and wild horses. They invented the spear thrower, which allowed them to hurl spears much further than before. The Cro-Magnons also used bows and arrows. They also fished using harpoons tipped with bone points.
Although we often call them cave men in fact caves were absent from much of Europe. In those places the Cro-Magnons made tents using mammoth bones as supports.
The Cro-Magnons were not stupid or brutish. On the contrary they were highly skilled at making efficient tools from stone, bone, wood and antler. Physically they were exactly the same as modern humans. They looked just like us. The Cro-Magnons made warm clothes such as trousers, coats and boots from animal skins using bone needles.
The Cro-Magnons also made pendants from animal teeth (from fox, bear and wolf) and from ivory. They also made necklaces of ivory beads and shells. They may also have painted or tattooed themselves.
The Cro-Magnons buried their dead. Bodies were sometimes covered in red ocher. We don't know why although it has been suggested that the red ocher represented the blood of the living.
Nothing is known about their social organisation but they probably lived in small groups with a nomadic lifestyle. However when the ice age ended a new way of life evolved. Human beings began farming.
Ice Age Art
The Cro-Magnons were also an artistic people. They made small statuettes from ivory, bone, and stone. Some of the statuettes are of pregnant women. They are sometimes called Venuses. We don't know what they were for but they may have been fertility charms.
The Cro-Magnons are most famous for their cave paintings. We are not sure what the paintings were made for but they are impressive. Colors include black, red, yellow and white. The Cro-Magnons used charcoal, ocher, and manganese to make them. Curiously humans were rarely painted on cave walls but many animals were. They include horses, bison, mammoths, reindeer, bears, and rhinoceroses. There is nothing crude about the paintings. On the contrary, the people who made them were highly skilled.
We don't know what the cave paintings were for but they may have been for sympathetic magic. Primitive peoples often believed that if a model or painting was made of a person or animal and a spell was cast on it that would somehow influence the real thing. Perhaps the cave paintings of animals were made so spells could be cast on them to make hunting them easier. | 688 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The raised dot system now known as "braille" was pioneered by a young Frenchman called Louis Braille.
Louis lost his sight through a childhood accident. Aged 10, he was sent to the Royal Institution for Blind Youth. It was at the Institute in 1821 that Louis was first introduced to the idea of using a coded system of raised dots.
Charles Barbier, a captain in Napoleon's army, visited the school to demonstrate his "night writing". This was a tactile system designed for soldiers to send and receive messages at night without speaking. It used raised dots and dashes rather than actual letters.
Louis quickly realised how useful Barbier's system could be, but thought it was too complicated. Over the next few years he worked hard to develop his own version of the code, using just six dots (instead of Barbier's 12) to represent the standard alphabet.
By 1824, aged just 15 years old, Louis had found 63 ways to use a six-dot cell in an area no larger than a fingertip. He had also perfected his "planchette" or writing slate, which gave precise placing for the pattern of raised dots when writing braille.
He went on to develop signs for mathematics and even music.
It took two years after his death for his code, by now referred to as braille, to be adopted as the official communications system for blind people in France.
If you would like to learn more about the Louis Braille Story, then you can listen to a Radio 4 programme on his life, featuring the politician David Blunkett. There are also various books available in the RNIB Library.
While the use of braille spread to many countries, it continued to encounter strong resistance. This is thought to be because braille didn't look like print, and therefore wasn't easy for sighted people to read.
In the UK, a small group of blind people helped overcome the early resistance to braille.
Thomas Rhodes Armitage, a wealthy physician who had sight problems himself, brought together a group of blind people and founded the British and Foreign Society for Improving the Embossed Literature for the Blind. They tested different communication systems for the blind and surveyed many blind readers. In 1870 they made the decision that braille would be the best choice for Britain. This group later went on to become RNIB.
Download our chronology of how RNIB has developed the use of braille in the UK since we were founded in 1868: | <urn:uuid:4b8bf58a-9ee0-4def-8321-9fea86e573d6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rnib.org.uk/braille-and-other-tactile-codes-portal-braille-past-present-and-future/invention-braille | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00308.warc.gz | en | 0.981474 | 512 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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-0.0296205... | 11 | The raised dot system now known as "braille" was pioneered by a young Frenchman called Louis Braille.
Louis lost his sight through a childhood accident. Aged 10, he was sent to the Royal Institution for Blind Youth. It was at the Institute in 1821 that Louis was first introduced to the idea of using a coded system of raised dots.
Charles Barbier, a captain in Napoleon's army, visited the school to demonstrate his "night writing". This was a tactile system designed for soldiers to send and receive messages at night without speaking. It used raised dots and dashes rather than actual letters.
Louis quickly realised how useful Barbier's system could be, but thought it was too complicated. Over the next few years he worked hard to develop his own version of the code, using just six dots (instead of Barbier's 12) to represent the standard alphabet.
By 1824, aged just 15 years old, Louis had found 63 ways to use a six-dot cell in an area no larger than a fingertip. He had also perfected his "planchette" or writing slate, which gave precise placing for the pattern of raised dots when writing braille.
He went on to develop signs for mathematics and even music.
It took two years after his death for his code, by now referred to as braille, to be adopted as the official communications system for blind people in France.
If you would like to learn more about the Louis Braille Story, then you can listen to a Radio 4 programme on his life, featuring the politician David Blunkett. There are also various books available in the RNIB Library.
While the use of braille spread to many countries, it continued to encounter strong resistance. This is thought to be because braille didn't look like print, and therefore wasn't easy for sighted people to read.
In the UK, a small group of blind people helped overcome the early resistance to braille.
Thomas Rhodes Armitage, a wealthy physician who had sight problems himself, brought together a group of blind people and founded the British and Foreign Society for Improving the Embossed Literature for the Blind. They tested different communication systems for the blind and surveyed many blind readers. In 1870 they made the decision that braille would be the best choice for Britain. This group later went on to become RNIB.
Download our chronology of how RNIB has developed the use of braille in the UK since we were founded in 1868: | 520 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A sash is a long band or scarf, usually made of silk, satin, or other fancy material. It is worn over the waist or shoulder. Military officers often wear shoulder or waist sashes as part of a formal military uniform. Waist sashes have been worn by women or children, both girls and boys, for ornament on formal clothes. Waist sashes were worn with Fauntleroy suits, dresses, and other outfits. They came in different materials and colors and worn with or weithout end tassles or edgeing. They were also worn at varying length and tied with different knots. Shoulder sashes are worn by boys wearing Scottish and Irish kilts for formal occasions and for participating in Higland and Irish dancing sashes varied substanitally.
Sashes were not a common item for children. But we do see some children wearing them. This was mostly girls, but we do see some boys. We mostly see boys wearing sashes during the 19th century. We mostly see this during the late-19th century. Almost all the images we have found showing boys wearing sashes come from the lae-19th century. This could, however, because the photographic record is much more extensive during the this period. The examples we have found for boys ar primarily associated with the late-19th century Fauntleroy craze. We see, however, boys wearing sashes with other outfits as well. We also see girls wearing sashes with dresses and this continued into the 20th century. The sash was a formal item. So girls mostly war them with formal dresses like party dresses. And some of the younger boys not yet breeched in the 19th century also wore sashes. The numer of such images are all almost entirely from the 9th century. This of course is die to the fact thatvafter the turn-of the 20th century we see the convention of younger boys wearing dresses disappearing.
There are two different types of decorative sashes worn by boys. Both have military origins. The most common was the waist sash. Waist sashes were usually added to fancy clothes like velvet Fauntleroy suits and white party dresses. They were most common for boys during the late 19th and early 20th century with the fancy outfits for boys that were poopular during that period. Sashes were worn when a mother wanted a boy in his best party suit. Girls also wore waist sashes, but they were gerally tied differently with bows at the back. There were also shoulder sashes. We only see boys wearing the shoulder sash. Waist sashes are the best known sashes, but there are also shoulder sashes, although we are not sure this is the best term. This is an item associated with modern Celtic clothing. HBC has noted few example of boys wearing shoulder sashes.
Our country information on sashes is quite limited. We have only begun to build some country information. We now have country information on: America, England, France, Germany, Italy, and Scotland. . We believe that sashes were especially common in England and France. Scotland is a special case. Sashes were worn with dressy Highland kilt outfits.
Navigate the Historic Boys' Clothing Web Site:
[Return to the Main Decorative page]
[Introduction] [Activities] [Biographies] [Chronology] [Cloth and textiles] [Clothing styles] [Countries] [Topics]
[Bibliographies] [Contributions] [FAQs] [Glossaries] [Images] [Images] [Links] [Registration] [Tools]
[Boys' Clothing Home] | <urn:uuid:237f2abd-3ffe-47a5-ba80-5a1b2f0af115> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.histclo.com/style/bow/sash/sash.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00332.warc.gz | en | 0.983503 | 757 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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... | 4 | A sash is a long band or scarf, usually made of silk, satin, or other fancy material. It is worn over the waist or shoulder. Military officers often wear shoulder or waist sashes as part of a formal military uniform. Waist sashes have been worn by women or children, both girls and boys, for ornament on formal clothes. Waist sashes were worn with Fauntleroy suits, dresses, and other outfits. They came in different materials and colors and worn with or weithout end tassles or edgeing. They were also worn at varying length and tied with different knots. Shoulder sashes are worn by boys wearing Scottish and Irish kilts for formal occasions and for participating in Higland and Irish dancing sashes varied substanitally.
Sashes were not a common item for children. But we do see some children wearing them. This was mostly girls, but we do see some boys. We mostly see boys wearing sashes during the 19th century. We mostly see this during the late-19th century. Almost all the images we have found showing boys wearing sashes come from the lae-19th century. This could, however, because the photographic record is much more extensive during the this period. The examples we have found for boys ar primarily associated with the late-19th century Fauntleroy craze. We see, however, boys wearing sashes with other outfits as well. We also see girls wearing sashes with dresses and this continued into the 20th century. The sash was a formal item. So girls mostly war them with formal dresses like party dresses. And some of the younger boys not yet breeched in the 19th century also wore sashes. The numer of such images are all almost entirely from the 9th century. This of course is die to the fact thatvafter the turn-of the 20th century we see the convention of younger boys wearing dresses disappearing.
There are two different types of decorative sashes worn by boys. Both have military origins. The most common was the waist sash. Waist sashes were usually added to fancy clothes like velvet Fauntleroy suits and white party dresses. They were most common for boys during the late 19th and early 20th century with the fancy outfits for boys that were poopular during that period. Sashes were worn when a mother wanted a boy in his best party suit. Girls also wore waist sashes, but they were gerally tied differently with bows at the back. There were also shoulder sashes. We only see boys wearing the shoulder sash. Waist sashes are the best known sashes, but there are also shoulder sashes, although we are not sure this is the best term. This is an item associated with modern Celtic clothing. HBC has noted few example of boys wearing shoulder sashes.
Our country information on sashes is quite limited. We have only begun to build some country information. We now have country information on: America, England, France, Germany, Italy, and Scotland. . We believe that sashes were especially common in England and France. Scotland is a special case. Sashes were worn with dressy Highland kilt outfits.
Navigate the Historic Boys' Clothing Web Site:
[Return to the Main Decorative page]
[Introduction] [Activities] [Biographies] [Chronology] [Cloth and textiles] [Clothing styles] [Countries] [Topics]
[Bibliographies] [Contributions] [FAQs] [Glossaries] [Images] [Images] [Links] [Registration] [Tools]
[Boys' Clothing Home] | 753 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The play Oedipus Rex may show mankinds search for a better society. The Greeks in the 5th century B. C. tried to make the most out of life. They wanted to know, what was the best way to live in that society at the time? The Greeks then began to study mankind. They began to determine between the rights and wrongs of the society. He who violated the social norms suffered throughout their life. For example, Oedipus Rex showed mainly three types of unmoral acts that deified the social norms of society. The main three were his Intellectual Pride, Three types of Hubris, and his anger and rash judgment towards Creon.
Prior to the birth of Oedipus Rex, a prophecy was spoken over Laius and his wife, Jocasta. They were told that their son would one day be his fathers killer and would then marry his mother. In fear, kind Lauis and queen Jocasta sent the baby off with a slave to be killed. He was never killed, but rather was given to a childless king and queen, which lovingly raised him. Later in his life, several unknown men traveling confronted him. Upon confrontation, Oedipus Rex killed all but one of the men in self-defense. Unknowingly, Oedipus had begun to fulfill the prophecy for one of the men had been his father, Laius.
While traveling, Oedipus had come to the city of Thebes. There he saved the city from the wrath of the sphinx by solving her riddle. He was a savior to the city, and was made king and married Jocasta (his mother). They ruled together and conceived four children. Although the truth had been spoken to Oedipus about these matters previously, he had chosen not to believe them. Oedipuss Intellectual Pride begins to unravel. He is looking for the murderer of the king (his father). He thinks 5 or 6 men killed the king because of money (bribery). No, Oedipus is wrong.
He makes a lot of mistakes and he thinks he knows the answers to this situation. He is very self-confident and takes responsibility, as a king should. Oedipus acts too quickly and jumps to conclusions, while trying to figure out who committed this unmoral act that broke the social norm of their society. He asks Teiresias, but he refuses tell Oedipus that it was he who killed the king. But remember, Oedipus has already heard a prophecy about himself. His pride makes it difficult for him to listen to other peoples advice and facts. He was so sure that he knew who the murderer was, but he was too ignorant.
The answer was given to him but refused to believe it. Hubris begins to play a role in Oedipus character. Mainly there are three areas of Hubris he uncovered. The term Hubris means a behavior without proper limits; arrogance; insolence; defiance to the laws of the gods or moral laws. First, Oedipus has committed a murder and engaged in incest. He has mocked the gods. Oedipus solved the riddle of the sphinx and claimed he did everything on his own. In a sense, he looked down on the gods. The Greeks believed that there were powers higher than themselves.
Man was great but not as great and powerful as the gods. Oedipus showed the opposite. Secondly, he shows the opposite by insulting the gods. He stated that he didnt need them in his life. Here he commits blasphemy, which is a term meaning, the act of speaking out against a sacred person. Lastly, his anger shows another hubris. He speaks out against Teiresias, stating that he was a wicked old man. In response, Oedipus showed no respect for Teiresias. For this, he will endure great Nemesis for his hubriss. Nemesis is a term, which means great punishment for going against a god.
His failure to listen to the gods warnings resulted by making his life a living nightmare. He had committed the unmentionable and hed rather not exist at this point. Oedipus, ruler of Thebes, murdered his own father and married his mother. Such acts are almost always deemed unnatural and criminal; they are not tolerated within a traditional society. A person who has committed these illegal acts of murder and incest would be considered a criminal. Oedipus dwelled in his own self-pity; later raking his own eyes out. He couldnt stand the mere site and existence of himself.
Oedipus Rex exhibited signs of anger and rash judgment towards Creon (his brother and law). In addition to his Intellectual Pride and Hubris, his anger is another part of his character flaw to add to the list. Creon has always been faithful to Oedipus. Oedipus calls Creon a murderer. In response, Creon comes back to defend himself by reasoning. Creon hates chaos and hes a true friend to Oedipus. Oedipus lashes out his anger and tells Creon that he is an evil person. Also, Oedipus stated that whether is a good or bad king, he will always be powerful, a dictator, a tyrant who wouldnt listen to his people.
In addition, anyone who questions him will be killed. Later on his wife kills herself. He finds her in the room hanging. Oedipus wonders with no eyes and bleeding. He says the people of Apollo did it to him, but he alone committed the acts. His intellectual Pride, Hubris, and anger and rash judgment caught up to him in the end. He did things so evil that outraged the entire laws of the human race. For this he takes responsibility for his actions. In my opinion, he who laughs first never got the joke. | <urn:uuid:591e12f7-a8dd-4ce0-a9d9-3c7969aad6cd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://windsongcastlecottage.com/the-play-oedipus-rex-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00366.warc.gz | en | 0.989552 | 1,222 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.1850978732... | 3 | The play Oedipus Rex may show mankinds search for a better society. The Greeks in the 5th century B. C. tried to make the most out of life. They wanted to know, what was the best way to live in that society at the time? The Greeks then began to study mankind. They began to determine between the rights and wrongs of the society. He who violated the social norms suffered throughout their life. For example, Oedipus Rex showed mainly three types of unmoral acts that deified the social norms of society. The main three were his Intellectual Pride, Three types of Hubris, and his anger and rash judgment towards Creon.
Prior to the birth of Oedipus Rex, a prophecy was spoken over Laius and his wife, Jocasta. They were told that their son would one day be his fathers killer and would then marry his mother. In fear, kind Lauis and queen Jocasta sent the baby off with a slave to be killed. He was never killed, but rather was given to a childless king and queen, which lovingly raised him. Later in his life, several unknown men traveling confronted him. Upon confrontation, Oedipus Rex killed all but one of the men in self-defense. Unknowingly, Oedipus had begun to fulfill the prophecy for one of the men had been his father, Laius.
While traveling, Oedipus had come to the city of Thebes. There he saved the city from the wrath of the sphinx by solving her riddle. He was a savior to the city, and was made king and married Jocasta (his mother). They ruled together and conceived four children. Although the truth had been spoken to Oedipus about these matters previously, he had chosen not to believe them. Oedipuss Intellectual Pride begins to unravel. He is looking for the murderer of the king (his father). He thinks 5 or 6 men killed the king because of money (bribery). No, Oedipus is wrong.
He makes a lot of mistakes and he thinks he knows the answers to this situation. He is very self-confident and takes responsibility, as a king should. Oedipus acts too quickly and jumps to conclusions, while trying to figure out who committed this unmoral act that broke the social norm of their society. He asks Teiresias, but he refuses tell Oedipus that it was he who killed the king. But remember, Oedipus has already heard a prophecy about himself. His pride makes it difficult for him to listen to other peoples advice and facts. He was so sure that he knew who the murderer was, but he was too ignorant.
The answer was given to him but refused to believe it. Hubris begins to play a role in Oedipus character. Mainly there are three areas of Hubris he uncovered. The term Hubris means a behavior without proper limits; arrogance; insolence; defiance to the laws of the gods or moral laws. First, Oedipus has committed a murder and engaged in incest. He has mocked the gods. Oedipus solved the riddle of the sphinx and claimed he did everything on his own. In a sense, he looked down on the gods. The Greeks believed that there were powers higher than themselves.
Man was great but not as great and powerful as the gods. Oedipus showed the opposite. Secondly, he shows the opposite by insulting the gods. He stated that he didnt need them in his life. Here he commits blasphemy, which is a term meaning, the act of speaking out against a sacred person. Lastly, his anger shows another hubris. He speaks out against Teiresias, stating that he was a wicked old man. In response, Oedipus showed no respect for Teiresias. For this, he will endure great Nemesis for his hubriss. Nemesis is a term, which means great punishment for going against a god.
His failure to listen to the gods warnings resulted by making his life a living nightmare. He had committed the unmentionable and hed rather not exist at this point. Oedipus, ruler of Thebes, murdered his own father and married his mother. Such acts are almost always deemed unnatural and criminal; they are not tolerated within a traditional society. A person who has committed these illegal acts of murder and incest would be considered a criminal. Oedipus dwelled in his own self-pity; later raking his own eyes out. He couldnt stand the mere site and existence of himself.
Oedipus Rex exhibited signs of anger and rash judgment towards Creon (his brother and law). In addition to his Intellectual Pride and Hubris, his anger is another part of his character flaw to add to the list. Creon has always been faithful to Oedipus. Oedipus calls Creon a murderer. In response, Creon comes back to defend himself by reasoning. Creon hates chaos and hes a true friend to Oedipus. Oedipus lashes out his anger and tells Creon that he is an evil person. Also, Oedipus stated that whether is a good or bad king, he will always be powerful, a dictator, a tyrant who wouldnt listen to his people.
In addition, anyone who questions him will be killed. Later on his wife kills herself. He finds her in the room hanging. Oedipus wonders with no eyes and bleeding. He says the people of Apollo did it to him, but he alone committed the acts. His intellectual Pride, Hubris, and anger and rash judgment caught up to him in the end. He did things so evil that outraged the entire laws of the human race. For this he takes responsibility for his actions. In my opinion, he who laughs first never got the joke. | 1,217 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tutor profile: Riana M.
Subject: US Government and Politics
Tell me about the American Revolution
In, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was written. American patriotism was widespread. However, two hundred years later reasons behind why the thirteen colonies wanted to be independent from England after being close allies after the French and Indian war remains debated. But, throughout their bittersweet alliance American colonists were justified in waging war and breaking away from Britain. “ On March 5, 1770, a crowd of Boston boys and men surrounded a number of British soldiers and began taunting and cursing them….Order quickly broke down” ( Doc 3) This marked the day of finally fighting back . The American colonies had spent too much time having to choose between their freedom and safety. Although, it is true that, England helped the Americans fight in war because of the threat of their safety ;Britain had shown that they had little to no respect for the American colonies. Thomas Whately an advisor to George Grenville, a British Chancellor of the Exchequer states “ We are not yet recovered from a war undertake solely for their [the Americans’] Protection… a war undertaken for their defense only… they should contribute to the Preservation of the Advantages they have received…..” ( Doc 1) This demonstrates that most of the English felt that the American colonists were ungrateful because they they reaped the advantages. Meaning, that they should be more than willing to pay above and beyond because the war was for their safety. But, it seems as if the American colonies were used as a scapegoat for why the war started in the first place. This shows, the lack of respect for the American colonies. American colonists were justified in waging war to break away from Britain because they didn’t want to have to keep surrendering their liberties without having any say in political affairs. Civil liberties that were constantly pushed to the side because they weren't being taken seriously. In, Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of taking up arms by John Dickinson states “ We are reduced to the alternative of choosing an unconditional submission to the tyranny of irritated [British officials], or resistance by force. - The latter is our choice”(Doc 5) This exemplifies the tension, the American colonists clearly feel like they have no choice but to fight for their civil liberties. The conflict that, America had with England was beyond a peaceful solution. According to document 6, the American tried to work things out with England but Britain refused to listen to their simple demands. Paine professed, “But ...then tell me whether you can hereafter love, honour , and faithfully served the power that hath carried fired and sword into your land?” ….. “ No man was a warmer wisher for a [ peaceful settlement] than myself .” This clearly, shows that waging war and breaking away from Britain was justifiable. Although it is debateable that, America shouldn't have waged war on Britain it was for the best. American won their independence it was a matter of respect. That being insinuated, the American colonies were justified in the way they fought for their freedom. They didn’t want to keep choosing between their freedom and safety. As a country, they found their own identity. One can clearly see, it was meant to be.
Subject: Urban Studies
What is environmental racism?
Environmental racism is a policy or practice that differentially affects or disadvantages (intentionally or unintentionally) individuals, groups or communities because of their race and/or class, by placement of environmentally hazardous or degraded environments, such as toxic waste, and pollution in those communities.According to Majore Carter, "race and class are extremely reliable indicators as to where one might find the good stuff, like parks and trees,and where one might find the bad stuff, like power plants and waste facilities". She insists that the good quality things meant for a good quality of life are found in white affluent communities rather than ones of a person of color.As humans we are in the era of the things that people do having an erratic effect on the environment which contributes to environmental injustice.Geologists call this the anthropocene age rather than the ones before us who cared about the earth, the holocene. The cause of this is the privatization of certain things like water and public spaces.Environmental racism is a crime against humanity. In the United States of America, there are approximately three hundred and twenty million people inhabiting the area.More than 134 million people live, work, or play amongst other daily life activities nearby industrial zones.Industries such as these manufacture chemicals, treat water or wastewater, produce bleach, generate electric power, refine petroleum, produce pulp and paper, that pose potential health hazard for the people who live in these areas. Unfortunately people of color specifically blacks and latinos live in these areas at a disproportionate rate compared to their white counterparts.Living in these industrial zones affect the quality of life because it can affect the food, air, and the quality of the water. More often than not, it causes serious health hazards for those who are living the area. According to the Federal General Accounting office, three out of five African Americans living below the poverty line are situated in areas close to toxic waste sites.According to Mychal Johnson“In the South Bronx, we have an asthma epidemic. Asthma hospitalizations are five times the national average; asthma deaths are three times the national average; and it is estimated that 1 in every 5 children in the South Bronx has asthma.” The main cause of asthma is the pollution in these industrial zones that these companies cause. I agree with what was stated in the powerpoint in class ,the federal, state and local governments, and the industries should implement the most effective strategies that reduce and eliminate avoidable environmental hazards, and adopt a comprehensive set of policies to protect workers and communities. But I doubt that they would because it makes them a lot of money. Any thing that makes someone money they wouldn’t want to help with certain situations like these. People like this tend to focus on the I.D. part of life. The wants of right now instead of the bigger picture.Corporate decision makers, regulatory agencies and local planning and zoning boards have found it easier to site such facilities in low-income African-American or Latino communities than in primarily white, middle-to-upper-income communities.Poor communities and communities of color usually lacked connections to decision makers on zoning boards or city councils.It's easier to place these things in black and latino communities because it already wasn’t in good shape to take care of in the beginning. Or to some people, people of color in general seem like a burden to begin with.I live in community district 17 and anybody can tell the difference between our neighborhood versus the more caucasian ones. For instance, the library in my neighborhood barely has any books. However if you travel to Clinton or Grand Army plaza you can tell the difference. This may not be out right environmental justice. But everybody deserves a sustainable quality of life. Life may be unfair to all but at times it's more unfair to others.
Subject: African History
How do we analyze the reasons why Achebe wrote "Things Fall Apart"?
Throughout history different scholars from around the world had many perceptions and opinions of what they thought Africa was and was to be. One, out of many opinions was that people in times before the existence of colonialism lacked agency and the ability to help themselves. They were also seen as people who had no language and were not capable of achieving anything of their own. This perception was shown in a book called ‘Heart of Darkness’.Joseph Conrad spoke of the African people as if they have no agency denying them the ability to be seen as equals with European societies. As if there was nothing worthy in Africa. Hence, why the book was called the ‘Heart of Darkness’.However, Chinua Achebe the author of ‘Things Fall Apart’ critiqued this piece of work to show what was wrong about how Conrad viewed Africa. Achebe wanted people to see that Africa was not a “place of darkness” but instead a people that should be understood within the context of their own societies instead of from the lens of Europeans. Achebe wanted to also express that “Africans had a community of their own; that African people had a culture and did not hear of culture for the first time from their contact with Europeans;that [African] societies were not mindless but frequently had a philosophy of great depth”. Achebe uses ‘Things Fall Apart’ to show that pre-colonial Africa had social, political, and economical institutions. First I would like to analyze the political institutions in the Ibo society. The Ibo society were a very religious group of people. They worshipped more than one God because they were a polytheistic society. Their governmental systems were based strongly upon their Gods. However, it was the elders who made sure that what the Gods wanted was carried out without error. It was the elders responsibility to maintain order through the Gods. The Gods were the Ibo people’s constitution. It was imperative that they did exactly what their God’s told them they should do. Gods gave their orders through the Oracles who would give their interpretations to the people. One instance in ‘Things Fall Apart’ is when the Gods gave their order for Ikemefuna to be killed. Subsequently, this act was carried out because as stated before they couldn’t or wouldn’t dare go against what the God’s have said. Achebe also mentions the Egwugwu which shares similarities to the United States Supreme Court. The Egwugwu are the nine spirits of the founders of the villages. Whenever there was some kind of issue that the elders are incapable of solving the Egwugwu would resolve the issue instead. For example, judgment ceremonies were held in an Egwugwu house to settle a dispute between two families or any party involved. Similar to a local courthouse where cases are heard. The elders of the village sat in the front rows of stools with a row of nine seats in front of them. The plaintiff and the defendant gathered in two groups in front of the crowd. The nine "spirits" then came out of the hut with masks on. The leader Egwugwu, named Evil Forest, addressed both groups and then receives their sides of the issue at hand. Then, the nine egwugwu spirits deliberate in the hut and then come out and give the verdict to the crowd. Any consensus that they come to could not be reversed. The way Achebe uses the killing of Ikemefuna and the mentioning of the Egwugwu shows that pre colonial Africa had political institutions. This eradicates the idea that Africa is the “heart of darkness”. Secondly, I would like to analyze the economic institutions and the social statuses of the Ibo society. Although they did not have a capitalist society nor did they have a coinage system, they were a agricultural society. According to ‘Things Fall Apart’ certain crops had more worth and value than others based on men and female crops. Yams were crops meant for men because it was more difficult to grow. Crops such as maize,melons,and beans were meant for women because they typically were meant to take care of the children and other household duties. The more yams and wives had a man had equated to how much wealth and power he had. This was very important in this society because the amount of work a man has done equated to his wealth. Achebe illustrates this when he uses Okonkwo’s father failures to show how hard Okonkwo had to work for everything he had and how wealthy he became. Achebe writes, "[Okoye] was not a failure like Unoka. He had a large barn full of yams and had three wives" (page 6). He was a successful "middle class" Umuofian. Achebe also noted that "there was a wealthy man in Okonkwo's village who had three huge barns, nine wives, and thirty children. His name was Nwakibie and he had taken the highest but one title which a man could take in the clan" (page 18-19). Titles are something that are earned over a man's lifetime, based on his successes. The privilege of having a title is the gained respect. Something that throughout the whole book Okonkwo strived for because his father had none. This image shows that pre colonial Africa were just as human as Europeans made themselves to be. Lastly I would like to analyze the social institutions that make up the Ibo society. Their social structure consisted of marriage, religion, philosophies, and how they interacted during social gatherings. As stated prior the people of the Ibo society are very religious. They believed in polytheism. Achebe shows how the people of Umuofia viewed their Gods by showing the fear and respect they had for them. Without religion they had no governance because their whole entire society was based upon it. In ‘Things Fall Apart’ when the missionaries came with Christianity it slowly broke down their governmental systems. It did them more harm than good because religion was the thing that unified Umuofia. In a greater sense religion was the thing that kept pre colonial Africa together. It was all about staying close to ancestral ties evidently religion was passed down from generation to generation and Christianity broke it. After this new religion arrived people no longer paid as much attention to ancestry or giving back to the earth. For instance before Christianity they believed in Ani the goddess of the earth and harvest. Many people in the Ibo society sacrificed animals to Ani to anticipate a good harvest for the year. She was called upon many times during the year to bless the crops for example for the Feast of the New Yam. It was also said that it is a crime against the earth goddess was to kill a fellow clansman.(chapter 13). The Ibo people also believe that "chi" is also closely related to their religion. Chi was an individual's personal God, which is determined by the individual's good fortune or bad fortune. The Ibo people held their chi responsible for any thing that occured in their lives. Because of this it is said that if you have "bad chi" then evil fortune will surely follow you to the grave.(chapter 3). Another God that the Ibo society believed in was Abagala. Agbala is a God that can tell the future and speak to the spirits of departed fathers from his cave in the Ibo village. Many people come from near and far to hear what Agbala has to say. Agbala appoints a priestess in the village to interpret and share his worwith the fellow Ibo people. “The people look up to her and refer to her as "god-like".The people of the village also listen to every word of the priestess, even if that means making a sacrifice.(chapter 3).” This clearly illustrates how religion shaped the Ibo’s society and gave it order. The second most important social structure was marriage and how the family operated. As stated prior, the more yams and wives had a man had equated to how much wealth and power he had. A great number of wives shows that the man is rich because it shows that he is capable of supporting and feeding his family. Since this is a patriarchal society, the men are the dominant leaders in the family. For example, in the Egwugwu ceremonies, the women are usually found more toward the back, with the men in the front. The man also lived alone in his obi. Then the wives' huts would be on his land in which the children they gave birth to would live with them. Then, there would be other parts, such as a chicken coop. The children would help work on the crops and tend to the animals. They will basically did what their father instructed them to do. The women are usually the ones who make the food for everyone to eat. The husband would be the first person to be served since he is the head of the family. It was imperative for the father to hand down whatever he has to his son. The father will usually give their crops to their sons so they can keep maintaining it. This way, the son will have something to start with for when they make a family of their own. Hence why Unoka wasn’t respected because he gave nothing to his son Okonkwo. It showed that Unoka could not take care of his family. Achebe makes sure to stress that the more crops a man has, the wealthier and manlier. When a young couple is about to get married, the bridegroom’s family gives the bride's family gifts. To impress the family, they may give them things such as bundles of broomsticks, or animals such as goats. (Chapter 8) This shows that the man will be able to support the wife and it leaves a good impression on her family if he gives them a sufficient amount of gifts. The Ibo’s philosophies introduced through proverbs were their source of wisdom. It explained teachings passed down through elders. Before a proverb was stated Achebe would use the statement “as the elders said”. Proverbs stated customs, how the family structure should be, and things of that nature. Proverbs also showed the Ibo people how to greet one another. For example,when Okonkwo wanted a favor to be done he went about it in a particular manner. "I have come to pay you my respects and also to ask a favor. But let us drink the wine first" (page 19). It was rude for the Ibos to come up to someone and just ask a favor . It was preferred that one would come to the person they have a request for and hold a short conversation, in order to catch up, before actually asking for anything. In other cultures, it is acceptable to ask someone for a favor directly but in the Ibo society it is disrespectful. Philosophies and proverbs had a lot of influence on social gatherings. The Ibo people had many ceremonies, social gatherings, and rituals that help them connect culturally, spiritually, and socially with each other. The same way the proverbs do. Out of all of the ceremonies death was particularly the most important. Whenever someone died in the Ibo village under the correct circumstances a funeral is held for them. Only the worthy was given a funeral. The after life was just as important as the time frame as when the person was alive. Ibo funerals are a time to celebrate the one who has past. A godly Egwugwu or two may even pay a visit to honor the deceased. At the end, the spirit of the departed is asked to move on peacefully.(chapter13). In closing , Achebe destroys the fallacy that pre colonial Africa is a place without their own customs and traditions just like any other. Pre colonial Africa had their own governance before Europeans came. That being said Achebe uses ‘Things Fall Apart’ to show the social, political,and economical institutions that the Western hemisphere thought Africans did not have.
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Subject: US Government and Politics
Tell me about the American Revolution
In, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was written. American patriotism was widespread. However, two hundred years later reasons behind why the thirteen colonies wanted to be independent from England after being close allies after the French and Indian war remains debated. But, throughout their bittersweet alliance American colonists were justified in waging war and breaking away from Britain. “ On March 5, 1770, a crowd of Boston boys and men surrounded a number of British soldiers and began taunting and cursing them….Order quickly broke down” ( Doc 3) This marked the day of finally fighting back . The American colonies had spent too much time having to choose between their freedom and safety. Although, it is true that, England helped the Americans fight in war because of the threat of their safety ;Britain had shown that they had little to no respect for the American colonies. Thomas Whately an advisor to George Grenville, a British Chancellor of the Exchequer states “ We are not yet recovered from a war undertake solely for their [the Americans’] Protection… a war undertaken for their defense only… they should contribute to the Preservation of the Advantages they have received…..” ( Doc 1) This demonstrates that most of the English felt that the American colonists were ungrateful because they they reaped the advantages. Meaning, that they should be more than willing to pay above and beyond because the war was for their safety. But, it seems as if the American colonies were used as a scapegoat for why the war started in the first place. This shows, the lack of respect for the American colonies. American colonists were justified in waging war to break away from Britain because they didn’t want to have to keep surrendering their liberties without having any say in political affairs. Civil liberties that were constantly pushed to the side because they weren't being taken seriously. In, Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of taking up arms by John Dickinson states “ We are reduced to the alternative of choosing an unconditional submission to the tyranny of irritated [British officials], or resistance by force. - The latter is our choice”(Doc 5) This exemplifies the tension, the American colonists clearly feel like they have no choice but to fight for their civil liberties. The conflict that, America had with England was beyond a peaceful solution. According to document 6, the American tried to work things out with England but Britain refused to listen to their simple demands. Paine professed, “But ...then tell me whether you can hereafter love, honour , and faithfully served the power that hath carried fired and sword into your land?” ….. “ No man was a warmer wisher for a [ peaceful settlement] than myself .” This clearly, shows that waging war and breaking away from Britain was justifiable. Although it is debateable that, America shouldn't have waged war on Britain it was for the best. American won their independence it was a matter of respect. That being insinuated, the American colonies were justified in the way they fought for their freedom. They didn’t want to keep choosing between their freedom and safety. As a country, they found their own identity. One can clearly see, it was meant to be.
Subject: Urban Studies
What is environmental racism?
Environmental racism is a policy or practice that differentially affects or disadvantages (intentionally or unintentionally) individuals, groups or communities because of their race and/or class, by placement of environmentally hazardous or degraded environments, such as toxic waste, and pollution in those communities.According to Majore Carter, "race and class are extremely reliable indicators as to where one might find the good stuff, like parks and trees,and where one might find the bad stuff, like power plants and waste facilities". She insists that the good quality things meant for a good quality of life are found in white affluent communities rather than ones of a person of color.As humans we are in the era of the things that people do having an erratic effect on the environment which contributes to environmental injustice.Geologists call this the anthropocene age rather than the ones before us who cared about the earth, the holocene. The cause of this is the privatization of certain things like water and public spaces.Environmental racism is a crime against humanity. In the United States of America, there are approximately three hundred and twenty million people inhabiting the area.More than 134 million people live, work, or play amongst other daily life activities nearby industrial zones.Industries such as these manufacture chemicals, treat water or wastewater, produce bleach, generate electric power, refine petroleum, produce pulp and paper, that pose potential health hazard for the people who live in these areas. Unfortunately people of color specifically blacks and latinos live in these areas at a disproportionate rate compared to their white counterparts.Living in these industrial zones affect the quality of life because it can affect the food, air, and the quality of the water. More often than not, it causes serious health hazards for those who are living the area. According to the Federal General Accounting office, three out of five African Americans living below the poverty line are situated in areas close to toxic waste sites.According to Mychal Johnson“In the South Bronx, we have an asthma epidemic. Asthma hospitalizations are five times the national average; asthma deaths are three times the national average; and it is estimated that 1 in every 5 children in the South Bronx has asthma.” The main cause of asthma is the pollution in these industrial zones that these companies cause. I agree with what was stated in the powerpoint in class ,the federal, state and local governments, and the industries should implement the most effective strategies that reduce and eliminate avoidable environmental hazards, and adopt a comprehensive set of policies to protect workers and communities. But I doubt that they would because it makes them a lot of money. Any thing that makes someone money they wouldn’t want to help with certain situations like these. People like this tend to focus on the I.D. part of life. The wants of right now instead of the bigger picture.Corporate decision makers, regulatory agencies and local planning and zoning boards have found it easier to site such facilities in low-income African-American or Latino communities than in primarily white, middle-to-upper-income communities.Poor communities and communities of color usually lacked connections to decision makers on zoning boards or city councils.It's easier to place these things in black and latino communities because it already wasn’t in good shape to take care of in the beginning. Or to some people, people of color in general seem like a burden to begin with.I live in community district 17 and anybody can tell the difference between our neighborhood versus the more caucasian ones. For instance, the library in my neighborhood barely has any books. However if you travel to Clinton or Grand Army plaza you can tell the difference. This may not be out right environmental justice. But everybody deserves a sustainable quality of life. Life may be unfair to all but at times it's more unfair to others.
Subject: African History
How do we analyze the reasons why Achebe wrote "Things Fall Apart"?
Throughout history different scholars from around the world had many perceptions and opinions of what they thought Africa was and was to be. One, out of many opinions was that people in times before the existence of colonialism lacked agency and the ability to help themselves. They were also seen as people who had no language and were not capable of achieving anything of their own. This perception was shown in a book called ‘Heart of Darkness’.Joseph Conrad spoke of the African people as if they have no agency denying them the ability to be seen as equals with European societies. As if there was nothing worthy in Africa. Hence, why the book was called the ‘Heart of Darkness’.However, Chinua Achebe the author of ‘Things Fall Apart’ critiqued this piece of work to show what was wrong about how Conrad viewed Africa. Achebe wanted people to see that Africa was not a “place of darkness” but instead a people that should be understood within the context of their own societies instead of from the lens of Europeans. Achebe wanted to also express that “Africans had a community of their own; that African people had a culture and did not hear of culture for the first time from their contact with Europeans;that [African] societies were not mindless but frequently had a philosophy of great depth”. Achebe uses ‘Things Fall Apart’ to show that pre-colonial Africa had social, political, and economical institutions. First I would like to analyze the political institutions in the Ibo society. The Ibo society were a very religious group of people. They worshipped more than one God because they were a polytheistic society. Their governmental systems were based strongly upon their Gods. However, it was the elders who made sure that what the Gods wanted was carried out without error. It was the elders responsibility to maintain order through the Gods. The Gods were the Ibo people’s constitution. It was imperative that they did exactly what their God’s told them they should do. Gods gave their orders through the Oracles who would give their interpretations to the people. One instance in ‘Things Fall Apart’ is when the Gods gave their order for Ikemefuna to be killed. Subsequently, this act was carried out because as stated before they couldn’t or wouldn’t dare go against what the God’s have said. Achebe also mentions the Egwugwu which shares similarities to the United States Supreme Court. The Egwugwu are the nine spirits of the founders of the villages. Whenever there was some kind of issue that the elders are incapable of solving the Egwugwu would resolve the issue instead. For example, judgment ceremonies were held in an Egwugwu house to settle a dispute between two families or any party involved. Similar to a local courthouse where cases are heard. The elders of the village sat in the front rows of stools with a row of nine seats in front of them. The plaintiff and the defendant gathered in two groups in front of the crowd. The nine "spirits" then came out of the hut with masks on. The leader Egwugwu, named Evil Forest, addressed both groups and then receives their sides of the issue at hand. Then, the nine egwugwu spirits deliberate in the hut and then come out and give the verdict to the crowd. Any consensus that they come to could not be reversed. The way Achebe uses the killing of Ikemefuna and the mentioning of the Egwugwu shows that pre colonial Africa had political institutions. This eradicates the idea that Africa is the “heart of darkness”. Secondly, I would like to analyze the economic institutions and the social statuses of the Ibo society. Although they did not have a capitalist society nor did they have a coinage system, they were a agricultural society. According to ‘Things Fall Apart’ certain crops had more worth and value than others based on men and female crops. Yams were crops meant for men because it was more difficult to grow. Crops such as maize,melons,and beans were meant for women because they typically were meant to take care of the children and other household duties. The more yams and wives had a man had equated to how much wealth and power he had. This was very important in this society because the amount of work a man has done equated to his wealth. Achebe illustrates this when he uses Okonkwo’s father failures to show how hard Okonkwo had to work for everything he had and how wealthy he became. Achebe writes, "[Okoye] was not a failure like Unoka. He had a large barn full of yams and had three wives" (page 6). He was a successful "middle class" Umuofian. Achebe also noted that "there was a wealthy man in Okonkwo's village who had three huge barns, nine wives, and thirty children. His name was Nwakibie and he had taken the highest but one title which a man could take in the clan" (page 18-19). Titles are something that are earned over a man's lifetime, based on his successes. The privilege of having a title is the gained respect. Something that throughout the whole book Okonkwo strived for because his father had none. This image shows that pre colonial Africa were just as human as Europeans made themselves to be. Lastly I would like to analyze the social institutions that make up the Ibo society. Their social structure consisted of marriage, religion, philosophies, and how they interacted during social gatherings. As stated prior the people of the Ibo society are very religious. They believed in polytheism. Achebe shows how the people of Umuofia viewed their Gods by showing the fear and respect they had for them. Without religion they had no governance because their whole entire society was based upon it. In ‘Things Fall Apart’ when the missionaries came with Christianity it slowly broke down their governmental systems. It did them more harm than good because religion was the thing that unified Umuofia. In a greater sense religion was the thing that kept pre colonial Africa together. It was all about staying close to ancestral ties evidently religion was passed down from generation to generation and Christianity broke it. After this new religion arrived people no longer paid as much attention to ancestry or giving back to the earth. For instance before Christianity they believed in Ani the goddess of the earth and harvest. Many people in the Ibo society sacrificed animals to Ani to anticipate a good harvest for the year. She was called upon many times during the year to bless the crops for example for the Feast of the New Yam. It was also said that it is a crime against the earth goddess was to kill a fellow clansman.(chapter 13). The Ibo people also believe that "chi" is also closely related to their religion. Chi was an individual's personal God, which is determined by the individual's good fortune or bad fortune. The Ibo people held their chi responsible for any thing that occured in their lives. Because of this it is said that if you have "bad chi" then evil fortune will surely follow you to the grave.(chapter 3). Another God that the Ibo society believed in was Abagala. Agbala is a God that can tell the future and speak to the spirits of departed fathers from his cave in the Ibo village. Many people come from near and far to hear what Agbala has to say. Agbala appoints a priestess in the village to interpret and share his worwith the fellow Ibo people. “The people look up to her and refer to her as "god-like".The people of the village also listen to every word of the priestess, even if that means making a sacrifice.(chapter 3).” This clearly illustrates how religion shaped the Ibo’s society and gave it order. The second most important social structure was marriage and how the family operated. As stated prior, the more yams and wives had a man had equated to how much wealth and power he had. A great number of wives shows that the man is rich because it shows that he is capable of supporting and feeding his family. Since this is a patriarchal society, the men are the dominant leaders in the family. For example, in the Egwugwu ceremonies, the women are usually found more toward the back, with the men in the front. The man also lived alone in his obi. Then the wives' huts would be on his land in which the children they gave birth to would live with them. Then, there would be other parts, such as a chicken coop. The children would help work on the crops and tend to the animals. They will basically did what their father instructed them to do. The women are usually the ones who make the food for everyone to eat. The husband would be the first person to be served since he is the head of the family. It was imperative for the father to hand down whatever he has to his son. The father will usually give their crops to their sons so they can keep maintaining it. This way, the son will have something to start with for when they make a family of their own. Hence why Unoka wasn’t respected because he gave nothing to his son Okonkwo. It showed that Unoka could not take care of his family. Achebe makes sure to stress that the more crops a man has, the wealthier and manlier. When a young couple is about to get married, the bridegroom’s family gives the bride's family gifts. To impress the family, they may give them things such as bundles of broomsticks, or animals such as goats. (Chapter 8) This shows that the man will be able to support the wife and it leaves a good impression on her family if he gives them a sufficient amount of gifts. The Ibo’s philosophies introduced through proverbs were their source of wisdom. It explained teachings passed down through elders. Before a proverb was stated Achebe would use the statement “as the elders said”. Proverbs stated customs, how the family structure should be, and things of that nature. Proverbs also showed the Ibo people how to greet one another. For example,when Okonkwo wanted a favor to be done he went about it in a particular manner. "I have come to pay you my respects and also to ask a favor. But let us drink the wine first" (page 19). It was rude for the Ibos to come up to someone and just ask a favor . It was preferred that one would come to the person they have a request for and hold a short conversation, in order to catch up, before actually asking for anything. In other cultures, it is acceptable to ask someone for a favor directly but in the Ibo society it is disrespectful. Philosophies and proverbs had a lot of influence on social gatherings. The Ibo people had many ceremonies, social gatherings, and rituals that help them connect culturally, spiritually, and socially with each other. The same way the proverbs do. Out of all of the ceremonies death was particularly the most important. Whenever someone died in the Ibo village under the correct circumstances a funeral is held for them. Only the worthy was given a funeral. The after life was just as important as the time frame as when the person was alive. Ibo funerals are a time to celebrate the one who has past. A godly Egwugwu or two may even pay a visit to honor the deceased. At the end, the spirit of the departed is asked to move on peacefully.(chapter13). In closing , Achebe destroys the fallacy that pre colonial Africa is a place without their own customs and traditions just like any other. Pre colonial Africa had their own governance before Europeans came. That being said Achebe uses ‘Things Fall Apart’ to show the social, political,and economical institutions that the Western hemisphere thought Africans did not have.
needs and Riana will reply soon. | 3,939 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hannah Arendt was born in Germany in 1906 where she studied philosophy but, because she was Jewish, was prevented from teaching in German universities under the Nazi regime. She fled to France in 1933 and to the United States in 1941, where she eventually became the first woman to hold a full fellowship at Princeton University. She died in 1975.
Her work was concerned mainly with political theory, but this also involved consideration of the moral basis of political actions. Towards the end of her career she became very interested in the reasons why some people in power performed evil deeds, and the spark for this thinking was the trial of Adolf Eichmann in 1960.
Eichmann had been a leading member of the Nazi regime in Germany from which Hannah Arendt had fled. His role had been to organise the removal of Jews from German-held territories, firstly by deportation and latterly by despatch to death camps such as Auschwitz-Birkenau. At the end of the war he escaped Germany and fled to Argentina, but was tracked down by Israeli agents and put on trial in Jerusalem.
Hannah Arendt attended the trial as a reporter for the “New Yorker” magazine and was thus able to observe Eichmann’s behaviour at close quarters. She used this experience to draw some remarkable conclusions about how people can respond to extraordinary circumstances.
What struck her in particular was that Adolf Eichmann did not fit the popular stereotype of a homicidal maniac. This was an ordinary man, of the same age and nationality as herself, but one who had responded to the circumstances of his time in a way that, although it seemed utterly horrific and repugnant to most people, was perfectly straightforward to him. He came across merely as a man of limited imagination who had just done the job that was asked of him.
It struck Hannah Arendt that, had Adolf Eichmann been ordered to save Jews rather than exterminate them, he would have done so with just as much dedication and attention to detail. He had not, she concluded, acted out of any fixed ideology that could be termed anti-Semitism, but from a determination to obey orders and a do a job to the best of his ability. What he had abandoned was any moral autonomy, which meant that he saw no need to think for himself or question what he was being asked to do.
This view of Eichmann, which was highly controversial and which brought a heap of criticism on her head, especially as she was Jewish and a victim of anti-Semitism, led Hannah Arendt to re-examine the moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant, who is credited with being a foremost proponent of the 18th century Enlightenment which stressed the importance of reasoning as opposed to blind obedience. This was because Eichmann claimed to be following Kantian principles, which he interpreted as meaning that the individual should always be a disciplined person who was loyal to the laws laid down by government.
According to Kant, one acts morally when following carefully reasoned precepts, wholly divorced from emotional content. One starts from basic principles, applies the laws of logic and reason, and acts out the conclusions that one reaches. It is a philosophy that is certainly not above criticism.
This thinking is often blamed for creating the atmosphere that led to the Holocaust, because the Nazis’ Final Solution was the logical outcome of a process of reasoning that began with the desire to remove the Jews from German soil. Adolf Eichmann had been very active in this process in the early days before the outbreak of war, especially in arranging the mass exodus of Jews from Germany to Palestine. However, as Germany conquered more countries and acquired more Jewish subjects, this became impossible and other “solutions” became necessary.
However, Hannah Arendt argued that this was a distortion of Kantian thinking and was indeed the very opposite of the Enlightenment philosophy that he advocated. Eichmann misunderstood Kant by imagining that he demanded blind obedience to authority. Instead, Hannah Arendt rescued Kant from this twisted interpretation by re-asserting the need for reasoned thought that incorporated moral autonomy. | <urn:uuid:e41ecbba-6198-47d2-a6ef-43df988b338d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://virily.com/other/hannah-arendt-adolf-eichmann-and-moral-autonomy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00540.warc.gz | en | 0.988878 | 835 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.4234586060047... | 4 | Hannah Arendt was born in Germany in 1906 where she studied philosophy but, because she was Jewish, was prevented from teaching in German universities under the Nazi regime. She fled to France in 1933 and to the United States in 1941, where she eventually became the first woman to hold a full fellowship at Princeton University. She died in 1975.
Her work was concerned mainly with political theory, but this also involved consideration of the moral basis of political actions. Towards the end of her career she became very interested in the reasons why some people in power performed evil deeds, and the spark for this thinking was the trial of Adolf Eichmann in 1960.
Eichmann had been a leading member of the Nazi regime in Germany from which Hannah Arendt had fled. His role had been to organise the removal of Jews from German-held territories, firstly by deportation and latterly by despatch to death camps such as Auschwitz-Birkenau. At the end of the war he escaped Germany and fled to Argentina, but was tracked down by Israeli agents and put on trial in Jerusalem.
Hannah Arendt attended the trial as a reporter for the “New Yorker” magazine and was thus able to observe Eichmann’s behaviour at close quarters. She used this experience to draw some remarkable conclusions about how people can respond to extraordinary circumstances.
What struck her in particular was that Adolf Eichmann did not fit the popular stereotype of a homicidal maniac. This was an ordinary man, of the same age and nationality as herself, but one who had responded to the circumstances of his time in a way that, although it seemed utterly horrific and repugnant to most people, was perfectly straightforward to him. He came across merely as a man of limited imagination who had just done the job that was asked of him.
It struck Hannah Arendt that, had Adolf Eichmann been ordered to save Jews rather than exterminate them, he would have done so with just as much dedication and attention to detail. He had not, she concluded, acted out of any fixed ideology that could be termed anti-Semitism, but from a determination to obey orders and a do a job to the best of his ability. What he had abandoned was any moral autonomy, which meant that he saw no need to think for himself or question what he was being asked to do.
This view of Eichmann, which was highly controversial and which brought a heap of criticism on her head, especially as she was Jewish and a victim of anti-Semitism, led Hannah Arendt to re-examine the moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant, who is credited with being a foremost proponent of the 18th century Enlightenment which stressed the importance of reasoning as opposed to blind obedience. This was because Eichmann claimed to be following Kantian principles, which he interpreted as meaning that the individual should always be a disciplined person who was loyal to the laws laid down by government.
According to Kant, one acts morally when following carefully reasoned precepts, wholly divorced from emotional content. One starts from basic principles, applies the laws of logic and reason, and acts out the conclusions that one reaches. It is a philosophy that is certainly not above criticism.
This thinking is often blamed for creating the atmosphere that led to the Holocaust, because the Nazis’ Final Solution was the logical outcome of a process of reasoning that began with the desire to remove the Jews from German soil. Adolf Eichmann had been very active in this process in the early days before the outbreak of war, especially in arranging the mass exodus of Jews from Germany to Palestine. However, as Germany conquered more countries and acquired more Jewish subjects, this became impossible and other “solutions” became necessary.
However, Hannah Arendt argued that this was a distortion of Kantian thinking and was indeed the very opposite of the Enlightenment philosophy that he advocated. Eichmann misunderstood Kant by imagining that he demanded blind obedience to authority. Instead, Hannah Arendt rescued Kant from this twisted interpretation by re-asserting the need for reasoned thought that incorporated moral autonomy. | 839 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On this day: trans-Tasman flight disappears
ON 10 JANUARY, 1928, Lieutenant John Moncrieff and Captain George Hood took off on their disastrous flight across the Tasman. The two New Zealanders were attempting the first to flight across the stretch of water between Australia and New Zealand, but they never reached their destination.
Both men were keen aviators; George, 37, who had lost part of his right leg in a plane crash in World War I, served in the Territorial Air Force Reserve. John, who was five years his junior, was a member of the New Zealand Air Force during the war. He joined the Territorial Air Force Reserve in 1919, which was where the two men met.
In 1927 John proposed flying from Sydney to Wellington. His suggestion came after several successful ocean crossings by other aviators, the most notable of which was Charles Lindbergh’s flight from New York to Paris, in a single-engine Ryan monoplane.
“Lindbergh was probably the most famous man on earth at the time,” says Robert Lee an Associate Professor of History at the University of Western Sydney. “He was an inspiration to everyone.”
The pair were obviously influenced by him, as by the end of the year they had managed to acquire a Ryan monoplane. They named it Aotearoa, which meant ‘land of the long white cloud’ in Maori – a common name for New Zealand. On the 23, December 1927, they announced their intention to fly 2,300 kilometers across the Tasman.
“It was dangerous. The technology existed, but it wasn’t refined,” says Robert. Flying over water was particularly hazardous. “If an engine fails over land you can bring it down on a beach or a football field, but on water there is no way out.”
The pair left Sydney in the early hours of the morning on 10 January, 1928. By 6 p.m. a crowd of 10,000 had gathered in Trentham racecourse in Wellington, where they were supposed to land. Laura Hood and Dorothy Moncrieff, the wives of the two men, were among those waiting, but there was no sign of the plane.
The risk they took never paid off. Eyewitness reports suggested the plane made it on land, but crashed shortly before reaching the destination. Others said they saw the plane crash in the Marlborough Sounds area. Wreckage from the crash had never been found.
Just nine months later in September 1928 Charles Kingsford Smith and Charles Ulm became the first men to fly across the Tasman. Around 250 kilometers before they reached their destination they dropped a wreath into the Tasman in memory of the New Zealand pilots.
More On This Day stories | <urn:uuid:b37342d8-c27a-4535-8bcc-8be3fef588e1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/blogs/on-this-day/2013/11/on-this-day-trans-tasman-flight-disappears/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00550.warc.gz | en | 0.984832 | 580 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.8549461960792542,... | 2 | On this day: trans-Tasman flight disappears
ON 10 JANUARY, 1928, Lieutenant John Moncrieff and Captain George Hood took off on their disastrous flight across the Tasman. The two New Zealanders were attempting the first to flight across the stretch of water between Australia and New Zealand, but they never reached their destination.
Both men were keen aviators; George, 37, who had lost part of his right leg in a plane crash in World War I, served in the Territorial Air Force Reserve. John, who was five years his junior, was a member of the New Zealand Air Force during the war. He joined the Territorial Air Force Reserve in 1919, which was where the two men met.
In 1927 John proposed flying from Sydney to Wellington. His suggestion came after several successful ocean crossings by other aviators, the most notable of which was Charles Lindbergh’s flight from New York to Paris, in a single-engine Ryan monoplane.
“Lindbergh was probably the most famous man on earth at the time,” says Robert Lee an Associate Professor of History at the University of Western Sydney. “He was an inspiration to everyone.”
The pair were obviously influenced by him, as by the end of the year they had managed to acquire a Ryan monoplane. They named it Aotearoa, which meant ‘land of the long white cloud’ in Maori – a common name for New Zealand. On the 23, December 1927, they announced their intention to fly 2,300 kilometers across the Tasman.
“It was dangerous. The technology existed, but it wasn’t refined,” says Robert. Flying over water was particularly hazardous. “If an engine fails over land you can bring it down on a beach or a football field, but on water there is no way out.”
The pair left Sydney in the early hours of the morning on 10 January, 1928. By 6 p.m. a crowd of 10,000 had gathered in Trentham racecourse in Wellington, where they were supposed to land. Laura Hood and Dorothy Moncrieff, the wives of the two men, were among those waiting, but there was no sign of the plane.
The risk they took never paid off. Eyewitness reports suggested the plane made it on land, but crashed shortly before reaching the destination. Others said they saw the plane crash in the Marlborough Sounds area. Wreckage from the crash had never been found.
Just nine months later in September 1928 Charles Kingsford Smith and Charles Ulm became the first men to fly across the Tasman. Around 250 kilometers before they reached their destination they dropped a wreath into the Tasman in memory of the New Zealand pilots.
More On This Day stories | 595 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1676, the colonial settlers in Scarborough, Maine, had abandoned the town after fierce fighting with a small army of Indians. That set the stage for the siege of Scarborough the following year.
King Philip’s War had been raging since 1675, and in Maine — the war’s northern theater — the fighting was on a relatively small scale, since the population was small.
The government in Massachusetts had banned weapons sales to the Indians and the Indian people had generally allied with the French, who encouraged them to harass the English settlements up and down the Maine coast. There were efforts to negotiate a peace between the English and the Indians of Maine, and the Indian tribes were not of one mind about whether to fight or make a treaty.
Around the mouth of the Saco River, one Wabanaki leader, Mogg Heigon, had gathered a force of perhaps 100 men and some 30 ships. Mogg, who had friendly relations with the English settlers, had been slow to support the war. Nevertheless, by the fall of 1676 his army had amassed a successful record of harassing the fishermen and farmers until many ran away, abandoning the area. In October of 1676, Mogg’s men surrounded the small garrison at Scarborough’s Black Point.
The Surrender of Scarborough
Henry Jocelyn was the leader of the English settlers at Black Point. Mogg and Jocelyn knew each other, and Mogg spoke English. Mogg offered Jocelyn a deal. If the colonists would surrender, they could leave peacefully.
It’s not clear why Mogg made the generous offer. It may have been simple decency. He may have had some reason to suspect taking the garrison by force would be more challenging than it appeared. It may simply have been that he was accustomed to friendly dealings with the settlers and the negotiation came naturally.
Jocelyn accepted the offer, and Scarborough was left completely in Indian control. Having driven off the settlers in much of the Maine coast, however, the Wabanaki were not nearly numerous enough to protect their lands. In 1677, a group of the settlers came out of hiding and returned to Scarborough, along with a larger military force that included Bartholomew Tippen, most likely a sergeant.
The return of the colonists provoked Mogg to action. He returned to Scarborough with his small army. He sealed off the garrison and lay siege to it. But the colonists inside were better armed in 1677 than they had been in 1676. They were not considering retreat. After three days, during which the Indian’s siege had inflicted only a few casualties, Tippen shot and killed Mogg.
After the Siege of Scarborough
The loss of their leader prompted the Wabanaki to abandon the siege. It also cleared the way for another leader to emerge among the Indians, Squando. In retaliation for the death of Mogg, Indians returned to the Black Point garrison and again attacked about a month later. This time they were cleverer, drawing roughly 100 of the settlers outside. The fight killed the colonists’ military leaders and decimated the settlement.
According to legend, Squando had become an ardent foe of the English when settlers drowned his son. True or not, his elevation weakened any chance for a peaceful settlement of the disputes and King Philip’s War would continue in Maine until 1678 when it ended by treaty.
But it hardly ended the fighting between the persistent English colonists and the Indians (aided by the French). A new garrison was established at Black Point in 1681, near what was then known as Great Pond. The tug of war with the Native Americans would continue for more than 20 years, and in 1703 a group of Indians attacked and killed a group of settlers at the Black Point garrison, inspiring the name the pond has today – Massacre Pond.
Mogg’s name, meanwhile, was immortalized by John Greenleaf Whittier’s poem, Mogg Megone, which was also turned into a film. Its story line bears little relation to actual history.
This story about the Siege of Scarborough was updated in 2019. | <urn:uuid:aa922a1a-0149-4a4c-9370-9c4e5689b1ff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/the-siege-of-scarborough-and-maines-long-war/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00102.warc.gz | en | 0.982317 | 852 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.207133769989... | 5 | In 1676, the colonial settlers in Scarborough, Maine, had abandoned the town after fierce fighting with a small army of Indians. That set the stage for the siege of Scarborough the following year.
King Philip’s War had been raging since 1675, and in Maine — the war’s northern theater — the fighting was on a relatively small scale, since the population was small.
The government in Massachusetts had banned weapons sales to the Indians and the Indian people had generally allied with the French, who encouraged them to harass the English settlements up and down the Maine coast. There were efforts to negotiate a peace between the English and the Indians of Maine, and the Indian tribes were not of one mind about whether to fight or make a treaty.
Around the mouth of the Saco River, one Wabanaki leader, Mogg Heigon, had gathered a force of perhaps 100 men and some 30 ships. Mogg, who had friendly relations with the English settlers, had been slow to support the war. Nevertheless, by the fall of 1676 his army had amassed a successful record of harassing the fishermen and farmers until many ran away, abandoning the area. In October of 1676, Mogg’s men surrounded the small garrison at Scarborough’s Black Point.
The Surrender of Scarborough
Henry Jocelyn was the leader of the English settlers at Black Point. Mogg and Jocelyn knew each other, and Mogg spoke English. Mogg offered Jocelyn a deal. If the colonists would surrender, they could leave peacefully.
It’s not clear why Mogg made the generous offer. It may have been simple decency. He may have had some reason to suspect taking the garrison by force would be more challenging than it appeared. It may simply have been that he was accustomed to friendly dealings with the settlers and the negotiation came naturally.
Jocelyn accepted the offer, and Scarborough was left completely in Indian control. Having driven off the settlers in much of the Maine coast, however, the Wabanaki were not nearly numerous enough to protect their lands. In 1677, a group of the settlers came out of hiding and returned to Scarborough, along with a larger military force that included Bartholomew Tippen, most likely a sergeant.
The return of the colonists provoked Mogg to action. He returned to Scarborough with his small army. He sealed off the garrison and lay siege to it. But the colonists inside were better armed in 1677 than they had been in 1676. They were not considering retreat. After three days, during which the Indian’s siege had inflicted only a few casualties, Tippen shot and killed Mogg.
After the Siege of Scarborough
The loss of their leader prompted the Wabanaki to abandon the siege. It also cleared the way for another leader to emerge among the Indians, Squando. In retaliation for the death of Mogg, Indians returned to the Black Point garrison and again attacked about a month later. This time they were cleverer, drawing roughly 100 of the settlers outside. The fight killed the colonists’ military leaders and decimated the settlement.
According to legend, Squando had become an ardent foe of the English when settlers drowned his son. True or not, his elevation weakened any chance for a peaceful settlement of the disputes and King Philip’s War would continue in Maine until 1678 when it ended by treaty.
But it hardly ended the fighting between the persistent English colonists and the Indians (aided by the French). A new garrison was established at Black Point in 1681, near what was then known as Great Pond. The tug of war with the Native Americans would continue for more than 20 years, and in 1703 a group of Indians attacked and killed a group of settlers at the Black Point garrison, inspiring the name the pond has today – Massacre Pond.
Mogg’s name, meanwhile, was immortalized by John Greenleaf Whittier’s poem, Mogg Megone, which was also turned into a film. Its story line bears little relation to actual history.
This story about the Siege of Scarborough was updated in 2019. | 876 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are many thoughts that goes through peoples minds and those thoughts later determine ones mines set on wither one will fail or one will succedd in life as well as in school. The way a person behaves has a positive or negative effect on their behave and there environment. There have been many theories on why ones attitude can change and be formatted. One theory that has been giving is observation learning. Social Psychology, defines observational leaning as “basic form of learning in which individuals acquire new forms of behavior as result of observing other.” When a person is observation learning they tend to form a new attitude.
According to Psychologists they define attitude as ...view middle of the document...
Social influence can always affect a persons view because of what is surrounding them. The attitude that people have will be influences throughout their every day lives and it makes a person look at their action and the people that surround them to cause them to have certain actions. The only way things will change is when a persons mind does, a person must learn beyond what they see. A person’s attitude can always have a big impact on how they behave but that is not the only thing it creates. Just as much as behavior can affect your attitude formation it also can change an attitude.
Jim Crow was a big era during the later 1800’s and early 1900’s. It was based on beliefs that whites remained superior over blacks in every way possible. Whites also believes they were smarting then African Americans during that time as well. Whites would not see African Americans equal to them, which made the African American community fight even harder. African Americans wanted to fight for interracial unions with white but the whites did not want to accept it. They would do anything to keep African Americans away even if they had to use violence and make sure that African Americans would stay on the bottom of the racial pole.
During the Jim Crow era many decision were being made by the U.S. Supreme Court, one of those decision was Plessey v. Fergusson. That decision was based on “separate but equal,” arguing the Fourteenth Amendment “could not have been intended to abolish distinctions based upon color, or to enforce social, as distinguished form political equality, or commingling of the two race upon terms unsatisfactory to either.” Brown v. Board of Education saying, “Separate education faculties are inherently unequal”, which later was abolished. That decision help challenge racial inequality.
African Americans fought so hard during the Jim Crow Era and wanted to gain back what was rightfully there’s. One way they started to rebuild back the African American community was helping the education system and help young African Americans to become leaders. African American wanted to instill pride in there young people even thought the school system was still segregated. Everyone in the African American community would help each person out anyway they could. Even the NAACP stepped in and helped the African American community have life again. So many organizations from all over reached out to uplift a community that once was down. They were giving African Americans what they have been longing for freedom.
Even though the Jim Crow Laws were in place there were still some disadvantages with the African American community and they still had to fight for civil rights. People all over the south were fighting for educational inequality. Smith v. Allwright ended white voting only; it now allowed African Americans to become register voters. When the decision of Brown v. Board of Education was final, it allowed public schools to be integrated and putting the... | <urn:uuid:718de4f4-7ea6-4039-a8f4-55e50997a116> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/components-that-can-make-up-a-person-s-attitude | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00484.warc.gz | en | 0.986644 | 723 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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0.1655689030... | 1 | There are many thoughts that goes through peoples minds and those thoughts later determine ones mines set on wither one will fail or one will succedd in life as well as in school. The way a person behaves has a positive or negative effect on their behave and there environment. There have been many theories on why ones attitude can change and be formatted. One theory that has been giving is observation learning. Social Psychology, defines observational leaning as “basic form of learning in which individuals acquire new forms of behavior as result of observing other.” When a person is observation learning they tend to form a new attitude.
According to Psychologists they define attitude as ...view middle of the document...
Social influence can always affect a persons view because of what is surrounding them. The attitude that people have will be influences throughout their every day lives and it makes a person look at their action and the people that surround them to cause them to have certain actions. The only way things will change is when a persons mind does, a person must learn beyond what they see. A person’s attitude can always have a big impact on how they behave but that is not the only thing it creates. Just as much as behavior can affect your attitude formation it also can change an attitude.
Jim Crow was a big era during the later 1800’s and early 1900’s. It was based on beliefs that whites remained superior over blacks in every way possible. Whites also believes they were smarting then African Americans during that time as well. Whites would not see African Americans equal to them, which made the African American community fight even harder. African Americans wanted to fight for interracial unions with white but the whites did not want to accept it. They would do anything to keep African Americans away even if they had to use violence and make sure that African Americans would stay on the bottom of the racial pole.
During the Jim Crow era many decision were being made by the U.S. Supreme Court, one of those decision was Plessey v. Fergusson. That decision was based on “separate but equal,” arguing the Fourteenth Amendment “could not have been intended to abolish distinctions based upon color, or to enforce social, as distinguished form political equality, or commingling of the two race upon terms unsatisfactory to either.” Brown v. Board of Education saying, “Separate education faculties are inherently unequal”, which later was abolished. That decision help challenge racial inequality.
African Americans fought so hard during the Jim Crow Era and wanted to gain back what was rightfully there’s. One way they started to rebuild back the African American community was helping the education system and help young African Americans to become leaders. African American wanted to instill pride in there young people even thought the school system was still segregated. Everyone in the African American community would help each person out anyway they could. Even the NAACP stepped in and helped the African American community have life again. So many organizations from all over reached out to uplift a community that once was down. They were giving African Americans what they have been longing for freedom.
Even though the Jim Crow Laws were in place there were still some disadvantages with the African American community and they still had to fight for civil rights. People all over the south were fighting for educational inequality. Smith v. Allwright ended white voting only; it now allowed African Americans to become register voters. When the decision of Brown v. Board of Education was final, it allowed public schools to be integrated and putting the... | 705 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The key concept of Old Liberalism was the view of society as a collection of individuals. From this came the idea that the only proper, decent way to encourage economic growth, and thus, a better country, was to encourage entrepreneurship, and individual liberty. The Classical Liberalists were against Government intervention in the lives of their populace for this reason, as they believed that were they to help people who found themselves in trouble, then they would give them no motivation to drag themselves out of their problems, thus stunting entrepreneurship.
The government’s role, in the eyes of these Gladstonian Liberals should be solely to remove all barriers to individualism, and to provide very limited social services. To do anymore to interfere in the lives of those downtrodden masses would be to removes the need for self-improvement, and thus the need to make your own money, and finally would stagnate the economy.
New Liberalism, however, took a much different view. It was, it was said, the governments duty to help those in need, and give them support. It could be argued, they said, that to intervene in people’s lives at some point could actually provide the liberty that self-help denied them. It was morally unacceptable to let people suffer under the delusion that you were, by not offering them succour and support, helping them. The New Liberalists rejected the cornerstone ideal that society was a collection of separate beings, and instead decided that it was more an organic mass of different living cells. These cell were distinct, but all worked with each other, and in relation to each other. Society had a value greater than the collected sum of its parts.
The differing views of New and Old Liberalism clashed over several key issues, one of them being tax. While the Old Liberalists took the stance that it was every man’s right to spend his money how he liked, with taxes as low as possible, the New Liberals said that low taxes should be dispensed with, to pay for the upkeep of the poorer ends of society.
It is important, however, not to separate the two concepts that much. There were several continuities that ran through the policies of both areas of Liberalism, which meant they were both Liberal ideas, rather than moving into other areas of the political spectrum. Both groups separated ‘deserving’ individuals from the ‘undeserving’. Both thought it better that contributions for social services were received voluntarily, rather than raised by the government. Most crucially, however, both camps were set on the aim of achieving the aim of providing those in the working class the opportunity of having a middle class way of life. It was the way this was to be achieved that the difference is to be found. It could be said that the change in the liberal party was one of method, rather than objective.
To decide quite how ‘new’ the Liberal Social reforms were once they got into power, each reform must be looked at separately. It is important to separate two distinct units of time though: 1906-1908, and 1908-1914. In 1908, Henry Campbell-Bannerman had to stand down as Liberal leader due to ill health. Here, the impetus changed.
The first major act passed was the Trade Disputes Act, of 1906. This reversed the earlier Taff Vale judgement, allowing peaceful industrial action. This cannot be said to be that massive a change to society, as it was merely reinstating a previous state. However, it does demonstrate intent, which alone is fairly vital. The Workmen’s Compensation Act was more noteworthy, however, extending compensation for injury at work to 6 million worker, and introducing a more thorough covering of all the causes of bad health at work, such as disease. Not only did this provide the obvious benefits, it also had the knock on effect of dramatically increasing the quality of nationwide working conditions.
There were three acts passed in the 06-08 period dealing with the welfare of children. Two of them, The Education (Provision of Meals) Act, 1906, and The Education (Administrative Procedures) Act, 1907 mainly dealt with what the local education system could offer its pupils in terms of social support. The first one allowed schools to provide meals for malnourished children, and the second allowed for medical inspections of children. While these were both positive steps, it is telling that neither reform had to be taken up by the local authorities, and thus they forced little un-voluntary social change.
The third act dealing with children, however, The Children’s Act, 1908, was a far grander step, focusing on child neglect and abuse. It forbade children from entering pubs, set up juvenile courts and remand homes, ending the imprisonment of children under the age of 14, and stopped them buying cigarettes. This had a major impact on society, changing the way children were viewed, and improving conditions for them nation wide.
A few miscellaneous other acts were passed, such as the Probation Act, which established probation as an alternative to prison, and the Merchant Shipping Act, which set up basic legal conditions aboard ships for seamen, and forced foreign vessels who wanted to dock in British ports to adopt the same standards. While these were obviously not Old Liberal reforms, they were not as far a push as some people would have wanted.
The final major change in this time period was the promise of Old Age Pensions. They were small, and not many pensioners were entitled to them, but this was quite defiantly a New Liberal concept. It connected completely with the idea of helping those members of society who cannot help themselves.
It is obvious from looking at the reforms of this period that while Campbell-Bannerman was in charge, New Liberalism had less effect on the Liberal government than could be hoped for. Thos reforms that were obviously New Liberalist were not as large as could be expect if the New Liberals were in complete control, and many of them seemed to make little difference at all to the attitude of the country. This was all to change after 1908, however, when Asquith took over, and later on, when Lloyd-George presented the People’s Budget.
It should be noted that all the reforms passed in this period are results of the work of two men, Lloyd-George and Churchill. The Prime Minister and Cabinet Ministers passed them, but they were the only two ministers who suggested reforms.
The People’s Budget was an absolutely crucial turning point in New Liberalism. The budget imposed a new ‘supertax’ on the income of the rich, a land tax, a road tax, alcohol and tobacco duties, and changed the rate of income tax, reducing it for lower incomes, and raising it for higher incomes. This system fully identified with the New Liberalistic taxing ideals, as all the new cash flow bought to the government went towards old age pensions, among other things.
This budget broke the mould, and when finally passed, after having been rejected by the Chamber of Lords, it prepared the way for new, other, groundbreaking reforms.
The Old Age Pensions Act bought the pension scheme proposed earlier into reality, giving pensioners a means to live on for the first time. The Labour Exchanges Act, 1909, proposed by Churchill, set up Job Centres, making it much, much easier for the unemployed to find work. The Trade Board act followed this up, setting a minimum wage for certain industries where ‘sweating’ was rife.
Two of the more interesting reforms were the Parliament Act, and the establishment of payment for MPs. Both of these held more profound consequences for the parliamentary system than for the nation as a whole. The first, set up after the attempts to stop the People’s Budget by the Lords, made it a rule that the House of Lords could only delay money bills, rather than reject them outright. This meant that budgets could be passed without any support at all from the Lords. The establishment of a wage for MPs had the effect of opening parliament to those who couldn’t afford to support themselves otherwise, allowing more working class people to attempt to run for office.
By far the most famous reform passed during this period, however, was the National Insurance Act, in 1911. This set up two separate forms of insurance for workers in certain industries nationwide. The first, Health Insurance, worked by taking two pence from the weekly the wage of every worker. The employer then added three pence and the government another two. The second form of insurance, unemployment insurance, worked the same way. This was a very New Liberal idea, and it provided a ‘safety net’ for those who couldn’t work, due to injury or plain misfortune.
The Miner’s Minimum Wage Act, 1912, and the Trade Union Act, 1913, were both aimed at correcting previous injustices against the miners, and perhaps trying to draw their support. This was one of the key industries in Britain, and one where there were astonishingly bad conditions for the workers involved.
It is obvious from looking over these acts that New Liberalism had thoroughly taken hold of the government by this point. There was now a far greater amount of support for those at the poorer end of the British social scale. The reforms were revolutionary, and were so effective that many of them still exist today in some form. New Liberalism, while it had many similarities to Old Liberalism, was defiantly a different beast, and one that forwarded the living conditions of the poorest of the poor in Britain to a more secure, pleasant time. | <urn:uuid:4704558a-ca37-45d0-aace-0572a06d015e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thenewstandardgallery.com/what-was-new-about-the-liberal-social-reforms/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00067.warc.gz | en | 0.986441 | 1,973 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.0399941578507... | 1 | The key concept of Old Liberalism was the view of society as a collection of individuals. From this came the idea that the only proper, decent way to encourage economic growth, and thus, a better country, was to encourage entrepreneurship, and individual liberty. The Classical Liberalists were against Government intervention in the lives of their populace for this reason, as they believed that were they to help people who found themselves in trouble, then they would give them no motivation to drag themselves out of their problems, thus stunting entrepreneurship.
The government’s role, in the eyes of these Gladstonian Liberals should be solely to remove all barriers to individualism, and to provide very limited social services. To do anymore to interfere in the lives of those downtrodden masses would be to removes the need for self-improvement, and thus the need to make your own money, and finally would stagnate the economy.
New Liberalism, however, took a much different view. It was, it was said, the governments duty to help those in need, and give them support. It could be argued, they said, that to intervene in people’s lives at some point could actually provide the liberty that self-help denied them. It was morally unacceptable to let people suffer under the delusion that you were, by not offering them succour and support, helping them. The New Liberalists rejected the cornerstone ideal that society was a collection of separate beings, and instead decided that it was more an organic mass of different living cells. These cell were distinct, but all worked with each other, and in relation to each other. Society had a value greater than the collected sum of its parts.
The differing views of New and Old Liberalism clashed over several key issues, one of them being tax. While the Old Liberalists took the stance that it was every man’s right to spend his money how he liked, with taxes as low as possible, the New Liberals said that low taxes should be dispensed with, to pay for the upkeep of the poorer ends of society.
It is important, however, not to separate the two concepts that much. There were several continuities that ran through the policies of both areas of Liberalism, which meant they were both Liberal ideas, rather than moving into other areas of the political spectrum. Both groups separated ‘deserving’ individuals from the ‘undeserving’. Both thought it better that contributions for social services were received voluntarily, rather than raised by the government. Most crucially, however, both camps were set on the aim of achieving the aim of providing those in the working class the opportunity of having a middle class way of life. It was the way this was to be achieved that the difference is to be found. It could be said that the change in the liberal party was one of method, rather than objective.
To decide quite how ‘new’ the Liberal Social reforms were once they got into power, each reform must be looked at separately. It is important to separate two distinct units of time though: 1906-1908, and 1908-1914. In 1908, Henry Campbell-Bannerman had to stand down as Liberal leader due to ill health. Here, the impetus changed.
The first major act passed was the Trade Disputes Act, of 1906. This reversed the earlier Taff Vale judgement, allowing peaceful industrial action. This cannot be said to be that massive a change to society, as it was merely reinstating a previous state. However, it does demonstrate intent, which alone is fairly vital. The Workmen’s Compensation Act was more noteworthy, however, extending compensation for injury at work to 6 million worker, and introducing a more thorough covering of all the causes of bad health at work, such as disease. Not only did this provide the obvious benefits, it also had the knock on effect of dramatically increasing the quality of nationwide working conditions.
There were three acts passed in the 06-08 period dealing with the welfare of children. Two of them, The Education (Provision of Meals) Act, 1906, and The Education (Administrative Procedures) Act, 1907 mainly dealt with what the local education system could offer its pupils in terms of social support. The first one allowed schools to provide meals for malnourished children, and the second allowed for medical inspections of children. While these were both positive steps, it is telling that neither reform had to be taken up by the local authorities, and thus they forced little un-voluntary social change.
The third act dealing with children, however, The Children’s Act, 1908, was a far grander step, focusing on child neglect and abuse. It forbade children from entering pubs, set up juvenile courts and remand homes, ending the imprisonment of children under the age of 14, and stopped them buying cigarettes. This had a major impact on society, changing the way children were viewed, and improving conditions for them nation wide.
A few miscellaneous other acts were passed, such as the Probation Act, which established probation as an alternative to prison, and the Merchant Shipping Act, which set up basic legal conditions aboard ships for seamen, and forced foreign vessels who wanted to dock in British ports to adopt the same standards. While these were obviously not Old Liberal reforms, they were not as far a push as some people would have wanted.
The final major change in this time period was the promise of Old Age Pensions. They were small, and not many pensioners were entitled to them, but this was quite defiantly a New Liberal concept. It connected completely with the idea of helping those members of society who cannot help themselves.
It is obvious from looking at the reforms of this period that while Campbell-Bannerman was in charge, New Liberalism had less effect on the Liberal government than could be hoped for. Thos reforms that were obviously New Liberalist were not as large as could be expect if the New Liberals were in complete control, and many of them seemed to make little difference at all to the attitude of the country. This was all to change after 1908, however, when Asquith took over, and later on, when Lloyd-George presented the People’s Budget.
It should be noted that all the reforms passed in this period are results of the work of two men, Lloyd-George and Churchill. The Prime Minister and Cabinet Ministers passed them, but they were the only two ministers who suggested reforms.
The People’s Budget was an absolutely crucial turning point in New Liberalism. The budget imposed a new ‘supertax’ on the income of the rich, a land tax, a road tax, alcohol and tobacco duties, and changed the rate of income tax, reducing it for lower incomes, and raising it for higher incomes. This system fully identified with the New Liberalistic taxing ideals, as all the new cash flow bought to the government went towards old age pensions, among other things.
This budget broke the mould, and when finally passed, after having been rejected by the Chamber of Lords, it prepared the way for new, other, groundbreaking reforms.
The Old Age Pensions Act bought the pension scheme proposed earlier into reality, giving pensioners a means to live on for the first time. The Labour Exchanges Act, 1909, proposed by Churchill, set up Job Centres, making it much, much easier for the unemployed to find work. The Trade Board act followed this up, setting a minimum wage for certain industries where ‘sweating’ was rife.
Two of the more interesting reforms were the Parliament Act, and the establishment of payment for MPs. Both of these held more profound consequences for the parliamentary system than for the nation as a whole. The first, set up after the attempts to stop the People’s Budget by the Lords, made it a rule that the House of Lords could only delay money bills, rather than reject them outright. This meant that budgets could be passed without any support at all from the Lords. The establishment of a wage for MPs had the effect of opening parliament to those who couldn’t afford to support themselves otherwise, allowing more working class people to attempt to run for office.
By far the most famous reform passed during this period, however, was the National Insurance Act, in 1911. This set up two separate forms of insurance for workers in certain industries nationwide. The first, Health Insurance, worked by taking two pence from the weekly the wage of every worker. The employer then added three pence and the government another two. The second form of insurance, unemployment insurance, worked the same way. This was a very New Liberal idea, and it provided a ‘safety net’ for those who couldn’t work, due to injury or plain misfortune.
The Miner’s Minimum Wage Act, 1912, and the Trade Union Act, 1913, were both aimed at correcting previous injustices against the miners, and perhaps trying to draw their support. This was one of the key industries in Britain, and one where there were astonishingly bad conditions for the workers involved.
It is obvious from looking over these acts that New Liberalism had thoroughly taken hold of the government by this point. There was now a far greater amount of support for those at the poorer end of the British social scale. The reforms were revolutionary, and were so effective that many of them still exist today in some form. New Liberalism, while it had many similarities to Old Liberalism, was defiantly a different beast, and one that forwarded the living conditions of the poorest of the poor in Britain to a more secure, pleasant time. | 1,978 | ENGLISH | 1 |
| U.S. Navy Ex-Apprentice
(following from www.history.navy.mil)
Apprentice boys were introduced during the period 1875-1880 and lasted only a short time until 1904. For a number of years, however, the apprentice system formed a major part of the Navy's training program for enlisted men. Its purpose was to attract high caliber youngsters into the Navy and give them instructions in seamanship, gunnery and the rudiments of a general education.
Apprentices entered the Navy between the ages of 14 and 18 and served until their 21st birthday. Unlike other applicants of that time they could not be enlisted at recruiting stations. Instead, they reported to one of the Navy's receiving ships at Boston, New York, Philadelphia or Mare Island. After 1883 they could also enlist at the training station at Newport. It was preferred that their parents or guardian accompany them when they applied.
Apprentices were examined by a board consisting of the commanding officer, one other line officer and a medical officer. By regulations of the time, the board could qualify some very small lads at the age of 14 years. However, for the 14 year olds, 4 foot nine and 70 pounds were the minimum height and weight, while for the 16 year olds the figures were 5 foot one and 90 pounds. Applicants had to be able to read and write, or in special cases where the boy showed general intelligence and was otherwise qualified he could be enlisted notwithstanding that his reading and writing were imperfect. Their character had to be well above average and upon being accepted they became Apprentice Third Class. Pay was $9.00 per month. Within one month after enlisting, the apprentice was transferred to the naval station at Newport. There he received instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic and the basic subjects of the seaman's profession. This period of shoreside training lasted six months. Next came a period aboard a cruiser training ship. Cruiser training ships formed a regular squadron. In 1897, for example, the apprentice training squadron was formed on Essex, Adams and Alliance. Bark-rigged and wooden hulled, they were 185 feet long and displaced 1,375 tons. The permanent ship's company of these vessels were mature Navymen especially adapted for that particular service, as regards to character, intelligence and professional qualifications.
Apprentices were stationed in one part of the ship for three months, as royal yardmen at the maintop, for example. Only in case of necessity were they detailed for duty as messmen. Cruiser training ships made a summer cruise and a winter cruise. After making both cruises the apprentices were transferred to a cruising ship of war. At this time they were advanced to Apprentice Second Class. Pay was then $10.00 per month. Aboard the cruising ship their duties continued to include considerable training. After one year's service, they were advanced to Apprentice First Class, monthly pay of $11.00.
Apprentices First Class had a grade equal to that of Seaman Second Class, or Ordinary Seaman; and an Apprentice Third Class was equal to that of Seaman Third Class, or Landsman. As a group these were the "Apprentice Boys" (there was also a rating of Boy in the Navy in 1797).
In view of the difficult entrance requirements, the low pay, and the varied duty they were subjected to, the question often was asked why would a youngster want to become an apprentice. One of the reasons was that they received a good education for the time, and at the same time received systematic instruction in seamanship.
The apprentice training system in the Navy ended in December 1904 when it became merged with the landsman training system of that time. The main emphasis shifted to basic training ashore, with a three months' course of instruction at one of the Navy's three training stations. These were Newport, Norfolk, and San Francisco.
The last Apprentice Boy payed off was Harry Morris, TMC who served from 1903 to 1958. Chief Morris, like the other ex-apprentices, wore a "figure of eight" knot insignia on his uniform.
[Ex-Apprentice Figure Eight Knot Insignia]
Ex-Apprentice Distinguishing Mark. - Enlisted men who have held the rating of Apprentice in the Navy shall wear a mark consisting of a "figure of eight" knot. Chief petty officers shall wear it on the coat sleeve below the rating badge. Other men shall wear it on the breast of the jumper, 2" below the "V", neck opening.
Copyright © 2006-2020
NavyCollector.com, All Rights Reserved | <urn:uuid:6b34a35a-8e73-480c-9f61-d44945ceed2b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://navycollector.com/ExApprentice_Knot.htm.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00339.warc.gz | en | 0.984989 | 943 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.280987322... | 2 | | U.S. Navy Ex-Apprentice
(following from www.history.navy.mil)
Apprentice boys were introduced during the period 1875-1880 and lasted only a short time until 1904. For a number of years, however, the apprentice system formed a major part of the Navy's training program for enlisted men. Its purpose was to attract high caliber youngsters into the Navy and give them instructions in seamanship, gunnery and the rudiments of a general education.
Apprentices entered the Navy between the ages of 14 and 18 and served until their 21st birthday. Unlike other applicants of that time they could not be enlisted at recruiting stations. Instead, they reported to one of the Navy's receiving ships at Boston, New York, Philadelphia or Mare Island. After 1883 they could also enlist at the training station at Newport. It was preferred that their parents or guardian accompany them when they applied.
Apprentices were examined by a board consisting of the commanding officer, one other line officer and a medical officer. By regulations of the time, the board could qualify some very small lads at the age of 14 years. However, for the 14 year olds, 4 foot nine and 70 pounds were the minimum height and weight, while for the 16 year olds the figures were 5 foot one and 90 pounds. Applicants had to be able to read and write, or in special cases where the boy showed general intelligence and was otherwise qualified he could be enlisted notwithstanding that his reading and writing were imperfect. Their character had to be well above average and upon being accepted they became Apprentice Third Class. Pay was $9.00 per month. Within one month after enlisting, the apprentice was transferred to the naval station at Newport. There he received instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic and the basic subjects of the seaman's profession. This period of shoreside training lasted six months. Next came a period aboard a cruiser training ship. Cruiser training ships formed a regular squadron. In 1897, for example, the apprentice training squadron was formed on Essex, Adams and Alliance. Bark-rigged and wooden hulled, they were 185 feet long and displaced 1,375 tons. The permanent ship's company of these vessels were mature Navymen especially adapted for that particular service, as regards to character, intelligence and professional qualifications.
Apprentices were stationed in one part of the ship for three months, as royal yardmen at the maintop, for example. Only in case of necessity were they detailed for duty as messmen. Cruiser training ships made a summer cruise and a winter cruise. After making both cruises the apprentices were transferred to a cruising ship of war. At this time they were advanced to Apprentice Second Class. Pay was then $10.00 per month. Aboard the cruising ship their duties continued to include considerable training. After one year's service, they were advanced to Apprentice First Class, monthly pay of $11.00.
Apprentices First Class had a grade equal to that of Seaman Second Class, or Ordinary Seaman; and an Apprentice Third Class was equal to that of Seaman Third Class, or Landsman. As a group these were the "Apprentice Boys" (there was also a rating of Boy in the Navy in 1797).
In view of the difficult entrance requirements, the low pay, and the varied duty they were subjected to, the question often was asked why would a youngster want to become an apprentice. One of the reasons was that they received a good education for the time, and at the same time received systematic instruction in seamanship.
The apprentice training system in the Navy ended in December 1904 when it became merged with the landsman training system of that time. The main emphasis shifted to basic training ashore, with a three months' course of instruction at one of the Navy's three training stations. These were Newport, Norfolk, and San Francisco.
The last Apprentice Boy payed off was Harry Morris, TMC who served from 1903 to 1958. Chief Morris, like the other ex-apprentices, wore a "figure of eight" knot insignia on his uniform.
[Ex-Apprentice Figure Eight Knot Insignia]
Ex-Apprentice Distinguishing Mark. - Enlisted men who have held the rating of Apprentice in the Navy shall wear a mark consisting of a "figure of eight" knot. Chief petty officers shall wear it on the coat sleeve below the rating badge. Other men shall wear it on the breast of the jumper, 2" below the "V", neck opening.
Copyright © 2006-2020
NavyCollector.com, All Rights Reserved | 1,005 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Padma Mohan Kumar, freelance writer
November 23, 2019
Palakkad is a small town in Kerala located on the lower ranges of the Sahyadri hills of the Western Ghats. It is known as the rice granary of Kerala, but its chief claim to recognition lies in Palakkad Fort, which is believed to have existed since ancient times. Situated in the very heart of the town, the fort is spread over an area of 15 acres. It is one of the best-preserved forts in Kerala.
It was built in its present form in 1766 AD by Sultan Hyder Ali the ruler of Mysore. It was an important military base in those times. The walls of the fort are mute witnesses to the battles fought over it, and the various stories of valour and courage.
Palakkad Achchan who was the head of the state of Palakkad was earlier a subordinate of the Zamorin, the ruler of Calicut. However, with the onset of the 18th century he had secured his independence. In 1757, he perceived a threat from the Zamorin and sought help from Sultan Hyder Ali. The Mysore ruler took advantage of the situation to acquire Palghat which was of strategic importance. However, it continued to change hands almost till the end of the century. In 1768 the British captured it during a raid on the Mysore ruler’s fortresses. But Hyder Ali retook it a few months later. However In 1783 the British took it after a siege of 11 days, only to abandon it the following year. The Zamorin took the fort again but it remained in his possession only for some years. In 1790 the British finally captured it. They renovated it and used it as a base for their operations against Srirangapatnam (a small town of Mandya district in Karnataka). It served as a military base till the middle of the 19th century. It was converted into a taluk office during the early years of the 20th century.
In the centre of the fort, there are extensive grounds. During the reign of Tipu Sultan, stables had been built here for the steeds and elephants which had formed a part of his army. These grounds are now used for sports and for holding meetings. The walls of the fort are of enormous thickness and are quite high. They are topped by seven bastions or watch towers which are connected with each other. The steps leading to the bastions are a little steep. There is a moat surrounding the fort. These features would have formed the fort’s defenses against bombardment by the enemy. There are well-maintained lawns outside of the fort. There is a bridge over the moat by which one can enter the fort through a massive door. Unfortunately, in contrast to the neat lawns outside, the fort walls now bear unsightly etchings and scribbling by visitors who seem to have no appreciation of heritage. The site has also been used as a dumping ground for trash.
There is a Hanuman temple inside the fortification. An open-air auditorium is also located within the fort grounds. Known as ‘Rappadi’ it is preserved by the Archaeological Survey of India. The large ground between the fort and the town hall nearby is known as the Kota Maidanam or the fort grounds. Cricket matches, exhibitions and public meetings are held here. Moreover, there is a children’s park on one side of the fort. This spot is highly popular among picnickers. It is open to visitors from eight in the morning till six in the evening. The nearest railway station is Palakkad which is about five kilometers away from the fort, while Coimbatore airport is about 55 kilometers away. Cochin International Airport is about 140 kilometers away. | <urn:uuid:c1166c31-cbee-4f86-b777-935600f02b03> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://indian-heritage.org/articles/palakkadfort_pmk11.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00169.warc.gz | en | 0.985822 | 799 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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November 23, 2019
Palakkad is a small town in Kerala located on the lower ranges of the Sahyadri hills of the Western Ghats. It is known as the rice granary of Kerala, but its chief claim to recognition lies in Palakkad Fort, which is believed to have existed since ancient times. Situated in the very heart of the town, the fort is spread over an area of 15 acres. It is one of the best-preserved forts in Kerala.
It was built in its present form in 1766 AD by Sultan Hyder Ali the ruler of Mysore. It was an important military base in those times. The walls of the fort are mute witnesses to the battles fought over it, and the various stories of valour and courage.
Palakkad Achchan who was the head of the state of Palakkad was earlier a subordinate of the Zamorin, the ruler of Calicut. However, with the onset of the 18th century he had secured his independence. In 1757, he perceived a threat from the Zamorin and sought help from Sultan Hyder Ali. The Mysore ruler took advantage of the situation to acquire Palghat which was of strategic importance. However, it continued to change hands almost till the end of the century. In 1768 the British captured it during a raid on the Mysore ruler’s fortresses. But Hyder Ali retook it a few months later. However In 1783 the British took it after a siege of 11 days, only to abandon it the following year. The Zamorin took the fort again but it remained in his possession only for some years. In 1790 the British finally captured it. They renovated it and used it as a base for their operations against Srirangapatnam (a small town of Mandya district in Karnataka). It served as a military base till the middle of the 19th century. It was converted into a taluk office during the early years of the 20th century.
In the centre of the fort, there are extensive grounds. During the reign of Tipu Sultan, stables had been built here for the steeds and elephants which had formed a part of his army. These grounds are now used for sports and for holding meetings. The walls of the fort are of enormous thickness and are quite high. They are topped by seven bastions or watch towers which are connected with each other. The steps leading to the bastions are a little steep. There is a moat surrounding the fort. These features would have formed the fort’s defenses against bombardment by the enemy. There are well-maintained lawns outside of the fort. There is a bridge over the moat by which one can enter the fort through a massive door. Unfortunately, in contrast to the neat lawns outside, the fort walls now bear unsightly etchings and scribbling by visitors who seem to have no appreciation of heritage. The site has also been used as a dumping ground for trash.
There is a Hanuman temple inside the fortification. An open-air auditorium is also located within the fort grounds. Known as ‘Rappadi’ it is preserved by the Archaeological Survey of India. The large ground between the fort and the town hall nearby is known as the Kota Maidanam or the fort grounds. Cricket matches, exhibitions and public meetings are held here. Moreover, there is a children’s park on one side of the fort. This spot is highly popular among picnickers. It is open to visitors from eight in the morning till six in the evening. The nearest railway station is Palakkad which is about five kilometers away from the fort, while Coimbatore airport is about 55 kilometers away. Cochin International Airport is about 140 kilometers away. | 815 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Council of Trent
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The nineteenth ecumenical council opened at Trent on 13 December, 1545, and closed there on 4 December, 1563. Its main object was the definitive determination of the doctrines of the Church in answer to the heresies of the Protestants ; a further object was the execution of a thorough reform of the inner life of the Church by removing the numerous abuses that had developed in it.
I. CONVOCATION AND OPENING
On 28 November, 1518, Luther had appealed from the pope to a general council because he was convinced that he would be condemned at Rome for his heretical doctrines. The Diet held at Nuremberg in 1523 demanded a "free Christian council" on German soil, and at the Diet held in the same city in 1524 a demand was made for a German national council to regulate temporarily the questions in dispute, and for a general council to settle definitely the accusations against Rome, and the religious disputes. Owing to the feeling prevalent in Germany the demand was very dangerous. Rome positively rejected the German national council, but did not absolutely object to holding a general council. Emperor Charles V forbade the national council, but notified Clement VII through his ambassadors that he considered the calling of a general council expedient and proposed the city of Trent as the place of assembly. In the years directly succeeding this, the unfortunate dispute between emperor and pope prevented any further negotiations concerning a council. Nothing was done until 1529 when the papal ambassador, Pico della Mirandola, declared at the Diet of Speyer that the pope was ready to aid the Germans in the struggle against the Turks, to urge the restoration of peace among Christian rulers, and to convoke a general council to meet the following summer. Charles and Clement VII met at Bologna in 1530, and the pope agreed to call a council, if necessary. The cardinal legate, Lorenzo Campeggio , opposed a council, convinced that the Protestants were not honest in demanding it. Still the Catholic princes of Germany, especially the dukes of Bavaria, favoured a council as the best means of overcoming the evils from which the Church was suffering; Charles never wavered in his determination to have the council held as soon as there was a period of general peace in Christendom.
The matter was also discussed at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, when Campegio again opposed a council, while the emperor declared himself in favour of one provided the Protestants were willing to restore earlier conditions until the decision of the council. Charles's proposition met the approval of the Catholic princes, who, however, wished the assembly to meet in Germany. The emperor's letters to his ambassadors at Rome on the subject led to the discussion of the matter twice in the congregation of cardinals appointed especially for German affairs. Although opinions differed, the pope wrote to the emperor that Charles could promise the convoking of a council with his consent, provided the Protestants returned to the obedience of the Church. He proposed an Italian city, preferably Rome, as the place of assembly. The emperor, however, distrusted the pope, believing that Clement did not really desire a council. Meantime, the Protestant princes did not agree to abandon their doctrines. Clement constantly raised difficulties in regard to a council, although Charles, in accord with most of the cardinals, especially Farnese, del Monte, and Canisio, repeatedly urged upon him the calling of one as the sole means of composing the religious disputes. Meanwhile the Protestant princes refused to withdraw from the position they had taken up. Francis I, of France, sought to frustrate the convoking of the council by making impossible conditions. It was mainly his fault that the council was not held during the reign of Clement VII, for on 28 Nov., 1531, it had been unanimously agreed in a consistory that a council should be called. At Bologna in 1532, the emperor and the pope discussed the question of a council again and decided that it should meet as soon as the approval of all Christian princes had been obtained for the plan. Suitable Briefs addressed to the rulers were drawn up and legates were commissioned to go to Germany, France, and England. The answer of the French king was unsatisfactory. Both he and Henry VIII of England avoided a definitive reply, and the German Protestants rejected the conditions proposed by the pope.
The next pope, Paul III (1534-49), as Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, had always strongly favoured the convening of a council, and had, during the conclave, urged the calling of one. When, after his election, he first met the cardinals, 17 October, 1534, he spoke of the necessity of a general council, and repeated this opinion at the first consistory (13 November). He summoned distinguished prelates to Rome to discuss the matter with them. Representatives of Charles V and Ferdinand I also laboured to hasten the council. The majority of the cardinals, however, opposed the immediate calling of a council, and it was resolved to notify the princes of the papal decision to hold a church assembly. Nuncios were sent for this purpose to France, Spain, and the German king, Ferdinand. Vergerio, nuncio to Ferdinand, was also to apprise the German electors and the most distinguished of the remaining ruling princes personally of the impending proclamation of the council. He executed his commission with zeal, although he frequently met with reserve and distrust. The selection of the place of meeting was a source of much difficulty, as Rome insisted that the council should meet in an Italian city. The Protestant rulers, meeting at Smalkald in December, 1535, rejected the proposed council. In this they were supported by Kings Henry VIII and Francis I. At the same time the latter sent assurances to Rome that he considered the council as very serviceable for the extermination of heresy, carrying on, as regards the holding of a council, the double intrigue he always pursued in reference to German Protestantism. The visit of Charles V to Rome in 1536 led to a complete agreement between him and the pope concerning the council. On 2 June, Paul III published the Bull calling all patriarchs, archbishops, bishops, and abbots to assemble at Mantua on 23 May, 1537, for a general council. Cardinal legates were sent with an invitation to the council to the emperor, the King of the Romans, the King of France, while a number of other nuncios carried the invitation to the other Christian countries. The Netherlander Peter van der Vorst was sent to Germany to persuade the German ruling princes to take part. The Protestant rulers received the ambassador most ungraciously; at Smalkald they refused the invitation curtly, although in 1530 they had demanded a council. Francis I took advantage of the war that had broken out between himself and Charles in 1536 to declare the journey of the French bishops to the council impossible.
Meanwhile preparations were carried on with zeal at Rome. The commission of reform, appointed in July, 1536, drew up a report as the basis for the correction of the abuses in ecclesiastical life; the pope began preparations for the journey to Mantua. The Duke of Mantua now raised objections against the holding of the assembly in his city and made conditions which it was not possible to accept at Rome. The opening of the council, therefore, was put off to 1 November; later it was decided to open it at Vicenza on 1 May, 1538. The course of affairs, however, was continually obstructed by Francis I. Nevertheless the legates who were to preside at the council went to Vicenza. Only six bishops were present. The French king and the pope met at Nice, and it was decided to prorogue until Easter, 1539. Soon after this the emperor also desired to postpone the council, as he hoped to restore religious unity in Germany by conferences with the Protestants. After further unsuccessful negotiations both with Charles V and Francis I the council was indefinitely prorogued at the consistory of 21 May, 1539, to reassemble at the pope's discretion. When Paul III and Charles V met at Lucca in September, 1541, the former again raised the question of the council. The emperor now consented that it should meet at Vicenza, but Venice would not agree, whereupon the emperor proposed Trent, and later Cardinal Contarini suggested Mantua, but nothing was decided. The emperor and Francis I were invited later to send the cardinals of their countries to Rome, so that the question of the council could be discussed by the college of cardinals . Morone worked in Germany as legate for the council, and the pope agreed to hold it at Trent. After further consultations at Rome, Paul III convoked on 22 May, 1542, an ecumenical council to meet at Trent on 1 Nov. of the same year. The Protestants made violent attacks on the council, and Francis I opposed it energetically, not even permitting the Bull of convocation to be published in his kingdom.
The German Catholic princes and King Sigismund of Poland consented to the convocation. Charles V, enraged at the neutral position of the pope in the war that was threatening between himself and Francis I, as well as with the wording of the Bull, wrote a reproachful letter to Paul III. Nevertheless, preparations were made for the council at Trent, by special papal commissioners, and three cardinals were appointed later as conciliary legates. The conduct, however, of Francis I and of the emperor again prevented the opening of the council. A few Italian and German bishops appeared at Trent. The pope went to Bologna in March 1543, and to a conference with Charles V at Busseto in June, yet matters were not advanced. The strained relations which appeared anew between pope and emperor, and the war between Charles V and Francis I, led to another prorogation (6 July, 1543). After the Peace of Crespy (17 Sept., 1544) a reconciliation was effected between Paul III and Charles V. Francis I had abandoned his opposition and declared himself in favour of Trent as the place of meeting, as did the emperor. On 19 Nov., 1544, the Bull "Laetare Hierusalem" was issued, by which the council was again convoked to meet at Trent on 15 March, 1545. Cardinals Giovanni del Monte, Marcello Cervini, and Reginald Pole were appointed in February, 1545, as the papal legates to preside at the council. As in March only a few bishops had come to Trent, the date of opening had to be deferred again. The emperor, however, desired a speedy opening, consequently 13 December, 1545, was appointed as the date of the first formal session. This was held in the choir of the cathedral of Trent after the first president of the council, Cardinal del Monte, had celebrated the Mass of the Holy Ghost. When the Bull of convocation and the Bull appointing the conciliary legates were read, Cardinal del Monte declared the ecumenical council opened, and appointed 7 January as the date of the second session. Besides the three presiding legates there were present: Cardinal Madruzza, Bishop of Trent, four archbishops, twenty-one bishops, five generals of orders. The council was attended, in addition, by the legates of the King of Germany, Ferdinand, and by forty-two theologians, and nine canonists, who had been summoned as consultors.
II. ORDER OF BUSINESS
In the work of accomplishing its great task the council had to contend with many difficulties. The first weeks were occupied mainly with settling the order of business of the assembly. After long discussion it was agreed that the matters to be taken into consideration by the members of the council were to be proposed by the cardinal legates ; after they had been drawn up by a commission of consultors ( congregatio theologorum minorum ) they were to be discussed thoroughly in preparatory sessions of special congregations of prelates for dogmatic questions, and similar congregations for legal questions ( congregatio proelatorum theologorum and congregatio proelatorum canonistarum ). Originally the fathers of the council were divided into three congregations for discussion of subjects, but this was soon done away with as too cumbersome. After all the preliminary discussions the matter thus made ready was debated in detail in the general congregation ( congregatio generalis ) and the final form of the decrees was settled on. These general congregations were composed of all bishops, generals of orders, and abbots who were entitled to a vote, the proxies of absent members entitled to a vote, and the representatives ( oratores ) of the secular rulers. The decrees resulting from such exhaustive debates were then brought forward in the formal sessions and votes were taken upon them. On 18 December the legates laid seventeen articles before the general congregations as regards the order of procedure in the subjects to be discussed. This led to a number of difficulties. The main one was whether dogmatic questions or the reform of church life should be discussed first. It was finally decided that both subjects should be debated simultaneously. Thus after the promulgation in the sessions of the decrees concerning the dogmas of the Church followed a similar promulgation of those on discipline and Church reform. The question was also raised whether the generals of orders and abbots were members of the council entitled to a vote. Opinions varied greatly on this point. Still, after long discussion the decision was reached that one vote for the entire order belonged to each general of an order, and that the three Benedictine abbots sent by the pope to represent the entire order were entitled to only one vote.
Violent differences of opinion appeared during the preparatory discussion of the decree to be laid before the second session determining the title to be given the council; the question was whether there should be added to the title "Holy Council of Trent" ( Sacrosancta tridentina synodus ) the words "representing the Church universal" ( universalem ecclesiam reproesentans ). According to the Bishop of Fiesole, Braccio Martello, a number of the members of the council desired the latter form. However, such a title, although justified in itself, appeared dangerous to the legates and other members of the council on account of its bearing on the Councils of Constance and Basle, as it might be taken to express the superiority of the ecumenical council over the pope. Therefore instead of this formula the additional phrase " oecumenica et generalis " was proposed and accepted by nearly all the bishops. Only three bishops who raised the question unsuccessfully several times later persisted in wanting the formula "universalem ecclesiam reproesentans". A further point was in reference to the proxies of absent bishops, namely, whether these were entitled to a vote or not. Originally the proxies were not allowed a vote; Paul III granted to those German bishops who could not leave their dioceses on account of religious troubles, and to them alone, representation by proxies. In 1562, when the council met again, Pius IV withdrew this permission. Other regulations were also passed, in regard to the right of the members to draw the revenues of their dioceses during the session of the council, and concerning the mode of life of the members. At a later date, during the third period of the council, various modifications were made in these decisions. Thus the theologians of the council, who had grown in the meantime into a large body, were divided into six classes, each of which received a number of drafts of decrees for discussion. Special deputations also were often appointed for special questions. The entire regulation of the debates was a very prudent one, and offered every guarantee for an absolutely objective and exhaustive discussion in all their bearings of the questions brought up for debate. A regular courier service was maintained between Rome and Trent, so that the pope was kept fully informed in regard to the debates of the council.
III. THE WORK AND SESSIONS A. First Period at Trent
Among the fathers of the council and the theologians who had been summoned to Trent were a number of important men. The legates who presided at the council were equal to their difficult task; Paceco of Jaén, Campeggio of Feltre, and the Bishop of Fiesole already mentioned were especially conspicuous among the bishops who were present at the early sessions. Girolamo Seripando, General of the Augustinian Hermits, was the most prominent of the heads of the orders; of the theologians, the two learned Dominicans, Ambrogio Catarino and Domenico Soto, should be mentioned. After the formal opening session (13 December, 1545), the various questions pertaining to the order of business were debated; neither in the second session (7 January, 1546) nor in the third (4 February, 1546) were any matters touching faith or discipline brought forward. It was only after the third session, when the preliminary questions and the order of business had been essentially settled, that the real work of the council began. The emperor's representative, Francisco de Toledo, did not reach Trent until 15 March, and a further personal representative, Mendoza, arrived on 25 May. The first subject of discussion which was laid before the general congregation by the legates on 8 February was the Scriptures as the source of Divine revelation. After exhaustive preliminary discussions in the various congregations, two decrees were ready for debate at the fourth session (8 April, 1546), and were adopted by the fathers. In treating the canon of Scripture they declare at the same time that in matters of faith and morals the tradition of the Church is, together with the Bible , the standard of supernatural revelation ; then taking up the text and the use of the sacred Books they declare the Vulgate to be the authentic text for sermons and disputations, although this did not exclude textual emendations. It was also determined that the Bible should be interpreted according to the unanimous testimony of the Fathers and never misused for superstitious purposes. Nothing was decided in regard to the translation of the Bible in the vernaculars.
In the meantime earnest discussions concerning the question of church reform had been carried on between the pope and the legates, and a number of items had been suggested by the latter. These had special reference to the Roman Curia and its administration, to the bishops, the ecclesiastical benefices and tithes, the orders, and the training of the clergy. Charles V wished the discussion of the dogmatic questions to be postponed, but the council and the pope could not agree to that, and the council debated dogmas simultaneously with decrees concerning discipline. On 24 May the general congregation took up the discussion of original sin, its nature, consequences, and cancellation by baptism. At the same time the question of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin was brought forward, but the majority of the members finally decided not to give any definite dogmatic decision on this point. The reforms debated concerned the establishment of theological professorships, preaching, and episcopal obligation of residence. In reference to the latter the Spanish bishop, Paceco, raised the point whether this obligation was of Divine origin, or whether it was merely an ecclesiastical ordinance of human origin, a question which led later to long and violent discussions. In the fifth session (17 June, 1546) the decree on the dogma of original sin was promulgated with five canons ( anathemas ) against the corresponding erroneous doctrines; and the first decree on reform ( de reformatione ) was also promulgated. This treats (in two chapters) of professorships of the Scriptures, and of secular learning ( artes liberales ), of those who preach the Divine word, and of the collectors of alms.
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For the following session, which was originally set for 29 July, the matters proposed for general debate were the dogma of justification as the dogmatic question and the obligation of residence as regards bishops as the disciplinary decree ; the treatment of these questions was proposed to the general congregation by the legates on 21 June. The dogma of justification brought up for debate one of the fundamental questions which had to be discussed with reference to the heretics of the sixteenth century, and which in itself presented great difficulties. The imperial party sought to block the discussion of the entire matter, some of the fathers were anxious on account of the approaching war of Charles V against the Protestant princes, and there was fresh dissension between the emperor and the pope. However, the debates on the question were prosecuted with the greatest zeal ; animated, at times even stormy, discussions took place; the debate of the next general session had to be postponed. No less than sixty-one general congregations and forty-four other congregations were held for the debate of the important subjects of justification and the obligation of residence, before the matters were ready for the final decision. At the sixth regular session on 13 January, 1547, was promulgated the masterly decree on justification ( de justificatione ), which consisted of a prooemium or preface and sixteen chapters with thirty-three canons in condemnation of the opposing heresies. The decree on reform of this session was one in five chapters respecting the obligation of residence of bishops and of the occupants of ecclesiastical benefices or offices. These decrees make the sixth session one of the most important and decisive of the entire council.
The legates proposed to the general congregation as the subject-matter for the following session, the doctrine of the Church as to the sacraments, and for the disciplinary question a series of ordinances respecting both the appointment and official activities of bishops, and on ecclesiastical benefices. When the questions had been debated, in the seventh session (3 March, 1547), a dogmatic decree with suitable canons was promulgated on the sacraments in general (thirteen canons), on baptism (fourteen canons), and on confirmation (three canons); a decree on reform (in fifteen chapters) was also enacted in regard to bishops and ecclesiastical benefices, in particular as to pluralities, visitations, and exemptions, concerning the founding of infirmaries, and as to the legal affairs of the clergy. Before this session was held the question of the prorogation of the council or its transfer to another city had been discussed. The relations between pope and emperor had grown even more strained; the Smalkaldic War had begun in Germany ; and now an infectious disease broke out in Trent, carrying off the general of the Franciscans and others. The cardinal legates, therefore, in the eighth session (11 March, 1547) proposed the transfer of the council to another city, supporting themselves in this action by a Brief which had been given them by the pope some time before. The majority of the fathers voted to transfer the council to Bologna, and on the following day (12 March) the legates went there. By the ninth session the number of participants had risen to four cardinals, nine archbishops, forty-nine bishops, two proxies, two abbots, three generals of orders, and fifty theologians.
The majority of the fathers of the council went with the cardinal legates from Trent to Bologna; but fourteen bishops who belonged to the party of Charles V remained at Trent and would not recognize the transfer. The sudden change of place without any special consultation beforehand with the pope did not please Paul III, who probably foresaw that this would lead to further severe difficulties between himself and the emperor. As a matter of fact Charles V was very indignant at the change, and through his ambassador Vaga protested against it, vigorously urging a return to Trent. The emperor's defeat of the Smalkaldic League increased his power. Influential cardinals sought to mediate between the emperor and the pope, but the negotiations failed. The emperor protested formally against the transfer to Bologna, and, refusing to permit the Spanish bishops who had remained at Trent to leave that city, began negotiations again with the German Protestants on his own responsibility. Consequently at the ninth session of the council held at Bologna on 21 April, 1547, the only decree issued was one proroguing the session. The same action was all that was taken in the tenth session on 2 June, 1547, although there had been exhaustive debates on various subjects in congregations. The tension between the emperor and the pope had increased despite the efforts of Cardinals Sfondrato and Madruzzo. All negotiations were fruitless. The bishops who had remained at Trent had held no sessions, but when the pope called to Rome four of the bishops at Bologna and four of those at Trent, the latter said in excuse that they could not obey the call. Paul III had now to expect extreme opposition from the emperor. Therefore, on 13 September, he proclaimed the suspension of the council and commanded the cardinal legate del Monte to dismiss the members of the council assembled at Bologna; this was done on 17 September. The bishops were called to Rome, where they were to prepare decrees for disciplinary reforms. This closed the first period of the council. On 10 Nov., 1549, the pope died.C. Second Period at Trent
The successor of Paul III was Julius III (1550-55), Giovanni del Monte, first cardinal legate of the council. He at once began negotiations with the emperor to reopen the council. On 14 Nov., 1550, he issued the Bull "Quum ad tollenda," in which the reassembling at Trent was arranged. As presidents he appointed Cardinal Marcellus Crescentius, Archbishop Sebastian Pighinus of Siponto, and Bishop Aloysius Lipomanni of Verona. The cardinal legate reached Trent on 29 April, 1551, where, besides the bishop of the city, fourteen bishops from the countries ruled by the emperor were in attendance; several bishops came from Rome, where they had been staying, and on 1 May, 1551, the eleventh session was held. In this the resumption of the council was decreed, and 1 September was appointed as the date of the next session. The Sacrament of the Eucharist and drafts of further disciplinary decrees were discussed in the congregations of the theologians and also in several general congregations. Among the theologians were Lainez and Salmeron, who had been sent by the pope, and Johannes Arza, who represented the emperor. Ambassadors of the emperor, King Ferdinand, and Henry II of France were present. The King of France, however, was unwilling to allow any French bishop to go to the council. In the twelfth session (1 Sept., 1551) the only decision was the prorogation until 11 October. This was due to the expectation of the arrival of other German bishops, besides the Archbishops of Mainz and Trier who were already in attendance. The thirteenth session was held on 11 Oct., 1551; it promulgated a comprehensive decree on the Sacrament of the Eucharist (in eight chapters and eleven canons) and also a decree on reform (in eight chapters) in regard to the supervision to be exercised by bishops, and on episcopal jurisdiction. Another decree deferred until the next session the discussion of four articles concerning the Eucharist, namely, Communion under the two species of bread and wine and the Communion of children ; a safe-conduct was also issued for Protestants who desired to come to the council. An ambassador of Joachim II of Brandenburg had already reached Trent.
The presidents laid before the general congregation of 15 October drafts of definitions of the Sacraments of Penance and Extreme Unction for discussion. These subjects occupied the congregations of theologians, among whom Gropper, Nausea, Tapper, and Hessels were especially prominent, and also the general congregations during the months of October and November. At the fourteenth session, held on 25 November, the dogmatic decree promulgated contained nine chapters on the dogma of the Church respecting the Sacrament of Penance and three chapters on extreme unction. To the chapters on penance were added fifteen canons condemning heretical teachings on this point, and four canons condemning heresies to the chapters on unction. The decree on reform treated the discipline of the clergy and various matters respecting ecclesiastical benefices. In the meantime, ambassadors from several Protestant princes and cities reached Trent. They made various demands, as: that the earlier decisions which were contrary to the Augsburg Confession should be recalled; that debates on questions in dispute between Catholics and Protestants should be deferred; that the subordination of the pope to an ecumenical council should be defined; and other propositions which the council could not accept. Since the close of the last session both the theologians and the general congregations had been occupied in numerous assemblies with the dogma of the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass and of the ordination of priests, as well as with plans for new reformatory decrees. At the fifteenth session (25 January, 1552), in order to make some advances to the ambassadors of the Protestants, the decisions in regard to the subjects under consideration were postponed and a new safe-conduct, such as they had desired, was drawn up for them. Besides the three papal legates and Cardinal Madruzzo, there were present at Trent ten archbishops and fifty-four bishops, most of them from the countries ruled by the emperor. On account of the treacherous attack made by Maurice of Saxony on Charles V, the city of Trent and the members of the council were placed in danger; consequently, at the sixteenth session (23 April, 1552) a decree suspending the council for two years was promulgated. However, a considerably longer period of time elapsed before it could resume its sessions.D. Third Period at Trent
Julius III did not live to call the council together again. He was followed by Marcellus II (1555), a former cardinal legate at Trent, Marcello Cervino; Marcellus died twenty-two days after his election. His successor, the austere Paul IV (1555-9), energetically carried out internal reforms both in Rome and in the other parts of the Church ; but he did not seriously consider reconvening the council. Pius IV (1559-65) announced to the cardinals shortly after his election his intention of reopening the council. Indeed, he had found the right man, his nephew, the Cardinal Archbishop of Milan, Charles Borromeo , to complete the important work and to bring its decisions into customary usage in the Church. Great difficulties were raised once more on various sides. The Emperor Ferdinand desired the council, but wished it to be held in some German city, and not at Trent ; moreover he desired it to meet not as a continuation of the earlier assembly but as a new council. The King of France also desired the assembling of a new council, but he did not wish it at Trent. The Protestants of Germany worked in every way against the assembling of the Council. After long negotiations Ferdinand, the Kings of Spain and Portugal, Catholic Switzerland, and Venice left the matter to the pope. On 29 Nov., 1560, the Bull "Ad ecclesiae regimen," by which the council was ordered to meet again at Trent at Easter, 1561, was published. Notwithstanding all the efforts of the papal nuncios, Delfino and Commendone, the German Protestants persisted in their opposition. Cardinal Ercole Gonzaga was appointed president of the council; he was to be assisted by the cardinal legates Stanislaus Hosius, Jacobus Puteus (du Puy), Hieronymus Seripando, Luigi Simonetta, and Marcus Siticus of Altemps. As the bishops made their appearance very slowly, the opening of the council was delayed. Finally on 18 Jan., 1562, the seventeenth session was held; it proclaimed the revocation of the suspension of the council and appointed the date for the next session. There were present, besides the four cardinal legates, one cardinal, three patriarchs, eleven archbishops, forty bishops, four abbots, and four generals of orders; in addition thirty-four theologians were in attendance. The ambassadors of the princes were a source of much trouble to the presidents of the council and made demands which were in part impossible. The Protestants continued to calumniate the assembly. Emperor Ferdinand wished to have the discussion of dogmatic questions deferred.
At the eighteenth session (25 Feb., 1562) the only matters decided were the publication of a decree concerning the drawing up of a list of forbidden books and an agreement as to a safe-conduct for Protestants. At the next two sessions, the nineteenth on 14 May, and the twentieth on 4 June, 1562, only decrees proroguing the council were issued. The number of members had, it is true, increased, and various ambassadors of Catholic rulers had arrived at Trent, but some princes continued to raise obstacles both as to the character of the council and the place of meeting. Emperor Ferdinand sent an exhaustive plan of church reform which contained many articles impossible to accept. The legates, however, continued the work of the assembly, and presented the draft of the decree on Holy Communion , which treated especially the question of Communion under both species, as well as drafts of several disciplinary decrees. These questions were subjected to the usual discussions. At the twenty-first session (16 July, 1562) the decree on Communion under both species and on the Communion of children was promulgated in four chapters and four canons. A decree upon reformation in nine chapters was also promulgated ; it treated ordination to the priesthood, the revenues of canons, the founding of new parishes, and the collectors of alms. Articles on the Sacrifice of the Mass were now laid before the congregations for discussion; in the following months there were long and animated debates over the dogma. At the twenty-second session, which was not held until 17 Sept., 1562, four decrees were promulgated : the first contained the dogma of the Church on the Sacrifice of the Mass (in nine chapters and nine canons); the second directed the suppression of abuses in the offering of the Holy Sacrifice ; a third (in eleven chapters) treated reform, especially in regard to the morals of the clergy, the requirements necessary before ecclesiastical offices could be assumed, wills, the administration of religious foundations; the fourth treated the granting of the cup to the laity at Communion, which was left to the discretion of the pope.
The council had hardly ever been in as difficult a position as that in which it now found itself. The secular rulers made contradictory and, in part, impossible demands. At the same time warm debates were held by the fathers on the questions of the duty of residence and the relations of the bishops to the pope. The French bishops who arrived on 13 November made several dubious propositions. Cardinals Gonzaga and Seripando, who were of the number of cardinal legates, died. The two new legates and presidents, Morone and Navagero, gradually mastered the difficulties. The various points of the dogma concerning the ordination of priests were discussed both in the congregations of the eighty-four theologians, among whom Salmeron, Soto, and Lainez were the most prominent, and in the general congregations. Finally, on 15 July, 1563, the twenty-third session was held. It promulgated the decree on the Sacrament of Orders and on the ecclesiastical hierarchy (in four chapters and eight canons), and a decree on reform (in eighteen chapters). This disciplinary decree treated the obligation of residence, the conferring of the different grades of ordination, and the education of young clerics (seminarists). The decrees which were proclaimed to the Church at this session were the result of long and arduous debates, in which 235 members entitled to a vote took part. Disputes now arose once more as to whether the council should be speedily terminated or should be carried on longer. In the meantime the congregations debated the draft of the decree on the Sacrament of Matrimony, and at the twenty-fourth session (11 Nov., 1563) there were promulgated a dogmatic decree (with twelve canons) on marriage as a sacrament and a reformatory decree (in ten chapters), which treated the various conditions requisite for contracting of a valid marriage. A general decree on reform (in twenty-one chapters) was also published which treated the various questions connected with the administration of ecclesiastical offices.
The desire for the closing of the council grew stronger among all connected with it, and it was decided to close it as speedily as possible. A number of questions had been discussed preliminarily and were now ready for final definition. Consequently in the twenty-fifth and final session, which occupied two days (3-4 December, 1563), the following decrees were approved and promulgated : on 3 December a dogmatic decree on the veneration and invocation of the saints, and on the relics and images of the same; a
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0.05210036... | 1 | Council of Trent
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The nineteenth ecumenical council opened at Trent on 13 December, 1545, and closed there on 4 December, 1563. Its main object was the definitive determination of the doctrines of the Church in answer to the heresies of the Protestants ; a further object was the execution of a thorough reform of the inner life of the Church by removing the numerous abuses that had developed in it.
I. CONVOCATION AND OPENING
On 28 November, 1518, Luther had appealed from the pope to a general council because he was convinced that he would be condemned at Rome for his heretical doctrines. The Diet held at Nuremberg in 1523 demanded a "free Christian council" on German soil, and at the Diet held in the same city in 1524 a demand was made for a German national council to regulate temporarily the questions in dispute, and for a general council to settle definitely the accusations against Rome, and the religious disputes. Owing to the feeling prevalent in Germany the demand was very dangerous. Rome positively rejected the German national council, but did not absolutely object to holding a general council. Emperor Charles V forbade the national council, but notified Clement VII through his ambassadors that he considered the calling of a general council expedient and proposed the city of Trent as the place of assembly. In the years directly succeeding this, the unfortunate dispute between emperor and pope prevented any further negotiations concerning a council. Nothing was done until 1529 when the papal ambassador, Pico della Mirandola, declared at the Diet of Speyer that the pope was ready to aid the Germans in the struggle against the Turks, to urge the restoration of peace among Christian rulers, and to convoke a general council to meet the following summer. Charles and Clement VII met at Bologna in 1530, and the pope agreed to call a council, if necessary. The cardinal legate, Lorenzo Campeggio , opposed a council, convinced that the Protestants were not honest in demanding it. Still the Catholic princes of Germany, especially the dukes of Bavaria, favoured a council as the best means of overcoming the evils from which the Church was suffering; Charles never wavered in his determination to have the council held as soon as there was a period of general peace in Christendom.
The matter was also discussed at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, when Campegio again opposed a council, while the emperor declared himself in favour of one provided the Protestants were willing to restore earlier conditions until the decision of the council. Charles's proposition met the approval of the Catholic princes, who, however, wished the assembly to meet in Germany. The emperor's letters to his ambassadors at Rome on the subject led to the discussion of the matter twice in the congregation of cardinals appointed especially for German affairs. Although opinions differed, the pope wrote to the emperor that Charles could promise the convoking of a council with his consent, provided the Protestants returned to the obedience of the Church. He proposed an Italian city, preferably Rome, as the place of assembly. The emperor, however, distrusted the pope, believing that Clement did not really desire a council. Meantime, the Protestant princes did not agree to abandon their doctrines. Clement constantly raised difficulties in regard to a council, although Charles, in accord with most of the cardinals, especially Farnese, del Monte, and Canisio, repeatedly urged upon him the calling of one as the sole means of composing the religious disputes. Meanwhile the Protestant princes refused to withdraw from the position they had taken up. Francis I, of France, sought to frustrate the convoking of the council by making impossible conditions. It was mainly his fault that the council was not held during the reign of Clement VII, for on 28 Nov., 1531, it had been unanimously agreed in a consistory that a council should be called. At Bologna in 1532, the emperor and the pope discussed the question of a council again and decided that it should meet as soon as the approval of all Christian princes had been obtained for the plan. Suitable Briefs addressed to the rulers were drawn up and legates were commissioned to go to Germany, France, and England. The answer of the French king was unsatisfactory. Both he and Henry VIII of England avoided a definitive reply, and the German Protestants rejected the conditions proposed by the pope.
The next pope, Paul III (1534-49), as Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, had always strongly favoured the convening of a council, and had, during the conclave, urged the calling of one. When, after his election, he first met the cardinals, 17 October, 1534, he spoke of the necessity of a general council, and repeated this opinion at the first consistory (13 November). He summoned distinguished prelates to Rome to discuss the matter with them. Representatives of Charles V and Ferdinand I also laboured to hasten the council. The majority of the cardinals, however, opposed the immediate calling of a council, and it was resolved to notify the princes of the papal decision to hold a church assembly. Nuncios were sent for this purpose to France, Spain, and the German king, Ferdinand. Vergerio, nuncio to Ferdinand, was also to apprise the German electors and the most distinguished of the remaining ruling princes personally of the impending proclamation of the council. He executed his commission with zeal, although he frequently met with reserve and distrust. The selection of the place of meeting was a source of much difficulty, as Rome insisted that the council should meet in an Italian city. The Protestant rulers, meeting at Smalkald in December, 1535, rejected the proposed council. In this they were supported by Kings Henry VIII and Francis I. At the same time the latter sent assurances to Rome that he considered the council as very serviceable for the extermination of heresy, carrying on, as regards the holding of a council, the double intrigue he always pursued in reference to German Protestantism. The visit of Charles V to Rome in 1536 led to a complete agreement between him and the pope concerning the council. On 2 June, Paul III published the Bull calling all patriarchs, archbishops, bishops, and abbots to assemble at Mantua on 23 May, 1537, for a general council. Cardinal legates were sent with an invitation to the council to the emperor, the King of the Romans, the King of France, while a number of other nuncios carried the invitation to the other Christian countries. The Netherlander Peter van der Vorst was sent to Germany to persuade the German ruling princes to take part. The Protestant rulers received the ambassador most ungraciously; at Smalkald they refused the invitation curtly, although in 1530 they had demanded a council. Francis I took advantage of the war that had broken out between himself and Charles in 1536 to declare the journey of the French bishops to the council impossible.
Meanwhile preparations were carried on with zeal at Rome. The commission of reform, appointed in July, 1536, drew up a report as the basis for the correction of the abuses in ecclesiastical life; the pope began preparations for the journey to Mantua. The Duke of Mantua now raised objections against the holding of the assembly in his city and made conditions which it was not possible to accept at Rome. The opening of the council, therefore, was put off to 1 November; later it was decided to open it at Vicenza on 1 May, 1538. The course of affairs, however, was continually obstructed by Francis I. Nevertheless the legates who were to preside at the council went to Vicenza. Only six bishops were present. The French king and the pope met at Nice, and it was decided to prorogue until Easter, 1539. Soon after this the emperor also desired to postpone the council, as he hoped to restore religious unity in Germany by conferences with the Protestants. After further unsuccessful negotiations both with Charles V and Francis I the council was indefinitely prorogued at the consistory of 21 May, 1539, to reassemble at the pope's discretion. When Paul III and Charles V met at Lucca in September, 1541, the former again raised the question of the council. The emperor now consented that it should meet at Vicenza, but Venice would not agree, whereupon the emperor proposed Trent, and later Cardinal Contarini suggested Mantua, but nothing was decided. The emperor and Francis I were invited later to send the cardinals of their countries to Rome, so that the question of the council could be discussed by the college of cardinals . Morone worked in Germany as legate for the council, and the pope agreed to hold it at Trent. After further consultations at Rome, Paul III convoked on 22 May, 1542, an ecumenical council to meet at Trent on 1 Nov. of the same year. The Protestants made violent attacks on the council, and Francis I opposed it energetically, not even permitting the Bull of convocation to be published in his kingdom.
The German Catholic princes and King Sigismund of Poland consented to the convocation. Charles V, enraged at the neutral position of the pope in the war that was threatening between himself and Francis I, as well as with the wording of the Bull, wrote a reproachful letter to Paul III. Nevertheless, preparations were made for the council at Trent, by special papal commissioners, and three cardinals were appointed later as conciliary legates. The conduct, however, of Francis I and of the emperor again prevented the opening of the council. A few Italian and German bishops appeared at Trent. The pope went to Bologna in March 1543, and to a conference with Charles V at Busseto in June, yet matters were not advanced. The strained relations which appeared anew between pope and emperor, and the war between Charles V and Francis I, led to another prorogation (6 July, 1543). After the Peace of Crespy (17 Sept., 1544) a reconciliation was effected between Paul III and Charles V. Francis I had abandoned his opposition and declared himself in favour of Trent as the place of meeting, as did the emperor. On 19 Nov., 1544, the Bull "Laetare Hierusalem" was issued, by which the council was again convoked to meet at Trent on 15 March, 1545. Cardinals Giovanni del Monte, Marcello Cervini, and Reginald Pole were appointed in February, 1545, as the papal legates to preside at the council. As in March only a few bishops had come to Trent, the date of opening had to be deferred again. The emperor, however, desired a speedy opening, consequently 13 December, 1545, was appointed as the date of the first formal session. This was held in the choir of the cathedral of Trent after the first president of the council, Cardinal del Monte, had celebrated the Mass of the Holy Ghost. When the Bull of convocation and the Bull appointing the conciliary legates were read, Cardinal del Monte declared the ecumenical council opened, and appointed 7 January as the date of the second session. Besides the three presiding legates there were present: Cardinal Madruzza, Bishop of Trent, four archbishops, twenty-one bishops, five generals of orders. The council was attended, in addition, by the legates of the King of Germany, Ferdinand, and by forty-two theologians, and nine canonists, who had been summoned as consultors.
II. ORDER OF BUSINESS
In the work of accomplishing its great task the council had to contend with many difficulties. The first weeks were occupied mainly with settling the order of business of the assembly. After long discussion it was agreed that the matters to be taken into consideration by the members of the council were to be proposed by the cardinal legates ; after they had been drawn up by a commission of consultors ( congregatio theologorum minorum ) they were to be discussed thoroughly in preparatory sessions of special congregations of prelates for dogmatic questions, and similar congregations for legal questions ( congregatio proelatorum theologorum and congregatio proelatorum canonistarum ). Originally the fathers of the council were divided into three congregations for discussion of subjects, but this was soon done away with as too cumbersome. After all the preliminary discussions the matter thus made ready was debated in detail in the general congregation ( congregatio generalis ) and the final form of the decrees was settled on. These general congregations were composed of all bishops, generals of orders, and abbots who were entitled to a vote, the proxies of absent members entitled to a vote, and the representatives ( oratores ) of the secular rulers. The decrees resulting from such exhaustive debates were then brought forward in the formal sessions and votes were taken upon them. On 18 December the legates laid seventeen articles before the general congregations as regards the order of procedure in the subjects to be discussed. This led to a number of difficulties. The main one was whether dogmatic questions or the reform of church life should be discussed first. It was finally decided that both subjects should be debated simultaneously. Thus after the promulgation in the sessions of the decrees concerning the dogmas of the Church followed a similar promulgation of those on discipline and Church reform. The question was also raised whether the generals of orders and abbots were members of the council entitled to a vote. Opinions varied greatly on this point. Still, after long discussion the decision was reached that one vote for the entire order belonged to each general of an order, and that the three Benedictine abbots sent by the pope to represent the entire order were entitled to only one vote.
Violent differences of opinion appeared during the preparatory discussion of the decree to be laid before the second session determining the title to be given the council; the question was whether there should be added to the title "Holy Council of Trent" ( Sacrosancta tridentina synodus ) the words "representing the Church universal" ( universalem ecclesiam reproesentans ). According to the Bishop of Fiesole, Braccio Martello, a number of the members of the council desired the latter form. However, such a title, although justified in itself, appeared dangerous to the legates and other members of the council on account of its bearing on the Councils of Constance and Basle, as it might be taken to express the superiority of the ecumenical council over the pope. Therefore instead of this formula the additional phrase " oecumenica et generalis " was proposed and accepted by nearly all the bishops. Only three bishops who raised the question unsuccessfully several times later persisted in wanting the formula "universalem ecclesiam reproesentans". A further point was in reference to the proxies of absent bishops, namely, whether these were entitled to a vote or not. Originally the proxies were not allowed a vote; Paul III granted to those German bishops who could not leave their dioceses on account of religious troubles, and to them alone, representation by proxies. In 1562, when the council met again, Pius IV withdrew this permission. Other regulations were also passed, in regard to the right of the members to draw the revenues of their dioceses during the session of the council, and concerning the mode of life of the members. At a later date, during the third period of the council, various modifications were made in these decisions. Thus the theologians of the council, who had grown in the meantime into a large body, were divided into six classes, each of which received a number of drafts of decrees for discussion. Special deputations also were often appointed for special questions. The entire regulation of the debates was a very prudent one, and offered every guarantee for an absolutely objective and exhaustive discussion in all their bearings of the questions brought up for debate. A regular courier service was maintained between Rome and Trent, so that the pope was kept fully informed in regard to the debates of the council.
III. THE WORK AND SESSIONS A. First Period at Trent
Among the fathers of the council and the theologians who had been summoned to Trent were a number of important men. The legates who presided at the council were equal to their difficult task; Paceco of Jaén, Campeggio of Feltre, and the Bishop of Fiesole already mentioned were especially conspicuous among the bishops who were present at the early sessions. Girolamo Seripando, General of the Augustinian Hermits, was the most prominent of the heads of the orders; of the theologians, the two learned Dominicans, Ambrogio Catarino and Domenico Soto, should be mentioned. After the formal opening session (13 December, 1545), the various questions pertaining to the order of business were debated; neither in the second session (7 January, 1546) nor in the third (4 February, 1546) were any matters touching faith or discipline brought forward. It was only after the third session, when the preliminary questions and the order of business had been essentially settled, that the real work of the council began. The emperor's representative, Francisco de Toledo, did not reach Trent until 15 March, and a further personal representative, Mendoza, arrived on 25 May. The first subject of discussion which was laid before the general congregation by the legates on 8 February was the Scriptures as the source of Divine revelation. After exhaustive preliminary discussions in the various congregations, two decrees were ready for debate at the fourth session (8 April, 1546), and were adopted by the fathers. In treating the canon of Scripture they declare at the same time that in matters of faith and morals the tradition of the Church is, together with the Bible , the standard of supernatural revelation ; then taking up the text and the use of the sacred Books they declare the Vulgate to be the authentic text for sermons and disputations, although this did not exclude textual emendations. It was also determined that the Bible should be interpreted according to the unanimous testimony of the Fathers and never misused for superstitious purposes. Nothing was decided in regard to the translation of the Bible in the vernaculars.
In the meantime earnest discussions concerning the question of church reform had been carried on between the pope and the legates, and a number of items had been suggested by the latter. These had special reference to the Roman Curia and its administration, to the bishops, the ecclesiastical benefices and tithes, the orders, and the training of the clergy. Charles V wished the discussion of the dogmatic questions to be postponed, but the council and the pope could not agree to that, and the council debated dogmas simultaneously with decrees concerning discipline. On 24 May the general congregation took up the discussion of original sin, its nature, consequences, and cancellation by baptism. At the same time the question of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin was brought forward, but the majority of the members finally decided not to give any definite dogmatic decision on this point. The reforms debated concerned the establishment of theological professorships, preaching, and episcopal obligation of residence. In reference to the latter the Spanish bishop, Paceco, raised the point whether this obligation was of Divine origin, or whether it was merely an ecclesiastical ordinance of human origin, a question which led later to long and violent discussions. In the fifth session (17 June, 1546) the decree on the dogma of original sin was promulgated with five canons ( anathemas ) against the corresponding erroneous doctrines; and the first decree on reform ( de reformatione ) was also promulgated. This treats (in two chapters) of professorships of the Scriptures, and of secular learning ( artes liberales ), of those who preach the Divine word, and of the collectors of alms.
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For the following session, which was originally set for 29 July, the matters proposed for general debate were the dogma of justification as the dogmatic question and the obligation of residence as regards bishops as the disciplinary decree ; the treatment of these questions was proposed to the general congregation by the legates on 21 June. The dogma of justification brought up for debate one of the fundamental questions which had to be discussed with reference to the heretics of the sixteenth century, and which in itself presented great difficulties. The imperial party sought to block the discussion of the entire matter, some of the fathers were anxious on account of the approaching war of Charles V against the Protestant princes, and there was fresh dissension between the emperor and the pope. However, the debates on the question were prosecuted with the greatest zeal ; animated, at times even stormy, discussions took place; the debate of the next general session had to be postponed. No less than sixty-one general congregations and forty-four other congregations were held for the debate of the important subjects of justification and the obligation of residence, before the matters were ready for the final decision. At the sixth regular session on 13 January, 1547, was promulgated the masterly decree on justification ( de justificatione ), which consisted of a prooemium or preface and sixteen chapters with thirty-three canons in condemnation of the opposing heresies. The decree on reform of this session was one in five chapters respecting the obligation of residence of bishops and of the occupants of ecclesiastical benefices or offices. These decrees make the sixth session one of the most important and decisive of the entire council.
The legates proposed to the general congregation as the subject-matter for the following session, the doctrine of the Church as to the sacraments, and for the disciplinary question a series of ordinances respecting both the appointment and official activities of bishops, and on ecclesiastical benefices. When the questions had been debated, in the seventh session (3 March, 1547), a dogmatic decree with suitable canons was promulgated on the sacraments in general (thirteen canons), on baptism (fourteen canons), and on confirmation (three canons); a decree on reform (in fifteen chapters) was also enacted in regard to bishops and ecclesiastical benefices, in particular as to pluralities, visitations, and exemptions, concerning the founding of infirmaries, and as to the legal affairs of the clergy. Before this session was held the question of the prorogation of the council or its transfer to another city had been discussed. The relations between pope and emperor had grown even more strained; the Smalkaldic War had begun in Germany ; and now an infectious disease broke out in Trent, carrying off the general of the Franciscans and others. The cardinal legates, therefore, in the eighth session (11 March, 1547) proposed the transfer of the council to another city, supporting themselves in this action by a Brief which had been given them by the pope some time before. The majority of the fathers voted to transfer the council to Bologna, and on the following day (12 March) the legates went there. By the ninth session the number of participants had risen to four cardinals, nine archbishops, forty-nine bishops, two proxies, two abbots, three generals of orders, and fifty theologians.
The majority of the fathers of the council went with the cardinal legates from Trent to Bologna; but fourteen bishops who belonged to the party of Charles V remained at Trent and would not recognize the transfer. The sudden change of place without any special consultation beforehand with the pope did not please Paul III, who probably foresaw that this would lead to further severe difficulties between himself and the emperor. As a matter of fact Charles V was very indignant at the change, and through his ambassador Vaga protested against it, vigorously urging a return to Trent. The emperor's defeat of the Smalkaldic League increased his power. Influential cardinals sought to mediate between the emperor and the pope, but the negotiations failed. The emperor protested formally against the transfer to Bologna, and, refusing to permit the Spanish bishops who had remained at Trent to leave that city, began negotiations again with the German Protestants on his own responsibility. Consequently at the ninth session of the council held at Bologna on 21 April, 1547, the only decree issued was one proroguing the session. The same action was all that was taken in the tenth session on 2 June, 1547, although there had been exhaustive debates on various subjects in congregations. The tension between the emperor and the pope had increased despite the efforts of Cardinals Sfondrato and Madruzzo. All negotiations were fruitless. The bishops who had remained at Trent had held no sessions, but when the pope called to Rome four of the bishops at Bologna and four of those at Trent, the latter said in excuse that they could not obey the call. Paul III had now to expect extreme opposition from the emperor. Therefore, on 13 September, he proclaimed the suspension of the council and commanded the cardinal legate del Monte to dismiss the members of the council assembled at Bologna; this was done on 17 September. The bishops were called to Rome, where they were to prepare decrees for disciplinary reforms. This closed the first period of the council. On 10 Nov., 1549, the pope died.C. Second Period at Trent
The successor of Paul III was Julius III (1550-55), Giovanni del Monte, first cardinal legate of the council. He at once began negotiations with the emperor to reopen the council. On 14 Nov., 1550, he issued the Bull "Quum ad tollenda," in which the reassembling at Trent was arranged. As presidents he appointed Cardinal Marcellus Crescentius, Archbishop Sebastian Pighinus of Siponto, and Bishop Aloysius Lipomanni of Verona. The cardinal legate reached Trent on 29 April, 1551, where, besides the bishop of the city, fourteen bishops from the countries ruled by the emperor were in attendance; several bishops came from Rome, where they had been staying, and on 1 May, 1551, the eleventh session was held. In this the resumption of the council was decreed, and 1 September was appointed as the date of the next session. The Sacrament of the Eucharist and drafts of further disciplinary decrees were discussed in the congregations of the theologians and also in several general congregations. Among the theologians were Lainez and Salmeron, who had been sent by the pope, and Johannes Arza, who represented the emperor. Ambassadors of the emperor, King Ferdinand, and Henry II of France were present. The King of France, however, was unwilling to allow any French bishop to go to the council. In the twelfth session (1 Sept., 1551) the only decision was the prorogation until 11 October. This was due to the expectation of the arrival of other German bishops, besides the Archbishops of Mainz and Trier who were already in attendance. The thirteenth session was held on 11 Oct., 1551; it promulgated a comprehensive decree on the Sacrament of the Eucharist (in eight chapters and eleven canons) and also a decree on reform (in eight chapters) in regard to the supervision to be exercised by bishops, and on episcopal jurisdiction. Another decree deferred until the next session the discussion of four articles concerning the Eucharist, namely, Communion under the two species of bread and wine and the Communion of children ; a safe-conduct was also issued for Protestants who desired to come to the council. An ambassador of Joachim II of Brandenburg had already reached Trent.
The presidents laid before the general congregation of 15 October drafts of definitions of the Sacraments of Penance and Extreme Unction for discussion. These subjects occupied the congregations of theologians, among whom Gropper, Nausea, Tapper, and Hessels were especially prominent, and also the general congregations during the months of October and November. At the fourteenth session, held on 25 November, the dogmatic decree promulgated contained nine chapters on the dogma of the Church respecting the Sacrament of Penance and three chapters on extreme unction. To the chapters on penance were added fifteen canons condemning heretical teachings on this point, and four canons condemning heresies to the chapters on unction. The decree on reform treated the discipline of the clergy and various matters respecting ecclesiastical benefices. In the meantime, ambassadors from several Protestant princes and cities reached Trent. They made various demands, as: that the earlier decisions which were contrary to the Augsburg Confession should be recalled; that debates on questions in dispute between Catholics and Protestants should be deferred; that the subordination of the pope to an ecumenical council should be defined; and other propositions which the council could not accept. Since the close of the last session both the theologians and the general congregations had been occupied in numerous assemblies with the dogma of the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass and of the ordination of priests, as well as with plans for new reformatory decrees. At the fifteenth session (25 January, 1552), in order to make some advances to the ambassadors of the Protestants, the decisions in regard to the subjects under consideration were postponed and a new safe-conduct, such as they had desired, was drawn up for them. Besides the three papal legates and Cardinal Madruzzo, there were present at Trent ten archbishops and fifty-four bishops, most of them from the countries ruled by the emperor. On account of the treacherous attack made by Maurice of Saxony on Charles V, the city of Trent and the members of the council were placed in danger; consequently, at the sixteenth session (23 April, 1552) a decree suspending the council for two years was promulgated. However, a considerably longer period of time elapsed before it could resume its sessions.D. Third Period at Trent
Julius III did not live to call the council together again. He was followed by Marcellus II (1555), a former cardinal legate at Trent, Marcello Cervino; Marcellus died twenty-two days after his election. His successor, the austere Paul IV (1555-9), energetically carried out internal reforms both in Rome and in the other parts of the Church ; but he did not seriously consider reconvening the council. Pius IV (1559-65) announced to the cardinals shortly after his election his intention of reopening the council. Indeed, he had found the right man, his nephew, the Cardinal Archbishop of Milan, Charles Borromeo , to complete the important work and to bring its decisions into customary usage in the Church. Great difficulties were raised once more on various sides. The Emperor Ferdinand desired the council, but wished it to be held in some German city, and not at Trent ; moreover he desired it to meet not as a continuation of the earlier assembly but as a new council. The King of France also desired the assembling of a new council, but he did not wish it at Trent. The Protestants of Germany worked in every way against the assembling of the Council. After long negotiations Ferdinand, the Kings of Spain and Portugal, Catholic Switzerland, and Venice left the matter to the pope. On 29 Nov., 1560, the Bull "Ad ecclesiae regimen," by which the council was ordered to meet again at Trent at Easter, 1561, was published. Notwithstanding all the efforts of the papal nuncios, Delfino and Commendone, the German Protestants persisted in their opposition. Cardinal Ercole Gonzaga was appointed president of the council; he was to be assisted by the cardinal legates Stanislaus Hosius, Jacobus Puteus (du Puy), Hieronymus Seripando, Luigi Simonetta, and Marcus Siticus of Altemps. As the bishops made their appearance very slowly, the opening of the council was delayed. Finally on 18 Jan., 1562, the seventeenth session was held; it proclaimed the revocation of the suspension of the council and appointed the date for the next session. There were present, besides the four cardinal legates, one cardinal, three patriarchs, eleven archbishops, forty bishops, four abbots, and four generals of orders; in addition thirty-four theologians were in attendance. The ambassadors of the princes were a source of much trouble to the presidents of the council and made demands which were in part impossible. The Protestants continued to calumniate the assembly. Emperor Ferdinand wished to have the discussion of dogmatic questions deferred.
At the eighteenth session (25 Feb., 1562) the only matters decided were the publication of a decree concerning the drawing up of a list of forbidden books and an agreement as to a safe-conduct for Protestants. At the next two sessions, the nineteenth on 14 May, and the twentieth on 4 June, 1562, only decrees proroguing the council were issued. The number of members had, it is true, increased, and various ambassadors of Catholic rulers had arrived at Trent, but some princes continued to raise obstacles both as to the character of the council and the place of meeting. Emperor Ferdinand sent an exhaustive plan of church reform which contained many articles impossible to accept. The legates, however, continued the work of the assembly, and presented the draft of the decree on Holy Communion , which treated especially the question of Communion under both species, as well as drafts of several disciplinary decrees. These questions were subjected to the usual discussions. At the twenty-first session (16 July, 1562) the decree on Communion under both species and on the Communion of children was promulgated in four chapters and four canons. A decree upon reformation in nine chapters was also promulgated ; it treated ordination to the priesthood, the revenues of canons, the founding of new parishes, and the collectors of alms. Articles on the Sacrifice of the Mass were now laid before the congregations for discussion; in the following months there were long and animated debates over the dogma. At the twenty-second session, which was not held until 17 Sept., 1562, four decrees were promulgated : the first contained the dogma of the Church on the Sacrifice of the Mass (in nine chapters and nine canons); the second directed the suppression of abuses in the offering of the Holy Sacrifice ; a third (in eleven chapters) treated reform, especially in regard to the morals of the clergy, the requirements necessary before ecclesiastical offices could be assumed, wills, the administration of religious foundations; the fourth treated the granting of the cup to the laity at Communion, which was left to the discretion of the pope.
The council had hardly ever been in as difficult a position as that in which it now found itself. The secular rulers made contradictory and, in part, impossible demands. At the same time warm debates were held by the fathers on the questions of the duty of residence and the relations of the bishops to the pope. The French bishops who arrived on 13 November made several dubious propositions. Cardinals Gonzaga and Seripando, who were of the number of cardinal legates, died. The two new legates and presidents, Morone and Navagero, gradually mastered the difficulties. The various points of the dogma concerning the ordination of priests were discussed both in the congregations of the eighty-four theologians, among whom Salmeron, Soto, and Lainez were the most prominent, and in the general congregations. Finally, on 15 July, 1563, the twenty-third session was held. It promulgated the decree on the Sacrament of Orders and on the ecclesiastical hierarchy (in four chapters and eight canons), and a decree on reform (in eighteen chapters). This disciplinary decree treated the obligation of residence, the conferring of the different grades of ordination, and the education of young clerics (seminarists). The decrees which were proclaimed to the Church at this session were the result of long and arduous debates, in which 235 members entitled to a vote took part. Disputes now arose once more as to whether the council should be speedily terminated or should be carried on longer. In the meantime the congregations debated the draft of the decree on the Sacrament of Matrimony, and at the twenty-fourth session (11 Nov., 1563) there were promulgated a dogmatic decree (with twelve canons) on marriage as a sacrament and a reformatory decree (in ten chapters), which treated the various conditions requisite for contracting of a valid marriage. A general decree on reform (in twenty-one chapters) was also published which treated the various questions connected with the administration of ecclesiastical offices.
The desire for the closing of the council grew stronger among all connected with it, and it was decided to close it as speedily as possible. A number of questions had been discussed preliminarily and were now ready for final definition. Consequently in the twenty-fifth and final session, which occupied two days (3-4 December, 1563), the following decrees were approved and promulgated : on 3 December a dogmatic decree on the veneration and invocation of the saints, and on the relics and images of the same; a
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This heading may not roll off the tongue as readily as “Happy Christmas”, but celebrations of the solstice at the sunset on 20-22 December predated Christmas by some 4,500 years. Solstice celebrations have been found by archaeologists to have included considerable eating of fattened pigs and drinking of ale or mead. Not so different from our present-day Christmas festivities!
Readers of this column may have noted I have a keen interest with the times before the Romans arrived: the Iron, Bronze and Neolithic ages. As a small boy I passed through Avebury en route to Swindon to visit one of my aunts and I saw the stone circle there for the first time. I asked my father what it was and his reply was “Thats Avebury, thats all”. Neither Avebury or Stonehenge were mentioned to us at school, although we were within about 25 miles of these great monuments. So a friend and I cycled to Stonehenge, when we were about 13 or so and found it open and free to roam around and touch the stones. We were in awe of the size of the stones, how and who moved them and why? How times have changed. In the last few years archaeologists have made great strides in investigating the great henge monuments and explaining them to us.
Time Team has shown us the largest henge in the country, Durrington Walls, the largest stone age settlement in Europe, near Stonehenge. Durrington is not as well known as Stonehenge as it has no obvious stones and has now been crossed by a road. It had two huge circles of oak pillars, each weighing about 5 tons and over ten feet tall. These have decayed leaving only traces of their footings in the soil, radio carbon-dated to about 2,500 BC. It was built on sloping land so its southern circle faces only the midwinter sunrise, unlike Stonehenge which is of similar date. Archaeologist Professor Mike Parker-Pearson has said that Durrington must have been the largest Neolithic settlement in Europe and was probably the construction camp for Stonehenge, maybe only for some months of each year. It probably closed around 2,500 BC, after some 40 to 50 years, according to the dating of animal bones. Nine houses have been excavated, the best having been decorated with chalk slurry. Many more houses must have been on-site to accommodate the required builders. Large amounts of pottery have been found there. Also 80,000 animal bones, especially pig, originating from all over the country as far as Scotland. The pigs were 9 months old and surprisingly had caries, tooth decay, possibly they had been fed on a diet of honey for the midwinter festivities. No doubt ale was drunk in quantity to wash down the pork! Cattle were also butchered on the site. This would have been the greatest event in peoples’ calendar, when they came together to celebrate the Solstice with a huge midwinter feast.
Parker-Pearson excavated a road 10 m wide from Durrington Henge to the River Avon. This is the first Neolithic road to have been found. It had a platform near the river with possibly 4 standing stones and stones forming the base. His theory is that people brought ashes of their deceased to Durrington and went along this road at the midwinter sunrise to the River Avon, where the river would take them to Stonehenge. There they could process along the Avenue to Stonehenge itself, for burial at midwinter sunset, said to be the largest cremation cemetery in Britain. A circle of holes, named after their finder, John Aubrey, has been found to contain evidence of numerous cremation remains. (Aubrey wrote a review of Stonehenge in 1663 for Charles II). The Stonehenge Avenue is now said to have been created by the action of glaciers creating grooves, long before the henges or the Neolithic people were conceived. The grooves coincidentally line up with the midsummer sunrise and in recognition of this Stonehenge may have been created.
Parker-Pearson also suggests that the timber circles of “living” wood where so many people lived during the construction of Stonehenge compares with the permanent “dead” stone circle. Finds at Durrington have included polished pig bone clothespins, a clay oil lamp, a 4,500 year old cooking pot and hundreds of flint arrowheads for hunting pigs. It was not just a local community effort, but people came from all across southern Britain and may have formed the largest congregation in Europe. Jane Evans of Nottingham University believes that strontium isotopes in cattle teeth provide land signatures which show that only one was local, with a large number from 50 miles distant, a few from Wales, Cornwall and possibly Scotland.
Moving onto Stonehenge it has been suggested that this monument must have been the talk of Europe once it was complete. Few other countries have stone circles. Europe generally had rows of standing stones one of the best known being at Carnac in France. Bones excavated at Stonehenge ave been found to have been from people across the Channel, some showing signs of illness or injury which had occurred sometime before death. It has been suggested that Stonehenge was a healing centre. However before the stone circle was erected it was a burial centre for cremation remains, covering a wide area of the locality. This obviously continued after Stonehenge was complete.
Professor Mike Pitts believes the Aubrey Holes originally contained the Blue Stones from the Presili Mountains of Wales which were moved to their present positions later in the development. Recent analysis of human bones has shown high readings of strontium in some which suggests they originated in Wales, so perhaps they brought the Blue Stones and erected them. Most of the larger Sarsen stones were worked, or dressed. After a few more changes we are left with the Stonehenge we now see and love. Luckily it was built on Salisbury Plain which was largely undisturbed.
Avebury is larger than Stonehenge but its Sarsens were not worked. It has the long Kennet Avenue of alternately tall and wide stones which leads down to the so called “Sanctuary” across the road and is denoted by concrete “stones”, as the originals have been robbed. There are two other ancient monuments nearby, Silbury Hill about half a mile away and the West Kennet burial mound a little further away and which predated Avebury by several hundred years. Avebury suffered by having a village built close to it, with some of its houses using stones robbed from the monument. In the middle ages some priests preached that stone monuments were the work of the Devil. Recently Professor Alice Roberts reported on TV that an excavation at the centre of one of its circles found the remains of a square wooden dwelling surrounded by a square of stones, now represented by post holes. It has been suggested that this square predates the stone circles by around 2,000 years.
We look forward to further work at Avebury to match that at Durrington.
I wish you a “Happy Mid Winter Solstice”. Just imagine walking along the Avenue towards Stonehenge into the midwinter sunset viewed through the Great Trilithon and then feasting on a Solstice supper of fattened sweet cured hog roast, swilled down with copious flagons of grog!
Bridport History Society meets well before the Solstice on 10th December at 2.30 pm in the Main Hall of Bridport United Church, when “Tinkers Cus and friends” will present Light to the darkness: from war to a new start, local history and stories from the First World War and the Peace in 1919. All welcome, visitors fee £3. To be followed by tea and mince pies.
Cecil Amor, Hon President,
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0.459867596... | 4 | This heading may not roll off the tongue as readily as “Happy Christmas”, but celebrations of the solstice at the sunset on 20-22 December predated Christmas by some 4,500 years. Solstice celebrations have been found by archaeologists to have included considerable eating of fattened pigs and drinking of ale or mead. Not so different from our present-day Christmas festivities!
Readers of this column may have noted I have a keen interest with the times before the Romans arrived: the Iron, Bronze and Neolithic ages. As a small boy I passed through Avebury en route to Swindon to visit one of my aunts and I saw the stone circle there for the first time. I asked my father what it was and his reply was “Thats Avebury, thats all”. Neither Avebury or Stonehenge were mentioned to us at school, although we were within about 25 miles of these great monuments. So a friend and I cycled to Stonehenge, when we were about 13 or so and found it open and free to roam around and touch the stones. We were in awe of the size of the stones, how and who moved them and why? How times have changed. In the last few years archaeologists have made great strides in investigating the great henge monuments and explaining them to us.
Time Team has shown us the largest henge in the country, Durrington Walls, the largest stone age settlement in Europe, near Stonehenge. Durrington is not as well known as Stonehenge as it has no obvious stones and has now been crossed by a road. It had two huge circles of oak pillars, each weighing about 5 tons and over ten feet tall. These have decayed leaving only traces of their footings in the soil, radio carbon-dated to about 2,500 BC. It was built on sloping land so its southern circle faces only the midwinter sunrise, unlike Stonehenge which is of similar date. Archaeologist Professor Mike Parker-Pearson has said that Durrington must have been the largest Neolithic settlement in Europe and was probably the construction camp for Stonehenge, maybe only for some months of each year. It probably closed around 2,500 BC, after some 40 to 50 years, according to the dating of animal bones. Nine houses have been excavated, the best having been decorated with chalk slurry. Many more houses must have been on-site to accommodate the required builders. Large amounts of pottery have been found there. Also 80,000 animal bones, especially pig, originating from all over the country as far as Scotland. The pigs were 9 months old and surprisingly had caries, tooth decay, possibly they had been fed on a diet of honey for the midwinter festivities. No doubt ale was drunk in quantity to wash down the pork! Cattle were also butchered on the site. This would have been the greatest event in peoples’ calendar, when they came together to celebrate the Solstice with a huge midwinter feast.
Parker-Pearson excavated a road 10 m wide from Durrington Henge to the River Avon. This is the first Neolithic road to have been found. It had a platform near the river with possibly 4 standing stones and stones forming the base. His theory is that people brought ashes of their deceased to Durrington and went along this road at the midwinter sunrise to the River Avon, where the river would take them to Stonehenge. There they could process along the Avenue to Stonehenge itself, for burial at midwinter sunset, said to be the largest cremation cemetery in Britain. A circle of holes, named after their finder, John Aubrey, has been found to contain evidence of numerous cremation remains. (Aubrey wrote a review of Stonehenge in 1663 for Charles II). The Stonehenge Avenue is now said to have been created by the action of glaciers creating grooves, long before the henges or the Neolithic people were conceived. The grooves coincidentally line up with the midsummer sunrise and in recognition of this Stonehenge may have been created.
Parker-Pearson also suggests that the timber circles of “living” wood where so many people lived during the construction of Stonehenge compares with the permanent “dead” stone circle. Finds at Durrington have included polished pig bone clothespins, a clay oil lamp, a 4,500 year old cooking pot and hundreds of flint arrowheads for hunting pigs. It was not just a local community effort, but people came from all across southern Britain and may have formed the largest congregation in Europe. Jane Evans of Nottingham University believes that strontium isotopes in cattle teeth provide land signatures which show that only one was local, with a large number from 50 miles distant, a few from Wales, Cornwall and possibly Scotland.
Moving onto Stonehenge it has been suggested that this monument must have been the talk of Europe once it was complete. Few other countries have stone circles. Europe generally had rows of standing stones one of the best known being at Carnac in France. Bones excavated at Stonehenge ave been found to have been from people across the Channel, some showing signs of illness or injury which had occurred sometime before death. It has been suggested that Stonehenge was a healing centre. However before the stone circle was erected it was a burial centre for cremation remains, covering a wide area of the locality. This obviously continued after Stonehenge was complete.
Professor Mike Pitts believes the Aubrey Holes originally contained the Blue Stones from the Presili Mountains of Wales which were moved to their present positions later in the development. Recent analysis of human bones has shown high readings of strontium in some which suggests they originated in Wales, so perhaps they brought the Blue Stones and erected them. Most of the larger Sarsen stones were worked, or dressed. After a few more changes we are left with the Stonehenge we now see and love. Luckily it was built on Salisbury Plain which was largely undisturbed.
Avebury is larger than Stonehenge but its Sarsens were not worked. It has the long Kennet Avenue of alternately tall and wide stones which leads down to the so called “Sanctuary” across the road and is denoted by concrete “stones”, as the originals have been robbed. There are two other ancient monuments nearby, Silbury Hill about half a mile away and the West Kennet burial mound a little further away and which predated Avebury by several hundred years. Avebury suffered by having a village built close to it, with some of its houses using stones robbed from the monument. In the middle ages some priests preached that stone monuments were the work of the Devil. Recently Professor Alice Roberts reported on TV that an excavation at the centre of one of its circles found the remains of a square wooden dwelling surrounded by a square of stones, now represented by post holes. It has been suggested that this square predates the stone circles by around 2,000 years.
We look forward to further work at Avebury to match that at Durrington.
I wish you a “Happy Mid Winter Solstice”. Just imagine walking along the Avenue towards Stonehenge into the midwinter sunset viewed through the Great Trilithon and then feasting on a Solstice supper of fattened sweet cured hog roast, swilled down with copious flagons of grog!
Bridport History Society meets well before the Solstice on 10th December at 2.30 pm in the Main Hall of Bridport United Church, when “Tinkers Cus and friends” will present Light to the darkness: from war to a new start, local history and stories from the First World War and the Peace in 1919. All welcome, visitors fee £3. To be followed by tea and mince pies.
Cecil Amor, Hon President,
Bridport History Society. | 1,661 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Date of Award
One of the most common conditions that affects people as they get older is presbycusis, the gradual loss of hearing (“Age-Related Hearing Loss”). Because of this, components of American Sign Language (ASL) were taught to elderly persons at Stillwater Senior Living assisted living facility in Edwardsville, IL with the purpose of improving access to communication. Helpful words to know in assisted living such as “want, food, hurt, and better” were taught. In addition, students were taught to feel comfortable with gestures such as pointing or thumbs up as a way to communicate. After learning how to sign certain words, students were taught how to form these terms into phrases that could be used everyday. For example, using the words “water” and “want” to form the sentence “I want water.” A Google Slides presentation was created for each class, as well as paper handouts that students could refer to later. The first handout included every letter of the alphabet so that students could practice signing their name outside of class. The second worksheet, given at the last class, had pictures for how to sign some of the most important words learned throughout the class. By the final class, students had formed a strong interest in learning sign language and were able to form beginner sentences as well as introduce themselves in sign language. Students were excited to learn more signs and practice signing with each other even after the class was over. | <urn:uuid:1c549844-62d0-4aca-8e6b-3d442be3a6ed> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/uhp_theses/462/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00427.warc.gz | en | 0.985848 | 304 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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One of the most common conditions that affects people as they get older is presbycusis, the gradual loss of hearing (“Age-Related Hearing Loss”). Because of this, components of American Sign Language (ASL) were taught to elderly persons at Stillwater Senior Living assisted living facility in Edwardsville, IL with the purpose of improving access to communication. Helpful words to know in assisted living such as “want, food, hurt, and better” were taught. In addition, students were taught to feel comfortable with gestures such as pointing or thumbs up as a way to communicate. After learning how to sign certain words, students were taught how to form these terms into phrases that could be used everyday. For example, using the words “water” and “want” to form the sentence “I want water.” A Google Slides presentation was created for each class, as well as paper handouts that students could refer to later. The first handout included every letter of the alphabet so that students could practice signing their name outside of class. The second worksheet, given at the last class, had pictures for how to sign some of the most important words learned throughout the class. By the final class, students had formed a strong interest in learning sign language and were able to form beginner sentences as well as introduce themselves in sign language. Students were excited to learn more signs and practice signing with each other even after the class was over. | 290 | ENGLISH | 1 |
January 11, 2020 by Pamela Nowak
The Dakota Conflict began for the settlement at Lake Shetek just after sunrise on August 20, 1862.
The settlement consisted of nine cabins stretched along the east side of the lake, the cabins being approximately one mile distant from one another. The nine families and four bachelors had settled at the lake over a period of four years. The nearest town was New Ulm, located 70 miles to the east.
For the most part, their interactions with the local Dakota, Sissetons from five villages scattered around the area, had been peaceful with trade interaction and relationships developed. Aaron Myers, at the north end of the lake, was known as an herb doctor and frequently treated ill and injured tribal members. The Wrights, near the south end of the lake, were engaged in trading with Julia Wright often compensating for her husband’s mistakes with them. Prior to the attack, a small group had been camped near the Myers place and another group, Pawn (Across the River) among them, was camped near the Wright cabin.
On August 18, leaders from several of the Shetek villages had attended the council to discuss the war. Included were Lean Bear (also known as Grizzly Bear, chief of Old Sleepy-Eye’s band), White Lodge, the son of Limping Devil, and Blue Face. All were in agreement that Whites in the area should be killed. However, sentiment among others in their villages was not fully in support. Many had forged relationships with the Shetek settlers and urged they be allowed to flee to the East. Accounts given by survivors indicate they were still in disagreement on the morning of the attack.
Around sunrise on August 20, 1862, a group of Sissetons rode into Aaron Myers’s fenced field at the north end of Lake Shetek. Myers yelled at the riders, asking they not destroy his crop and reminding them he had always offered medical care to any Dakota who needed it. The riders departed without further incident. Later that morning, Myers’s son would discover what happened at the Hurd cabin and the Myers family would flee toward New Ulm.
At the same time, Almena Hurd, at the second cabin, was milking cows when a group of Dakota approached. Almena’s husband was missing, after leaving nearly two months before to scout land in Dakota Territory. Two bachelors had purchased the Hurd property and one of them, John Voigt, was staying there. Almena had a good relationship with the local Sisseton, having frequently traded butter and cheese with them. She invited the group to breakfast with her. Voigt had an uneasy relationship with the Dakota and had shot at a Dakota woman in the weeks before. When Voigt exited the house, he was shot by Dakota who had hidden in the trees. Almena was told to take her two young children and go eastward. She was escorted onto the prairie and left to walk to the nearest settlement.
At the Koch cabin, a mile or so to the south, a smaller group of Sisseton visited. Andreas Koch, who spoke with a heavy German accent and had little tolerance for the Dakota, accompanied the men to a target-shooting area away from the house. He was shot. Christina (Mariah) Koch was told to go east but chose instead to run southward down the lake to warn the other settlers. Charlie Hatch, a brother to Mrs. Everett, on his way from the south end of the lake to borrow an ox from Mrs. Hurd, arrived about that time and saw Koch on the ground. Hatch immediately ran southward to launch his own warning.
One by one, the Ireland, Eastlick, Duley, Smith, Wright, and Everett families received warnings. They fled via short-cuts down the lakeshore as Dakota approached from the longer route they’d taken around smaller lakes and sloughs. The settlers assembled at the Wright cabin, which was largest, had a partial second-story, and believed to be the most defensible.
It was roughly around 8:00 a.m. on August 20 when the settlers gathered at the Wright cabin. John Wright was away at the time and the practical Julia Wright set about organizing the settlers. Familiar with the Dakota who often traded with her husband, she also served as a go-between with the small encampment near the cabin. Pawn/Across the River offered protection to the settlers and the men in his group were provided ammunition to help defend the group. Historical accounts regarding Pawn have alleged that he tricked the settlers but his true motivations and role may have been more complex. Given that the settlers to the north (Myers, Almena Hurd, and Christina Koch) who had relationships with locals were allowed to flee without harm, it makes sense that Pawn would have desired to spare those with whom he had relationships. Julia Wright left no account—a loss for historians—but kinship values would have created a bond between her and those who were well-known to the Wrights.
The settlers crowded into the Wright cabin while the more hostile group, led by Lean Bear/Grizzly Bear arrived. There were several shows of power and exchanges of indirect gunfire as well as negotiations between Pawn and Lean Bear. Lean Bear was in a position of power. He had attended the council on August 18 (advocating for killing all the settlers) and was recognized as the leader of his village. The leaders of the other local villages, White Lodge among them, had also attended and agreed with Lean Bear. Pawn would have been respected among his people but not in a leadership position at the time.
After several back-and-forth discussions over the course of a couple hours, Pawn returned to the Wright cabin and informed the settlers that they would be allowed to leave, to walk to the east, but that they must take nothing with them nor resist in any way. There was much disagreement among the men in the group but they ultimately left the cabin on foot, walking along the mail route toward New Ulm. A few of the men sent Charlie Hatch down the shore of the lake, to the Everett cabin, telling him to get a team of horses and a wagon and meet them on the trail.
Meanwhile, Christina Hurd struggled to find her way east, alone on the prairie with a baby and a toddler, none of them with shoes, food, or water.
As the Lake Shetek settlers departed the Wright cabin, they were watched by Lean Bear’s group, who climbed onto the roof to monitor the departure. About three miles to the east, near a large slough, Charlie Hatch met the group with the wagon and as many women and children as possible clambered aboard. Progress was slow, given the weight, and the Dakota at the Wright cabin became agitated then pursued the group. As the Dakota neared, shots were fired at the settlers (all accounts indicate the shots were fired high, over their heads). The settlers abandoned the wagon and fled into the tall grasses of the slough. Three of the men continued through the slough and on to the east.
Once the Dakota arrived at the slough, several of them began to unharness the horses from the wagon. At this point, shots were fired by at least three of the White men and four Dakota fell, village leader Lean Bear among them. Accounts of the initial shooting vary and it is unclear which group fired the first shot or who killed Lean Bear but the reports of the aftermath are consistent. The Dakota began firing from a hill into the slough. By all accounts, the Dakota had the tactical advantage and the settlers were fired upon for hours. It was an open warfare situation and there is little doubt that revenge played a role. As the day wore on, the killings became more brutal and personal. The Dakota eventually were able to enter the slough and attack hand-to-hand. Many of the Whites who died at that point were family members of those who fired the shots at Lean Bear.
By mid to late afternoon, thunderstorms were forming, many of the settlers were wounded, some were dead. Pawn, who had moved into an unofficial leadership position, asked that the women and children surrender. Julia Wright and Almira Everett were selected to represent those still alive to negotiate an end to the fight.
At the end of the afternoon on August 20, 1862, negotiations at Lake Shetek reached a conclusion. Women and children without critical injuries would be allowed to surrender and would be taken captive by the Sisseton bands at the lake. The men were excluded from the offer as were those who were too injured to travel. Julia Wright, Christina Koch, and Laura Duley were taken captive along with eight children. Almira Everett, who was to be included, chose to stay with her dying husband.
Lavina Eastlick was initially among the women to be taken captive. The wife of one of the men who shot at Lean Bear, she was severely injured with gunshot wounds. Lagging behind, trying to locate her children, she was beaten with a rifle butt and left for dead. In the days following, she would crawl across the prairie toward New Ulm.
During the next three months, the captives would be divided among several captors and traded often for convenience or food/supplies. They would travel nearly a thousand miles on foot, zig-zagging through Minnesota, then Dakota Territory. Christina Koch escaped with Jefferson Duley while still in Minnesota. The youngest Duley child died in captivity. The remaining captives were finally ransomed in late November along with six part-Dakota women (nearly forgotten by the historical record). The effort was accomplished by a group of young men from a Yankton band dubbed the “Fool Soldiers.” Led by Martin Charger, the youths felt it was dishonorable for women and children to be held as captives in a war that should be fought by men. The Fool Soldiers were largely forgotten by history until recent years; credit for the rescue was claimed by General Pattee, who had been en route to rescue them. The military took custody of the captives and delivered them to Fort Randall. By January, they had been reunited with surviving family members.
* * * *
As I count down to my July 2020 release of NEVER LET GO, I’ll be posting weekly blogs about the history of Lake Shetek, the Dakota Conflict or the people and cultures involved. Or, I may touch on the writing process or interesting tidbits included in the novel.
For more details on the novel, please visit my HOME page. | <urn:uuid:4a0767ce-5907-4afc-8838-5d750b1a73fd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.pamelanowak.com/wp/?p=551 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00201.warc.gz | en | 0.988886 | 2,208 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.15050017... | 8 | January 11, 2020 by Pamela Nowak
The Dakota Conflict began for the settlement at Lake Shetek just after sunrise on August 20, 1862.
The settlement consisted of nine cabins stretched along the east side of the lake, the cabins being approximately one mile distant from one another. The nine families and four bachelors had settled at the lake over a period of four years. The nearest town was New Ulm, located 70 miles to the east.
For the most part, their interactions with the local Dakota, Sissetons from five villages scattered around the area, had been peaceful with trade interaction and relationships developed. Aaron Myers, at the north end of the lake, was known as an herb doctor and frequently treated ill and injured tribal members. The Wrights, near the south end of the lake, were engaged in trading with Julia Wright often compensating for her husband’s mistakes with them. Prior to the attack, a small group had been camped near the Myers place and another group, Pawn (Across the River) among them, was camped near the Wright cabin.
On August 18, leaders from several of the Shetek villages had attended the council to discuss the war. Included were Lean Bear (also known as Grizzly Bear, chief of Old Sleepy-Eye’s band), White Lodge, the son of Limping Devil, and Blue Face. All were in agreement that Whites in the area should be killed. However, sentiment among others in their villages was not fully in support. Many had forged relationships with the Shetek settlers and urged they be allowed to flee to the East. Accounts given by survivors indicate they were still in disagreement on the morning of the attack.
Around sunrise on August 20, 1862, a group of Sissetons rode into Aaron Myers’s fenced field at the north end of Lake Shetek. Myers yelled at the riders, asking they not destroy his crop and reminding them he had always offered medical care to any Dakota who needed it. The riders departed without further incident. Later that morning, Myers’s son would discover what happened at the Hurd cabin and the Myers family would flee toward New Ulm.
At the same time, Almena Hurd, at the second cabin, was milking cows when a group of Dakota approached. Almena’s husband was missing, after leaving nearly two months before to scout land in Dakota Territory. Two bachelors had purchased the Hurd property and one of them, John Voigt, was staying there. Almena had a good relationship with the local Sisseton, having frequently traded butter and cheese with them. She invited the group to breakfast with her. Voigt had an uneasy relationship with the Dakota and had shot at a Dakota woman in the weeks before. When Voigt exited the house, he was shot by Dakota who had hidden in the trees. Almena was told to take her two young children and go eastward. She was escorted onto the prairie and left to walk to the nearest settlement.
At the Koch cabin, a mile or so to the south, a smaller group of Sisseton visited. Andreas Koch, who spoke with a heavy German accent and had little tolerance for the Dakota, accompanied the men to a target-shooting area away from the house. He was shot. Christina (Mariah) Koch was told to go east but chose instead to run southward down the lake to warn the other settlers. Charlie Hatch, a brother to Mrs. Everett, on his way from the south end of the lake to borrow an ox from Mrs. Hurd, arrived about that time and saw Koch on the ground. Hatch immediately ran southward to launch his own warning.
One by one, the Ireland, Eastlick, Duley, Smith, Wright, and Everett families received warnings. They fled via short-cuts down the lakeshore as Dakota approached from the longer route they’d taken around smaller lakes and sloughs. The settlers assembled at the Wright cabin, which was largest, had a partial second-story, and believed to be the most defensible.
It was roughly around 8:00 a.m. on August 20 when the settlers gathered at the Wright cabin. John Wright was away at the time and the practical Julia Wright set about organizing the settlers. Familiar with the Dakota who often traded with her husband, she also served as a go-between with the small encampment near the cabin. Pawn/Across the River offered protection to the settlers and the men in his group were provided ammunition to help defend the group. Historical accounts regarding Pawn have alleged that he tricked the settlers but his true motivations and role may have been more complex. Given that the settlers to the north (Myers, Almena Hurd, and Christina Koch) who had relationships with locals were allowed to flee without harm, it makes sense that Pawn would have desired to spare those with whom he had relationships. Julia Wright left no account—a loss for historians—but kinship values would have created a bond between her and those who were well-known to the Wrights.
The settlers crowded into the Wright cabin while the more hostile group, led by Lean Bear/Grizzly Bear arrived. There were several shows of power and exchanges of indirect gunfire as well as negotiations between Pawn and Lean Bear. Lean Bear was in a position of power. He had attended the council on August 18 (advocating for killing all the settlers) and was recognized as the leader of his village. The leaders of the other local villages, White Lodge among them, had also attended and agreed with Lean Bear. Pawn would have been respected among his people but not in a leadership position at the time.
After several back-and-forth discussions over the course of a couple hours, Pawn returned to the Wright cabin and informed the settlers that they would be allowed to leave, to walk to the east, but that they must take nothing with them nor resist in any way. There was much disagreement among the men in the group but they ultimately left the cabin on foot, walking along the mail route toward New Ulm. A few of the men sent Charlie Hatch down the shore of the lake, to the Everett cabin, telling him to get a team of horses and a wagon and meet them on the trail.
Meanwhile, Christina Hurd struggled to find her way east, alone on the prairie with a baby and a toddler, none of them with shoes, food, or water.
As the Lake Shetek settlers departed the Wright cabin, they were watched by Lean Bear’s group, who climbed onto the roof to monitor the departure. About three miles to the east, near a large slough, Charlie Hatch met the group with the wagon and as many women and children as possible clambered aboard. Progress was slow, given the weight, and the Dakota at the Wright cabin became agitated then pursued the group. As the Dakota neared, shots were fired at the settlers (all accounts indicate the shots were fired high, over their heads). The settlers abandoned the wagon and fled into the tall grasses of the slough. Three of the men continued through the slough and on to the east.
Once the Dakota arrived at the slough, several of them began to unharness the horses from the wagon. At this point, shots were fired by at least three of the White men and four Dakota fell, village leader Lean Bear among them. Accounts of the initial shooting vary and it is unclear which group fired the first shot or who killed Lean Bear but the reports of the aftermath are consistent. The Dakota began firing from a hill into the slough. By all accounts, the Dakota had the tactical advantage and the settlers were fired upon for hours. It was an open warfare situation and there is little doubt that revenge played a role. As the day wore on, the killings became more brutal and personal. The Dakota eventually were able to enter the slough and attack hand-to-hand. Many of the Whites who died at that point were family members of those who fired the shots at Lean Bear.
By mid to late afternoon, thunderstorms were forming, many of the settlers were wounded, some were dead. Pawn, who had moved into an unofficial leadership position, asked that the women and children surrender. Julia Wright and Almira Everett were selected to represent those still alive to negotiate an end to the fight.
At the end of the afternoon on August 20, 1862, negotiations at Lake Shetek reached a conclusion. Women and children without critical injuries would be allowed to surrender and would be taken captive by the Sisseton bands at the lake. The men were excluded from the offer as were those who were too injured to travel. Julia Wright, Christina Koch, and Laura Duley were taken captive along with eight children. Almira Everett, who was to be included, chose to stay with her dying husband.
Lavina Eastlick was initially among the women to be taken captive. The wife of one of the men who shot at Lean Bear, she was severely injured with gunshot wounds. Lagging behind, trying to locate her children, she was beaten with a rifle butt and left for dead. In the days following, she would crawl across the prairie toward New Ulm.
During the next three months, the captives would be divided among several captors and traded often for convenience or food/supplies. They would travel nearly a thousand miles on foot, zig-zagging through Minnesota, then Dakota Territory. Christina Koch escaped with Jefferson Duley while still in Minnesota. The youngest Duley child died in captivity. The remaining captives were finally ransomed in late November along with six part-Dakota women (nearly forgotten by the historical record). The effort was accomplished by a group of young men from a Yankton band dubbed the “Fool Soldiers.” Led by Martin Charger, the youths felt it was dishonorable for women and children to be held as captives in a war that should be fought by men. The Fool Soldiers were largely forgotten by history until recent years; credit for the rescue was claimed by General Pattee, who had been en route to rescue them. The military took custody of the captives and delivered them to Fort Randall. By January, they had been reunited with surviving family members.
* * * *
As I count down to my July 2020 release of NEVER LET GO, I’ll be posting weekly blogs about the history of Lake Shetek, the Dakota Conflict or the people and cultures involved. Or, I may touch on the writing process or interesting tidbits included in the novel.
For more details on the novel, please visit my HOME page. | 2,194 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Democracy in the Middle Ages
Origins of Democracy
The word "democracy," as well as the concept it represents, can be traced back to the area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. The beginnings of democracy can be credited to the Greeks of the sixth century BC. The word comes from two Greek words: demos, meaning "the people," and kratein, meaning "to rule." These two words are joined together to form democracy, literally meaning "rule by the people" (Pious). The Greek system of government was perhaps closer to a true democracy or rule by the people than any other in history. The Greeks viewed dictatorship as the worst possible form of government, so their government evolved as the exact opposite. Their civilization was broken down into small city-states (never more than 10,000 citizens), and all the men voted on all issues of government. There were no representatives in the Greek system of government. Instead, they ruled themselves directly; each man was a life long member of the decision making body. This was almost a total democracy except for the fact that women and slaves (over 50% of the population) were not considered citizens and were not allowed to vote. Despite this, no other civilization has come as close to democracy as its creators, the Greeks, and many later civilizations have incorporated this Greek idea as part of the foundation for their government (Lee; Lefebvre).
Ideas of democracy similar to that of the Greeks were used by the Romans, though not to the same extent. The Roman Empire (509-27 BC) took some of their governmental ideals from the Greeks. Their government was a representative democracy, which had representatives from the nobility in the Senate and representatives from the commoners in the Assembly. Governmental power was divided between these two branches and they voted on various issues. Many Roman political thinkers were fond of democracy. The Roman Statesman, Cicero was one. Cicero suggested that all people have certain rights that should be preserved. He and other political philosophers of the time taught that governmental and political power should come from the people (Lefebvre; Lee). After the trend of democracy was started by the Greeks and carried on by the Romans, it has been seen in many later governmental systems throughout history.
Democracy in the Middle Ages
Though democracy was not directly instituted in the Middle Ages, many democratic ideas were prevalent throughout the period. Because Christianity, which taught that men were created equal in the eyes of God, was deeply ingrained into the society of the Middle Ages, the democratic idea of equality was understood by many of the people. The Middle Ages, however, utilized another form of government, which was developed during this period called feudalism. Feudalism stressed that all people have certain rights and developed a system of courts to defend these rights. From these courts came the modern day judicial branch of the American government along with many of the ideas such as kings councils, assemblies and eventually parliamentary systems (Sanford 20-27).
Date: 2016-01-14; view: 2321 | <urn:uuid:b691bbb7-a26c-424d-9249-3bce8d0549d0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://doclecture.net/1-54982.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00123.warc.gz | en | 0.988016 | 617 | 4.25 | 4 | [
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0.076192863285... | 1 | Democracy in the Middle Ages
Origins of Democracy
The word "democracy," as well as the concept it represents, can be traced back to the area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. The beginnings of democracy can be credited to the Greeks of the sixth century BC. The word comes from two Greek words: demos, meaning "the people," and kratein, meaning "to rule." These two words are joined together to form democracy, literally meaning "rule by the people" (Pious). The Greek system of government was perhaps closer to a true democracy or rule by the people than any other in history. The Greeks viewed dictatorship as the worst possible form of government, so their government evolved as the exact opposite. Their civilization was broken down into small city-states (never more than 10,000 citizens), and all the men voted on all issues of government. There were no representatives in the Greek system of government. Instead, they ruled themselves directly; each man was a life long member of the decision making body. This was almost a total democracy except for the fact that women and slaves (over 50% of the population) were not considered citizens and were not allowed to vote. Despite this, no other civilization has come as close to democracy as its creators, the Greeks, and many later civilizations have incorporated this Greek idea as part of the foundation for their government (Lee; Lefebvre).
Ideas of democracy similar to that of the Greeks were used by the Romans, though not to the same extent. The Roman Empire (509-27 BC) took some of their governmental ideals from the Greeks. Their government was a representative democracy, which had representatives from the nobility in the Senate and representatives from the commoners in the Assembly. Governmental power was divided between these two branches and they voted on various issues. Many Roman political thinkers were fond of democracy. The Roman Statesman, Cicero was one. Cicero suggested that all people have certain rights that should be preserved. He and other political philosophers of the time taught that governmental and political power should come from the people (Lefebvre; Lee). After the trend of democracy was started by the Greeks and carried on by the Romans, it has been seen in many later governmental systems throughout history.
Democracy in the Middle Ages
Though democracy was not directly instituted in the Middle Ages, many democratic ideas were prevalent throughout the period. Because Christianity, which taught that men were created equal in the eyes of God, was deeply ingrained into the society of the Middle Ages, the democratic idea of equality was understood by many of the people. The Middle Ages, however, utilized another form of government, which was developed during this period called feudalism. Feudalism stressed that all people have certain rights and developed a system of courts to defend these rights. From these courts came the modern day judicial branch of the American government along with many of the ideas such as kings councils, assemblies and eventually parliamentary systems (Sanford 20-27).
Date: 2016-01-14; view: 2321 | 637 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At a time when religion was centralized in one’s life, unfortunate events were often interpreted to symbolize religious meanings. Natural disasters such as floods, hurricanes, droughts, and earthquakes were seen as warning signs from God. Even attacks from Native Americans were seen as proof of divine dissatisfaction as God was unpleased with current situations.
In the late end of the 17th century, New England clergymen had been warning of declension, the falling away from Biblically-prescribed ways. This encouraged Puritans to look for signs, which they found inevitably. Even jeremiads were given, in which the Puritans attended sermons filled with dire warnings of impending doom.
With King Philip’s War raging on, many Puritans were fearful of New England’s decline. Cotton Mather was a Puritan who was very convinced of this demise when his five-month-old infant died along with his younger brother, Nathaniel. This, followed by his witness of witchcraft, convinced him and others of the decline of New England. | <urn:uuid:937d88e4-1889-4003-a85a-95c382897b08> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://noellembrooks.com/2011/01/27/believing-the-17th-century-was-in-decline/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00190.warc.gz | en | 0.992731 | 216 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.05538186058... | 11 | At a time when religion was centralized in one’s life, unfortunate events were often interpreted to symbolize religious meanings. Natural disasters such as floods, hurricanes, droughts, and earthquakes were seen as warning signs from God. Even attacks from Native Americans were seen as proof of divine dissatisfaction as God was unpleased with current situations.
In the late end of the 17th century, New England clergymen had been warning of declension, the falling away from Biblically-prescribed ways. This encouraged Puritans to look for signs, which they found inevitably. Even jeremiads were given, in which the Puritans attended sermons filled with dire warnings of impending doom.
With King Philip’s War raging on, many Puritans were fearful of New England’s decline. Cotton Mather was a Puritan who was very convinced of this demise when his five-month-old infant died along with his younger brother, Nathaniel. This, followed by his witness of witchcraft, convinced him and others of the decline of New England. | 212 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Born into slavery in Alabama in the mid-19th century, Mary Walker was freed at the age of 15, moved to Chattanooga in 1917, and learned to read at the extraordinary age of 116. “You’re never too old to learn,” she famously remarked. Author Rita Lorraine Hubbard brings Mary’s inspiring story to young readers in her new picture book biography, The Oldest Student: How Mary Walker Learned to Read.
Dubbed “the nation’s oldest student” by the U.S. Department of Education, Mary — who lived through 26 presidents, outlived her entire family, and eventually became a Chattanooga icon — “studied the alphabet until her eyes watered” at well past the age of 100. As a former slave, once forbidden to learn reading and writing, she finally met her lifelong goal and proudly read from the Bible given to her as a teen by a woman who had told her, “Your civil rights are in these pages.”
Hubbard fleshes out Mary’s extraordinary life in this reverent and loving tribute, illustrated in layered, textured collage art by Caldecott Honoree Oge Mora. On the book’s first spread, Hubbard writes that Mary, as an enslaved girl, watched the swallows soar through the sky and wondered: “That must be what it’s like to be free.” Throughout the book, Mora repeatedly pictures these birds in flight, a symbol of Mary’s freedom and her invincible spirit.
Chapter 16 talked to Hubbard via email about the biography, as well as her love of the compelling stories that history tells.
Chapter 16: You live in Chattanooga, a city that, in more ways than one, regularly commemorates Mary Walker’s life. And you’ve written previously about African Americans in your city (African Americans of Chattanooga, published in 2007). While researching this book, was there anything you learned about Mary’s life that surprised you?
Rita Lorraine Hubbard: Yes! I was surprised to learn that Mary had participated in a live interview in the early to late 1960s and that this interview had been recorded on an LP that, unfortunately, has long since disappeared. Thankfully, I received the full transcript and was able to read Mary’s firsthand account of her life. She shared how she was forced to be a blacksmith at a young age and told of how she had sharecropped alongside her second husband for four decades or more.
Another big surprise was that she never mentioned grandchildren in her interview. I knew she had three sons, but there was no mention of wives or children/grandchildren. Mary told the interviewer that, after her eldest son died, she was all alone in the world and had outlived all her relatives. I was unable to determine if her sons had never fathered children, had fathered children who later moved far away, or if they had simply outlived their own life-mates and children.
The biggest surprise of all was discovering what a survivor Mary was.
Chapter 16: Was the research for this story challenging, given that (as you note in the book’s back matter) little is known about her life from her emancipation at age 15 until she learned to read at age 116? And what was it like for you to fill in those gaps yourself?
Hubbard: It was challenging in the beginning. But then I approached Mr. John L. Edwards (son of the founder of The Mary Walker Foundation), who generously gifted me with the full transcript of Mary’s interview. The interviewer asked Mary plenty of questions that could have filled in the gaps in her life story, but Mary was too afraid to answer some of the questions. Even though it was the mid ‘60s and slavery was long past, she was hesitant to speak out because of “the Klux.” She would stumble over her words or (as the interviewer noted) she would look concerned and would simply not answer. As for my “imaginings,” I created the elderly neighbor who offered to accompany Mary to the reading class. I used his offer to convey Mary’s resolve. I imagined that, after years of depending on others to read for her or help her, Mary would have finally been ready to do things for herself.
Chapter 16: You wrote your first picture book (Hammering for Freedom) last year. What was the spark for wanting to write in the picture book form?
Hubbard: I used to blog frequently about writing tips and opportunities, and I encouraged my followers to “put their work out there.” I wrote, “It’s true that you may not win, but you definitely won’t win if you don’t at least try.” Then one day I realized I hadn’t been taking my own advice. I had known about Lee & Low’s New Voices Award competition for years. I had even entered once, but I didn’t win. But in 2012, I decided to throw my hat in the ring once more. I had stumbled across William Lewis’ name — he is the subject of Hammering for Freedom — years earlier, while I was researching African Americans of Chattanooga, so I decided to write about him. And I won first place! That entry, which was initially titled Bill’s Family Reunion, eventually became Hammering for Freedom. Since it was a picture book competition, it was a given that it would be a picture book.
Chapter 16: You regularly write about picture books on your site, Picture Book Depot. Do you feel like reading as many picture books as you do is its own kind of education in writing them?
Hubbard: Yes! I believe that “the well-read writer writes well.” One of the first things I learned when I decided to focus on my writing was that you should read as many books in your chosen genre as you can get your hands on. Since I couldn’t always find the latest picture books at my local library and my budget wouldn’t allow me to purchase all the books I wanted to read, I began reviewing books for a colleague, who owned her own review site. Later, I decided to start a site of my own that was dedicated solely to picture books. Now I get to read all sorts of picture books by a variety of writers with a wide range of amazing writing styles. I get to see how different writers handle different story lines and concepts. But best of all, I get to pass these books along to schools, church libraries, and deserving young children who may not otherwise have an opportunity to own a book.
Chapter 16: What was it like for you to first see Oge Mora’s artwork for your story?
Hubbard: It made me cry. Really. I choked up and cried. It’s an amazing experience to see the words you write come to life on someone’s canvas, especially someone as gifted as Oge. She brought Mary Walker to life. Thank you, Oge.
Chapter 16: Did your love of history — and digging in deep to research it — begin in your childhood?
Hubbard: Yes. As a child, I loved listening to my mother tell what life was like when she was young. I was fascinated with how much things cost — or should I say, how much they didn’t cost? (A few pennies for a loaf of bread. And ten cents got you an all-day movie pass, with cartoons and other serials included. I was fascinated!) I was also intrigued by stories my grandmother told about the games she and her friends played when they were young, the food they ate, and not being allowed into white hospitals. These amazing stories made me want to know more about “yesterday.”
Chapter 16: Are you planning school visits for this book so that you can tell students, “You’re never too old to learn”?
Julie Danielson, co-author of Wild Things! Acts of Mischief in Children’s Literature, writes about picture books for Kirkus Reviews, BookPage, and The Horn Book. She lives in Murfreesboro and blogs at Seven Impossible Things Before Breakfast. | <urn:uuid:23f805de-c4ee-437d-9481-4edffb080379> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://chapter16.org/the-nations-oldest-student/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00334.warc.gz | en | 0.983907 | 1,724 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.32468903064727... | 11 | Born into slavery in Alabama in the mid-19th century, Mary Walker was freed at the age of 15, moved to Chattanooga in 1917, and learned to read at the extraordinary age of 116. “You’re never too old to learn,” she famously remarked. Author Rita Lorraine Hubbard brings Mary’s inspiring story to young readers in her new picture book biography, The Oldest Student: How Mary Walker Learned to Read.
Dubbed “the nation’s oldest student” by the U.S. Department of Education, Mary — who lived through 26 presidents, outlived her entire family, and eventually became a Chattanooga icon — “studied the alphabet until her eyes watered” at well past the age of 100. As a former slave, once forbidden to learn reading and writing, she finally met her lifelong goal and proudly read from the Bible given to her as a teen by a woman who had told her, “Your civil rights are in these pages.”
Hubbard fleshes out Mary’s extraordinary life in this reverent and loving tribute, illustrated in layered, textured collage art by Caldecott Honoree Oge Mora. On the book’s first spread, Hubbard writes that Mary, as an enslaved girl, watched the swallows soar through the sky and wondered: “That must be what it’s like to be free.” Throughout the book, Mora repeatedly pictures these birds in flight, a symbol of Mary’s freedom and her invincible spirit.
Chapter 16 talked to Hubbard via email about the biography, as well as her love of the compelling stories that history tells.
Chapter 16: You live in Chattanooga, a city that, in more ways than one, regularly commemorates Mary Walker’s life. And you’ve written previously about African Americans in your city (African Americans of Chattanooga, published in 2007). While researching this book, was there anything you learned about Mary’s life that surprised you?
Rita Lorraine Hubbard: Yes! I was surprised to learn that Mary had participated in a live interview in the early to late 1960s and that this interview had been recorded on an LP that, unfortunately, has long since disappeared. Thankfully, I received the full transcript and was able to read Mary’s firsthand account of her life. She shared how she was forced to be a blacksmith at a young age and told of how she had sharecropped alongside her second husband for four decades or more.
Another big surprise was that she never mentioned grandchildren in her interview. I knew she had three sons, but there was no mention of wives or children/grandchildren. Mary told the interviewer that, after her eldest son died, she was all alone in the world and had outlived all her relatives. I was unable to determine if her sons had never fathered children, had fathered children who later moved far away, or if they had simply outlived their own life-mates and children.
The biggest surprise of all was discovering what a survivor Mary was.
Chapter 16: Was the research for this story challenging, given that (as you note in the book’s back matter) little is known about her life from her emancipation at age 15 until she learned to read at age 116? And what was it like for you to fill in those gaps yourself?
Hubbard: It was challenging in the beginning. But then I approached Mr. John L. Edwards (son of the founder of The Mary Walker Foundation), who generously gifted me with the full transcript of Mary’s interview. The interviewer asked Mary plenty of questions that could have filled in the gaps in her life story, but Mary was too afraid to answer some of the questions. Even though it was the mid ‘60s and slavery was long past, she was hesitant to speak out because of “the Klux.” She would stumble over her words or (as the interviewer noted) she would look concerned and would simply not answer. As for my “imaginings,” I created the elderly neighbor who offered to accompany Mary to the reading class. I used his offer to convey Mary’s resolve. I imagined that, after years of depending on others to read for her or help her, Mary would have finally been ready to do things for herself.
Chapter 16: You wrote your first picture book (Hammering for Freedom) last year. What was the spark for wanting to write in the picture book form?
Hubbard: I used to blog frequently about writing tips and opportunities, and I encouraged my followers to “put their work out there.” I wrote, “It’s true that you may not win, but you definitely won’t win if you don’t at least try.” Then one day I realized I hadn’t been taking my own advice. I had known about Lee & Low’s New Voices Award competition for years. I had even entered once, but I didn’t win. But in 2012, I decided to throw my hat in the ring once more. I had stumbled across William Lewis’ name — he is the subject of Hammering for Freedom — years earlier, while I was researching African Americans of Chattanooga, so I decided to write about him. And I won first place! That entry, which was initially titled Bill’s Family Reunion, eventually became Hammering for Freedom. Since it was a picture book competition, it was a given that it would be a picture book.
Chapter 16: You regularly write about picture books on your site, Picture Book Depot. Do you feel like reading as many picture books as you do is its own kind of education in writing them?
Hubbard: Yes! I believe that “the well-read writer writes well.” One of the first things I learned when I decided to focus on my writing was that you should read as many books in your chosen genre as you can get your hands on. Since I couldn’t always find the latest picture books at my local library and my budget wouldn’t allow me to purchase all the books I wanted to read, I began reviewing books for a colleague, who owned her own review site. Later, I decided to start a site of my own that was dedicated solely to picture books. Now I get to read all sorts of picture books by a variety of writers with a wide range of amazing writing styles. I get to see how different writers handle different story lines and concepts. But best of all, I get to pass these books along to schools, church libraries, and deserving young children who may not otherwise have an opportunity to own a book.
Chapter 16: What was it like for you to first see Oge Mora’s artwork for your story?
Hubbard: It made me cry. Really. I choked up and cried. It’s an amazing experience to see the words you write come to life on someone’s canvas, especially someone as gifted as Oge. She brought Mary Walker to life. Thank you, Oge.
Chapter 16: Did your love of history — and digging in deep to research it — begin in your childhood?
Hubbard: Yes. As a child, I loved listening to my mother tell what life was like when she was young. I was fascinated with how much things cost — or should I say, how much they didn’t cost? (A few pennies for a loaf of bread. And ten cents got you an all-day movie pass, with cartoons and other serials included. I was fascinated!) I was also intrigued by stories my grandmother told about the games she and her friends played when they were young, the food they ate, and not being allowed into white hospitals. These amazing stories made me want to know more about “yesterday.”
Chapter 16: Are you planning school visits for this book so that you can tell students, “You’re never too old to learn”?
Julie Danielson, co-author of Wild Things! Acts of Mischief in Children’s Literature, writes about picture books for Kirkus Reviews, BookPage, and The Horn Book. She lives in Murfreesboro and blogs at Seven Impossible Things Before Breakfast. | 1,663 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Listen to part of a lecture in an ancient history class.
[reviewing] OK, last time we were discussing trade and commerce during the Bronze Age ...
And I said a little over 3,000 years ago there was quite a lively trade among the countries along the Mediterranean Sea—people were making objects out of bronze, and they were using bronze tools to make other goods, and they developed trade networks to trade these goods with other countries around the Mediterranean ...
[new information] One of the things they traded was glass ...
And recently there was an archeological excavation in Egypt—on the Nile River, around where it enters the Mediterranean Sea—where they discovered an ancient glass factory. [sees hand raised]
I thought our textbook said that the Egyptians imported their glass from other countries.
Well, until now that's what the evidence seemed to suggest.
I mean, we had some evidence that suggested that the Egyptians were making glass objects, uh, but not glass.
[friendly] OK, am-am I missing something?
They're making glass, but they're not making glass.
[correcting] I said they were making glass objects, right?
You see, it was previously thought that they weren't actually making the raw glass itself, [but] that they were importing unfinished glass from Mesopotamia—um, which today is a region consisting of Iraq, and parts of Syria, Turkey, and Iran—and simply reworking it.
Most archeologists believed that the glass factories were in Mesopotamia because that's where the oldest known glass remains come from.
You see, there were two stages of glassmaking: the primary production stage, where they made disks of raw glass...
Uh, an- and then there was the secondary stage, where they melted the raw glass, the glass disks, and created decorative objects or whatever.
And from this new Egyptian site we've learned that the primary production stage had several steps.
First, they took quartz—a colorless, transparent mineral—and crushed it.
Then they took that crushed quartz and mixed it with plant ash; uh, "plant ash" is just what it sounds like—the ash that's left after you've burned plant material.
They slowly heated this mixture, at a relatively low temperature, in small vessels, um containers, like jars, made out of clay.
Uh, and that yielded a kind of glassy material...
They took this glassy material and ground it up into a powder, and then they used metallic dye to color it...
After that, they poured the colored powder out into disk-shaped molds and heated it up to very high temperatures, so that it melted.
After it cooled, they'd break the molds, and inside...there were the glass disks.
These disks were shipped off to other sites within Egypt and places around the Mediterranean.
Then, in the secondary phase, the disks were reheated and shaped into decorative objects.
[sees hand raised] Susan?
So what kind of objects were people making back then?
Well, the most common objects we've found—mostly in Egypt and Mesopotamia—uh, the most common objects were beads; one thing Egyptians were very, very good at was imitating precious stones; they created some beads that looked so much like emeralds and pearls that it was very difficult to distinguish them from the real thing.
Uh, and-and also beautiful vessels, uh, with narrow necks; they were probably really valuable, so they wouldn't have been used to hold cooking oil or common food items; they were most likely used for expensive liquids like perfume.
Now the glass made at this factory was mostly red; to get this red color, they used copper; in a sophisticated process.
Of course, any kind of glass was very valuable, so these red bottles would only have been owned by wealthy people.
In fact, because it was so difficult to make, and sort of mysterious and complicated, it was probably a product produced for the royal family, and they probably used glass to show their power.
Also, beautiful, expensive objects make great gifts if you're looking to establish or strengthen political alliances... and it's quite possible that ancient Egyptians were actually exporting glass, not just making it or importing it.
The trade with Mesopotamia was probably a friendly, mutual trade...because, uh, Mesopotamian glass was usually white or yellow, so Mesopotamians might have said something like, "We'll give you two white disks for two red disks." There's no proof of that, uh—at least not yet... | <urn:uuid:f1164ffb-69c7-4607-b0e9-f0aa7d65dee5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://toefl.kmf.com/listening/newdrilling/a1gwaj | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00475.warc.gz | en | 0.983468 | 955 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.301145255565... | 5 | Listen to part of a lecture in an ancient history class.
[reviewing] OK, last time we were discussing trade and commerce during the Bronze Age ...
And I said a little over 3,000 years ago there was quite a lively trade among the countries along the Mediterranean Sea—people were making objects out of bronze, and they were using bronze tools to make other goods, and they developed trade networks to trade these goods with other countries around the Mediterranean ...
[new information] One of the things they traded was glass ...
And recently there was an archeological excavation in Egypt—on the Nile River, around where it enters the Mediterranean Sea—where they discovered an ancient glass factory. [sees hand raised]
I thought our textbook said that the Egyptians imported their glass from other countries.
Well, until now that's what the evidence seemed to suggest.
I mean, we had some evidence that suggested that the Egyptians were making glass objects, uh, but not glass.
[friendly] OK, am-am I missing something?
They're making glass, but they're not making glass.
[correcting] I said they were making glass objects, right?
You see, it was previously thought that they weren't actually making the raw glass itself, [but] that they were importing unfinished glass from Mesopotamia—um, which today is a region consisting of Iraq, and parts of Syria, Turkey, and Iran—and simply reworking it.
Most archeologists believed that the glass factories were in Mesopotamia because that's where the oldest known glass remains come from.
You see, there were two stages of glassmaking: the primary production stage, where they made disks of raw glass...
Uh, an- and then there was the secondary stage, where they melted the raw glass, the glass disks, and created decorative objects or whatever.
And from this new Egyptian site we've learned that the primary production stage had several steps.
First, they took quartz—a colorless, transparent mineral—and crushed it.
Then they took that crushed quartz and mixed it with plant ash; uh, "plant ash" is just what it sounds like—the ash that's left after you've burned plant material.
They slowly heated this mixture, at a relatively low temperature, in small vessels, um containers, like jars, made out of clay.
Uh, and that yielded a kind of glassy material...
They took this glassy material and ground it up into a powder, and then they used metallic dye to color it...
After that, they poured the colored powder out into disk-shaped molds and heated it up to very high temperatures, so that it melted.
After it cooled, they'd break the molds, and inside...there were the glass disks.
These disks were shipped off to other sites within Egypt and places around the Mediterranean.
Then, in the secondary phase, the disks were reheated and shaped into decorative objects.
[sees hand raised] Susan?
So what kind of objects were people making back then?
Well, the most common objects we've found—mostly in Egypt and Mesopotamia—uh, the most common objects were beads; one thing Egyptians were very, very good at was imitating precious stones; they created some beads that looked so much like emeralds and pearls that it was very difficult to distinguish them from the real thing.
Uh, and-and also beautiful vessels, uh, with narrow necks; they were probably really valuable, so they wouldn't have been used to hold cooking oil or common food items; they were most likely used for expensive liquids like perfume.
Now the glass made at this factory was mostly red; to get this red color, they used copper; in a sophisticated process.
Of course, any kind of glass was very valuable, so these red bottles would only have been owned by wealthy people.
In fact, because it was so difficult to make, and sort of mysterious and complicated, it was probably a product produced for the royal family, and they probably used glass to show their power.
Also, beautiful, expensive objects make great gifts if you're looking to establish or strengthen political alliances... and it's quite possible that ancient Egyptians were actually exporting glass, not just making it or importing it.
The trade with Mesopotamia was probably a friendly, mutual trade...because, uh, Mesopotamian glass was usually white or yellow, so Mesopotamians might have said something like, "We'll give you two white disks for two red disks." There's no proof of that, uh—at least not yet... | 920 | ENGLISH | 1 |
American Political History uk
During 1866-1920, the American political history was marked by a transition that saw it change politically. The events that occurred during this time period can were grouped into three eras which were identified as: Reconstruction (1865-77), Gilded age (1870-90) and progressivism and progressive era (1890-1920).
Buy American Political History essay paper online
* Final order price might be slightly different depending on the current exchange rate of chosen payment system.
This was one of the most turbulent and controversial eras in the American history which began during the civil war and ended in 1877. The era witnessed America’s first experiment in interracial democracy. This era remains of relevance even today in America’s history since the issues central to it which was the role of the federal government in protecting its’ citizens’ rights and the possibility of racial and economic justice remains unresolved (Boehm, & American Bibliographical Center, 2001).
The victory in the civil war by the by the northern was the deciding factor in the fate of the union and of slavery. Reconstruction was mainly focused on ensuring that former slaves regained back their freedom and claimed back their rights (Peltier, 1993). President Andrew Johnson proposed a reconstruction plan that was rejected and was later followed by enactment of law and amendments of the constitution by the reublican which empowered the government to enforce laws on equal rights and gave blacks the right to vote and hold office. This era was largely viewed as an era full of corruption and misgovernment and it was supposed that it was as a result of allowing blacks to hold offices. Nevertheless, it was an era of social, economic and political change.
Gilded Age (1870-90)
During this era, Americans perceived their nation as an island of political democracy in presence of undemocratic government. It was marked with a lot of political corruption and urban politics were controlled by corrupt machinery which extended it to the national level. In this era, every republican presidential candidate from 1868-1900 had once fought in the union army. This era saw the democrats dominating the south and catholi0c votes. Presidential candidates during this era made little efforts in mobilizing the public opinion. The American democracy at this time appeared to be healthy (Peltier, 1993). The political structure of this time proved to be ineffective in dealing with dealing with problems created by the rapid growing economy. The republican economic policies of this time favored eastern industrialists and bankers. In 1887, the congress established an interstate commerce commission. The era saw the government expanding its responsibility to the public, local elections was conntrolled by third parties such as The Greenback-Labor party.
The main idea during this era was that new ideas and honest, efficient government could bring about social justice. Efforts from all persons in America were brought together to bring the necessary changes in the country. Their actions were driven by several factors which included the fact that industrialization and urbanization had brought about social and political problems, need to have laws governing issues of industrialization, need to have corrupted government officials out of office and the need to have more education centers. The reformers had three goals in mind: - To reform the government and expand democracy, promote social welfare and to bring social reforms (Gross, 1990).
The reconstruction era appears to be the most important era of the three. The era saw an end to the practice of slave trade which was against human rights. Democracy of the country was also put into trial during this era which greatly defined the future of the country. Issue regarding racism was addressed during this era which saw the incorporation of the blacks in public offices. It is worth to note that, the issues that were raised during this era remains applicable even today in laws of America.
Related political essays
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:d3b0627c-512f-4309-a03f-64f0cefa063d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://primewritings.co.uk/essays/political/american-political-history.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00397.warc.gz | en | 0.98169 | 784 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.2086652517318725... | 1 | American Political History uk
During 1866-1920, the American political history was marked by a transition that saw it change politically. The events that occurred during this time period can were grouped into three eras which were identified as: Reconstruction (1865-77), Gilded age (1870-90) and progressivism and progressive era (1890-1920).
Buy American Political History essay paper online
* Final order price might be slightly different depending on the current exchange rate of chosen payment system.
This was one of the most turbulent and controversial eras in the American history which began during the civil war and ended in 1877. The era witnessed America’s first experiment in interracial democracy. This era remains of relevance even today in America’s history since the issues central to it which was the role of the federal government in protecting its’ citizens’ rights and the possibility of racial and economic justice remains unresolved (Boehm, & American Bibliographical Center, 2001).
The victory in the civil war by the by the northern was the deciding factor in the fate of the union and of slavery. Reconstruction was mainly focused on ensuring that former slaves regained back their freedom and claimed back their rights (Peltier, 1993). President Andrew Johnson proposed a reconstruction plan that was rejected and was later followed by enactment of law and amendments of the constitution by the reublican which empowered the government to enforce laws on equal rights and gave blacks the right to vote and hold office. This era was largely viewed as an era full of corruption and misgovernment and it was supposed that it was as a result of allowing blacks to hold offices. Nevertheless, it was an era of social, economic and political change.
Gilded Age (1870-90)
During this era, Americans perceived their nation as an island of political democracy in presence of undemocratic government. It was marked with a lot of political corruption and urban politics were controlled by corrupt machinery which extended it to the national level. In this era, every republican presidential candidate from 1868-1900 had once fought in the union army. This era saw the democrats dominating the south and catholi0c votes. Presidential candidates during this era made little efforts in mobilizing the public opinion. The American democracy at this time appeared to be healthy (Peltier, 1993). The political structure of this time proved to be ineffective in dealing with dealing with problems created by the rapid growing economy. The republican economic policies of this time favored eastern industrialists and bankers. In 1887, the congress established an interstate commerce commission. The era saw the government expanding its responsibility to the public, local elections was conntrolled by third parties such as The Greenback-Labor party.
The main idea during this era was that new ideas and honest, efficient government could bring about social justice. Efforts from all persons in America were brought together to bring the necessary changes in the country. Their actions were driven by several factors which included the fact that industrialization and urbanization had brought about social and political problems, need to have laws governing issues of industrialization, need to have corrupted government officials out of office and the need to have more education centers. The reformers had three goals in mind: - To reform the government and expand democracy, promote social welfare and to bring social reforms (Gross, 1990).
The reconstruction era appears to be the most important era of the three. The era saw an end to the practice of slave trade which was against human rights. Democracy of the country was also put into trial during this era which greatly defined the future of the country. Issue regarding racism was addressed during this era which saw the incorporation of the blacks in public offices. It is worth to note that, the issues that were raised during this era remains applicable even today in laws of America.
Related political essays
Most popular orders | 817 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Habeas Corpus Suspension Acts of 1688 Wikipedia
The Habeas Corpus Suspension Acts of 1688 were three Acts of the Parliament of England (1 Will. & Mar. cc. 2, 7 & 19) which temporarily suspended the right of habeas corpus in England until 17 April, 25 May and 23 October 1689 respectively. They were passed in the wake of the Glorious Revolution, in which King James II had recently been deposed.
The three Acts were very similar. They each provided that any six members of the Privy Council could sign a warrant committing to prison anyone they suspected of high treason, without bail, mainprise or trial, until the date the Act expired or unless six privy counsellors signed an order permitting their bail or trial. The Acts did not allow the imprisonment of any member of either House of Parliament, unless the House that member belonged to first gave its consent to his imprisonment. | <urn:uuid:9c087220-3b44-454a-8ebc-b2f011e3c06c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Habeas-Corpus-Suspension-Acts-of-1688 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00159.warc.gz | en | 0.980922 | 190 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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-0.2908914... | 1 | Habeas Corpus Suspension Acts of 1688 Wikipedia
The Habeas Corpus Suspension Acts of 1688 were three Acts of the Parliament of England (1 Will. & Mar. cc. 2, 7 & 19) which temporarily suspended the right of habeas corpus in England until 17 April, 25 May and 23 October 1689 respectively. They were passed in the wake of the Glorious Revolution, in which King James II had recently been deposed.
The three Acts were very similar. They each provided that any six members of the Privy Council could sign a warrant committing to prison anyone they suspected of high treason, without bail, mainprise or trial, until the date the Act expired or unless six privy counsellors signed an order permitting their bail or trial. The Acts did not allow the imprisonment of any member of either House of Parliament, unless the House that member belonged to first gave its consent to his imprisonment. | 205 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Henry VII (January 28, 1457-April 21, 1509), King of England, Lord of Ireland (August 22, 1485-April 21, 1509), was the founder of the Tudor dynasty and is generally acknowledged as one of England's most successful kings.
King of England, Lord of Ireland
Henry Tudor was the posthumous son of Edmund Tudor, a half-brother of King Henry VI of England. His mother was Margaret Beaufort, a descendant of King Edward III on the wrong side of the blanket. From his father, he inherited the title Earl of Richmond; from his mother, his questionable claim to the throne of England. He was born in Pembroke, Wales but grew up in exile in Brittany, having fled from the Yorkist kings of England. As an individual with some claim to the throne (even a very vague one), he knew the Yorkist monarchs would want him dead.
After the failure of the revolt of his cousin, the Duke of Buckingham, Henry VII became the leading Lancastrian contender for the throne of England. Having gained the support of the in-laws of the late Yorkist King Edward IV, he landed with a force in Wales and marched into England, accompanied by his uncle, Jasper Tudor, a military mastermind. Wales had traditionally been a Yorkist stronghold, and Henry owed the support he gathered to his ancestry, being directly descended, through his father, from the Lord Rhys. He amassed an army of around 5000 soldiers and travelled north.
There his Lancastrian forces decisively defeated the Yorkists under Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. This victory ended the long-running Wars of the Roses between the two houses. Henry's claim to the throne was tenuous and based upon a lineage of illegitimate succession. However, this was no barrier to the throne, since, in the absence of an Act of Succession, in practice Parliament had the ability to award the crown to whomever it pleased (technically, the Council of Accession awarded the Crown - and still does so to this day, though now under direction). Henry won it by conquest.
Primary of Henry's concerns on attaining the monarchy was the question of establishing the strength and supremacy of his rule. There were few other claimants to the throne left alive after the long and bloody civil war, so his main worry was pretenders such as Perkin Warbeck, who were backed by disaffected nobles. Henry succeeded in securing his crown by a number of means but principally by dividing and undermining the power of the nobility.
Henry's first action was to declare himself king as-of the day before the battle, thus ensuring that anyone who had fought against him would, technically, be guilty of treason. It is interesting to note, therefore, that he spared Richard's designated heir, John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln. He would have cause to regret his leniency two years later, when Lincoln rebelled and attempted to set a boy pretender, Lambert Simnel, on the throne in Henry's place. Lincoln was killed at the Battle of Stoke, but Simnel's life was spared and he became a royal servant.
Simnel had been put forward as "Edward VI", impersonating the young Edward, Earl of Warwick, son of George, Duke of Clarence, who was still imprisoned in the Tower of London. Henry had shown uncharacteristic leniency in dealing with Edward and did not find a pretext for executing him until he had grown into adulthood, in 1499. Edward's elder sister, Margaret Pole, who had the next best claim on the throne, inherited her father's earldom of Salisbury and survived well into the next reign.
Another method Henry used to secure his throne was to carry out his promise to marry Elizabeth of York, daughter and heir of King Edward IV. This unified the warring houses, and gave him a greater claim to the throne due to Elizabeth's line of descent (though there is evidence that Edward was born illegitimate).
Henry's and Elizabeth's children include:
- Arthur, Prince of Wales (September 20, 1486-April 2, 1502).
- Margaret Tudor (November 28, 1489 - October 18, 1541).
- Henry VIII of England (June 28, 1491 - January 28, 1547).
- Elizabeth Tudor (July 2, 1492 - September 14, 1495).
- Mary Tudor (March 18, 1496 - June 25, 1533).
- Edmund Tudor, Duke of Somerset (February 21, 1499 - June 19, 1500).
- Katherine Tudor (February 2, 1503 - February 2, 1503).
Henry's policy was both to maintain peace and to create economic prosperity. Up to a point, he succeeded in both. He was not a military man, and had no interest in trying to regain the French territories lost during the reigns of his predecessors; he was therefore only too ready to conclude a treaty with France that both directly and indirectly brought money into the coffers of England. To strengthen his position, however, he subsidized shipbuilding, thus strengthening the navy and improving trading opportunities. By the time of his death, he had amassed a personal fortune of a million and a half pounds; it did not take his son as long to fritter it away as it had taken the father to save it up.
As well as coming to terms with the French, Henry forged alliances with Spain -- by marrying his son, Arthur Tudor, to Catherine of Aragon; with Scotland -- by marrying his daughter, Margaret, to King James IV of Scotland; and with Germany, under the emperor Maximilian I.
In 1502, fate dealt Henry a double blow from which he never fully recovered: His heir, the recently-married Arthur, died in an epidemic at Ludlow Castle and was followed only a few months later by Henry's queen, in childbirth. Not wishing the negotiations that had led to the marriage of his elder son to Catherine of Aragon to go to waste, he arranged a dispensation for his younger son to marry his brother's widow -- normally a degree of relationship that precluded marriage in the Roman Catholic Church. Henry obtained a dispensation from Pope Julius II but had second thoughts about the value of the marriage and did not allow it to take place during his lifetime. Although he made half-hearted plans to re-marry and beget more heirs, these never came to anything. On his death in 1509, he was succeeded by his second son, Henry VIII.
Henry's elder daughter Margaret was married first to James IV of Scotland, and their son became James V of Scotland, whose daughter became Mary Queen of Scots. By means of this marriage, Henry hoped to break the Auld Alliance between Scotland and France. Margaret Tudor's second marriage was to Archibald Douglas; their grandson Henry Stewart Lord Darnley married Mary Queen of Scots, whose son was James VI of Scotland, who inherited the throne of England as James I after the death of Elizabeth I. Henry VII's other surviving daughter, Mary, married first King Louis XII of France and then, when he died of too much honeymooning, Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. Their daughter Frances married Henry Grey, and their children included Lady Jane Grey, in whose name her parents and in-laws tried to seize the throne after Edward VI of England died.
King Henry VII is buried at Westminster Abbey.
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0.458973824977... | 4 | Henry VII (January 28, 1457-April 21, 1509), King of England, Lord of Ireland (August 22, 1485-April 21, 1509), was the founder of the Tudor dynasty and is generally acknowledged as one of England's most successful kings.
King of England, Lord of Ireland
Henry Tudor was the posthumous son of Edmund Tudor, a half-brother of King Henry VI of England. His mother was Margaret Beaufort, a descendant of King Edward III on the wrong side of the blanket. From his father, he inherited the title Earl of Richmond; from his mother, his questionable claim to the throne of England. He was born in Pembroke, Wales but grew up in exile in Brittany, having fled from the Yorkist kings of England. As an individual with some claim to the throne (even a very vague one), he knew the Yorkist monarchs would want him dead.
After the failure of the revolt of his cousin, the Duke of Buckingham, Henry VII became the leading Lancastrian contender for the throne of England. Having gained the support of the in-laws of the late Yorkist King Edward IV, he landed with a force in Wales and marched into England, accompanied by his uncle, Jasper Tudor, a military mastermind. Wales had traditionally been a Yorkist stronghold, and Henry owed the support he gathered to his ancestry, being directly descended, through his father, from the Lord Rhys. He amassed an army of around 5000 soldiers and travelled north.
There his Lancastrian forces decisively defeated the Yorkists under Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. This victory ended the long-running Wars of the Roses between the two houses. Henry's claim to the throne was tenuous and based upon a lineage of illegitimate succession. However, this was no barrier to the throne, since, in the absence of an Act of Succession, in practice Parliament had the ability to award the crown to whomever it pleased (technically, the Council of Accession awarded the Crown - and still does so to this day, though now under direction). Henry won it by conquest.
Primary of Henry's concerns on attaining the monarchy was the question of establishing the strength and supremacy of his rule. There were few other claimants to the throne left alive after the long and bloody civil war, so his main worry was pretenders such as Perkin Warbeck, who were backed by disaffected nobles. Henry succeeded in securing his crown by a number of means but principally by dividing and undermining the power of the nobility.
Henry's first action was to declare himself king as-of the day before the battle, thus ensuring that anyone who had fought against him would, technically, be guilty of treason. It is interesting to note, therefore, that he spared Richard's designated heir, John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln. He would have cause to regret his leniency two years later, when Lincoln rebelled and attempted to set a boy pretender, Lambert Simnel, on the throne in Henry's place. Lincoln was killed at the Battle of Stoke, but Simnel's life was spared and he became a royal servant.
Simnel had been put forward as "Edward VI", impersonating the young Edward, Earl of Warwick, son of George, Duke of Clarence, who was still imprisoned in the Tower of London. Henry had shown uncharacteristic leniency in dealing with Edward and did not find a pretext for executing him until he had grown into adulthood, in 1499. Edward's elder sister, Margaret Pole, who had the next best claim on the throne, inherited her father's earldom of Salisbury and survived well into the next reign.
Another method Henry used to secure his throne was to carry out his promise to marry Elizabeth of York, daughter and heir of King Edward IV. This unified the warring houses, and gave him a greater claim to the throne due to Elizabeth's line of descent (though there is evidence that Edward was born illegitimate).
Henry's and Elizabeth's children include:
- Arthur, Prince of Wales (September 20, 1486-April 2, 1502).
- Margaret Tudor (November 28, 1489 - October 18, 1541).
- Henry VIII of England (June 28, 1491 - January 28, 1547).
- Elizabeth Tudor (July 2, 1492 - September 14, 1495).
- Mary Tudor (March 18, 1496 - June 25, 1533).
- Edmund Tudor, Duke of Somerset (February 21, 1499 - June 19, 1500).
- Katherine Tudor (February 2, 1503 - February 2, 1503).
Henry's policy was both to maintain peace and to create economic prosperity. Up to a point, he succeeded in both. He was not a military man, and had no interest in trying to regain the French territories lost during the reigns of his predecessors; he was therefore only too ready to conclude a treaty with France that both directly and indirectly brought money into the coffers of England. To strengthen his position, however, he subsidized shipbuilding, thus strengthening the navy and improving trading opportunities. By the time of his death, he had amassed a personal fortune of a million and a half pounds; it did not take his son as long to fritter it away as it had taken the father to save it up.
As well as coming to terms with the French, Henry forged alliances with Spain -- by marrying his son, Arthur Tudor, to Catherine of Aragon; with Scotland -- by marrying his daughter, Margaret, to King James IV of Scotland; and with Germany, under the emperor Maximilian I.
In 1502, fate dealt Henry a double blow from which he never fully recovered: His heir, the recently-married Arthur, died in an epidemic at Ludlow Castle and was followed only a few months later by Henry's queen, in childbirth. Not wishing the negotiations that had led to the marriage of his elder son to Catherine of Aragon to go to waste, he arranged a dispensation for his younger son to marry his brother's widow -- normally a degree of relationship that precluded marriage in the Roman Catholic Church. Henry obtained a dispensation from Pope Julius II but had second thoughts about the value of the marriage and did not allow it to take place during his lifetime. Although he made half-hearted plans to re-marry and beget more heirs, these never came to anything. On his death in 1509, he was succeeded by his second son, Henry VIII.
Henry's elder daughter Margaret was married first to James IV of Scotland, and their son became James V of Scotland, whose daughter became Mary Queen of Scots. By means of this marriage, Henry hoped to break the Auld Alliance between Scotland and France. Margaret Tudor's second marriage was to Archibald Douglas; their grandson Henry Stewart Lord Darnley married Mary Queen of Scots, whose son was James VI of Scotland, who inherited the throne of England as James I after the death of Elizabeth I. Henry VII's other surviving daughter, Mary, married first King Louis XII of France and then, when he died of too much honeymooning, Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. Their daughter Frances married Henry Grey, and their children included Lady Jane Grey, in whose name her parents and in-laws tried to seize the throne after Edward VI of England died.
King Henry VII is buried at Westminster Abbey.
|List of British monarchs||Succeeded by: | 1,629 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pioneer Life: Sod Homes on the Prairies
Overburdened wagon trains lined the border between Kansas and Indian Territory on a warm spring day in April 1889. Excitement coursed through the crowd as they waited in eager anticipation. They had come in droves from all walks of life; there were doctors, lawyers, dentists, shopkeepers, farmers, and even the occasional ruffian. They were brave pioneers who had traveled across the country for this unprecedented event. Large parts of the Indian Territories would be divided up and given to whoever was first to make a claim. The land was wild and uncharted, but the promise of free land was intense.
Within hours of the land openings, hundreds of shabby tent cities emerged. Streets were quickly laid out as each town site began was established.
Outside of these tent “cities”, these Oklahoma pioneers began the laborious process of erecting their own homesteads. Small wooden shanties soon replaced tents as the untamed land was forced into submission. For many, the harsh land was too much and they left, dejected and penniless. For others, they simply did what was required. While those living among the east coasts lived in high style, those new settlers in the Indian Territory soon came to realize that hard work and survival was the way of life.
All across the future state, this scene was repeated time after time. Land would be opened up to settlement and those who were lucky enough would receive the best plots. Among those who faced the most difficult task of building were those that settled on the endless plains of western Indian Territory.
A Little House on the Prairie
The vast, rolling plains stretched out towards the horizon. It was a beautifully enchanting place where dreams could become reality. Once the Oklahoma pioneers began to build homes, they soon realized that this beautiful place was not the paradise they envisioned. The scarcity of trees and other raw materials poised a major housing problem, and importing lumber was, for most, financially impossible.
At first, many of these Oklahoma pioneers simply slept on the ground. Some of the more fortunate camped out in tents. As more and more people left the High Plains, they soon realized that this housing problem had to be taken care of.
The Native Americans who settled this area originally had already figured out the solution to this problem. The Osage, Pawnee, and Hidatsa Indians constructed their homes out of sod bricks cut from the fertile earth. It did not take long for the pioneers to duplicate this method.
Before long, sod homes began to dot the prairie horizon. These "sodbusters”, as the pioneers were known, cut sod bricks with a plow into strips one foot wide and four inches thick. Choosing the best sod, generally grass that has densely packed roots, these pioneers slowly began to make a living on the prairies.
Construction of these sod homes was a simple task that involved a lot of hard work. Sod bricks, typically made out of Buffalo grass, big and little blue stem, wiregrass, prairie cord grass, Indian grass, and wheat grass, were stacked one upon another to build up walls in the house. The bricks were laid grass-side down, and were placed alternately lengthwise and crosswise to increase the strength of the wall. It took about one acre of sod to create a house.
These sod homes generally consisted of one room with divisions made by hanging blankets. If the pioneers desired windows, they were made of a wood frame with wood pegs driven into the sod wall. After the walls had been formed, roofs were then made of thatch, or sod held up by poles.
While the image of a sod home may seem a little unusual, they were extremely efficient. The excellent insulation the walls provided helped to keep the homes cool in the summer and warm in the winter. It also served as an effective haven during those intense prairie wild fires. It was almost expected that the early Oklahoma pioneers would take in the cattle, horses, and pets during the threat of wildfires.
While the benefits of living in these “soddies” were many, they were not without their problems. The floor was typically hard-packed dirt, and the ceiling constantly leaked muddy water during the torrential rains. Snakes, mice, and bugs were always a constant bother. Many times, the woman of the house would erect a canopy over the cook stove to prevent these pests from falling into the stew.
The Last of the Pioneer Homes
He was just another face among many on that fateful day of September 16, 1893, when the Cherokee Outlet was opened for settlement. Marshall McCully, one of early Oklahoma's pioneers, could not have known how much of a lasting impression he would make. To this day, the McCully’s small grass “soddie” is the only one still standing in Oklahoma that was built by a homesteader.
McCully's first land claim was disputed, which was not uncommon during the land runs. After a brief bit of haggling, he finally gave up and moved on to file another claim. After searching across the Cherokee Outlet, he finally found what he was looking for. It was on this large piece of land that he would leave us with a small piece of history.
Having little supplies and no shelter, McCully formed a one-room "dug-out" that was hollowed out of a ravine bank. He lived in this dugout home for almost one year until he could begin construction on his two-room sod house in August 1894.
Construction of McCully’s sod home was typical of that time. Using a flat shovel, he cut blocks of the thick Buffalo grass sod that grew about a mile north of his home site. He then used the 18-inch long buffalo grass blocks to form the walls.
McCully then split poles from the few trees growing in the area and laid them across the top of the walls for rafters. After the rafters were laid, he laid 12 inches of sod on the rafters to form the roof. After the two-room soddie was built, he then did something that was atypical in these types of structures. On his land, he ran across a spot to the West where alkali salt was abundant. Using the alkali clay, he plastered the inside walls of his soddie to help keep insects and other varmints out.
It took little more than 1/2 acre to furnish enough sought for the house. Originally, the floor in the sod home consisted of hard packed dirt, but McCully installed a wood floor in 1895.
Marshall McCully's family lived in the sod home from 1894 until 1909. In 1909, a large, two-story frame house was built immediately west of the sod home. They continued to use the site for storage until 1963.
On December 31, 1963, exactly sixty years after McCully first settled the land, the sod home was given to the Oklahoma Historical Society. Since that time, the Oklahoma historical Society has done its best to restore the sod home to its original condition and protect it from the elements. During the restoration, McCully and his daughter were still available to verify that the restoration reflected the authenticity of its original appearance.
Today, the sod home remains as a testament to those brave Oklahoma pioneers who tamed the wild and rugged terrain of Oklahoma. Housed inside a protective structure, the sod home will remain sheltered from the elements for generations to come. Thanks to McCully, visitors to this historical "soddie" can gain unique insight about the life and times of Oklahoma's early pioneers of the plains.
Visiting Oklahoma’s Sod Home
Hours: 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. Tuesday through Friday, 2:00 p.m. to 5:00 p.m. Saturday and Sunday
Address: 1 mile east, 2 1/2 miles south of Aline on Oklahoma State Highway 8 in Alfalfa County.
Questions & Answers
© 2010 Eric Standridge | <urn:uuid:3b6672b5-979d-4f5a-b6b3-c01fb49855f6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://owlcation.com/humanities/SodHouse | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00402.warc.gz | en | 0.981764 | 1,671 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.14388683438... | 2 | Pioneer Life: Sod Homes on the Prairies
Overburdened wagon trains lined the border between Kansas and Indian Territory on a warm spring day in April 1889. Excitement coursed through the crowd as they waited in eager anticipation. They had come in droves from all walks of life; there were doctors, lawyers, dentists, shopkeepers, farmers, and even the occasional ruffian. They were brave pioneers who had traveled across the country for this unprecedented event. Large parts of the Indian Territories would be divided up and given to whoever was first to make a claim. The land was wild and uncharted, but the promise of free land was intense.
Within hours of the land openings, hundreds of shabby tent cities emerged. Streets were quickly laid out as each town site began was established.
Outside of these tent “cities”, these Oklahoma pioneers began the laborious process of erecting their own homesteads. Small wooden shanties soon replaced tents as the untamed land was forced into submission. For many, the harsh land was too much and they left, dejected and penniless. For others, they simply did what was required. While those living among the east coasts lived in high style, those new settlers in the Indian Territory soon came to realize that hard work and survival was the way of life.
All across the future state, this scene was repeated time after time. Land would be opened up to settlement and those who were lucky enough would receive the best plots. Among those who faced the most difficult task of building were those that settled on the endless plains of western Indian Territory.
A Little House on the Prairie
The vast, rolling plains stretched out towards the horizon. It was a beautifully enchanting place where dreams could become reality. Once the Oklahoma pioneers began to build homes, they soon realized that this beautiful place was not the paradise they envisioned. The scarcity of trees and other raw materials poised a major housing problem, and importing lumber was, for most, financially impossible.
At first, many of these Oklahoma pioneers simply slept on the ground. Some of the more fortunate camped out in tents. As more and more people left the High Plains, they soon realized that this housing problem had to be taken care of.
The Native Americans who settled this area originally had already figured out the solution to this problem. The Osage, Pawnee, and Hidatsa Indians constructed their homes out of sod bricks cut from the fertile earth. It did not take long for the pioneers to duplicate this method.
Before long, sod homes began to dot the prairie horizon. These "sodbusters”, as the pioneers were known, cut sod bricks with a plow into strips one foot wide and four inches thick. Choosing the best sod, generally grass that has densely packed roots, these pioneers slowly began to make a living on the prairies.
Construction of these sod homes was a simple task that involved a lot of hard work. Sod bricks, typically made out of Buffalo grass, big and little blue stem, wiregrass, prairie cord grass, Indian grass, and wheat grass, were stacked one upon another to build up walls in the house. The bricks were laid grass-side down, and were placed alternately lengthwise and crosswise to increase the strength of the wall. It took about one acre of sod to create a house.
These sod homes generally consisted of one room with divisions made by hanging blankets. If the pioneers desired windows, they were made of a wood frame with wood pegs driven into the sod wall. After the walls had been formed, roofs were then made of thatch, or sod held up by poles.
While the image of a sod home may seem a little unusual, they were extremely efficient. The excellent insulation the walls provided helped to keep the homes cool in the summer and warm in the winter. It also served as an effective haven during those intense prairie wild fires. It was almost expected that the early Oklahoma pioneers would take in the cattle, horses, and pets during the threat of wildfires.
While the benefits of living in these “soddies” were many, they were not without their problems. The floor was typically hard-packed dirt, and the ceiling constantly leaked muddy water during the torrential rains. Snakes, mice, and bugs were always a constant bother. Many times, the woman of the house would erect a canopy over the cook stove to prevent these pests from falling into the stew.
The Last of the Pioneer Homes
He was just another face among many on that fateful day of September 16, 1893, when the Cherokee Outlet was opened for settlement. Marshall McCully, one of early Oklahoma's pioneers, could not have known how much of a lasting impression he would make. To this day, the McCully’s small grass “soddie” is the only one still standing in Oklahoma that was built by a homesteader.
McCully's first land claim was disputed, which was not uncommon during the land runs. After a brief bit of haggling, he finally gave up and moved on to file another claim. After searching across the Cherokee Outlet, he finally found what he was looking for. It was on this large piece of land that he would leave us with a small piece of history.
Having little supplies and no shelter, McCully formed a one-room "dug-out" that was hollowed out of a ravine bank. He lived in this dugout home for almost one year until he could begin construction on his two-room sod house in August 1894.
Construction of McCully’s sod home was typical of that time. Using a flat shovel, he cut blocks of the thick Buffalo grass sod that grew about a mile north of his home site. He then used the 18-inch long buffalo grass blocks to form the walls.
McCully then split poles from the few trees growing in the area and laid them across the top of the walls for rafters. After the rafters were laid, he laid 12 inches of sod on the rafters to form the roof. After the two-room soddie was built, he then did something that was atypical in these types of structures. On his land, he ran across a spot to the West where alkali salt was abundant. Using the alkali clay, he plastered the inside walls of his soddie to help keep insects and other varmints out.
It took little more than 1/2 acre to furnish enough sought for the house. Originally, the floor in the sod home consisted of hard packed dirt, but McCully installed a wood floor in 1895.
Marshall McCully's family lived in the sod home from 1894 until 1909. In 1909, a large, two-story frame house was built immediately west of the sod home. They continued to use the site for storage until 1963.
On December 31, 1963, exactly sixty years after McCully first settled the land, the sod home was given to the Oklahoma Historical Society. Since that time, the Oklahoma historical Society has done its best to restore the sod home to its original condition and protect it from the elements. During the restoration, McCully and his daughter were still available to verify that the restoration reflected the authenticity of its original appearance.
Today, the sod home remains as a testament to those brave Oklahoma pioneers who tamed the wild and rugged terrain of Oklahoma. Housed inside a protective structure, the sod home will remain sheltered from the elements for generations to come. Thanks to McCully, visitors to this historical "soddie" can gain unique insight about the life and times of Oklahoma's early pioneers of the plains.
Visiting Oklahoma’s Sod Home
Hours: 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. Tuesday through Friday, 2:00 p.m. to 5:00 p.m. Saturday and Sunday
Address: 1 mile east, 2 1/2 miles south of Aline on Oklahoma State Highway 8 in Alfalfa County.
Questions & Answers
© 2010 Eric Standridge | 1,682 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1851, the Qing dynasty was becoming concerned about the number of followers that Hong was gathering. And in January, they launched an attack to crush the growing sect at the city of Jintian. But after a fierce battle, Hong’s forces came out on top, and the Qing’s commander was publicly beheaded.This early victory made Hong a symbol that everyone opposed to the Qing government could rally around. Many of his new followers came from the native Hakka ethnic group, which had always hated the Qing dynasty, which was founded by foreign Manchus.
Hong’s followers began to symbolically reject Manchu dominance. They began cutting off their queues, a traditional Manchu hairstyle where the front of the head is shaved and the hair in the back grown into a long ponytail. The Manchu had required their Han Chinese subjects to grow their hair this way, and it was always seen as a symbol of the Manchu rule over China. Now, Hong’s followers began to grow their hair out. Many also began wearing red turbans as a symbol of their allegiance to Hong. Hong, meanwhile, began preaching that the Manchu were demons and that it was the duty of his followers to kill all of them.
Within two years, Hong’s followers captured the city of Nanjing. By now, the rebellion was hundreds of thousands strong. Soon, the rebels managed to capture the major city of Nanjing. With an earthly kingdom now established, Hong began trying to make it into a heavenly one. At first, Hong’s reforms were fairly normal as far as revolutionary governments go. He began by deciding to do everything differently than the hated Qing Dynasty. The calendar was changed, and the imperial bureaucracy in the city was stripped down and replaced by Hong’s followers. Opium was outlawed once again with strict penalties for selling or using it.
But Hong also claimed to speak for God on Earth. And “after speaking with God,” he began making proclamations about how the Almighty wanted Chinese society to change. First, all the traditional beliefs of the Chinese were banned. The Confucian texts Hong had once memorized were burned. Traditional statues of gods and spirits were destroyed. Women and men were to be strictly segregated. Hong and his closest followers, however, kept large numbers of the most beautiful women in their homes as concubines. As the younger brother of God, the rules didn’t apply to Hong.
Meanwhile, outside the city of Nanjing, the war continued. As Hong’s army attracted more followers, they managed to expand their kingdom to cover large parts of Southern China. Eventually, more than 30 million people lived inside the “Taiping Heavenly Kingdom,” as Hong’s followers began to call their new territory. If there was any doubt about the threat the Taiping Kingdom posed to the ruling Qing, it was now gone. And the Qing emperor began raising troops in a desperate fight for survival. The next stage of the war was about to begin. And it would prove to be one of the most deadly conflicts in history. | <urn:uuid:96d06c20-3c91-4e5b-8609-9e55f21005be> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historycollection.co/how-a-man-who-thought-he-was-christs-younger-brother-led-the-bloodiest-civil-war-in-history/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00515.warc.gz | en | 0.987191 | 643 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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-0.0880701020359... | 2 | In 1851, the Qing dynasty was becoming concerned about the number of followers that Hong was gathering. And in January, they launched an attack to crush the growing sect at the city of Jintian. But after a fierce battle, Hong’s forces came out on top, and the Qing’s commander was publicly beheaded.This early victory made Hong a symbol that everyone opposed to the Qing government could rally around. Many of his new followers came from the native Hakka ethnic group, which had always hated the Qing dynasty, which was founded by foreign Manchus.
Hong’s followers began to symbolically reject Manchu dominance. They began cutting off their queues, a traditional Manchu hairstyle where the front of the head is shaved and the hair in the back grown into a long ponytail. The Manchu had required their Han Chinese subjects to grow their hair this way, and it was always seen as a symbol of the Manchu rule over China. Now, Hong’s followers began to grow their hair out. Many also began wearing red turbans as a symbol of their allegiance to Hong. Hong, meanwhile, began preaching that the Manchu were demons and that it was the duty of his followers to kill all of them.
Within two years, Hong’s followers captured the city of Nanjing. By now, the rebellion was hundreds of thousands strong. Soon, the rebels managed to capture the major city of Nanjing. With an earthly kingdom now established, Hong began trying to make it into a heavenly one. At first, Hong’s reforms were fairly normal as far as revolutionary governments go. He began by deciding to do everything differently than the hated Qing Dynasty. The calendar was changed, and the imperial bureaucracy in the city was stripped down and replaced by Hong’s followers. Opium was outlawed once again with strict penalties for selling or using it.
But Hong also claimed to speak for God on Earth. And “after speaking with God,” he began making proclamations about how the Almighty wanted Chinese society to change. First, all the traditional beliefs of the Chinese were banned. The Confucian texts Hong had once memorized were burned. Traditional statues of gods and spirits were destroyed. Women and men were to be strictly segregated. Hong and his closest followers, however, kept large numbers of the most beautiful women in their homes as concubines. As the younger brother of God, the rules didn’t apply to Hong.
Meanwhile, outside the city of Nanjing, the war continued. As Hong’s army attracted more followers, they managed to expand their kingdom to cover large parts of Southern China. Eventually, more than 30 million people lived inside the “Taiping Heavenly Kingdom,” as Hong’s followers began to call their new territory. If there was any doubt about the threat the Taiping Kingdom posed to the ruling Qing, it was now gone. And the Qing emperor began raising troops in a desperate fight for survival. The next stage of the war was about to begin. And it would prove to be one of the most deadly conflicts in history. | 617 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Gender Roles Essay Example
Gender roles are a certain set of characteristics or behaviors that distinguish between male or female. These differences are what society uses to determine what a specific gender should or should not do in life. Although these roles are held over a person's head throughout his or her life, there are multiple movie characters that show the world that there is more to a person than their gender role.
One of the major gender roles that women have is that they are supposed to be stay at home moms. Women should be the ones who cook, clean, and raise the children. Society believes that the man is the one who should be providing for the family. Wonder woman, Diana, did not understand the views of society. Since Diana grew up without having men in her life, she always believed that it was the woman's job to take care of herself and her family. After saving the life of a man, Steve, she was introduced to a new world. A world where men did the fighting and women stayed home. In time, Diana showed Steve that it is possible for women to participate in the act of taking care of the family and fighting in the war.
Gender roles define not only a woman's place in the family, but they also define what a woman is supposed to look like. Women are supposed to be thin and graceful with long hair while wearing skirts, and men can be muscular with short hair while wearing pants. Mulan was one woman who was not going to let her appearance keep her from doing what was right. She knew that her father was too old to represent her family in the Imperial army, so, as she was an only child, Mulan felt responsible for upholding her family's honor. She cut her hair and dressed like a man to convince the army that she was the male representative from her family, instead of her father. Although she seemed to be the weakest man in the army, Mulan worked hard to learn the ways of battle and earn the respect of the men around her. Even though she had the physical appearance of a man, the others still underestimated her strength. In the end, Mulan did the one thing that no other man could do. She completed an "impossible" task during training and proved that looks do not determine the strength of a woman.
Even though women tend to be more affected by gender roles, men are stereotyped as well. Men are expected to be tall, muscular, and even intimidating. When it comes to characters like Spiderman, people do not think of qualities like these. Spiderman is seen as the underdog most of the time. He may have superpowers, but he is neither muscular nor intimidating. In Spiderman: Homecoming, Tony Stark participates in establishing gender roles as he tries to tell Spiderman that he is just not ready to go on important missions. Stark tries to tell Spiderman that he is not prepared for the responsibility that comes with bigger missions. After proving Tony Stark wrong, Spiderman reveals that size does not determine a man's ability to complete a mission.
As these characters, and many others, live his or her life the way that they felt was right, they prove to society that gender is not important. Just because society says that a gender should be a certain way does not mean that they are required to be that way. One does not have to base their life off of their gender of male or female. If a woman wants to be the family provider or the one who fights against the bad guy, nobody should tell her that she cannot do either of those things. If a man wants to be the homebody or the successful underdog, his gender and physical appearance should never keep him from doing those things. Male or female is simply a description of a person and gender roles are merely an answer choice in a list of determining who you want to be in life.
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- The Worlds of Restriction. A 1984 Essay Example | <urn:uuid:a7a38a07-d9fe-4c6b-9203-496f86ad3ee5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://samples.essaytopicsmasters.com/informative/the-gender-roles-essay-example | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00244.warc.gz | en | 0.980179 | 873 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.3524084687232971,... | 1 | The Gender Roles Essay Example
Gender roles are a certain set of characteristics or behaviors that distinguish between male or female. These differences are what society uses to determine what a specific gender should or should not do in life. Although these roles are held over a person's head throughout his or her life, there are multiple movie characters that show the world that there is more to a person than their gender role.
One of the major gender roles that women have is that they are supposed to be stay at home moms. Women should be the ones who cook, clean, and raise the children. Society believes that the man is the one who should be providing for the family. Wonder woman, Diana, did not understand the views of society. Since Diana grew up without having men in her life, she always believed that it was the woman's job to take care of herself and her family. After saving the life of a man, Steve, she was introduced to a new world. A world where men did the fighting and women stayed home. In time, Diana showed Steve that it is possible for women to participate in the act of taking care of the family and fighting in the war.
Gender roles define not only a woman's place in the family, but they also define what a woman is supposed to look like. Women are supposed to be thin and graceful with long hair while wearing skirts, and men can be muscular with short hair while wearing pants. Mulan was one woman who was not going to let her appearance keep her from doing what was right. She knew that her father was too old to represent her family in the Imperial army, so, as she was an only child, Mulan felt responsible for upholding her family's honor. She cut her hair and dressed like a man to convince the army that she was the male representative from her family, instead of her father. Although she seemed to be the weakest man in the army, Mulan worked hard to learn the ways of battle and earn the respect of the men around her. Even though she had the physical appearance of a man, the others still underestimated her strength. In the end, Mulan did the one thing that no other man could do. She completed an "impossible" task during training and proved that looks do not determine the strength of a woman.
Even though women tend to be more affected by gender roles, men are stereotyped as well. Men are expected to be tall, muscular, and even intimidating. When it comes to characters like Spiderman, people do not think of qualities like these. Spiderman is seen as the underdog most of the time. He may have superpowers, but he is neither muscular nor intimidating. In Spiderman: Homecoming, Tony Stark participates in establishing gender roles as he tries to tell Spiderman that he is just not ready to go on important missions. Stark tries to tell Spiderman that he is not prepared for the responsibility that comes with bigger missions. After proving Tony Stark wrong, Spiderman reveals that size does not determine a man's ability to complete a mission.
As these characters, and many others, live his or her life the way that they felt was right, they prove to society that gender is not important. Just because society says that a gender should be a certain way does not mean that they are required to be that way. One does not have to base their life off of their gender of male or female. If a woman wants to be the family provider or the one who fights against the bad guy, nobody should tell her that she cannot do either of those things. If a man wants to be the homebody or the successful underdog, his gender and physical appearance should never keep him from doing those things. Male or female is simply a description of a person and gender roles are merely an answer choice in a list of determining who you want to be in life.
- Alexander the Great Essay Example
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- Auschwitz: The Camp of Tears
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- Essay About Violence In Chicago
- The Double Agent of the Revolutionary War Essay Example
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- The Discovery of Christopher Columbus
- The Renaissance Essay Example
- The Worlds of Restriction. A 1984 Essay Example | 866 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today we looked at our 4 trees again, the differences have slowed down as most of the leaves have now fallen. We then went into the classroom to record our thoughts about the changes we have observed since September. We used a PowerPoint presentation to help us (please see below) We had a busy afternoon as we also recorded what we know is needed for a seed to grow and created a table of data. Great work again everyone! Mrs Davenport
Wednesday 27th November
Today we continued with our longitudinal study and looked for the differences that had taken place since last week with our four trees. We noticed that the ground was covered with willow leaves as so many had fallen and that the Lime and Whitebeam had nearly lost all of their leaves.
Our focus for the science lesson was 'seed dispersal' we talked about the different ways seeds can be transported from the parent plant. We then focused on the Field Maple and its helicopter seeds. We went out onto the playground and practised how to measure using our feet and dropped a seed while we pretended to be Maple trees to see how far they flew.
We then returned to the classroom and made our own helicopters which we flew in the hall. We recorded where they fell and how far they flew. The four areas of the hall were each a different environment: - the blue was water, the red was tarmac, the yellow was sand and the green was soil. We talked about which of the environments would be suitable for the seed to grow.
Lots of hard work again today everyone, well done. Mrs Davenport
Our Science was in 4 parts today: -
Part 1 - We looked at our 4 trees for our longitudinal study and talked about the differences since last week (lots of leaves had fallen because of the frost) We also discussed 3 trees in the church grounds. The children want to know if 2 of them are evergreen - we decided to keep checking so that we can find out.
Part 2 - We went into the field and meadow to try and discover which was the oldest oak tree. To do this we measured around the trunk at 1.5 metres (once back in the classroom we found out our oldest tree was over 200 years old!) We also tested how tall 2 of the oaks were by talking 5 paces and looking under our legs (this will explain some of the strange poses the children are making :D) We knew that 5 paces was equal to 50m. We had mixed results but on average we estimated that our tallest tree is over 200 metres tall!
Part 3 - We went back into class and recorded our findings in a table. Some of us also used information from the Woodland Trust to find out what historical connections there were. For instance one of our oak trees started to grow when the Wright Brothers flew the first manned flight in 1903.
Part 4 - Some of us planted the good acorns we found from last week. Mrs Simmons also gave us some saplings which we will plant next week as we needed larger pots.
Again, everyone worked really hard today - well done. Mrs Davenport | <urn:uuid:0c34f8ab-8746-4b18-82e3-71498d4d8eaf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.otterbourneprimaryschool.com/year-12-jaguars/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00506.warc.gz | en | 0.98665 | 634 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.386719286441803... | 1 | Today we looked at our 4 trees again, the differences have slowed down as most of the leaves have now fallen. We then went into the classroom to record our thoughts about the changes we have observed since September. We used a PowerPoint presentation to help us (please see below) We had a busy afternoon as we also recorded what we know is needed for a seed to grow and created a table of data. Great work again everyone! Mrs Davenport
Wednesday 27th November
Today we continued with our longitudinal study and looked for the differences that had taken place since last week with our four trees. We noticed that the ground was covered with willow leaves as so many had fallen and that the Lime and Whitebeam had nearly lost all of their leaves.
Our focus for the science lesson was 'seed dispersal' we talked about the different ways seeds can be transported from the parent plant. We then focused on the Field Maple and its helicopter seeds. We went out onto the playground and practised how to measure using our feet and dropped a seed while we pretended to be Maple trees to see how far they flew.
We then returned to the classroom and made our own helicopters which we flew in the hall. We recorded where they fell and how far they flew. The four areas of the hall were each a different environment: - the blue was water, the red was tarmac, the yellow was sand and the green was soil. We talked about which of the environments would be suitable for the seed to grow.
Lots of hard work again today everyone, well done. Mrs Davenport
Our Science was in 4 parts today: -
Part 1 - We looked at our 4 trees for our longitudinal study and talked about the differences since last week (lots of leaves had fallen because of the frost) We also discussed 3 trees in the church grounds. The children want to know if 2 of them are evergreen - we decided to keep checking so that we can find out.
Part 2 - We went into the field and meadow to try and discover which was the oldest oak tree. To do this we measured around the trunk at 1.5 metres (once back in the classroom we found out our oldest tree was over 200 years old!) We also tested how tall 2 of the oaks were by talking 5 paces and looking under our legs (this will explain some of the strange poses the children are making :D) We knew that 5 paces was equal to 50m. We had mixed results but on average we estimated that our tallest tree is over 200 metres tall!
Part 3 - We went back into class and recorded our findings in a table. Some of us also used information from the Woodland Trust to find out what historical connections there were. For instance one of our oak trees started to grow when the Wright Brothers flew the first manned flight in 1903.
Part 4 - Some of us planted the good acorns we found from last week. Mrs Simmons also gave us some saplings which we will plant next week as we needed larger pots.
Again, everyone worked really hard today - well done. Mrs Davenport | 649 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Death Of Roger Sherman
Roger Sherman, the only man in US history to sign America’s four most important documents; the Articles of Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the Constitution, died on July 23, 1793.
Sherman was born on April 19, 1721, in Newton, Massachusetts. With few educational opportunities available to him, Sherman read every spare minute – and often had a book open at his workbench in his father’s shoe repair shop.
After his father died, he moved to New Milford, Connecticut and with his brother, opened the town’s first store. Sherman first held an official office in 1745 when he was made surveyor of New Haven County. He was also made the town clerk of New Milford and produced a popular Almanac there each year from 1750 to 1761.
Sherman was accepted to the Bar in 1754 and elected to the General Assembly the following year. He went on to serve as a justice of the peace and justice of the Superior Court of Connecticut. By the time he was 40, Sherman established himself as a prominent lawyer and politician.
When the Revolutionary War broke out, Sherman was made commissary to the Connecticut Troops. He was then elected to the Continental Congress in 1774. Sherman helped create the Articles of Association, a precursor to the Declaration of Independence which established a trade boycott with Great Britain. Well-respected among his peers for his honesty and integrity, Sherman was also selected to help create the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation.
At the Constitutional Convention, Sherman was noted for his impassioned support of a strong federal government and the rights of smaller states. With 138 speeches to the convention, Sherman was by far one its most vocal members. Fisher Ames once said that in cases of uncertainty he looked at Roger Sherman, knowing that “if I vote with him I shall vote right.”
Among Sherman’s notable contributions was the inclusion “or to the people” in the 10th Amendment to the Constitution and the use of the cent in America’s financial system. Sherman died in his sleep on July 23, 1793.
Click here to see what else happened on This Day in History. | <urn:uuid:86bdadae-e87c-404b-941e-fbe109976dcc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mysticstamp.com/info/this-day-in-history-july-23-1793-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00168.warc.gz | en | 0.98632 | 463 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.38997396826... | 5 | Death Of Roger Sherman
Roger Sherman, the only man in US history to sign America’s four most important documents; the Articles of Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the Constitution, died on July 23, 1793.
Sherman was born on April 19, 1721, in Newton, Massachusetts. With few educational opportunities available to him, Sherman read every spare minute – and often had a book open at his workbench in his father’s shoe repair shop.
After his father died, he moved to New Milford, Connecticut and with his brother, opened the town’s first store. Sherman first held an official office in 1745 when he was made surveyor of New Haven County. He was also made the town clerk of New Milford and produced a popular Almanac there each year from 1750 to 1761.
Sherman was accepted to the Bar in 1754 and elected to the General Assembly the following year. He went on to serve as a justice of the peace and justice of the Superior Court of Connecticut. By the time he was 40, Sherman established himself as a prominent lawyer and politician.
When the Revolutionary War broke out, Sherman was made commissary to the Connecticut Troops. He was then elected to the Continental Congress in 1774. Sherman helped create the Articles of Association, a precursor to the Declaration of Independence which established a trade boycott with Great Britain. Well-respected among his peers for his honesty and integrity, Sherman was also selected to help create the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation.
At the Constitutional Convention, Sherman was noted for his impassioned support of a strong federal government and the rights of smaller states. With 138 speeches to the convention, Sherman was by far one its most vocal members. Fisher Ames once said that in cases of uncertainty he looked at Roger Sherman, knowing that “if I vote with him I shall vote right.”
Among Sherman’s notable contributions was the inclusion “or to the people” in the 10th Amendment to the Constitution and the use of the cent in America’s financial system. Sherman died in his sleep on July 23, 1793.
Click here to see what else happened on This Day in History. | 480 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The year 1914 was significant. The Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated, which event led to the start of World War I, a devastating conflict between many nations that left millions dead. 1914 was also the year the Panama Canal opened, providing quick access by boat from hemisphere to hemisphere. It was also the year that Sir Earnest Shackleton left for his expedition across Antarctica. In the U.S., 50% of the people who were born in the early 1900s could expect to live to age 60 (less than 80% would have been expected to live to age 20). In contrast, 50% of people born in 2004 can expect to live to about age 83 (source). Thus, since around 1914 we have added about 30 years to the average human lifespan. Most of this has come from reductions in infant mortality. Around the world, similar improvements in life expectancy have been made.
The world was in upheaval in 1914 but in an obscure rural town in Iowa a baby was born who would change the world. However this person largely remains unknown, at least within the United States. His name was Norman Borlaug. He died on September 12, 2009 at the age of 95. He grew up and received a PhD in plant pathology. He helped create hardier grain plants that increased food production by enormous amounts throughout the world.
“In 1950, as Borlaug began his work in earnest, the world produced 692 million tons of grain for 2.2 billion people. By 1992, with Borlaug’s concepts common, production was 1.9 billion tons of grain for 5.6 billion men and women: 2.8 times the food for 2.2 times the people. Global grain yields more than doubled during the period, from half a ton per acre to 1.1 tons; yields of rice and other foodstuffs improved similarly. Hunger declined in sync: From 1965 to 2005, global per capita food consumption rose to 2,798 calories daily from 2,063, with most of the increase in developing nations. In 2006, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization declared that malnutrition stands “at the lowest level in human history,” despite the global population having trebled in a single century.” (Source).
Norman Borlaug won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970 for his work. He is one of the main reasons for a large increase in life expectancy worldwide. He spent much of his life living in the countries he was trying to help. His family went along too. In his own way, Borlaug was like Mother Teresa but on a much broader and macro level. His helping the poor and hungry was not ostensibly religious – it was based on science and plant genetics – but he had great devotion to helping and teaching those who needed help. Norman Borlaug was a man who was blessed with much and gave much. He never sought for fame and fame, for the most part, did not seek him.
None of us will likely ever have as great an impact on this world as Norman Borlaug did but we have all been given talents – spiritual gifts – that require us to use them for the good of ourselves and others.
“Wherefore, beware lest ye are deceived; and that ye may not be deceived seek ye earnestly the best gifts, always remembering for what they are given; For verily I say unto you, they are given for the benefit of those who love me and keep all my commandments, and him that seeketh so to do; that all may be benefited that seek or that ask of me, that ask and not for a sign that they may consume it upon their lusts. And again, verily I say unto you, I would that ye should always remember, and always retain in your minds what those gifts are…. For all have not every gift given unto them; for there are many gifts, and to every man is given a gift by the Spirit of God. To some is given one, and to some is given another, that all may be profited thereby” (D&C; 46:8-12; emphasis added).
All on the earth are given at least one spiritual gift by God. Many are given many. They should be used and expanded for the profit of all. In the New Testament we read the parable of the talents (see Matt. 25:14-29). In this parable are three servants who are given talents (money) by their master as He leaves on a journey. The servant given five talents turned around and through wisdom and good sense turned the talents into ten. The servant given two talents turned those into four. The master was pleased with both servants. They were given talents and had increased them wisely. The third servant was given one talent. He, fearing his master, and not wanting to lose his talent, buried it; upon his master’s return the servant gave unto him his single talent. The master was not pleased. He stated that this servant should at the least have put the money in the bank, so to speak, where it might have earned some interest. Because this third servant had not been wise with his talent, it was taken from him and given to the servant with ten talents.
The moral of this parable is not based on how many talents the servants had originally; it is based on what the servants did with the talents allotted unto them. Both the servant with five and two talents had doubled their talents. They expended effort and did not hide or neglect their talents. The servant given one talent would have acted similarly had he been given ten talents instead of one. Again, it does not matter how much we have been given as it matters what we do with what we have received. That last statement is not strictly true in the broader sense (i.e., outside this parable), I believe, because those who have received more talents have a greater responsibility to wisely use and grow them. Jesus said unto Joseph Smith, “For of him unto whom much is given much is required; and he who sins against the greater light shall receive the greater condemnation” (D&C; 82:3). The more we receive, the greater our responsibility.
To me it seems that Norman Borlaug was given much. He had the intelligence, training, creativity, and support that enabled him to help others have the food they needed to survive. He was not selfish with his knowledge. He spent the time himself training others so that they might in turn be able to train others. Borlaug helped start what is known as the Green Revolution, a revolution not of swords and guns but one of plows and tractors. It helped modernize the agricultural techniques of many areas of the world. Before where famine and starvation were rampant, Borlaug’s work helped pave the way for surplus and plenty. He is a man who was given much and gave much in return. I do not know what he was like as a person but his fruits were good. | <urn:uuid:f5d27dc6-84af-4ab2-bbfb-75fbda683df8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://bystudyandfaith.net/2009/09/norman-borlaug-a-life-of-service-and-good-fruits/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00322.warc.gz | en | 0.987774 | 1,435 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.4574306607246399... | 7 | The year 1914 was significant. The Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated, which event led to the start of World War I, a devastating conflict between many nations that left millions dead. 1914 was also the year the Panama Canal opened, providing quick access by boat from hemisphere to hemisphere. It was also the year that Sir Earnest Shackleton left for his expedition across Antarctica. In the U.S., 50% of the people who were born in the early 1900s could expect to live to age 60 (less than 80% would have been expected to live to age 20). In contrast, 50% of people born in 2004 can expect to live to about age 83 (source). Thus, since around 1914 we have added about 30 years to the average human lifespan. Most of this has come from reductions in infant mortality. Around the world, similar improvements in life expectancy have been made.
The world was in upheaval in 1914 but in an obscure rural town in Iowa a baby was born who would change the world. However this person largely remains unknown, at least within the United States. His name was Norman Borlaug. He died on September 12, 2009 at the age of 95. He grew up and received a PhD in plant pathology. He helped create hardier grain plants that increased food production by enormous amounts throughout the world.
“In 1950, as Borlaug began his work in earnest, the world produced 692 million tons of grain for 2.2 billion people. By 1992, with Borlaug’s concepts common, production was 1.9 billion tons of grain for 5.6 billion men and women: 2.8 times the food for 2.2 times the people. Global grain yields more than doubled during the period, from half a ton per acre to 1.1 tons; yields of rice and other foodstuffs improved similarly. Hunger declined in sync: From 1965 to 2005, global per capita food consumption rose to 2,798 calories daily from 2,063, with most of the increase in developing nations. In 2006, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization declared that malnutrition stands “at the lowest level in human history,” despite the global population having trebled in a single century.” (Source).
Norman Borlaug won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970 for his work. He is one of the main reasons for a large increase in life expectancy worldwide. He spent much of his life living in the countries he was trying to help. His family went along too. In his own way, Borlaug was like Mother Teresa but on a much broader and macro level. His helping the poor and hungry was not ostensibly religious – it was based on science and plant genetics – but he had great devotion to helping and teaching those who needed help. Norman Borlaug was a man who was blessed with much and gave much. He never sought for fame and fame, for the most part, did not seek him.
None of us will likely ever have as great an impact on this world as Norman Borlaug did but we have all been given talents – spiritual gifts – that require us to use them for the good of ourselves and others.
“Wherefore, beware lest ye are deceived; and that ye may not be deceived seek ye earnestly the best gifts, always remembering for what they are given; For verily I say unto you, they are given for the benefit of those who love me and keep all my commandments, and him that seeketh so to do; that all may be benefited that seek or that ask of me, that ask and not for a sign that they may consume it upon their lusts. And again, verily I say unto you, I would that ye should always remember, and always retain in your minds what those gifts are…. For all have not every gift given unto them; for there are many gifts, and to every man is given a gift by the Spirit of God. To some is given one, and to some is given another, that all may be profited thereby” (D&C; 46:8-12; emphasis added).
All on the earth are given at least one spiritual gift by God. Many are given many. They should be used and expanded for the profit of all. In the New Testament we read the parable of the talents (see Matt. 25:14-29). In this parable are three servants who are given talents (money) by their master as He leaves on a journey. The servant given five talents turned around and through wisdom and good sense turned the talents into ten. The servant given two talents turned those into four. The master was pleased with both servants. They were given talents and had increased them wisely. The third servant was given one talent. He, fearing his master, and not wanting to lose his talent, buried it; upon his master’s return the servant gave unto him his single talent. The master was not pleased. He stated that this servant should at the least have put the money in the bank, so to speak, where it might have earned some interest. Because this third servant had not been wise with his talent, it was taken from him and given to the servant with ten talents.
The moral of this parable is not based on how many talents the servants had originally; it is based on what the servants did with the talents allotted unto them. Both the servant with five and two talents had doubled their talents. They expended effort and did not hide or neglect their talents. The servant given one talent would have acted similarly had he been given ten talents instead of one. Again, it does not matter how much we have been given as it matters what we do with what we have received. That last statement is not strictly true in the broader sense (i.e., outside this parable), I believe, because those who have received more talents have a greater responsibility to wisely use and grow them. Jesus said unto Joseph Smith, “For of him unto whom much is given much is required; and he who sins against the greater light shall receive the greater condemnation” (D&C; 82:3). The more we receive, the greater our responsibility.
To me it seems that Norman Borlaug was given much. He had the intelligence, training, creativity, and support that enabled him to help others have the food they needed to survive. He was not selfish with his knowledge. He spent the time himself training others so that they might in turn be able to train others. Borlaug helped start what is known as the Green Revolution, a revolution not of swords and guns but one of plows and tractors. It helped modernize the agricultural techniques of many areas of the world. Before where famine and starvation were rampant, Borlaug’s work helped pave the way for surplus and plenty. He is a man who was given much and gave much in return. I do not know what he was like as a person but his fruits were good. | 1,502 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sunday, July 22, marks the birthday of famous educator and writer Henryk Goldszmit, better known to the world by his literary pseudonym Janusz Korczak.In Poland, where he was born, 132 years ago, parliament unanimously passed a resolution establishing 2012 as the Year of Janusz Korczak, because it is the 70th anniversary of his deportation to Treblinka where he was murdered together with the children in his care. It is also the 100th anniversary of the founding of his orphanage on Warsaw’s Krochmalna Street.Korczak believed that children were just younger and smaller people than adults and should be given the same opportunities as adults to express themselves in debate, on stage, in the press and on radio – and that was how he conducted his orphanage. He gave his children as broad a universal education as possible so as to prepare them to go out and conquer the world, and he zealously defended the rights of all children.Occasionally he took time out to travel, and in the 1930s paid several visits to Mandate Palestine.At the outbreak of the Second World War, there were close to 200 children in the orphanage, who had to twice relocate before being rounded up by the Germans in the first week of August 1942. Korczak instructed the children to put on their best clothes and created the impression that they were going on an important outing. He did everything possible to keep fear out of their minds.He was given two opportunities to save himself but refused. Zagota, the Polish Council to Aid Jews, offered to smuggle him to the Aryan side of the city, but he opted to remain with the youngsters.The Nazis also had a grudging respect for him and offered him an option that would have prolonged if not necessarily saved his life, but again he put the children ahead of himself.There are Janusz Korczak Associations in many parts of the world and not just in countries with a preponderance of Polish expats or large Jewish communities. Such associations also exist in Japan, the Ivory Coast, Burundi and India.Many of the so-called revolutionary ideas about children’s rights that have received widespread media attention in recent years were practiced by Korczak, more than 80 years ago.He was such an extraordinary pedagogue, influenced to some extent by Maria Montessori, that even during the most anti-Semitic post-war era in Poland, he was singled out as a source of Polish pride, a shining example of what one educator can do.Korczak spent several years of his life as a journalist, but is much better known as a prolific writer of essays, plays and short stories. A 16-volume edition of his collected works is due for release this year. | <urn:uuid:4904f6fe-1add-4307-b70f-e14bc6e1d3b4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.jpost.com/Features/In-Thespotlight/Janusz-Korczak-remembered-in-Poland-abroad | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00036.warc.gz | en | 0.989711 | 571 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.658629536628... | 2 | Sunday, July 22, marks the birthday of famous educator and writer Henryk Goldszmit, better known to the world by his literary pseudonym Janusz Korczak.In Poland, where he was born, 132 years ago, parliament unanimously passed a resolution establishing 2012 as the Year of Janusz Korczak, because it is the 70th anniversary of his deportation to Treblinka where he was murdered together with the children in his care. It is also the 100th anniversary of the founding of his orphanage on Warsaw’s Krochmalna Street.Korczak believed that children were just younger and smaller people than adults and should be given the same opportunities as adults to express themselves in debate, on stage, in the press and on radio – and that was how he conducted his orphanage. He gave his children as broad a universal education as possible so as to prepare them to go out and conquer the world, and he zealously defended the rights of all children.Occasionally he took time out to travel, and in the 1930s paid several visits to Mandate Palestine.At the outbreak of the Second World War, there were close to 200 children in the orphanage, who had to twice relocate before being rounded up by the Germans in the first week of August 1942. Korczak instructed the children to put on their best clothes and created the impression that they were going on an important outing. He did everything possible to keep fear out of their minds.He was given two opportunities to save himself but refused. Zagota, the Polish Council to Aid Jews, offered to smuggle him to the Aryan side of the city, but he opted to remain with the youngsters.The Nazis also had a grudging respect for him and offered him an option that would have prolonged if not necessarily saved his life, but again he put the children ahead of himself.There are Janusz Korczak Associations in many parts of the world and not just in countries with a preponderance of Polish expats or large Jewish communities. Such associations also exist in Japan, the Ivory Coast, Burundi and India.Many of the so-called revolutionary ideas about children’s rights that have received widespread media attention in recent years were practiced by Korczak, more than 80 years ago.He was such an extraordinary pedagogue, influenced to some extent by Maria Montessori, that even during the most anti-Semitic post-war era in Poland, he was singled out as a source of Polish pride, a shining example of what one educator can do.Korczak spent several years of his life as a journalist, but is much better known as a prolific writer of essays, plays and short stories. A 16-volume edition of his collected works is due for release this year. | 577 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today I want to write about women of the past who are unnamed and often unsung heroes of Canadian history. They with amazing ingenuity and innovation and with persistence and grace worked and sacrificed to improve their way of life together as women helping each other.
I want to honour them as they pushed beyond their own strength with unmitigated opposition, to pursue their goals for equality. In the earlier culture they were very restricted and limited as we have never known in our day.
Women were very restricted to the home, dependent on husbands and had no voice, especially those without inheritance.They still sought to improve their lot through trading and doing creative things which improved their way of life and brought extra income. Women joined in community and organized themselves in mutual support.Women were assigned the social status and identity of their husbands and widows had a much lower social status and had no right to own property alone and so were dependent on others and so tended to remarry rather quickly. Arranged marriages were common and made a difference to comfort and acceptance in society.In the 17th and 18th centuries entering convent life was an alternative to marriage and women had exposure to education and were trained to teach school or become midwives. The convents were also supportive of women having property struggles and were financially helping women seeking justice.Nevertheless in society women were considered secondary to men.
Laws were formed to meet the requirements of the social environment and laws to protect women were very slow in coming. The injustices regarding inheritance and property rights in 18th and 19th centuries were challenged by a growing number of women’s organizations. Female writers were active in developing arguments and public demand for change in dower laws.As we know success eventually came and inheritance laws were changed in the 1930″s
Women through opposition and hardship fought for justice and for laws to be changed for which we must be grateful.The war is not fully over although many laws have been changed our lives as women are still subject to control. Believe it or not women may still not receive inheritances due, simply because they are women in the family. Women may be paid less than a man and control and abuse exist. They are still victims and marginalized against greater forces that keep them silenced. These are not just social issues but have a deep spiritual root which manifests as mysogony and control. God’s perspective on women needs to be resurrected. Not that all was perfect then, but men and women together need to press on for freedom from negative spiritual roots This will not only bring marital harmony but societal healing. A nation is only as strong as harmony of its families together. | <urn:uuid:78fbabac-78c6-4745-87fc-50f17190bac8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://daughtersoflife.ca/women-of-the-past/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00266.warc.gz | en | 0.991578 | 531 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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-0.1026239991188049... | 3 | Today I want to write about women of the past who are unnamed and often unsung heroes of Canadian history. They with amazing ingenuity and innovation and with persistence and grace worked and sacrificed to improve their way of life together as women helping each other.
I want to honour them as they pushed beyond their own strength with unmitigated opposition, to pursue their goals for equality. In the earlier culture they were very restricted and limited as we have never known in our day.
Women were very restricted to the home, dependent on husbands and had no voice, especially those without inheritance.They still sought to improve their lot through trading and doing creative things which improved their way of life and brought extra income. Women joined in community and organized themselves in mutual support.Women were assigned the social status and identity of their husbands and widows had a much lower social status and had no right to own property alone and so were dependent on others and so tended to remarry rather quickly. Arranged marriages were common and made a difference to comfort and acceptance in society.In the 17th and 18th centuries entering convent life was an alternative to marriage and women had exposure to education and were trained to teach school or become midwives. The convents were also supportive of women having property struggles and were financially helping women seeking justice.Nevertheless in society women were considered secondary to men.
Laws were formed to meet the requirements of the social environment and laws to protect women were very slow in coming. The injustices regarding inheritance and property rights in 18th and 19th centuries were challenged by a growing number of women’s organizations. Female writers were active in developing arguments and public demand for change in dower laws.As we know success eventually came and inheritance laws were changed in the 1930″s
Women through opposition and hardship fought for justice and for laws to be changed for which we must be grateful.The war is not fully over although many laws have been changed our lives as women are still subject to control. Believe it or not women may still not receive inheritances due, simply because they are women in the family. Women may be paid less than a man and control and abuse exist. They are still victims and marginalized against greater forces that keep them silenced. These are not just social issues but have a deep spiritual root which manifests as mysogony and control. God’s perspective on women needs to be resurrected. Not that all was perfect then, but men and women together need to press on for freedom from negative spiritual roots This will not only bring marital harmony but societal healing. A nation is only as strong as harmony of its families together. | 533 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are millions of individuals around the world who are always looking for ways to improve the health of their heart. There are many tips online about how to do this. However, a new study shows evidence that running a marathon will make your heart very strong and healthy. A person’s cardiovascular age can be significantly decreased by the stress involved with running a marathon. It is important to slowly work your way up to running a marathon if you have never done it before. People who do not run on a regular basis should never even consider trying to run 26 miles. Such an endeavor requires quite a bit of training. This is true even for people who run very frequently.
The study that was recently conducted involved people who are as young as 20 and as old as 70. These individuals were involved in a training regimen that people go through when they are preparing their bodies for the physical demands of running a marathon. The training period lasted for six months. These people all had healthier hearts as a result of the training they went through. The doctor who was in charge of conducting the study said that a person’s heart changes as they get older. The primary blood vessels will have an increased rigidity as a person ages. This will eventually result in the blood pressure of the person going up a lot.
Blood vessels and arteries getting more stiff does not only impact a person’s blood pressure. It also makes it more likely that the person could have a heart attack or a stroke. However, the heart is not the only organ in the body that could be negatively impacted. There are also people who suffer from disease in their kidneys because of hardened arteries. A person’s brain might also be negatively impacted if the heart is not healthy. A lack of blood being pumped to the brain could cause a person to start experiencing dementia.
People who never run should not simply go out and start trying to run for a long distance. They could end up with some very serious health problems. First of all, it is crucial to stretch the muscles before running a long distance. This will help to prevent cramping. It would be wise to hire a trainer who can slowly increase your running distance. This is the safe way to improve your heart health. | <urn:uuid:7bc9920e-7b6c-42c2-bb5e-1a0e2e3621c8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://medicaldailytimes.com/health-and-fitness/running-marathon-can-help-heart/5153/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00343.warc.gz | en | 0.980217 | 452 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.0318734347820... | 4 | There are millions of individuals around the world who are always looking for ways to improve the health of their heart. There are many tips online about how to do this. However, a new study shows evidence that running a marathon will make your heart very strong and healthy. A person’s cardiovascular age can be significantly decreased by the stress involved with running a marathon. It is important to slowly work your way up to running a marathon if you have never done it before. People who do not run on a regular basis should never even consider trying to run 26 miles. Such an endeavor requires quite a bit of training. This is true even for people who run very frequently.
The study that was recently conducted involved people who are as young as 20 and as old as 70. These individuals were involved in a training regimen that people go through when they are preparing their bodies for the physical demands of running a marathon. The training period lasted for six months. These people all had healthier hearts as a result of the training they went through. The doctor who was in charge of conducting the study said that a person’s heart changes as they get older. The primary blood vessels will have an increased rigidity as a person ages. This will eventually result in the blood pressure of the person going up a lot.
Blood vessels and arteries getting more stiff does not only impact a person’s blood pressure. It also makes it more likely that the person could have a heart attack or a stroke. However, the heart is not the only organ in the body that could be negatively impacted. There are also people who suffer from disease in their kidneys because of hardened arteries. A person’s brain might also be negatively impacted if the heart is not healthy. A lack of blood being pumped to the brain could cause a person to start experiencing dementia.
People who never run should not simply go out and start trying to run for a long distance. They could end up with some very serious health problems. First of all, it is crucial to stretch the muscles before running a long distance. This will help to prevent cramping. It would be wise to hire a trainer who can slowly increase your running distance. This is the safe way to improve your heart health. | 447 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Ark of the Covenant
The ark of the covenant was a symbol of God’s presence among the Israelites a visual reminder that the one true God had made a covenant with them. It was so important to God that he described the arks construction before describing any other sacred object (Ex. 25:10%u201422).
God revealed himself to his people at the ark of the covenant. It was often the place where God would meet with Moses and give commandments to his people. Each year on the Day of Atonement, the high priest would enter the Holy of Holies, where the ark was kept. There, God would appear in a cloud over the cover.
Inside the ark, the Israelites kept the Ten Commandments tablets. Although Christians have traditionally assumed that each tablet held a portion of the commandments, nothing in Scripture supports the idea of two partial tablets. From what we know about ancient covenants, it is more likely that all ten commandments were written on each tablet.
According to ancient custom, each covenant party would take a copy of their terms and store them in their most sacred place. By giving his copy of the commandments to Moses, God symbolically told his people that their most sacred place would also be his most sacred place: the ark of the covenant.
Today, God chooses to reveal himself through the work of the Holy Spirit in each believer. His most sacred place is now our very own hearts and minds. Our thoughts, actions, and words should show others that the one true God is present among us.
Interesting details about the ark of the covenant:
– It was made of acacia wood, an extremely hard wood common to the Sinai Peninsula.- It was three feet nine inches long, two feet three inches wide, and two feet three inches tall.- It was gold plated and had a gold rim around the top.- It stood on four legs, and on each side were two gold rings in which poles could be inserted so the ark could be carried.- It had a cover, called the mercy seat or atonement seat, that was made of pure gold. On this cover were two cherubim whose wings stretched over the lid. The cherubim expressed the peoples longing to feel safe in Gods sheltering arms.
See all posts in Glossary
|Mar 30 — Apr 08, 2020|
|Jun 28 — Jul 12, 2020|
|Nov 01 — Nov 15, 2020|
|Nov 14 — Nov 28, 2020| | <urn:uuid:a9aaf0de-5e80-454b-9019-e6f2f58faaff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://underthefigtree.org/glossary/the-ark-of-the-covenant/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00025.warc.gz | en | 0.98086 | 516 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.2430394291... | 1 | The Ark of the Covenant
The ark of the covenant was a symbol of God’s presence among the Israelites a visual reminder that the one true God had made a covenant with them. It was so important to God that he described the arks construction before describing any other sacred object (Ex. 25:10%u201422).
God revealed himself to his people at the ark of the covenant. It was often the place where God would meet with Moses and give commandments to his people. Each year on the Day of Atonement, the high priest would enter the Holy of Holies, where the ark was kept. There, God would appear in a cloud over the cover.
Inside the ark, the Israelites kept the Ten Commandments tablets. Although Christians have traditionally assumed that each tablet held a portion of the commandments, nothing in Scripture supports the idea of two partial tablets. From what we know about ancient covenants, it is more likely that all ten commandments were written on each tablet.
According to ancient custom, each covenant party would take a copy of their terms and store them in their most sacred place. By giving his copy of the commandments to Moses, God symbolically told his people that their most sacred place would also be his most sacred place: the ark of the covenant.
Today, God chooses to reveal himself through the work of the Holy Spirit in each believer. His most sacred place is now our very own hearts and minds. Our thoughts, actions, and words should show others that the one true God is present among us.
Interesting details about the ark of the covenant:
– It was made of acacia wood, an extremely hard wood common to the Sinai Peninsula.- It was three feet nine inches long, two feet three inches wide, and two feet three inches tall.- It was gold plated and had a gold rim around the top.- It stood on four legs, and on each side were two gold rings in which poles could be inserted so the ark could be carried.- It had a cover, called the mercy seat or atonement seat, that was made of pure gold. On this cover were two cherubim whose wings stretched over the lid. The cherubim expressed the peoples longing to feel safe in Gods sheltering arms.
See all posts in Glossary
|Mar 30 — Apr 08, 2020|
|Jun 28 — Jul 12, 2020|
|Nov 01 — Nov 15, 2020|
|Nov 14 — Nov 28, 2020| | 540 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When American railroads debuted cold cars in the mid-1800s, they moved milk and butter only: They weren't nearly cold enough to safely carry raw meat from place to place. In 1867, when J.B. Sutherland patented the first fully refrigerated car in America, he couldn't even find investors. But the next year another inventor, William Davis, manage to sell his design to a meatpacker. In Davis's car, carcasses hung from hooks over a bed of ice and salt. Though they were top-heavy, they worked well enough, and meat began making its way across the country.
Around the same time, England was hungry for meat. Its own stocks were not large enough to meet the country's demand, and as James Troubridge Critchell writes in A History of the Frozen Meat Trade, "It was plain that the inhabitants of England would have to be content with less meat or pay fancy prices for it."
Certain British colonies, though, had more than enough meat. In Australia and New Zealand, inventors were busy working to prove that frozen meat was perfectly safe to eat and planning how to take it on the three-month sea voyage to Britain. By 1873, James Harrison, a Scottish-born journalist and businessman, showed that meat that had been frozen for months was perfectly safe to eat. He won a prize and the chance to ship 25 tons of beef and mutton to England.
In November of 1873, he reported to the Society of Arts' Food Committee. It was not the triumphant report he had hoped for:
It would have been more pleasant to me, and gratifying to you, if I had come forward to announce a success… My task is indeed twofold—to describe a success and record a mischance. The success was that of a principle and a process; the failure was that of the workmen who were entrusted with the construction of the requisite mechanical appliances.
Harrison did not completely throw the workmen under the bus; he admitted he held "a fair share of the blame." The meat tanks leaked, and the brine that was meant to keep the mutton and beef cool did not. The meat was spoiled by the time the ship reached England. But that didn't stop people from trying. Within a couple of years, American entrepreneurs had shipped beef to England, a much shorter trip, using blocks of ice. One sent a sample to Queen Victoria, who said it was "very good."
By 1881, Argentina, Australia, and, finally, New Zealand were shipping frozen meat to England, too. The Pacific colonies could now do so thanks to a refrigeration system that depended on compressed air. But this was not without its risks, either. On the Dunedin, the first boat to successfully ship meat from New Zealand to Britain, the refrigeration machinery reportedly lit the sails on fire—twice—and, since air in the cargo hold wasn't circulating enough, the captain of the ship crawled into the hold to cut air holes and nearly froze himself to death. And of course today frozen meats shipped from all over the world grace the grocery aisles. | <urn:uuid:dde1b29d-c257-47fc-9163-908b22eeb2f7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/10/moving-meat-was-once-a-messy-business/381880/?utm_source=feed | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00209.warc.gz | en | 0.987152 | 641 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.0473935976... | 1 | When American railroads debuted cold cars in the mid-1800s, they moved milk and butter only: They weren't nearly cold enough to safely carry raw meat from place to place. In 1867, when J.B. Sutherland patented the first fully refrigerated car in America, he couldn't even find investors. But the next year another inventor, William Davis, manage to sell his design to a meatpacker. In Davis's car, carcasses hung from hooks over a bed of ice and salt. Though they were top-heavy, they worked well enough, and meat began making its way across the country.
Around the same time, England was hungry for meat. Its own stocks were not large enough to meet the country's demand, and as James Troubridge Critchell writes in A History of the Frozen Meat Trade, "It was plain that the inhabitants of England would have to be content with less meat or pay fancy prices for it."
Certain British colonies, though, had more than enough meat. In Australia and New Zealand, inventors were busy working to prove that frozen meat was perfectly safe to eat and planning how to take it on the three-month sea voyage to Britain. By 1873, James Harrison, a Scottish-born journalist and businessman, showed that meat that had been frozen for months was perfectly safe to eat. He won a prize and the chance to ship 25 tons of beef and mutton to England.
In November of 1873, he reported to the Society of Arts' Food Committee. It was not the triumphant report he had hoped for:
It would have been more pleasant to me, and gratifying to you, if I had come forward to announce a success… My task is indeed twofold—to describe a success and record a mischance. The success was that of a principle and a process; the failure was that of the workmen who were entrusted with the construction of the requisite mechanical appliances.
Harrison did not completely throw the workmen under the bus; he admitted he held "a fair share of the blame." The meat tanks leaked, and the brine that was meant to keep the mutton and beef cool did not. The meat was spoiled by the time the ship reached England. But that didn't stop people from trying. Within a couple of years, American entrepreneurs had shipped beef to England, a much shorter trip, using blocks of ice. One sent a sample to Queen Victoria, who said it was "very good."
By 1881, Argentina, Australia, and, finally, New Zealand were shipping frozen meat to England, too. The Pacific colonies could now do so thanks to a refrigeration system that depended on compressed air. But this was not without its risks, either. On the Dunedin, the first boat to successfully ship meat from New Zealand to Britain, the refrigeration machinery reportedly lit the sails on fire—twice—and, since air in the cargo hold wasn't circulating enough, the captain of the ship crawled into the hold to cut air holes and nearly froze himself to death. And of course today frozen meats shipped from all over the world grace the grocery aisles. | 650 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In September of 1693, in the aftermath of the Salem witchcraft hysteria, a Boston girl, Margaret Rule, convinced the town that she was possessed by demons. It very nearly restarted the witch hysteria.
Rule was a member of Rev. Cotton Mather’s North End church in Boston. Mather was an instrumental instigator in the Salem witch trials, and a believer in the power of spirits. When he learned of Margaret Rule’s afflictions, he went to visit.
John and Emma Rule of Saco, Maine had been forced south to Boston because of the fighting between colonists and Indians in the north. They were a sober and honest family, Mather believed. Their daughter Margaret had an uneasy relationship with an older woman in their North End neighborhood, and in September the older woman scolded Margaret. The woman had previously been accused of casting spells, but the Rules chose not to make any public accusation against her.
Margaret grew ill, experiencing fits and falling into a trance. She was feverish and seemingly delusional. Rule was being tormented by demons, she said, probably summoned through witchcraft. She was able to identify several women who were among her tormentors. Rule was bedridden and a group of friends stayed with her constantly, praying. The visitors reported some sort of demon, roughly the size of a rat, would occasionally brush against them. One group of visitors swore that while they were with Margaret, she levitated, hovering over her bed.
Margaret Rule Overheats
On September 13, Margaret had attracted the usual crowd at her bedside. The room grew overheated. Margaret fainted, and Mather fanned her with his hat. Margaret had begun to sense information via her spiritual connections. She correctly predicted the near drowning of a local boy. Cotton Mather had grown irritated that 17 pages of a sermon had been misplaced, and Rule told him that the spirits had told her demons had taken it, but that it would be returned.
In the community, some believed Margaret was an oracle and wanted to question her more about her visions. Mather stepped in and forbade it. He advised Margaret to stay quiet, fast and pray. She revealed the names of the people she thought were tormenting her. She even suggested that Mather might be a witch. For his part, Mather avoided calling Margaret Rule’s illness a case of witchcraft. He probably believed the visions Rule saw were demons. However, he did caution that they might also be simply illusions.
On September 19, Mather visited Margaret Rule once again. She was still sick, but she felt she was getting the upper hand in expelling the demons.
Robert Calef Tells a Story
Robert Calef, a Boston cloth merchant, was growing weary of the popular obsession with witches. He believed the Mathers, Cotton and his father Increase, and others were dangerously whipping up public hysteria to gain attention for themselves. So he decided to write his own account of the Margaret Rule affair.
In Calef’s retelling, (published as More Wonders of the Invisible World) the scene at Margaret Rule’s bedside becomes rather more tawdry. In Calef’s version of events, Margaret Rule looks more like an attention-starved young woman. And the Mathers come off as more manipulative. And, Calef included a shocking detail. He hints that the Mathers put their hands on Margaret and that she was not always properly covered while lying in bed. Calef sent his manuscript to Mather to seek comment. Cotton Mather fired off a letter:
“A false representation it is that I rubbed Rule’s stomach, her breast not being covered,” Mather objected. “You cannot but know how much this representation has contributed to make people believe a smutty thing of me.”
While Calef suggested Mather was hoping to whip up another round of witchcraft hysteria in Massachusetts, Mather defended himself. He pointed out that he used all his influence with Rule to stop her from naming anyone as a witch. | <urn:uuid:49416041-cb6a-4788-b631-3a7baf8614a0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/margaret-rule-and-the-smutty-cotton-mather/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00474.warc.gz | en | 0.986455 | 841 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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-0.21188837289... | 2 | In September of 1693, in the aftermath of the Salem witchcraft hysteria, a Boston girl, Margaret Rule, convinced the town that she was possessed by demons. It very nearly restarted the witch hysteria.
Rule was a member of Rev. Cotton Mather’s North End church in Boston. Mather was an instrumental instigator in the Salem witch trials, and a believer in the power of spirits. When he learned of Margaret Rule’s afflictions, he went to visit.
John and Emma Rule of Saco, Maine had been forced south to Boston because of the fighting between colonists and Indians in the north. They were a sober and honest family, Mather believed. Their daughter Margaret had an uneasy relationship with an older woman in their North End neighborhood, and in September the older woman scolded Margaret. The woman had previously been accused of casting spells, but the Rules chose not to make any public accusation against her.
Margaret grew ill, experiencing fits and falling into a trance. She was feverish and seemingly delusional. Rule was being tormented by demons, she said, probably summoned through witchcraft. She was able to identify several women who were among her tormentors. Rule was bedridden and a group of friends stayed with her constantly, praying. The visitors reported some sort of demon, roughly the size of a rat, would occasionally brush against them. One group of visitors swore that while they were with Margaret, she levitated, hovering over her bed.
Margaret Rule Overheats
On September 13, Margaret had attracted the usual crowd at her bedside. The room grew overheated. Margaret fainted, and Mather fanned her with his hat. Margaret had begun to sense information via her spiritual connections. She correctly predicted the near drowning of a local boy. Cotton Mather had grown irritated that 17 pages of a sermon had been misplaced, and Rule told him that the spirits had told her demons had taken it, but that it would be returned.
In the community, some believed Margaret was an oracle and wanted to question her more about her visions. Mather stepped in and forbade it. He advised Margaret to stay quiet, fast and pray. She revealed the names of the people she thought were tormenting her. She even suggested that Mather might be a witch. For his part, Mather avoided calling Margaret Rule’s illness a case of witchcraft. He probably believed the visions Rule saw were demons. However, he did caution that they might also be simply illusions.
On September 19, Mather visited Margaret Rule once again. She was still sick, but she felt she was getting the upper hand in expelling the demons.
Robert Calef Tells a Story
Robert Calef, a Boston cloth merchant, was growing weary of the popular obsession with witches. He believed the Mathers, Cotton and his father Increase, and others were dangerously whipping up public hysteria to gain attention for themselves. So he decided to write his own account of the Margaret Rule affair.
In Calef’s retelling, (published as More Wonders of the Invisible World) the scene at Margaret Rule’s bedside becomes rather more tawdry. In Calef’s version of events, Margaret Rule looks more like an attention-starved young woman. And the Mathers come off as more manipulative. And, Calef included a shocking detail. He hints that the Mathers put their hands on Margaret and that she was not always properly covered while lying in bed. Calef sent his manuscript to Mather to seek comment. Cotton Mather fired off a letter:
“A false representation it is that I rubbed Rule’s stomach, her breast not being covered,” Mather objected. “You cannot but know how much this representation has contributed to make people believe a smutty thing of me.”
While Calef suggested Mather was hoping to whip up another round of witchcraft hysteria in Massachusetts, Mather defended himself. He pointed out that he used all his influence with Rule to stop her from naming anyone as a witch. | 826 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bletchley Park is fifty miles from London which is not very far. This was a perfect location for a set up like Bletchley Park because it was far away enough from London to stop it from being bombed during the war. Because it was close to Oxford and Cambridge universities they could easily recruit their staff from the universities. Bletchley Park was originally an evacuation base for MI6. MI6 deals with foreign intelligence. Bletchley then became a government code and cipher school. Bletchley Park was set up to break German the Enigma codes. Bletchley Park was given the code name ‘Station X’.
Y service stations where set up all around the British Empire to intercept German messages. These messages were recorded by the Y service stations and passed on to Station X. They passed the messages on because they were in code and needed to be decoded. At first mainly middle-aged academics from Oxford and Cambridge Universities. Young administrative staff mainly young girls aged between 18-22 were also recruited at first. But then the Germans started to use enigma to send messages, the British thought the Enigma codes were unbreakable and they were not far wrong as it had 159, million, million, million possibilities.
Bletchley Park needed a new breed of code breakers because the Enigma codes were so complex. The Enigma was a mathematical machine so Station X brought in mainly mathematicians from universities. They were used because breaking the Enigma codes depended on being able to predict the likelihood of random letters appearing in a sequence. They then put a cryptic crossword in a newspaper, the Daily Telegraph and anyone who could complete it within 12 minutes was hired. Huts 6 and 3 done most of the work at Bletchley Park. Hut 6 received signals and sorted them in order of importance.
They then decoded and sent through a tunnel to Hut 3. Hut 3 turned the decoded message into text which made sense. The complete message was sent to MI6. Station X used the pile system to sort their work. There were 4 piles. Pile 1 was the urgent messages which were immediately sent MI6 by teleprompter. Pile to was sent to MI6 by teleprompter later on. Pile 3 was delivered to MI6 by Van. Pile 4 was the useless messages and was left. As the war expanded Bletchley had to expand. By 1942 Bletchley received 8,000 messages a day.
Winston Churchill the Prime Minister of England was very interested in the work done at Station X.because of the increase in the number of messages Bletchley Park needed more buildings and recruits. Bletchley turned to Churchill for help. Churchill gladly gave funds for more buildings and recruits. Code breakers sent letters directly to him. Secrecy of Bletchley Park was maintained by it being broken down into self contained huts. None of the code breakers knew what was happening in other huts apart from their own. The location also helped with secrecy. Question 2 The Germans believed the Enigma codes were unbreakable. This is understandable as it had 159, million, million, million possibilities.
This why the Enigma was used to send messages by the German Army, Navy and Air force. The Enigma was invented in 1919. The three rota’s or wheels contained all the letters of the alphabet. The wheels were linked by electrical circuits connected to a type writer. The rotors were changed everyday so the codes could be anything. The mathematicians working at Bletchley Park had to try and reduce the possibilities. They got their first clues when operators of the Enigma sent a repeated message so the receiver could set their Enigma. This gave the code breakers at Station X a clue to what the settings were on that day.
Poland helped the code breakers because they had come up with a replica of the Enigma which was given to the British. A polish spy in the German army was used to find out about the Enigma. Once the code breakers knew how the Enigma worked they would get closer to breaking it. The Germans were so confident that the Enigma was unbreakable they carelessly provided clues for the code breakers. The people at Bletchley Park knew that a letter never represents it self. This became important when pieces of information were put together. Pieces from Enigma codes and other simpler codes were put together to work out settings.
Another clue the Germans provided was that many messages started off with ‘to all units’. This repetition provides clues to settings. Some messages were not longer then 26 letters meaning the middle wheel never moves this drops the number of possibilities dramatically. In January 1940 the first breakthrough was made. Alan Turing played a huge part. Even before he was recruited by Station X he had come up with an idea for a machine which could carry out calculations. His idea became reality later on at Bletchley; it was used to break Enigma codes.
He questioned the Poles in France and returned with correct information about the Enigma. Now Station X began to decode messages. They were not the most important messages as they were more complex but it was a start. Security was tightened to make sure the Germans did not find out the Enigma was being broken. John Hervial came up with the 2nd breakthrough with the cryptic crossword method. This method was used because solving a cryptic crossword relied on thinking way the writer of the crossword thought and the same principle is used when breaking Enigma codes. They would start by sending a three letter message to other operators.
The Germans believed the Enigma was unbreakable so what if the operator didn’t change the rotors so all station X needed was the first messages from as many operators as possible. This method didn’t work well at first but then Germany invaded Denmark and the number of messages sent increased and the method started working. Turing invented the ‘bombes’, they were electrical machines that go through and speed up finding all the possibilities of an Enigma machine. It was as powerful as 10 Enigmas. By 1940 the German came up with an 8 wheeled Enigma known as ‘Dolphin’. At station X Hut 8 worked constantly on Dolphin codes.
In 1941 the Dolphin was broken when 2 U-boats were captured and parts of the Enigma and instruction books were found. Then the RAF dropped mines in the North Sea which the German navy found out about and sent messages to their U-boats and these were intercepted and the similarities were used to crack codes. The Dolphin was unsuccessful so a new Enigma with 4 rotors was invented it was known as ‘Shark’. British aircraft captured U-boat U-570 and found parts of the four wheeled Enigma. But all 4 wheels were not always used so the messages could be cracked. This helped them to win the battle of Atlantic.
Fish was far more complex then enigma and was used to send messages to Hitler. It didn’t use Morse code. It used dots and crosses in place of letters. The machine contained ten wheels. Early cracking of fish was done by hand then a machine called ‘Robinson’ was invented it speeded up the process of cracking. It used paper tape this tore easily and they need an alternative. Colossus was the alternative it was the first programmable computer and was first installed in December 1943. It looked for patterns in the data. Question 3 Only a selected amount people knew what actually went on at Bletchley Park.
The British Generals, Admirals and Air marshals did not know what went on at Bletchley Park and how they gathered all their information. Because of this fact the Military chiefs did not trust information from Station X and chose to ignore it. Later the Military Chiefs found out that the information from Bletchley Park was found by civilians, they didn’t like taking information from anyone outside of the armed forces. In April 1940 Station X gave the navy information about naval activity in the Baltic. The Admiralty’s Operational Intelligence Centre (OIC) ignored this information.
A few days later Norway was invaded and the British could do little. In May 1940 Station X again sent a warning to the OIC saying they believe German warships were going to sail out into the Atlantic. They asked OIC to send a warning message to the home fleet at Scapa Flow, Orkneys. Bletchley’s warnings were again ignored and on 8 June 1940 HMS Glorious and her 2 escort ships were returning from Norway and were attacked by German pocket ships. All three British ships were sunk. 1500 men were killed. Bletchley didn’t play an important role in either the battle for France or the Battle of Britain.
But because there was a lot messages Bletchley had plenty of messages to practice their code breaking and organistional skills. In 1941 Station X provided information on a fleet of Germans in the Mediterranean waiting to back up Italians invading Yugoslavia. The Royal Navy was tipped of and sank three heavy cruisers and two destroyers. This led to victory at Matapan. On the 20th May 1941 the Bismarck (pride of German Navy) left to attack British shipping in the North Atlantic. HMS Hood went to intercept it and got sunk although the Bismarck was damaged. It could not get back to Germany and started to head for Brest in France.
Station X found messages being sent to France and told the Navy who then sent ‘Force H’ from Gibraltar to sink the Bismark. Bletchley’s biggest success was helping win the Battle of the Atlantic. Station X helped defeat attacks by German U-boats on British convoys. The convoys carried British food and war materials from the USA and Canada but U-boats were sinking 282,000 tonnes of supplies a month. But in July 1940 the Dolphin had been cracked by Station X and the number of convoys being sunk dropped to 62,000, by now the German U-boats left the Atlantic and went to the Mediterranean.
Conclusion Bletchley Park did play a very big part in the war. I think Britain would have survived without Station X because of help from the USA. But because the German U-boats would have continued sinking British convoys and Britain would have had little supplies, it would have been difficult for Britain with out Bletchley but Station X cracked the Dolphin and stopped convoys being sunk. Bletchley Park did shorten the war by a few years because it provide vital information about its enemies. USA joining in the war played a huge part because the German army was bigger then the British army. | <urn:uuid:f41bdaac-8f5d-4217-b339-e1f38bda3ef8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alpinrunning.org/bletchley-park/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00198.warc.gz | en | 0.985918 | 2,218 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.2576416... | 3 | Bletchley Park is fifty miles from London which is not very far. This was a perfect location for a set up like Bletchley Park because it was far away enough from London to stop it from being bombed during the war. Because it was close to Oxford and Cambridge universities they could easily recruit their staff from the universities. Bletchley Park was originally an evacuation base for MI6. MI6 deals with foreign intelligence. Bletchley then became a government code and cipher school. Bletchley Park was set up to break German the Enigma codes. Bletchley Park was given the code name ‘Station X’.
Y service stations where set up all around the British Empire to intercept German messages. These messages were recorded by the Y service stations and passed on to Station X. They passed the messages on because they were in code and needed to be decoded. At first mainly middle-aged academics from Oxford and Cambridge Universities. Young administrative staff mainly young girls aged between 18-22 were also recruited at first. But then the Germans started to use enigma to send messages, the British thought the Enigma codes were unbreakable and they were not far wrong as it had 159, million, million, million possibilities.
Bletchley Park needed a new breed of code breakers because the Enigma codes were so complex. The Enigma was a mathematical machine so Station X brought in mainly mathematicians from universities. They were used because breaking the Enigma codes depended on being able to predict the likelihood of random letters appearing in a sequence. They then put a cryptic crossword in a newspaper, the Daily Telegraph and anyone who could complete it within 12 minutes was hired. Huts 6 and 3 done most of the work at Bletchley Park. Hut 6 received signals and sorted them in order of importance.
They then decoded and sent through a tunnel to Hut 3. Hut 3 turned the decoded message into text which made sense. The complete message was sent to MI6. Station X used the pile system to sort their work. There were 4 piles. Pile 1 was the urgent messages which were immediately sent MI6 by teleprompter. Pile to was sent to MI6 by teleprompter later on. Pile 3 was delivered to MI6 by Van. Pile 4 was the useless messages and was left. As the war expanded Bletchley had to expand. By 1942 Bletchley received 8,000 messages a day.
Winston Churchill the Prime Minister of England was very interested in the work done at Station X.because of the increase in the number of messages Bletchley Park needed more buildings and recruits. Bletchley turned to Churchill for help. Churchill gladly gave funds for more buildings and recruits. Code breakers sent letters directly to him. Secrecy of Bletchley Park was maintained by it being broken down into self contained huts. None of the code breakers knew what was happening in other huts apart from their own. The location also helped with secrecy. Question 2 The Germans believed the Enigma codes were unbreakable. This is understandable as it had 159, million, million, million possibilities.
This why the Enigma was used to send messages by the German Army, Navy and Air force. The Enigma was invented in 1919. The three rota’s or wheels contained all the letters of the alphabet. The wheels were linked by electrical circuits connected to a type writer. The rotors were changed everyday so the codes could be anything. The mathematicians working at Bletchley Park had to try and reduce the possibilities. They got their first clues when operators of the Enigma sent a repeated message so the receiver could set their Enigma. This gave the code breakers at Station X a clue to what the settings were on that day.
Poland helped the code breakers because they had come up with a replica of the Enigma which was given to the British. A polish spy in the German army was used to find out about the Enigma. Once the code breakers knew how the Enigma worked they would get closer to breaking it. The Germans were so confident that the Enigma was unbreakable they carelessly provided clues for the code breakers. The people at Bletchley Park knew that a letter never represents it self. This became important when pieces of information were put together. Pieces from Enigma codes and other simpler codes were put together to work out settings.
Another clue the Germans provided was that many messages started off with ‘to all units’. This repetition provides clues to settings. Some messages were not longer then 26 letters meaning the middle wheel never moves this drops the number of possibilities dramatically. In January 1940 the first breakthrough was made. Alan Turing played a huge part. Even before he was recruited by Station X he had come up with an idea for a machine which could carry out calculations. His idea became reality later on at Bletchley; it was used to break Enigma codes.
He questioned the Poles in France and returned with correct information about the Enigma. Now Station X began to decode messages. They were not the most important messages as they were more complex but it was a start. Security was tightened to make sure the Germans did not find out the Enigma was being broken. John Hervial came up with the 2nd breakthrough with the cryptic crossword method. This method was used because solving a cryptic crossword relied on thinking way the writer of the crossword thought and the same principle is used when breaking Enigma codes. They would start by sending a three letter message to other operators.
The Germans believed the Enigma was unbreakable so what if the operator didn’t change the rotors so all station X needed was the first messages from as many operators as possible. This method didn’t work well at first but then Germany invaded Denmark and the number of messages sent increased and the method started working. Turing invented the ‘bombes’, they were electrical machines that go through and speed up finding all the possibilities of an Enigma machine. It was as powerful as 10 Enigmas. By 1940 the German came up with an 8 wheeled Enigma known as ‘Dolphin’. At station X Hut 8 worked constantly on Dolphin codes.
In 1941 the Dolphin was broken when 2 U-boats were captured and parts of the Enigma and instruction books were found. Then the RAF dropped mines in the North Sea which the German navy found out about and sent messages to their U-boats and these were intercepted and the similarities were used to crack codes. The Dolphin was unsuccessful so a new Enigma with 4 rotors was invented it was known as ‘Shark’. British aircraft captured U-boat U-570 and found parts of the four wheeled Enigma. But all 4 wheels were not always used so the messages could be cracked. This helped them to win the battle of Atlantic.
Fish was far more complex then enigma and was used to send messages to Hitler. It didn’t use Morse code. It used dots and crosses in place of letters. The machine contained ten wheels. Early cracking of fish was done by hand then a machine called ‘Robinson’ was invented it speeded up the process of cracking. It used paper tape this tore easily and they need an alternative. Colossus was the alternative it was the first programmable computer and was first installed in December 1943. It looked for patterns in the data. Question 3 Only a selected amount people knew what actually went on at Bletchley Park.
The British Generals, Admirals and Air marshals did not know what went on at Bletchley Park and how they gathered all their information. Because of this fact the Military chiefs did not trust information from Station X and chose to ignore it. Later the Military Chiefs found out that the information from Bletchley Park was found by civilians, they didn’t like taking information from anyone outside of the armed forces. In April 1940 Station X gave the navy information about naval activity in the Baltic. The Admiralty’s Operational Intelligence Centre (OIC) ignored this information.
A few days later Norway was invaded and the British could do little. In May 1940 Station X again sent a warning to the OIC saying they believe German warships were going to sail out into the Atlantic. They asked OIC to send a warning message to the home fleet at Scapa Flow, Orkneys. Bletchley’s warnings were again ignored and on 8 June 1940 HMS Glorious and her 2 escort ships were returning from Norway and were attacked by German pocket ships. All three British ships were sunk. 1500 men were killed. Bletchley didn’t play an important role in either the battle for France or the Battle of Britain.
But because there was a lot messages Bletchley had plenty of messages to practice their code breaking and organistional skills. In 1941 Station X provided information on a fleet of Germans in the Mediterranean waiting to back up Italians invading Yugoslavia. The Royal Navy was tipped of and sank three heavy cruisers and two destroyers. This led to victory at Matapan. On the 20th May 1941 the Bismarck (pride of German Navy) left to attack British shipping in the North Atlantic. HMS Hood went to intercept it and got sunk although the Bismarck was damaged. It could not get back to Germany and started to head for Brest in France.
Station X found messages being sent to France and told the Navy who then sent ‘Force H’ from Gibraltar to sink the Bismark. Bletchley’s biggest success was helping win the Battle of the Atlantic. Station X helped defeat attacks by German U-boats on British convoys. The convoys carried British food and war materials from the USA and Canada but U-boats were sinking 282,000 tonnes of supplies a month. But in July 1940 the Dolphin had been cracked by Station X and the number of convoys being sunk dropped to 62,000, by now the German U-boats left the Atlantic and went to the Mediterranean.
Conclusion Bletchley Park did play a very big part in the war. I think Britain would have survived without Station X because of help from the USA. But because the German U-boats would have continued sinking British convoys and Britain would have had little supplies, it would have been difficult for Britain with out Bletchley but Station X cracked the Dolphin and stopped convoys being sunk. Bletchley Park did shorten the war by a few years because it provide vital information about its enemies. USA joining in the war played a huge part because the German army was bigger then the British army. | 2,268 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Apollo is the god of the sun and music, and carries a golden lyre and a golden bow and arrow.
Apollo and Artemis were the twin children of Zeus and the nymph Leto. Apollo was as beautiful and radiant as the sun. He was also the god of music and medicine. He was jealous and impetuous in his youth, and made a lot of enemies.
The Greeks prayed to Apollo for good health, and feared him when a plague or other illness hit. He was also thought to be the god of livestock, along with Helios, the god who drove the sun in a chariot across the sky each day. Helios is the god Odysseus’ men anger when they eat his cattle in Homer’s epic poem The Odyssey. This mistake delays Odysseus’ voyage home even further and leads to the demise of all of his men.
Apollo is most well-known for killing the Python, which Hera sent after his mother while she was pregnant in revenge for sleeping with her husband Zeus. Apollo is also known for aiding Paris in killing Achilles, by guiding the arrow into his heel. He is routinely angered by the Greeks in Homer’s The Iliad and often takes the Trojans’ side of the battle. Apollo had many lovers, but some of his most well-known children include: Asclepius, Troilus, and Orpheus. Apollo was an amazing lyre player, using the lyre that Hermes made when he stole one of Apollo’s cattle and made it from the cow’s innards and a tortoise.
Zeus and Leto
The illustrated guide storyboards have easily digestible information with a visual to stimulate understanding and retention. Storyboard That is passionate about student agency, and we want everyone to be storytellers. Storyboards provide an excellent medium to showcase what students have learned, and to teach to others.
Use these illustrated guides as a springboard for individual and class-wide projects! | <urn:uuid:9f040cfb-8148-49df-ba7f-3c17e38dfaa3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sbt-test.azurewebsites.net/mythology/apollo | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00311.warc.gz | en | 0.981164 | 416 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.527544379234... | 1 | Apollo is the god of the sun and music, and carries a golden lyre and a golden bow and arrow.
Apollo and Artemis were the twin children of Zeus and the nymph Leto. Apollo was as beautiful and radiant as the sun. He was also the god of music and medicine. He was jealous and impetuous in his youth, and made a lot of enemies.
The Greeks prayed to Apollo for good health, and feared him when a plague or other illness hit. He was also thought to be the god of livestock, along with Helios, the god who drove the sun in a chariot across the sky each day. Helios is the god Odysseus’ men anger when they eat his cattle in Homer’s epic poem The Odyssey. This mistake delays Odysseus’ voyage home even further and leads to the demise of all of his men.
Apollo is most well-known for killing the Python, which Hera sent after his mother while she was pregnant in revenge for sleeping with her husband Zeus. Apollo is also known for aiding Paris in killing Achilles, by guiding the arrow into his heel. He is routinely angered by the Greeks in Homer’s The Iliad and often takes the Trojans’ side of the battle. Apollo had many lovers, but some of his most well-known children include: Asclepius, Troilus, and Orpheus. Apollo was an amazing lyre player, using the lyre that Hermes made when he stole one of Apollo’s cattle and made it from the cow’s innards and a tortoise.
Zeus and Leto
The illustrated guide storyboards have easily digestible information with a visual to stimulate understanding and retention. Storyboard That is passionate about student agency, and we want everyone to be storytellers. Storyboards provide an excellent medium to showcase what students have learned, and to teach to others.
Use these illustrated guides as a springboard for individual and class-wide projects! | 395 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the past twenty years, historians have learned that there were at least two Continental armies, the first being the army of 1775-1776, which was mostly made of large land owners who were expecting a short conflict, untrained and undisciplined, the second Continental army was built out of the first but had more discipline, a more difficult training regime, and called for longer enlistments.
The first Continental army believed the quality of their ideals and their honorable pledge to defend their homes against the British would be enough to defeat the British quickly. The first Continental army lost quickly to the superior numbers and training of the British offensive against New York. Although the army was very zealous, it was not enough to defeat the well-seasoned British army. The first Continental army gave the blue prints for the second Continental army.
With these blueprints George Washington called for a “respectable army” in which there was no more short term enlistments, there was arduous training, and a great emphasis on command and control. The second Continental army had many problems, such as starvation, poor clothing and the men weren’t being compensated well for their struggles. These tussles lead to protests, mutinies and desertion. The second Continental army consisted mostly of the poorer class of society, servants of numerous kinds, and the unemployed, and the second Continental army also used land and financial incentives to recruit these lower classes.
The second Continental army was much more abrasive with the civilian populace, than the first Continental army, but was also more cohesive and effective once properly trained and disciplined. The Pennsylvania soldiers’ mutiny demonstrated that the veterans of the Continental army were being maltreated by their leaders who were not able to feed or cloth the soldiers accordingly and were not keeping to the contract stating the soldiers only signed up for three years instead of the duration.
A thousand men mutinied on a planned signal and marched toward Philadelphia in order to receive the same benefits that the newer, less experienced soldiers were receiving. An officer was killed and two were wounded when several officers tried to control the mutineers. The majority of the mutineers did not want to leave the army, but instead wanted the correct pay, proper clothing and the liberty to leave or stay. This was evident when the mutineers performed appropriately to the civilians along the route to Philadelphia.
Once the mutineers were able to plead their case to Congress, they received all they asked for including: the discharge of any three year enlistee who claimed to have completed his enlistment, back-pay, new clothes, and immunity from mutinying. The mutineers won because George Washington needed the manpower, and many of the men reenlisted right after being discharged. All of these men were veterans of the Revolutionary war and had already put three years into their future home and weren’t about to quit or give up at this point of the war.
The different methods used by the soldiers and officers of the Continental army against the lack of government support were mutiny, looting, plundering, desertion, and protesting, the officers and soldiers were not able to unite because they were not allowed to fraternize, and the one time the officers encouraged a protest they were executed immediately for treason, even though the first volley shot at the prisoners was missed intentionally by the prisoners comrades in the firing squad.
The soldiers mutinied largely twice against the state and were mostly victorious twice. The soldiers deserted and went to other recruiters to receive more bounties, and then repeated the process until the “bounty jumper” could not find any more places to receive bounties or until he was caught. The civilian populace quickly grew tired of being forced to “lend” goods to the looting and pillaging soldiers, but the soldiers thought of it as survival and patriotic since they were starving for the honorable and just cause of freedom.
The officers protested and threatened to resign unless their wages were paid correctly and accommodatingly. The soldiers and officers did not unite because the officers were gentlemen and thought themselves above the rest of the regular soldiers, fraternization was against military regulations and the one time officers did get involved two men were executed. | <urn:uuid:b6514d7e-3ea7-463d-a961-ba6cdb977063> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bereavementpractitioners.org/essay-undisciplined-profligate-crew/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00332.warc.gz | en | 0.989551 | 861 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.1086023822... | 2 | During the past twenty years, historians have learned that there were at least two Continental armies, the first being the army of 1775-1776, which was mostly made of large land owners who were expecting a short conflict, untrained and undisciplined, the second Continental army was built out of the first but had more discipline, a more difficult training regime, and called for longer enlistments.
The first Continental army believed the quality of their ideals and their honorable pledge to defend their homes against the British would be enough to defeat the British quickly. The first Continental army lost quickly to the superior numbers and training of the British offensive against New York. Although the army was very zealous, it was not enough to defeat the well-seasoned British army. The first Continental army gave the blue prints for the second Continental army.
With these blueprints George Washington called for a “respectable army” in which there was no more short term enlistments, there was arduous training, and a great emphasis on command and control. The second Continental army had many problems, such as starvation, poor clothing and the men weren’t being compensated well for their struggles. These tussles lead to protests, mutinies and desertion. The second Continental army consisted mostly of the poorer class of society, servants of numerous kinds, and the unemployed, and the second Continental army also used land and financial incentives to recruit these lower classes.
The second Continental army was much more abrasive with the civilian populace, than the first Continental army, but was also more cohesive and effective once properly trained and disciplined. The Pennsylvania soldiers’ mutiny demonstrated that the veterans of the Continental army were being maltreated by their leaders who were not able to feed or cloth the soldiers accordingly and were not keeping to the contract stating the soldiers only signed up for three years instead of the duration.
A thousand men mutinied on a planned signal and marched toward Philadelphia in order to receive the same benefits that the newer, less experienced soldiers were receiving. An officer was killed and two were wounded when several officers tried to control the mutineers. The majority of the mutineers did not want to leave the army, but instead wanted the correct pay, proper clothing and the liberty to leave or stay. This was evident when the mutineers performed appropriately to the civilians along the route to Philadelphia.
Once the mutineers were able to plead their case to Congress, they received all they asked for including: the discharge of any three year enlistee who claimed to have completed his enlistment, back-pay, new clothes, and immunity from mutinying. The mutineers won because George Washington needed the manpower, and many of the men reenlisted right after being discharged. All of these men were veterans of the Revolutionary war and had already put three years into their future home and weren’t about to quit or give up at this point of the war.
The different methods used by the soldiers and officers of the Continental army against the lack of government support were mutiny, looting, plundering, desertion, and protesting, the officers and soldiers were not able to unite because they were not allowed to fraternize, and the one time the officers encouraged a protest they were executed immediately for treason, even though the first volley shot at the prisoners was missed intentionally by the prisoners comrades in the firing squad.
The soldiers mutinied largely twice against the state and were mostly victorious twice. The soldiers deserted and went to other recruiters to receive more bounties, and then repeated the process until the “bounty jumper” could not find any more places to receive bounties or until he was caught. The civilian populace quickly grew tired of being forced to “lend” goods to the looting and pillaging soldiers, but the soldiers thought of it as survival and patriotic since they were starving for the honorable and just cause of freedom.
The officers protested and threatened to resign unless their wages were paid correctly and accommodatingly. The soldiers and officers did not unite because the officers were gentlemen and thought themselves above the rest of the regular soldiers, fraternization was against military regulations and the one time officers did get involved two men were executed. | 849 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today is Christmas Eve and the Feast Day of Adam and Eve, who were the first man and woman that lived in the Garden of Eden before being expelled after being tricked into eating the forbidden fruit from the tree of knowledge of good and evil.
For several centuries, this Feast Day was celebrated with a drama called Paradise Play that retold the story of mankind from the creation of Adam and Eve to the Birth of Jesus Christ. It is very appropriate to celebrate Adam and Eve on the day before Christmas as it brings Advent into a full circle; Adam and Eve condemned mankind with Original Sin and the promise of salvation of mankind marked by Christ's birth and eventual sacrifice on Calvary.
Christmas Eve came about, as the start of the commemorations of the birth of Jesus the Nazarene, due in part to the Christian liturgical day starting as sunset, a practice inherited from Jewish traditions generally and specifically from the Book of Genesis where it’s written: "And there was evening, and there was morning – the first day."
The nativity of Jesus or the birth of Jesus is described in the gospels of Luke and Matthew. The Christmas Story starts around taxation because not even the Savior was exempt from government taxation. During the reign of Caesar Augustus, a degree was issued to hold a census of the entire Roman Empire. In the Roman-controlled Judah, there was a man named Joseph who was pledged to be married to a woman named Mary. While still a virgin, Mary was impregnated by the Holy Spirit. Joseph being an honorable man did want to expose her to public disgrace and was informed by the archangel Gabriel, the messenger of God, that the baby would be named Jesus because he would save the people from the world. Joseph and Mary traveled to the town of David as Joseph belonged to the house and line of David and the census required one to be registered in their hometown. While in Bethlehem, Mary went into labor and gave birth to Jesus Christ. Because no rooms were available, they had to stay in a manger, today we would call it a stable.
The three Magi were visited by an angel who declared the Messiah had been born and these three traveled to Bethlehem, following a star in the sky said to rest over where Jesus was born. On there, they came to King Herod and informed them of what they saw from the angels of the Lord. Herod ordered the Magi to go onto Bethlehem to find the Savior so he could worship him as well, but intended to kill the infant Christ. When they found the baby Jesus, they praised his glory and bestowed the gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. God intervened and through his angels gave warning both the Magi and the Holy Family which allowed them to escape into Egypt until the death of Herod.
To end this, I’d like to quote James Allan Francis and say “Nineteen wide centuries have come and gone and today He is the centerpiece of the human race and the leader of the column of progress. I am far within the mark when I say that all the armies that ever marched, and all the navies that ever were built, and all the parliaments that ever sat, all the kings that ever reigned, put together have not affected the life of man upon this earth as powerfully as has that One Solitary Life.” | <urn:uuid:a810abfb-539d-481a-8d75-ae6f8ad2a1af> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.travelingtemplar.com/2019/12/adam-and-eve.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00257.warc.gz | en | 0.982028 | 682 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.447429358959198,... | 7 | Today is Christmas Eve and the Feast Day of Adam and Eve, who were the first man and woman that lived in the Garden of Eden before being expelled after being tricked into eating the forbidden fruit from the tree of knowledge of good and evil.
For several centuries, this Feast Day was celebrated with a drama called Paradise Play that retold the story of mankind from the creation of Adam and Eve to the Birth of Jesus Christ. It is very appropriate to celebrate Adam and Eve on the day before Christmas as it brings Advent into a full circle; Adam and Eve condemned mankind with Original Sin and the promise of salvation of mankind marked by Christ's birth and eventual sacrifice on Calvary.
Christmas Eve came about, as the start of the commemorations of the birth of Jesus the Nazarene, due in part to the Christian liturgical day starting as sunset, a practice inherited from Jewish traditions generally and specifically from the Book of Genesis where it’s written: "And there was evening, and there was morning – the first day."
The nativity of Jesus or the birth of Jesus is described in the gospels of Luke and Matthew. The Christmas Story starts around taxation because not even the Savior was exempt from government taxation. During the reign of Caesar Augustus, a degree was issued to hold a census of the entire Roman Empire. In the Roman-controlled Judah, there was a man named Joseph who was pledged to be married to a woman named Mary. While still a virgin, Mary was impregnated by the Holy Spirit. Joseph being an honorable man did want to expose her to public disgrace and was informed by the archangel Gabriel, the messenger of God, that the baby would be named Jesus because he would save the people from the world. Joseph and Mary traveled to the town of David as Joseph belonged to the house and line of David and the census required one to be registered in their hometown. While in Bethlehem, Mary went into labor and gave birth to Jesus Christ. Because no rooms were available, they had to stay in a manger, today we would call it a stable.
The three Magi were visited by an angel who declared the Messiah had been born and these three traveled to Bethlehem, following a star in the sky said to rest over where Jesus was born. On there, they came to King Herod and informed them of what they saw from the angels of the Lord. Herod ordered the Magi to go onto Bethlehem to find the Savior so he could worship him as well, but intended to kill the infant Christ. When they found the baby Jesus, they praised his glory and bestowed the gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. God intervened and through his angels gave warning both the Magi and the Holy Family which allowed them to escape into Egypt until the death of Herod.
To end this, I’d like to quote James Allan Francis and say “Nineteen wide centuries have come and gone and today He is the centerpiece of the human race and the leader of the column of progress. I am far within the mark when I say that all the armies that ever marched, and all the navies that ever were built, and all the parliaments that ever sat, all the kings that ever reigned, put together have not affected the life of man upon this earth as powerfully as has that One Solitary Life.” | 677 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The events about the place and date of birth of Jesus are more than 20 centuries old, and are still very controversial. Although the four gospel writers, and Paul, agree that Jesus grew up in Nazareth, only Luke and Matthew mention his place of birth, and they tell it differently. They provide different versions of the event without dates. Despite its importance, Paul, Marc and John didn’t know about it, or just neglected to write it. The written information about the Savior’s date and place of birth has been challenged by skeptics, historians, and theologians. Despite all these questions, the story of Jesus’ birth has been lovely told all over the world for more than 2000 years. There are good reasons for it, we are talking about God coming to earth in the form of a child.
The story began 700 years before Jesus’ actual birth with the prophet Isaias, who prophesied that “a virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel.” Isaias, however, was not the only prophet who spoke of a Messiah: Daniel, Jeremiah, Ezequiel, Zacharias, and Malachi were some of the others. One prophet, Micah, told us the Messiah would come from Bethlehem. Both versions of the birth of Jesus, the argument goes, are really inspired by the Old Testament where it is said that God would send a Messiah to liberate his people from the cruelty and injustices inflicted upon them by the Romans. The gospel writers – Luke and Matthew – sincerely believed that Jesus was the Messiah, and that he would be born in Bethlehem. Many scholars believe this is why; regardless of Jesus’ real place of birth, early Christians deliberately chose Bethlehem to demonstrate the fulfilling of the prophesy described there. Add the fact that the story came about many years after the death of Jesus; presumably as a challenge to Roman authorities who had many stories like that in their traditions.
Seven hundred years later, the Lord sent the angel, Gabriel, to deliver a message to a virgin named Mary, who was living in Nazareth, a small village in Galilee. The son of God has to be born from a virgin. Mary was pledged to be married to a man named Joseph, a descendant of David. Luke wrote about a message with enormous implications for the people of Israel, and for the entire world. Gabriel – Luke continues – announced to Mary that she will conceive and deliver a son without human intervention. Based on Luke’s account, Jesus was conceived in Nazareth. Joseph had nothing to do with it.
Almost nine months later, Joseph takes his wife from the city of Nazareth up to Bethlehem to be taxed. Luke explains that Cesar Augustus decreed that all the world should be taxed, and all persons should go back to their places of origin. For some scholars, Luke’s Roman census never took place. There are no records of it; on the contrary, Roma’s records of its census, stipulated that a man should be counted, and taxed, in the place where he lived. Women were not taken into account. The trip and the census were entirely implausible; apparently to make Bethlehem Jesus’ place of birth. Jesus had to be born there no matter where he was born.
The Holy Book does not give a hint on why Joseph took Mary on this very difficult trip, possibly on the back of a donkey, through the desert, especially when she was on the last stage of her pregnancy. The Bible says nothing about Mary traveling on the back of a donkey, so we can’t be sure. It is left to our imagination to figure where they stay overnight. However, whether she traveled on the back of a donkey or not, it took a week to do the journey. The distance between Nazareth and Jerusalem, is 120 kilometers, and only 10 more to get to Bethlehem.
Nevertheless, this is the event that motivated Joseph to take his spouse, Mary, with him up to Bethlehem. Then, Mary gave birth to a son whom she had in a manger because there was no room for them at the inn. Please consider that this part of the story appears only in the Gospel of Luke. Contrary to popular belief, December 25 has nothing to do with the birth of Jesus. This date was established by the early church fathers on 440 AD to conform to an existing celebration based on Babilonian traditions.
There are those who attest that he was born in Bethlehem basing their opinions on the writings of Matthew. This is the same story told by Luke, but in it, Matthew starts by what some scholars call the Annunciation to Joseph. Joseph’s reaction, according to Matthew, was that Mary was an adulteress. Although Matthew did not tell it in those terms, the common assumption here is that Joseph, who had not touched Mary, thought she had committed adultery. Because he was a merciful man, unwilling to put her to death, decided to send her away quietly. His decision nested in a couple of problems: If Mary had willingly committed adultery, she deserved to be stoned to death, the punishment mosaic law commanded.
Furthermore, to put Mary away when she was pregnant with the child of another man would do her immense harm and would expose her to much shame. Joseph did not want to cause either. Moreover, if he conceded that he was betrothed to a sinless woman who miraculously conceived a child, he could not fathom his role as the spouse of the mother of the Son of God. But then the angel came and made God’s will know to Joseph, who accepted his mission to take care of the boy. Matthew does not detail the lives of Joseph and Mary; he only says that they married after she gave birth to Jesus. Matthew says that Joseph was an obedient man who accepted to do what God commanded through the angel he saw in a dream. In Matthew, the family lived in Bethlehem and Jesus was born at home.
Matthew said that Jesus was the son of God. He wrote about the time when the wise men from the East came to worship “him that was born King of the Jews.” They brought expensive gifts to an unknown child. Please consider that this action takes place under the guidance of an intelligent star; so smart that it stopped his movement over a manger in Bethlehem. This is one of those parts of the story where most scholars challenge the veracity of the account. Many questions arise: Who were these wise men? Kings? Magi? Where did they come from? How did they get here? Why some important men from the East had an interest on what was going on in this part of the world? Why travel so far away from their places of origin? Additionally, Matthew told about a secret meeting between Herod and the wise men. During the meeting, the king asked them to find out where this new-born king was, so that he can go and worship him. Nobody knows when the magi arrived to worship Jesus. Some scholars believe it could have happened between ten months and two years after the birth of Jesus.
Matthew has the family fleeing Bethlehem only after Herod ordered all the baby boys massacred. He ordered his guards to look for them all over Bethlehem. To save the boy from a certain death, an angel told Joseph to take his family, and flee to Egypt. Because of that, Joseph left Bethlehem until the king died. This is the time when Joseph and Mary received instructions to return to Nazareth. Jesus must have been 4/7 years old.
In my book – Mary Magdalene: The Lord’s Wife – Alice McCallum who affirms she was Mary Magdalene in a past life, tells Donald Silverstein, the psychiatrist treating her for postpartum depression, that Jesus was born comfortably in his house in Nazareth. “He has never been to Bethlehem,” she said. Alice’s version of the birth of Jesus does not have a star, no three wise men, no census, no trip, etc. The child enjoyed the conveniences of a baby who was born rich in his house in Nazareth. Although I sympathize with Alice’s feelings about the entire saga, I don’t believe in reincarnation. To me, she is expressing a knowledge she shouldn’t have.
Joseph and Mary brought the infant Jesus to the Temple 8 days after birth to comply with Mosaic law, as required by the scriptures. Next time we heard from Jesus is when he is 12 years old and is found by his parents discussing with the rabbis at the Temple.
Regarding where Jesus was born, only two of the gospels talk about it. Although Luke and Mark tell the story very differently, they both wrote that he was born in Bethlehem. In Luke, they were living in Nazareth but had to go to Bethlehem because of the census decreed by Cesar Augustus. Luke talks about this trip from Nazareth to Bethlehem while Matthew says they were already living in Bethlehem, and only abandoned the city when Herod decided to massacre all baby boys.
One thing is certain; Jesus was a Jewish boy growing at a time of high political tensions. To get the full nativity scene that we are familiar with, you have to put the two versions together. Luke contributes the manger, the trip, and the angels, while Matthew supplies the kings and the star. The geographical and climactic information about the Bethlehem of those times does not support either of the two versions. Nevertheless, we have to believe the New Testament because the gospel writers were honest people who sincerely believed the reality of the events they were writing about.
The fact that Jesus was called Jesus of Nazareth points very heavily towards Nazareth being his birthplace. People of those times were called by the name of his father – Jesus, Son of Joseph – or by the village they were born in. To many scholars, however, it is more of an indication that he grew up there; the four gospels agree on that. It does not indicate that he was born there. But if he wasn’t born in Bethlehem why the gospel writers wrote that he was? The Jerusalem church, headed by James the Just, brother of Jesus, simply sustains that Jesus was the son of Joseph and Mary, and was born naturally. When Constantine became a Christian, he sent the queen, his mother, to build churches. The people of Bethlehem happily told her the place where Jesus’ manger was located, and she built a church right there. Even today, as in the past, most people currently living there, firmly believe that Jesus was born there. This is a very active tourist center today.
There is no way to be sure when Jesus was born. For some, it derives from pagan traditions, and for others from Judaism. It is a fact that on December 25, Christians, all over the world, surrounded by gifts, special foods and carols, will gather to celebrate his birth. The Bible gives us very few clues. The Gospels or Acts did not mention the date or even the season. Extra-biblical evidence is of not much help. There are no indications, historical or otherwise, that Christmas was celebrated at all until more than three centuries after Jesus’ death. Later apocryphal writings tell us about his ancestry and education but make no mention of his place and date of birth. | <urn:uuid:d7762bb4-8a8c-4410-b892-dd64c79b1446> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.controversialbible.com/single-post/2019/12/23/WAS-JESUS-BORN-IN-BETHLEHEM-OR-NAZARETH | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00326.warc.gz | en | 0.986104 | 2,336 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.335482895... | 5 | The events about the place and date of birth of Jesus are more than 20 centuries old, and are still very controversial. Although the four gospel writers, and Paul, agree that Jesus grew up in Nazareth, only Luke and Matthew mention his place of birth, and they tell it differently. They provide different versions of the event without dates. Despite its importance, Paul, Marc and John didn’t know about it, or just neglected to write it. The written information about the Savior’s date and place of birth has been challenged by skeptics, historians, and theologians. Despite all these questions, the story of Jesus’ birth has been lovely told all over the world for more than 2000 years. There are good reasons for it, we are talking about God coming to earth in the form of a child.
The story began 700 years before Jesus’ actual birth with the prophet Isaias, who prophesied that “a virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel.” Isaias, however, was not the only prophet who spoke of a Messiah: Daniel, Jeremiah, Ezequiel, Zacharias, and Malachi were some of the others. One prophet, Micah, told us the Messiah would come from Bethlehem. Both versions of the birth of Jesus, the argument goes, are really inspired by the Old Testament where it is said that God would send a Messiah to liberate his people from the cruelty and injustices inflicted upon them by the Romans. The gospel writers – Luke and Matthew – sincerely believed that Jesus was the Messiah, and that he would be born in Bethlehem. Many scholars believe this is why; regardless of Jesus’ real place of birth, early Christians deliberately chose Bethlehem to demonstrate the fulfilling of the prophesy described there. Add the fact that the story came about many years after the death of Jesus; presumably as a challenge to Roman authorities who had many stories like that in their traditions.
Seven hundred years later, the Lord sent the angel, Gabriel, to deliver a message to a virgin named Mary, who was living in Nazareth, a small village in Galilee. The son of God has to be born from a virgin. Mary was pledged to be married to a man named Joseph, a descendant of David. Luke wrote about a message with enormous implications for the people of Israel, and for the entire world. Gabriel – Luke continues – announced to Mary that she will conceive and deliver a son without human intervention. Based on Luke’s account, Jesus was conceived in Nazareth. Joseph had nothing to do with it.
Almost nine months later, Joseph takes his wife from the city of Nazareth up to Bethlehem to be taxed. Luke explains that Cesar Augustus decreed that all the world should be taxed, and all persons should go back to their places of origin. For some scholars, Luke’s Roman census never took place. There are no records of it; on the contrary, Roma’s records of its census, stipulated that a man should be counted, and taxed, in the place where he lived. Women were not taken into account. The trip and the census were entirely implausible; apparently to make Bethlehem Jesus’ place of birth. Jesus had to be born there no matter where he was born.
The Holy Book does not give a hint on why Joseph took Mary on this very difficult trip, possibly on the back of a donkey, through the desert, especially when she was on the last stage of her pregnancy. The Bible says nothing about Mary traveling on the back of a donkey, so we can’t be sure. It is left to our imagination to figure where they stay overnight. However, whether she traveled on the back of a donkey or not, it took a week to do the journey. The distance between Nazareth and Jerusalem, is 120 kilometers, and only 10 more to get to Bethlehem.
Nevertheless, this is the event that motivated Joseph to take his spouse, Mary, with him up to Bethlehem. Then, Mary gave birth to a son whom she had in a manger because there was no room for them at the inn. Please consider that this part of the story appears only in the Gospel of Luke. Contrary to popular belief, December 25 has nothing to do with the birth of Jesus. This date was established by the early church fathers on 440 AD to conform to an existing celebration based on Babilonian traditions.
There are those who attest that he was born in Bethlehem basing their opinions on the writings of Matthew. This is the same story told by Luke, but in it, Matthew starts by what some scholars call the Annunciation to Joseph. Joseph’s reaction, according to Matthew, was that Mary was an adulteress. Although Matthew did not tell it in those terms, the common assumption here is that Joseph, who had not touched Mary, thought she had committed adultery. Because he was a merciful man, unwilling to put her to death, decided to send her away quietly. His decision nested in a couple of problems: If Mary had willingly committed adultery, she deserved to be stoned to death, the punishment mosaic law commanded.
Furthermore, to put Mary away when she was pregnant with the child of another man would do her immense harm and would expose her to much shame. Joseph did not want to cause either. Moreover, if he conceded that he was betrothed to a sinless woman who miraculously conceived a child, he could not fathom his role as the spouse of the mother of the Son of God. But then the angel came and made God’s will know to Joseph, who accepted his mission to take care of the boy. Matthew does not detail the lives of Joseph and Mary; he only says that they married after she gave birth to Jesus. Matthew says that Joseph was an obedient man who accepted to do what God commanded through the angel he saw in a dream. In Matthew, the family lived in Bethlehem and Jesus was born at home.
Matthew said that Jesus was the son of God. He wrote about the time when the wise men from the East came to worship “him that was born King of the Jews.” They brought expensive gifts to an unknown child. Please consider that this action takes place under the guidance of an intelligent star; so smart that it stopped his movement over a manger in Bethlehem. This is one of those parts of the story where most scholars challenge the veracity of the account. Many questions arise: Who were these wise men? Kings? Magi? Where did they come from? How did they get here? Why some important men from the East had an interest on what was going on in this part of the world? Why travel so far away from their places of origin? Additionally, Matthew told about a secret meeting between Herod and the wise men. During the meeting, the king asked them to find out where this new-born king was, so that he can go and worship him. Nobody knows when the magi arrived to worship Jesus. Some scholars believe it could have happened between ten months and two years after the birth of Jesus.
Matthew has the family fleeing Bethlehem only after Herod ordered all the baby boys massacred. He ordered his guards to look for them all over Bethlehem. To save the boy from a certain death, an angel told Joseph to take his family, and flee to Egypt. Because of that, Joseph left Bethlehem until the king died. This is the time when Joseph and Mary received instructions to return to Nazareth. Jesus must have been 4/7 years old.
In my book – Mary Magdalene: The Lord’s Wife – Alice McCallum who affirms she was Mary Magdalene in a past life, tells Donald Silverstein, the psychiatrist treating her for postpartum depression, that Jesus was born comfortably in his house in Nazareth. “He has never been to Bethlehem,” she said. Alice’s version of the birth of Jesus does not have a star, no three wise men, no census, no trip, etc. The child enjoyed the conveniences of a baby who was born rich in his house in Nazareth. Although I sympathize with Alice’s feelings about the entire saga, I don’t believe in reincarnation. To me, she is expressing a knowledge she shouldn’t have.
Joseph and Mary brought the infant Jesus to the Temple 8 days after birth to comply with Mosaic law, as required by the scriptures. Next time we heard from Jesus is when he is 12 years old and is found by his parents discussing with the rabbis at the Temple.
Regarding where Jesus was born, only two of the gospels talk about it. Although Luke and Mark tell the story very differently, they both wrote that he was born in Bethlehem. In Luke, they were living in Nazareth but had to go to Bethlehem because of the census decreed by Cesar Augustus. Luke talks about this trip from Nazareth to Bethlehem while Matthew says they were already living in Bethlehem, and only abandoned the city when Herod decided to massacre all baby boys.
One thing is certain; Jesus was a Jewish boy growing at a time of high political tensions. To get the full nativity scene that we are familiar with, you have to put the two versions together. Luke contributes the manger, the trip, and the angels, while Matthew supplies the kings and the star. The geographical and climactic information about the Bethlehem of those times does not support either of the two versions. Nevertheless, we have to believe the New Testament because the gospel writers were honest people who sincerely believed the reality of the events they were writing about.
The fact that Jesus was called Jesus of Nazareth points very heavily towards Nazareth being his birthplace. People of those times were called by the name of his father – Jesus, Son of Joseph – or by the village they were born in. To many scholars, however, it is more of an indication that he grew up there; the four gospels agree on that. It does not indicate that he was born there. But if he wasn’t born in Bethlehem why the gospel writers wrote that he was? The Jerusalem church, headed by James the Just, brother of Jesus, simply sustains that Jesus was the son of Joseph and Mary, and was born naturally. When Constantine became a Christian, he sent the queen, his mother, to build churches. The people of Bethlehem happily told her the place where Jesus’ manger was located, and she built a church right there. Even today, as in the past, most people currently living there, firmly believe that Jesus was born there. This is a very active tourist center today.
There is no way to be sure when Jesus was born. For some, it derives from pagan traditions, and for others from Judaism. It is a fact that on December 25, Christians, all over the world, surrounded by gifts, special foods and carols, will gather to celebrate his birth. The Bible gives us very few clues. The Gospels or Acts did not mention the date or even the season. Extra-biblical evidence is of not much help. There are no indications, historical or otherwise, that Christmas was celebrated at all until more than three centuries after Jesus’ death. Later apocryphal writings tell us about his ancestry and education but make no mention of his place and date of birth. | 2,318 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Court game between two teams of five players.
They score by tossing, or "shooting," an inflated ball through a raised hoop, or "basket," located in their opponent's end of the court. A goal is worth two points, three if shot from outside a specified limit. A free throw (worth one point) is awarded to any player fouled (through unwarranted physical contact) by another, two free throws if the foul occurs during the act of shooting. Invented in 1891 by James A. Naismith in Springfield, Mass., U.S., basketball quickly became popular throughout the U.S., with games organized at the school and collegiate level for both sexes. Women first played the game under a markedly different set of rules. The game developed internationally at a slower pace. The first Olympic basketball contest was held in 1936, and the Fédération Internationale de Basketball Amateur (FIBA) introduced world championships for men and women in 1950 and 1953, respectively. In the U.S., high school and collegiate championship tournaments are traditionally held in March and generate considerable excitement. A men's professional league was organized in 1898 but did not gain much of a following until 1949, when it was reconstituted as the National Basketball Association (NBA). The first women's professional leagues in the U.S. emerged during the 1970s but failed after a year or two. The current Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA), owned by the NBA, was organized in 1997. Club and professional basketball outside of the U.S. developed rapidly in the latter part of the 20th century. A Basketball Hall of Fame is located in Springfield. | <urn:uuid:d98ae737-7a9c-4acd-98e9-89b13c37f31b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://slovar-vocab.com/english/britannica-dictionary/basketball-8729639.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00402.warc.gz | en | 0.98423 | 340 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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-0.1777357906103134... | 1 | Court game between two teams of five players.
They score by tossing, or "shooting," an inflated ball through a raised hoop, or "basket," located in their opponent's end of the court. A goal is worth two points, three if shot from outside a specified limit. A free throw (worth one point) is awarded to any player fouled (through unwarranted physical contact) by another, two free throws if the foul occurs during the act of shooting. Invented in 1891 by James A. Naismith in Springfield, Mass., U.S., basketball quickly became popular throughout the U.S., with games organized at the school and collegiate level for both sexes. Women first played the game under a markedly different set of rules. The game developed internationally at a slower pace. The first Olympic basketball contest was held in 1936, and the Fédération Internationale de Basketball Amateur (FIBA) introduced world championships for men and women in 1950 and 1953, respectively. In the U.S., high school and collegiate championship tournaments are traditionally held in March and generate considerable excitement. A men's professional league was organized in 1898 but did not gain much of a following until 1949, when it was reconstituted as the National Basketball Association (NBA). The first women's professional leagues in the U.S. emerged during the 1970s but failed after a year or two. The current Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA), owned by the NBA, was organized in 1997. Club and professional basketball outside of the U.S. developed rapidly in the latter part of the 20th century. A Basketball Hall of Fame is located in Springfield. | 366 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Just a few miles South-West of Banff, inland from Boyndie, Inchdrewer Castle, also known as Inch Druar in the late 17th century. The castle was constructed in the early 1500s by James Currour or his father, a legal family from Banff.
In 1557 the castle was sold to Walter Ogilvy of Dunlugas who enlarged the structure, today seen only as low ruins surrounding the main tower. His son, George, became Lord of Banff in 1642 in recognition of his support of Charles I during the Covenanter rebellion.
The family’s royalist loyalties resulted in the murder of the 4th Lord of Banff in 1713 and destruction of the castle by fire in revenge for his father supporting the Act of Union of 1706, “for selling out his country for 11 shillings of English money”.
The castle was rebuilt again after the fire, and then attacked and largely destroyed by the Duke of Cumberland during the Jacobite rebellion, despite the family support of the Union. | <urn:uuid:6d2b3311-fedb-4d99-94cd-bea3c2ab6091> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bth.scot/to-do/inchdrewer-castle/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00341.warc.gz | en | 0.985692 | 227 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.073187939822... | 7 | Just a few miles South-West of Banff, inland from Boyndie, Inchdrewer Castle, also known as Inch Druar in the late 17th century. The castle was constructed in the early 1500s by James Currour or his father, a legal family from Banff.
In 1557 the castle was sold to Walter Ogilvy of Dunlugas who enlarged the structure, today seen only as low ruins surrounding the main tower. His son, George, became Lord of Banff in 1642 in recognition of his support of Charles I during the Covenanter rebellion.
The family’s royalist loyalties resulted in the murder of the 4th Lord of Banff in 1713 and destruction of the castle by fire in revenge for his father supporting the Act of Union of 1706, “for selling out his country for 11 shillings of English money”.
The castle was rebuilt again after the fire, and then attacked and largely destroyed by the Duke of Cumberland during the Jacobite rebellion, despite the family support of the Union. | 236 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Fall of Constantinople occurred on May 29, 1453, after a siege which began on April 6. The battle was part of the Byzantine-Ottoman Wars (1265-1453) and is referred to as one of the darkest days in Greek history.
Ascending to the Ottoman throne in 1451, Mehmed II began making preparations to reduce the Byzantine capital of Constantinople.
Reduced to the area around the city as well as a large part of the Peloponnese in Greece, the Empire was led by Constantine XI. Already possessing a fortress on the Asian side of the Bosporus, Anadolu Hisari, Mehmed began construction of one on the European shore known as Rumeli Hisari.
Effectively taking control of the strait, Mehmed was able to cut off Constantinople from the Black Sea and any potential aid that might be received from the Genoese colonies in the region. Increasingly concerned about the Ottoman threat, Constantine appealed to Pope Nicholas V for aid. Despite centuries of animosity between the Orthodox and Roman churches, Nicholas agreed to seek help in the West. This was largely fruitless as many of the Western nations were engaged in their own conflicts and could not spare men or money to aid Constantinople.
While Mehmed tightened the noose around Constantinople, elements of his army swept through the region capturing minor Byzantine outposts. Emplacing his large cannon, he began battering at the Theodosian Walls, but with little effect. As the gun required three hours to reload, the Byzantines were able to repair the damage caused between shots.
As initial assaults against the Theodosian Walls had repeatedly failed, Mehmed ordered his men to begin digging tunnels to mine beneath the Byzantine defenses.
Constantinople began to plummet as word was received that no aid would be coming from Venice. In addition, a series of omens including a thick, unexpected fog which blanketed the city on May 26, convinced many that the city was about to fall. Believing that the fog masked the departure of the Holy Spirit from Hagia Sophia, the population braced for the worst. Frustrated by the lack of progress, Mehmed called a council of war on May 26. Meeting with his commanders, he decided that a massive assault would be launched on the night of May 28/29 after a period of rest and prayer.
Shortly before midnight on May 28, Mehmed sent his auxiliaries forward. Poorly equipped, they were intended to tire and kill as many of the defenders as possible. These were followed by an assault against the weakened Blachernae walls by troops from Anatolia.
These men succeeded in breaking through but were quickly counterattacked and driven back. Having achieved some success, Mehmed’s men attacked next but were held by Byzantine forces under Giustiniani. The Byzantines in Blachernae held until Giustiniani was badly wounded. As their commander was taken to the rear, the defense began to collapse.
To the south, Constantine led forces defending the walls in the Lycus Valley. Also under heavy pressure, his position began to collapse when the Ottomans found that the Kerkoporta gate to the north had been left open. With the enemy surging through the gate and unable to hold the walls, Constantine was forced to fall back. Opening additional gates, the Ottomans poured into the city.
Though his exact fate is not known, it is believed that Constantine was killed leading a last desperate attack against the enemy. Fanning out, the Ottomans began moving through the city with Mehmed assigning men to protect key buildings.
Having taken the city, Mehmed allowed his men to plunder its riches for three days.
Ottoman losses during the siege are not known, but it is believed that the defenders lost around 4,000 men. A devastating blow to Christendom, the loss of Constantinople led Pope Nicholas to call for an immediate crusade to recover the city.
Despite his pleas, no Western monarch stepped forward to lead the effort. A turning point in Western history, the Fall of Constantinople is seen as the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Renaissance. Following the Fall of Constantinople, Hagia Sophia was turned into a mosque.
Fleeing the city, Greek scholars arrived in the West bringing with them priceless knowledge and rare manuscripts. The loss of Constantinople also severed European trade links with Asia leading many to begin seeking routes east by sea and keying the age of exploration. For Mehmed, the capture of the city earned him the title “The Conqueror” and provided him with a key base for campaigns into Europe. | <urn:uuid:08d29c91-da50-4c40-8cbe-ca8b58a3c753> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://en.protothema.gr/29-may-1453-the-fall-of-constantinople/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00391.warc.gz | en | 0.980332 | 959 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.1381836... | 2 | The Fall of Constantinople occurred on May 29, 1453, after a siege which began on April 6. The battle was part of the Byzantine-Ottoman Wars (1265-1453) and is referred to as one of the darkest days in Greek history.
Ascending to the Ottoman throne in 1451, Mehmed II began making preparations to reduce the Byzantine capital of Constantinople.
Reduced to the area around the city as well as a large part of the Peloponnese in Greece, the Empire was led by Constantine XI. Already possessing a fortress on the Asian side of the Bosporus, Anadolu Hisari, Mehmed began construction of one on the European shore known as Rumeli Hisari.
Effectively taking control of the strait, Mehmed was able to cut off Constantinople from the Black Sea and any potential aid that might be received from the Genoese colonies in the region. Increasingly concerned about the Ottoman threat, Constantine appealed to Pope Nicholas V for aid. Despite centuries of animosity between the Orthodox and Roman churches, Nicholas agreed to seek help in the West. This was largely fruitless as many of the Western nations were engaged in their own conflicts and could not spare men or money to aid Constantinople.
While Mehmed tightened the noose around Constantinople, elements of his army swept through the region capturing minor Byzantine outposts. Emplacing his large cannon, he began battering at the Theodosian Walls, but with little effect. As the gun required three hours to reload, the Byzantines were able to repair the damage caused between shots.
As initial assaults against the Theodosian Walls had repeatedly failed, Mehmed ordered his men to begin digging tunnels to mine beneath the Byzantine defenses.
Constantinople began to plummet as word was received that no aid would be coming from Venice. In addition, a series of omens including a thick, unexpected fog which blanketed the city on May 26, convinced many that the city was about to fall. Believing that the fog masked the departure of the Holy Spirit from Hagia Sophia, the population braced for the worst. Frustrated by the lack of progress, Mehmed called a council of war on May 26. Meeting with his commanders, he decided that a massive assault would be launched on the night of May 28/29 after a period of rest and prayer.
Shortly before midnight on May 28, Mehmed sent his auxiliaries forward. Poorly equipped, they were intended to tire and kill as many of the defenders as possible. These were followed by an assault against the weakened Blachernae walls by troops from Anatolia.
These men succeeded in breaking through but were quickly counterattacked and driven back. Having achieved some success, Mehmed’s men attacked next but were held by Byzantine forces under Giustiniani. The Byzantines in Blachernae held until Giustiniani was badly wounded. As their commander was taken to the rear, the defense began to collapse.
To the south, Constantine led forces defending the walls in the Lycus Valley. Also under heavy pressure, his position began to collapse when the Ottomans found that the Kerkoporta gate to the north had been left open. With the enemy surging through the gate and unable to hold the walls, Constantine was forced to fall back. Opening additional gates, the Ottomans poured into the city.
Though his exact fate is not known, it is believed that Constantine was killed leading a last desperate attack against the enemy. Fanning out, the Ottomans began moving through the city with Mehmed assigning men to protect key buildings.
Having taken the city, Mehmed allowed his men to plunder its riches for three days.
Ottoman losses during the siege are not known, but it is believed that the defenders lost around 4,000 men. A devastating blow to Christendom, the loss of Constantinople led Pope Nicholas to call for an immediate crusade to recover the city.
Despite his pleas, no Western monarch stepped forward to lead the effort. A turning point in Western history, the Fall of Constantinople is seen as the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Renaissance. Following the Fall of Constantinople, Hagia Sophia was turned into a mosque.
Fleeing the city, Greek scholars arrived in the West bringing with them priceless knowledge and rare manuscripts. The loss of Constantinople also severed European trade links with Asia leading many to begin seeking routes east by sea and keying the age of exploration. For Mehmed, the capture of the city earned him the title “The Conqueror” and provided him with a key base for campaigns into Europe. | 981 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Germany launches the Spring Offensive, a huge attack to win the war before the Americans arrive.
German General Erich Ludendorff planned a knock-out blow in 1918. He knew the Americans were on their way.If he didn't beat the British and French before the American arrived, he knew the Germans would be outnumbered.
His plan, known as the Spring Offensive, came in several phases. Each time the Germans made good progress, advancing several miles, but each time the Allies were able to get enough reinforcements forward to plug the gaps that the Germans made in their lines.
By July the Germans were launching their fifth offensive but by now American soldiers were arriving at a rate of about 300,000 per month. These vital reinforcements helped the Allies to launch ever more powerful counterattacks. German casualty figures were getting higher and higher.
The Spring Offensive costs Germany too many casualties. Meanwhile American soldiers are now flowing into France.
In the middle of July, French, British and American troops launched a counterattack that became known as the Second Battle of the Marne. They were attacking a salient - a thin area of land bulging into Allied territory that had been won during one of the German offensives.
Now it was the Allies' turn to go on the offensive.
German stormtroopers move forward ready for the Spring Offensive.
French soldiers with a huge naval gun mounted on a train.
A German soldier emerges from his camouflaged position during the Second Battle of the Marne.
A British soldier taken prisoner on the Western Front. | <urn:uuid:1c328fb4-b909-4521-813d-faa7c5a82f28> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://walesatwar.org/en/theatresofwar/spring_offensive | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00344.warc.gz | en | 0.984889 | 315 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.487742811441421... | 2 | Germany launches the Spring Offensive, a huge attack to win the war before the Americans arrive.
German General Erich Ludendorff planned a knock-out blow in 1918. He knew the Americans were on their way.If he didn't beat the British and French before the American arrived, he knew the Germans would be outnumbered.
His plan, known as the Spring Offensive, came in several phases. Each time the Germans made good progress, advancing several miles, but each time the Allies were able to get enough reinforcements forward to plug the gaps that the Germans made in their lines.
By July the Germans were launching their fifth offensive but by now American soldiers were arriving at a rate of about 300,000 per month. These vital reinforcements helped the Allies to launch ever more powerful counterattacks. German casualty figures were getting higher and higher.
The Spring Offensive costs Germany too many casualties. Meanwhile American soldiers are now flowing into France.
In the middle of July, French, British and American troops launched a counterattack that became known as the Second Battle of the Marne. They were attacking a salient - a thin area of land bulging into Allied territory that had been won during one of the German offensives.
Now it was the Allies' turn to go on the offensive.
German stormtroopers move forward ready for the Spring Offensive.
French soldiers with a huge naval gun mounted on a train.
A German soldier emerges from his camouflaged position during the Second Battle of the Marne.
A British soldier taken prisoner on the Western Front. | 315 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Now, a grad student in California may have found a way to do it while sitting on the beach during a day of surfing. A new study in "Scientific Reports" found that sand found in beaches is a fantastic source of silicon for lithium-ion batteries.
According to Popular Science, Zachary Favors of UC Riverside was enjoying a day of surfing and hanging out on the beach when he had an epiphany. He looked at the sand around him and hatched a theory that could change our cell phones forever.
A crucial part of lithium-ion batteries is graphite, but silicon has been said to potentially be a much better way to store energy. But silicon is both hard to mass-produce, and degrades quickly.
Favors may have found a solution to these problems with beach sand. In his study, Favors gathered a sample of sand from Cedar Creek Reservoir in Texas where it's very high in quartz (silicon dioxide). He then ground it down and purified it before heating it up with magnesium and salt.
The result was purely silicon, and had a consistency, according to Gizmag, that was very porous, which is one of the major keys to improving lithium-ion batteries.
They've already developed the prototype battery and say it has the potential to keep a mobile phone charged three times as long as it is now. They've also filed patents for the technology.
Time will tell if the Apples and the Samsungs of the world will work to adopt this technology in their own devices. If they do, and it works, it has the potential to revolutionize the industry. | <urn:uuid:a53ab761-a134-4a50-b2d4-af3b407bef2e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.businessinsider.com/scientists-have-found-a-way-to-make-your-phone-battery-last-longer-using-beach-sand-2014-7 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00157.warc.gz | en | 0.98029 | 331 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.46750247478485... | 1 | Now, a grad student in California may have found a way to do it while sitting on the beach during a day of surfing. A new study in "Scientific Reports" found that sand found in beaches is a fantastic source of silicon for lithium-ion batteries.
According to Popular Science, Zachary Favors of UC Riverside was enjoying a day of surfing and hanging out on the beach when he had an epiphany. He looked at the sand around him and hatched a theory that could change our cell phones forever.
A crucial part of lithium-ion batteries is graphite, but silicon has been said to potentially be a much better way to store energy. But silicon is both hard to mass-produce, and degrades quickly.
Favors may have found a solution to these problems with beach sand. In his study, Favors gathered a sample of sand from Cedar Creek Reservoir in Texas where it's very high in quartz (silicon dioxide). He then ground it down and purified it before heating it up with magnesium and salt.
The result was purely silicon, and had a consistency, according to Gizmag, that was very porous, which is one of the major keys to improving lithium-ion batteries.
They've already developed the prototype battery and say it has the potential to keep a mobile phone charged three times as long as it is now. They've also filed patents for the technology.
Time will tell if the Apples and the Samsungs of the world will work to adopt this technology in their own devices. If they do, and it works, it has the potential to revolutionize the industry. | 320 | ENGLISH | 1 |
DETROIT LAKES -- While he was in the process of completing his doctoral dissertation on the tundra pond ecology in High Arctic, Alaska, Alec Lackmann began a side project a little closer to his home in Detroit Lakes.
But what the North Dakota State University graduate student and his colleagues discovered in an Otter Tail County lake would shock researchers and make headlines from the Minneapolis Star Tribune to National Geographic.
As part of his research into previously overlooked species of fish, Lackmann came across a variety of freshwater fish native to Minnesota that is commonly known as the bigmouth buffalo.
"I became interested in researching this species out of curiosity," Lackmann said. "I am generally interested in ichthyology (i.e. the study of different fish species). I am naturally interested in bigmouth buffalo because they are such a mysterious species, with so little study regarding their general biology."
When they age tested some fish that had been taken from the waters of west-central Minnesota, Lackmann and his colleagues determined that five of them were more than 100 years old — including one 112-year-old female that came from Crystal Lake, near Pelican Rapids.
To determine the age of the fish, Lackmann and his fellow researchers took samples from their otoliths — ringed growths behind their brains, each with a different shape, that help the fish with hearing and balance.
"Otoliths are the only structures found in fish that never stop growing," Lackmann said. Similar to the way tree rings grow, a new ring layer forms on the otolith each year, which means they can be counted to determine the age of the fish.
"The most accurate way to age otolith-bearing fish species is to thin-section the otoliths," Lackmann said. Some fish species, like many sharks, do not have otoliths, he added.
What he and his fellow researchers found was that over 80% of the fish from the Pelican River Watershed had been around for 80 years or more. But as initially skeptical as the members of Lackmann's research team were regarding their findings, the reaction from the general public was even more so, as the species was previously considered to live a maximum of 26 years.
In collaboration with the University of Hawaii and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, they decided to test the validity of their findings with the well established science of bomb radiocarbon dating. The results confirmed their findings.
"The ages determined from the thin-sectioned otoliths were validated," Lackmann said.
The fish taken from Otter Tail County was verified to be 112 years old — which made it the oldest age-validated freshwater fish ever discovered.
So they took their findings and put together a research paper that was published in the nature research journal, "Communications Biology," in May of this year. That research paper caught the attention of news media.
Prior to Lackmann's study, the most thorough report that had been done was a paper published in 1963.
"A lot has changed in fisheries since that time," Lackmann said. "I also did not understand why this species is neglected as a 'rough fish,' and erroneously called 'carp' (or alternatively, 'buffalo carp') in so much of the U.S."
"They are not carp," he said bluntly. "They may superficially resemble each other, but they have many differences."
Bighead and silver carp, which both come from Asia, and the common carp, which is native to both Europe and Asia, are all classified as invasive species in this region; the bigmouth buffalo, on the other hand, are native to North America, have ties to Native American culture, have been a valued food-fish for centuries, and have been a protected species in Canada since the 1980s, Lackmann said.
In addition, he said, these buffalo fish compete directly against some of the worst invasive species found in Minnesota lakes and rivers, and their populations have been documented as declining in the northern extent of their native range — specifically, in Canada, North Dakota and Minnesota — since in the 1970s.
Lackmann is hoping that all this attention will raise awareness of the value of the Bigmouth Buffalo to the region, both ecologically and economically. Anyone who would like to find out more about this fish, or provide funds for further research, is welcome to contact either Lackmann (firstname.lastname@example.org) or any of the co-authors on the research paper referenced above. | <urn:uuid:87104bfc-966e-4843-9890-db99a2b37d6d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.perhamfocus.com/sports/outdoors/4711109-112-year-old-bigmouth-buffalo-discovered-in-Otter-Tail-County-lake | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00208.warc.gz | en | 0.982685 | 938 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.08137911558151... | 1 | DETROIT LAKES -- While he was in the process of completing his doctoral dissertation on the tundra pond ecology in High Arctic, Alaska, Alec Lackmann began a side project a little closer to his home in Detroit Lakes.
But what the North Dakota State University graduate student and his colleagues discovered in an Otter Tail County lake would shock researchers and make headlines from the Minneapolis Star Tribune to National Geographic.
As part of his research into previously overlooked species of fish, Lackmann came across a variety of freshwater fish native to Minnesota that is commonly known as the bigmouth buffalo.
"I became interested in researching this species out of curiosity," Lackmann said. "I am generally interested in ichthyology (i.e. the study of different fish species). I am naturally interested in bigmouth buffalo because they are such a mysterious species, with so little study regarding their general biology."
When they age tested some fish that had been taken from the waters of west-central Minnesota, Lackmann and his colleagues determined that five of them were more than 100 years old — including one 112-year-old female that came from Crystal Lake, near Pelican Rapids.
To determine the age of the fish, Lackmann and his fellow researchers took samples from their otoliths — ringed growths behind their brains, each with a different shape, that help the fish with hearing and balance.
"Otoliths are the only structures found in fish that never stop growing," Lackmann said. Similar to the way tree rings grow, a new ring layer forms on the otolith each year, which means they can be counted to determine the age of the fish.
"The most accurate way to age otolith-bearing fish species is to thin-section the otoliths," Lackmann said. Some fish species, like many sharks, do not have otoliths, he added.
What he and his fellow researchers found was that over 80% of the fish from the Pelican River Watershed had been around for 80 years or more. But as initially skeptical as the members of Lackmann's research team were regarding their findings, the reaction from the general public was even more so, as the species was previously considered to live a maximum of 26 years.
In collaboration with the University of Hawaii and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, they decided to test the validity of their findings with the well established science of bomb radiocarbon dating. The results confirmed their findings.
"The ages determined from the thin-sectioned otoliths were validated," Lackmann said.
The fish taken from Otter Tail County was verified to be 112 years old — which made it the oldest age-validated freshwater fish ever discovered.
So they took their findings and put together a research paper that was published in the nature research journal, "Communications Biology," in May of this year. That research paper caught the attention of news media.
Prior to Lackmann's study, the most thorough report that had been done was a paper published in 1963.
"A lot has changed in fisheries since that time," Lackmann said. "I also did not understand why this species is neglected as a 'rough fish,' and erroneously called 'carp' (or alternatively, 'buffalo carp') in so much of the U.S."
"They are not carp," he said bluntly. "They may superficially resemble each other, but they have many differences."
Bighead and silver carp, which both come from Asia, and the common carp, which is native to both Europe and Asia, are all classified as invasive species in this region; the bigmouth buffalo, on the other hand, are native to North America, have ties to Native American culture, have been a valued food-fish for centuries, and have been a protected species in Canada since the 1980s, Lackmann said.
In addition, he said, these buffalo fish compete directly against some of the worst invasive species found in Minnesota lakes and rivers, and their populations have been documented as declining in the northern extent of their native range — specifically, in Canada, North Dakota and Minnesota — since in the 1970s.
Lackmann is hoping that all this attention will raise awareness of the value of the Bigmouth Buffalo to the region, both ecologically and economically. Anyone who would like to find out more about this fish, or provide funds for further research, is welcome to contact either Lackmann (firstname.lastname@example.org) or any of the co-authors on the research paper referenced above. | 923 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The beginning of the estates dates back to the medieval ages as you could have read in the previous blog post. But when - and how - it all ended?
Orlík castle on a painting by Vilém Ströminger, 19th century.
There are two phases of the end of the estate system. The first part dates to the end of 18th century, to the times of the reforms made by the Emperor Joseph II. He issued an act to abolish some aspects of the serfdom in 1781. The act allowed the serfs to independently choose marriage partners, pursue career choices, and move between estates.
There was a huge but - the nobility in Bohemia didn't agree with the act and decided to not enact it. The serfs were given some amount of independence, but the estate authorities were still the nearest authority. Also the corveé (unpaid work) and tax system was still in place.
The second phase dates to the middle of the 19th century, during the reign of the Emperor Ferdinand I. He issued an act about the abolishment of the serfdom in September 1848, shortly before he resignated and Franz Joseph I. started to reign.
The act cancelled the difference between the dominical and rustical land (see previous post), all the land was released from the duties and the duties (both corveé and taxes) were cancelled. It also meant that a special committee had to set the fee for both the land and the duties - former serfs had to pay this fee to the estate owners as a compensation. They didn't have to pay it in one payment, but were allowed to spread the payment to 20 years.
The land which was owned and administered directly by the estate authorities still was the property of the estate owners, but they now had to pay for any work which was done on those land. As no corveé was in place anymore, people became regular employees of the estates. | <urn:uuid:0c5d742e-1fb9-4779-bccd-d25e874d7574> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://czechgenealogy.nase-koreny.cz/2019/12/estates-v-when-it-all-ended.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00129.warc.gz | en | 0.991385 | 403 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.397159844636... | 14 | The beginning of the estates dates back to the medieval ages as you could have read in the previous blog post. But when - and how - it all ended?
Orlík castle on a painting by Vilém Ströminger, 19th century.
There are two phases of the end of the estate system. The first part dates to the end of 18th century, to the times of the reforms made by the Emperor Joseph II. He issued an act to abolish some aspects of the serfdom in 1781. The act allowed the serfs to independently choose marriage partners, pursue career choices, and move between estates.
There was a huge but - the nobility in Bohemia didn't agree with the act and decided to not enact it. The serfs were given some amount of independence, but the estate authorities were still the nearest authority. Also the corveé (unpaid work) and tax system was still in place.
The second phase dates to the middle of the 19th century, during the reign of the Emperor Ferdinand I. He issued an act about the abolishment of the serfdom in September 1848, shortly before he resignated and Franz Joseph I. started to reign.
The act cancelled the difference between the dominical and rustical land (see previous post), all the land was released from the duties and the duties (both corveé and taxes) were cancelled. It also meant that a special committee had to set the fee for both the land and the duties - former serfs had to pay this fee to the estate owners as a compensation. They didn't have to pay it in one payment, but were allowed to spread the payment to 20 years.
The land which was owned and administered directly by the estate authorities still was the property of the estate owners, but they now had to pay for any work which was done on those land. As no corveé was in place anymore, people became regular employees of the estates. | 409 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The story and journey of the Black people in America’s history can never be told with a joyful face. There is always sorrow and sadness in the mix. The treatment of Black people in America after slavery can be said to be just as gruesome as the atrocities of slavery.
After slavery, Black people started to organize themselves into productive and prosperous communities. They built schools, owned businesses and even had a middle and sometimes upper class. This was a problem, as their white neighbors who were once masters of black slaves, found themselves in a competition of dominance with their former slaves.
This caused great resentment and envy among the white people, and oftentimes, this resentment led to confrontations and violence against the black community. Below are some of the successful Black communities that were burnt down and destroyed by White people:
After the American civil war had been fought and ended, former African enslaved people began venturing into politics, setting up their own business and getting recognition as a social class. This led to increased tensions between Black wage-workers and the white elites.
These tensions led to hate and ill-feelings from the whites, as the Blacks acquired more civil rights. This included the right to vote. It was hard for racist Americans who had killed and subjugated blacks for hundreds of years to accept that the blacks would have equal rights as they do. It seemed like their ‘world of hate’ was crashing on them.
In 1906, the gubernatorial election between M. Hoke Smith and Clark Howell brought the existing tensions to a boiling point. Both candidates were competing for Democratic nominations and were searching for ways to deprive African-America voters of voting.
Both men felt that the population of black voters could throw the election to the other candidate. Both men were influential in the press, and they used their positions in the Atlanta Journal and Atlanta Constitution respectively to incite white voters against Black people. They spread the fear that if whites allowed Blacks to vote, they may not be able to sustain the current social order which subjugated blacks.
To further reinforce the tensions, papers such as the Atlanta Georgian and Atlanta News started to publish stories on how white women were raped and molested by Black men. These allegations which were solely lies were reported multiple times by white people.
Atlanta Newspaper, on September 22, 1906, reported four alleged assaults on local white women. This caused outraged amongst the white people, and soon about 10,000 while men and boys gathered. They went into town beating, stabbing and killing Blacks. The estimated number of Blacks who died from that onslaught was around 40, but personal accounts by blacks put it at way above that number. In self-defense, only two white people were killed.
During World War I, a great number of Blacks migrated from the rural South to the cities of the North. This caused great tensions, and the tensions reached its peak in the “Red Summer” of 1919. The tensions led to violent racial abuse of Black people, which were also called riots, to remove the heinous nature and intents of the events.
During the war, the city’s railway companies, meatpacking houses and steel mills needed people to work in them. And since a good number of the white folks had gone to fight, the black people who moved down from the South occupied the job positions. The population of black people in Chicago rose from 44,000 in 1910 to 235,000 at about 1930. After the war ended in 1918, thousands of white servicemen came home to find their positions at their jobs occupied by the blacks.
These caused more tensions in the city. And on 27 July 1919, a young African-American boy was stoned and drowned by white youths in Lake Michigan. His offense was challenging the unofficial segregation of the beaches in Chicago.
After his death, the police refused to make arrests of those who killed him. That caused one week of race rioting between white and blacks in Chicago. But as usual Black neighborhoods were badly hit, since they had no law to protect them.
On the 13th of August, after the riots, 15 whites and 23 Blacks had died, with over 500 people injured. Among the damages done to the Black community was the loss of over 1,000 homes, that were burnt down by white rioters. Even the then-President Wilson blamed the white people for the riots calling them the “aggressor” in the riots and uprising.
Rosewood was a calm and progressive self-sufficient town in Florida. Just like some other African-American neighborhoods at the time in America. The population of Rosewood was mainly Blacks, with their people farming, worked for local businesses, which included a sawmill in a nearby town of Sumner, which was mainly a white town.
By 1920, the Black community of Rosewood boasted of a baseball team, a large Masonic Hall, a school, three churches, a turpentine mill, a sugarcane mill, and two general stores. One of the stores was owned by blacks while the other was owned by whites. The Rosewood community had a couple of homes, which ranged from two dozen plank two-story homes to other small houses.
Trouble came knocking when the white people falsely accused a black man of beating and raping a white woman in Sumner. White men matched out from other nearby towns and lynched a Black resident of Rosewood. The Black residents, been surrounded by a white mob, chose to defend themselves.
Several hundreds of white people attacked the black community and burnt down almost all the structures, businesses, and homes in Rosewood. Those who survived the onslaught hid in the nearby swamps for many days, before being evacuated by train and cars to other bigger towns. It was recorded that six black people were killed. The authorities and law enforcement knew about the violence, but no arrests were made. The Blacks left and never returned.
Washington DC, after the war, with about 75% white population was a very racial sensitive place to live in. There were low accommodation and jobs. But even with the tight economic situation, the black community thrived. Their community was then the largest and most prosperous in America at the time.
They had a remarkable upper class which consisted of ministers, lawyers, teachers, and businessmen, all living and working around the LeDroit Park neighborhood, near Howard University.
By the “Red Summer” the progress of the Black community brought so much envy from the unemployed white folk. The whites were not happy with the influx of Black people into neighborhoods that were previously segregated. Such neighborhoods were Capitol Hill, Foggy Bottom, and the old downtown.
As usual, a false report of a black man raping a white woman was spread, and in July of 1919, a large group of white men in military uniforms attacked the Black community and for four days there was violence in the town. The riot was intense and the white mob randomly beat black people and pulled them off streetcars. The riots and molesting of black people continued without police intervention, and so the Blacks decided to retaliate and defend themselves.
American troops had to move in to restore the peace – they did that by closing stores and theaters to discourage gatherings. After the violence ended, 10 whites and 5 Blacks died, including two police officers. Around 150 people were injured. It was recorded that this was the first time the white casualties outnumbered the blacks.
Just like others before it, the Knoxville riot was inspired by another rumor that a Black man murdered a white woman. A mob of about 5000 men stormed the county jail where the Black man was supposedly held. In the process. they released 16 white prisoners, with some of them being suspected murderers.
After the white mob looted the jail and the sheriff’s home, they attacked the businesses belonging to black people in the area.
The other race riots across America that summer had made the Black residents prepared. They armed themselves and put a barricade at the intersection of Vine and central to protect their community and businesses.
The chaos was out of hand, and two platoons from the Tennessee National Guard 4th Infantry tried to stop it, but it was not possible. The white mob could not be contained – they broke into gun stores and stole firearms, with which they marched towards the Black business area. When they arrived, they opened fire on the Black people, while the Black people returned fire in defense.
The gunshots also hit the Tennessee National Guards. The national Guards then pointed two machine guns and shot without caution into the neighborhood, and dispersed the rioters. Gunfire continued for a few more hours. Out-gunned by the white mob and National guard, the Black people who defended their businesses retreated.
After the entire incident, eyewitnesses said that a great number of dead people were buried in mass graves, and others dumped in the Tennessee River. But the Newspaper lied and said that only two people had died.
This was a four-day violent riot that happened during the civil war. It was caused because workers were not happy with the first federally mandated conscription laws.
The movement of the emancipated Black people from the deep South caused a swell in a number of people who were willing to the jobs of striking white people. Most of the black people were used as strike-breakers during that period.
This led to fears and hate from the white people, eventually resulted in the white mob turning their rage on black people. They were envious of black business, homes, and their growing political, social and economic power.
This led to an organized opposition protest on the 31st of July, 1863, all across New York. The protest went out of controlled and the white mob attacked the city’s elites and the Black residents.
The riot lasted for four days and was stopped by the police with the help of the 7th New York Regiment. There were varying estimates of people who died in the riots. It was reported by historians that around 115 people lost their lives, including over 12 Black men, who were tortured and beaten to death.
The rioters burnt down hundreds of buildings that were worth millions of dollars. Another 50 buildings belonging to black people were burnt to the ground, including the Colored Orphan Asylum, where more than 230 Black children lived.
There was a great influx of Black people into St. Louis in the spring of 1917. Every week, an average of 2000 Blacks came in, and a good number was employed at the Aluminum Ore Company and also the American Steel Company which was in East St. Louis.
The fear of losing their job positions and wage security caused many white people to resent the Black who was new in town. The tension was high. But the tensions reached its peak when rumors were carried that Black men and White women were socializing at labor meetings.
In May of that year, over 3,000 white men formed a mob and started to attack Black people and burn their buildings. The governor of Illinois got the National Guard to stop the rioting – this reduced the tensions for a few weeks.
White men, driving a car through a Black neighborhood, on July 1, opened fire into houses, stores, and a church. The Black people organized resistance to defend themselves, and in the process shot two police officers who were driving by in the same type of car.
The killing of the white detectives angered the white people and they formed a mob that spent two days hunting down black people and destroying their properties. The National Guard was sent in again, but this time, they joined the white mob in killing Black people.
There were various reports of the casualties by various news agencies and papers. But it estimated that over 200 Black people lost their lives, while 6,000 of the Black people of East St. Louis were left homeless after their houses were burnt.
Made of solid Aswan gold and weighing more than 100 tons, with precision engineering that rivals modern tolerance levels, the…
It might sound incredible but the fact remains that Sudan is home to more pyramids than the famed Egyptian pyramids…
In a ground-breaking archaeological finding, scientists working on the Woranso-Mille Paleoanthropological Research Project study in the Afar Regional State of…
Evidence recently uncovered, has pointed to the possibility that black Africans were likely the first humans to engage in mining…
Considered one of the oldest civilizations in the African continent, the Nok Culture spanned the demise of the Neolithic (Stone…
The Mau Mau rebellion is one among many resistances put up by various African peoples to kick out the Europeans… | <urn:uuid:337d68bd-2986-4726-8be3-d83044f9226c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://libertywritersafrica.com/how-successful-black-communities-were-burnt-down-by-whites-in-u-s-through-riots/amp/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00288.warc.gz | en | 0.985235 | 2,567 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.2122374176979... | 1 | The story and journey of the Black people in America’s history can never be told with a joyful face. There is always sorrow and sadness in the mix. The treatment of Black people in America after slavery can be said to be just as gruesome as the atrocities of slavery.
After slavery, Black people started to organize themselves into productive and prosperous communities. They built schools, owned businesses and even had a middle and sometimes upper class. This was a problem, as their white neighbors who were once masters of black slaves, found themselves in a competition of dominance with their former slaves.
This caused great resentment and envy among the white people, and oftentimes, this resentment led to confrontations and violence against the black community. Below are some of the successful Black communities that were burnt down and destroyed by White people:
After the American civil war had been fought and ended, former African enslaved people began venturing into politics, setting up their own business and getting recognition as a social class. This led to increased tensions between Black wage-workers and the white elites.
These tensions led to hate and ill-feelings from the whites, as the Blacks acquired more civil rights. This included the right to vote. It was hard for racist Americans who had killed and subjugated blacks for hundreds of years to accept that the blacks would have equal rights as they do. It seemed like their ‘world of hate’ was crashing on them.
In 1906, the gubernatorial election between M. Hoke Smith and Clark Howell brought the existing tensions to a boiling point. Both candidates were competing for Democratic nominations and were searching for ways to deprive African-America voters of voting.
Both men felt that the population of black voters could throw the election to the other candidate. Both men were influential in the press, and they used their positions in the Atlanta Journal and Atlanta Constitution respectively to incite white voters against Black people. They spread the fear that if whites allowed Blacks to vote, they may not be able to sustain the current social order which subjugated blacks.
To further reinforce the tensions, papers such as the Atlanta Georgian and Atlanta News started to publish stories on how white women were raped and molested by Black men. These allegations which were solely lies were reported multiple times by white people.
Atlanta Newspaper, on September 22, 1906, reported four alleged assaults on local white women. This caused outraged amongst the white people, and soon about 10,000 while men and boys gathered. They went into town beating, stabbing and killing Blacks. The estimated number of Blacks who died from that onslaught was around 40, but personal accounts by blacks put it at way above that number. In self-defense, only two white people were killed.
During World War I, a great number of Blacks migrated from the rural South to the cities of the North. This caused great tensions, and the tensions reached its peak in the “Red Summer” of 1919. The tensions led to violent racial abuse of Black people, which were also called riots, to remove the heinous nature and intents of the events.
During the war, the city’s railway companies, meatpacking houses and steel mills needed people to work in them. And since a good number of the white folks had gone to fight, the black people who moved down from the South occupied the job positions. The population of black people in Chicago rose from 44,000 in 1910 to 235,000 at about 1930. After the war ended in 1918, thousands of white servicemen came home to find their positions at their jobs occupied by the blacks.
These caused more tensions in the city. And on 27 July 1919, a young African-American boy was stoned and drowned by white youths in Lake Michigan. His offense was challenging the unofficial segregation of the beaches in Chicago.
After his death, the police refused to make arrests of those who killed him. That caused one week of race rioting between white and blacks in Chicago. But as usual Black neighborhoods were badly hit, since they had no law to protect them.
On the 13th of August, after the riots, 15 whites and 23 Blacks had died, with over 500 people injured. Among the damages done to the Black community was the loss of over 1,000 homes, that were burnt down by white rioters. Even the then-President Wilson blamed the white people for the riots calling them the “aggressor” in the riots and uprising.
Rosewood was a calm and progressive self-sufficient town in Florida. Just like some other African-American neighborhoods at the time in America. The population of Rosewood was mainly Blacks, with their people farming, worked for local businesses, which included a sawmill in a nearby town of Sumner, which was mainly a white town.
By 1920, the Black community of Rosewood boasted of a baseball team, a large Masonic Hall, a school, three churches, a turpentine mill, a sugarcane mill, and two general stores. One of the stores was owned by blacks while the other was owned by whites. The Rosewood community had a couple of homes, which ranged from two dozen plank two-story homes to other small houses.
Trouble came knocking when the white people falsely accused a black man of beating and raping a white woman in Sumner. White men matched out from other nearby towns and lynched a Black resident of Rosewood. The Black residents, been surrounded by a white mob, chose to defend themselves.
Several hundreds of white people attacked the black community and burnt down almost all the structures, businesses, and homes in Rosewood. Those who survived the onslaught hid in the nearby swamps for many days, before being evacuated by train and cars to other bigger towns. It was recorded that six black people were killed. The authorities and law enforcement knew about the violence, but no arrests were made. The Blacks left and never returned.
Washington DC, after the war, with about 75% white population was a very racial sensitive place to live in. There were low accommodation and jobs. But even with the tight economic situation, the black community thrived. Their community was then the largest and most prosperous in America at the time.
They had a remarkable upper class which consisted of ministers, lawyers, teachers, and businessmen, all living and working around the LeDroit Park neighborhood, near Howard University.
By the “Red Summer” the progress of the Black community brought so much envy from the unemployed white folk. The whites were not happy with the influx of Black people into neighborhoods that were previously segregated. Such neighborhoods were Capitol Hill, Foggy Bottom, and the old downtown.
As usual, a false report of a black man raping a white woman was spread, and in July of 1919, a large group of white men in military uniforms attacked the Black community and for four days there was violence in the town. The riot was intense and the white mob randomly beat black people and pulled them off streetcars. The riots and molesting of black people continued without police intervention, and so the Blacks decided to retaliate and defend themselves.
American troops had to move in to restore the peace – they did that by closing stores and theaters to discourage gatherings. After the violence ended, 10 whites and 5 Blacks died, including two police officers. Around 150 people were injured. It was recorded that this was the first time the white casualties outnumbered the blacks.
Just like others before it, the Knoxville riot was inspired by another rumor that a Black man murdered a white woman. A mob of about 5000 men stormed the county jail where the Black man was supposedly held. In the process. they released 16 white prisoners, with some of them being suspected murderers.
After the white mob looted the jail and the sheriff’s home, they attacked the businesses belonging to black people in the area.
The other race riots across America that summer had made the Black residents prepared. They armed themselves and put a barricade at the intersection of Vine and central to protect their community and businesses.
The chaos was out of hand, and two platoons from the Tennessee National Guard 4th Infantry tried to stop it, but it was not possible. The white mob could not be contained – they broke into gun stores and stole firearms, with which they marched towards the Black business area. When they arrived, they opened fire on the Black people, while the Black people returned fire in defense.
The gunshots also hit the Tennessee National Guards. The national Guards then pointed two machine guns and shot without caution into the neighborhood, and dispersed the rioters. Gunfire continued for a few more hours. Out-gunned by the white mob and National guard, the Black people who defended their businesses retreated.
After the entire incident, eyewitnesses said that a great number of dead people were buried in mass graves, and others dumped in the Tennessee River. But the Newspaper lied and said that only two people had died.
This was a four-day violent riot that happened during the civil war. It was caused because workers were not happy with the first federally mandated conscription laws.
The movement of the emancipated Black people from the deep South caused a swell in a number of people who were willing to the jobs of striking white people. Most of the black people were used as strike-breakers during that period.
This led to fears and hate from the white people, eventually resulted in the white mob turning their rage on black people. They were envious of black business, homes, and their growing political, social and economic power.
This led to an organized opposition protest on the 31st of July, 1863, all across New York. The protest went out of controlled and the white mob attacked the city’s elites and the Black residents.
The riot lasted for four days and was stopped by the police with the help of the 7th New York Regiment. There were varying estimates of people who died in the riots. It was reported by historians that around 115 people lost their lives, including over 12 Black men, who were tortured and beaten to death.
The rioters burnt down hundreds of buildings that were worth millions of dollars. Another 50 buildings belonging to black people were burnt to the ground, including the Colored Orphan Asylum, where more than 230 Black children lived.
There was a great influx of Black people into St. Louis in the spring of 1917. Every week, an average of 2000 Blacks came in, and a good number was employed at the Aluminum Ore Company and also the American Steel Company which was in East St. Louis.
The fear of losing their job positions and wage security caused many white people to resent the Black who was new in town. The tension was high. But the tensions reached its peak when rumors were carried that Black men and White women were socializing at labor meetings.
In May of that year, over 3,000 white men formed a mob and started to attack Black people and burn their buildings. The governor of Illinois got the National Guard to stop the rioting – this reduced the tensions for a few weeks.
White men, driving a car through a Black neighborhood, on July 1, opened fire into houses, stores, and a church. The Black people organized resistance to defend themselves, and in the process shot two police officers who were driving by in the same type of car.
The killing of the white detectives angered the white people and they formed a mob that spent two days hunting down black people and destroying their properties. The National Guard was sent in again, but this time, they joined the white mob in killing Black people.
There were various reports of the casualties by various news agencies and papers. But it estimated that over 200 Black people lost their lives, while 6,000 of the Black people of East St. Louis were left homeless after their houses were burnt.
Made of solid Aswan gold and weighing more than 100 tons, with precision engineering that rivals modern tolerance levels, the…
It might sound incredible but the fact remains that Sudan is home to more pyramids than the famed Egyptian pyramids…
In a ground-breaking archaeological finding, scientists working on the Woranso-Mille Paleoanthropological Research Project study in the Afar Regional State of…
Evidence recently uncovered, has pointed to the possibility that black Africans were likely the first humans to engage in mining…
Considered one of the oldest civilizations in the African continent, the Nok Culture spanned the demise of the Neolithic (Stone…
The Mau Mau rebellion is one among many resistances put up by various African peoples to kick out the Europeans… | 2,625 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Valley of the Queens is a place in Egypt where wives of Pharaohs were buried in ancient times. In ancient times, it was known as Ta-Set-Neferu, meaning –‘the place of the Children of the Pharaoh’, because along with the Queens of the 18th, 19th and 20th dynasties (1550–1070 BCE) many princes and princesses were also buried with various members of the nobility. The tombs of these individuals were maintained by mortuary priests who performed daily rituals and provided offerings and prayers for the deceased nobility.
The valley is located near the better known Valley of the Kings, on the west bank of the Nile across from Thebes (modern Luxor). This barren area in the western hills was chosen due to its relative isolation and proximity to the capital. The kings of the 18th dynasty, instead of the traditional building of pyramids as burial chambers (perhaps because of their vulnerability to tomb robbers), now chose to be buried in rock-cut tombs.
This necropolis is said to hold more than seventy tombs, many of which are stylish and lavishly decorated. An example of this is the resting place carved out of the rock for Queen Nefertari (1290–1224 BCE) of the 19th Dynasty. The polychrome reliefs in her tomb are still intact. | <urn:uuid:2d27f3ea-6b5f-4b8e-a7ed-8b1966e39aee> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.egitalloyd.com/valley-of-the-queens | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00428.warc.gz | en | 0.981983 | 279 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.3908665776252... | 5 | The Valley of the Queens is a place in Egypt where wives of Pharaohs were buried in ancient times. In ancient times, it was known as Ta-Set-Neferu, meaning –‘the place of the Children of the Pharaoh’, because along with the Queens of the 18th, 19th and 20th dynasties (1550–1070 BCE) many princes and princesses were also buried with various members of the nobility. The tombs of these individuals were maintained by mortuary priests who performed daily rituals and provided offerings and prayers for the deceased nobility.
The valley is located near the better known Valley of the Kings, on the west bank of the Nile across from Thebes (modern Luxor). This barren area in the western hills was chosen due to its relative isolation and proximity to the capital. The kings of the 18th dynasty, instead of the traditional building of pyramids as burial chambers (perhaps because of their vulnerability to tomb robbers), now chose to be buried in rock-cut tombs.
This necropolis is said to hold more than seventy tombs, many of which are stylish and lavishly decorated. An example of this is the resting place carved out of the rock for Queen Nefertari (1290–1224 BCE) of the 19th Dynasty. The polychrome reliefs in her tomb are still intact. | 297 | ENGLISH | 1 |
2.1 from Laws of Hammurabi
The document that I chose to write about was the laws of King Hammurabi. Let’s start with a little history and background on King Hammurabi. Hammurabi is a very famous king, who is the first ruler of the Babylonian empire, and he holds the distinction of restoring order and justice to Mesopotamia. He is widely famous for writing the 282 laws to govern family, criminal punishment, ethics, civil law, trade, and all other aspect of ancient life. However, Hammurabi called it “The code of Hammurabi” and placed it strategically where everybody could read the laws. The laws that were set by King Hammurabi were sometimes simple but very complicated. These laws were set for people who were ignorant, disrespectful, and those who committed crimes. Now, some laws you might not agree with or understand but for the most part they were self-explanatory. For example one of his laws state that “If a man's wife, who lives in his house, wishes to leave it, plunges into debt, tries to ruin her house, neglects her husband, and is judicially convicted: if her husband offer her release, she may go on her way, and he gives her nothing as a gift of release. If her husband does not wish to release her, and if he takes another wife, she shall remain as servant in her husband's house.” This law is simple because it’s stating that if the husband announces their divorce she may be sent to the dungeon (jail). If the husband doesn’t announce the divorce he shall have another and the ex-wife is their servant. However, in today’s time we have similar situations. If a man and woman want to divorce they must do it legally and more times than not the property and other assets will be split between him and his ex-wife. Neither the husband nor the wife would be allowed to remarry legally until the divorce is finalized. As we have seen, the main ideas behind the code were 1.) By writing them in stone it became immutable, and 2.) By posting the codes out in the open for everybody to see there would be no excuse for ignorance or violence. The one theme that stuck to me was the idea of “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth” (page 5). This statement made Hammurabi meant that punishment should be similar to the crime committed. As we've learned, physical mutilation was one common option for punishment whether that meant a child's hands or a woman's breasts cut off. Death was another punishment. The code explicitly mentions about 28 crimes that warrant death, including robbery, adultery and casting spells of witchcraft Punishments often depended on the social status of the perpetrator.
In my analysis you will see that my… | <urn:uuid:cdd7476e-b817-4914-895e-4a670774fdbe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Handbook-For-William-523722.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00196.warc.gz | en | 0.983599 | 591 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.1549305021762848... | 1 | 2.1 from Laws of Hammurabi
The document that I chose to write about was the laws of King Hammurabi. Let’s start with a little history and background on King Hammurabi. Hammurabi is a very famous king, who is the first ruler of the Babylonian empire, and he holds the distinction of restoring order and justice to Mesopotamia. He is widely famous for writing the 282 laws to govern family, criminal punishment, ethics, civil law, trade, and all other aspect of ancient life. However, Hammurabi called it “The code of Hammurabi” and placed it strategically where everybody could read the laws. The laws that were set by King Hammurabi were sometimes simple but very complicated. These laws were set for people who were ignorant, disrespectful, and those who committed crimes. Now, some laws you might not agree with or understand but for the most part they were self-explanatory. For example one of his laws state that “If a man's wife, who lives in his house, wishes to leave it, plunges into debt, tries to ruin her house, neglects her husband, and is judicially convicted: if her husband offer her release, she may go on her way, and he gives her nothing as a gift of release. If her husband does not wish to release her, and if he takes another wife, she shall remain as servant in her husband's house.” This law is simple because it’s stating that if the husband announces their divorce she may be sent to the dungeon (jail). If the husband doesn’t announce the divorce he shall have another and the ex-wife is their servant. However, in today’s time we have similar situations. If a man and woman want to divorce they must do it legally and more times than not the property and other assets will be split between him and his ex-wife. Neither the husband nor the wife would be allowed to remarry legally until the divorce is finalized. As we have seen, the main ideas behind the code were 1.) By writing them in stone it became immutable, and 2.) By posting the codes out in the open for everybody to see there would be no excuse for ignorance or violence. The one theme that stuck to me was the idea of “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth” (page 5). This statement made Hammurabi meant that punishment should be similar to the crime committed. As we've learned, physical mutilation was one common option for punishment whether that meant a child's hands or a woman's breasts cut off. Death was another punishment. The code explicitly mentions about 28 crimes that warrant death, including robbery, adultery and casting spells of witchcraft Punishments often depended on the social status of the perpetrator.
In my analysis you will see that my… | 580 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This liturgical feast has been celebrated since early times. In the 4th century, two churches in Jerusalem were dedicated to the cross on this day and the occasion was commemorated annually. Adopted by the Church in Rome during the 7th century, the feast commemorates both the dedication of the original Church of the Holy Sepulcher in 335 and Christ’s victory over death.
A leader of the Catholic Reformation, Francis was born in France in 1567. His family insisted he study law rather than enter the seminary. After obtaining doctorates in both canon and civil law by the age of 24, Francis chose religious life instead. His family eventually became reconciled to his choice and he was ordained in 1593.
Appointed bishop of Geneva in 1602, Francis ...
Appointed bishop of Geneva in 1602, Francis reorganized the diocese, reformed religious education, established a seminary and founded schools. He lived a life of austerity and simplicity, sharing with the poor. Wise and intelligent, he emphasized both the loving kindness of God and the human capacity for love.
Francis was beatified the year he died, 1622 – the first formal beatification to take place in St. Peter’s – and canonized in 1665. He is the patron saint of writers and journalists, and of the deaf.
The conversion of Paul was a turning point in the history of the early Church. Saul, as Paul was first known, was a tentmaker from Tarsus who zealously persecuted the followers of Christ. While traveling on the road to Damascus, he was struck down amidst a blinding light from heaven. According to the account in Acts of the Apostles (9.1-22; 22.3...More
Paul’s zeal for the risen Jesus led him to become a passionate follower and later a teacher of the nations. The letters, or epistles, of Paul offer us a window into the early Church.
According to Mosaic Law, a new mother was considered unclean for 40 days after she had given birth. At the end of that period, she would enter the temple with her child, bringing an offering of either a lamb and a dove or pigeon, or two doves or pigeons, to be cleansed by prayers. Today’s feast commemorates Mary’...More
The observance of this feast began in 4th-century Jerusalem, and was celebrated in Rome by the 5th-century. It is a feast of both Our Lord and the Blessed Virgin. In the Eastern Church, it was called The Meeting of Jesus and Mary with Simeon and Anna, representatives of the Old Covenant.
In the Middle Ages, a tradition began of blessing candles and holding a procession of light on this day. As a result, this feast is also known as Candlemas: Christ our light has come to us. | <urn:uuid:11d8345f-c015-4517-b822-63c88d8d679e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.stfrancisdesales.ca/news/exaltation-of-the-holy-cross/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00410.warc.gz | en | 0.982299 | 588 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.075520873... | 1 | This liturgical feast has been celebrated since early times. In the 4th century, two churches in Jerusalem were dedicated to the cross on this day and the occasion was commemorated annually. Adopted by the Church in Rome during the 7th century, the feast commemorates both the dedication of the original Church of the Holy Sepulcher in 335 and Christ’s victory over death.
A leader of the Catholic Reformation, Francis was born in France in 1567. His family insisted he study law rather than enter the seminary. After obtaining doctorates in both canon and civil law by the age of 24, Francis chose religious life instead. His family eventually became reconciled to his choice and he was ordained in 1593.
Appointed bishop of Geneva in 1602, Francis ...
Appointed bishop of Geneva in 1602, Francis reorganized the diocese, reformed religious education, established a seminary and founded schools. He lived a life of austerity and simplicity, sharing with the poor. Wise and intelligent, he emphasized both the loving kindness of God and the human capacity for love.
Francis was beatified the year he died, 1622 – the first formal beatification to take place in St. Peter’s – and canonized in 1665. He is the patron saint of writers and journalists, and of the deaf.
The conversion of Paul was a turning point in the history of the early Church. Saul, as Paul was first known, was a tentmaker from Tarsus who zealously persecuted the followers of Christ. While traveling on the road to Damascus, he was struck down amidst a blinding light from heaven. According to the account in Acts of the Apostles (9.1-22; 22.3...More
Paul’s zeal for the risen Jesus led him to become a passionate follower and later a teacher of the nations. The letters, or epistles, of Paul offer us a window into the early Church.
According to Mosaic Law, a new mother was considered unclean for 40 days after she had given birth. At the end of that period, she would enter the temple with her child, bringing an offering of either a lamb and a dove or pigeon, or two doves or pigeons, to be cleansed by prayers. Today’s feast commemorates Mary’...More
The observance of this feast began in 4th-century Jerusalem, and was celebrated in Rome by the 5th-century. It is a feast of both Our Lord and the Blessed Virgin. In the Eastern Church, it was called The Meeting of Jesus and Mary with Simeon and Anna, representatives of the Old Covenant.
In the Middle Ages, a tradition began of blessing candles and holding a procession of light on this day. As a result, this feast is also known as Candlemas: Christ our light has come to us. | 605 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“The Reubenites, the Gadites, and the half-tribe of Manasseh had valiant men, who carried shield and sword and drew the bow. As experts in war, forty-four thousand seven hundred and sixty men were ready for service. They made war upon the Hagrites, Jetur, Naphish, and Nodab. When they received help against them, the Hagrites and all who were with them were given into their hands. They cried to God in the battle. He granted their entreaty because they trusted in him. They captured their livestock, fifty thousand of their camels, two hundred and fifty thousand sheep, two thousand donkeys, and a hundred thousand captives alive. Many fell slain, because the war was of God. They lived in their territory until the exile.”
These Transjordan people were great warriors with a standing army of about 44,760 armed men with shields, swords, bows and arrows. The exact number is a little strange. The 3 groups were the Reubenites, the Gadites, and the half-tribe of Manasseh. They prayed to God and God heard their cry. They defeated the Hagrites, Jetur, Naphish, and Nodab. The Reubenites had also defeated the Hagrites, an Arab tribe, supposedly the descendants, of Ishmael, based on his mother’s name Hagar, Sarah’s slave. Jetur and Naphish were the sons of Ishmael also. Nodab is only mentioned here but he may have been connected to the Ishmael clan in some way. They really seem to be against the descendents of Ishmael. They captured their land, their livestock with 50,000 camels, 250,000 sheep, and 2,000 donkeys. They also captured about 100,000 men. Once again, we have some amazing numbers. It is not clear what they did with these 100,000 captives. Of course, all this lasted until the 8th century BCE exile. | <urn:uuid:0839e929-dda5-447e-aee1-981aa3864fb8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://efinne1540.wordpress.com/tag/naphish/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00181.warc.gz | en | 0.988338 | 423 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.175468921661... | 11 | “The Reubenites, the Gadites, and the half-tribe of Manasseh had valiant men, who carried shield and sword and drew the bow. As experts in war, forty-four thousand seven hundred and sixty men were ready for service. They made war upon the Hagrites, Jetur, Naphish, and Nodab. When they received help against them, the Hagrites and all who were with them were given into their hands. They cried to God in the battle. He granted their entreaty because they trusted in him. They captured their livestock, fifty thousand of their camels, two hundred and fifty thousand sheep, two thousand donkeys, and a hundred thousand captives alive. Many fell slain, because the war was of God. They lived in their territory until the exile.”
These Transjordan people were great warriors with a standing army of about 44,760 armed men with shields, swords, bows and arrows. The exact number is a little strange. The 3 groups were the Reubenites, the Gadites, and the half-tribe of Manasseh. They prayed to God and God heard their cry. They defeated the Hagrites, Jetur, Naphish, and Nodab. The Reubenites had also defeated the Hagrites, an Arab tribe, supposedly the descendants, of Ishmael, based on his mother’s name Hagar, Sarah’s slave. Jetur and Naphish were the sons of Ishmael also. Nodab is only mentioned here but he may have been connected to the Ishmael clan in some way. They really seem to be against the descendents of Ishmael. They captured their land, their livestock with 50,000 camels, 250,000 sheep, and 2,000 donkeys. They also captured about 100,000 men. Once again, we have some amazing numbers. It is not clear what they did with these 100,000 captives. Of course, all this lasted until the 8th century BCE exile. | 444 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Julianne MarchandJanuary 8, 2018Summary of PresentationMid-Term Exam Leonardo da Vinci was arguably one of the most famous artists of all time. Leonardo was born in Vinci Italy on April 15, 1452. He was the son of Piero da Vinci, and was raised by him. He showed artistic talent at a young age. When Leonardo was 15 years old, he left home to go to Florence. He was then apprenticed to Andrea del Verrocchio, who was an artist at the time. She taught and trained him for three years. He was intelligent and learned quickly. Soon after he was considered a master painter and became Verrocchio’s assistant. Leonardo painted in churches around Italy. One of his very first famous paintings was “Baptism of Christ”. He did this with Varricchio. Since Leonardo was told to paint specific features within the painting, its noticeable to what Leonardo painted and what Varricchio painted since they had different painting styles. He became very famous for his paintings throughout the years. Leonardo was also interested in the study of anatomy and science. He thought it was important to “knowing how to see”. When he painted he would say, “The former is easy, the latter hard, for it must be expressed by gestures and the movement of the limbs.”(“Leonardo Da Vinci.” Biography.com, A Networks Television, 27 Dec. 2017,)What he means by this is when he painted in specific ways, his body image would help him paint. This is why he became interested in the body and anatomy. He studied anatomy and would dissect animals and humans in the 1480’s. He also became fascinated with the structures in the human body, such as bone, muscular, and also created drawings of fetus in utero. Lastly he created drawings of the heart and vascular system sex organs. These drawings are some of the first to be on record in history. Leonardo began painting one of the most famous paintings in 1500, the Mona Lisa. He started to paint her in 1500 but abandoned it over 4 years. He began painting it in Florence. The reason this painting is recognizable it because of the way Leonardo painted it, which is different than the traditional paintings during that time. The painting displays a woman. You see her face and her shoulders all the way down to her hands crossed on her lap, which was not the traditional way to paint. She has a veil on her head, and what appears to be a dress on. Her face is mostly serious but the most noticeable feature that grabs most people’s attention is her smile. There are dozens of theories behind her smile as well as many articles and books on the painting itself. Researchers from The Atlantic wrote an article on “How Leonardo da Vinci Engineered the most Famous Painting” said,”While painting her portrait, he employed people to play and sing for her, and jesters to keep her merry, to put an end to the melancholy that painters often succeed in giving to their portraits.” The result, Vasari said, was “a smile so pleasing that it was more divine than human,” and he proclaimed that it was a product of superhuman skills that came directly from God.”(Isaacson, Walter. “The Science Behind Mona Lisa’s Smile.” The Atlantic, Atlantic Media Company, 10 Oct. 2017 )This paragraph summarizes that he wanted her to look happy. He wanted it to be pleasing and many researchers believed he wanted to leave it a mystery. Most people ask the question, “what is she thinking?”. Although there are many different theories and studies, it’s possible that no one will really ever know the truth behind it. The woman is Lisa Gherardini, who was the wife of Francesco del Giocondo. The Mona Lisa today holds the Guinness World record for “highest known insurance valuation in history”, which in 2017, was at $800 million. It is located in Paris, at Musee du Louvre. The painting is protected behind bullet proof glass, and also under an LED lamp, to help preserve the oil painting. Leonardo lived in France until his final days. He died on May 2, 1519, at Clos Luce. His cause of death was a stroke, and died in the arms of Francis I, the king. Leonardo was buried in France, at the Chapel of Saint-Hubert in Chateau d’Amboise. It’s safe to say Leonardo went down in history as the most well known painter of all time, and while his paintings were fascinating, his discoveries helped advanced science into what it is today. | <urn:uuid:c3094226-0862-487b-b686-caef004c91f6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://firstnightdanbury.org/julianne-had-different-painting-styles-he-became/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00345.warc.gz | en | 0.991462 | 982 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.57591390609741... | 1 | Julianne MarchandJanuary 8, 2018Summary of PresentationMid-Term Exam Leonardo da Vinci was arguably one of the most famous artists of all time. Leonardo was born in Vinci Italy on April 15, 1452. He was the son of Piero da Vinci, and was raised by him. He showed artistic talent at a young age. When Leonardo was 15 years old, he left home to go to Florence. He was then apprenticed to Andrea del Verrocchio, who was an artist at the time. She taught and trained him for three years. He was intelligent and learned quickly. Soon after he was considered a master painter and became Verrocchio’s assistant. Leonardo painted in churches around Italy. One of his very first famous paintings was “Baptism of Christ”. He did this with Varricchio. Since Leonardo was told to paint specific features within the painting, its noticeable to what Leonardo painted and what Varricchio painted since they had different painting styles. He became very famous for his paintings throughout the years. Leonardo was also interested in the study of anatomy and science. He thought it was important to “knowing how to see”. When he painted he would say, “The former is easy, the latter hard, for it must be expressed by gestures and the movement of the limbs.”(“Leonardo Da Vinci.” Biography.com, A Networks Television, 27 Dec. 2017,)What he means by this is when he painted in specific ways, his body image would help him paint. This is why he became interested in the body and anatomy. He studied anatomy and would dissect animals and humans in the 1480’s. He also became fascinated with the structures in the human body, such as bone, muscular, and also created drawings of fetus in utero. Lastly he created drawings of the heart and vascular system sex organs. These drawings are some of the first to be on record in history. Leonardo began painting one of the most famous paintings in 1500, the Mona Lisa. He started to paint her in 1500 but abandoned it over 4 years. He began painting it in Florence. The reason this painting is recognizable it because of the way Leonardo painted it, which is different than the traditional paintings during that time. The painting displays a woman. You see her face and her shoulders all the way down to her hands crossed on her lap, which was not the traditional way to paint. She has a veil on her head, and what appears to be a dress on. Her face is mostly serious but the most noticeable feature that grabs most people’s attention is her smile. There are dozens of theories behind her smile as well as many articles and books on the painting itself. Researchers from The Atlantic wrote an article on “How Leonardo da Vinci Engineered the most Famous Painting” said,”While painting her portrait, he employed people to play and sing for her, and jesters to keep her merry, to put an end to the melancholy that painters often succeed in giving to their portraits.” The result, Vasari said, was “a smile so pleasing that it was more divine than human,” and he proclaimed that it was a product of superhuman skills that came directly from God.”(Isaacson, Walter. “The Science Behind Mona Lisa’s Smile.” The Atlantic, Atlantic Media Company, 10 Oct. 2017 )This paragraph summarizes that he wanted her to look happy. He wanted it to be pleasing and many researchers believed he wanted to leave it a mystery. Most people ask the question, “what is she thinking?”. Although there are many different theories and studies, it’s possible that no one will really ever know the truth behind it. The woman is Lisa Gherardini, who was the wife of Francesco del Giocondo. The Mona Lisa today holds the Guinness World record for “highest known insurance valuation in history”, which in 2017, was at $800 million. It is located in Paris, at Musee du Louvre. The painting is protected behind bullet proof glass, and also under an LED lamp, to help preserve the oil painting. Leonardo lived in France until his final days. He died on May 2, 1519, at Clos Luce. His cause of death was a stroke, and died in the arms of Francis I, the king. Leonardo was buried in France, at the Chapel of Saint-Hubert in Chateau d’Amboise. It’s safe to say Leonardo went down in history as the most well known painter of all time, and while his paintings were fascinating, his discoveries helped advanced science into what it is today. | 972 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Researchers at Tulane University in New Orleans studied 385,292 participants who were genetically susceptible to cardiovascular problems at various levels: high, intermediate, and low. Participants were scored between 1 to 5 based on their sleep patterns, with 1 being the worst quality sleep and 5 being the healthiest. Someone with a score of 5 meant that they got 8 hours of quality sleep every night, without insomnia.
The study found that quality sleepers were at less risk of developing cardiovascular problems and that those with unhealthy sleep routines were at higher risks.
Those with a score of 5 had a 34 percent less risk of both heart disease and stroke, compared to those who scored between 0 and 1.
Meanwhile, participants with a low sleep score and high genetic risk were more than 2.5 times more likely to develop heart disease. They were also 1.5 times more likely to suffer a stroke.
“Among people with a healthy sleep score of 5, there were nearly seven fewer cases of cardiovascular disease per 1000 people per year compared to those with a sleep score of less than 5,” said research leader and professor Lu Qi.
The study also found that people who get eight hours of sleep is related to a reduced risk of heart disease and stroke, despite their high genetic susceptibility. The genetical variation researchers analyzed in the participants are called single nucleotide polymorphisms or SNPs.
During the study, which was conducted over a period of eight and a half years, there were 7,280 cases of cardiovascular disease, 4,667 cases of heart disease, and 2,650 strokes among participants. Those with the greatest protection had the lowest genetic risk and best sleeping patterns.
“We found that a high genetic risk could be partly offset by a healthy sleep pattern,” said Qi. “We wanted to test whether the relation between sleep scores and cardiovascular outcomes was different according to the genetic risk.”
“We also wanted to estimate the proportion of cardiovascular problems that would not have occurred if all participants had a healthy sleep pattern, if we assume there is a causal relationship.”
“In addition, we found that people with low genetic risk could lose this inherent protection if they had a poor sleep pattern.” | <urn:uuid:def9701b-d858-4a4a-a93c-11343f06119f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ntd.com/good-sleep-patterns-can-offset-heart-disease-or-stroke-despite-genetic-susceptibility_414498.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00101.warc.gz | en | 0.981075 | 455 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.199502259492... | 2 | Researchers at Tulane University in New Orleans studied 385,292 participants who were genetically susceptible to cardiovascular problems at various levels: high, intermediate, and low. Participants were scored between 1 to 5 based on their sleep patterns, with 1 being the worst quality sleep and 5 being the healthiest. Someone with a score of 5 meant that they got 8 hours of quality sleep every night, without insomnia.
The study found that quality sleepers were at less risk of developing cardiovascular problems and that those with unhealthy sleep routines were at higher risks.
Those with a score of 5 had a 34 percent less risk of both heart disease and stroke, compared to those who scored between 0 and 1.
Meanwhile, participants with a low sleep score and high genetic risk were more than 2.5 times more likely to develop heart disease. They were also 1.5 times more likely to suffer a stroke.
“Among people with a healthy sleep score of 5, there were nearly seven fewer cases of cardiovascular disease per 1000 people per year compared to those with a sleep score of less than 5,” said research leader and professor Lu Qi.
The study also found that people who get eight hours of sleep is related to a reduced risk of heart disease and stroke, despite their high genetic susceptibility. The genetical variation researchers analyzed in the participants are called single nucleotide polymorphisms or SNPs.
During the study, which was conducted over a period of eight and a half years, there were 7,280 cases of cardiovascular disease, 4,667 cases of heart disease, and 2,650 strokes among participants. Those with the greatest protection had the lowest genetic risk and best sleeping patterns.
“We found that a high genetic risk could be partly offset by a healthy sleep pattern,” said Qi. “We wanted to test whether the relation between sleep scores and cardiovascular outcomes was different according to the genetic risk.”
“We also wanted to estimate the proportion of cardiovascular problems that would not have occurred if all participants had a healthy sleep pattern, if we assume there is a causal relationship.”
“In addition, we found that people with low genetic risk could lose this inherent protection if they had a poor sleep pattern.” | 461 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A boy had seven pencils. But he gave three to his sister. How many pencils does he have now?
We know the boy had seven pencils to begin with. And we’re also told that he gave three to his sister. And we’re asked to work out how many pencils he has now. Which operation do we need to use to help us solve the problem? Do we need to add, subtract, multiply, or divide?
We could use a model to help us think about the problem. We know there are seven pencils. And we know the boy gives three to his sister. So he will have four pencils left. It’s a subtraction. Seven subtract three equals four. If a boy has seven pencils and he gives three to his sister, he will have four pencils left. Seven take away three equals four.
To help us answer this question, first we selected the numbers from the question, seven and three. Then, we used the model to help us decide which operation to use. Then, we subtracted three from seven to give us our answer of four. | <urn:uuid:fffbbc38-5cf8-4801-b9e2-7ae568509298> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nagwa.com/en/videos/978157078209/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00518.warc.gz | en | 0.980378 | 234 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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0.2355329990386963,
0.14327466487884521,
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0.3175223469734192,
0.177723675966262... | 2 | A boy had seven pencils. But he gave three to his sister. How many pencils does he have now?
We know the boy had seven pencils to begin with. And we’re also told that he gave three to his sister. And we’re asked to work out how many pencils he has now. Which operation do we need to use to help us solve the problem? Do we need to add, subtract, multiply, or divide?
We could use a model to help us think about the problem. We know there are seven pencils. And we know the boy gives three to his sister. So he will have four pencils left. It’s a subtraction. Seven subtract three equals four. If a boy has seven pencils and he gives three to his sister, he will have four pencils left. Seven take away three equals four.
To help us answer this question, first we selected the numbers from the question, seven and three. Then, we used the model to help us decide which operation to use. Then, we subtracted three from seven to give us our answer of four. | 216 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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