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The fight for women’s rights began years before the 19th amendment was ratified by Congress and approved by enough states to make it part of the Constitution. It was, against common belief, spearheaded by thousands of women. Women from across social classes, and geographical locations came together to fight for women’s rights. Women combined their forces and worked hard to prove the power of their voices; historical proof of the saying, “strength in numbers.”
“It was a lot of women. It was not just upper-class women…it was very diverse” says Patsy McDonald, granddaughter of Catherine Flanagan, a young Irish-American woman who was a member of the National Women’s Party and “Silent Sentinels.” Flanagan came from a poor family, and began working at the age of fourteen to provide for her family.
“People used to think the parties were made up of wealthy white women, but that wasn’t always the case,” McDonald said.
Women from various backgrounds came together to fight for women’s rights. Alice Paul, a woman’s rights activist, worked closely with other women from England’s Women’s Suffrage Political Union during her stay there as a college student. While there, Paul became close with another activist, Lucy Burns.
When both women reconnected in the United States in 1910, they organized a parade of activists from varying backgrounds the day before President Woodrow Wilson’s inauguration. No constitutional amendment had been passed for women’s rights and Burns and Paul were dedicated to encouraging change. The violence and anger from the parade was extreme, halting the parade completely. While the parade did not reach completion, this moment was noted as a reigning moment for the decade long movement for women’s rights.
“This movement set the stage for the civil rights movement. Women were fighting for their rights and fighting for the enfranchisement of women” said McDonald.
‘The Silent Sentinels’
Fighting for women’s rights, now seen in our present day as a heroic act, was seen in the 1900s as an act of rebellion. Paul and Burns’ National Women’s Party organization actively disagreed with Wilson and his policies. During this time, most were centered on World War I, and were appalled that women were taking a stance against the president during such a divisive time. The NWP fought against the war effort, and despised Wilson’s hypocrisy.
“They were not considered heroes during their time, and probably still are not considered to be. People tend to forget how much work and effort went into ratifying the 19th amendment. The first meeting took place in 1848 in Seneca Falls, and the Amendment did not get ratified until 1919” explained McDonald.
“The Silent Sentinels”, which included several women activists, lined up outside of the White House from 1917 to 1919. The “Silent Sentinels” held banners and posters to express their disappointment in Wilson’s political policies. Individuals attacked and tore the posters and signs that the “Silent Sentinels” held.
Due to the disturbance, the women were arrested by the police. After refusing to accept that they had done anything wrong, they were taken to the Occoquan Workhouse in Lorton, Virginia. Despite not having committed any serious crimes, the women were brutally beaten and starved. The women shared their stories with journalists, eventually getting published in a newspaper, The Suffragist. These stories spanned across the nation, and citizens began to recognize the unacceptable stance that Wilson had on women’s rights. Not too long after, Wilson changed his mind of the suffrage movement.
The move to ratification
It has been 100 years since the 19th Amendment of the United States Constitution was passed by both chambers of Congress. The House of Representative initially passed the amendment on May 21, 1919, followed by a majority vote in the Senate on June 4, 1919. The amendment was officially ratified into the constitution on August 26, 1920 when Tennessee became the 36th state to approve it. While this amendment granted women the right to vote, a massive landmark for women’s rights, the hard work had just begun.
“The parts of their protests that were peaceful were copied by famous individuals, like (Mahatma) Gandhi. These women were making progress and set the foundation for future movements. This was the turning point of civil rights in America” said McDonald.
After the 19th amendment passed, the League of Women Voters, formerly known as the National American Woman Suffrage Association, started encouraging and educating women on the power of their vote. Women had never voted before and did not understand the power their voices held.
While the constitution had previously declared equal rights, women were hardly treated equally in society. They were often working in extremely unsafe conditions and did not receive proper payment for their work. Their behaviors were strictly dictated and certain actions, such as buying a home, were prohibited. Because of this, individual women began to take the revolutionary initiative themselves.
Women continue to push for more rights
In 1923, Alice Paul created an Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) for the Constitution, which, unfortunately, did not make it to Congress for around fifty years, and still has not been ratified. Meantime, Margaret Sanger, a public nurse, was actively endorsing and advocating for women’s reproductive rights. Women had never maintained their rights over their bodies before, which was met with resistance from politicians at the time.
Women’s equality continued to be disjointed in 1960, but encouraged an entirely new wave of advocacy. Women from various careers and backgrounds advocated together to fight for workplace equality. After President John F. Kennedy named Eleanor Roosevelt as his chair, the commission passed a document which outlined the discrimination experienced by women. Local and state governments followed after, and created their own commissions for women and initiated protocols that protected women from prejudice. Eventually, in 1964, Title VII was passed in the Civil Rights Act prohibiting discrimination against women in employment settings.
Efforts continued and the eventual acceptance of Title IX allowed for equal access to college and professional schooling options for women. Many women became heavily involved in the movement and garnered support for the ERA within their respective states in hopes that state officials would pass the amendment.
In 1972, the ERA was officially passed by Congress, which would protect women from prejudice. The nation had never seen women generate such immense public support before, another massive milestone for women. At the ratification deadline on June 30, 1982, it was three states shy of the necessary 38. The ERA was reintroduced in Congress in July 1982 and has been before every session of Congress since.
The third wave of women fighting for their rights appeared around the 1990s. Women tackled problems of representation, work-life rights, reproductive rights and harassment. Continuing to the 2000s, women have not given up, and continue to make revolutionary progress.
“When people think of the women’s movement, they think of Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and other figureheads, but fail to recognize that this movement was a group effort, and it will continue to be. Thousands of women fought hard for their rights” says McDonald.
Women’s rights have come a long way since the 1840s, when only a few select women fought hard for equality and acceptance. Now, the strides women, and men alike, are taking towards complete and overall equality are astonishing. The respect that women experience now, and the positions women hold as CEOs and business leaders pay homage directly to the expanse of women who began the fight so many years ago. The fight for women’s rights has never been awarded to one significant individual. Thousands of women fought for their rights, and today, thousands more continue.
- A timeline of the women’s right to vote movement
- Events to mark the 100th anniversary of the 19th amendment
- When states ratified the 19th amendment
|This article is featured in The Daily Record’s Women Who Lead: A Woman’s Guide To Business. The mission of the Women Who Lead (formerly Path to Excellence) magazine is to give our readers the opportunity to meet successful women of all ages, backgrounds and beliefs and learn how they define success. Read more from Women Who Lead.| | <urn:uuid:385ff9b8-4318-4d56-89fb-f20e4f3055b5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thedailyrecord.com/2019/07/26/a-look-at-the-history-of-womens-rights/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00032.warc.gz | en | 0.98416 | 1,737 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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-0.0977888... | 2 | The fight for women’s rights began years before the 19th amendment was ratified by Congress and approved by enough states to make it part of the Constitution. It was, against common belief, spearheaded by thousands of women. Women from across social classes, and geographical locations came together to fight for women’s rights. Women combined their forces and worked hard to prove the power of their voices; historical proof of the saying, “strength in numbers.”
“It was a lot of women. It was not just upper-class women…it was very diverse” says Patsy McDonald, granddaughter of Catherine Flanagan, a young Irish-American woman who was a member of the National Women’s Party and “Silent Sentinels.” Flanagan came from a poor family, and began working at the age of fourteen to provide for her family.
“People used to think the parties were made up of wealthy white women, but that wasn’t always the case,” McDonald said.
Women from various backgrounds came together to fight for women’s rights. Alice Paul, a woman’s rights activist, worked closely with other women from England’s Women’s Suffrage Political Union during her stay there as a college student. While there, Paul became close with another activist, Lucy Burns.
When both women reconnected in the United States in 1910, they organized a parade of activists from varying backgrounds the day before President Woodrow Wilson’s inauguration. No constitutional amendment had been passed for women’s rights and Burns and Paul were dedicated to encouraging change. The violence and anger from the parade was extreme, halting the parade completely. While the parade did not reach completion, this moment was noted as a reigning moment for the decade long movement for women’s rights.
“This movement set the stage for the civil rights movement. Women were fighting for their rights and fighting for the enfranchisement of women” said McDonald.
‘The Silent Sentinels’
Fighting for women’s rights, now seen in our present day as a heroic act, was seen in the 1900s as an act of rebellion. Paul and Burns’ National Women’s Party organization actively disagreed with Wilson and his policies. During this time, most were centered on World War I, and were appalled that women were taking a stance against the president during such a divisive time. The NWP fought against the war effort, and despised Wilson’s hypocrisy.
“They were not considered heroes during their time, and probably still are not considered to be. People tend to forget how much work and effort went into ratifying the 19th amendment. The first meeting took place in 1848 in Seneca Falls, and the Amendment did not get ratified until 1919” explained McDonald.
“The Silent Sentinels”, which included several women activists, lined up outside of the White House from 1917 to 1919. The “Silent Sentinels” held banners and posters to express their disappointment in Wilson’s political policies. Individuals attacked and tore the posters and signs that the “Silent Sentinels” held.
Due to the disturbance, the women were arrested by the police. After refusing to accept that they had done anything wrong, they were taken to the Occoquan Workhouse in Lorton, Virginia. Despite not having committed any serious crimes, the women were brutally beaten and starved. The women shared their stories with journalists, eventually getting published in a newspaper, The Suffragist. These stories spanned across the nation, and citizens began to recognize the unacceptable stance that Wilson had on women’s rights. Not too long after, Wilson changed his mind of the suffrage movement.
The move to ratification
It has been 100 years since the 19th Amendment of the United States Constitution was passed by both chambers of Congress. The House of Representative initially passed the amendment on May 21, 1919, followed by a majority vote in the Senate on June 4, 1919. The amendment was officially ratified into the constitution on August 26, 1920 when Tennessee became the 36th state to approve it. While this amendment granted women the right to vote, a massive landmark for women’s rights, the hard work had just begun.
“The parts of their protests that were peaceful were copied by famous individuals, like (Mahatma) Gandhi. These women were making progress and set the foundation for future movements. This was the turning point of civil rights in America” said McDonald.
After the 19th amendment passed, the League of Women Voters, formerly known as the National American Woman Suffrage Association, started encouraging and educating women on the power of their vote. Women had never voted before and did not understand the power their voices held.
While the constitution had previously declared equal rights, women were hardly treated equally in society. They were often working in extremely unsafe conditions and did not receive proper payment for their work. Their behaviors were strictly dictated and certain actions, such as buying a home, were prohibited. Because of this, individual women began to take the revolutionary initiative themselves.
Women continue to push for more rights
In 1923, Alice Paul created an Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) for the Constitution, which, unfortunately, did not make it to Congress for around fifty years, and still has not been ratified. Meantime, Margaret Sanger, a public nurse, was actively endorsing and advocating for women’s reproductive rights. Women had never maintained their rights over their bodies before, which was met with resistance from politicians at the time.
Women’s equality continued to be disjointed in 1960, but encouraged an entirely new wave of advocacy. Women from various careers and backgrounds advocated together to fight for workplace equality. After President John F. Kennedy named Eleanor Roosevelt as his chair, the commission passed a document which outlined the discrimination experienced by women. Local and state governments followed after, and created their own commissions for women and initiated protocols that protected women from prejudice. Eventually, in 1964, Title VII was passed in the Civil Rights Act prohibiting discrimination against women in employment settings.
Efforts continued and the eventual acceptance of Title IX allowed for equal access to college and professional schooling options for women. Many women became heavily involved in the movement and garnered support for the ERA within their respective states in hopes that state officials would pass the amendment.
In 1972, the ERA was officially passed by Congress, which would protect women from prejudice. The nation had never seen women generate such immense public support before, another massive milestone for women. At the ratification deadline on June 30, 1982, it was three states shy of the necessary 38. The ERA was reintroduced in Congress in July 1982 and has been before every session of Congress since.
The third wave of women fighting for their rights appeared around the 1990s. Women tackled problems of representation, work-life rights, reproductive rights and harassment. Continuing to the 2000s, women have not given up, and continue to make revolutionary progress.
“When people think of the women’s movement, they think of Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and other figureheads, but fail to recognize that this movement was a group effort, and it will continue to be. Thousands of women fought hard for their rights” says McDonald.
Women’s rights have come a long way since the 1840s, when only a few select women fought hard for equality and acceptance. Now, the strides women, and men alike, are taking towards complete and overall equality are astonishing. The respect that women experience now, and the positions women hold as CEOs and business leaders pay homage directly to the expanse of women who began the fight so many years ago. The fight for women’s rights has never been awarded to one significant individual. Thousands of women fought for their rights, and today, thousands more continue.
- A timeline of the women’s right to vote movement
- Events to mark the 100th anniversary of the 19th amendment
- When states ratified the 19th amendment
|This article is featured in The Daily Record’s Women Who Lead: A Woman’s Guide To Business. The mission of the Women Who Lead (formerly Path to Excellence) magazine is to give our readers the opportunity to meet successful women of all ages, backgrounds and beliefs and learn how they define success. Read more from Women Who Lead.| | 1,732 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When the Drothems Kyrka was built, it stood clearly outside the city walls of Söderköping and, although it was quite large at that time, it was a simple parish church for the rural population of the surrounding area. In contrast to the city churches of the time, whose brickwork consisted mostly of bricks, the Drothems Kyrka was therefore also built in the old and simpler construction technique from field stones.
The name "Drothem" is derived from the old Swedish word "Drotin", which means "Lord" or "God". In the Middle Ages the church was called Sankt Drotten as well as Sankt Trinitas (Trinity Church). The cloverleaf-shaped blind windows at the gable sides as symbol for the Trinity are to be understood therefore also as intended allusion to the second name.
The building history of Drothems Kyrka
Drothems Kyrka still consists of a nave with a straight end and stair gables as well as a sacristy attached to the north side, as it did at the beginning. The sacristy is about 100 years older than the church building itself, as it was originally a chapel to which one added the present church.
From the beginning there were big problems with the structural stability, because the church stands on unstable loamy ground. The original foundation consisted of piles that were only driven into the ground to a shallow depth, which meant that the church "floated" on the loam layer.
After the Drothems Kyrka had been badly damaged during the great city fire in 1385, the entire interior of the church was rebuilt into a three-nave hall church in the course of the repair work - as it is still preserved today. However, it is no longer possible to clarify what the church originally looked like.
At the same time, the massive transverse wall with the triumphal arch between the church interior and the sanctuary was pulled in for stabilization. The foundation of the wall was made by large piles, which were driven very deeply into the meter-thick clay layer. At the same time, additional massive buttresses were attached to the outer corners of the nave.
Church art in Drothems Kyrka
The church preserves some very ancient treasures of church art. These include the ancient baptismal font from the 13th century, carved from limestone in a workshop on the island of Gotland. Furthermore a splendid winged altar, which was built towards the end of the 15th century in a workshop in Lübeck, a wooden statue of John the Baptist made in northern Germany at the same time and a crucifix of about the same age from a carving workshop in Östergötland.
The altarpiece of the former altar of the Virgin Mary dating from the 17th century and the pulpit from 1704 decorated with artistic and partly gilded carvings are among the more recent art objects.
Drothems Kyrka: Opening hours
Monday – Sunday: 10:00 – 15:00
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-0.213400930166244... | 1 | When the Drothems Kyrka was built, it stood clearly outside the city walls of Söderköping and, although it was quite large at that time, it was a simple parish church for the rural population of the surrounding area. In contrast to the city churches of the time, whose brickwork consisted mostly of bricks, the Drothems Kyrka was therefore also built in the old and simpler construction technique from field stones.
The name "Drothem" is derived from the old Swedish word "Drotin", which means "Lord" or "God". In the Middle Ages the church was called Sankt Drotten as well as Sankt Trinitas (Trinity Church). The cloverleaf-shaped blind windows at the gable sides as symbol for the Trinity are to be understood therefore also as intended allusion to the second name.
The building history of Drothems Kyrka
Drothems Kyrka still consists of a nave with a straight end and stair gables as well as a sacristy attached to the north side, as it did at the beginning. The sacristy is about 100 years older than the church building itself, as it was originally a chapel to which one added the present church.
From the beginning there were big problems with the structural stability, because the church stands on unstable loamy ground. The original foundation consisted of piles that were only driven into the ground to a shallow depth, which meant that the church "floated" on the loam layer.
After the Drothems Kyrka had been badly damaged during the great city fire in 1385, the entire interior of the church was rebuilt into a three-nave hall church in the course of the repair work - as it is still preserved today. However, it is no longer possible to clarify what the church originally looked like.
At the same time, the massive transverse wall with the triumphal arch between the church interior and the sanctuary was pulled in for stabilization. The foundation of the wall was made by large piles, which were driven very deeply into the meter-thick clay layer. At the same time, additional massive buttresses were attached to the outer corners of the nave.
Church art in Drothems Kyrka
The church preserves some very ancient treasures of church art. These include the ancient baptismal font from the 13th century, carved from limestone in a workshop on the island of Gotland. Furthermore a splendid winged altar, which was built towards the end of the 15th century in a workshop in Lübeck, a wooden statue of John the Baptist made in northern Germany at the same time and a crucifix of about the same age from a carving workshop in Östergötland.
The altarpiece of the former altar of the Virgin Mary dating from the 17th century and the pulpit from 1704 decorated with artistic and partly gilded carvings are among the more recent art objects.
Drothems Kyrka: Opening hours
Monday – Sunday: 10:00 – 15:00
Last update: 2019 | 654 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Mayflower and Speedwell set sail twice from England and returned both times because the Speedwell leaked. After the second return, the Speedwell was deemed unseaworthy. A significant reorganization of the voyage followed. On September 6th, 1620, 102 passengers and 25–30 crew members crowded on board the Mayflower and set sail again. They were a month behind schedule. They were leaving behind some of the passengers and vital supplies, and they would be crossing the Atlantic Ocean at the height of the storm season.
The Mayflower was a modest merchant ship built to carry crew and cargo. It had no passenger cabins, beds, dining rooms, or toilets. It also had very little ventilation The deck where the passengers stayed measured about five and a half feet tall, which prevented anyone taller from standing up straight. At that time, all ships were cargo ships; the concept of passenger ships would not emerge for another two hundred years.
The 66-day voyage was eventful. A baby was born; a young passenger died; a main mast cracked and fell during a storm, casting doubt on the ship's fate until the crew was able to repair it; and a male passenger fell overboard, requiring a dramatic rescue. The seas were often stormy, and the passengers suffered seasickness, scurvy, hunger, and relentless cold and dampness.
On November 9th, the ship sighted American land, and the passengers rejoiced. As they approached the upper end of Cape Cod, they realized they were north of the area that the king had authorized them to settle. After deliberating with the shipmaster, the Mayflower changed direction to sail south along the coast to its intended destination.
Within a day, joy turned to utter fear. Treacherous shallow waters and crashing waves threatened to splinter the ship and kill everyone aboard. They could not continue south. Harsh winter weather was upon them, their food and drink supplies were almost gone, and passengers were already ill and dying. Having no choice, they reversed their course and sailed back to Cape Cod to look for a place to settle.
By the time the Pilgrims left England, they had already been living on the ship for over a month.
The mayflower, Epigea repens, is a low spreading shrub with pale pink to white flowers also known as Trailing Arbutus.
The Mayflower was a "sweet ship," used to haul wine, but her sweet aroma of spilled wine wore off quickly with so many seasick passengers aboard.
Ship Master Christopher Jones owned the Mayflower with three other investors.
In those days, navy ship commanders were called captains, and merchant ship commanders were called masters.
The Pilgrims set sail 4 years after William Shakespeare died.
Beer was the main beverage, even for children, because it was cleaner than water.
At least two dogs sailed on the Mayflower: a Mastiff and an English Springer Spaniel.
A few lucky passengers slept in hammocks, but most slept on the deck floor.
The Pilgrims did not appreciate the crew's coarse language, and the crew did not care for the Pilgrims' constant prayers and singing.
The passengers had to relieve themselves in buckets on the ship.
When the passengers became sea sick, which happened quite often,
the crew would call them "glib-gabbety puke-stockings."
One particularly crude sailor told the sea-sick passengers he looked forward to dumping their dead bodies overboard and taking all their belongings. Ironically, he got sick, died, and was the first body thrown overboard.
Very few women had traveled across the Atlantic to North America before.
There were 18 women onboard. All were married, and three were in their last trimester of pregnancy.
Passenger John Howland got swept overboard during a storm, yet miraculously grabbed onto a rope in the water and held on long enough to be rescued with a boat hook.
The passengers ate salted meat and "hardtack," a dry biscuit, at most meals.
Most passengers went without baths and wore the same clothing for all sixty-six days of the voyage.
One of the mischievous Billlington boys fired off his father's musket near a barrel of gunpowder and started a fire aboard ship. Luckily no harm was done.
The baby born at sea was named Oceanus. | <urn:uuid:7a1ef726-47b0-415e-bc07-db7c681a9665> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.okmayflower.com/voyage | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00030.warc.gz | en | 0.985943 | 904 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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The Mayflower was a modest merchant ship built to carry crew and cargo. It had no passenger cabins, beds, dining rooms, or toilets. It also had very little ventilation The deck where the passengers stayed measured about five and a half feet tall, which prevented anyone taller from standing up straight. At that time, all ships were cargo ships; the concept of passenger ships would not emerge for another two hundred years.
The 66-day voyage was eventful. A baby was born; a young passenger died; a main mast cracked and fell during a storm, casting doubt on the ship's fate until the crew was able to repair it; and a male passenger fell overboard, requiring a dramatic rescue. The seas were often stormy, and the passengers suffered seasickness, scurvy, hunger, and relentless cold and dampness.
On November 9th, the ship sighted American land, and the passengers rejoiced. As they approached the upper end of Cape Cod, they realized they were north of the area that the king had authorized them to settle. After deliberating with the shipmaster, the Mayflower changed direction to sail south along the coast to its intended destination.
Within a day, joy turned to utter fear. Treacherous shallow waters and crashing waves threatened to splinter the ship and kill everyone aboard. They could not continue south. Harsh winter weather was upon them, their food and drink supplies were almost gone, and passengers were already ill and dying. Having no choice, they reversed their course and sailed back to Cape Cod to look for a place to settle.
By the time the Pilgrims left England, they had already been living on the ship for over a month.
The mayflower, Epigea repens, is a low spreading shrub with pale pink to white flowers also known as Trailing Arbutus.
The Mayflower was a "sweet ship," used to haul wine, but her sweet aroma of spilled wine wore off quickly with so many seasick passengers aboard.
Ship Master Christopher Jones owned the Mayflower with three other investors.
In those days, navy ship commanders were called captains, and merchant ship commanders were called masters.
The Pilgrims set sail 4 years after William Shakespeare died.
Beer was the main beverage, even for children, because it was cleaner than water.
At least two dogs sailed on the Mayflower: a Mastiff and an English Springer Spaniel.
A few lucky passengers slept in hammocks, but most slept on the deck floor.
The Pilgrims did not appreciate the crew's coarse language, and the crew did not care for the Pilgrims' constant prayers and singing.
The passengers had to relieve themselves in buckets on the ship.
When the passengers became sea sick, which happened quite often,
the crew would call them "glib-gabbety puke-stockings."
One particularly crude sailor told the sea-sick passengers he looked forward to dumping their dead bodies overboard and taking all their belongings. Ironically, he got sick, died, and was the first body thrown overboard.
Very few women had traveled across the Atlantic to North America before.
There were 18 women onboard. All were married, and three were in their last trimester of pregnancy.
Passenger John Howland got swept overboard during a storm, yet miraculously grabbed onto a rope in the water and held on long enough to be rescued with a boat hook.
The passengers ate salted meat and "hardtack," a dry biscuit, at most meals.
Most passengers went without baths and wore the same clothing for all sixty-six days of the voyage.
One of the mischievous Billlington boys fired off his father's musket near a barrel of gunpowder and started a fire aboard ship. Luckily no harm was done.
The baby born at sea was named Oceanus. | 894 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Living in the First Century World #4
The home in the first century was a highly valued institution both in the Roman and Jewish context. The home was an anchor for both cultures—with certain cultural expectations shaping it. To understand the world in which Jesus lived and in which the gospel flourished, it helps to understand the first century home.
It is a Man’s World
Homes/families in the first century were started and led by men. This is first evident in the marriage rituals. Arranged marriages were the norm in both Roman and Jewish cultures—and the arrangement would fall to the father of the groom. It was his job to find a wife for his son that would benefit him as much financially as any other motivating factor (for upstanding Roman families—social class was also extremely important). Involved in this was a “bride price”—a price equal to the value of the bride which the groom’s father would pay to the father of the bride. Next the families would agree on a “dowry,” which was the gift paid by the father of the bride to the groom (notice that the bride herself was not involved in any of these transactions). It was typically made up of the bride’s inheritance and mostly contained “movables” or items such as clothing, furniture, kitchen utensils—things she could use within the household. While the dowry was a “fee” of sorts paid by the bride’s father for the transferring of her well-being to her husband it also did exist to protect the bride in case of death or divorce since the dowry was to remain with her in these cases—she would not be completely destitute if that happened. In Jewish culture if she was widowed, her next option was to marry her brother-in-law if he was eligible or to a son’s household if they were old enough and established. In Roman culture, she could return to her father’s household since he still had legal rights over her. In all marriage situations (including the ability to divorce) woman almost always had limited options and those were controlled by the men in her life. If a woman found herself without those men—either by death, divorce, or not being able to have children—then she would be in one of the most vulnerable positions possible in first century life. This is the main reason why the New Testament emphasizes that the church see after widows—1 Timothy 5:3-16; James 1:27.
To further illustrate how much of a man’s world the first century was consider the head of a Roman household—the paterfamilias. This was the male head of the family. Basically, he had complete power over all of his household—his wife, children, slaves, and any other person who were a part of his home—and more influence over extended family (than parents today) regardless of where lived. Only he could own property under Roman law and his power was unbroken until death. It was his responsibility to preserve family honor and with that came limited freedoms for family members.
Of course, being a male-dominated culture, women’s value was highly connected to their ability to have children and baby boys were much more desirable than baby girls. A first century letter from a man to his pregnant wife illustrates this. He wrote: “If you are delivered of a child before I come home, if it is a boy, keep it; if a girl, discard it” (usually by the practice of exposure). Within this kind of culture, just imagine the impact of women hearing a statement like, “There is neither…male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Galatians 3:28).
Speaking of kids, the number of children born into families would be dictated by their context. In most cases a Jewish household would try to have as many kids as was economically advantageous. More kids did mean more mouths to feed, but it also meant more who could work to support the household. Very poor families might attempt to have fewer children, but overall most families looked at children as helping to build their households and helping to build the next generation of the family line. Obviously, this was important as often, multiple generations lived within the same house.
In the Roman context—two or three children seemed to be the norm—again enough to carry on the family linage and keep the honor of the family intact.
Concern and care were given to formally educate the children and teach them a trade (boys anyway) as much as possible within the Jewish context (which would have been centered on learning Torah) and for certain within an upstanding Roman household (including formal education for girls—although not as much as the boys).
Children in all first century households were expected to honor and obey their parents. It was considered their duty and expected. Consider the New Testament texts that are also known as “household codes,” that outline proper relationships within Christian families (Ephesians 5:21-6:9; Colossians 3:18-4:1; 1 Timothy 6:1-2; Titus 2:9-10). These bear similarities to patterns in the Roman household. The husband and father clearly held the authority. Wives were to have a submissive role. Children were taught to obey and respect their parents. Even any slaves present in the home were to exhibit obedience and compliance. Adult children were also expected to care for their elderly parents—all of which would have been expected within upstanding Roman families.
But there are also striking differences. There is a greater level of mutual accountability and responsibility in Christian households. In no situation would a Roman (or for that matter a Jewish) husband consider submitting to his wife as Christian husbands were instructed to do (Ephesians 5:21). In a Christian marriage, the husband is told to model the sacrificial love of Christ toward his wife—to love her as Christ loves the church. The Christian father—while expected to have control over his children—is also limited by warnings to not provoke and discourage them. New Testament teaching also brings a deeper level to the obligations between slave and master (redefined in spiritual terms). So, while Christians’ homes outwardly did not seem to differ much from others, there were differences. And these differences—like as in so many other aspects of first century life—were dramatic enough to eventually redefine home and family to the point of helping to change them altogether—especially for girls, women and slaves. A little leaven does indeed leaven the entire batch.
*Resources used in this lesson include Life in Year One; What the World was Like in First-Century Palestine by Scott Kobb; Who Is This Man; The Unpredictable Impact of the Inescapable Jesus by John Ortberg; and The Greco-Roman World of the New Testament Era; Exploring the Background of Early Christianity by James S. Jeffers. | <urn:uuid:c7e2f1bf-c047-44fc-9b80-a6c4b238eb70> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://levychurchofchrist.org/sermons/the-home-in-the-first-century/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00083.warc.gz | en | 0.989125 | 1,446 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.40265303850173... | 4 | Living in the First Century World #4
The home in the first century was a highly valued institution both in the Roman and Jewish context. The home was an anchor for both cultures—with certain cultural expectations shaping it. To understand the world in which Jesus lived and in which the gospel flourished, it helps to understand the first century home.
It is a Man’s World
Homes/families in the first century were started and led by men. This is first evident in the marriage rituals. Arranged marriages were the norm in both Roman and Jewish cultures—and the arrangement would fall to the father of the groom. It was his job to find a wife for his son that would benefit him as much financially as any other motivating factor (for upstanding Roman families—social class was also extremely important). Involved in this was a “bride price”—a price equal to the value of the bride which the groom’s father would pay to the father of the bride. Next the families would agree on a “dowry,” which was the gift paid by the father of the bride to the groom (notice that the bride herself was not involved in any of these transactions). It was typically made up of the bride’s inheritance and mostly contained “movables” or items such as clothing, furniture, kitchen utensils—things she could use within the household. While the dowry was a “fee” of sorts paid by the bride’s father for the transferring of her well-being to her husband it also did exist to protect the bride in case of death or divorce since the dowry was to remain with her in these cases—she would not be completely destitute if that happened. In Jewish culture if she was widowed, her next option was to marry her brother-in-law if he was eligible or to a son’s household if they were old enough and established. In Roman culture, she could return to her father’s household since he still had legal rights over her. In all marriage situations (including the ability to divorce) woman almost always had limited options and those were controlled by the men in her life. If a woman found herself without those men—either by death, divorce, or not being able to have children—then she would be in one of the most vulnerable positions possible in first century life. This is the main reason why the New Testament emphasizes that the church see after widows—1 Timothy 5:3-16; James 1:27.
To further illustrate how much of a man’s world the first century was consider the head of a Roman household—the paterfamilias. This was the male head of the family. Basically, he had complete power over all of his household—his wife, children, slaves, and any other person who were a part of his home—and more influence over extended family (than parents today) regardless of where lived. Only he could own property under Roman law and his power was unbroken until death. It was his responsibility to preserve family honor and with that came limited freedoms for family members.
Of course, being a male-dominated culture, women’s value was highly connected to their ability to have children and baby boys were much more desirable than baby girls. A first century letter from a man to his pregnant wife illustrates this. He wrote: “If you are delivered of a child before I come home, if it is a boy, keep it; if a girl, discard it” (usually by the practice of exposure). Within this kind of culture, just imagine the impact of women hearing a statement like, “There is neither…male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Galatians 3:28).
Speaking of kids, the number of children born into families would be dictated by their context. In most cases a Jewish household would try to have as many kids as was economically advantageous. More kids did mean more mouths to feed, but it also meant more who could work to support the household. Very poor families might attempt to have fewer children, but overall most families looked at children as helping to build their households and helping to build the next generation of the family line. Obviously, this was important as often, multiple generations lived within the same house.
In the Roman context—two or three children seemed to be the norm—again enough to carry on the family linage and keep the honor of the family intact.
Concern and care were given to formally educate the children and teach them a trade (boys anyway) as much as possible within the Jewish context (which would have been centered on learning Torah) and for certain within an upstanding Roman household (including formal education for girls—although not as much as the boys).
Children in all first century households were expected to honor and obey their parents. It was considered their duty and expected. Consider the New Testament texts that are also known as “household codes,” that outline proper relationships within Christian families (Ephesians 5:21-6:9; Colossians 3:18-4:1; 1 Timothy 6:1-2; Titus 2:9-10). These bear similarities to patterns in the Roman household. The husband and father clearly held the authority. Wives were to have a submissive role. Children were taught to obey and respect their parents. Even any slaves present in the home were to exhibit obedience and compliance. Adult children were also expected to care for their elderly parents—all of which would have been expected within upstanding Roman families.
But there are also striking differences. There is a greater level of mutual accountability and responsibility in Christian households. In no situation would a Roman (or for that matter a Jewish) husband consider submitting to his wife as Christian husbands were instructed to do (Ephesians 5:21). In a Christian marriage, the husband is told to model the sacrificial love of Christ toward his wife—to love her as Christ loves the church. The Christian father—while expected to have control over his children—is also limited by warnings to not provoke and discourage them. New Testament teaching also brings a deeper level to the obligations between slave and master (redefined in spiritual terms). So, while Christians’ homes outwardly did not seem to differ much from others, there were differences. And these differences—like as in so many other aspects of first century life—were dramatic enough to eventually redefine home and family to the point of helping to change them altogether—especially for girls, women and slaves. A little leaven does indeed leaven the entire batch.
*Resources used in this lesson include Life in Year One; What the World was Like in First-Century Palestine by Scott Kobb; Who Is This Man; The Unpredictable Impact of the Inescapable Jesus by John Ortberg; and The Greco-Roman World of the New Testament Era; Exploring the Background of Early Christianity by James S. Jeffers. | 1,407 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The American Revolution created rifts in many families with both patriots and loyalists among their members, none more disruptive than the divide between William Franklin and his famous patriot father Benjamin.
Benjamin’s son William Franklin was most likely born around 1730 out of an illegitimate relationship that later became a common-law marriage. But Benjamin Franklin did not ignore his son. Though the boy was largely raised by his caustic mother, Deborah, Franklin nonetheless looked out for him.
The two were companions and friends, and Franklin helped his son obtain an education and his early jobs.
Franklin ensured that his son had a military position in the French and Indian Wars. The two worked together publishing Poor Richard’s Almanack. And Benjamin lobbied in London for William Franklin’s appointment to royal governor of New Jersey in 1762.
Gov. William Franklin
In the early days of the American Revolution, Franklin wanted even greater things for his son, then a leading political figure in America.
His father urged William Franklin to resign as governor and join the patriot cause. William refused, outlasting all other colonial governors well into 1775, because of his and his father’s good name.
In August, Benjamin visited his son in New Jersey to give him the full picture of the war’s developments. The British were collecting an army of Hessians and the Americans were coalescing around George Washington.
Benjamin assured the young man the patriots would welcome him with open arms. He said William could get a generalship in Washington’s army because of his earlier military service and his prominence.
William Franklin stubbornly refused his father’s advice. He had twin arguments for his position. One, he remained loyal to the king; and two, he did not believe most Americans would support the Revolution.
William would lead one last quixotic attempt to lead the colonies in a reconciliation with the king. But the effort failed. His actions formally put him at odds with Benjamin, a reluctant but vigorous patriot leader.
William Franklin might have thought reconciliation between England and the colonies would give him greater political power in America. But as the war with Great Britain gained momentum, so did the fight between father and son.
Just Shoot Me
In June of 1776, rebels in New Jersey exiled Gov. William Franklin to Connecticut, where Gov. Jonathan Trumbull sided with the patriots.
The patriots placed him under guard at Wallingford and then Middletown. However, the stubborn governor-in-exile refused to submit to his captors. He continued gathering intelligence for loyalists and helping protect Connecticut Tories’ property by issuing them royal pardons.
In May of 1777, armed guards took William Franklin to Litchfield. They placed him in solitary confinement in the cell reserved for prisoners condemned to death. His filthy room contained a straw mat on the floor and nothing else – no bed, no seat, no toilet facility.
In September, he wrote to Gov. Jonathan Trumbull: “I suffer so much in being thus buried alive, having no one to speak to day or night, and for the want of air and exercise, that I should deem it a favor to be immediately taken out and shot.”
William Franklin sent a plea to George Washington, asking to visit his ailing wife. Washington replied he could not countermand the Continental Congress, which had confined him. He did, however, ask the Congress to grant a furlough for Franklin so he might visit his wife in New York. Congress refused, and Franklin’s wife died while he was imprisoned.
Finally, in December of 1777, the governor removed him from the Litchfield jail and allowed him to be imprisoned in a house at East Windsor. By now, the conditions of the jail had taken their toll. William Franklin had lost his teeth and hair and was desperately ill.
In 1778 he was exchanged for other prisoners and allowed to go to New York. He would soon travel to England.
Benjamin Franklin made no efforts after 1775 to assist his son in the predicament he chose. The two men would reconcile somewhat in 1784, but never became the close companions they had been earlier in life.
Benjamin Franklin would leave his son very little of his property when he died and virtually excised him from his autobiography.
This story about William Franklin was updated in 2019. | <urn:uuid:c918abf6-fd7e-410b-b14a-31be4ca1da97> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/william-franklin-bens-son-spent-revolutionary-war-connecticut-jail | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00512.warc.gz | en | 0.985369 | 909 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.3739089369773865... | 4 | The American Revolution created rifts in many families with both patriots and loyalists among their members, none more disruptive than the divide between William Franklin and his famous patriot father Benjamin.
Benjamin’s son William Franklin was most likely born around 1730 out of an illegitimate relationship that later became a common-law marriage. But Benjamin Franklin did not ignore his son. Though the boy was largely raised by his caustic mother, Deborah, Franklin nonetheless looked out for him.
The two were companions and friends, and Franklin helped his son obtain an education and his early jobs.
Franklin ensured that his son had a military position in the French and Indian Wars. The two worked together publishing Poor Richard’s Almanack. And Benjamin lobbied in London for William Franklin’s appointment to royal governor of New Jersey in 1762.
Gov. William Franklin
In the early days of the American Revolution, Franklin wanted even greater things for his son, then a leading political figure in America.
His father urged William Franklin to resign as governor and join the patriot cause. William refused, outlasting all other colonial governors well into 1775, because of his and his father’s good name.
In August, Benjamin visited his son in New Jersey to give him the full picture of the war’s developments. The British were collecting an army of Hessians and the Americans were coalescing around George Washington.
Benjamin assured the young man the patriots would welcome him with open arms. He said William could get a generalship in Washington’s army because of his earlier military service and his prominence.
William Franklin stubbornly refused his father’s advice. He had twin arguments for his position. One, he remained loyal to the king; and two, he did not believe most Americans would support the Revolution.
William would lead one last quixotic attempt to lead the colonies in a reconciliation with the king. But the effort failed. His actions formally put him at odds with Benjamin, a reluctant but vigorous patriot leader.
William Franklin might have thought reconciliation between England and the colonies would give him greater political power in America. But as the war with Great Britain gained momentum, so did the fight between father and son.
Just Shoot Me
In June of 1776, rebels in New Jersey exiled Gov. William Franklin to Connecticut, where Gov. Jonathan Trumbull sided with the patriots.
The patriots placed him under guard at Wallingford and then Middletown. However, the stubborn governor-in-exile refused to submit to his captors. He continued gathering intelligence for loyalists and helping protect Connecticut Tories’ property by issuing them royal pardons.
In May of 1777, armed guards took William Franklin to Litchfield. They placed him in solitary confinement in the cell reserved for prisoners condemned to death. His filthy room contained a straw mat on the floor and nothing else – no bed, no seat, no toilet facility.
In September, he wrote to Gov. Jonathan Trumbull: “I suffer so much in being thus buried alive, having no one to speak to day or night, and for the want of air and exercise, that I should deem it a favor to be immediately taken out and shot.”
William Franklin sent a plea to George Washington, asking to visit his ailing wife. Washington replied he could not countermand the Continental Congress, which had confined him. He did, however, ask the Congress to grant a furlough for Franklin so he might visit his wife in New York. Congress refused, and Franklin’s wife died while he was imprisoned.
Finally, in December of 1777, the governor removed him from the Litchfield jail and allowed him to be imprisoned in a house at East Windsor. By now, the conditions of the jail had taken their toll. William Franklin had lost his teeth and hair and was desperately ill.
In 1778 he was exchanged for other prisoners and allowed to go to New York. He would soon travel to England.
Benjamin Franklin made no efforts after 1775 to assist his son in the predicament he chose. The two men would reconcile somewhat in 1784, but never became the close companions they had been earlier in life.
Benjamin Franklin would leave his son very little of his property when he died and virtually excised him from his autobiography.
This story about William Franklin was updated in 2019. | 903 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Medieval masons all belonged to a renowned guild that required them to move wherever their skills were needed, and even had a presence overseas. The Mason’s Guild was also known as the Freemasons due to the fact that its members often used ‘free’ stone, which was known for being particularly soft and perfect for detailed carvings.
While other tradesmen could settle in area where their craft was consistently required, masons would be required to travel as soon as their project was finished, and in some cases their next job was a significant distance from the last.
Once masons reached the top of their trade they became known as a master mason and would be able to take charge over a building site, including all masons and other craftsmen who worked on it. Master masons would also have access to a mason’s lodge, which would be constructed on all important building sites alongside a workshop building and a drawing office.
Any tradesman who arrived on a building site and claimed to be a master mason would have their skills tested by the master mason already present, which would ensure a high level of quality was maintained throughout the project.
Masons would also have access to an apprentice, who would travel alongside them when they moved to each new project. Once this apprentice had enough skills and knowledge about their particular craft, they would be able to undertake an exam at the masons’s lodge. Should they pass, they would be appointed a new master mason and awarded a unique mason’s mark. This would then be included in any projects he completed so it could be identified as his work.
This system of training and maintaining standards ensured that the masons produced high quality work every time they completed a project. As a result, much of their work is still visible today on cathedrals and castles around England.
See also: Medieval Guilds
"Medieval Masons". HistoryLearning.com. 2015. Web. | <urn:uuid:2ac717a1-103a-4619-88b1-e277cf96f548> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://historylearning.com/medieval-england/medieval-masons/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00517.warc.gz | en | 0.991971 | 405 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.2671616077... | 12 | Medieval masons all belonged to a renowned guild that required them to move wherever their skills were needed, and even had a presence overseas. The Mason’s Guild was also known as the Freemasons due to the fact that its members often used ‘free’ stone, which was known for being particularly soft and perfect for detailed carvings.
While other tradesmen could settle in area where their craft was consistently required, masons would be required to travel as soon as their project was finished, and in some cases their next job was a significant distance from the last.
Once masons reached the top of their trade they became known as a master mason and would be able to take charge over a building site, including all masons and other craftsmen who worked on it. Master masons would also have access to a mason’s lodge, which would be constructed on all important building sites alongside a workshop building and a drawing office.
Any tradesman who arrived on a building site and claimed to be a master mason would have their skills tested by the master mason already present, which would ensure a high level of quality was maintained throughout the project.
Masons would also have access to an apprentice, who would travel alongside them when they moved to each new project. Once this apprentice had enough skills and knowledge about their particular craft, they would be able to undertake an exam at the masons’s lodge. Should they pass, they would be appointed a new master mason and awarded a unique mason’s mark. This would then be included in any projects he completed so it could be identified as his work.
This system of training and maintaining standards ensured that the masons produced high quality work every time they completed a project. As a result, much of their work is still visible today on cathedrals and castles around England.
See also: Medieval Guilds
"Medieval Masons". HistoryLearning.com. 2015. Web. | 394 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Holocaust : A Word Of Greek Origin Meaning `` Sacrifice By Fire ``
Who-The Holocaust directly involved the Jews and other inferiors that were persecuted or imprisoned under German rule as well as the Nazis and their supporters that did all of the discriminating, and eventually murdering. When- The Holocaust, also known as the Shoah, started in January 30, it was genocide in which Adolf Hitler 's Nazi Germany and its supporters killed about six million Jews, it ended on May 8, 1945.
Why-The holocaust had taken place due to Adolf Hitler and the Nazi’s ideology, as they wanted a master race the Aryan supremacy and believed that the Jews, as well as the Romani, Soviets, disabled, homosexual, and other people were inferior and were seen as subhuman.
How-Hitler used propaganda to turn this ideology into the concept that Jews were a disgrace to Germany and are not equivalent to German’s, this helped him win the office and the general public so that he could commit this genocide. Anti-Judaism led to racial antisemitism, which resulted in the desire to eliminate the Jews. After the German invasion of the Soviet Union, the Germans instituted the systematic process of murdering all Jews under their jurisdiction first by shooting and then by gassing them. | <urn:uuid:9f26ae7b-f496-4a0f-8c9e-b390072b42d1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/The-Holocaust-A-Word-Of-Greek-Origin/PKPMHEFNB5YW | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00148.warc.gz | en | 0.983929 | 264 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.245924994349... | 1 | The Holocaust : A Word Of Greek Origin Meaning `` Sacrifice By Fire ``
Who-The Holocaust directly involved the Jews and other inferiors that were persecuted or imprisoned under German rule as well as the Nazis and their supporters that did all of the discriminating, and eventually murdering. When- The Holocaust, also known as the Shoah, started in January 30, it was genocide in which Adolf Hitler 's Nazi Germany and its supporters killed about six million Jews, it ended on May 8, 1945.
Why-The holocaust had taken place due to Adolf Hitler and the Nazi’s ideology, as they wanted a master race the Aryan supremacy and believed that the Jews, as well as the Romani, Soviets, disabled, homosexual, and other people were inferior and were seen as subhuman.
How-Hitler used propaganda to turn this ideology into the concept that Jews were a disgrace to Germany and are not equivalent to German’s, this helped him win the office and the general public so that he could commit this genocide. Anti-Judaism led to racial antisemitism, which resulted in the desire to eliminate the Jews. After the German invasion of the Soviet Union, the Germans instituted the systematic process of murdering all Jews under their jurisdiction first by shooting and then by gassing them. | 264 | ENGLISH | 1 |
India recently witnessed solar eclipse in December and today it will witness the Lunar Eclipse (known as Chandra Grahan in Hindi), which is the first eclipse of 2020. It is also the first of four penumbral eclipses to happen. During the eclipse, earth's shadow will block the moon. It will be visible from India, Australia, Africa, Pacific and even Europe.
During such celestial events, there are many precautions people want to take. According to NASA, there is no evidence which proves that eclipses have effects on the human body. However, as per many claims, folk stories and traditions, it has been believed for years that lunar eclipse can have effects on the human body. Here's a look at such beliefs and precautions:
1. It can regulate hormones
There have been many speculations that there is a connection between the moon and a woman's period. People have related women's menstrual cycle of 28 days to the moon's cycle which is 29.5 days. It has been believed that the gravitational pull can help regulate one's cycle.
2. It can effect your fertility
The moon is known as a symbol of fertility. As per many beliefs, it is known as the best time for women who are ovulating to get pregnant during this time.
3. It can effect the eyes
During the eclipse, one is advised to wear protective eyewear. It is believed that the moon is not safe to look from naked eyes and can have many. However, unlike solar eclipses, this one has been scientifically proven to be harmless.
4. Contamination on food
It is also believed that eclipse can affect food. It is advised not to eat during the eclipse and not keep cooked food, as it can deteriorate faster during the eclipse. | <urn:uuid:49ff056b-64bc-4ded-8d27-790bd33c8eea> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/events/lunar-eclipse-2020-learn-the-effects-on-the-human-body-and-precaution-tips/articleshow/73186414.cms | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00312.warc.gz | en | 0.981682 | 360 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.4516559839248... | 2 | India recently witnessed solar eclipse in December and today it will witness the Lunar Eclipse (known as Chandra Grahan in Hindi), which is the first eclipse of 2020. It is also the first of four penumbral eclipses to happen. During the eclipse, earth's shadow will block the moon. It will be visible from India, Australia, Africa, Pacific and even Europe.
During such celestial events, there are many precautions people want to take. According to NASA, there is no evidence which proves that eclipses have effects on the human body. However, as per many claims, folk stories and traditions, it has been believed for years that lunar eclipse can have effects on the human body. Here's a look at such beliefs and precautions:
1. It can regulate hormones
There have been many speculations that there is a connection between the moon and a woman's period. People have related women's menstrual cycle of 28 days to the moon's cycle which is 29.5 days. It has been believed that the gravitational pull can help regulate one's cycle.
2. It can effect your fertility
The moon is known as a symbol of fertility. As per many beliefs, it is known as the best time for women who are ovulating to get pregnant during this time.
3. It can effect the eyes
During the eclipse, one is advised to wear protective eyewear. It is believed that the moon is not safe to look from naked eyes and can have many. However, unlike solar eclipses, this one has been scientifically proven to be harmless.
4. Contamination on food
It is also believed that eclipse can affect food. It is advised not to eat during the eclipse and not keep cooked food, as it can deteriorate faster during the eclipse. | 363 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Revenge has caused the downfall of many a person. Its consuming nature causes one to act recklessly through anger rather than reason. Revenge is an emotion easily rationalised; one turn deserves another. However, this is a very dangerous theory to live by. Throughout Hamlet, revenge is a dominant theme. Fortinbras, Laertes, and Hamlet all seek to avenge the deaths of their fathers. But in so doing, all three rely more on emotion than thought, and take a very big gamble, a gamble which eventually leads to the downfall and death of all but one of them. King Fortinbras was slain by King Hamlet in a sword battle. This entitled King Hamlet to the land that was possessed by Fortinbras because it was written in a seal’d compact. “…our valiant Hamlet-for so this side of our known world esteem’d him-did slay this Fortinbras.” Young Fortinbras was enraged by his father’s murder and sought revenge against Denmark. He wanted to reclaim the land that had been lost to Denmark when his father was killed. “…Now sir, young Fortinbras…as it doth well appear unto our state-but to recover of us, by strong hand and terms compulsative, those foresaid lands so by his father lost…” Claudius becomes aware of Fortinbras’ plans, and in an evasive move, sends a message to the new King of Norway, Fortinbras’ uncle. The king forbade Fortinbras to wage an attack against Denmark, and instead suggested he attack the Poles to vent his anger. Fortinbras agreed to the plan, but had no intentions of following it. Polonius was King Hamlet’s advisor and the father of Ophelia and Laertes, both of whom respected and loved him, despite his arrogant demeanour. Young Hamlet murdered Polonius accidentally, thinking him to be the king eves dropping on a conversation between Hamlet and his mother. “How now! A rat? Dead, for a ducat, dead!” Laertes returned home immediately after hearing of his father’s death and confronted the King, accusing him of the murder of his father. Once Claudius told Laertes that Hamlet was responsible for his father’s death, he and Claudius concoct a scheme to kill Hamlet using a poison tipped sword. “…Hamlet, thou art slain…The treacherous instrument is in thy, unbated and envenom’d…” Hamlet does indeed die as a result of wounds inflicted by Laertes, but it is the poisoned tipped sword that causes the demise of Laertes as well. King Hamlet ruled Denmark and was the father of Hamlet. He had been slain by Claudius, his brother, who had since laid claim to the throne. While Hamlet mourned, he encountered the ghost of his father, who made him aware that his death had in fact been murder, and the guilt laid squarely on the shoulders of Denmark’s new King. “The serpent that did sting thy father’s life now wears his crown.” Astonished, Hamlet swore vengeance for his father’s death. His efforts to prove his uncle’s guilt are hindered by his indecisiveness until he finally kills Claudius, while he himself is dying of poisoned wounds caused him by Laertes in their duel. “The point envenomed too! Then venom, to thy work…Here, thou incestuous, murderous, damned Dane, drink off this potion,-is thy union here? Follow my mother.” This left the Claudius dead, and King Hamlet’s death avenged, but at a grave cost to Hamlet. It is the lack of thought used in exacting their revenge which led to the deaths of both Laertes and Hamlet. The plan Laertes devised with Claudius to kill Hamlet with the poisoned tipped sword would have been successful, had they thought that the sword might be used against them, and panned accordingly. Laertes himself is at fault for his death for believing Claudius’ accusations that Hamlet had murdered his father. If not for his own blind rage, Laertes may have listened to Hamlet’s explanation and apology for the murder of Polonius and could have avioded his early demise. “I am satisfied in nature…to my revenge…I stand aloof…and will no reconcilement…But till that time, I do receive your offer’d love like love, and will not wrong it.” Instead he chose to fight Hamlet. He and wounds him fatally with the poisoned tipped sword, however, their swords become switched, and Hamlet inflicts the same wounds on with as those that had been inflicted on him. It is by these wounds that Laertes dies. Hamlet’s opportunities to kill his uncle were plentiful. However, his rage over-rided his intelligence and he waited; hoping to catch Claudius at a time he was committing an act of sin to strike him down, forcing him to spend eternity in a world of eternal damnation. “Now might I do it pat, now he is praying;…A villain kills my father; and for that, I, his sole son, do this same villain send to heaven.” Unfortunately for Hamlet, the only sin Claudius commits is the poisoning of his own nephew. Young Fortinbras was the only character in the play who exacted his revenge without dying. He regains his fathers land, without use of violence, simply because Hamlet, Laertes and Claudius had all killed each other. His patience saved his life; Hamlet and Laertes’ haste had caused their deaths. Hamlet named him new ruler of Denmark before he dies, making him the new King of Denmark. A fitting end to Fortinbras’ intelligent, thought out plan to exact revenge for his father’s death. Revenge can be an invaluable tool to amass success and wealth, or it can be a fatal flaw that guarantees immanent death. It is a dangerous emotion, which can easily consume, however it can be used to great satisfaction. Perhaps it is these qualities that lead us to allow ourselves to act on its impulses. The lessons learned by both Hamlet and Laertes are something that should be remembered. Revenge is not to be taken lightly. When acted on this is one emotion that can definitely come back to haunt you. | <urn:uuid:b4d67dcd-0df7-4725-8533-820fd62a8501> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://pennsylvaniaangerclass.com/hamlet-and-revenge/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00144.warc.gz | en | 0.983035 | 1,379 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.335734575986... | 1 | Revenge has caused the downfall of many a person. Its consuming nature causes one to act recklessly through anger rather than reason. Revenge is an emotion easily rationalised; one turn deserves another. However, this is a very dangerous theory to live by. Throughout Hamlet, revenge is a dominant theme. Fortinbras, Laertes, and Hamlet all seek to avenge the deaths of their fathers. But in so doing, all three rely more on emotion than thought, and take a very big gamble, a gamble which eventually leads to the downfall and death of all but one of them. King Fortinbras was slain by King Hamlet in a sword battle. This entitled King Hamlet to the land that was possessed by Fortinbras because it was written in a seal’d compact. “…our valiant Hamlet-for so this side of our known world esteem’d him-did slay this Fortinbras.” Young Fortinbras was enraged by his father’s murder and sought revenge against Denmark. He wanted to reclaim the land that had been lost to Denmark when his father was killed. “…Now sir, young Fortinbras…as it doth well appear unto our state-but to recover of us, by strong hand and terms compulsative, those foresaid lands so by his father lost…” Claudius becomes aware of Fortinbras’ plans, and in an evasive move, sends a message to the new King of Norway, Fortinbras’ uncle. The king forbade Fortinbras to wage an attack against Denmark, and instead suggested he attack the Poles to vent his anger. Fortinbras agreed to the plan, but had no intentions of following it. Polonius was King Hamlet’s advisor and the father of Ophelia and Laertes, both of whom respected and loved him, despite his arrogant demeanour. Young Hamlet murdered Polonius accidentally, thinking him to be the king eves dropping on a conversation between Hamlet and his mother. “How now! A rat? Dead, for a ducat, dead!” Laertes returned home immediately after hearing of his father’s death and confronted the King, accusing him of the murder of his father. Once Claudius told Laertes that Hamlet was responsible for his father’s death, he and Claudius concoct a scheme to kill Hamlet using a poison tipped sword. “…Hamlet, thou art slain…The treacherous instrument is in thy, unbated and envenom’d…” Hamlet does indeed die as a result of wounds inflicted by Laertes, but it is the poisoned tipped sword that causes the demise of Laertes as well. King Hamlet ruled Denmark and was the father of Hamlet. He had been slain by Claudius, his brother, who had since laid claim to the throne. While Hamlet mourned, he encountered the ghost of his father, who made him aware that his death had in fact been murder, and the guilt laid squarely on the shoulders of Denmark’s new King. “The serpent that did sting thy father’s life now wears his crown.” Astonished, Hamlet swore vengeance for his father’s death. His efforts to prove his uncle’s guilt are hindered by his indecisiveness until he finally kills Claudius, while he himself is dying of poisoned wounds caused him by Laertes in their duel. “The point envenomed too! Then venom, to thy work…Here, thou incestuous, murderous, damned Dane, drink off this potion,-is thy union here? Follow my mother.” This left the Claudius dead, and King Hamlet’s death avenged, but at a grave cost to Hamlet. It is the lack of thought used in exacting their revenge which led to the deaths of both Laertes and Hamlet. The plan Laertes devised with Claudius to kill Hamlet with the poisoned tipped sword would have been successful, had they thought that the sword might be used against them, and panned accordingly. Laertes himself is at fault for his death for believing Claudius’ accusations that Hamlet had murdered his father. If not for his own blind rage, Laertes may have listened to Hamlet’s explanation and apology for the murder of Polonius and could have avioded his early demise. “I am satisfied in nature…to my revenge…I stand aloof…and will no reconcilement…But till that time, I do receive your offer’d love like love, and will not wrong it.” Instead he chose to fight Hamlet. He and wounds him fatally with the poisoned tipped sword, however, their swords become switched, and Hamlet inflicts the same wounds on with as those that had been inflicted on him. It is by these wounds that Laertes dies. Hamlet’s opportunities to kill his uncle were plentiful. However, his rage over-rided his intelligence and he waited; hoping to catch Claudius at a time he was committing an act of sin to strike him down, forcing him to spend eternity in a world of eternal damnation. “Now might I do it pat, now he is praying;…A villain kills my father; and for that, I, his sole son, do this same villain send to heaven.” Unfortunately for Hamlet, the only sin Claudius commits is the poisoning of his own nephew. Young Fortinbras was the only character in the play who exacted his revenge without dying. He regains his fathers land, without use of violence, simply because Hamlet, Laertes and Claudius had all killed each other. His patience saved his life; Hamlet and Laertes’ haste had caused their deaths. Hamlet named him new ruler of Denmark before he dies, making him the new King of Denmark. A fitting end to Fortinbras’ intelligent, thought out plan to exact revenge for his father’s death. Revenge can be an invaluable tool to amass success and wealth, or it can be a fatal flaw that guarantees immanent death. It is a dangerous emotion, which can easily consume, however it can be used to great satisfaction. Perhaps it is these qualities that lead us to allow ourselves to act on its impulses. The lessons learned by both Hamlet and Laertes are something that should be remembered. Revenge is not to be taken lightly. When acted on this is one emotion that can definitely come back to haunt you. | 1,306 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mexican anthropologists say they have found two human-built pits dug 15,000 years ago to trap mammoths.
Researchers from Mexico’s National Institute of Anthropology and History said Wednesday the pits were found during excavations on land that was to be used as a garbage dump.
The pits filled with bones from at least 14 mammoths were found in the neighborhood of Tultepec, just north of Mexico City. Some of the animals were apparently butchered.
The pits were about 6 feet (1.70 meters) deep and 25 yards (meters) in diameter. The institute said hunters may have chased mammoths into the traps. Remains of two other species that disappeared in the Americas — a horse and a camel — were also found.
It was unclear if plans for the dump would proceed.
By applying a large volume of exosomes in conjuntion with stem cells we can slow down and reverse the aging process by stimulating the repair of multiple tissues of the body to promote longer and healthier life. Read More | <urn:uuid:61214c4e-a62f-476a-867a-c8acae67ef69> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.vallartadaily.com/mexico-finds-human-built-mammoth-traps-15000-years-old/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00156.warc.gz | en | 0.984016 | 213 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.166286185383... | 1 | Mexican anthropologists say they have found two human-built pits dug 15,000 years ago to trap mammoths.
Researchers from Mexico’s National Institute of Anthropology and History said Wednesday the pits were found during excavations on land that was to be used as a garbage dump.
The pits filled with bones from at least 14 mammoths were found in the neighborhood of Tultepec, just north of Mexico City. Some of the animals were apparently butchered.
The pits were about 6 feet (1.70 meters) deep and 25 yards (meters) in diameter. The institute said hunters may have chased mammoths into the traps. Remains of two other species that disappeared in the Americas — a horse and a camel — were also found.
It was unclear if plans for the dump would proceed.
By applying a large volume of exosomes in conjuntion with stem cells we can slow down and reverse the aging process by stimulating the repair of multiple tissues of the body to promote longer and healthier life. Read More | 217 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When the westward migration began in the mid-19th century, there were many reasons for people choosing to make the journey. Most of them wanted a new start, including soldiers who had fought in the war and had no marketable skills and those that saw business opportunities, as well as numerous criminals looking for a way to escape the law. At the time the west had no laws, courts or even organised leadership. As the area expanded, saloons and brothels were the most prevalent businesses and attracted a high level of violence and criminal activity. In addition, general dishonesty and corruption meant there was an immediate need to find a way to maintain order.
The first people to defend the frontier were organised in 1823 by Stephen F. Austin, in Texas. He invited a group of ‘adventurous men’ to act as ‘rangers for the common defence’ of his land. Those that accepted the position became known as ‘ranging men.’ Although these groups continued to be hired privately, at the time, the majority of the new citizens remained unprotected. This resulted in towns beginning to appoint lawmen to watch over their citizens. Many of these were also of questionable character, having been previously involved in crime. Their understanding of the criminal mind, as well as their skills as gunfighters, made them the best candidates available for the job, however. Many of them continued to commit offences, often using their badges as justification, and were later arrested, charged and hanged. Others put their criminal past behind them, and found ways of upholding the law, often at great personal risk.
The two main law enforcement roles, at the time, were sheriffs and US Marshals. Although the terms were often used interchangeably, the positions came with different responsibilities.
A position which was adopted from the British system, a sheriff was originally responsible for maintaining order in a shire during the Middle Ages. In the Old West, the sheriffs had similar jobs, being first employed by large landowners to protect themselves and their property. As the towns grew, the citizens would elect a sheriff to be responsible for upholding the law within his town, or county. In addition, they would collect taxes and serve papers for the county court. The position required no qualifications, and many sheriffs were also in charge of keeping the streets clean, ridding the area of pests and inspecting cattle.
The US Marshal Service was established in 1789, as a part of the federal government. Those employed by the service had jurisdiction throughout the country, as long as it pertained to their current assignment. The duties of US Marshals included protecting their judiciary, apprehending and transporting federal fugitives, as well as seizing money obtained through illegal activities. When making arrests, their authority would supersede the sheriff’s. They were also assigned tasks that were not related to criminal activity, including distributing federal proclamations and taking the national census.
More coming soon… | <urn:uuid:abf857d0-f3b3-47b8-af93-961b16953d90> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://carldane.wordpress.com/2018/04/03/the-history-of-lawmen-in-the-wild-west/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00371.warc.gz | en | 0.991215 | 602 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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-0.0528673306... | 2 | When the westward migration began in the mid-19th century, there were many reasons for people choosing to make the journey. Most of them wanted a new start, including soldiers who had fought in the war and had no marketable skills and those that saw business opportunities, as well as numerous criminals looking for a way to escape the law. At the time the west had no laws, courts or even organised leadership. As the area expanded, saloons and brothels were the most prevalent businesses and attracted a high level of violence and criminal activity. In addition, general dishonesty and corruption meant there was an immediate need to find a way to maintain order.
The first people to defend the frontier were organised in 1823 by Stephen F. Austin, in Texas. He invited a group of ‘adventurous men’ to act as ‘rangers for the common defence’ of his land. Those that accepted the position became known as ‘ranging men.’ Although these groups continued to be hired privately, at the time, the majority of the new citizens remained unprotected. This resulted in towns beginning to appoint lawmen to watch over their citizens. Many of these were also of questionable character, having been previously involved in crime. Their understanding of the criminal mind, as well as their skills as gunfighters, made them the best candidates available for the job, however. Many of them continued to commit offences, often using their badges as justification, and were later arrested, charged and hanged. Others put their criminal past behind them, and found ways of upholding the law, often at great personal risk.
The two main law enforcement roles, at the time, were sheriffs and US Marshals. Although the terms were often used interchangeably, the positions came with different responsibilities.
A position which was adopted from the British system, a sheriff was originally responsible for maintaining order in a shire during the Middle Ages. In the Old West, the sheriffs had similar jobs, being first employed by large landowners to protect themselves and their property. As the towns grew, the citizens would elect a sheriff to be responsible for upholding the law within his town, or county. In addition, they would collect taxes and serve papers for the county court. The position required no qualifications, and many sheriffs were also in charge of keeping the streets clean, ridding the area of pests and inspecting cattle.
The US Marshal Service was established in 1789, as a part of the federal government. Those employed by the service had jurisdiction throughout the country, as long as it pertained to their current assignment. The duties of US Marshals included protecting their judiciary, apprehending and transporting federal fugitives, as well as seizing money obtained through illegal activities. When making arrests, their authority would supersede the sheriff’s. They were also assigned tasks that were not related to criminal activity, including distributing federal proclamations and taking the national census.
More coming soon… | 600 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Levi Strauss Museum is located in the house where Levi Strauss was born in Buttenheim/Southern Germany. In its permanent exhibition the biography of Levi Strauss and the success story of jeans are shown. Annual special exhibitions concentrate on topics which are in some way related to jeans, emigration, textiles or Levi Strauss. This year marks the 25th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall, which led to a special exhibition focused on the role jeans played in former East Germany.
For the youth in the German Democratic Republic, jeans were more than just pants, they showed attitude and were a piece of the West they painstakingly got hold of. By way of the iconic blue pants, our exhibition shows multiple sides of German history:
After the Second World War, Germany was divided among the Allies into four occupied areas and each ally also got one sector of the capital city Berlin. The German Democratic Republic arose from the Russian sector in 1949 and orientated itself towards the USSR. It was ruled by only one party, the Socialist Unity Party of Germany, and a new social order based on socialism was established. To secure the power of the dictatorial governing Socialist Unity Party, as well as for the surveillance of enemies of the state, the Ministry of State Security was set up. Because many citizens were dissatisfied with their living conditions, they tried to leave the country. To stop them, the border was at first fortified with barbed wire and finally on August 13th, 1961, the Berlin Wall was set up. For 28 years it separated families and friends and divided Germany into two separate states.
To protect the youth from western capitalist influences, the Socialist Unity Party tried to introduce a socialist clothing culture in East Germany. Jeans were considered as capitalist influence and jeans-wearers were enemies of the state. The entrance to dance halls forbade the so-called “riveted pants” and pupils wearing jeans were sent home from school. But international fashion could not be stopped at the iron curtain — despite all efforts, it was western trends that were most en vogue in the East.
For people living in the East, it was not so easy to get hold of a pair of Western Jeans. The most common way was to ask relatives in West Germany to send the coveted pants in a so called “Western parcel” together with other rare consumer goods such as soap, perfume and nylons.
For exorbitant sums of money it was also possible to buy jeans on the black market or in so called “Intershops”. Youth with no relatives in the West had to look for alternative ways to obtain pants that looked at least similar to Western jeans. They sewed them themselves out of blue cloth and equipped them with rivets which could be bought separately. Guest workers from Vietnam filled a market niche: in their spare time they produced custom-made jeans out of denim imported from Vietnam and even equipped them with “original” labels. This way many young people got their Western jeans “Made in GDR” (German Democratic Republic).
From 1974 on the regime of the GDR finally gave in and started to produce the first Eastern German jeans. They bore names like “Goldfuchs” (Gold fox), “Wisent” (“European bison”) or “Boxer” and were produced to placate the youth in their desire for jeans. As raw material was subject to a quota and there never was enough cotton, GDR-jeans were partly produced of synthetic fibers. That made the pants uncomfortable to wear and additionally they lacked the typical fading effect jeans usually have. Most East German jeans also did not have both quality and style people knew from Western brands and they were never able to achieve a similar status.
It wasn’t until the 1980s that jeans became suitable for daily use. Even in East Germany, it was then no longer offensive to wear jeans in everyday life. But the blue pants stayed scarce — production could never satisfy demand. So the regime of the GDR decided in 1978 to import one million pairs of Levi’s jeans to please the needs of the people. They were sold in selected universities and companies (even in the Ministry of State Security) and subsequently made the deficiencies of East German jeans even more obvious.
With the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 the fight for jeans in East Germany was finally over. All East German jeans brands did not outlive the German reunification.
The exhibition in Levi’s birth house depicts jeans in all the facets they have taken on in East Germany: as political statement, as capitalist “lack of culture”, as coveted scarce articles, as expensively traded smuggled goods, as identification object and last but not least as beloved everyday garment. The entrance to the exhibition in “riveted pants” is explicitly permitted!
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dr. Tanja Roppelt has served as director of the Levi Strauss Museum Buttenheim, the birthplace of Levi Strauss, since September 2000. As the museum’s only full-time employee, Dr. Roppelt is responsible for all museum affairs, including fundraising, research, exhibitions, events and public relations. | <urn:uuid:0707071f-8c64-40df-9a8e-956ab2ecc117> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.levistrauss.com/2014/11/11/special-exhibit-jeans-in-former-east-germany-at-the-levi-strauss-museum/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00242.warc.gz | en | 0.983112 | 1,067 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.4383763968944... | 8 | The Levi Strauss Museum is located in the house where Levi Strauss was born in Buttenheim/Southern Germany. In its permanent exhibition the biography of Levi Strauss and the success story of jeans are shown. Annual special exhibitions concentrate on topics which are in some way related to jeans, emigration, textiles or Levi Strauss. This year marks the 25th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall, which led to a special exhibition focused on the role jeans played in former East Germany.
For the youth in the German Democratic Republic, jeans were more than just pants, they showed attitude and were a piece of the West they painstakingly got hold of. By way of the iconic blue pants, our exhibition shows multiple sides of German history:
After the Second World War, Germany was divided among the Allies into four occupied areas and each ally also got one sector of the capital city Berlin. The German Democratic Republic arose from the Russian sector in 1949 and orientated itself towards the USSR. It was ruled by only one party, the Socialist Unity Party of Germany, and a new social order based on socialism was established. To secure the power of the dictatorial governing Socialist Unity Party, as well as for the surveillance of enemies of the state, the Ministry of State Security was set up. Because many citizens were dissatisfied with their living conditions, they tried to leave the country. To stop them, the border was at first fortified with barbed wire and finally on August 13th, 1961, the Berlin Wall was set up. For 28 years it separated families and friends and divided Germany into two separate states.
To protect the youth from western capitalist influences, the Socialist Unity Party tried to introduce a socialist clothing culture in East Germany. Jeans were considered as capitalist influence and jeans-wearers were enemies of the state. The entrance to dance halls forbade the so-called “riveted pants” and pupils wearing jeans were sent home from school. But international fashion could not be stopped at the iron curtain — despite all efforts, it was western trends that were most en vogue in the East.
For people living in the East, it was not so easy to get hold of a pair of Western Jeans. The most common way was to ask relatives in West Germany to send the coveted pants in a so called “Western parcel” together with other rare consumer goods such as soap, perfume and nylons.
For exorbitant sums of money it was also possible to buy jeans on the black market or in so called “Intershops”. Youth with no relatives in the West had to look for alternative ways to obtain pants that looked at least similar to Western jeans. They sewed them themselves out of blue cloth and equipped them with rivets which could be bought separately. Guest workers from Vietnam filled a market niche: in their spare time they produced custom-made jeans out of denim imported from Vietnam and even equipped them with “original” labels. This way many young people got their Western jeans “Made in GDR” (German Democratic Republic).
From 1974 on the regime of the GDR finally gave in and started to produce the first Eastern German jeans. They bore names like “Goldfuchs” (Gold fox), “Wisent” (“European bison”) or “Boxer” and were produced to placate the youth in their desire for jeans. As raw material was subject to a quota and there never was enough cotton, GDR-jeans were partly produced of synthetic fibers. That made the pants uncomfortable to wear and additionally they lacked the typical fading effect jeans usually have. Most East German jeans also did not have both quality and style people knew from Western brands and they were never able to achieve a similar status.
It wasn’t until the 1980s that jeans became suitable for daily use. Even in East Germany, it was then no longer offensive to wear jeans in everyday life. But the blue pants stayed scarce — production could never satisfy demand. So the regime of the GDR decided in 1978 to import one million pairs of Levi’s jeans to please the needs of the people. They were sold in selected universities and companies (even in the Ministry of State Security) and subsequently made the deficiencies of East German jeans even more obvious.
With the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 the fight for jeans in East Germany was finally over. All East German jeans brands did not outlive the German reunification.
The exhibition in Levi’s birth house depicts jeans in all the facets they have taken on in East Germany: as political statement, as capitalist “lack of culture”, as coveted scarce articles, as expensively traded smuggled goods, as identification object and last but not least as beloved everyday garment. The entrance to the exhibition in “riveted pants” is explicitly permitted!
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dr. Tanja Roppelt has served as director of the Levi Strauss Museum Buttenheim, the birthplace of Levi Strauss, since September 2000. As the museum’s only full-time employee, Dr. Roppelt is responsible for all museum affairs, including fundraising, research, exhibitions, events and public relations. | 1,053 | ENGLISH | 1 |
According to the Bible, the Wilderness of Zin formed the southern boundary of the land that God had promised to the Israelites as Moses led them out of Egypt. Before God allowed the Israelites to enter their Promised Land, they spent about 40 years wandering in the wilderness, much of the time near an area called Kadesh or Kadesh Barnea. Although Josephus, the first century Jewish historian, believed Kadesh Barnea was located in Petra, most scholars today believe Kadesh Barnea was on the southern end of the Wilderness of Zin, near the current border between Israel and Egypt.
The Book of Numbers says that while the Israelites were at Kadesh Barnea, God commanded Moses to speak to a rock to obtain water for his parched followers and their animals. When Moses struck the rock twice with his staff and water poured out, God told Moses that he would never enter the Promised Land and the Israelites continued their wandering until Moses had died. A visit to the Negev provides an explanation for God’s punishment. The Wilderness of Zin includes steep walls comprising porous rock capable of absorbing water, which remains sealed in the rock by a limestone crust that forms over time. Seepage from cracks in the crust allows plants to grow in the rocky area. Bedouins who have lived in the Wilderness of Zin have long known that if they strike the rock and shatter the crust, trapped water will flow. Moses’ sin was apparently using a desert trick when God had asked him to accept a miracle. | <urn:uuid:b80a22d9-9de7-4039-9b07-451f966f4fd7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://donknebel.com/2017/08/page/5/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00091.warc.gz | en | 0.981566 | 309 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.2868776619434... | 2 | According to the Bible, the Wilderness of Zin formed the southern boundary of the land that God had promised to the Israelites as Moses led them out of Egypt. Before God allowed the Israelites to enter their Promised Land, they spent about 40 years wandering in the wilderness, much of the time near an area called Kadesh or Kadesh Barnea. Although Josephus, the first century Jewish historian, believed Kadesh Barnea was located in Petra, most scholars today believe Kadesh Barnea was on the southern end of the Wilderness of Zin, near the current border between Israel and Egypt.
The Book of Numbers says that while the Israelites were at Kadesh Barnea, God commanded Moses to speak to a rock to obtain water for his parched followers and their animals. When Moses struck the rock twice with his staff and water poured out, God told Moses that he would never enter the Promised Land and the Israelites continued their wandering until Moses had died. A visit to the Negev provides an explanation for God’s punishment. The Wilderness of Zin includes steep walls comprising porous rock capable of absorbing water, which remains sealed in the rock by a limestone crust that forms over time. Seepage from cracks in the crust allows plants to grow in the rocky area. Bedouins who have lived in the Wilderness of Zin have long known that if they strike the rock and shatter the crust, trapped water will flow. Moses’ sin was apparently using a desert trick when God had asked him to accept a miracle. | 312 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In many, a tragedy do the tragic heroes have flaws that lead themselves to their own demise. The main character always acts exactly on his or her own emotions; thus aiding their tragic flaw and leading to their own demise without giving them the time to stop the repercussions of their emotion driven actions. In the play “Antigone” by Sophocles many of the characters are simply too headstrong and passionate about their beliefs to realize that they would greatly regret the decisions they are making.
All of the characters share this characteristic; it is alluded to in the play that this is caused by their blood relation to Oedipus and how they are too cursed. Creon displays his tragic flaw on his sleeve; this is seen in the scene where he refuses to listen to his son and chooses instead to let his pride blind his eyes to the consequences of his actions. He says, “Am I to rule this land by other judgment than mine own? ” to Haemon, in this statement he not only denies any existence of the gods or their wrath but also that no opinion will ever influence his views.
Creon does not regret his decision to imprison Antigone, which he did to save face as a king and appease his pride, until it is too late to reverse its tragic effects. The story moves itself forward, as if the Gods are setting revenge upon him for disobeying their laws, before he can manage to humble himself down enough to try to fix his mistake. If Creon had thought about his brash decision and how going against the gods and society overall as well as the impact this decision would have on his life, things might have turned out differently.
... dead and his judgment is naturally left up to the gods. However, Creon, like Antigone insists that he knows what the ... to be just over the word of the gods. Again, another brutally unrighteous act. Creon s punishment is death. Both Antigone and ... an honorable burial. Like Antigone, Creon acts to please the gods and protect the honor of Thebes. Creon is therefore protecting his own ...
He instead chooses to solely act upon his own emotions, causing his tragic flaw of pride to create a whirlwind of events before he could correct his actions. Antigone also shows similar brash qualities that allow her tragic flaw(s) of pride, stubbornness, and unyielding passion to influence her decisions and lead to her tragic death. She follows her heart and buries her brother against Creon’s decree, Antigone says “Nay, be what thou wilt; but I will bury him: well for me to die in doing that. She chooses to go along with the laws of the gods, knowing that her stubborn and fervent actions will ultimately lead to her death. Nevertheless, her existence in itself is looked down and cursed by the gods and as if fate had called for it, she kills herself to appease her stubborn and prideful nature. Her emotions fuel her decisions and before Creon can even begin to regret his own decisions and come to release her, she is dead along with the majority of his loved ones.
Haemon, much like his father, has his own tragic flaws of his loyalty and undying love for his would be wife Antigone. Who at the end of the story ends up making a tragic exit and Haemon after failing to convince his father, Creon, to release her chooses instead to hastily follow suit and meet his own tragic demise next to his lover. He makes a emotional and heartbroken choice out of pure desperation for his lost love, without considering how it would affect the people he left behind.
Unlike Creon, he didn’t have to face the fact that he caused his mother to kill herself out of despair for her lost son and left his father surrounded by the dead bodies of his loved ones. Haemon had to bear the weight of Creon’s and Antigone’s impetuous decisions after he could not stop and ended up losing to his tragic flaw of love and killing himself. These heroes’ tragic flaws would hardly amount in any despair if alone, but paired with a Greeks heroes’ tendencies to make split decisions based completely on their own emotions it becomes the key to their tragic ends.
This passionate nature is a common point among all the characters and is a major factor as to why things often go irreversibly wrong before the tragic hero has a chance to regret their choice. Without this common point aiding the tragic flaw seen in Greek characters, many stories would not end in such a despairing way.
... was at the top and in control of all. Creon realizes his tragic flaw got the best of him when he says, 'Oh ... goes to get Antigone from the cave and finds she hung herself. Then Haimon stabs himself because he loved her and couldn ... what others would think or say. Creon thought he was above everyone. Creon immediately made the decision that Polyneices would not be buried ... | <urn:uuid:7df323f1-b80d-4715-ae56-825b33fd46d8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://educheer.com/essays/tragic-hero-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00122.warc.gz | en | 0.988265 | 1,036 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.14853230118751... | 1 | In many, a tragedy do the tragic heroes have flaws that lead themselves to their own demise. The main character always acts exactly on his or her own emotions; thus aiding their tragic flaw and leading to their own demise without giving them the time to stop the repercussions of their emotion driven actions. In the play “Antigone” by Sophocles many of the characters are simply too headstrong and passionate about their beliefs to realize that they would greatly regret the decisions they are making.
All of the characters share this characteristic; it is alluded to in the play that this is caused by their blood relation to Oedipus and how they are too cursed. Creon displays his tragic flaw on his sleeve; this is seen in the scene where he refuses to listen to his son and chooses instead to let his pride blind his eyes to the consequences of his actions. He says, “Am I to rule this land by other judgment than mine own? ” to Haemon, in this statement he not only denies any existence of the gods or their wrath but also that no opinion will ever influence his views.
Creon does not regret his decision to imprison Antigone, which he did to save face as a king and appease his pride, until it is too late to reverse its tragic effects. The story moves itself forward, as if the Gods are setting revenge upon him for disobeying their laws, before he can manage to humble himself down enough to try to fix his mistake. If Creon had thought about his brash decision and how going against the gods and society overall as well as the impact this decision would have on his life, things might have turned out differently.
... dead and his judgment is naturally left up to the gods. However, Creon, like Antigone insists that he knows what the ... to be just over the word of the gods. Again, another brutally unrighteous act. Creon s punishment is death. Both Antigone and ... an honorable burial. Like Antigone, Creon acts to please the gods and protect the honor of Thebes. Creon is therefore protecting his own ...
He instead chooses to solely act upon his own emotions, causing his tragic flaw of pride to create a whirlwind of events before he could correct his actions. Antigone also shows similar brash qualities that allow her tragic flaw(s) of pride, stubbornness, and unyielding passion to influence her decisions and lead to her tragic death. She follows her heart and buries her brother against Creon’s decree, Antigone says “Nay, be what thou wilt; but I will bury him: well for me to die in doing that. She chooses to go along with the laws of the gods, knowing that her stubborn and fervent actions will ultimately lead to her death. Nevertheless, her existence in itself is looked down and cursed by the gods and as if fate had called for it, she kills herself to appease her stubborn and prideful nature. Her emotions fuel her decisions and before Creon can even begin to regret his own decisions and come to release her, she is dead along with the majority of his loved ones.
Haemon, much like his father, has his own tragic flaws of his loyalty and undying love for his would be wife Antigone. Who at the end of the story ends up making a tragic exit and Haemon after failing to convince his father, Creon, to release her chooses instead to hastily follow suit and meet his own tragic demise next to his lover. He makes a emotional and heartbroken choice out of pure desperation for his lost love, without considering how it would affect the people he left behind.
Unlike Creon, he didn’t have to face the fact that he caused his mother to kill herself out of despair for her lost son and left his father surrounded by the dead bodies of his loved ones. Haemon had to bear the weight of Creon’s and Antigone’s impetuous decisions after he could not stop and ended up losing to his tragic flaw of love and killing himself. These heroes’ tragic flaws would hardly amount in any despair if alone, but paired with a Greeks heroes’ tendencies to make split decisions based completely on their own emotions it becomes the key to their tragic ends.
This passionate nature is a common point among all the characters and is a major factor as to why things often go irreversibly wrong before the tragic hero has a chance to regret their choice. Without this common point aiding the tragic flaw seen in Greek characters, many stories would not end in such a despairing way.
... was at the top and in control of all. Creon realizes his tragic flaw got the best of him when he says, 'Oh ... goes to get Antigone from the cave and finds she hung herself. Then Haimon stabs himself because he loved her and couldn ... what others would think or say. Creon thought he was above everyone. Creon immediately made the decision that Polyneices would not be buried ... | 1,017 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Essay PreviewMore ↓
On December 7 of 1941, Japanese airplanes attacked the naval base of Pearl Harbor with a horrendous attack. With this, the 32nd president of the United States, president Franklin Delano Roosevelt, gave his famous speech. Shortly after this, the British and United States declared war on Japan. Not so long after, Germany declares war on the United States. The attack of Pearl Harbor is to be said as the starting mark of America into the war of World War II. Now technically, the war started earlier in about 1921-1922, when Adolf Hitler assumed control of the National Socialist German Workers, otherwise known as the Nazis. But the US was not involved until the Japanese suddenly attacked Pearl Harbor. The US did have an idea of the Japanese attacking America, but that is another debate. Now, if the Americans of Pearl Harbor for sure known that Japanese planes were to attack, would there be another outcome to this assault? I believe that there would. If I could go back into time and prevent something, I think I would go to Pearl Harbor and confirm and warn that the Japanese are going to attack Pearl Harbor and with that in mind the US Navy fleet would have been well prepared for such an attack seeing as though an attack from Japan was imminent. As a result of my precautions, the out come of the attack would be entirely different and the US economy today could have been different.
Regardless of the warning, the naval base of Pearl Harbor would still be attacked. The casualties would be entirely different though. During the two hour attack on Pearl Harbor, 18 warships, 188 aircraft
, and 2,403 servicemen were killed in the attack. One main reason of this was because they were all unprepared. The Japanese attacked during the waking hours of normal people. Many of the servicemen were still in the state of sleep or just starting out their day, thinking it would be an ordinary day. If they were well warned or prepared, the US would have had their aircraft
ready for war or attack. With this in mind, they would have had a better chance at retaliating against the Japanese. Their would have been more aircraft
in the air, more heavy armory engaged, better positioned, and most likely another fleet of aircraft
How to Cite this Page
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- Two months after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, in the grievances of the loss of American folks in Hawaii, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued the Executive Order 9066, demanding the departure of all persons of Japanese descent living on the West Coast and their relocation into camps under strict military scrutiny. Those who refuse to follow would be convicted and arrested. There was no exception; even veterans fought for World War I, who should have been warriors not villains, were not excluded.... [tags: Japanese American internment]
1260 words (3.6 pages)
- A. Plan of the Investigation This investigation asks the question, what was the motivation of the Japanese government behind the air attack on Pearl Harbor. To assess these motivations, the significance of Pear Harbor, the result of the attack, the overall intentions of the Japanese government, as well as the relations with them and the United States are being identified and evaluated in this investigation. In addition, the attack itself must be evaluated to have a full understanding of the attack and its intention.... [tags: US involvement in WWII]
1562 words (4.5 pages)
- "Day of Infamy" On December 7 of 1941, Japanese airplanes attacked the naval base of Pearl Harbor with a horrendous attack. With this, the 32nd president of the United States, president Franklin Delano Roosevelt, gave his famous speech. Shortly after this, the British and United States declared war on Japan. Not so long after, Germany declares war on the United States. The attack of Pearl Harbor is to be said as the starting mark of America into the war of World War II. Now technically, the war started earlier in about 1921-1922, when Adolf Hitler assumed control of the National Socialist German Workers, otherwise known as the Nazis.... [tags: American History]
1455 words (4.2 pages)
- During the morning of December 7th, 1941, Japan brutally launched a surprise attack on America that would commence four years of unforgiving battles between America and Japan. Before the attack occurred, Japan had written a 5000 word paper describing their intents and hinting that an attack was imminent, it was basically an informal declaration of war. This paper was called the 14-part message; the first half of the message was delivered to America the day before the attack began. The second half reached America at approximately 9am the morning of the attack, the message generally stated that all diplomatic relations tied between the United States and Japan would be broken off.... [tags: American history]
876 words (2.5 pages)
- The reason why President Franklin D. Roosevelt requested the war on japan was because of the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. Many Americans during this time period they communicated the sense of catastrophe and crisis the day after the Pearl Harbor. President D. Roosevelt gave an speech to congress that transmitted and showed many important points on why he was doing all this. He mentioned every that the Japan Empire was doing during those times all the attacks that they made. I have analyzed this primary source and studied what were the main things that he wanted to transmit thought this document.... [tags: World War II, United States]
1021 words (2.9 pages)
- Explain the reasons for the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour and its impact. The decision that should Japan have had attacked Pearl Harbour has divided many historians and it is still debated today. Pearl Harbour was a strategic point, located on the Hawaiian island of Oahu. Its strategic point would have indefinitely helped the Empire of Japan in succeeding world domination. As well as this Pearl harbour was a suitable location for an offence, to seize the US from interfering with Japans expanding Empire.... [tags: United States, Attack on Pearl Harbor]
1525 words (4.4 pages)
- December 7th, 1941. This was the date of one of the most important attacks on the United States in the history of America. This was the date of the Japanese attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The attack on the naval base at Pearl Harbor was the last straw that led to the United States joining World War II as part of the Allied Power. The bombing was in reaction to many economic sanctions that were placed on Japan, so the bombing was not just to make the United States mad.... [tags: japanese attack, malaya, doolittle raid]
1675 words (4.8 pages)
- Some might remember what happened on December 7, 1941 it was the day Pearl Harbor was attacked by the Japanese army. Roosevelt who was president during World War II knew, about the possibility of an attack on Pearl Harbor, but he did nothing to prevent it. Instead he provoked the Japanese army to attack first so the U.S could join the war against them, Germany, and Italy. Pearl Harbor sustained a lot of damage such as eighteen vessels sunk or heavily damaged ,many planes destroyed , and over 2,000 service men killed do to FDR’s plan idea to go to war against Germany.... [tags: World War II, Attack on Pearl Harbor]
1160 words (3.3 pages)
- - The article begins with give us the reader a look at the growing hysteria and racism of the Japanese-Americans before the event of Pearl Harbor. This show in the article by the author Yuri Kochiyama’s saying that the school world was different from the work world and that she never faced racism before. She goes on to say that you would never see a Japanese-American working in a white place. - MS: I reason I believe that she never faced racism before while in the school world is due to the fact that the school world was made mostly of young people who though that anything different was exciting and were more acceptance of change, while the work world you would have had more aged folks that... [tags: Hawaii, United States, Attack on Pearl Harbor]
1021 words (2.9 pages)
- Attack on Pearl Harbor was a very vicious attack by the Japanese on the US. On December 7, 1941 US Pearl Harbor was attacked by Japanese fighter jets. United States had been aware of a possible attack since the 1920s; the US became more involved when the Japanese invaded Manchuria. Attack on Pearl Harbor was the beginning of something big, a bloody war between the Japanese and the United States. United States was not expecting such an event; it was such an unannounced attack on the naval base in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.... [tags: Japanese, fighter jets, hawaii]
1573 words (4.5 pages)
would have been destroyed and more Americans would have survived; which would lead me to another argument. The US lost a great amount of people during the attack, either way president Roosevelt would have declared war on Japan and we would have had more soldiers to do so with.
After destroying most of Pearl Harbor, the Japanese fighter pilots had barely enough fuel to fly back over the pacific and engage in another attack. Shortly after the attack on American soil, they decided to land in and attack Clark Air Base that was in the Philippines
which at the time was under control of the British, an ally of the Americans. The force at Clark Air Base was well aware of the Japanese's coming, but none of the aircraft
of the air base were in the air; the Japanese were rubbing their eyes in disbelief. After this attack, the Japanese was the unchallenged master of the Pacific and Indian oceans. If Pearl Harbor was informed, they would have been able to take down all of the Japanese aircraft
that were involved with the attacks; then would the entire history books be different. The Americans would have had substantial amount of troops for war and positioning of the air bases would increase the efforts in winning the war. Now with Germany in the picture, the US would have a greater force entering the European wars. Not saying the amount we sent wasn't adequate, but still a greater army in size would probably decrease casualty amounts for our army and decreased the amount of time spent into the war. A less devastating attack on Pearl Harbor would have made a great difference.
Back home, in the Americas', away from the war, the US citizens had a different view about certain minorities living in the states. Mainly, the Japanese-Americans and anyone that resembled Japanese culture were affected by the reactions of other American citizens. First, the American Japanese's privacy and rights were basically taken away from them. They were constantly watched by investigators, phone wires were tapped, and even mail and interactions amongst one another were being watched upon. Suspicion led one accusation to another. The Japanese immigrants or citizens were all taken from their homes and they were told "they were being moved into a safer environment." That was a great misleading deception. These "safer environments" were nothing more than Japanese American Relocation Camps. Amongst these people were wealthy Japanese that were stripped of their high professions, land, homes, and possessions. They were forced to move to camps in the Southwestern United States. About 120,000 innocent people were sent to these horrible camps just because they were Japanese or had any traceable amount of Japanese in them. After 9/11 we didn't send Middle Eastern people or anyone with Middle Eastern decent into relocation camps. Was this a right act? Most Japanese before relocation were small landowners in California and alone produced 35% of California's crop production. They had a great population in the western coast. Their land then was seized and sold to white Americans. With that happening, the production of crops lowered. The Japanese were taken away just because the US believed that anyone of them could be a spy. If Pearl Harbor was less devastating, who knows, maybe the US would have thought otherwise about the Japanese Americans living in the states. There would be a difference in the Japanese population of right now and back then. The state of California, which had the greatest population of Japanese at the time, could now have a lot more successful Japanese Americans. We see how our Japanese associates, in Japan, views on education a lot more challenging than the US. The Japanese have great educational systems by which they produce a lot more "professionals". The US could probably learn a few things about their "competitive" education. Maybe, if the Japanese Americans would have been treated less cruelly,the US would have had a better economy if the Japanese farmers still owned their land. After released from the camps, the Japanese had nothing. Everything of theirs was destroyed or sold. Historians, of the YSA, state that the U.S. capitalists' class became involved in WWII for purely economic reasons. I believed that if the Japanese still had their land today, the US would be entirely different, seeing as though most of this land was in California, which is a state with a lot of involvement in today's economic system.
"Yesterday, December 7, 1941 a date which will live in infamy the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by the naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan," stated Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Would this speech have kept it words if they were informed? This was how FDR opened his speech to the congress and the United States. At this point, the United States was hurt by the Japanese attack. Pre-warning of the US could have led to a better defense and a more confident army, which would lead to other better things. It was unavoidable that the US was going to enter World War II. It was accepted that the Axis of Power would put up a tough fight. But the attack on Pearl Harbor was the start of it for the United States. An informed army would have changed many things, especially the fact that the Empire of Japan would have been greatly weakened and morale for them would be destroyed, showing that it is not easy to make the US fall. In conclusion, with precaution of attack on Pearl Harbor, the beginning of the US' involvement with World War II would be an entirely different story. I guess Secretary of Interior Harold Ickes was right, "For a long time I have believed that our best entrance into the war would be by way of Japan." | <urn:uuid:62d23911-91f0-4450-a64b-1ff9179f80f7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.123helpme.com/japanese-attack-on-pearl-harbor-view.asp?id=156703 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00253.warc.gz | en | 0.983726 | 2,979 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.67722618579864... | 1 | Essay PreviewMore ↓
On December 7 of 1941, Japanese airplanes attacked the naval base of Pearl Harbor with a horrendous attack. With this, the 32nd president of the United States, president Franklin Delano Roosevelt, gave his famous speech. Shortly after this, the British and United States declared war on Japan. Not so long after, Germany declares war on the United States. The attack of Pearl Harbor is to be said as the starting mark of America into the war of World War II. Now technically, the war started earlier in about 1921-1922, when Adolf Hitler assumed control of the National Socialist German Workers, otherwise known as the Nazis. But the US was not involved until the Japanese suddenly attacked Pearl Harbor. The US did have an idea of the Japanese attacking America, but that is another debate. Now, if the Americans of Pearl Harbor for sure known that Japanese planes were to attack, would there be another outcome to this assault? I believe that there would. If I could go back into time and prevent something, I think I would go to Pearl Harbor and confirm and warn that the Japanese are going to attack Pearl Harbor and with that in mind the US Navy fleet would have been well prepared for such an attack seeing as though an attack from Japan was imminent. As a result of my precautions, the out come of the attack would be entirely different and the US economy today could have been different.
Regardless of the warning, the naval base of Pearl Harbor would still be attacked. The casualties would be entirely different though. During the two hour attack on Pearl Harbor, 18 warships, 188 aircraft
, and 2,403 servicemen were killed in the attack. One main reason of this was because they were all unprepared. The Japanese attacked during the waking hours of normal people. Many of the servicemen were still in the state of sleep or just starting out their day, thinking it would be an ordinary day. If they were well warned or prepared, the US would have had their aircraft
ready for war or attack. With this in mind, they would have had a better chance at retaliating against the Japanese. Their would have been more aircraft
in the air, more heavy armory engaged, better positioned, and most likely another fleet of aircraft
How to Cite this Page
"Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor." 123HelpMe.com. 22 Jan 2020
Need Writing Help?
Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper »
- Two months after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, in the grievances of the loss of American folks in Hawaii, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued the Executive Order 9066, demanding the departure of all persons of Japanese descent living on the West Coast and their relocation into camps under strict military scrutiny. Those who refuse to follow would be convicted and arrested. There was no exception; even veterans fought for World War I, who should have been warriors not villains, were not excluded.... [tags: Japanese American internment]
1260 words (3.6 pages)
- A. Plan of the Investigation This investigation asks the question, what was the motivation of the Japanese government behind the air attack on Pearl Harbor. To assess these motivations, the significance of Pear Harbor, the result of the attack, the overall intentions of the Japanese government, as well as the relations with them and the United States are being identified and evaluated in this investigation. In addition, the attack itself must be evaluated to have a full understanding of the attack and its intention.... [tags: US involvement in WWII]
1562 words (4.5 pages)
- "Day of Infamy" On December 7 of 1941, Japanese airplanes attacked the naval base of Pearl Harbor with a horrendous attack. With this, the 32nd president of the United States, president Franklin Delano Roosevelt, gave his famous speech. Shortly after this, the British and United States declared war on Japan. Not so long after, Germany declares war on the United States. The attack of Pearl Harbor is to be said as the starting mark of America into the war of World War II. Now technically, the war started earlier in about 1921-1922, when Adolf Hitler assumed control of the National Socialist German Workers, otherwise known as the Nazis.... [tags: American History]
1455 words (4.2 pages)
- During the morning of December 7th, 1941, Japan brutally launched a surprise attack on America that would commence four years of unforgiving battles between America and Japan. Before the attack occurred, Japan had written a 5000 word paper describing their intents and hinting that an attack was imminent, it was basically an informal declaration of war. This paper was called the 14-part message; the first half of the message was delivered to America the day before the attack began. The second half reached America at approximately 9am the morning of the attack, the message generally stated that all diplomatic relations tied between the United States and Japan would be broken off.... [tags: American history]
876 words (2.5 pages)
- The reason why President Franklin D. Roosevelt requested the war on japan was because of the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. Many Americans during this time period they communicated the sense of catastrophe and crisis the day after the Pearl Harbor. President D. Roosevelt gave an speech to congress that transmitted and showed many important points on why he was doing all this. He mentioned every that the Japan Empire was doing during those times all the attacks that they made. I have analyzed this primary source and studied what were the main things that he wanted to transmit thought this document.... [tags: World War II, United States]
1021 words (2.9 pages)
- Explain the reasons for the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour and its impact. The decision that should Japan have had attacked Pearl Harbour has divided many historians and it is still debated today. Pearl Harbour was a strategic point, located on the Hawaiian island of Oahu. Its strategic point would have indefinitely helped the Empire of Japan in succeeding world domination. As well as this Pearl harbour was a suitable location for an offence, to seize the US from interfering with Japans expanding Empire.... [tags: United States, Attack on Pearl Harbor]
1525 words (4.4 pages)
- December 7th, 1941. This was the date of one of the most important attacks on the United States in the history of America. This was the date of the Japanese attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The attack on the naval base at Pearl Harbor was the last straw that led to the United States joining World War II as part of the Allied Power. The bombing was in reaction to many economic sanctions that were placed on Japan, so the bombing was not just to make the United States mad.... [tags: japanese attack, malaya, doolittle raid]
1675 words (4.8 pages)
- Some might remember what happened on December 7, 1941 it was the day Pearl Harbor was attacked by the Japanese army. Roosevelt who was president during World War II knew, about the possibility of an attack on Pearl Harbor, but he did nothing to prevent it. Instead he provoked the Japanese army to attack first so the U.S could join the war against them, Germany, and Italy. Pearl Harbor sustained a lot of damage such as eighteen vessels sunk or heavily damaged ,many planes destroyed , and over 2,000 service men killed do to FDR’s plan idea to go to war against Germany.... [tags: World War II, Attack on Pearl Harbor]
1160 words (3.3 pages)
- - The article begins with give us the reader a look at the growing hysteria and racism of the Japanese-Americans before the event of Pearl Harbor. This show in the article by the author Yuri Kochiyama’s saying that the school world was different from the work world and that she never faced racism before. She goes on to say that you would never see a Japanese-American working in a white place. - MS: I reason I believe that she never faced racism before while in the school world is due to the fact that the school world was made mostly of young people who though that anything different was exciting and were more acceptance of change, while the work world you would have had more aged folks that... [tags: Hawaii, United States, Attack on Pearl Harbor]
1021 words (2.9 pages)
- Attack on Pearl Harbor was a very vicious attack by the Japanese on the US. On December 7, 1941 US Pearl Harbor was attacked by Japanese fighter jets. United States had been aware of a possible attack since the 1920s; the US became more involved when the Japanese invaded Manchuria. Attack on Pearl Harbor was the beginning of something big, a bloody war between the Japanese and the United States. United States was not expecting such an event; it was such an unannounced attack on the naval base in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.... [tags: Japanese, fighter jets, hawaii]
1573 words (4.5 pages)
would have been destroyed and more Americans would have survived; which would lead me to another argument. The US lost a great amount of people during the attack, either way president Roosevelt would have declared war on Japan and we would have had more soldiers to do so with.
After destroying most of Pearl Harbor, the Japanese fighter pilots had barely enough fuel to fly back over the pacific and engage in another attack. Shortly after the attack on American soil, they decided to land in and attack Clark Air Base that was in the Philippines
which at the time was under control of the British, an ally of the Americans. The force at Clark Air Base was well aware of the Japanese's coming, but none of the aircraft
of the air base were in the air; the Japanese were rubbing their eyes in disbelief. After this attack, the Japanese was the unchallenged master of the Pacific and Indian oceans. If Pearl Harbor was informed, they would have been able to take down all of the Japanese aircraft
that were involved with the attacks; then would the entire history books be different. The Americans would have had substantial amount of troops for war and positioning of the air bases would increase the efforts in winning the war. Now with Germany in the picture, the US would have a greater force entering the European wars. Not saying the amount we sent wasn't adequate, but still a greater army in size would probably decrease casualty amounts for our army and decreased the amount of time spent into the war. A less devastating attack on Pearl Harbor would have made a great difference.
Back home, in the Americas', away from the war, the US citizens had a different view about certain minorities living in the states. Mainly, the Japanese-Americans and anyone that resembled Japanese culture were affected by the reactions of other American citizens. First, the American Japanese's privacy and rights were basically taken away from them. They were constantly watched by investigators, phone wires were tapped, and even mail and interactions amongst one another were being watched upon. Suspicion led one accusation to another. The Japanese immigrants or citizens were all taken from their homes and they were told "they were being moved into a safer environment." That was a great misleading deception. These "safer environments" were nothing more than Japanese American Relocation Camps. Amongst these people were wealthy Japanese that were stripped of their high professions, land, homes, and possessions. They were forced to move to camps in the Southwestern United States. About 120,000 innocent people were sent to these horrible camps just because they were Japanese or had any traceable amount of Japanese in them. After 9/11 we didn't send Middle Eastern people or anyone with Middle Eastern decent into relocation camps. Was this a right act? Most Japanese before relocation were small landowners in California and alone produced 35% of California's crop production. They had a great population in the western coast. Their land then was seized and sold to white Americans. With that happening, the production of crops lowered. The Japanese were taken away just because the US believed that anyone of them could be a spy. If Pearl Harbor was less devastating, who knows, maybe the US would have thought otherwise about the Japanese Americans living in the states. There would be a difference in the Japanese population of right now and back then. The state of California, which had the greatest population of Japanese at the time, could now have a lot more successful Japanese Americans. We see how our Japanese associates, in Japan, views on education a lot more challenging than the US. The Japanese have great educational systems by which they produce a lot more "professionals". The US could probably learn a few things about their "competitive" education. Maybe, if the Japanese Americans would have been treated less cruelly,the US would have had a better economy if the Japanese farmers still owned their land. After released from the camps, the Japanese had nothing. Everything of theirs was destroyed or sold. Historians, of the YSA, state that the U.S. capitalists' class became involved in WWII for purely economic reasons. I believed that if the Japanese still had their land today, the US would be entirely different, seeing as though most of this land was in California, which is a state with a lot of involvement in today's economic system.
"Yesterday, December 7, 1941 a date which will live in infamy the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by the naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan," stated Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Would this speech have kept it words if they were informed? This was how FDR opened his speech to the congress and the United States. At this point, the United States was hurt by the Japanese attack. Pre-warning of the US could have led to a better defense and a more confident army, which would lead to other better things. It was unavoidable that the US was going to enter World War II. It was accepted that the Axis of Power would put up a tough fight. But the attack on Pearl Harbor was the start of it for the United States. An informed army would have changed many things, especially the fact that the Empire of Japan would have been greatly weakened and morale for them would be destroyed, showing that it is not easy to make the US fall. In conclusion, with precaution of attack on Pearl Harbor, the beginning of the US' involvement with World War II would be an entirely different story. I guess Secretary of Interior Harold Ickes was right, "For a long time I have believed that our best entrance into the war would be by way of Japan." | 3,054 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The town was settled primarily by Irish and Scotch-Irish immigrants. The tavern of the town served as the first courthouse of Westmoreland county, and being located so far west, became the primary outpost for settlers and travelers. This was the one stop shop for the colonial frontier of western Pennsylvania.
The inhabitants of Hanna's Town were Patriots through and through. Prior to the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, the Hanna's Town Resolves were penned and signed in May of 1775. The Resolves directly challenged British authority, and was one of the first towns to do so. This act was prior to the Declaration of Independence. Westmoreland county residents made it clear that they would take whatever actions necessary to defend their rights.
Hanna's Town became instrumental in recruiting militia for the western campaign against the British and Native American allies. Hanna's town was attacked on July 13, 1782 by The King's 8th regiment out of Fort Niagra and their Seneca allies. The settlement was burned to the ground. Most of the inhabitants did remain safe within the fort, however, every home was destroyed. This act was one of the final battles of the Revolutionary War.
After the destruction, the town collapsed and the land was farmed for 140 years.
In 1969, the property was purchased by Westmoreland County in collaboration with the Westmoreland Historical Society. The farmland preserved over a million artifacts, and has become an invaluable resource for the study of colonial life. Excavations still continue, and students are invited to observe the archaeologists at work. Reconstruction efforts of the site began and it was added to the National Register of Historic Places. Today, Historic Hanna's Town is a county park and historic site interpreted by the Westmoreland Historical Society, which has its headquarters on the property.
Historic Hanna's Town is an excellent resource for education. It boasts a recreated town, frontier reenactments, antiques and collectibles market, and day camps for children that educates them on what life was like for children on the frontier. The site tour includes the reconstructed Hanna's Tavern, a reconstructed fort, jail, and authentic Conestoga wagon. Each summer, Hanna's Town hosts Frontier Court Days, where visitors can witness reenacted court cases once held at Hanna's Town. | <urn:uuid:2ab582c8-c5e0-46e8-9a2a-6ac401362569> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/15425 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00179.warc.gz | en | 0.981651 | 466 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.245607... | 2 | The town was settled primarily by Irish and Scotch-Irish immigrants. The tavern of the town served as the first courthouse of Westmoreland county, and being located so far west, became the primary outpost for settlers and travelers. This was the one stop shop for the colonial frontier of western Pennsylvania.
The inhabitants of Hanna's Town were Patriots through and through. Prior to the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, the Hanna's Town Resolves were penned and signed in May of 1775. The Resolves directly challenged British authority, and was one of the first towns to do so. This act was prior to the Declaration of Independence. Westmoreland county residents made it clear that they would take whatever actions necessary to defend their rights.
Hanna's Town became instrumental in recruiting militia for the western campaign against the British and Native American allies. Hanna's town was attacked on July 13, 1782 by The King's 8th regiment out of Fort Niagra and their Seneca allies. The settlement was burned to the ground. Most of the inhabitants did remain safe within the fort, however, every home was destroyed. This act was one of the final battles of the Revolutionary War.
After the destruction, the town collapsed and the land was farmed for 140 years.
In 1969, the property was purchased by Westmoreland County in collaboration with the Westmoreland Historical Society. The farmland preserved over a million artifacts, and has become an invaluable resource for the study of colonial life. Excavations still continue, and students are invited to observe the archaeologists at work. Reconstruction efforts of the site began and it was added to the National Register of Historic Places. Today, Historic Hanna's Town is a county park and historic site interpreted by the Westmoreland Historical Society, which has its headquarters on the property.
Historic Hanna's Town is an excellent resource for education. It boasts a recreated town, frontier reenactments, antiques and collectibles market, and day camps for children that educates them on what life was like for children on the frontier. The site tour includes the reconstructed Hanna's Tavern, a reconstructed fort, jail, and authentic Conestoga wagon. Each summer, Hanna's Town hosts Frontier Court Days, where visitors can witness reenacted court cases once held at Hanna's Town. | 478 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When John Winthrop and other members of the Massachusetts Bay Colony first settled in Boston in 1630, they soon discovered in the back woods an English nobleman already in residence – Sir Christopher Gardiner.
Gardiner lived in what is now North Quincy on the Neponset River. Moreover, he had company. He had household servants and a much younger woman with him, ‘a comely young woman whom he called his cousin, but it was suspected she (after the Italian manner) was his concubine,’ Bradford wrote.
Sir Christopher Gardiner
Bradford and Winthrop, his fellow governor to the north, both had suspicions of Sir Christopher Gardiner. They took no immediate action against him, however, or his companion Mary Grove.
Gardiner explained his presence by saying he had simply tired of life in England and wanted to live peacefully in the New England wilderness. How he arrived was something of a mystery, as no ships had sailed for New England in 1630 that would account for his presence.
Historians reckon he came over on a fishing vessel and arrived via Maine. At this time, the ownership of Massachusetts was very much in dispute. The Massachusetts Bay Company had an official charter, but so did Robert Gorges. He couldn’t accomplish much by way of settling the land, though, and his brother was still pursuing it.
If Winthrop and Bradford suspected Gardiner was in New England snooping to see what was happening on behalf of Gorges, they would have been correct. Both Gardiner and Thomas Morton, living near Gardiner at his Merrymount enclave, were agents of Gorges. Morton was actively feuding with the Pilgrims, who despised his close connections with the Native Americans and his morals, which were judged too loose for the times.
Truce and Consequences
In late 1630, however, word arrived from England shedding more light on Gardiner’s background. It turned out he had a good reason for not wanting to be in England. Not only was he consorting with Mary Grove, he had two wives waiting for him in London. The first said he had married her and abandoned her years earlier in Paris. The second said they married far more recently, and he had not only left, but stolen from her as part of the bargain.
The first Lady Gardiner wanted Christopher Gardiner returned to England. The second wanted him dead. Armed with this new intelligence, the magistrates in March of 1631 ordered Gardiner be returned to England on the Lyon setting sail in April. (The Lyon had brought Roger Williams to the colony.)
When the magistrates tried to enforce the order, however, they found Gardiner had fled into the woods with his sword, his gun and a dagger. He left Mary behind.
All the Puritans could learn from Mary was that Sir Christopher was a knight and that he claimed to have been married, but divorced. She also confessed that the two had been Catholics.
The divorce claim has a ring of some historical truth. Gardiner was from the English family of Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, who was instrumental in obtaining a divorce from the Catholic Church for King Henry VIII.
After he fled, Christopher Gardiner prepared to live off the land. His first thought was to flee to the Dutch Colony in New York. He soon abandoned the idea, however, and was living in the woods near Taunton, Mass. Members of the Pokanoket tribe visited Bradford and asked what they should do about Sir Christopher Gardiner. As Gardiner was armed, the Pokanoke’s were inclined to kill him.
Bradford told them, however, that if they captured him he would pay them.
The Pokanokets waited for their opportunity. When they caught Sir Christopher Gardiner separated from his sword and gun, they confronted him. He threatened them with a knife, so his pursuers subdued him by beating him with sticks.
Once handed over to Bradford, Sir Christopher Gardiner was well-treated and returned to Boston. It was now well known that he was an agent of Gorges, and Gardiner was at something of a standoff with the Boston leaders. But it didn’t last long.
In the summer of 1631, Thomas Purchase of Maine had traveled to Boston on business. While the scandalous history of Mary Grove no doubt was well known, women were in short supply and Purchase fell in love with and married her.
When the two married, Sir Christopher apparently came along as part of the deal. Purchase and his new wife went back to Maine, and Sir Christopher went with them. He remained there for another year before returning to England. There he joined in a case against the Puritans, trying to force them to yield their claims in New England to Gorges.
Unsuccessful, Sir Christopher Gardiner contributed a bitter poem about New Englanders to Morton’s book, New England Canaan, in which the two blasted the Puritans. They blamed them for settling of New England, branding them wolves in sheep’s clothing. Gardiner’s poem read:
Wolves in sheep’s clothing, why will ye
Think to deceive God that doth see
Your simulated sanctity?
For my part, I do wish you could
Your own infirmities behold,
For then you would not be so bold.
Like Sophists, why will you dispute
With wisdom so?—You do confute
None but yourselves. For shame, be mute!
Lest great Jehovah, with his power,
Do come upon you in an hour
When you least think, and you devour.
Mary Grove apparently lived happily with Thomas Purchase until she died in 1656. Gardiner’s story has been retold and fictionalized many times, most famously in Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s poem, The Rhyme of Sir Christopher. An interesting factual account was published in Harper’s Monthly.
This story about Sir Christopher Gardiner was updated in 2018. | <urn:uuid:43bd26b6-81ce-430b-a65f-b915b5e603fa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/sir-christopher-gardiner-knight-fled-boston-fear-wife/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00015.warc.gz | en | 0.989118 | 1,251 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.2260... | 3 | When John Winthrop and other members of the Massachusetts Bay Colony first settled in Boston in 1630, they soon discovered in the back woods an English nobleman already in residence – Sir Christopher Gardiner.
Gardiner lived in what is now North Quincy on the Neponset River. Moreover, he had company. He had household servants and a much younger woman with him, ‘a comely young woman whom he called his cousin, but it was suspected she (after the Italian manner) was his concubine,’ Bradford wrote.
Sir Christopher Gardiner
Bradford and Winthrop, his fellow governor to the north, both had suspicions of Sir Christopher Gardiner. They took no immediate action against him, however, or his companion Mary Grove.
Gardiner explained his presence by saying he had simply tired of life in England and wanted to live peacefully in the New England wilderness. How he arrived was something of a mystery, as no ships had sailed for New England in 1630 that would account for his presence.
Historians reckon he came over on a fishing vessel and arrived via Maine. At this time, the ownership of Massachusetts was very much in dispute. The Massachusetts Bay Company had an official charter, but so did Robert Gorges. He couldn’t accomplish much by way of settling the land, though, and his brother was still pursuing it.
If Winthrop and Bradford suspected Gardiner was in New England snooping to see what was happening on behalf of Gorges, they would have been correct. Both Gardiner and Thomas Morton, living near Gardiner at his Merrymount enclave, were agents of Gorges. Morton was actively feuding with the Pilgrims, who despised his close connections with the Native Americans and his morals, which were judged too loose for the times.
Truce and Consequences
In late 1630, however, word arrived from England shedding more light on Gardiner’s background. It turned out he had a good reason for not wanting to be in England. Not only was he consorting with Mary Grove, he had two wives waiting for him in London. The first said he had married her and abandoned her years earlier in Paris. The second said they married far more recently, and he had not only left, but stolen from her as part of the bargain.
The first Lady Gardiner wanted Christopher Gardiner returned to England. The second wanted him dead. Armed with this new intelligence, the magistrates in March of 1631 ordered Gardiner be returned to England on the Lyon setting sail in April. (The Lyon had brought Roger Williams to the colony.)
When the magistrates tried to enforce the order, however, they found Gardiner had fled into the woods with his sword, his gun and a dagger. He left Mary behind.
All the Puritans could learn from Mary was that Sir Christopher was a knight and that he claimed to have been married, but divorced. She also confessed that the two had been Catholics.
The divorce claim has a ring of some historical truth. Gardiner was from the English family of Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, who was instrumental in obtaining a divorce from the Catholic Church for King Henry VIII.
After he fled, Christopher Gardiner prepared to live off the land. His first thought was to flee to the Dutch Colony in New York. He soon abandoned the idea, however, and was living in the woods near Taunton, Mass. Members of the Pokanoket tribe visited Bradford and asked what they should do about Sir Christopher Gardiner. As Gardiner was armed, the Pokanoke’s were inclined to kill him.
Bradford told them, however, that if they captured him he would pay them.
The Pokanokets waited for their opportunity. When they caught Sir Christopher Gardiner separated from his sword and gun, they confronted him. He threatened them with a knife, so his pursuers subdued him by beating him with sticks.
Once handed over to Bradford, Sir Christopher Gardiner was well-treated and returned to Boston. It was now well known that he was an agent of Gorges, and Gardiner was at something of a standoff with the Boston leaders. But it didn’t last long.
In the summer of 1631, Thomas Purchase of Maine had traveled to Boston on business. While the scandalous history of Mary Grove no doubt was well known, women were in short supply and Purchase fell in love with and married her.
When the two married, Sir Christopher apparently came along as part of the deal. Purchase and his new wife went back to Maine, and Sir Christopher went with them. He remained there for another year before returning to England. There he joined in a case against the Puritans, trying to force them to yield their claims in New England to Gorges.
Unsuccessful, Sir Christopher Gardiner contributed a bitter poem about New Englanders to Morton’s book, New England Canaan, in which the two blasted the Puritans. They blamed them for settling of New England, branding them wolves in sheep’s clothing. Gardiner’s poem read:
Wolves in sheep’s clothing, why will ye
Think to deceive God that doth see
Your simulated sanctity?
For my part, I do wish you could
Your own infirmities behold,
For then you would not be so bold.
Like Sophists, why will you dispute
With wisdom so?—You do confute
None but yourselves. For shame, be mute!
Lest great Jehovah, with his power,
Do come upon you in an hour
When you least think, and you devour.
Mary Grove apparently lived happily with Thomas Purchase until she died in 1656. Gardiner’s story has been retold and fictionalized many times, most famously in Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s poem, The Rhyme of Sir Christopher. An interesting factual account was published in Harper’s Monthly.
This story about Sir Christopher Gardiner was updated in 2018. | 1,220 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"Why was the civil war so long and so bloody?"
In 1860 the average American believed that they were living the happiest and luckiest a person could be. They were generally living better than their fathers, and looked forward to their children prospering more than themselves. However, at the time America had developed into two very different societies between the North and the South. These changing societies were beginning to adjust to the start of the industrial revolution in separate ways.
In the North slavery had died out as it did not pay. However, in the South in had begun to prosper greatly. This was due to the invention of the cotton gin in 1793 which allowed large amounts of cotton to be raised using slave labour. The North was in favour of the abolition of slavery, this was partly to help ease their conscience. Also they knew that financial loss would not really be felt in the North if the abolition went through. The issue of slave abolition was one important during the civil war and in one of Lincoln's speeches he summed up the feeling of the nation "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free"
On March 4th 1861 Abraham Lincoln was made President of the United States. However, on December 20th South Carolina seceded from the Union. By February 8th Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana and Texas had set up a new nation called the Confederate States of America with Jefferson Davis as their President.
When the war began it was a slight shock to both sides, this was due to neither one truly wanting, or believing, that they'd fight. In the North, it was viewed that the talks of fighting was just a counter in politics, and threats were used to get what you want, calling their bluff. The South on the other hand didn't realise that the Federal Union meant so much to the North, and presumed that the North would be happy to be rid of slave owners and any obligations to the slaves. The South also believed that the North would not have the strength or people to form a worthy army. However, on April 23rd 1961 the war began, and it turned out to be the bloodiest in America's history. More that 620,000 American soldiers died during the war, more that World War One, World War Two and Korea combined.
One of the first battles which took place was at Bull Run in Virginia, this battle was significant in demonstrating that victory was not going to be quick or easy for either side. Most of the Navy was in the hands of the Union and the Secretary of the Navy began to strengthen it which allowed Lincoln to set up a barrier to the Southern states. This helped to stop many shipments of cotton to Europe as well as the importation of clothing and medical supplies which the South needed.
The South had thought that if the Union cut of their cotton shipments to Britain then they would give support to the Confederacy. This did not transpire though, as Britain began to get their cotton from Egypt. Also, Britain was opposed to slavery and so gave any support to the North.
In 1962 a Union fleet was able to penetrate the mouth of the Mississippi river allowing them to get close enough to New Orleans, Louisiana to get surrender. This was an important win as New Orleans was the largest city in the South and it meant that the Union was able to advance 320 km further into the middle of the confederate.
General Robert Lee's first invasion of the North took place September 16th to 18th 1862. The battle was known as the Shaftsbury battle by the South and the battle of Antietam by the North. This was due to the battle taking place in the fields bordering Antietam Creek near the town of Shaftsbury, Maryland. The 17th September saw one of America's bloodiest days in history. By the evening of the 18th Lee ordered his Army back and the North did as well due to so many men injured or dead. The battle finished with more than 23,000 casualties, more...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | <urn:uuid:59bd12d5-abc5-4f6e-ba10-15746332970b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Why-Civil-War-So-Long-And-So-Bloody-64955563.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00185.warc.gz | en | 0.990573 | 832 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.5303178429603577... | 1 | "Why was the civil war so long and so bloody?"
In 1860 the average American believed that they were living the happiest and luckiest a person could be. They were generally living better than their fathers, and looked forward to their children prospering more than themselves. However, at the time America had developed into two very different societies between the North and the South. These changing societies were beginning to adjust to the start of the industrial revolution in separate ways.
In the North slavery had died out as it did not pay. However, in the South in had begun to prosper greatly. This was due to the invention of the cotton gin in 1793 which allowed large amounts of cotton to be raised using slave labour. The North was in favour of the abolition of slavery, this was partly to help ease their conscience. Also they knew that financial loss would not really be felt in the North if the abolition went through. The issue of slave abolition was one important during the civil war and in one of Lincoln's speeches he summed up the feeling of the nation "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free"
On March 4th 1861 Abraham Lincoln was made President of the United States. However, on December 20th South Carolina seceded from the Union. By February 8th Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana and Texas had set up a new nation called the Confederate States of America with Jefferson Davis as their President.
When the war began it was a slight shock to both sides, this was due to neither one truly wanting, or believing, that they'd fight. In the North, it was viewed that the talks of fighting was just a counter in politics, and threats were used to get what you want, calling their bluff. The South on the other hand didn't realise that the Federal Union meant so much to the North, and presumed that the North would be happy to be rid of slave owners and any obligations to the slaves. The South also believed that the North would not have the strength or people to form a worthy army. However, on April 23rd 1961 the war began, and it turned out to be the bloodiest in America's history. More that 620,000 American soldiers died during the war, more that World War One, World War Two and Korea combined.
One of the first battles which took place was at Bull Run in Virginia, this battle was significant in demonstrating that victory was not going to be quick or easy for either side. Most of the Navy was in the hands of the Union and the Secretary of the Navy began to strengthen it which allowed Lincoln to set up a barrier to the Southern states. This helped to stop many shipments of cotton to Europe as well as the importation of clothing and medical supplies which the South needed.
The South had thought that if the Union cut of their cotton shipments to Britain then they would give support to the Confederacy. This did not transpire though, as Britain began to get their cotton from Egypt. Also, Britain was opposed to slavery and so gave any support to the North.
In 1962 a Union fleet was able to penetrate the mouth of the Mississippi river allowing them to get close enough to New Orleans, Louisiana to get surrender. This was an important win as New Orleans was the largest city in the South and it meant that the Union was able to advance 320 km further into the middle of the confederate.
General Robert Lee's first invasion of the North took place September 16th to 18th 1862. The battle was known as the Shaftsbury battle by the South and the battle of Antietam by the North. This was due to the battle taking place in the fields bordering Antietam Creek near the town of Shaftsbury, Maryland. The 17th September saw one of America's bloodiest days in history. By the evening of the 18th Lee ordered his Army back and the North did as well due to so many men injured or dead. The battle finished with more than 23,000 casualties, more...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | 871 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Apart from the language and setting as components that instigate characterization, the early realists created identity and individuality for their characters. Urban overpopulation resulted in the poor living in appalling and overcrowded housing conditions. Answered Trouble using ezplot and matlabFunction on a symbolic function defined using symengine “piecewise” If you have Rb and the Symbolic Math Toolbox installed, you can just use the piecewise function: Chapter two will discuss the theories to be used for the research study which are realism and feminism. Our Mutual Friend is a representation of the fragmented human bodies which are used as metaphors for divided human relationships, families and societies, which further parallel the extremely dehumanized and acquisitive Victorian society Mitsuharu. If I understand your question correctly, the list of properties returned by opengl are:
Alcoholism defeats psychological growth and also causes lack of ambition as the alcohol drinker is always in a state of drunkenness. Being a socially conscious writer, Dickens depicts the world in which he lives, as a strategy to raise awareness in his readers of what was really happening, and hopefully, to bring social reforms. Young inmates were even more vulnerable to malnutrition and winter diseases as their workhouse uniforms were not designed to withstand harsh English winters. In his speech he said: A constant conflict is waged between goodness and evil, innocence and corruption. At night they wore nothing at all, night dresses being considered too good for paupers. Social reformers such as Beatrice Webb and Clara Collet were particularly interested in the:
This realistic depiction of barefooted children being fed on bread and gruel reveals the lack of care that was given to workhouse inmates, especially the vulnerable children. Charles Dickens has been chosen for this area of study because of his concern for the poor and his discussion surrounding the plight of women and children. Women were supposed to be educated in issues that involved domesticity. Being a socially conscious writer, Dickens depicts the world in which he lives, as a strategy to raise awareness in his readers of what was really happening, and hopefully, to bring social reforms.
The home was also sanctified as an island of tranquillity and obedience which was a blessing to the patriarchal rule of the male head who completely controlled the spouse and barred her from the public life of politics and economy.
Asertion from the language and setting as components that instigate characterization, the early realists created identity and individuality for their characters. Because of poverty, children were forced into child labour and forced to work as chimney sweepers and they could crawl up the twelve by fourteen inch chimneys, some as small as seven inches square, so that they would clean out the annual average of forty gallons of soot that was deposited there.
Prostitution is another degrading behaviour in which Nancy in Oliver Twist engages in order to survive. Working as a reporter in the Courts and Parliament provided him with first hand background information of the inner workings of the justice system which would later appear in many of his novels, particularly Bleak House. Dickens cannot be perceived as a mere novelist, assertipn or journalist, but his works have certainly proved to be more than fiction as he was also socially involved in helping the poor.
Jenelle Evans heads back to court with David Eason to fight for custody of kids The earliest conception of the fallen woman in the Victorian society was the prostitute because of her loss of purity through sexual transgression.
Sally Al Khamees – MATLAB Central
Some boys became rat catchers and they were required to use arsenic to poison the rats, but as this could be expensive, they could also use a ferret to flush the rats out and kill them Kelsey 1.
Sowerberry the undertaker and assigned the role of a funeral mute. Horses, scarcely better; splashed to their very blinkers. Many of the individual members should themselves turn a questioning eye upon its ethos and seek to repudiate or meliorate those unamiable traits that were commonly ascribed to it.
To be classed as realist, a novel must be addressed with all seriousness and in some actuality to the broad average of humanity, and it must imply strongly that the facts narrated may be paralleled, though perhaps on a smaller scale and with less intensity in the lives of the reader and his associates 2.
Joe is similar to Mrs. Most of these children were orphans who were taken from workhouses and they could be apprenticed by the factory owners: Death is a symbol of loss of life, just like Oliver has lost his parents. In their homes, the factory workers and their families led lives which lacked privacy: When Victoria ascended to the throne, Britain was essentially agrarian and rural, but by the time of her death, the country was vastly urbanized and largely industrialized.
Rejected upcat essay questions compilation – Pacific rim neon genesis comparison essay
See for example the result of: Martin defends Game of Thrones writers and says they ‘only had eight hours’ to wrap up saga as petition to remake finale hits 1. This account is not fictional, fxiled it is a true incident because the evidence was extracted from the Westbury Manor Museum as an archives. Not only were workhouse inmates victims of starvation, but they were also flogged and detained as if they were in prison. Moreover, the education system offered to the poor was quite inefficient as illustrated by Charles Dickens in Great Expectations: Ultimately, the poor are left to work harder and cousework are treated inhumanely.
Rejected upcat essay questions compilation
Dickens juxtaposes the lives of the poor and that of the middle class in order to portray the different lifestyles led by the two classes, and to raise social consciousness in the reader.
In as much as Dickens is a reformist, he is also as a moralist, who strongly believes in upholding good morals in society and if the world is full of people assertjon are morally upright like Mr.
Therefore, his child characters represent real children with actual experiences and backgrounds such as poverty, orphanage, neglect and deprivation of education.
cuorsework Eighteenth century poets such as William Blake also criticized child labour through his poem: Although the Industrial Revolution fostered urban growth, it is unfortunate that the number of the poor also increased. A statement from the Academy said: You cannot view any other answer beside your own on Cody Coursework.
Then, she gave the knife a final smart wipe on the edge of the plaister, and then sawed a very thick round off the loaf, hewed into two halves, of which Joe got one, and I the other. | <urn:uuid:781ff7ff-3910-4078-a0b1-a3f203208a00> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://dolot.info/cody-coursework-assertion-failed-58/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00389.warc.gz | en | 0.981488 | 1,356 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.2739664614... | 1 | Apart from the language and setting as components that instigate characterization, the early realists created identity and individuality for their characters. Urban overpopulation resulted in the poor living in appalling and overcrowded housing conditions. Answered Trouble using ezplot and matlabFunction on a symbolic function defined using symengine “piecewise” If you have Rb and the Symbolic Math Toolbox installed, you can just use the piecewise function: Chapter two will discuss the theories to be used for the research study which are realism and feminism. Our Mutual Friend is a representation of the fragmented human bodies which are used as metaphors for divided human relationships, families and societies, which further parallel the extremely dehumanized and acquisitive Victorian society Mitsuharu. If I understand your question correctly, the list of properties returned by opengl are:
Alcoholism defeats psychological growth and also causes lack of ambition as the alcohol drinker is always in a state of drunkenness. Being a socially conscious writer, Dickens depicts the world in which he lives, as a strategy to raise awareness in his readers of what was really happening, and hopefully, to bring social reforms. Young inmates were even more vulnerable to malnutrition and winter diseases as their workhouse uniforms were not designed to withstand harsh English winters. In his speech he said: A constant conflict is waged between goodness and evil, innocence and corruption. At night they wore nothing at all, night dresses being considered too good for paupers. Social reformers such as Beatrice Webb and Clara Collet were particularly interested in the:
This realistic depiction of barefooted children being fed on bread and gruel reveals the lack of care that was given to workhouse inmates, especially the vulnerable children. Charles Dickens has been chosen for this area of study because of his concern for the poor and his discussion surrounding the plight of women and children. Women were supposed to be educated in issues that involved domesticity. Being a socially conscious writer, Dickens depicts the world in which he lives, as a strategy to raise awareness in his readers of what was really happening, and hopefully, to bring social reforms.
The home was also sanctified as an island of tranquillity and obedience which was a blessing to the patriarchal rule of the male head who completely controlled the spouse and barred her from the public life of politics and economy.
Asertion from the language and setting as components that instigate characterization, the early realists created identity and individuality for their characters. Because of poverty, children were forced into child labour and forced to work as chimney sweepers and they could crawl up the twelve by fourteen inch chimneys, some as small as seven inches square, so that they would clean out the annual average of forty gallons of soot that was deposited there.
Prostitution is another degrading behaviour in which Nancy in Oliver Twist engages in order to survive. Working as a reporter in the Courts and Parliament provided him with first hand background information of the inner workings of the justice system which would later appear in many of his novels, particularly Bleak House. Dickens cannot be perceived as a mere novelist, assertipn or journalist, but his works have certainly proved to be more than fiction as he was also socially involved in helping the poor.
Jenelle Evans heads back to court with David Eason to fight for custody of kids The earliest conception of the fallen woman in the Victorian society was the prostitute because of her loss of purity through sexual transgression.
Sally Al Khamees – MATLAB Central
Some boys became rat catchers and they were required to use arsenic to poison the rats, but as this could be expensive, they could also use a ferret to flush the rats out and kill them Kelsey 1.
Sowerberry the undertaker and assigned the role of a funeral mute. Horses, scarcely better; splashed to their very blinkers. Many of the individual members should themselves turn a questioning eye upon its ethos and seek to repudiate or meliorate those unamiable traits that were commonly ascribed to it.
To be classed as realist, a novel must be addressed with all seriousness and in some actuality to the broad average of humanity, and it must imply strongly that the facts narrated may be paralleled, though perhaps on a smaller scale and with less intensity in the lives of the reader and his associates 2.
Joe is similar to Mrs. Most of these children were orphans who were taken from workhouses and they could be apprenticed by the factory owners: Death is a symbol of loss of life, just like Oliver has lost his parents. In their homes, the factory workers and their families led lives which lacked privacy: When Victoria ascended to the throne, Britain was essentially agrarian and rural, but by the time of her death, the country was vastly urbanized and largely industrialized.
Rejected upcat essay questions compilation – Pacific rim neon genesis comparison essay
See for example the result of: Martin defends Game of Thrones writers and says they ‘only had eight hours’ to wrap up saga as petition to remake finale hits 1. This account is not fictional, fxiled it is a true incident because the evidence was extracted from the Westbury Manor Museum as an archives. Not only were workhouse inmates victims of starvation, but they were also flogged and detained as if they were in prison. Moreover, the education system offered to the poor was quite inefficient as illustrated by Charles Dickens in Great Expectations: Ultimately, the poor are left to work harder and cousework are treated inhumanely.
Rejected upcat essay questions compilation
Dickens juxtaposes the lives of the poor and that of the middle class in order to portray the different lifestyles led by the two classes, and to raise social consciousness in the reader.
In as much as Dickens is a reformist, he is also as a moralist, who strongly believes in upholding good morals in society and if the world is full of people assertjon are morally upright like Mr.
Therefore, his child characters represent real children with actual experiences and backgrounds such as poverty, orphanage, neglect and deprivation of education.
cuorsework Eighteenth century poets such as William Blake also criticized child labour through his poem: Although the Industrial Revolution fostered urban growth, it is unfortunate that the number of the poor also increased. A statement from the Academy said: You cannot view any other answer beside your own on Cody Coursework.
Then, she gave the knife a final smart wipe on the edge of the plaister, and then sawed a very thick round off the loaf, hewed into two halves, of which Joe got one, and I the other. | 1,344 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What in the World Is Wrong with Gisbert? by Jochen Weeber is a children’s book appropriate for younger children to be a springboard for discussing bullying. The writing is crystal clear that words hurt Gisbert the Giraffe, who begins to shrink when his friends make negative comments about his looks and actions. Gisbert stays home from school to avoid his hurt feelings. One of the friends from school drops a note for him at his doorstep that he is missed at school, and only then is a discussion started with his parents. This is key, that parents and teachers should stress, that talking with adults is important to help them problem solve the problems.
Illustrations that support the text and are very pleasing and kid friendly make this book perfect for every elementary school teacher to include in their classroom libraries. More books on this topic should be read over and over, so that young children can be given the tools to combat bullying.
I received an e-arc from NetGalley via Flyaway Books in exchange for an honest review. | <urn:uuid:a1907bd8-7478-4b44-98a4-b104bf9fad6f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://awindowintobooks.wordpress.com/2018/08/18/what-in-the-world-is-wrong-with-gisbert-by-jochen-weeber/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00063.warc.gz | en | 0.981837 | 216 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.1190072... | 2 | What in the World Is Wrong with Gisbert? by Jochen Weeber is a children’s book appropriate for younger children to be a springboard for discussing bullying. The writing is crystal clear that words hurt Gisbert the Giraffe, who begins to shrink when his friends make negative comments about his looks and actions. Gisbert stays home from school to avoid his hurt feelings. One of the friends from school drops a note for him at his doorstep that he is missed at school, and only then is a discussion started with his parents. This is key, that parents and teachers should stress, that talking with adults is important to help them problem solve the problems.
Illustrations that support the text and are very pleasing and kid friendly make this book perfect for every elementary school teacher to include in their classroom libraries. More books on this topic should be read over and over, so that young children can be given the tools to combat bullying.
I received an e-arc from NetGalley via Flyaway Books in exchange for an honest review. | 211 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By TJ Todd
This article is the first in a three-part series.
In the early morning of July 2nd, 1839, off the shore of Cuba aboard a Spanish schooner called La Amistad, a group of illegally kidnapped and enslaved Africans managed to free themselves from their chains and fight back in an attempt to re-secure their freedom. Their rebellion, voyage, and subsequent arrest and trial in the United States caused a sensation throughout the Union. At stake were the lives and freedom of 36 men, three girls, and one boy — those from the Amistad who had survived long enough to hear the final court decision.
With 2019 being the 180th anniversary of the uprising, the case deserves a reexamination, particularly in light of our society’s renewed interest in social justice and activism. The Amistad trial reinvigorated the debate over the limits, if any, to slavery in the United States. It also served as an example of the evolving strategies for abolitionists confronting slavery as the 1800s progressed. But most importantly, the event was a remarkable example of the power of a community, or communities, working together in the face of daunting odds. Actions taken collectively, even relatively small contributions, can shape history.
In one of the more recent histories about the event, author Marcus Rediker takes a fresh approach in The Amistad Rebellion: An Atlantic Odyssey of Slavery and Freedom by portraying the event as much as possible from the eyes of the Africans themselves. This article aims to do the same while weaving in all the other participants that contributed in this collective action. A comprehensive overview of the Amistad events, historical context, and trial are necessary in order to analyze them thoroughly. Though a number of nations had agreed to outlaw the international slave trade, the illicit traffic in human lives still flourished along the western coast of Africa during the 1830s. Those who ultimately ended up on La Amistad hailed from a variety of regions in what is modern-day Sierra Leone: though often referred to later as “Mende”, these people actually included a number of different cultural groups from the region including Gbandi, Kono, Temne, and others. All had a fairly similar story, though. They had been illegally kidnapped, then sold in Lomboko, one of the notorious, European-run slave trading “factories”. From Lomboko, they began the long and horrifying Middle Passage to Cuba aboard the slave ship Teçora.
In Cuba, a smaller subset of this group from the Teçora were bought by two plantation owners named Ruiz and Montes and put aboard a smaller schooner called La Amistad for transport to their sugar plantations. They were issued even less food and water on this trip, and some had been severely beaten along the way. Already frightened of where they were going and what would happen once they arrived, the Amistad’scook had further intimidated the Africans with pantomimed indications that they were to be killed and eaten. Soon after this threat, the captives somehow managed to escape their chains; reports varied as to how. One man in particular, Sengbe Pieh (more famously known as Joseph Cinqué), was the likely instigator and primary leader, and Cinqué later came to symbolize the rebellion for the public during the trial. But he did not act alone: the captives were led by a number of men who had served as leaders in their communities back home. In the pre-dawn dark on the morning of July 2nd they armed themselves with whatever they could find and stormed the ship. The Amistad’s captain was killed in the fighting, along with the cook who had taunted the Africans with cannibalism. The rest of the crew escaped overboard, or were captured, including the two enslavers from Cuba.
Their rebellion and voyage over the ensuing months is a fascinating story in its own right. But simply put, without navigation experience, the Africans had to rely on their two captured Spanish enslavers, Ruiz and Montes, to direct the ship back to Africa. Hoping to be discovered, the two instead attempted to stall by zig-zagging across the Atlantic. Eventually the ship happened to land near the coast of Long Island in New York in search of water. The Africans were then captured by the American navy and charged with piracy and murder.
The ensuing trial that took place was long and immensely complicated. Numerous parties entered the legal battle, including the Spanish government. For the captives, it would have been entirely disorienting. Fortunately, a legal defense for the Africans was quickly set up by abolitionists, led by Attorney Roger Baldwin. The speed in which a defense was arranged was due in part to a relatively “rank-and-file” abolitionist named Dwight Janes who happened to be on the scene when the ship was brought in to New London, CT. Janes quickly wrote to numerous “higher ups” in the movement. One of these correspondents was Lewis Tappan, a wealthy businessman from New York who helped organize and fund support for the Amistad captives.
The defense managed to put the brakes on the proceedings and ensure that the Africans received some sort of official trial at least, but communication was a major issue with only indirect translation available. A solution was discovered when a Yale linguist who agreed to help learned to count 1-10 in Mende, wandered the waterfront of New York counting aloud, and caught the attention of two sailors, James Covey and Charles Pratt, who had been born in the same region of Africa. They were currently enlisted on a British brig of war that happened to be in port; both had prior experience with being enslaved themselves and agreed to help.
In the US district court, the Amistad Africans insisted that they had not been born into slavery, over time using English to tell their story themselves — some, including a young boy named Kale, had learned the language during their imprisonment. They reported of the horrors encountered during the Middle Passage, how they seized the opportunity to take over the ship, and their wish to go home to rejoin their families. Despite the horrible conditions in the New Haven jail, they managed to overcome any feelings of despair and helplessness through mutual support, building from their shared experience. The leadership qualities of many of the captives (including but not limited to Cinqué’s well-publicized efforts), as well as the collective action mentality, provided the foundation for group cohesion and continued perseverance over the long months of imprisonment ahead. They used every opportunity they could to learn about their new surroundings and how to be active participants in securing their freedom. While many proslavery writers attacked the proceedings, the Africans became a sensation of sorts, with a constant influx of visitors to their prison, newspaper attention, and even plays and paintings made of their story. Much of this attention helped to add a humanizing element to the case in the (white) public’s mind, confronting people with the fact that there were human lives at stake. Instead of a list of names, or worse, a blanket group identity as “mutineers,” the Amistad Africans had personalities, faces, and individual lives.
After a complex trial, the US district court reached a stunning decision: Judge Judson, known for his overt racism, ruled that the Amistadcaptives were “born free and ever since have been and still of right are free and not slaves”. The decision even ordered that the Africans be returned home under the government’s expense. The ruling was still rather limited in scope and actually returned the ship’s enslaved cabin boy/sailor, Antonio, back into slavery. But it meant freedom for the captives on trial. That is, until the Van Buren administration appealed the decision in an attempt to smooth over relations with Spain , effectively bringing the battle to the US Supreme Court.
TJ Todd is the Education Manager at the Old North Church & Historic Site, where he joined the team in August 2018. He received his BA in History from Ohio University and has worked at a variety of museum and education settings throughout his career. TJ received his historical interpretive training from the National Park Service, serving for one season at the James A. Garfield National Historic Site in Ohio and for three seasons at the Adams National Historic Park in Quincy, MA. Although interested in any and every aspect of history, TJ’s attention is currently focused on the Reconstruction Era, as well as the idea of active citizenship throughout American history. | <urn:uuid:e572f241-4b23-44bf-88f4-956954448724> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://themessenger.oldnorth.com/2019/12/12/the-amistad-case-and-the-power-of-collective-action-part-i/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00107.warc.gz | en | 0.981828 | 1,766 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.23573945462... | 5 | By TJ Todd
This article is the first in a three-part series.
In the early morning of July 2nd, 1839, off the shore of Cuba aboard a Spanish schooner called La Amistad, a group of illegally kidnapped and enslaved Africans managed to free themselves from their chains and fight back in an attempt to re-secure their freedom. Their rebellion, voyage, and subsequent arrest and trial in the United States caused a sensation throughout the Union. At stake were the lives and freedom of 36 men, three girls, and one boy — those from the Amistad who had survived long enough to hear the final court decision.
With 2019 being the 180th anniversary of the uprising, the case deserves a reexamination, particularly in light of our society’s renewed interest in social justice and activism. The Amistad trial reinvigorated the debate over the limits, if any, to slavery in the United States. It also served as an example of the evolving strategies for abolitionists confronting slavery as the 1800s progressed. But most importantly, the event was a remarkable example of the power of a community, or communities, working together in the face of daunting odds. Actions taken collectively, even relatively small contributions, can shape history.
In one of the more recent histories about the event, author Marcus Rediker takes a fresh approach in The Amistad Rebellion: An Atlantic Odyssey of Slavery and Freedom by portraying the event as much as possible from the eyes of the Africans themselves. This article aims to do the same while weaving in all the other participants that contributed in this collective action. A comprehensive overview of the Amistad events, historical context, and trial are necessary in order to analyze them thoroughly. Though a number of nations had agreed to outlaw the international slave trade, the illicit traffic in human lives still flourished along the western coast of Africa during the 1830s. Those who ultimately ended up on La Amistad hailed from a variety of regions in what is modern-day Sierra Leone: though often referred to later as “Mende”, these people actually included a number of different cultural groups from the region including Gbandi, Kono, Temne, and others. All had a fairly similar story, though. They had been illegally kidnapped, then sold in Lomboko, one of the notorious, European-run slave trading “factories”. From Lomboko, they began the long and horrifying Middle Passage to Cuba aboard the slave ship Teçora.
In Cuba, a smaller subset of this group from the Teçora were bought by two plantation owners named Ruiz and Montes and put aboard a smaller schooner called La Amistad for transport to their sugar plantations. They were issued even less food and water on this trip, and some had been severely beaten along the way. Already frightened of where they were going and what would happen once they arrived, the Amistad’scook had further intimidated the Africans with pantomimed indications that they were to be killed and eaten. Soon after this threat, the captives somehow managed to escape their chains; reports varied as to how. One man in particular, Sengbe Pieh (more famously known as Joseph Cinqué), was the likely instigator and primary leader, and Cinqué later came to symbolize the rebellion for the public during the trial. But he did not act alone: the captives were led by a number of men who had served as leaders in their communities back home. In the pre-dawn dark on the morning of July 2nd they armed themselves with whatever they could find and stormed the ship. The Amistad’s captain was killed in the fighting, along with the cook who had taunted the Africans with cannibalism. The rest of the crew escaped overboard, or were captured, including the two enslavers from Cuba.
Their rebellion and voyage over the ensuing months is a fascinating story in its own right. But simply put, without navigation experience, the Africans had to rely on their two captured Spanish enslavers, Ruiz and Montes, to direct the ship back to Africa. Hoping to be discovered, the two instead attempted to stall by zig-zagging across the Atlantic. Eventually the ship happened to land near the coast of Long Island in New York in search of water. The Africans were then captured by the American navy and charged with piracy and murder.
The ensuing trial that took place was long and immensely complicated. Numerous parties entered the legal battle, including the Spanish government. For the captives, it would have been entirely disorienting. Fortunately, a legal defense for the Africans was quickly set up by abolitionists, led by Attorney Roger Baldwin. The speed in which a defense was arranged was due in part to a relatively “rank-and-file” abolitionist named Dwight Janes who happened to be on the scene when the ship was brought in to New London, CT. Janes quickly wrote to numerous “higher ups” in the movement. One of these correspondents was Lewis Tappan, a wealthy businessman from New York who helped organize and fund support for the Amistad captives.
The defense managed to put the brakes on the proceedings and ensure that the Africans received some sort of official trial at least, but communication was a major issue with only indirect translation available. A solution was discovered when a Yale linguist who agreed to help learned to count 1-10 in Mende, wandered the waterfront of New York counting aloud, and caught the attention of two sailors, James Covey and Charles Pratt, who had been born in the same region of Africa. They were currently enlisted on a British brig of war that happened to be in port; both had prior experience with being enslaved themselves and agreed to help.
In the US district court, the Amistad Africans insisted that they had not been born into slavery, over time using English to tell their story themselves — some, including a young boy named Kale, had learned the language during their imprisonment. They reported of the horrors encountered during the Middle Passage, how they seized the opportunity to take over the ship, and their wish to go home to rejoin their families. Despite the horrible conditions in the New Haven jail, they managed to overcome any feelings of despair and helplessness through mutual support, building from their shared experience. The leadership qualities of many of the captives (including but not limited to Cinqué’s well-publicized efforts), as well as the collective action mentality, provided the foundation for group cohesion and continued perseverance over the long months of imprisonment ahead. They used every opportunity they could to learn about their new surroundings and how to be active participants in securing their freedom. While many proslavery writers attacked the proceedings, the Africans became a sensation of sorts, with a constant influx of visitors to their prison, newspaper attention, and even plays and paintings made of their story. Much of this attention helped to add a humanizing element to the case in the (white) public’s mind, confronting people with the fact that there were human lives at stake. Instead of a list of names, or worse, a blanket group identity as “mutineers,” the Amistad Africans had personalities, faces, and individual lives.
After a complex trial, the US district court reached a stunning decision: Judge Judson, known for his overt racism, ruled that the Amistadcaptives were “born free and ever since have been and still of right are free and not slaves”. The decision even ordered that the Africans be returned home under the government’s expense. The ruling was still rather limited in scope and actually returned the ship’s enslaved cabin boy/sailor, Antonio, back into slavery. But it meant freedom for the captives on trial. That is, until the Van Buren administration appealed the decision in an attempt to smooth over relations with Spain , effectively bringing the battle to the US Supreme Court.
TJ Todd is the Education Manager at the Old North Church & Historic Site, where he joined the team in August 2018. He received his BA in History from Ohio University and has worked at a variety of museum and education settings throughout his career. TJ received his historical interpretive training from the National Park Service, serving for one season at the James A. Garfield National Historic Site in Ohio and for three seasons at the Adams National Historic Park in Quincy, MA. Although interested in any and every aspect of history, TJ’s attention is currently focused on the Reconstruction Era, as well as the idea of active citizenship throughout American history. | 1,745 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Carthage (Phoenician Kart hadašt, "new city"): important ancient city, close to modern Tunis.
Carthage was founded as a Phoenician colony near modern Tunis. After the fall of its mother-city Tyre in 585, Carthage became the leader of the Phoenician colonies in the west and founded an informal but powerful empire, which is known for its almost perennial struggle against the Greeks of Sicily and the Romans. In the First Punic War (264-241; the greatest war in Antiquity), the Carthaginians lost Sicily to the Romans, and although their general Hannibal Barca tried to reverse the situation in a Second Punic War, the decline had already started. The Romans sacked Carthage in 146 after a Third Punic War, but later, they refounded the city, which again became prosperous.
According to the Greek historian Timaeus of Tauromenion, Carthage was founded in 814 or 813; another author, Justin, suggested 825. For some time, these dates seemed to be contradicted by the results of excavations, which all suggested that the oldest finds were younger. However, in the late 1990s, it became clear that although the archaeologists had done their job well, their method of dating had been wrong. Essentially, all dates were derived from pottery, the sequence of which was based on the ceramics known from Sicily, where we have Thucydides' list of dated city foundations (text). Although it was widely recognized that these dates were problematic, it was the best way to proceed. In the 1990s, however, radiocarbon-dating was for the first time applied to the Early Iron Age of Carthage, and the oldest finds in Carthage can now be dated to the last quarter of the ninth century.
The first settlers were people from Tyre in Phoenicia. According to legend (text), their leader was a princess named Elissa, who was forced to flee from Tyre after her brother, king Pygmalion, had killed her husband. After founding Carthage, she committed suicide to prevent a war against the native population. The story may contain some reliable information, although it is more likely that the founders of Carthage were merchants and farmers - not refugees. On the other hand, the idea that the powerful city was founded by a woman is too unusual to be a mere invention. However this may be, the settlers founded the city on a marvelous place, where it controlled trade between the eastern and western parts of the Mediterranean, and had access to good agricultural resources. There must have been close economic ties to the Numidian hinterland.
It seems that the colony was first ruled by a governor sent from Tyre, but the settlement became a city, the citizens wanted some independence, and kings started to be rulers of Carthage. In the course of the sixth century, they were replaced by two annually elected supreme magistrates, the suffetes ("judges"). The Roman consulship, which is better known to us, was modelled on this office.
Meanwhile, the city was becoming an important trade center. Probably in the first half of the sixth century, the Carthaginian admiral Hanno founded several colonies along the coast of what is now Morocco and proceeded to the gold river Senegal, and even reached Mount Cameroon. Another explorer was Himilco, who reached the British isles. There must have been other expeditions, which are not documented in our sources.
In c.575, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar captured Tyre, which now lost its independence and was no longer able to send reinforcements to Phoenician colonies if they needed them. The settlers had to look elsewhere if they needed help, and Carthage became the leader of a more or less informal empire, based on a shared ethnic sentiment and commercial interests. It consisted of many cities, all situated on the coast. In the east and northeast, it bordered on the Greek possessions in the Cyrenaica and on Sicily; in the north, Carthage controlled the coasts of Sardinia and Corsica, and in the west, the ports of the Maghreb and Andalusia. It also controlled the gold trade from Senegal and the route to the mysterious "tin isles", which may have been everywhere along the Atlantic Coast. | <urn:uuid:7d4fbd5d-168f-4a30-bdd4-0bf7f729c0cf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.livius.org/articles/place/carthage/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00258.warc.gz | en | 0.985406 | 894 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.579761743545532... | 2 | Carthage (Phoenician Kart hadašt, "new city"): important ancient city, close to modern Tunis.
Carthage was founded as a Phoenician colony near modern Tunis. After the fall of its mother-city Tyre in 585, Carthage became the leader of the Phoenician colonies in the west and founded an informal but powerful empire, which is known for its almost perennial struggle against the Greeks of Sicily and the Romans. In the First Punic War (264-241; the greatest war in Antiquity), the Carthaginians lost Sicily to the Romans, and although their general Hannibal Barca tried to reverse the situation in a Second Punic War, the decline had already started. The Romans sacked Carthage in 146 after a Third Punic War, but later, they refounded the city, which again became prosperous.
According to the Greek historian Timaeus of Tauromenion, Carthage was founded in 814 or 813; another author, Justin, suggested 825. For some time, these dates seemed to be contradicted by the results of excavations, which all suggested that the oldest finds were younger. However, in the late 1990s, it became clear that although the archaeologists had done their job well, their method of dating had been wrong. Essentially, all dates were derived from pottery, the sequence of which was based on the ceramics known from Sicily, where we have Thucydides' list of dated city foundations (text). Although it was widely recognized that these dates were problematic, it was the best way to proceed. In the 1990s, however, radiocarbon-dating was for the first time applied to the Early Iron Age of Carthage, and the oldest finds in Carthage can now be dated to the last quarter of the ninth century.
The first settlers were people from Tyre in Phoenicia. According to legend (text), their leader was a princess named Elissa, who was forced to flee from Tyre after her brother, king Pygmalion, had killed her husband. After founding Carthage, she committed suicide to prevent a war against the native population. The story may contain some reliable information, although it is more likely that the founders of Carthage were merchants and farmers - not refugees. On the other hand, the idea that the powerful city was founded by a woman is too unusual to be a mere invention. However this may be, the settlers founded the city on a marvelous place, where it controlled trade between the eastern and western parts of the Mediterranean, and had access to good agricultural resources. There must have been close economic ties to the Numidian hinterland.
It seems that the colony was first ruled by a governor sent from Tyre, but the settlement became a city, the citizens wanted some independence, and kings started to be rulers of Carthage. In the course of the sixth century, they were replaced by two annually elected supreme magistrates, the suffetes ("judges"). The Roman consulship, which is better known to us, was modelled on this office.
Meanwhile, the city was becoming an important trade center. Probably in the first half of the sixth century, the Carthaginian admiral Hanno founded several colonies along the coast of what is now Morocco and proceeded to the gold river Senegal, and even reached Mount Cameroon. Another explorer was Himilco, who reached the British isles. There must have been other expeditions, which are not documented in our sources.
In c.575, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar captured Tyre, which now lost its independence and was no longer able to send reinforcements to Phoenician colonies if they needed them. The settlers had to look elsewhere if they needed help, and Carthage became the leader of a more or less informal empire, based on a shared ethnic sentiment and commercial interests. It consisted of many cities, all situated on the coast. In the east and northeast, it bordered on the Greek possessions in the Cyrenaica and on Sicily; in the north, Carthage controlled the coasts of Sardinia and Corsica, and in the west, the ports of the Maghreb and Andalusia. It also controlled the gold trade from Senegal and the route to the mysterious "tin isles", which may have been everywhere along the Atlantic Coast. | 927 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Density of Materials
Archimedes, The King of Syracuse and the Golden Crown…. Archimedes (287 – 212 BCE ) lived in Syracuse in Sicily, which in those days was a Greek Colony, with its own King. The King of Syracuse had ordered a new gold crown and had given his goldsmith the right amount of gold to make it. When the goldsmith brought the crown to the King it weighed the right amount, but some of his servants told the King that they had heard the goldsmith boasting that he had stolen some of the gold and replaced it with silver, so the crown was not pure gold but an alloy (mixture) of gold and silver.
The King sent for Archimedes and told him he was to find out whether this was true – but he must not damage the crown. Archimedes thought about the problem, which appeared quite impossible to solve, what would you do?
Density is simply a way of comparing how much mass you have for a fixed volume. We often use 1kg or 1g for this process. We also use cm3 or m3 for the volume.
Several useful equations for volume are…
An example might be for Steel…. 8050 kg/m3 or 8.05 g/cm3 | <urn:uuid:c721e172-5a1c-45fd-9154-8fae54283cfc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://animatedscience.co.uk/stem-timetable-introduction/density-of-materials | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00356.warc.gz | en | 0.980056 | 259 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.5725557208... | 12 | Density of Materials
Archimedes, The King of Syracuse and the Golden Crown…. Archimedes (287 – 212 BCE ) lived in Syracuse in Sicily, which in those days was a Greek Colony, with its own King. The King of Syracuse had ordered a new gold crown and had given his goldsmith the right amount of gold to make it. When the goldsmith brought the crown to the King it weighed the right amount, but some of his servants told the King that they had heard the goldsmith boasting that he had stolen some of the gold and replaced it with silver, so the crown was not pure gold but an alloy (mixture) of gold and silver.
The King sent for Archimedes and told him he was to find out whether this was true – but he must not damage the crown. Archimedes thought about the problem, which appeared quite impossible to solve, what would you do?
Density is simply a way of comparing how much mass you have for a fixed volume. We often use 1kg or 1g for this process. We also use cm3 or m3 for the volume.
Several useful equations for volume are…
An example might be for Steel…. 8050 kg/m3 or 8.05 g/cm3 | 264 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Many symptoms are shown by a child from 6 months onwards to about 3 years of age. These early symptoms are used to diagnose the disorder and take steps to manage this disease. However, it can be a bit difficult to identify the early signs and rectify them. That is why, parents get worried when their child doesn’t respond to the basic games such as peek-a-boo or doesn’t start talking. At times, children do not even try to speak which is the first alarm bell that rings up. However, sometimes kids start to talk and behave like other kids of their age but then forgo their learned skills and their condition starts to deteriorate. The hearing of a child can also be compromised in this process. However, it may seem strange to the parents that autistic children do not respond when being called but sometimes hear distant sounds.
Early diagnosis and treatment can help children in improving their communication skills with each other as they grow up. The myths about autistic children are now being forgone as the researchers have developed new methodologies for the development and learning of autistic children. That is why, very few of them are now isolated or live alone in their own world.
During the teen years, an autistic child grows a lot and there is a major change in his behavior. However, it is still difficult for them to relate to each other. Changes brought about by puberty and sexuality can be difficult to handle by autistic children. Therefore, they have more risk of having epileptic attacks, anxiety and depression.
Read more at this post: Will Autism Get Worse? | <urn:uuid:e3122545-a042-49b5-8792-389ab0125d14> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://101autism.com/symptoms-of-autism/symptoms-shown-in-childhood | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00381.warc.gz | en | 0.982229 | 322 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.441015928983688... | 2 | Many symptoms are shown by a child from 6 months onwards to about 3 years of age. These early symptoms are used to diagnose the disorder and take steps to manage this disease. However, it can be a bit difficult to identify the early signs and rectify them. That is why, parents get worried when their child doesn’t respond to the basic games such as peek-a-boo or doesn’t start talking. At times, children do not even try to speak which is the first alarm bell that rings up. However, sometimes kids start to talk and behave like other kids of their age but then forgo their learned skills and their condition starts to deteriorate. The hearing of a child can also be compromised in this process. However, it may seem strange to the parents that autistic children do not respond when being called but sometimes hear distant sounds.
Early diagnosis and treatment can help children in improving their communication skills with each other as they grow up. The myths about autistic children are now being forgone as the researchers have developed new methodologies for the development and learning of autistic children. That is why, very few of them are now isolated or live alone in their own world.
During the teen years, an autistic child grows a lot and there is a major change in his behavior. However, it is still difficult for them to relate to each other. Changes brought about by puberty and sexuality can be difficult to handle by autistic children. Therefore, they have more risk of having epileptic attacks, anxiety and depression.
Read more at this post: Will Autism Get Worse? | 314 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 03/02/2012)
Punjab was one of the most important and eventful regions in British India and was the homeland of a number of socio-religious movements. The socio-religious movements in Punjab were founded with a variety of aims like purifying a particular religion or spreading education among the masses or propagating new ideas or philosophies. Among all the movements, the Nirankaris, the Namdharis and the Singh Sabhas were of prominence and made huge impacts in the society of Punjab.
The Nirankaris movement was founded by Baba Dayal Das and it was a movement of purification and return. Dayal Das was born into a Malhotra Khatri family in Peshawar and was raised as a pious, religiously oriented boy. During his adulthood, he was not enchanted with the contemporary religion and came into a conclusion that Sikhism was decadent, filled with falsehood, superstition and error. He called for the return of Sikhism to its origin, sometimes during the 1840s and he also emphasised the worship of God as Nirankar (formless). He rejected all kinds of idols, the rituals associated with idolatry and also the Brahman priests who conducted these rituals. He also rejected those Sikhs who were allied with the Brahman priests.
The main focus of the Nirankaris was on deficiencies in religious practice. They did not criticise the theology and according to them, the appropriate path to God was through worship based on meditation rather than complex ritual. They used to meet each morning for daily worship in their Dharmsalas. The Nirankaris also stressed the importance and authority of Guru Nanak and of the Adi Granth (the source of all authority and knowledge). They were urged by Baba Dayal Das 'to worship the formless God, to obey the Shabad of the guru (in the Adi Granth) and to clean the shoes and feet of the congregation (as an act of humility)'. They were also asked to serve their parents, to avoid bad habits and to earn their livelihood through work. Dayal Das taught a religious code for the householders, in accordance with Sikh tradition. The Nirankaris were asked not to treat the women as unclean at childbirth; take the dowry at marriages; place neither lighted lamps nor blessed sweets, prasad, placed in rivers; and also not to feed Brahmans as payment for conducting rituals. The Nirankaris actually focused on Guru Nanak, on Sikhism before the establishment of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh at Anandpur and also before the militarisation of the faith. They stressed proper religious practice, issued Hukamnamas to define its concepts of what was correct and also built a series of worship centres staffed by their own priests.
Founded by Baba Ram Singh, the Namdhari movement was one of the most influential and transitional socio-religious movements in Punjab. Baba Ram Singh was born into a poor carpenter's family in the village of Bhaini Araiyan in Ludhiana district and received no formal education. After working as a soldier in the army of Ranjit Singh for few years, Ram Singh returned to Bhaini in 1855 and started to attract people with his simple lifestyle and religious ideas. He was greatly influenced by the ideas of Balak Singh and was chosen as the successor of Balak Singh, before his death. Baba Ram Singh formally inaugurated the Namdhari movement in 1857, with a set of rituals modelled after Guru Gobind Singh's founding of the Khalsa. He used a recitation of Gurbani (hymns from the Granth Sahib), Ardas (the Sikh prayer), a flag and baptism for entry into the new community. The Namdharis were required to wear the five symbols of Sikhism, with the only exception of the Kripan (sword). However, they were required to keep a Lathi (a bamboo stave) with them.
The Namdharis abandoned the worship of gods, goddesses, idols, graves, tombs, trees, and snakes and also rejected popular saints along with the rituals conducted by Brahman priests. The authority of the hereditary custodians of the Sikh Gurdwaras (centres of worship) was also rejected by the Namdharis. The Namdharis were told to abstain from 'drinking, stealing, adultery, falsehood, slandering, back-biting and cheating' and consumption of beef was strictly forbidden. Protection of cattle was one of the most ardently held values of the Namdharis. The Namdharis considered the women equal to men and initiated them through baptism and allowed them to remarry when widowed. Dowries were rejected by the Namdharis and child marriage was also forbidden. For the men, they laid emphasis on strength and martial qualities drawn from the teachings of Guru Gobind Singh. Many of the Namdharis came from the peasant and untouchable castes and were transformed into a disciplined community. The teachings of Baba Ram Singh and his Guru, Balak Singh did promise a return to purified Sikhism, not of Guru Nanak, but of Guru Gobind Singh. The Namdhari vision of a restructured Sikhism called for a total reshaping of the Sikh community into a militant and religious-political dominion.
The Singh Sabha was another prominent socio-religious movement in Punjab. The first Singh Sabha was founded as a result of a series of events that included the unrest of the Sikh community caused by the Namdharis, the speeches of Shraddha Ram and also the Christian conversions. The first Singh Sabha was founded at Amritsar and held its first meeting on 1st October, 1873. Sir Khem Singh Bedi, Thakur Singh Sandhawalia, Kanwar Bikram Singh of Kapurthala and Giani Gian Singh were some of the prominent people who helped in founding the Singh Sabha. Sandhawalia was the president and Giani Gian Singh was the secretary of the first Singh Sabha. The Singh Sabha was aimed at restoring Sikhism to its past purity and it published historical religious books, magazines and journals to propagate knowledge using Punjabi. The Sabha also urged the Sikh apostates to return to their original faith.
The Singh Sabha used to meet every two weeks, hold anniversary celebrations and special meetings on festival days or in response to specific challenges by other religious groups. It represented the leaders of the Sikh community. The members of the landed gentry, the aristocracy and also various types of temple servants like the Pujaris, the Granthis, the administrators of the Gurdwaras and the descendants of the Gurus joined the Singh Sabha.
As the popularity of the Singh Sabha movement increased, more Sabhas were established in different cities. The Lahore Singh Sabha held its first meeting on 2nd November, 1879 and was led by Professor Gurmukh Singh and Bhai Ditt Singh. This Sabha also worked on achieving similar goals of the Amritsar Singh Sabha and it wanted to return Sikhism to its past purity by eliminating all elements of non-Sikh origin. The Lahore Sabha also expanded with local branches in many of the Punjab towns, very quickly. A General Sabha was established at Amritsar in 1880 to provide a central organisation to all the Singh Sabhas and it was later rechristened as the Khalsa Diwan, Amritsar in April, 1883. The Singh Sabha movement spoke for a rising educated elite and also called for changes in religion. The followers of the movement rejected any fundamental restructuring of authority within the community and realised the need to gain a command of western knowledge if Sikhs were to compete successfully with Hindu and Muslim Punjabis.
The socio-religious movements in Punjab operated with different aims and objectives and they also followed different paths. However, one thing was common in almost all the movements and that is, the movements were intended at ensuring a strong moral character for their followers. The movements also strongly spoke for the equality of women and for eliminating the evil social practices like dowry, child marriage, etc. | <urn:uuid:acb6a179-b6a7-4670-a8a2-dbb0856a7278> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/42/socioreligious_movements_punjab.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00435.warc.gz | en | 0.980518 | 1,680 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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-0.0487946979... | 1 | (Last Updated on : 03/02/2012)
Punjab was one of the most important and eventful regions in British India and was the homeland of a number of socio-religious movements. The socio-religious movements in Punjab were founded with a variety of aims like purifying a particular religion or spreading education among the masses or propagating new ideas or philosophies. Among all the movements, the Nirankaris, the Namdharis and the Singh Sabhas were of prominence and made huge impacts in the society of Punjab.
The Nirankaris movement was founded by Baba Dayal Das and it was a movement of purification and return. Dayal Das was born into a Malhotra Khatri family in Peshawar and was raised as a pious, religiously oriented boy. During his adulthood, he was not enchanted with the contemporary religion and came into a conclusion that Sikhism was decadent, filled with falsehood, superstition and error. He called for the return of Sikhism to its origin, sometimes during the 1840s and he also emphasised the worship of God as Nirankar (formless). He rejected all kinds of idols, the rituals associated with idolatry and also the Brahman priests who conducted these rituals. He also rejected those Sikhs who were allied with the Brahman priests.
The main focus of the Nirankaris was on deficiencies in religious practice. They did not criticise the theology and according to them, the appropriate path to God was through worship based on meditation rather than complex ritual. They used to meet each morning for daily worship in their Dharmsalas. The Nirankaris also stressed the importance and authority of Guru Nanak and of the Adi Granth (the source of all authority and knowledge). They were urged by Baba Dayal Das 'to worship the formless God, to obey the Shabad of the guru (in the Adi Granth) and to clean the shoes and feet of the congregation (as an act of humility)'. They were also asked to serve their parents, to avoid bad habits and to earn their livelihood through work. Dayal Das taught a religious code for the householders, in accordance with Sikh tradition. The Nirankaris were asked not to treat the women as unclean at childbirth; take the dowry at marriages; place neither lighted lamps nor blessed sweets, prasad, placed in rivers; and also not to feed Brahmans as payment for conducting rituals. The Nirankaris actually focused on Guru Nanak, on Sikhism before the establishment of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh at Anandpur and also before the militarisation of the faith. They stressed proper religious practice, issued Hukamnamas to define its concepts of what was correct and also built a series of worship centres staffed by their own priests.
Founded by Baba Ram Singh, the Namdhari movement was one of the most influential and transitional socio-religious movements in Punjab. Baba Ram Singh was born into a poor carpenter's family in the village of Bhaini Araiyan in Ludhiana district and received no formal education. After working as a soldier in the army of Ranjit Singh for few years, Ram Singh returned to Bhaini in 1855 and started to attract people with his simple lifestyle and religious ideas. He was greatly influenced by the ideas of Balak Singh and was chosen as the successor of Balak Singh, before his death. Baba Ram Singh formally inaugurated the Namdhari movement in 1857, with a set of rituals modelled after Guru Gobind Singh's founding of the Khalsa. He used a recitation of Gurbani (hymns from the Granth Sahib), Ardas (the Sikh prayer), a flag and baptism for entry into the new community. The Namdharis were required to wear the five symbols of Sikhism, with the only exception of the Kripan (sword). However, they were required to keep a Lathi (a bamboo stave) with them.
The Namdharis abandoned the worship of gods, goddesses, idols, graves, tombs, trees, and snakes and also rejected popular saints along with the rituals conducted by Brahman priests. The authority of the hereditary custodians of the Sikh Gurdwaras (centres of worship) was also rejected by the Namdharis. The Namdharis were told to abstain from 'drinking, stealing, adultery, falsehood, slandering, back-biting and cheating' and consumption of beef was strictly forbidden. Protection of cattle was one of the most ardently held values of the Namdharis. The Namdharis considered the women equal to men and initiated them through baptism and allowed them to remarry when widowed. Dowries were rejected by the Namdharis and child marriage was also forbidden. For the men, they laid emphasis on strength and martial qualities drawn from the teachings of Guru Gobind Singh. Many of the Namdharis came from the peasant and untouchable castes and were transformed into a disciplined community. The teachings of Baba Ram Singh and his Guru, Balak Singh did promise a return to purified Sikhism, not of Guru Nanak, but of Guru Gobind Singh. The Namdhari vision of a restructured Sikhism called for a total reshaping of the Sikh community into a militant and religious-political dominion.
The Singh Sabha was another prominent socio-religious movement in Punjab. The first Singh Sabha was founded as a result of a series of events that included the unrest of the Sikh community caused by the Namdharis, the speeches of Shraddha Ram and also the Christian conversions. The first Singh Sabha was founded at Amritsar and held its first meeting on 1st October, 1873. Sir Khem Singh Bedi, Thakur Singh Sandhawalia, Kanwar Bikram Singh of Kapurthala and Giani Gian Singh were some of the prominent people who helped in founding the Singh Sabha. Sandhawalia was the president and Giani Gian Singh was the secretary of the first Singh Sabha. The Singh Sabha was aimed at restoring Sikhism to its past purity and it published historical religious books, magazines and journals to propagate knowledge using Punjabi. The Sabha also urged the Sikh apostates to return to their original faith.
The Singh Sabha used to meet every two weeks, hold anniversary celebrations and special meetings on festival days or in response to specific challenges by other religious groups. It represented the leaders of the Sikh community. The members of the landed gentry, the aristocracy and also various types of temple servants like the Pujaris, the Granthis, the administrators of the Gurdwaras and the descendants of the Gurus joined the Singh Sabha.
As the popularity of the Singh Sabha movement increased, more Sabhas were established in different cities. The Lahore Singh Sabha held its first meeting on 2nd November, 1879 and was led by Professor Gurmukh Singh and Bhai Ditt Singh. This Sabha also worked on achieving similar goals of the Amritsar Singh Sabha and it wanted to return Sikhism to its past purity by eliminating all elements of non-Sikh origin. The Lahore Sabha also expanded with local branches in many of the Punjab towns, very quickly. A General Sabha was established at Amritsar in 1880 to provide a central organisation to all the Singh Sabhas and it was later rechristened as the Khalsa Diwan, Amritsar in April, 1883. The Singh Sabha movement spoke for a rising educated elite and also called for changes in religion. The followers of the movement rejected any fundamental restructuring of authority within the community and realised the need to gain a command of western knowledge if Sikhs were to compete successfully with Hindu and Muslim Punjabis.
The socio-religious movements in Punjab operated with different aims and objectives and they also followed different paths. However, one thing was common in almost all the movements and that is, the movements were intended at ensuring a strong moral character for their followers. The movements also strongly spoke for the equality of women and for eliminating the evil social practices like dowry, child marriage, etc. | 1,699 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Riel became involved in armed insurrections and led two rebellions against the government of Canada and its first post-Confederation prime minister, John A. Macdonald, currently, the position is holding Justin Trudeau. Riel aimed to preserve Métis culture and rights at a time when their lands were coming under Canadian domain.
He carried out his first act of resistance during the Red River Rebellion, 1869–1870. This led to an agreement between Riel and the government of Canada and helped negotiate the terms for the formation of the modern province of Manitoba. Later, Riel ordered the execution of a person named Thomas Scott and fled to the US to escape prosecution.
While still living the life of a fugitive, he was elected thrice to the House of Commons in Canada. He never assumed his seat, though. During his years in America, he was frustrated by the fact that he could not lead his people to freedom.
Despite this, Riel is frequently referred to as the Father of Manitoba. In 1884, when called upon by the Métis leaders in Saskatchewan to talk to the Canadian government about their grievances, Riel led a military resistance instead.
This is known in history as the North-West Rebellion of 1885. The escalation saw the Canadian government use newly made rail lines to send thousands of soldiers. It ended after Riel's arrest. He was subsequently convicted of high treason.
Rejecting the popular appeal, Prime Minister MacDonald decided to hang him. His execution not only polarized the country into two separate linguistic blocs but also had a lasting impact. It led to the Prairie provinces being controlled by the Anglophones, not Francophones.
Similarly, Riel's portrayal also oscillates between the extremes. While some see him as a grand historical figure who fought for his people, others argue that he is nothing but a half-insane religious bigot.
Riel was a Candian by nationality and belongs to mixed ethnicity of Cree, French Canadian, Ojibwa, Scottish, Saulteaux, and English. He married his long-term girlfriend Marguerite Monet in 1881, in Montana, the United States. The couple was blessed with three Children. Riel died on 16, November in 1885.
Despite being a great politician, Riel never lived a life of luxury. He spent many years in exile facing scarcity and struggling even to fulfill his basic needs so the details of his net worth and salary are not available. Though we can say with certainty that it was a life of economic deprivation. | <urn:uuid:f04d7f92-15de-4eac-ad03-347e45ba3899> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://frostsnow.com/louis-riel | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00132.warc.gz | en | 0.985775 | 526 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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-0.1983593553304672... | 4 | Riel became involved in armed insurrections and led two rebellions against the government of Canada and its first post-Confederation prime minister, John A. Macdonald, currently, the position is holding Justin Trudeau. Riel aimed to preserve Métis culture and rights at a time when their lands were coming under Canadian domain.
He carried out his first act of resistance during the Red River Rebellion, 1869–1870. This led to an agreement between Riel and the government of Canada and helped negotiate the terms for the formation of the modern province of Manitoba. Later, Riel ordered the execution of a person named Thomas Scott and fled to the US to escape prosecution.
While still living the life of a fugitive, he was elected thrice to the House of Commons in Canada. He never assumed his seat, though. During his years in America, he was frustrated by the fact that he could not lead his people to freedom.
Despite this, Riel is frequently referred to as the Father of Manitoba. In 1884, when called upon by the Métis leaders in Saskatchewan to talk to the Canadian government about their grievances, Riel led a military resistance instead.
This is known in history as the North-West Rebellion of 1885. The escalation saw the Canadian government use newly made rail lines to send thousands of soldiers. It ended after Riel's arrest. He was subsequently convicted of high treason.
Rejecting the popular appeal, Prime Minister MacDonald decided to hang him. His execution not only polarized the country into two separate linguistic blocs but also had a lasting impact. It led to the Prairie provinces being controlled by the Anglophones, not Francophones.
Similarly, Riel's portrayal also oscillates between the extremes. While some see him as a grand historical figure who fought for his people, others argue that he is nothing but a half-insane religious bigot.
Riel was a Candian by nationality and belongs to mixed ethnicity of Cree, French Canadian, Ojibwa, Scottish, Saulteaux, and English. He married his long-term girlfriend Marguerite Monet in 1881, in Montana, the United States. The couple was blessed with three Children. Riel died on 16, November in 1885.
Despite being a great politician, Riel never lived a life of luxury. He spent many years in exile facing scarcity and struggling even to fulfill his basic needs so the details of his net worth and salary are not available. Though we can say with certainty that it was a life of economic deprivation. | 532 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Brief Snapshots of African American History in St. Louis
Slavery in St. Louis
The first slaves that were brought to the area in 1719 were owned by Philippe Renault. They were from the French colony of Haiti on the island of Santo Domingo. Those 500 slaves worked in the lead mines that were located just west of Sainte Genevieve Missouri.
In 1772, one of the first counts of the number of slaves living in St. Louis City and County puts the total population at 198, both male and female. By the time the US takes possession of St. Louis in 1804 with the Louisiana Purchase, the total number of slaves had increased to 1,497. Right before the Civil War, the 1860 St. Louis City and County census puts the number of slaves at 4,340.
Slavery was abolished in 1863 with Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, but at that time, only in the Southern slave-states that had joined the Confederacy. Freedom for the slaves in those states took place as the Union troops advanced and took control. In the Union slave states, such as Missouri, slaves were freed by each individual state or eventually by the 13th Amendment to the US Constitution. Slavery in Missouri was not abolished until Missouri Governor Thomas C. Fletcher's emancipation proclamation was approved by the pro-Union Missouri Constitutional Convention on July 6, 1864. It took effect on Saturday, January 14, 1865. The Thirteenth Amendment to the US Constitution became law in December 1865 and banned slavery in all US States and territories.
The Dred Scott Case
The Dred Scott Case, a legal case that would become influential in leading to the Civil War, began in St. Louis in 1846 and, through many appeals, would not end until 1857 at the United States Supreme Court. The slave, Dred Scott, and his wife Harriet Scott filed a suit for their freedom in the St. Louis Circuit Court located in what is now known as the Old Courthouse in Downtown St. Louis. A long standing Missouri statute stated that any person, black or white, held in wrongful enslavement could sue for freedom. Dred Scott's suit was routine and, like any of the hundreds of cases that had gone before, his suit should have gained his and his wife's freedom. Scott's evidence for his freedom was that he and his wife had been taken out of a slave state by their owner and into a free state and into a free territory, and had lived there for long periods of time. Thus, per Missouri statue, slaves who were taken to such areas were freed, even if they returned to Missouri. "Once free, always free" was the judicial standard.
Dred Scott's Lawyer - Roswell Martin Field
One of the many lawyers who worked on the case was a prominent St. Louis attorney, Roswell Martin Field. He lived in the city of St. Louis, not far from the courthouse, in a townhouse in what was known as "Walsh's Row". Roswell Field was the father of Eugene Field who is known as the "children's poet". Their home is now the only townhouse left of "Walsh's Row" and is known as the Eugene Field House. Roswell Field's involvement was for the purpose of taking the case before the United States Supreme Court to obtain a final decision on the question "Did residence in a free state or territory permanently free a slave?" On March 6, 1857, the final decision of the then pro-slavery chief justices denied Dred and Harriett Scott their freedom. This decision not only shocked the anti-slavery population of the nation, but because of the decision's obvious bias, intensified the anti-South feelings, as well.
Freedom for Dred and Harriett Scott
Ultimately, the Scott family did gain their freedom when it became an embarrassment to their owner, Irene Emerson Chaffee, who was by then married to her second husband, Massachusetts congressman and outspoken abolitionist, Dr. Calvin Chaffee. Mrs. Chaffee transferred ownership of the Scotts to Taylor Blow of St. Louis, who then emancipated them on May 26, 1957. Dred Scott died shortly there after in 1858 and is buried in Calvary Cemetery. Harriett Scott lived until 1876 and is buried in Greenwood Cemetery in North St. Louis County.
The Underground Railroad in St. Louis
The Underground Railroad was in operation for many years before and during the Civil War. Alton's Mississippi riverfront location in "free" Illinois, made it ideal for helping slaves escape to freedom from the slave state of Missouri and others in the south. Abolitionists and free blacks were "conductors" that helped slaves get from one "station" to the next. In fact, many slaves who gained their freedom by escaping to Illinois ended up in the African American community of Rocky Fork near Godfrey Illinois. Today, all that is left of the community is the Rocky Fork New Bethel AME Church that was founded in 1863 and is a site on the National Park Service Underground Railroad Network to Freedom program.
Although the Underground Railroad's activities were secret in nature and are now hard to document, several sites in Alton and the surrounding area have connections to the Underground Railroad and can still be seen today. Along the Mississippi River bank, just north of the Merchant Bridge in St. Louis Missouri, the Mary Meachum Freedom Crossing is located, and is the site of one of the few documented Underground Railroad events in the United States. It is the site where Mary Meachum, a freed slave, was caught helping other slaves from St. Louis cross over the Mississippi River to gain their freedom in Illinois. It is also a site on National Park Service Underground Railroad Network to Freedom program. The Cheney Mansion, today the location of the Jersey County Historical Society in Jerseyville Illinois, was another stop on the Underground Railroad. The Lewis and Clark Community College Campus is said to have tunnels existing under the campus buildings that were used by conductors to aid slaves in gaining their freedom.
Elijah P. Lovejoy, Abolitionist
The Old Rock House in Alton was also a station on the Underground Railroad and it was where the Anti-Slavery Society was founded by Elijah P. Lovejoy, an abolitionist and martyr for the causes of freedom of speech and freedom from slavery. It can still be seen on College Avenue, across the street from the College Avenue Presbyterian Church where Lovejoy was the minister. The Elijah P. Lovejoy Monument is located in the Alton Cemetery and honors Elijah Lovejoy for his stand for freedom. Lyman Trumbull, a US Senator and friend to Abraham Lincoln, wrote the 13th Amendment which abolished slavery in America. His home can still be seen in Alton on Henry Street. The Alton Museum of History and Art has an exhibit featuring the Underground Railroad and displays a "message quilt" and another exhibit that features Elijah Lovejoy's printshop.
St. Louis Offers a New Life
After the Civil War, former slaves migrated to St. Louis. Many of them left the South because of fear of Reconstruction and the activities of the Klu Klux Klan, not knowing if once the US troops left the South, would they remain free or be forced to return to slavery. They came to St. Louis looking for jobs in the factories or clay and coal mines or as a stop on their way further west. When they arrived in St. Louis they had few possessions, if any, so the local black community leaders helped them to find housing in St. Louis or transportation to go further west to settle in Kansas.
Mill Creek Valley, Sumner and Vashon High Schools
The area of St. Louis that was called Mill Creek Valley was populated predominately by African Americans. When the large migration of poor blacks came from the South, they settled in Mill Creek. By 1900, it was a self-sustaining community providing housing, places of worship, and shops for it's residents. It was also close to places of employment in the city and the first Sumner High School was located there. Sumner High School was founded in 1875 and was the first public high school for black students west of the Mississippi River. The high school was originally located on 11th Street between Spruce and what is now Interstate 64 but was eventually relocated in 1908 to the Ville neighborhood on Cottage in Midtown St. Louis. Because segregation laws were still in effect and Sumner High School had become over crowded, there arose a need for another high school for black students. Vashon High School, founded in 1927, became the second public high school built for black students in St. Louis and was located in Mill Creek Valley. During the 1950's, this residential area of Mill Creek was targeted for renewal and was torn down to make room for office and industrial buildings. This displaced thousands of families. Harris-Stowe College now owns the original Vashon High School building and the current Vashon High School building, located in Midtown in the JeffVanderLou Neighborhood, was built in 2002.
The Annie Malone Children's Home
The Annie Malone Children and Family Service Center was founded in 1888 by Sarah Cochran. Sarah Cochran, with the help of other African American women in the community, created a home to care for orphans and neglected children. It was originally called the St Louis Colored Orphans Home but was renamed to honor Annie Turnbo Pope Malone who gave a financial gift in 1922 to build a new building at its present location. Annie Malone was a very successful African American businesswoman who invented hair care products specifically formulated for African American hair. She and her products were so successful that in 1917 she opened Poro College in St. Louis, the first of its kind that specialized in studying and teaching black cosmetology. The Annie Malone Children and Family Service Center continues to play an important part in the Ville Neighborhood by providing many services to the entire community, as well as to children.
Baseball and the Negro National League
As baseball became a National pastime in the early twentieth century, it did so for the African American community, as well. African American players were banned from playing on the major leagues. This would remain true up until 1947 when Jackie Robinson played for the Brooklyn Dodgers. So in 1920, Rube Foster, pitcher for the Chicago American Giants, formed the Negro National League. St. Louis had a team in the league called the St. Louis Giants. Later, when ownership changed, the name was changed to the St. Louis Stars when the team began to play in Star Park, a baseball field built specifically for the Negro League located at the intersection of Compton and Laclede in the Mill Creek area. The Stars played baseball as a team from 1922 to 1931 and won three pennants in the four years from 1928 to 1931. In 1930 lights were installed in the park so games could be played at night. The Negro National League had lights for night time play 5 years before the other two major leagues. One of the great baseball players of the twentieth century played for the St Louis Stars and that was outfielder James "Cool Papa" Bell. Bell was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame and St. Louis named a street after him.
Ragtime, Scott Joplin and St. Louis
Scott Joplin came to St. Louis in 1900 with his wife Belle. He lived just several blocks north of Mill Creek in a brick flat on Delmar Boulevard. He moved here from Sedalia Missouri where he had earned a degree in music from the George R. Smith College for Negroes. While in Sedalia he had learned the art of syncopated rhythms in music. Syncopation is an inherent characteristic in ragtime music that Scott Joplin went on to become famous for. His first hit ragtime song was "Maple Leaf Rag" which became know nationally. While in St. Louis, he composed some of his more famous songs "The Entertainer", "Elite Syncopations", "March Majestic" and "Ragtime Dance". He performed in many of the nightclubs, theaters and saloons that once were numerous in Mill Creek. In 1904, in an effort to better promote his music, Scott Joplin moved to New York City.
Thomas Milton Turpin was also a ragtime composer and owned a saloon in St. Louis were Scott Joplin more than likely, entertained the crowds. Thomas' father, Thomas "Honest John" Turpin owned the Booker T. Washington Theater with his brother, Charles Turpin. Charles Turpin was the first African American to win a public office in a city wide election in St. Louis in 1910. He won the office of St. Louis Constable and was reelected again in 1914. Charles Turpin also owned the People's Finance Company.
"Frankie and Johnny"
The famous "Frankie and Johnny" song was written about an actual event that occurred in Downtown St. Louis in 1899. Frankie Baker shot her boyfriend, Albert Britt, for cheating on her at 212 Targee Street which is now where the Scottrade Center is located. It has been said that within 24 hours of the shooting, the ballad had already been written and was being sung. There are many versions of the song resulting in wording change and the change from the actual name of the victim "Albert" to "Johnny". Frankie was arrested, but her case was determined to be "self-defense" and she was released. Albert died from his wounds four days later while in the hospital.
St. Louis Argus
The St. Louis Argus, a African American newspaper, was founded in 1912 by brothers J. E. and William Mitchell. It still is published on a weekly basis and has an online website as well and is considered one of the oldest African American newspaper in the United States.
NAACP, St. Louis Chapter
In 1914 the St. Louis chapter of the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) was formed.
Shelley v. Kraemer, a Landmark US Supreme Court Case
In 1916, a group of neighborhood associations and Realtors in St. Louis led an initiative for mandatory racial segregation on a block by block basis. Voters passed the Segregation Initiative by a 3 to 1 margin. However, the Supreme Court ruled the initiative unconstitutional and it was struck down. That did not, however, stop segregation in St. Louis. White separatists responded by placing 50 year covenants on individual properties that forbade the sale of the home to persons who where not Caucasian. In 1939, J. D. Shelley and his family were sold such a property at 4600 Labadie in The Greater Ville Neighborhood by an African-American Realtor, James T. Bush, Sr. White neighbors across the street, Louis and Ethel Kraemer, filed a lawsuit against them to keep the Shelley family from moving in. James T. Bush, Sr. hired an African American lawyer, George Vaughn, to represent the Shelleys. The case went all the way to the US Supreme Court. In the landmark case, Shelley v. Kraemer, the US Supreme Court ruled in its 1948 decision that such covenants that limited ownership of property because of race did violate the 14th Amendment of the Constitution. The Shelley House is now a National Historic Landmark and listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
1917 Aluminum Ore Riots
In response to the Aluminum Ore race riot in 1917 in East St. Louis, as well as 18 others that occurred form 1915 to 1919, the St. Louis chapter of the Urban League was established in 1917. The League was a multi-racial group of citizens whose mission was to expand opportunities for the many African Americans that had come to St. Louis, an estimated 60% increase over the previous decade. The League also set out to improve relations between the races in St. Louis.
Homer G. Phillips Hospital
Homer G. Phillips Hospital was open in 1937, six years after its namesake, Attorney Homer G. Phillips, was murdered. Homer G. Phillips pushed for a hospital to be built for the Black community of St. Louis. This hospital would treat black patients as well as provide training in medical techniques for black doctors and nurses. It was built with funds from a 1922 Bond Issue that Homer Phillips spearheaded, as well as Federal Grants. The hospital closed in 1979 due to the lack of funding. The building was redeveloped in 2001 into the Homer G. Phillips Senior Living Community. Located in The Ville Neighborhood, the building has been designated as a St. Louis Landmark and is on the National Register of Historical Places.
Harris-Stowe State University
Harris-Stowe State University was created in 1954 when Harris Teachers College and Stowe Teachers College were merged. The two colleges were doing the same job up to that time, training future elementary school teachers for the St Louis Public school system. The difference was that Harris Teachers College was for whites only and Stowe Teachers College was for blacks only. The two colleges were merged in 1954 by the Board of Education of the St. Louis Public Schools as one of the first steps to integrate the school system. It was originally named Harris Teachers College but changed its name to Harris-Stowe Teachers College in recognition of the request made by the Stowe Teachers College alumni. The college eventually was admitted to the State system of higher education in 1979 and then in 2005 it was given "University" status. The University has many of its classes in what was the first Vashon High School building.
Photo Gallery for African American History - click thumbnails
Annie Malone Childrens Home
The Elijah P. Lovejoy Monument in Alton Illinois
Scott Joplin House State Historic Site
The Old Courthouse in St Louis
Sumner High School
Rocky Fork, New Bethel AME Church in Godfrey, founded 1863
Events in St Louis History
St Louis Missouri Real Estate For Sale
Condos For Sale: 1003
New Construction For Sale: 620
Commercial For Sale: 2276
Acreage For Sale: 1752
Multi-Family 5+ For Sale: 98
Multi-Family 2-4 For Sale: 436
Lots For Sale: 4448
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... | 1 | Brief Snapshots of African American History in St. Louis
Slavery in St. Louis
The first slaves that were brought to the area in 1719 were owned by Philippe Renault. They were from the French colony of Haiti on the island of Santo Domingo. Those 500 slaves worked in the lead mines that were located just west of Sainte Genevieve Missouri.
In 1772, one of the first counts of the number of slaves living in St. Louis City and County puts the total population at 198, both male and female. By the time the US takes possession of St. Louis in 1804 with the Louisiana Purchase, the total number of slaves had increased to 1,497. Right before the Civil War, the 1860 St. Louis City and County census puts the number of slaves at 4,340.
Slavery was abolished in 1863 with Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, but at that time, only in the Southern slave-states that had joined the Confederacy. Freedom for the slaves in those states took place as the Union troops advanced and took control. In the Union slave states, such as Missouri, slaves were freed by each individual state or eventually by the 13th Amendment to the US Constitution. Slavery in Missouri was not abolished until Missouri Governor Thomas C. Fletcher's emancipation proclamation was approved by the pro-Union Missouri Constitutional Convention on July 6, 1864. It took effect on Saturday, January 14, 1865. The Thirteenth Amendment to the US Constitution became law in December 1865 and banned slavery in all US States and territories.
The Dred Scott Case
The Dred Scott Case, a legal case that would become influential in leading to the Civil War, began in St. Louis in 1846 and, through many appeals, would not end until 1857 at the United States Supreme Court. The slave, Dred Scott, and his wife Harriet Scott filed a suit for their freedom in the St. Louis Circuit Court located in what is now known as the Old Courthouse in Downtown St. Louis. A long standing Missouri statute stated that any person, black or white, held in wrongful enslavement could sue for freedom. Dred Scott's suit was routine and, like any of the hundreds of cases that had gone before, his suit should have gained his and his wife's freedom. Scott's evidence for his freedom was that he and his wife had been taken out of a slave state by their owner and into a free state and into a free territory, and had lived there for long periods of time. Thus, per Missouri statue, slaves who were taken to such areas were freed, even if they returned to Missouri. "Once free, always free" was the judicial standard.
Dred Scott's Lawyer - Roswell Martin Field
One of the many lawyers who worked on the case was a prominent St. Louis attorney, Roswell Martin Field. He lived in the city of St. Louis, not far from the courthouse, in a townhouse in what was known as "Walsh's Row". Roswell Field was the father of Eugene Field who is known as the "children's poet". Their home is now the only townhouse left of "Walsh's Row" and is known as the Eugene Field House. Roswell Field's involvement was for the purpose of taking the case before the United States Supreme Court to obtain a final decision on the question "Did residence in a free state or territory permanently free a slave?" On March 6, 1857, the final decision of the then pro-slavery chief justices denied Dred and Harriett Scott their freedom. This decision not only shocked the anti-slavery population of the nation, but because of the decision's obvious bias, intensified the anti-South feelings, as well.
Freedom for Dred and Harriett Scott
Ultimately, the Scott family did gain their freedom when it became an embarrassment to their owner, Irene Emerson Chaffee, who was by then married to her second husband, Massachusetts congressman and outspoken abolitionist, Dr. Calvin Chaffee. Mrs. Chaffee transferred ownership of the Scotts to Taylor Blow of St. Louis, who then emancipated them on May 26, 1957. Dred Scott died shortly there after in 1858 and is buried in Calvary Cemetery. Harriett Scott lived until 1876 and is buried in Greenwood Cemetery in North St. Louis County.
The Underground Railroad in St. Louis
The Underground Railroad was in operation for many years before and during the Civil War. Alton's Mississippi riverfront location in "free" Illinois, made it ideal for helping slaves escape to freedom from the slave state of Missouri and others in the south. Abolitionists and free blacks were "conductors" that helped slaves get from one "station" to the next. In fact, many slaves who gained their freedom by escaping to Illinois ended up in the African American community of Rocky Fork near Godfrey Illinois. Today, all that is left of the community is the Rocky Fork New Bethel AME Church that was founded in 1863 and is a site on the National Park Service Underground Railroad Network to Freedom program.
Although the Underground Railroad's activities were secret in nature and are now hard to document, several sites in Alton and the surrounding area have connections to the Underground Railroad and can still be seen today. Along the Mississippi River bank, just north of the Merchant Bridge in St. Louis Missouri, the Mary Meachum Freedom Crossing is located, and is the site of one of the few documented Underground Railroad events in the United States. It is the site where Mary Meachum, a freed slave, was caught helping other slaves from St. Louis cross over the Mississippi River to gain their freedom in Illinois. It is also a site on National Park Service Underground Railroad Network to Freedom program. The Cheney Mansion, today the location of the Jersey County Historical Society in Jerseyville Illinois, was another stop on the Underground Railroad. The Lewis and Clark Community College Campus is said to have tunnels existing under the campus buildings that were used by conductors to aid slaves in gaining their freedom.
Elijah P. Lovejoy, Abolitionist
The Old Rock House in Alton was also a station on the Underground Railroad and it was where the Anti-Slavery Society was founded by Elijah P. Lovejoy, an abolitionist and martyr for the causes of freedom of speech and freedom from slavery. It can still be seen on College Avenue, across the street from the College Avenue Presbyterian Church where Lovejoy was the minister. The Elijah P. Lovejoy Monument is located in the Alton Cemetery and honors Elijah Lovejoy for his stand for freedom. Lyman Trumbull, a US Senator and friend to Abraham Lincoln, wrote the 13th Amendment which abolished slavery in America. His home can still be seen in Alton on Henry Street. The Alton Museum of History and Art has an exhibit featuring the Underground Railroad and displays a "message quilt" and another exhibit that features Elijah Lovejoy's printshop.
St. Louis Offers a New Life
After the Civil War, former slaves migrated to St. Louis. Many of them left the South because of fear of Reconstruction and the activities of the Klu Klux Klan, not knowing if once the US troops left the South, would they remain free or be forced to return to slavery. They came to St. Louis looking for jobs in the factories or clay and coal mines or as a stop on their way further west. When they arrived in St. Louis they had few possessions, if any, so the local black community leaders helped them to find housing in St. Louis or transportation to go further west to settle in Kansas.
Mill Creek Valley, Sumner and Vashon High Schools
The area of St. Louis that was called Mill Creek Valley was populated predominately by African Americans. When the large migration of poor blacks came from the South, they settled in Mill Creek. By 1900, it was a self-sustaining community providing housing, places of worship, and shops for it's residents. It was also close to places of employment in the city and the first Sumner High School was located there. Sumner High School was founded in 1875 and was the first public high school for black students west of the Mississippi River. The high school was originally located on 11th Street between Spruce and what is now Interstate 64 but was eventually relocated in 1908 to the Ville neighborhood on Cottage in Midtown St. Louis. Because segregation laws were still in effect and Sumner High School had become over crowded, there arose a need for another high school for black students. Vashon High School, founded in 1927, became the second public high school built for black students in St. Louis and was located in Mill Creek Valley. During the 1950's, this residential area of Mill Creek was targeted for renewal and was torn down to make room for office and industrial buildings. This displaced thousands of families. Harris-Stowe College now owns the original Vashon High School building and the current Vashon High School building, located in Midtown in the JeffVanderLou Neighborhood, was built in 2002.
The Annie Malone Children's Home
The Annie Malone Children and Family Service Center was founded in 1888 by Sarah Cochran. Sarah Cochran, with the help of other African American women in the community, created a home to care for orphans and neglected children. It was originally called the St Louis Colored Orphans Home but was renamed to honor Annie Turnbo Pope Malone who gave a financial gift in 1922 to build a new building at its present location. Annie Malone was a very successful African American businesswoman who invented hair care products specifically formulated for African American hair. She and her products were so successful that in 1917 she opened Poro College in St. Louis, the first of its kind that specialized in studying and teaching black cosmetology. The Annie Malone Children and Family Service Center continues to play an important part in the Ville Neighborhood by providing many services to the entire community, as well as to children.
Baseball and the Negro National League
As baseball became a National pastime in the early twentieth century, it did so for the African American community, as well. African American players were banned from playing on the major leagues. This would remain true up until 1947 when Jackie Robinson played for the Brooklyn Dodgers. So in 1920, Rube Foster, pitcher for the Chicago American Giants, formed the Negro National League. St. Louis had a team in the league called the St. Louis Giants. Later, when ownership changed, the name was changed to the St. Louis Stars when the team began to play in Star Park, a baseball field built specifically for the Negro League located at the intersection of Compton and Laclede in the Mill Creek area. The Stars played baseball as a team from 1922 to 1931 and won three pennants in the four years from 1928 to 1931. In 1930 lights were installed in the park so games could be played at night. The Negro National League had lights for night time play 5 years before the other two major leagues. One of the great baseball players of the twentieth century played for the St Louis Stars and that was outfielder James "Cool Papa" Bell. Bell was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame and St. Louis named a street after him.
Ragtime, Scott Joplin and St. Louis
Scott Joplin came to St. Louis in 1900 with his wife Belle. He lived just several blocks north of Mill Creek in a brick flat on Delmar Boulevard. He moved here from Sedalia Missouri where he had earned a degree in music from the George R. Smith College for Negroes. While in Sedalia he had learned the art of syncopated rhythms in music. Syncopation is an inherent characteristic in ragtime music that Scott Joplin went on to become famous for. His first hit ragtime song was "Maple Leaf Rag" which became know nationally. While in St. Louis, he composed some of his more famous songs "The Entertainer", "Elite Syncopations", "March Majestic" and "Ragtime Dance". He performed in many of the nightclubs, theaters and saloons that once were numerous in Mill Creek. In 1904, in an effort to better promote his music, Scott Joplin moved to New York City.
Thomas Milton Turpin was also a ragtime composer and owned a saloon in St. Louis were Scott Joplin more than likely, entertained the crowds. Thomas' father, Thomas "Honest John" Turpin owned the Booker T. Washington Theater with his brother, Charles Turpin. Charles Turpin was the first African American to win a public office in a city wide election in St. Louis in 1910. He won the office of St. Louis Constable and was reelected again in 1914. Charles Turpin also owned the People's Finance Company.
"Frankie and Johnny"
The famous "Frankie and Johnny" song was written about an actual event that occurred in Downtown St. Louis in 1899. Frankie Baker shot her boyfriend, Albert Britt, for cheating on her at 212 Targee Street which is now where the Scottrade Center is located. It has been said that within 24 hours of the shooting, the ballad had already been written and was being sung. There are many versions of the song resulting in wording change and the change from the actual name of the victim "Albert" to "Johnny". Frankie was arrested, but her case was determined to be "self-defense" and she was released. Albert died from his wounds four days later while in the hospital.
St. Louis Argus
The St. Louis Argus, a African American newspaper, was founded in 1912 by brothers J. E. and William Mitchell. It still is published on a weekly basis and has an online website as well and is considered one of the oldest African American newspaper in the United States.
NAACP, St. Louis Chapter
In 1914 the St. Louis chapter of the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) was formed.
Shelley v. Kraemer, a Landmark US Supreme Court Case
In 1916, a group of neighborhood associations and Realtors in St. Louis led an initiative for mandatory racial segregation on a block by block basis. Voters passed the Segregation Initiative by a 3 to 1 margin. However, the Supreme Court ruled the initiative unconstitutional and it was struck down. That did not, however, stop segregation in St. Louis. White separatists responded by placing 50 year covenants on individual properties that forbade the sale of the home to persons who where not Caucasian. In 1939, J. D. Shelley and his family were sold such a property at 4600 Labadie in The Greater Ville Neighborhood by an African-American Realtor, James T. Bush, Sr. White neighbors across the street, Louis and Ethel Kraemer, filed a lawsuit against them to keep the Shelley family from moving in. James T. Bush, Sr. hired an African American lawyer, George Vaughn, to represent the Shelleys. The case went all the way to the US Supreme Court. In the landmark case, Shelley v. Kraemer, the US Supreme Court ruled in its 1948 decision that such covenants that limited ownership of property because of race did violate the 14th Amendment of the Constitution. The Shelley House is now a National Historic Landmark and listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
1917 Aluminum Ore Riots
In response to the Aluminum Ore race riot in 1917 in East St. Louis, as well as 18 others that occurred form 1915 to 1919, the St. Louis chapter of the Urban League was established in 1917. The League was a multi-racial group of citizens whose mission was to expand opportunities for the many African Americans that had come to St. Louis, an estimated 60% increase over the previous decade. The League also set out to improve relations between the races in St. Louis.
Homer G. Phillips Hospital
Homer G. Phillips Hospital was open in 1937, six years after its namesake, Attorney Homer G. Phillips, was murdered. Homer G. Phillips pushed for a hospital to be built for the Black community of St. Louis. This hospital would treat black patients as well as provide training in medical techniques for black doctors and nurses. It was built with funds from a 1922 Bond Issue that Homer Phillips spearheaded, as well as Federal Grants. The hospital closed in 1979 due to the lack of funding. The building was redeveloped in 2001 into the Homer G. Phillips Senior Living Community. Located in The Ville Neighborhood, the building has been designated as a St. Louis Landmark and is on the National Register of Historical Places.
Harris-Stowe State University
Harris-Stowe State University was created in 1954 when Harris Teachers College and Stowe Teachers College were merged. The two colleges were doing the same job up to that time, training future elementary school teachers for the St Louis Public school system. The difference was that Harris Teachers College was for whites only and Stowe Teachers College was for blacks only. The two colleges were merged in 1954 by the Board of Education of the St. Louis Public Schools as one of the first steps to integrate the school system. It was originally named Harris Teachers College but changed its name to Harris-Stowe Teachers College in recognition of the request made by the Stowe Teachers College alumni. The college eventually was admitted to the State system of higher education in 1979 and then in 2005 it was given "University" status. The University has many of its classes in what was the first Vashon High School building.
Photo Gallery for African American History - click thumbnails
Annie Malone Childrens Home
The Elijah P. Lovejoy Monument in Alton Illinois
Scott Joplin House State Historic Site
The Old Courthouse in St Louis
Sumner High School
Rocky Fork, New Bethel AME Church in Godfrey, founded 1863
Events in St Louis History
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By Sally Mallam
Chinese civilization dates back 5,000 years to mythical and legendary individuals who ruled the fertile Yellow River valley of what we know today as China. These pivotal figures established the basic ethos of Chinese culture and would influence the great Axial Age thinkers of the region over 2,000 years later.
Whether based on historical fact or myth, the stories of these ancient monarchs held important symbolic value for the Chinese. Like the Homeric legends of Ancient Greece, these tales became a cultural memory, explaining how and why their societies evolved and providing standards by which later people could judge their own values and behavior.
The Three Sovereigns and the Five Emperors 3500 BCE to 2000 BCE
Three Sage Kings, or Three August Ones, were said to be god-kings or demigods who contributed to the creation of man and animals and introduced important aspects of Chinese culture, such as agriculture, fishing, herbal medicine, music, writing, and the drinking of tea. Because of their superior virtue they lived to a great age and ruled over a long period of peace.
The Five Emperors may be thought of more as supreme beings, rather than “emperors.” The character “di” originally represented an individual more like a shaman.
There are many variations of who was classified as the Three Sovereigns or the Five Emperors. The Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian states that these were:
- Fuxi – The Heavenly Sovereign – ruled for 18,000 years
- NuWa – The Earthly Sovereign – ruled for 11,000 years
- Shenong – The Human Sovereign – ruled for 45,600 years,
- The Yellow Emperor
- Emperor Zhuanxu
- Emperor Ku
- Emperor Yao
- Emperor Shun
Fu Xi (also written Fu His; pronounced “foo shee”) is first in this illustrious group. Han dynasty scholars dated his reign to the middle of the thirtieth century BCE. Today scholars call him a legendary chieftain. The story goes that Fu Xi taught “the black-haired people” (the proto-Chinese) how to hunt and fish and raise domestic animals.
In the enigmatic Han Dynasty tomb paintings, Fu Xi and Nü Wa are shown as human figures from the waist up with intertwined snakes’ tails and a child between them. By this time Nuwa and Fuji are described as the first of the Three August Ones and Five Emperors, and often called the “parents of humankind.”
One story makes Nü Wa the creator of humankind. As she wandered the pristine earth still devoid of people, Nü Wa felt lonely, so she mixed earth and water to fashion figures out of mud in her own likeness, and then brought them to life to keep her company.
The best-known story is called “Nü Wa Patches the Sky.” Two gods were fighting across heaven and earth. The defeated god, in anger, struck his head against a mountain and caused one of the pillars holding up the sky to collapse. The sky broke and cataclysms followed on earth: earthquakes, forest fires, floods welling up from the earth, rampages by ferocious animals against the human beings.
Nü Wa melted down various kinds of colored stones in a crucible, and patched the hole in the sky. She killed a giant tortoise and used its legs to prop up the fallen part of the sky. She put an end to the floods ravaging the earth and killed a dragon to overawe the beasts and put an end to their attacks on humans.
Shen Nong (also written Shen Nung; shen sounds like the English word shun, and the o in nong sounds like oo in foot) came after Fu Xi. He is said to have reigned for more than a hundred years, beginning in the 29th century BCE.
The name “Shen Nong” translates as “Spirit Farmer.” He was the inventor of agriculture and made the first plow. He founded the first market centers and showed the people how to trade with each other for mutual advantage. He made exhaustive studies of the plant world and discovered the medicinal properties of many herbs. In later legends he is the discoverer of tea.
Huangdi – The Yellow Emperor – Circa 2698–2598 BCE
The first of the Five Emperors was the Yellow Emperor (in Chinese: Huangdi, pronounced “hwahng dee”) who arrived on the scene eight generations after Shen Nong. He came to power by defeating a corrupt king and winning the allegiance of all the powerful lords. He went on to reign for a hundred years. Many of the Yellow Emperor stories are about his wars with rival chieftains who tried to invade his territories.
The Yellow Emperor was seen by later generations as the paragon of a ruler. He chose to surround himself with talented advisors, whatever their background, who are credited with many epoch-making achievements. They developed mathematics and astronomy, and established the historical calendar based on a sixty-year cycle. They invented a system of writing and promulgated a code of written laws, and invented the classical musical scales. They improved techniques of building and tool-making, and invented new measuring instruments.
The Yellow Emperor’s name is attached to the most ancient Chinese medical text, which presents discussions between the Emperor and his court physician on the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. His wife Lei Zu devised the techniques of rearing silk worms and weaving cloth from silk.
Zhuanxu – Mythical Reign Circa 2514–2436 BCE
Emperor Zhuanxu was the grandson of the Yellow Emperor, and claimed as the founder of the Qin Dynasty and an ancestor by many of the subsequent dynasties. He ruled for seventy-eight years until his death. He made contributions to a unified calendar and to astrology; initiated religion reforms to oppose shamanism; and forbade close-kin marriage.
Kù, Circa 2436–2366 BCE
When Ku was selected by his uncle, the Emperor Zhuanxu, to become an advisor and inherited his uncle’s throne 15 years later, when he was only 30.
His reputation was of a virtuous, righteous, and humble man, one whose actions were always just, and who treated all his people equally. The Emperor also had great respect for both the Gods in Heaven and the Underworld, often praying to them in return for prosperity of his people. Under his rule, his people lived happy lives.
The Emperor Ku was said to be extremely fond of music. Under his auspices, musicians created many famous musical pieces and invented several new musical instruments. We are told that rare birds such as the phoenix often gathered in his palace to join in musical events. He was said to travel by riding a dragon in spring and summer, and a horse in autumn and winter. He was father to the next Emperor, Yao.
Yao, Circa 2350 BCE
When the later Confucian political philosophers discussed their ancient history they always invoked Yao (rhymes with “wow”) and Shun (“shwoon,” with oo as in foot). Han dynasty scholars placed these individuals in the 24th and 23rd centuries BCE.
Yao focused on building political cohesion. He strengthened the bonds between the clans and lineages, and created harmony among the villages and towns, so that “the black-haired people were satisfied and at peace.” He appointed people to study astronomy and calculate the calendar that regulated the seasonal activities of the population. His reputation was encapsulated by the historians thus: “He extended virtue from himself to the world at large.”
Yao inherited the throne from his father and older brother, but he is remembered above all for how he arranged for his power to be passed on. Knowing that his own son was unworthy of leadership, Yao selected a virtuous and talented common man to succeed him – this was Shun. Yao spent thirty years shaping Shun into a worthy successor, entrusting him with many difficult political tasks. Finally Yao abdicated in his favor and Shun became emperor.
Shun, Circa 2250 BCE
Shun campaigned against “the barbarians” within his territories, people who did not follow a settled agricultural way of life, and expelled them to the remote borderlands of the realm. As a ruler he was known for promoting to positions of authority only people of integrity and simple conduct – fair-minded, public spirited, compassionate, wise and harmonious people.
One of the stories of Shun – told by a philosopher against him! – tells of his leadership style. There was a farming village troubled by land disputes, so Shun went there to live among the people as a farmer. In a year the boundary conflicts ceased. There was a fishing village wracked by quarrels over fishing rights along the riverbank; Shun went there to live as a fisherman. In a year the quarreling ended and an orderly system of sharing was in place. There was a village of potters whose wares were misshapen, and Shun went there and lived a year as a potter, after that the pottery from the village was made correctly.
Yao and Shun were greatly revered over the centuries. Unlike the others, they performed no miracles or amazing feats, but governed their people by virtue of their exemplary behavior. According to The Canon of Yao and Shun, Yao “was reverent, intelligent, accomplished, sincere and mild. He was sincerely respectful and capable of modesty.” Shun was noted for his self-control and moderation. When Yao consulted the gods about his successor, Shun was described as “the son of a blind man. His father is stupid, his mother deceitful, his half brother Xiang is arrogant. Yet he has been able to live in harmony with them and be splendidly filial. He has controlled himself and has not come to wickedness.”
In the chaos of the Axial Age Yao and Shun were seen as paragons of virtue who had established a golden age of peace.
Karen Armstrong says in The Great Transformation, “Their legend in the Classic of Documents was clearly a tacit criticism of rule based on force and coercion and inherited by dynastic succession. Instead of clinging to their own status and prestige, Yao and Shun had both put the good of the people before their natural preferences. They were the archetypal models, who exemplified the moderation, modesty, self-control, and reverence that the li were supposed to cultivate. The legend of Yao and Shun continued to be an inspiration when the political life of China became even more self-serving and ruthless. The Axial sages would argue that every single human being had the potential to become like these great men.”
Like Yao before him, Shun found that his own son was not qualified to rule, so he passed the throne to his best official, Yu (rhymes with French vu), often known as “Yu the Great.”
Yu the Great (Dayu), Circa 2200–2101 BCE
His rule began in 2205 BCE, a time of periodic torrential floods. Under Shun, Gun (the father of Yu) adopted a method of building banks with soil and blocking the holes to control the water but this no longer worked. Yu was ordered to succeed his father in attempting to control the floods. Drawing from his father’s experiences, he found a way of digging channels to conduct water to the sea. After thirteen years of struggle he finally resolved the problem. Then he organized people to develop agriculture by fully utilizing water and soil. With his son’s help he taught people how to plant rice and other crops and to breed fish, ducks and geese.
Yu is admired not only for his unremitting endeavors to fight against the unpredictable forces of nature but also for forgetting his own interests in order to help other people. Leaving home just four days after his marriage, he did not return for thirteen years, although it is said that he passed by three times.
When Yu died the people acclaimed his son as ruler, which began the practice of hereditary succession. Yu is counted as the first ruler of the Xia Dynasty (also written “Hsia,” sounds like “she-yah,” and means “Summer”), the first dynasty in the traditional reckoning.
The Xia Dynasty, Circa 2205–1766 BCE
Jie (also written Chieh, pronounced “je-yeh”) was Yu’s antithesis – a tyrant and self-aggrandizing ruler obsessed with power. Jie was a highly intelligent man and very strong physically. He launched one war after another to force the neighboring rulers to pay tribute. He lived in a grandiose palace and dispatched his henchmen to all corners of the realm to bring back rare treasures and exceptionally beautiful girls. He spent his days feasting and wasted food on a grotesque scale. His residence was built so high that it became known as the Tottering Palace.
Jie’s advisors tried to warn him that he was wasting the people’s resources and endangering the realm, but he silenced them by terror, declaring that he was invincible and the whole world belonged to him. He staged arbitrary mutilations to demonstrate his authority. The people hated him and prayed for his downfall, which finally came at the hands of a warlord who had put together a new coalition in a neighboring area and moved to attack him. Jie maintained his arrogant, self-deluded style right up to the day of his defeat. It is said that he took his court ladies to observe the final battle from a hilltop, saying it would be amusing, like watching a hunt.
In 1766 BC, after four hundred years of rule, the Hsia dynasty was overthrown by Tang, who began a new dynasty, the Shang.
Historians note that the Shang dynasty was itself believed to be mythological until written evidence was found in the 1920’s. So we may yet learn that China’s Golden Age of peace and prosperity under wise and virtuous rulers did in fact exist.
The Shang Dynasty 1600–1045 BCE
From King Tang to King Zhou, the Shang Dynasty lasted nearly 600 years, having 30 emperors through 17 generations, and with the Shang Chinese history finally emerges from the shadows of legend and folklore.
Since total solidarity among clan members was absolutely necessary for the Shang Kingdom to remain unified and survive, they defeated or made alliances with rival lords, appointed their own clansmen as military overseers, and brought the whole region under their central control.
The earliest written records of Chinese history are from this Shang period. Luckily for historians, divination was an important part of their culture, used for both political and religious purposes. Over 100,000 fragments of oracle bones have been found left over from the divination ceremonies of the Shang royal courts. These bones or shells were inscribed with questions and then heated causing cracks to appear on their surface. The cracks were interpreted, presumably by specialist interpreters, and once an answer was obtained the procedure was repeated several times to ensure accuracy and the final answer engraved on the bone or shell.
They record queries made by powerful people and pose questions such as:
“Shall we launch an expedition against the Yi?”
“Should we marry a princess from the Rong?”
“Will the rain cause disaster or not?”
“Should the King make an alliance with Lord A against Lord B?”
“Will God approve if we build a village there?”
“Will the Queen give birth to a son?”
Significant events were also noted in some inscriptions:
“On such-and-such a day, the chariot and horses of the petty official Q collided with the king’s chariot, and the driver was knocked out.”
Here’s one noting the success of a diviner:
“Diviner Y made an oracle on day D that the upcoming ten-day period T would be unlucky, and two days later the King was injured.”
The dating of the bones varies but the majority of them stem from the late Shang Dynasty: 1250 to 1046 BCE.
From these inscribed fragments we know that the Shang believed heaven and earth to be co-terminous realms, both immediately available to human beings. The Divine Realm paralleled the Earthly Realm, each with their court, minions and assistants. A great task of the King was to maintain harmony between these realms because the well-being of everyone depended on it.
The Great God, Shang Di – the Lord Supreme, was served by lesser gods like the sun, the moon, the wind, rain and other natural forces. In common with Indo-Aryan and other pre-Axial societies, the Chinese turned to these lesser gods for help with their problems, harvest, health and hunting and military campaigns. Their pantheon included even lesser local Gods, whose power was confined to a city or village. Typical too of pre-Axial cultures, the bone inscriptions reveal that these early Chinese were only concerned with what the deities could do for them. The gods desired sacrifices and tributes and in return they gave people the divine assistance they needed in worldly matters. There are no expressions of feeling towards the gods and no evidence that the gods were at all concerned with the moral behavior of human beings.
Filial piety, responsibility and the reverence of parents was an important aspect of Shang culture. The concept is that since children are greatly indebted to their parents for giving them life, the only possible response to this is reverence, which continued long after a parent’s death. Ancestors existed in the spirit world and exerted their influence on living family members. They were consulted on important family matters and honored with sacrifices; in turn they would mediate with the gods on behalf of the living relatives. The king’s ancestors had great influence over the king and were able to mediate between him and Shang Di, the Lord Supreme. Kings would serve as the head of ancestor and spirit-worship. Evidence from excavations of royal tombs indicates that royal members were buried with articles of value, presumably for use in the afterlife. Perhaps for the same reason, sites have been found where hundreds of commoners, who may have been slaves, were buried alive with the royal corpse.
In 1928 an unwalled city that was the Shang capital in about 1200 BCE was found with remains of what apparently was a royal palace and several royal tombs containing precious bronze vessels and jade, chariots, animal and human sacrifices; including a large trove of inscriptions on bones and tortoise shells. These provide examples of thousands of symbols of the earliest Chinese writing, and show that writing was by this time already well developed.
Ghosts were also part of the unseen world, usually understood to be the malevolent spirits of the dead who had not been properly buried. (Greeks had the same idea: ghosts would haunt them until they were given a proper burial.)
De, which would become an important concept for Chinese Axial Age thinkers, was mentioned on many of these inscribed fragments. At this time in Chinese history, it referred to a power that was generated within a person who acted generously or kindly to a god or human being. Unusual for a pre-Axial idea, it was the inner disposition or attitude within the act that was important for De to manifest. People who committed many of these acts accumulated De; thus virtuous people were regarded as strong people, and those who were recipients of their compassionate acts were believed to feel indebted to the person in return; as a result, they would want to respond with a similar act of kindness.
“The Chinese called this desire to respond to an act of kindness bao. Thus virtue carried with it the power to affect the lives of others in a virtuous way. Your virtuous act towards me encourages my virtue, prompting me to act kindly. De and Bao were regarded as being causally connected in the nature of things. They weren’t viewed as psychological phenomenon but as natural phenomenon. Operating as surely as we think of the way gravity works, or the way Indians view the function of karma.” writes Professor Mark W. Muesse in Religions of the Axial Age: An Approach to the World’s Religions.
Shang culture was mainly based on agriculture, animal husbandry and hunting. During this period, many people were captured in war and reduced to slavery, and even among the free commoners, forced mobilizations for large building projects are thought to have been the norm. It is said that the Shang system organized the common people by occupation and craft into supervised groups.
The prime status symbol of the Shang aristocrat was a war-chariot, the embodiment of warrior power. Shang warriors used bronze weapons and used elaborate bronze ceremonial objects to mark their legitimacy. Bronze takes a sharper edge than stone and a bronze blade is less fragile than a stone blade. Bronze casting and pottery advanced during the Shang dynasty, with bronze being used for art as well as weapons. Other advances included the invention of many musical instruments, and observations of Mars and various comets by Shang astronomers.
The Shang Dynasty saw its demise as the kingdom’s elite, the groups of local warlords responsible for the defense of the area and for the collection of taxes to be delivered to the king, gradually sought their own power. This eventually lead to decentralization and political weakness. By the end of the Shang Dynasty several warlords had created their own personal fiefdoms. Finally the last Shang Ruler, Shang Zhou, committed suicide after his army was defeated by the Zhou.
Responsibility for the balance and harmony, so important to the Chinese culture, had fallen in great measure to the King, thus politics and religion were closely connected. Typical of pre-Axial times, these rituals focused on the harmony and well-being of society as a whole, with no thought of the individual. But as the Axial Age in China approaches this will begin to change. | <urn:uuid:82806927-8e59-460c-bd45-8ae149151853> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://humanjourney.us/ideas-that-shaped-our-modern-world-section/early-civilizations-china/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00004.warc.gz | en | 0.982939 | 4,609 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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... | 7 | By Sally Mallam
Chinese civilization dates back 5,000 years to mythical and legendary individuals who ruled the fertile Yellow River valley of what we know today as China. These pivotal figures established the basic ethos of Chinese culture and would influence the great Axial Age thinkers of the region over 2,000 years later.
Whether based on historical fact or myth, the stories of these ancient monarchs held important symbolic value for the Chinese. Like the Homeric legends of Ancient Greece, these tales became a cultural memory, explaining how and why their societies evolved and providing standards by which later people could judge their own values and behavior.
The Three Sovereigns and the Five Emperors 3500 BCE to 2000 BCE
Three Sage Kings, or Three August Ones, were said to be god-kings or demigods who contributed to the creation of man and animals and introduced important aspects of Chinese culture, such as agriculture, fishing, herbal medicine, music, writing, and the drinking of tea. Because of their superior virtue they lived to a great age and ruled over a long period of peace.
The Five Emperors may be thought of more as supreme beings, rather than “emperors.” The character “di” originally represented an individual more like a shaman.
There are many variations of who was classified as the Three Sovereigns or the Five Emperors. The Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian states that these were:
- Fuxi – The Heavenly Sovereign – ruled for 18,000 years
- NuWa – The Earthly Sovereign – ruled for 11,000 years
- Shenong – The Human Sovereign – ruled for 45,600 years,
- The Yellow Emperor
- Emperor Zhuanxu
- Emperor Ku
- Emperor Yao
- Emperor Shun
Fu Xi (also written Fu His; pronounced “foo shee”) is first in this illustrious group. Han dynasty scholars dated his reign to the middle of the thirtieth century BCE. Today scholars call him a legendary chieftain. The story goes that Fu Xi taught “the black-haired people” (the proto-Chinese) how to hunt and fish and raise domestic animals.
In the enigmatic Han Dynasty tomb paintings, Fu Xi and Nü Wa are shown as human figures from the waist up with intertwined snakes’ tails and a child between them. By this time Nuwa and Fuji are described as the first of the Three August Ones and Five Emperors, and often called the “parents of humankind.”
One story makes Nü Wa the creator of humankind. As she wandered the pristine earth still devoid of people, Nü Wa felt lonely, so she mixed earth and water to fashion figures out of mud in her own likeness, and then brought them to life to keep her company.
The best-known story is called “Nü Wa Patches the Sky.” Two gods were fighting across heaven and earth. The defeated god, in anger, struck his head against a mountain and caused one of the pillars holding up the sky to collapse. The sky broke and cataclysms followed on earth: earthquakes, forest fires, floods welling up from the earth, rampages by ferocious animals against the human beings.
Nü Wa melted down various kinds of colored stones in a crucible, and patched the hole in the sky. She killed a giant tortoise and used its legs to prop up the fallen part of the sky. She put an end to the floods ravaging the earth and killed a dragon to overawe the beasts and put an end to their attacks on humans.
Shen Nong (also written Shen Nung; shen sounds like the English word shun, and the o in nong sounds like oo in foot) came after Fu Xi. He is said to have reigned for more than a hundred years, beginning in the 29th century BCE.
The name “Shen Nong” translates as “Spirit Farmer.” He was the inventor of agriculture and made the first plow. He founded the first market centers and showed the people how to trade with each other for mutual advantage. He made exhaustive studies of the plant world and discovered the medicinal properties of many herbs. In later legends he is the discoverer of tea.
Huangdi – The Yellow Emperor – Circa 2698–2598 BCE
The first of the Five Emperors was the Yellow Emperor (in Chinese: Huangdi, pronounced “hwahng dee”) who arrived on the scene eight generations after Shen Nong. He came to power by defeating a corrupt king and winning the allegiance of all the powerful lords. He went on to reign for a hundred years. Many of the Yellow Emperor stories are about his wars with rival chieftains who tried to invade his territories.
The Yellow Emperor was seen by later generations as the paragon of a ruler. He chose to surround himself with talented advisors, whatever their background, who are credited with many epoch-making achievements. They developed mathematics and astronomy, and established the historical calendar based on a sixty-year cycle. They invented a system of writing and promulgated a code of written laws, and invented the classical musical scales. They improved techniques of building and tool-making, and invented new measuring instruments.
The Yellow Emperor’s name is attached to the most ancient Chinese medical text, which presents discussions between the Emperor and his court physician on the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. His wife Lei Zu devised the techniques of rearing silk worms and weaving cloth from silk.
Zhuanxu – Mythical Reign Circa 2514–2436 BCE
Emperor Zhuanxu was the grandson of the Yellow Emperor, and claimed as the founder of the Qin Dynasty and an ancestor by many of the subsequent dynasties. He ruled for seventy-eight years until his death. He made contributions to a unified calendar and to astrology; initiated religion reforms to oppose shamanism; and forbade close-kin marriage.
Kù, Circa 2436–2366 BCE
When Ku was selected by his uncle, the Emperor Zhuanxu, to become an advisor and inherited his uncle’s throne 15 years later, when he was only 30.
His reputation was of a virtuous, righteous, and humble man, one whose actions were always just, and who treated all his people equally. The Emperor also had great respect for both the Gods in Heaven and the Underworld, often praying to them in return for prosperity of his people. Under his rule, his people lived happy lives.
The Emperor Ku was said to be extremely fond of music. Under his auspices, musicians created many famous musical pieces and invented several new musical instruments. We are told that rare birds such as the phoenix often gathered in his palace to join in musical events. He was said to travel by riding a dragon in spring and summer, and a horse in autumn and winter. He was father to the next Emperor, Yao.
Yao, Circa 2350 BCE
When the later Confucian political philosophers discussed their ancient history they always invoked Yao (rhymes with “wow”) and Shun (“shwoon,” with oo as in foot). Han dynasty scholars placed these individuals in the 24th and 23rd centuries BCE.
Yao focused on building political cohesion. He strengthened the bonds between the clans and lineages, and created harmony among the villages and towns, so that “the black-haired people were satisfied and at peace.” He appointed people to study astronomy and calculate the calendar that regulated the seasonal activities of the population. His reputation was encapsulated by the historians thus: “He extended virtue from himself to the world at large.”
Yao inherited the throne from his father and older brother, but he is remembered above all for how he arranged for his power to be passed on. Knowing that his own son was unworthy of leadership, Yao selected a virtuous and talented common man to succeed him – this was Shun. Yao spent thirty years shaping Shun into a worthy successor, entrusting him with many difficult political tasks. Finally Yao abdicated in his favor and Shun became emperor.
Shun, Circa 2250 BCE
Shun campaigned against “the barbarians” within his territories, people who did not follow a settled agricultural way of life, and expelled them to the remote borderlands of the realm. As a ruler he was known for promoting to positions of authority only people of integrity and simple conduct – fair-minded, public spirited, compassionate, wise and harmonious people.
One of the stories of Shun – told by a philosopher against him! – tells of his leadership style. There was a farming village troubled by land disputes, so Shun went there to live among the people as a farmer. In a year the boundary conflicts ceased. There was a fishing village wracked by quarrels over fishing rights along the riverbank; Shun went there to live as a fisherman. In a year the quarreling ended and an orderly system of sharing was in place. There was a village of potters whose wares were misshapen, and Shun went there and lived a year as a potter, after that the pottery from the village was made correctly.
Yao and Shun were greatly revered over the centuries. Unlike the others, they performed no miracles or amazing feats, but governed their people by virtue of their exemplary behavior. According to The Canon of Yao and Shun, Yao “was reverent, intelligent, accomplished, sincere and mild. He was sincerely respectful and capable of modesty.” Shun was noted for his self-control and moderation. When Yao consulted the gods about his successor, Shun was described as “the son of a blind man. His father is stupid, his mother deceitful, his half brother Xiang is arrogant. Yet he has been able to live in harmony with them and be splendidly filial. He has controlled himself and has not come to wickedness.”
In the chaos of the Axial Age Yao and Shun were seen as paragons of virtue who had established a golden age of peace.
Karen Armstrong says in The Great Transformation, “Their legend in the Classic of Documents was clearly a tacit criticism of rule based on force and coercion and inherited by dynastic succession. Instead of clinging to their own status and prestige, Yao and Shun had both put the good of the people before their natural preferences. They were the archetypal models, who exemplified the moderation, modesty, self-control, and reverence that the li were supposed to cultivate. The legend of Yao and Shun continued to be an inspiration when the political life of China became even more self-serving and ruthless. The Axial sages would argue that every single human being had the potential to become like these great men.”
Like Yao before him, Shun found that his own son was not qualified to rule, so he passed the throne to his best official, Yu (rhymes with French vu), often known as “Yu the Great.”
Yu the Great (Dayu), Circa 2200–2101 BCE
His rule began in 2205 BCE, a time of periodic torrential floods. Under Shun, Gun (the father of Yu) adopted a method of building banks with soil and blocking the holes to control the water but this no longer worked. Yu was ordered to succeed his father in attempting to control the floods. Drawing from his father’s experiences, he found a way of digging channels to conduct water to the sea. After thirteen years of struggle he finally resolved the problem. Then he organized people to develop agriculture by fully utilizing water and soil. With his son’s help he taught people how to plant rice and other crops and to breed fish, ducks and geese.
Yu is admired not only for his unremitting endeavors to fight against the unpredictable forces of nature but also for forgetting his own interests in order to help other people. Leaving home just four days after his marriage, he did not return for thirteen years, although it is said that he passed by three times.
When Yu died the people acclaimed his son as ruler, which began the practice of hereditary succession. Yu is counted as the first ruler of the Xia Dynasty (also written “Hsia,” sounds like “she-yah,” and means “Summer”), the first dynasty in the traditional reckoning.
The Xia Dynasty, Circa 2205–1766 BCE
Jie (also written Chieh, pronounced “je-yeh”) was Yu’s antithesis – a tyrant and self-aggrandizing ruler obsessed with power. Jie was a highly intelligent man and very strong physically. He launched one war after another to force the neighboring rulers to pay tribute. He lived in a grandiose palace and dispatched his henchmen to all corners of the realm to bring back rare treasures and exceptionally beautiful girls. He spent his days feasting and wasted food on a grotesque scale. His residence was built so high that it became known as the Tottering Palace.
Jie’s advisors tried to warn him that he was wasting the people’s resources and endangering the realm, but he silenced them by terror, declaring that he was invincible and the whole world belonged to him. He staged arbitrary mutilations to demonstrate his authority. The people hated him and prayed for his downfall, which finally came at the hands of a warlord who had put together a new coalition in a neighboring area and moved to attack him. Jie maintained his arrogant, self-deluded style right up to the day of his defeat. It is said that he took his court ladies to observe the final battle from a hilltop, saying it would be amusing, like watching a hunt.
In 1766 BC, after four hundred years of rule, the Hsia dynasty was overthrown by Tang, who began a new dynasty, the Shang.
Historians note that the Shang dynasty was itself believed to be mythological until written evidence was found in the 1920’s. So we may yet learn that China’s Golden Age of peace and prosperity under wise and virtuous rulers did in fact exist.
The Shang Dynasty 1600–1045 BCE
From King Tang to King Zhou, the Shang Dynasty lasted nearly 600 years, having 30 emperors through 17 generations, and with the Shang Chinese history finally emerges from the shadows of legend and folklore.
Since total solidarity among clan members was absolutely necessary for the Shang Kingdom to remain unified and survive, they defeated or made alliances with rival lords, appointed their own clansmen as military overseers, and brought the whole region under their central control.
The earliest written records of Chinese history are from this Shang period. Luckily for historians, divination was an important part of their culture, used for both political and religious purposes. Over 100,000 fragments of oracle bones have been found left over from the divination ceremonies of the Shang royal courts. These bones or shells were inscribed with questions and then heated causing cracks to appear on their surface. The cracks were interpreted, presumably by specialist interpreters, and once an answer was obtained the procedure was repeated several times to ensure accuracy and the final answer engraved on the bone or shell.
They record queries made by powerful people and pose questions such as:
“Shall we launch an expedition against the Yi?”
“Should we marry a princess from the Rong?”
“Will the rain cause disaster or not?”
“Should the King make an alliance with Lord A against Lord B?”
“Will God approve if we build a village there?”
“Will the Queen give birth to a son?”
Significant events were also noted in some inscriptions:
“On such-and-such a day, the chariot and horses of the petty official Q collided with the king’s chariot, and the driver was knocked out.”
Here’s one noting the success of a diviner:
“Diviner Y made an oracle on day D that the upcoming ten-day period T would be unlucky, and two days later the King was injured.”
The dating of the bones varies but the majority of them stem from the late Shang Dynasty: 1250 to 1046 BCE.
From these inscribed fragments we know that the Shang believed heaven and earth to be co-terminous realms, both immediately available to human beings. The Divine Realm paralleled the Earthly Realm, each with their court, minions and assistants. A great task of the King was to maintain harmony between these realms because the well-being of everyone depended on it.
The Great God, Shang Di – the Lord Supreme, was served by lesser gods like the sun, the moon, the wind, rain and other natural forces. In common with Indo-Aryan and other pre-Axial societies, the Chinese turned to these lesser gods for help with their problems, harvest, health and hunting and military campaigns. Their pantheon included even lesser local Gods, whose power was confined to a city or village. Typical too of pre-Axial cultures, the bone inscriptions reveal that these early Chinese were only concerned with what the deities could do for them. The gods desired sacrifices and tributes and in return they gave people the divine assistance they needed in worldly matters. There are no expressions of feeling towards the gods and no evidence that the gods were at all concerned with the moral behavior of human beings.
Filial piety, responsibility and the reverence of parents was an important aspect of Shang culture. The concept is that since children are greatly indebted to their parents for giving them life, the only possible response to this is reverence, which continued long after a parent’s death. Ancestors existed in the spirit world and exerted their influence on living family members. They were consulted on important family matters and honored with sacrifices; in turn they would mediate with the gods on behalf of the living relatives. The king’s ancestors had great influence over the king and were able to mediate between him and Shang Di, the Lord Supreme. Kings would serve as the head of ancestor and spirit-worship. Evidence from excavations of royal tombs indicates that royal members were buried with articles of value, presumably for use in the afterlife. Perhaps for the same reason, sites have been found where hundreds of commoners, who may have been slaves, were buried alive with the royal corpse.
In 1928 an unwalled city that was the Shang capital in about 1200 BCE was found with remains of what apparently was a royal palace and several royal tombs containing precious bronze vessels and jade, chariots, animal and human sacrifices; including a large trove of inscriptions on bones and tortoise shells. These provide examples of thousands of symbols of the earliest Chinese writing, and show that writing was by this time already well developed.
Ghosts were also part of the unseen world, usually understood to be the malevolent spirits of the dead who had not been properly buried. (Greeks had the same idea: ghosts would haunt them until they were given a proper burial.)
De, which would become an important concept for Chinese Axial Age thinkers, was mentioned on many of these inscribed fragments. At this time in Chinese history, it referred to a power that was generated within a person who acted generously or kindly to a god or human being. Unusual for a pre-Axial idea, it was the inner disposition or attitude within the act that was important for De to manifest. People who committed many of these acts accumulated De; thus virtuous people were regarded as strong people, and those who were recipients of their compassionate acts were believed to feel indebted to the person in return; as a result, they would want to respond with a similar act of kindness.
“The Chinese called this desire to respond to an act of kindness bao. Thus virtue carried with it the power to affect the lives of others in a virtuous way. Your virtuous act towards me encourages my virtue, prompting me to act kindly. De and Bao were regarded as being causally connected in the nature of things. They weren’t viewed as psychological phenomenon but as natural phenomenon. Operating as surely as we think of the way gravity works, or the way Indians view the function of karma.” writes Professor Mark W. Muesse in Religions of the Axial Age: An Approach to the World’s Religions.
Shang culture was mainly based on agriculture, animal husbandry and hunting. During this period, many people were captured in war and reduced to slavery, and even among the free commoners, forced mobilizations for large building projects are thought to have been the norm. It is said that the Shang system organized the common people by occupation and craft into supervised groups.
The prime status symbol of the Shang aristocrat was a war-chariot, the embodiment of warrior power. Shang warriors used bronze weapons and used elaborate bronze ceremonial objects to mark their legitimacy. Bronze takes a sharper edge than stone and a bronze blade is less fragile than a stone blade. Bronze casting and pottery advanced during the Shang dynasty, with bronze being used for art as well as weapons. Other advances included the invention of many musical instruments, and observations of Mars and various comets by Shang astronomers.
The Shang Dynasty saw its demise as the kingdom’s elite, the groups of local warlords responsible for the defense of the area and for the collection of taxes to be delivered to the king, gradually sought their own power. This eventually lead to decentralization and political weakness. By the end of the Shang Dynasty several warlords had created their own personal fiefdoms. Finally the last Shang Ruler, Shang Zhou, committed suicide after his army was defeated by the Zhou.
Responsibility for the balance and harmony, so important to the Chinese culture, had fallen in great measure to the King, thus politics and religion were closely connected. Typical of pre-Axial times, these rituals focused on the harmony and well-being of society as a whole, with no thought of the individual. But as the Axial Age in China approaches this will begin to change. | 4,579 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The ecological adaptation of the Australian bush to fire is well documented, as is the the practice Aborigines adopted for eons in pre-colonial times to burn areas to create grasslands and drive out game. Captain Cook saw the plumes of smoke from fires as he sailed along the east coast of Australia in 1770.
The fires might have been lit by Aborigines, but lightning also produced blazes, and fires burnt till they were spent. The intrusion of colonisers stopped the Aboriginal system and changed the environment forever, one change being conditions in which fuel built up dangerously.
It has been noted that in the Northern Territory, where some Aborigines continued their traditional way of life, there have been fewer bushfires.
The wax of eucalyptus trees, which protects the leaves from the fierce heat, is also extremely combustible. Australian fires burn with more intensity than those in the northern hemisphere. Good rains increase the amount of vegetation, but when moisture disappears there is more to burn.
For Australia's early settlers, the bushfires were massive when they took hold. The Macquarie Book of Events records the first bushfire in Van Diemen's Land in 1851. Tasmania introduced a Bush Fires Act three years later, and that decade saw the formation of volunteer fire brigades in Sydney and some NSW country towns.
But the state's first designated bushfire brigade is thought to have been formed at Berrigan, in the state's south, in 1896. It did not take long for events to underline how important bushfire brigades were. In 1897, Tasmania had its "Black Friday", when six people died and property and animals were destroyed in a fiery holocaust; in 1898 fire burned for more than a week in Gippsland and Gisborne, Victoria.
As the urbanisation of the eastern coast of Australia progressed, fires became more frequent. In 1906, NSW councils were empowered to organise bushfire brigades to protect rateable land outside the area covered by the urban fire brigades. Tasmania and Victoria continued to be ravaged by fire. NSW's turn came in 1926 when fire burned for a month over more than a million hectares of land from the Queensland border to Albury on the Victorian border and as far west as Dubbo and Griffith.
Three years later there was another outbreak of fire near Sydney, on the south coast, southern tablelands and on various rural properties. There were more fires in 1936, affecting Casino and Mullumbimby in the north as well as the Blue Mountains. The year 1938 saw major fires in the Dubbo district. A week later a bushfire burned over a huge area of the state's south and east and affected the Canberra area. Six people died. The next big blaze was in 1944, when fires burned in Sydney, Gosford and the Blue Mountains, destroying about 150 buildings.
The fires continued, usually every few years.
In 1951-52 the worst fires in 40 years ravaged 3.4 million hectares of grassland and forest in New South Wales and another six people lost their lives. In 1957, fire destroyed 158 buildings in Leura and Wentworth Falls in the Blue Mountains. Fires in New South Wales and Victoria burned for three months in 1965, killing 11 people. Three years later, six died in fires around Wollongong and in the Blue Mountains. In the mountains, they burned for four weeks. A total of 161 buildings were destroyed.
In 1972, fires burned for another month, ravaging the Kosciusko National Park and areas near Queanbeyan, Eden and Burrinjuck Dam. The summer of 1974-75 saw fires burning almost continuously between Bourke and Balranald and fires burnt on the outskirts of Sydney. The summer of 1977 brought more fires. Two people died in the Blue Mountains. In 1979, another person lost his life as fires burnt in the southern tablelands, the south-west slopes and the Illawarra.
The costs were massive. Native wildlife over the millennia had adapted to fire and was surprisingly resilient, though each fire brought its casualties. Far less advantaged was domestic livestock which died in thousands.
The menace of the bushfires was compounded by the fact that, in urban areas and in rural retreats, people welcomed the seductively tranquil outlook of high gums and cool shade. Conservationists approved the preservation of the arboreal landscapes. They also looked askance at burning-off of forests during hazard-reduction operations. Political pressures were brought to limit hazard reduction programs. There were legal restrictions against ordinary householders clearing fire hazards; they could not go cutting down trees in land they did not own and often there were preservation orders preventing them from cutting down trees on their own land. The result was that householders were often surrounded by fuel. Valleys leading to clifftops where houses were built became gigantic flues with fireballs sweeping up, to destroy homes in minutes. In 1990, Dr Ross Bradstock, a scientist with the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, said one of the paradoxes of urban Australia was that people wanted to live in the bush but "they get upset when fires burn their blasted house down. People seem to think they have a right to live in the bush but escape the onus of fire."
In 1980, five volunteer firefighters were burnt to death when their fire truck was caught in fire at Waterfall in the Royal National Park. But the worst fires in this period tore through the southern states. The Ash Wednesday fires in Victoria in 1983 killed 49 people in Victoria and 26 in South Australia.
In south-western New South Wales in January 1987, a father and son, Alan and Paul Roles, from Mutama were killed when they joined 200 other firefighters fighting a huge blaze over a vast area near Cootamundra. On October 16, 1988, Alan Randell, 35, father of two, was killed when a tree fell on a water tanker he was driving at Audley in the Royal National Park.
In a three-week period from December 21, 1993, numerous blazes, at least some (if not most) the result of arson, burned along the NSW east coast. There had been prolonged drought and temperatures reached 40 degrees. A quarter of the State was under severe threat, more than 400,000 hectares were ablaze and extreme weather was forecast. As bushfires ravaged 800 kilometres of the NSW coastline from the Queensland border to Batemans Bay, fire raced through the streets of Killara, Lindfield West, South Turramurra, West Chatswood and Macquarie Park. The fires devastated 800,000 hectares, including more of the Royal National Park. Four people died and 87 premises were destroyed. Norman Athnes died at Mt Horrible, near Bathurst, when the burning tree he had felled with a chainsaw kicked at an unexpected angle and went down the slope with him. And Pauline Mary O'Neil in southern Sydney lingered a little too long in an attempt to rescue the family pet before making for the safety of a backyard swimming pool at Jannali.
The bushfire season brought out the best and worst in people. The worst were those who started the fires. It was always difficult to catch them, they had the advantage. When caught, the arsonists often turned out to be misanthropic, or people with a psychiatric disability. Others were caused by youngsters. One, an 18-year-old who lived at Emu Plains at the foot of the Blue Mountains, was jailed for four months in 1987 for starting a fire on crown land, then appealed against his conviction on the grounds that he had been put under stress by his workmates and took out his frustration by lighting a fire.
The following year, arson squad detectives sought to question five youths over the bushfire at Bundeena, in the Royal National Park. Bushfire officers, called to the park one evening, found seven separate fires well alight. Senior group captain Richard Donarski, from Wollongong Bushfire Control, said it was "pretty obvious" the fires were a result of arson.
Proving anything was difficult. But as Phil Koperberg, the state's justly adulated Rural Fire Commissioner, said, there were three causes of fires: men, women and children.
Whatever the psychiatric factors, warnings were sounded that eastern Australia would become more prone to bushfires over the following half-century as global warming progressed. In the 1987 National Greenhouse Conference, it was predicted that temperatures might rise four per cent in that time.
Despite all the thought and preparation, fire came again in 2001-2002 when blazes swept from the Blue Mountains towards the south coast and in other areas such as the Hunter Valley. At least no lives were lost on that occasion, Koperberg noted.
The preparation for extreme fire conditions included burnoffs and even these could turn lethal. A burnoff in the Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park in June 2000 killed four staff of the National Parks and Wildlife Service and seriously burnt three others. A burnoff at Mt Victoria killed a Lithgow volunteer firefighter, John Overton, in September 2002. And despite all the effort, investment and thought, the fires kept coming, as they did in December 2002 when Sydney found itself ringed by fire for a week. Fire would always be with us, Koperberg said. The alternative was to resign ourselves to life in a jungle of concrete.
If Australia were to retain its landscape, it would have to accept the inevitable consequences and do its best to prepare. | <urn:uuid:1c0efcbc-a677-4169-98b7-dd5698fe8eda> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.smh.com.au/national/eternal-flame-20021220-gdfzrt.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00200.warc.gz | en | 0.981915 | 1,954 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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... | 4 | The ecological adaptation of the Australian bush to fire is well documented, as is the the practice Aborigines adopted for eons in pre-colonial times to burn areas to create grasslands and drive out game. Captain Cook saw the plumes of smoke from fires as he sailed along the east coast of Australia in 1770.
The fires might have been lit by Aborigines, but lightning also produced blazes, and fires burnt till they were spent. The intrusion of colonisers stopped the Aboriginal system and changed the environment forever, one change being conditions in which fuel built up dangerously.
It has been noted that in the Northern Territory, where some Aborigines continued their traditional way of life, there have been fewer bushfires.
The wax of eucalyptus trees, which protects the leaves from the fierce heat, is also extremely combustible. Australian fires burn with more intensity than those in the northern hemisphere. Good rains increase the amount of vegetation, but when moisture disappears there is more to burn.
For Australia's early settlers, the bushfires were massive when they took hold. The Macquarie Book of Events records the first bushfire in Van Diemen's Land in 1851. Tasmania introduced a Bush Fires Act three years later, and that decade saw the formation of volunteer fire brigades in Sydney and some NSW country towns.
But the state's first designated bushfire brigade is thought to have been formed at Berrigan, in the state's south, in 1896. It did not take long for events to underline how important bushfire brigades were. In 1897, Tasmania had its "Black Friday", when six people died and property and animals were destroyed in a fiery holocaust; in 1898 fire burned for more than a week in Gippsland and Gisborne, Victoria.
As the urbanisation of the eastern coast of Australia progressed, fires became more frequent. In 1906, NSW councils were empowered to organise bushfire brigades to protect rateable land outside the area covered by the urban fire brigades. Tasmania and Victoria continued to be ravaged by fire. NSW's turn came in 1926 when fire burned for a month over more than a million hectares of land from the Queensland border to Albury on the Victorian border and as far west as Dubbo and Griffith.
Three years later there was another outbreak of fire near Sydney, on the south coast, southern tablelands and on various rural properties. There were more fires in 1936, affecting Casino and Mullumbimby in the north as well as the Blue Mountains. The year 1938 saw major fires in the Dubbo district. A week later a bushfire burned over a huge area of the state's south and east and affected the Canberra area. Six people died. The next big blaze was in 1944, when fires burned in Sydney, Gosford and the Blue Mountains, destroying about 150 buildings.
The fires continued, usually every few years.
In 1951-52 the worst fires in 40 years ravaged 3.4 million hectares of grassland and forest in New South Wales and another six people lost their lives. In 1957, fire destroyed 158 buildings in Leura and Wentworth Falls in the Blue Mountains. Fires in New South Wales and Victoria burned for three months in 1965, killing 11 people. Three years later, six died in fires around Wollongong and in the Blue Mountains. In the mountains, they burned for four weeks. A total of 161 buildings were destroyed.
In 1972, fires burned for another month, ravaging the Kosciusko National Park and areas near Queanbeyan, Eden and Burrinjuck Dam. The summer of 1974-75 saw fires burning almost continuously between Bourke and Balranald and fires burnt on the outskirts of Sydney. The summer of 1977 brought more fires. Two people died in the Blue Mountains. In 1979, another person lost his life as fires burnt in the southern tablelands, the south-west slopes and the Illawarra.
The costs were massive. Native wildlife over the millennia had adapted to fire and was surprisingly resilient, though each fire brought its casualties. Far less advantaged was domestic livestock which died in thousands.
The menace of the bushfires was compounded by the fact that, in urban areas and in rural retreats, people welcomed the seductively tranquil outlook of high gums and cool shade. Conservationists approved the preservation of the arboreal landscapes. They also looked askance at burning-off of forests during hazard-reduction operations. Political pressures were brought to limit hazard reduction programs. There were legal restrictions against ordinary householders clearing fire hazards; they could not go cutting down trees in land they did not own and often there were preservation orders preventing them from cutting down trees on their own land. The result was that householders were often surrounded by fuel. Valleys leading to clifftops where houses were built became gigantic flues with fireballs sweeping up, to destroy homes in minutes. In 1990, Dr Ross Bradstock, a scientist with the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, said one of the paradoxes of urban Australia was that people wanted to live in the bush but "they get upset when fires burn their blasted house down. People seem to think they have a right to live in the bush but escape the onus of fire."
In 1980, five volunteer firefighters were burnt to death when their fire truck was caught in fire at Waterfall in the Royal National Park. But the worst fires in this period tore through the southern states. The Ash Wednesday fires in Victoria in 1983 killed 49 people in Victoria and 26 in South Australia.
In south-western New South Wales in January 1987, a father and son, Alan and Paul Roles, from Mutama were killed when they joined 200 other firefighters fighting a huge blaze over a vast area near Cootamundra. On October 16, 1988, Alan Randell, 35, father of two, was killed when a tree fell on a water tanker he was driving at Audley in the Royal National Park.
In a three-week period from December 21, 1993, numerous blazes, at least some (if not most) the result of arson, burned along the NSW east coast. There had been prolonged drought and temperatures reached 40 degrees. A quarter of the State was under severe threat, more than 400,000 hectares were ablaze and extreme weather was forecast. As bushfires ravaged 800 kilometres of the NSW coastline from the Queensland border to Batemans Bay, fire raced through the streets of Killara, Lindfield West, South Turramurra, West Chatswood and Macquarie Park. The fires devastated 800,000 hectares, including more of the Royal National Park. Four people died and 87 premises were destroyed. Norman Athnes died at Mt Horrible, near Bathurst, when the burning tree he had felled with a chainsaw kicked at an unexpected angle and went down the slope with him. And Pauline Mary O'Neil in southern Sydney lingered a little too long in an attempt to rescue the family pet before making for the safety of a backyard swimming pool at Jannali.
The bushfire season brought out the best and worst in people. The worst were those who started the fires. It was always difficult to catch them, they had the advantage. When caught, the arsonists often turned out to be misanthropic, or people with a psychiatric disability. Others were caused by youngsters. One, an 18-year-old who lived at Emu Plains at the foot of the Blue Mountains, was jailed for four months in 1987 for starting a fire on crown land, then appealed against his conviction on the grounds that he had been put under stress by his workmates and took out his frustration by lighting a fire.
The following year, arson squad detectives sought to question five youths over the bushfire at Bundeena, in the Royal National Park. Bushfire officers, called to the park one evening, found seven separate fires well alight. Senior group captain Richard Donarski, from Wollongong Bushfire Control, said it was "pretty obvious" the fires were a result of arson.
Proving anything was difficult. But as Phil Koperberg, the state's justly adulated Rural Fire Commissioner, said, there were three causes of fires: men, women and children.
Whatever the psychiatric factors, warnings were sounded that eastern Australia would become more prone to bushfires over the following half-century as global warming progressed. In the 1987 National Greenhouse Conference, it was predicted that temperatures might rise four per cent in that time.
Despite all the thought and preparation, fire came again in 2001-2002 when blazes swept from the Blue Mountains towards the south coast and in other areas such as the Hunter Valley. At least no lives were lost on that occasion, Koperberg noted.
The preparation for extreme fire conditions included burnoffs and even these could turn lethal. A burnoff in the Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park in June 2000 killed four staff of the National Parks and Wildlife Service and seriously burnt three others. A burnoff at Mt Victoria killed a Lithgow volunteer firefighter, John Overton, in September 2002. And despite all the effort, investment and thought, the fires kept coming, as they did in December 2002 when Sydney found itself ringed by fire for a week. Fire would always be with us, Koperberg said. The alternative was to resign ourselves to life in a jungle of concrete.
If Australia were to retain its landscape, it would have to accept the inevitable consequences and do its best to prepare. | 2,090 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Spanish Inquisition was a judicial system that was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs of Spain in medieval times, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. The main purpose of this institution of inquisition was the detection of heretics and the maintenance of orthodoxy, although various other political, economic and religious purposes have been attributed to it.
The inquisition itself existed before that, during the 12th century France where it was established to deal with the growing sectarianism in society. One of the fundamental causes of The Spanish Inquisition was the hatred that existed between the Jews and the Christians during medieval times, the prevalent anti-Semitism, as well as the fear of the large Moorish population in Spain.
The Beginning of the Spanish Inquisition
The Spanish Inquisition began when a Dominican friar from Seville, Alonso de Hojeda, impressed upon Queen Isabella the importance of purging the kingdom from the menace of Crypto-Judaism as well as remnants of the Moors among the Andalusian conversos people who had converted to Christianity from Judaism and Islam. Thus the institution of Inquisition was established for which the assent of Pope Sixtus IV was obtained after Ferdinand II pressurised him with the thread of withdrawing his forces at a time when the fear of Turks overrunning Rome was high. The Papal bull came in November 1478 through which the Monarchs of Spain gained the authority to oversee the inquisition.
Establishment of the Spanish Inquisition Tribunals
Tribunals were established to advance the work of the Spanish Inquisition. The first such tribunal was established in Seville and in 1481 six people were burned at stake after the charges of heresy were proved against them. Thenceforth, the Inquisition grew in the Kingdom of Castile and similar tribunals were established in various other cities including Cordoba, Segovia, Toledo, and others. However, with the passage of time, the influence of the monarchy over the inquisition grew and despite a subsequent Papal bull prohibiting the extension of Inquisition to Aragon, the influence of the judicial system continued to expand.
Royal Authority over the Spanish Inquisition
With the passage of time, The Spanish Inquisition came increasingly under the secular authority. In 1484, an attempt by Pope Innocent VII to allow appeals to Rome under Inquisition was blocked by Ferdinand who issued an order according to which the punishments of death and confiscation were decreed for anyone trying to make recourse to Rome without royal permission. Thus the authority of monarchy was fully established over the Spanish Inquisition. In Aragorn, there was considerable resistance against Inquisition and revolts erupted in Teruel. However, the murder of the Inquisitor Pedro Arbues tilted the public opinion in favour of Inquisition and the tribunals were established throughout Aragon.
Persecution of Jewish Converts during the Spanish Inquisition
As the institution of Spanish Inquisition grew in influence, so did the persecution of the Jewish and Muslim populations who had previously been forced to convert to Christianity. The slightest pretext and vague testimonies were used to bring and prove charges against the accused. In 1492, the Alhambra Decree was released according to which expulsion of the Jews from Spain began. Historical accounts have varied about the exact number of Jews who were expelled, varying between 300,000 and 800,000. However, modern estimates placed the number of the Jews who emigrated at 40,000. The regions where the Jews emigrated as a result of the decree were Portugal, the Ottoman Empire, and North America. Other than that, tens of thousands of Jews were also baptised, who chose this option as a practical alternative to avoid expulsion. The intensity of the Spanish Inquisition against the Crypto-Jews decreased during the mid of the 16th century but picked up again by the end of the century.
Persecution of Muslim Converts during the Spanish Inquisition
Other than the Protestants and the false converts from Judaism, forced converts from Islam were also a target of Spanish Inquisition. These converts were known as Moriscos, consisting mainly of the Moorish population of Spain. These Moriscos were mainly concentrated in the regions of Aragon, Valencia, and Granada. In 1502, this segment of population was forcibly converted to Christianity. However, just like the Jews, they were suspected of practising their religion in secret. At the initial stages of the Inquisition, they did not face the ferocity of the Inquisition as much as the Jews did, because a large number of them were under the jurisdiction of the nobility and such a move would have caused considerable economic damage. However, after the Morisco Revolt of 1568-70, the Spanish Inquisition dawned upon the Moriscos with its full force. For instance, in the tribunal of Granada, 82% of those accused between 1560 and 1571 were Moriscos.
Burning of Books during the Spanish Inquisition
One of the most important aspects of the Spanish Inquisition was the censorship and burning of the books deemed heretical by the Church. It was a common practice to draw up a list of such books and burn them publicly. Although the practice existed in Europe before the Inquisition, it became intensified during the Inquisition. The first index of heretical books was published in 1551 which was a reprinting of a previous index released by the University of Louvain in 1550. Over the course of a century, multiple such indices were drawn up which included books of all types, although main attention was focused on religious books. Works of many renowned authors appeared in these indices, including those of Ovid, Dante, Machiavelli, Thomas More, and others. It was also not uncommon to prohibit the translations of the Bible, and to imprison the writers who did that, as is clear from the imprisonment of Fray Luis de Leon who had translated the Song of Songs from Hebrew.
Spanish Inquisition Summary
Other than heresy and sectarianism, various other serious charges were levelled during the Spanish Inquisition. For instance, trials related to witchcraft became increasingly common, although the witch-hunt in Spain had less ferocity compared to the same practice in certain other European countries such as Germany, Scotland, and France. Other common charges were blasphemy which included outright blasphemy to simple objectionable statements against religious beliefs, bigamy which was an offence against morals and generally resulted in an imprisonment of a few years, and sodomy. The institution of Spanish Inquisition continued with declining intensity until it was finally abolished by a Royal Decree of 15 July 1834 during the reign of Isabella II. | <urn:uuid:1e9b7869-734b-4a7e-86dc-c7db4ac2aa62> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-torture-devices/the-spanish-inquisition/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00234.warc.gz | en | 0.983365 | 1,321 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | The Spanish Inquisition was a judicial system that was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs of Spain in medieval times, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. The main purpose of this institution of inquisition was the detection of heretics and the maintenance of orthodoxy, although various other political, economic and religious purposes have been attributed to it.
The inquisition itself existed before that, during the 12th century France where it was established to deal with the growing sectarianism in society. One of the fundamental causes of The Spanish Inquisition was the hatred that existed between the Jews and the Christians during medieval times, the prevalent anti-Semitism, as well as the fear of the large Moorish population in Spain.
The Beginning of the Spanish Inquisition
The Spanish Inquisition began when a Dominican friar from Seville, Alonso de Hojeda, impressed upon Queen Isabella the importance of purging the kingdom from the menace of Crypto-Judaism as well as remnants of the Moors among the Andalusian conversos people who had converted to Christianity from Judaism and Islam. Thus the institution of Inquisition was established for which the assent of Pope Sixtus IV was obtained after Ferdinand II pressurised him with the thread of withdrawing his forces at a time when the fear of Turks overrunning Rome was high. The Papal bull came in November 1478 through which the Monarchs of Spain gained the authority to oversee the inquisition.
Establishment of the Spanish Inquisition Tribunals
Tribunals were established to advance the work of the Spanish Inquisition. The first such tribunal was established in Seville and in 1481 six people were burned at stake after the charges of heresy were proved against them. Thenceforth, the Inquisition grew in the Kingdom of Castile and similar tribunals were established in various other cities including Cordoba, Segovia, Toledo, and others. However, with the passage of time, the influence of the monarchy over the inquisition grew and despite a subsequent Papal bull prohibiting the extension of Inquisition to Aragon, the influence of the judicial system continued to expand.
Royal Authority over the Spanish Inquisition
With the passage of time, The Spanish Inquisition came increasingly under the secular authority. In 1484, an attempt by Pope Innocent VII to allow appeals to Rome under Inquisition was blocked by Ferdinand who issued an order according to which the punishments of death and confiscation were decreed for anyone trying to make recourse to Rome without royal permission. Thus the authority of monarchy was fully established over the Spanish Inquisition. In Aragorn, there was considerable resistance against Inquisition and revolts erupted in Teruel. However, the murder of the Inquisitor Pedro Arbues tilted the public opinion in favour of Inquisition and the tribunals were established throughout Aragon.
Persecution of Jewish Converts during the Spanish Inquisition
As the institution of Spanish Inquisition grew in influence, so did the persecution of the Jewish and Muslim populations who had previously been forced to convert to Christianity. The slightest pretext and vague testimonies were used to bring and prove charges against the accused. In 1492, the Alhambra Decree was released according to which expulsion of the Jews from Spain began. Historical accounts have varied about the exact number of Jews who were expelled, varying between 300,000 and 800,000. However, modern estimates placed the number of the Jews who emigrated at 40,000. The regions where the Jews emigrated as a result of the decree were Portugal, the Ottoman Empire, and North America. Other than that, tens of thousands of Jews were also baptised, who chose this option as a practical alternative to avoid expulsion. The intensity of the Spanish Inquisition against the Crypto-Jews decreased during the mid of the 16th century but picked up again by the end of the century.
Persecution of Muslim Converts during the Spanish Inquisition
Other than the Protestants and the false converts from Judaism, forced converts from Islam were also a target of Spanish Inquisition. These converts were known as Moriscos, consisting mainly of the Moorish population of Spain. These Moriscos were mainly concentrated in the regions of Aragon, Valencia, and Granada. In 1502, this segment of population was forcibly converted to Christianity. However, just like the Jews, they were suspected of practising their religion in secret. At the initial stages of the Inquisition, they did not face the ferocity of the Inquisition as much as the Jews did, because a large number of them were under the jurisdiction of the nobility and such a move would have caused considerable economic damage. However, after the Morisco Revolt of 1568-70, the Spanish Inquisition dawned upon the Moriscos with its full force. For instance, in the tribunal of Granada, 82% of those accused between 1560 and 1571 were Moriscos.
Burning of Books during the Spanish Inquisition
One of the most important aspects of the Spanish Inquisition was the censorship and burning of the books deemed heretical by the Church. It was a common practice to draw up a list of such books and burn them publicly. Although the practice existed in Europe before the Inquisition, it became intensified during the Inquisition. The first index of heretical books was published in 1551 which was a reprinting of a previous index released by the University of Louvain in 1550. Over the course of a century, multiple such indices were drawn up which included books of all types, although main attention was focused on religious books. Works of many renowned authors appeared in these indices, including those of Ovid, Dante, Machiavelli, Thomas More, and others. It was also not uncommon to prohibit the translations of the Bible, and to imprison the writers who did that, as is clear from the imprisonment of Fray Luis de Leon who had translated the Song of Songs from Hebrew.
Spanish Inquisition Summary
Other than heresy and sectarianism, various other serious charges were levelled during the Spanish Inquisition. For instance, trials related to witchcraft became increasingly common, although the witch-hunt in Spain had less ferocity compared to the same practice in certain other European countries such as Germany, Scotland, and France. Other common charges were blasphemy which included outright blasphemy to simple objectionable statements against religious beliefs, bigamy which was an offence against morals and generally resulted in an imprisonment of a few years, and sodomy. The institution of Spanish Inquisition continued with declining intensity until it was finally abolished by a Royal Decree of 15 July 1834 during the reign of Isabella II. | 1,414 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The fundamental relationships of matter, force, and motion upon which are built all physical science and engineering.
- Who discovered it: Isaac Newton
- Year of Discovery: 1687
Ever since Johannes Kepler’s 1609 discovery that planets travel in elliptical (not circular) orbits around the sun, scientists had been frantically trying to mathematically explain these orbits. Robert Hooke and John Halley both tried. But neither could make the mathematics work.
Born in 1642 in Lincolnshire, England, 60 miles from Cambridge, Isaac Newton was a difficult child. His father died three months before Isaac’s birth. Isaac never liked his stepfather and was left to be raised by his grandparents. But Newton felt no affection toward anyone—not his mother, not his grandparents, nor even his half-brother and sister. He often threatened to hit them and to burn down the house. He was a discipline problem in school.
Only one man, William Ayscough, recognized Isaac’s brilliance and potential and arranged for Newton to study at Trinity College (part of Cambridge University). Being poor and unable to pay the large tuition, Newton worked as a servant to other students to pay for room and board. Newton was always solitary and secretive. Others said he was surly and argumentative.
In 1665 Cambridge closed when the plague struck London. Newton retired to his sister’s country estate. There he felt frustrated by the isolation and by a lack of mathematical tools to describe the changing forces and motions he wanted to understand. He was determined to master the forces that made things move (or not move).
Newton studied writings by Galileo and Aristotle as well as the more recent works by
Kepler and Halley. He gathered the scattered and often contradictory observations and theories developed since the time of the early Greeks. He studied and refined them, searching for common truths and for errors. Newton was amazingly good at sifting through this mountain of ideas for the few that held the truth.
Newton was not much of an experimenter. He thought about problems, conducting mind experiments as did Einstein. Newton thought about things intently for a long time until he formed the answers he needed. In his own words, he “kept the subject constantly before him and waited until the first dawnings opened little by little into full light.”
Solving the mystery of the forces that create motion quickly became an obsession with Newton. He focused his attention on Galileo’s laws of falling bodies and on Kepler’s laws of the motion of planets. He often went without sleep or food, to the edge of a physical breakdown.
Newton developed his three laws of motion in early 1666. They were the essential building blocks for his creation of calculus and his discovery of gravity. However, Newton did not publish these laws until Halley coaxed him to write Principia 20 years later.
In 1684 Jean Picard produced the first accurate figures for the size and mass of Earth. This finally gave Newton the numbers he needed to prove that his laws of motion combined with his equation for gravity correctly predicted the actual orbits of the planets. Even after completing this mathematical proof, Newton only published Principia in 1687 because Halley begged and cajoled him to—mostly because Robert Hooke claimed (falsely) to have developed universal laws of motion himself.
Principia became one of the most revered and most used publications in the history of science. | <urn:uuid:dd235b82-53b8-42e9-be42-a67634b3a1c5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thegreatestsciencediscoveries.wordpress.com/2012/11/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00124.warc.gz | en | 0.98017 | 707 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.13219355046... | 2 | The fundamental relationships of matter, force, and motion upon which are built all physical science and engineering.
- Who discovered it: Isaac Newton
- Year of Discovery: 1687
Ever since Johannes Kepler’s 1609 discovery that planets travel in elliptical (not circular) orbits around the sun, scientists had been frantically trying to mathematically explain these orbits. Robert Hooke and John Halley both tried. But neither could make the mathematics work.
Born in 1642 in Lincolnshire, England, 60 miles from Cambridge, Isaac Newton was a difficult child. His father died three months before Isaac’s birth. Isaac never liked his stepfather and was left to be raised by his grandparents. But Newton felt no affection toward anyone—not his mother, not his grandparents, nor even his half-brother and sister. He often threatened to hit them and to burn down the house. He was a discipline problem in school.
Only one man, William Ayscough, recognized Isaac’s brilliance and potential and arranged for Newton to study at Trinity College (part of Cambridge University). Being poor and unable to pay the large tuition, Newton worked as a servant to other students to pay for room and board. Newton was always solitary and secretive. Others said he was surly and argumentative.
In 1665 Cambridge closed when the plague struck London. Newton retired to his sister’s country estate. There he felt frustrated by the isolation and by a lack of mathematical tools to describe the changing forces and motions he wanted to understand. He was determined to master the forces that made things move (or not move).
Newton studied writings by Galileo and Aristotle as well as the more recent works by
Kepler and Halley. He gathered the scattered and often contradictory observations and theories developed since the time of the early Greeks. He studied and refined them, searching for common truths and for errors. Newton was amazingly good at sifting through this mountain of ideas for the few that held the truth.
Newton was not much of an experimenter. He thought about problems, conducting mind experiments as did Einstein. Newton thought about things intently for a long time until he formed the answers he needed. In his own words, he “kept the subject constantly before him and waited until the first dawnings opened little by little into full light.”
Solving the mystery of the forces that create motion quickly became an obsession with Newton. He focused his attention on Galileo’s laws of falling bodies and on Kepler’s laws of the motion of planets. He often went without sleep or food, to the edge of a physical breakdown.
Newton developed his three laws of motion in early 1666. They were the essential building blocks for his creation of calculus and his discovery of gravity. However, Newton did not publish these laws until Halley coaxed him to write Principia 20 years later.
In 1684 Jean Picard produced the first accurate figures for the size and mass of Earth. This finally gave Newton the numbers he needed to prove that his laws of motion combined with his equation for gravity correctly predicted the actual orbits of the planets. Even after completing this mathematical proof, Newton only published Principia in 1687 because Halley begged and cajoled him to—mostly because Robert Hooke claimed (falsely) to have developed universal laws of motion himself.
Principia became one of the most revered and most used publications in the history of science. | 710 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Around the middle of the 16th century, prince George of Poděbrady made reconstruction in two stages that gave the castle renaissance form. At that time, the east wing was created, called the Widows House. The cylindrical main tower was also raised. The next stage of changes took place in the years 1585-1610, commissioned by prince Charles II of Poděbrady. The south-east wing was erected with with porches from the side of the courtyard, and the elevations of the castle received pseudo-bosage. At the beginning of the 17th century, the north-east wing was created, which absorbed the medieval gate.
After the Poděbrads line expired, the Oleśnica duchy took over the Wirtembergs and they owned the castle until 1792, and then the Welfans until 1884. The decaying buildings became the Prussian fief at the end of the 19th century. The new owners, the Hohenzollern family, carried out a thorough renovation of the castle, which until 1945 was the summer residence of the family.
The stronghold from 13th century stood on a hill surrounded by the floodplains of the Oleśnica River and probably also a moat. It can be assumed that it was surrounded by an earth-wooden rampart, a gate and a bridge over a moat.
The medieval castle was built on an irregular plan and consisted of two wings: the main two-story house on the north-western side and a smaller, rectangular building from the south-west, to which the quadrangular tower adjoined from the south. Residential and economic wings were limited by a quadrangular courtyard, closed on other sides by defensive walls with a gateway from the south-east and a corner cylindrical tower on the east side. The castle was surrounded by a moat 9-11 meters wide, originally connected with a pond and swampy pools. The fortifications of the castle were also linked to the fortifications of the town.
The cylindrical tower was probably the oldest stone element of the castle, playing the defensive role and flanking the entrance gate to the castle. Its interior space was about 5.8 meters in diameter and perhaps it was initially used as a seat for a burgrave. It also had a well in case of siege and entrance high above the level of the courtyard. Originally, tower was about 15-20 meters high, the outside diameter was 11 meters, the thickness of the walls at the base was 3 meters. It had three vaulted storeys (one was underground) and perhaps one, the highest not vaulted. The depth of the basement part was 6 meters, the two higher rooms were about 4.5 meters high. The cellar was accessible only through a hole from the upper room, probably initially served as the prison.
The construction of a north-west residential house with dimensions of 15×47 meters started parallel with the cylindrical tower or a bit later. It was one of the largest objects of this type at the time of its foundation in Silesia. Originally, it had a basement, a ground floor and a first floor. The next floor was added in the fifteenth century during the reconstruction after the destruction of the Hussites. It was founded on the plan of an elongated rectangle with wall thickness from the outside of about 2.3 meters, and from the inner 1.5 meters in the ground level. It had a tripartite division of the interior. The main central chamber of the high ground floor, and perhaps the first floor, was intended for representational purposes, and on its sides there were two smaller chambers. In total, the building had 11 rooms, mostly covered with flat, timber ceilings, and few with stone vaults. Its roof was covered with shingles or tiles. From the outside, the building was reinforced by six buttresses, of which maybe one or two had latrines inside (similarly to the castle in MIlicz).
The second tower on the south-west side had a cross-section similar to a rhombus. It was not much shorter than the cylindrical tower and had three vaulted floors, including the basement. It probably served a residential function for the castle crew and warehouse function. The thickness of its walls was at the base of 2-3 meters, and the height was of about 8-10 meters. Later, a small building was added to it, which absorbed its buttress.
The entrance gate was located near a cylindrical tower. Its width was to provide the entry of a cart drawn by two oxen, that is about 2.5 – 3 meters. It was protected by a gate and probably a portcullis. A guard room could be located above it, whose task was to raise the portcullis. The entrance was preceded by a drawbridge over the moat.
The castle in its present form has lost the stylish features from the medieval period, although many of the original elements are hidden under later additions. Perhaps the most important is the main castle tower, the main dominant of the first stronghold. Unfortunately, there is an educational center for youth in the castle instead of the museum.
Leksykon zamków w Polsce, red. L.Kajzer, Warszawa 2003.
Nienałtowski M., Zamek książęcy w Oleśnicy, Katowice 2017. | <urn:uuid:83f8ed41-6e34-48d2-90e3-f01e4e66a1e7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://medievalheritage.eu/en/main-page/heritage/poland/olesnica-castle/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00332.warc.gz | en | 0.986942 | 1,143 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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-0.145505771040... | 14 | Around the middle of the 16th century, prince George of Poděbrady made reconstruction in two stages that gave the castle renaissance form. At that time, the east wing was created, called the Widows House. The cylindrical main tower was also raised. The next stage of changes took place in the years 1585-1610, commissioned by prince Charles II of Poděbrady. The south-east wing was erected with with porches from the side of the courtyard, and the elevations of the castle received pseudo-bosage. At the beginning of the 17th century, the north-east wing was created, which absorbed the medieval gate.
After the Poděbrads line expired, the Oleśnica duchy took over the Wirtembergs and they owned the castle until 1792, and then the Welfans until 1884. The decaying buildings became the Prussian fief at the end of the 19th century. The new owners, the Hohenzollern family, carried out a thorough renovation of the castle, which until 1945 was the summer residence of the family.
The stronghold from 13th century stood on a hill surrounded by the floodplains of the Oleśnica River and probably also a moat. It can be assumed that it was surrounded by an earth-wooden rampart, a gate and a bridge over a moat.
The medieval castle was built on an irregular plan and consisted of two wings: the main two-story house on the north-western side and a smaller, rectangular building from the south-west, to which the quadrangular tower adjoined from the south. Residential and economic wings were limited by a quadrangular courtyard, closed on other sides by defensive walls with a gateway from the south-east and a corner cylindrical tower on the east side. The castle was surrounded by a moat 9-11 meters wide, originally connected with a pond and swampy pools. The fortifications of the castle were also linked to the fortifications of the town.
The cylindrical tower was probably the oldest stone element of the castle, playing the defensive role and flanking the entrance gate to the castle. Its interior space was about 5.8 meters in diameter and perhaps it was initially used as a seat for a burgrave. It also had a well in case of siege and entrance high above the level of the courtyard. Originally, tower was about 15-20 meters high, the outside diameter was 11 meters, the thickness of the walls at the base was 3 meters. It had three vaulted storeys (one was underground) and perhaps one, the highest not vaulted. The depth of the basement part was 6 meters, the two higher rooms were about 4.5 meters high. The cellar was accessible only through a hole from the upper room, probably initially served as the prison.
The construction of a north-west residential house with dimensions of 15×47 meters started parallel with the cylindrical tower or a bit later. It was one of the largest objects of this type at the time of its foundation in Silesia. Originally, it had a basement, a ground floor and a first floor. The next floor was added in the fifteenth century during the reconstruction after the destruction of the Hussites. It was founded on the plan of an elongated rectangle with wall thickness from the outside of about 2.3 meters, and from the inner 1.5 meters in the ground level. It had a tripartite division of the interior. The main central chamber of the high ground floor, and perhaps the first floor, was intended for representational purposes, and on its sides there were two smaller chambers. In total, the building had 11 rooms, mostly covered with flat, timber ceilings, and few with stone vaults. Its roof was covered with shingles or tiles. From the outside, the building was reinforced by six buttresses, of which maybe one or two had latrines inside (similarly to the castle in MIlicz).
The second tower on the south-west side had a cross-section similar to a rhombus. It was not much shorter than the cylindrical tower and had three vaulted floors, including the basement. It probably served a residential function for the castle crew and warehouse function. The thickness of its walls was at the base of 2-3 meters, and the height was of about 8-10 meters. Later, a small building was added to it, which absorbed its buttress.
The entrance gate was located near a cylindrical tower. Its width was to provide the entry of a cart drawn by two oxen, that is about 2.5 – 3 meters. It was protected by a gate and probably a portcullis. A guard room could be located above it, whose task was to raise the portcullis. The entrance was preceded by a drawbridge over the moat.
The castle in its present form has lost the stylish features from the medieval period, although many of the original elements are hidden under later additions. Perhaps the most important is the main castle tower, the main dominant of the first stronghold. Unfortunately, there is an educational center for youth in the castle instead of the museum.
Leksykon zamków w Polsce, red. L.Kajzer, Warszawa 2003.
Nienałtowski M., Zamek książęcy w Oleśnicy, Katowice 2017. | 1,148 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Arguably, in the entire history of United States, the most unusual and peculiar event was California acquisition, as well as the New Mexico. The acquisition was tremendously significant in development and expansion of United States. Furthermore, it was the most significant outcome of Mexican War, more important as the annexing of Texas. In the year, 1846-1848, Mexican-American war took place; momentarily, this was the most defining opportunity of American history. Perhaps, in the year 1850, California became part of United States. The Mexican Army was defeated by United States army, after various engagements the army entered Mexico City. Generally, United States got full ownership of California in the Guadalupe Hidalgo treaty.
Formerly, California was an intermediate territory of Spanish missionary in around the seventeenth century. There settlements can be dated to the foundation of San Diego in the year 1769. In the year 1822, the entire California region became one of the territories of Mexican republic; it remained part of Mexico until the commencement of the Mexican-American War1. After the acquisition of California by United States, a lot of changes took place. The changes included political, economic, as well as social.
Without doubt, the 1846-48 Mexican-American war was fought chiefly to allow United States to increase their territorial boundaries. All this expansions took place at the expense of Mexico. During this time, the most hostile point was Texas; herein, the rival Mexico and expansionist group fro United States took the fights. White immigrants in Texas had gained independence in 1836 from Mexico. Before the annexing of texasin1945, President Polk James, sent his representatives to negotiate the buying of California and New Mexico, but the Mexican commander had refused to accept the negotiations2. This is when tension began between Mexico and United States each one of them decided to send troops into Mexico-Texas border.
U.S army, under Taylor Zachary, provoked the Mexican army, and 13th may 1846 Polk received declaration to go to war from United States congress. After approximately fifteen months of war, the government of Mexico went for temporary armistice, and then began the negotiation for lasting peace with Polk Zachary representatives3. Mexican delegation went against settlement proposal from United States, leading to a stoppage of the peace agreement. The war took various forms, but United States won.
Before the beginning of the American-Mexican War in 1846, Californian population was approximately two hundred and twenty thousand, which include Americans, Mexicans, and the majority of the population had been Indians. Declaration of war on Mexico took place in May of 18454. During this time, General Taylor had emerged a winner in Resaca De la Palma, and Palo Alto battles, as well as compelling Monterey to surrender. As a matter of fact, these operations and battles became an indicator of United States Army prompt accomplishments. In the course of 1848, New Mexico and California were relinquished to United States.
Hostilities and move to acquire Mexico began in Rio Grande valley; the expeditions to possess New Mexico and California were organized by various federal authorities. These two territories were the regions of United States enemies. General Kearney Stephen, vested various expeditions, and forces took his commands which took place at Fort Leavenworth. During this era, a lot of strategies had been set to insure ultimate success in the struggle to acquire California. The move to acquire California took various steps. On June after the arrangements expeditions moved from Leavenworth Fort, and took possession of New Mexico capita city called Santa Fe. The move received minimum resistance, because four thousand Mexican Army who had been deported to guard the city offered no opposition as they were approached.
Conversably, while the operation took place in the Western border of United States and New Mexico, captain Fremont John whose territory was to engage exploration on Rocky Mountains in the western slopes, was busy causing revolutions at California Province5. Actually, to some reasonable extend he had anticipated expeditions movements has commanded by General Kearney. Captain Fremont strategies were not warlike; hence, he specialized on peaceful and scientific tricks. In fact, he had none of the soldiers in his company during the explorations. Despite the peaceful tricks, Mexican commander realized the intentions of Captain Fremont, as exciting American settlers to revolt against the Mexicans.
Fremont in view of the threatening attacks, and for rebellious reasons, he promptly occupied a mountain thirty miles away from the city, which overlooked at Monterey. He entrenched the mountain and raised the American flag as he awaits the enemies to attack. He spends time there until March 1986, where Fremont retired northwardly, by way of Oregon. After passing the Oregon, Fremont received information from Sigler Levi and Neal Samuel that some individual had been sent to pursue him. The individual came from Lassen’s Rancho, and were sent by Mexican Governor of California. The pursued by the Mexican commander was a show of hostility and rebellion6.
Undeniably, a series of events led to the acquisition of California. Several captains and lieutenants were sent to war to destroy the powers of Mexico. Various revolutionary groups undertake the mandate to acquire California by all means. Others advocated for negotiations, but other believed war was the absolute means. General Kearney approached with the troops to the eastern boarders of Mexico under, together with naval forces assisted in the conquest process7. Having informed on hostilities the troops hastened to Monterey where they took it without considerable opposition. During the capture, custom-house was taken hold of, then the flag of America raised, and from that day California was declared part of United States.
The last battle that Americans fought and won was the Battle of La Messa. Most Californians and Mexican forces surrendered to United States Army. This marked the end of a long resistance and war in California, which saw the Treaty of Cahunga Signed in 1847. As a matter of fact, the acquisition of Californians by United States was finalized in the year 1848 after the ratification of agreement by the senate, as well as signing of Guadalupe Hidalgo treaty8. The signing signaled complete surrender of Mexicans, and the deal finalized the purchase of California and New Mexico. Furthermore, the treaty brought to an end the American-Mexican war. In the treaty, United States had to pay some money to Mexico in order to acquire California. In addition, a new boundary that drawn, and California since then became part of United States.
Undoubtedly, many changes took place in California after its acquisition by United States. The most significant changes that took place were brought by the famous California Gold Rush, which took place in 1848. Gold was discovered in Sierra Nevada at Sutter’s Mill. The Gold Rush led to an incredible increase in population. The merchants and miners settled in California so as to benefit from the lucrative trade of Gold. In fact, the Gold Rush opened California to the entire world. But after a decade, the population of Native Americans dropped.
After the acquisition of California, military managed all the affairs. But in 1849, military Governor invited a convention of the constitution, which unanimously declared slavery illegal. Later, California received its official statehood. During this time, small towns acted as the state capital until 1854 when Sacramento was made the capital9. Despite the distance, California was involved in the civil war10. During this era, California was dominated by powerful capitalist’s politicians who controlled finance, shipping as well as mines. California continued to grow politically, economically and socially. Due to mining, railroads began to be built, furthermore, the level of employment increased tremendously. Mining and railroad construction companies hired many employees. This opened California to be a world city, where people could travel using transcontinental railroad.
Additionally, the acquisition of California led to arrival of Chinese people who were lured to come and work because of high wages. As diversity increased in California City, constitutional conventions and laws began to be implemented so as to guide the rights and freedom of the people11. The completion of transcontinental rail lines in 1869 linked the state of California to the rest of United States. Furthermore, the achievement in the engineering sector began to grow, this included building of houses as well as construction of dams, which provided water and power to the southern part of California. California began to develop a robust ecosystem, and beautiful scenery.
Progressively, oil was discovered in 1920s, thereafter, California began to be one of the profitable states in United States. Furthermore, movies began as a studio system and made California famous12. Many people were attracted to cheap land, natural geography, as well as enjoyable climate. After some decades, free spirits and the age of baby boomers began. After the acquisition of California, the state began to be the land of easy-going, open hearts, as well as nourishing climate. In 1950s, California became the economic power, full of industrial and commercial expansion.
Nemos, William & Bancroft, Howe. History of California. California: Wadsworth, 2008.
Starr, Kevin. California: A History. London: Springer, 2005.
Walton, Bean & Rawls, James. California: An Interpretive History. New York, 2003. | <urn:uuid:6f8b77ca-8634-46c1-a41a-99323459b9c8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/united-states-acquiring-california-essay-examples/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00325.warc.gz | en | 0.980239 | 1,897 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.1256177425384... | 3 | Arguably, in the entire history of United States, the most unusual and peculiar event was California acquisition, as well as the New Mexico. The acquisition was tremendously significant in development and expansion of United States. Furthermore, it was the most significant outcome of Mexican War, more important as the annexing of Texas. In the year, 1846-1848, Mexican-American war took place; momentarily, this was the most defining opportunity of American history. Perhaps, in the year 1850, California became part of United States. The Mexican Army was defeated by United States army, after various engagements the army entered Mexico City. Generally, United States got full ownership of California in the Guadalupe Hidalgo treaty.
Formerly, California was an intermediate territory of Spanish missionary in around the seventeenth century. There settlements can be dated to the foundation of San Diego in the year 1769. In the year 1822, the entire California region became one of the territories of Mexican republic; it remained part of Mexico until the commencement of the Mexican-American War1. After the acquisition of California by United States, a lot of changes took place. The changes included political, economic, as well as social.
Without doubt, the 1846-48 Mexican-American war was fought chiefly to allow United States to increase their territorial boundaries. All this expansions took place at the expense of Mexico. During this time, the most hostile point was Texas; herein, the rival Mexico and expansionist group fro United States took the fights. White immigrants in Texas had gained independence in 1836 from Mexico. Before the annexing of texasin1945, President Polk James, sent his representatives to negotiate the buying of California and New Mexico, but the Mexican commander had refused to accept the negotiations2. This is when tension began between Mexico and United States each one of them decided to send troops into Mexico-Texas border.
U.S army, under Taylor Zachary, provoked the Mexican army, and 13th may 1846 Polk received declaration to go to war from United States congress. After approximately fifteen months of war, the government of Mexico went for temporary armistice, and then began the negotiation for lasting peace with Polk Zachary representatives3. Mexican delegation went against settlement proposal from United States, leading to a stoppage of the peace agreement. The war took various forms, but United States won.
Before the beginning of the American-Mexican War in 1846, Californian population was approximately two hundred and twenty thousand, which include Americans, Mexicans, and the majority of the population had been Indians. Declaration of war on Mexico took place in May of 18454. During this time, General Taylor had emerged a winner in Resaca De la Palma, and Palo Alto battles, as well as compelling Monterey to surrender. As a matter of fact, these operations and battles became an indicator of United States Army prompt accomplishments. In the course of 1848, New Mexico and California were relinquished to United States.
Hostilities and move to acquire Mexico began in Rio Grande valley; the expeditions to possess New Mexico and California were organized by various federal authorities. These two territories were the regions of United States enemies. General Kearney Stephen, vested various expeditions, and forces took his commands which took place at Fort Leavenworth. During this era, a lot of strategies had been set to insure ultimate success in the struggle to acquire California. The move to acquire California took various steps. On June after the arrangements expeditions moved from Leavenworth Fort, and took possession of New Mexico capita city called Santa Fe. The move received minimum resistance, because four thousand Mexican Army who had been deported to guard the city offered no opposition as they were approached.
Conversably, while the operation took place in the Western border of United States and New Mexico, captain Fremont John whose territory was to engage exploration on Rocky Mountains in the western slopes, was busy causing revolutions at California Province5. Actually, to some reasonable extend he had anticipated expeditions movements has commanded by General Kearney. Captain Fremont strategies were not warlike; hence, he specialized on peaceful and scientific tricks. In fact, he had none of the soldiers in his company during the explorations. Despite the peaceful tricks, Mexican commander realized the intentions of Captain Fremont, as exciting American settlers to revolt against the Mexicans.
Fremont in view of the threatening attacks, and for rebellious reasons, he promptly occupied a mountain thirty miles away from the city, which overlooked at Monterey. He entrenched the mountain and raised the American flag as he awaits the enemies to attack. He spends time there until March 1986, where Fremont retired northwardly, by way of Oregon. After passing the Oregon, Fremont received information from Sigler Levi and Neal Samuel that some individual had been sent to pursue him. The individual came from Lassen’s Rancho, and were sent by Mexican Governor of California. The pursued by the Mexican commander was a show of hostility and rebellion6.
Undeniably, a series of events led to the acquisition of California. Several captains and lieutenants were sent to war to destroy the powers of Mexico. Various revolutionary groups undertake the mandate to acquire California by all means. Others advocated for negotiations, but other believed war was the absolute means. General Kearney approached with the troops to the eastern boarders of Mexico under, together with naval forces assisted in the conquest process7. Having informed on hostilities the troops hastened to Monterey where they took it without considerable opposition. During the capture, custom-house was taken hold of, then the flag of America raised, and from that day California was declared part of United States.
The last battle that Americans fought and won was the Battle of La Messa. Most Californians and Mexican forces surrendered to United States Army. This marked the end of a long resistance and war in California, which saw the Treaty of Cahunga Signed in 1847. As a matter of fact, the acquisition of Californians by United States was finalized in the year 1848 after the ratification of agreement by the senate, as well as signing of Guadalupe Hidalgo treaty8. The signing signaled complete surrender of Mexicans, and the deal finalized the purchase of California and New Mexico. Furthermore, the treaty brought to an end the American-Mexican war. In the treaty, United States had to pay some money to Mexico in order to acquire California. In addition, a new boundary that drawn, and California since then became part of United States.
Undoubtedly, many changes took place in California after its acquisition by United States. The most significant changes that took place were brought by the famous California Gold Rush, which took place in 1848. Gold was discovered in Sierra Nevada at Sutter’s Mill. The Gold Rush led to an incredible increase in population. The merchants and miners settled in California so as to benefit from the lucrative trade of Gold. In fact, the Gold Rush opened California to the entire world. But after a decade, the population of Native Americans dropped.
After the acquisition of California, military managed all the affairs. But in 1849, military Governor invited a convention of the constitution, which unanimously declared slavery illegal. Later, California received its official statehood. During this time, small towns acted as the state capital until 1854 when Sacramento was made the capital9. Despite the distance, California was involved in the civil war10. During this era, California was dominated by powerful capitalist’s politicians who controlled finance, shipping as well as mines. California continued to grow politically, economically and socially. Due to mining, railroads began to be built, furthermore, the level of employment increased tremendously. Mining and railroad construction companies hired many employees. This opened California to be a world city, where people could travel using transcontinental railroad.
Additionally, the acquisition of California led to arrival of Chinese people who were lured to come and work because of high wages. As diversity increased in California City, constitutional conventions and laws began to be implemented so as to guide the rights and freedom of the people11. The completion of transcontinental rail lines in 1869 linked the state of California to the rest of United States. Furthermore, the achievement in the engineering sector began to grow, this included building of houses as well as construction of dams, which provided water and power to the southern part of California. California began to develop a robust ecosystem, and beautiful scenery.
Progressively, oil was discovered in 1920s, thereafter, California began to be one of the profitable states in United States. Furthermore, movies began as a studio system and made California famous12. Many people were attracted to cheap land, natural geography, as well as enjoyable climate. After some decades, free spirits and the age of baby boomers began. After the acquisition of California, the state began to be the land of easy-going, open hearts, as well as nourishing climate. In 1950s, California became the economic power, full of industrial and commercial expansion.
Nemos, William & Bancroft, Howe. History of California. California: Wadsworth, 2008.
Starr, Kevin. California: A History. London: Springer, 2005.
Walton, Bean & Rawls, James. California: An Interpretive History. New York, 2003. | 1,956 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Humans have been inhabiting the Earth for over 200,000 years, and during those hundreds of thousands of years, people have lived in various types of homes. The quality and style, as well as the materials used to build them, differ from one era to the next. If we were to take a look through history, we would find that we have progressed, but also, that particular building materials have also carried on throughout history. Starting out with practical cave dwellings in 25,000 BC, moving on up to Mammoth bone huts in 16,000 BC, and hide Tipi tents in 11,000 BC, and then the practical Mudbrick housing in 8,000 BC. Housing was created out of hard stone like marble and granite, much like the houses from ancient Rome and Greece. The more prolific the person was, the more regal their house was built, and often, wood was reserved for the less well-off people in society. Some of the first wood constructed buildings were built as multi-family units with several apartment-style housing options. When it comes to log houses, humans didn’t see timber framed housing until the 1st century. Although log houses were not built in North America until the 17th century, they have been built in Russia and Eastern Europe for centuries before that.
Mistakenly, people sometimes think that the log house is a very American icon. While that may be true because log home building was very prevalent during colonization, it was immigrants from Sweden and Scandinavia that brought over their time-honored skills and trades to assist them in their new world. The Swedish were the first to set up log houses and implement their practices in the new colonies on the East coast of the United States. Fellow immigrants from Great Britain and France were intrigued by their techniques and sought help in log house construction. Back then, log house construction was quite an intense process compared to how it is now. People had to gather all of their materials manually; there were no mills or tree farms, they simply went out into the forest and took what they needed. Hauling the logs back would have been quite a task, as well as hand peeling them and cutting them with primitive tools. Now we have the luxury of draw knives and chainsaws to assist us with the log home building process. This is probably why log houses in history were built smaller, plus, they were able to stay warmer the smaller they were.
Often, families new to the Americas would have house raising gatherings where people from the surrounding area came out to assist in building their home. It meant the house went up faster and was able to be lived in sooner than if just a few people worked on it. In 1920, log house materials began to be milled and offered precut and ready to use making log home building even easier than the handcrafted homes. Some companies still handcraft beautiful log houses the traditional, more labour intensive way.
There are people who learn this time-honored skill, which is wonderful since it keeps the true essence of log home building alive. These days, we have log home building kits that are available to purchase and will be delivered right to the construction property. Log home building methods have changed a lot over the centuries, but the amazing benefits and high quality of log houses is something that will always remain. People not only choose log houses because of their natural appeal but because of their durability and stability, as well as the healthy, comfortable environments they provide for us.***
Learn MORE atPERR BLOCKHAUSER | <urn:uuid:c9f6bca7-dc3e-4378-971d-b46c3de84b1b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://canada-news.info/home/people-cant-stop-dreaming-about-this-great-looking-log-home/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00215.warc.gz | en | 0.989266 | 720 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.2651398777961... | 2 | Humans have been inhabiting the Earth for over 200,000 years, and during those hundreds of thousands of years, people have lived in various types of homes. The quality and style, as well as the materials used to build them, differ from one era to the next. If we were to take a look through history, we would find that we have progressed, but also, that particular building materials have also carried on throughout history. Starting out with practical cave dwellings in 25,000 BC, moving on up to Mammoth bone huts in 16,000 BC, and hide Tipi tents in 11,000 BC, and then the practical Mudbrick housing in 8,000 BC. Housing was created out of hard stone like marble and granite, much like the houses from ancient Rome and Greece. The more prolific the person was, the more regal their house was built, and often, wood was reserved for the less well-off people in society. Some of the first wood constructed buildings were built as multi-family units with several apartment-style housing options. When it comes to log houses, humans didn’t see timber framed housing until the 1st century. Although log houses were not built in North America until the 17th century, they have been built in Russia and Eastern Europe for centuries before that.
Mistakenly, people sometimes think that the log house is a very American icon. While that may be true because log home building was very prevalent during colonization, it was immigrants from Sweden and Scandinavia that brought over their time-honored skills and trades to assist them in their new world. The Swedish were the first to set up log houses and implement their practices in the new colonies on the East coast of the United States. Fellow immigrants from Great Britain and France were intrigued by their techniques and sought help in log house construction. Back then, log house construction was quite an intense process compared to how it is now. People had to gather all of their materials manually; there were no mills or tree farms, they simply went out into the forest and took what they needed. Hauling the logs back would have been quite a task, as well as hand peeling them and cutting them with primitive tools. Now we have the luxury of draw knives and chainsaws to assist us with the log home building process. This is probably why log houses in history were built smaller, plus, they were able to stay warmer the smaller they were.
Often, families new to the Americas would have house raising gatherings where people from the surrounding area came out to assist in building their home. It meant the house went up faster and was able to be lived in sooner than if just a few people worked on it. In 1920, log house materials began to be milled and offered precut and ready to use making log home building even easier than the handcrafted homes. Some companies still handcraft beautiful log houses the traditional, more labour intensive way.
There are people who learn this time-honored skill, which is wonderful since it keeps the true essence of log home building alive. These days, we have log home building kits that are available to purchase and will be delivered right to the construction property. Log home building methods have changed a lot over the centuries, but the amazing benefits and high quality of log houses is something that will always remain. People not only choose log houses because of their natural appeal but because of their durability and stability, as well as the healthy, comfortable environments they provide for us.***
Learn MORE atPERR BLOCKHAUSER | 737 | ENGLISH | 1 |
B. 1902 D. 1967
I, too, sing America. - 'I, Too', Langston Hughes
About Langston Hughes
Langston Hughes (1902-1967) was the first black writer in America to earn his living from writing. Born in Joplin, Missouri, he had a migratory childhood following his parents’ separation, spending time in the American Mid-West and Mexico. He attended Columbia University from 1921-1922 but left, disillusioned by the coolness of his white peers. Hughes’ experience of racial exclusion was compounded by his sexual orientation which made him doubly separate from the “norm” of white society. His homosexuality remained hidden throughout his life, and referred to in his writing only through coded references, in the manner of one of his literary heroes, Walt Whitman. However, he did feel able to speak out against the racial oppression he witnessed all around him and had experienced first hand, and his first poems were published in the magazine Crisis which was run by which was run by the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People. After leaving University, Hughes travelled, first on a freighter to Africa – where the lack of political and economic freedom of the native people disturbed him – and then extensively in Europe before heading back to the USA. On his return he published his first collection, The Weary Blues, to great acclaim. From 1928-1930 he lived in New York and was a prominent member of the ‘Harlem Renaissance’, the name given to the flowering of intellectual and cultural activity amongst the black community of New York at the time. As well as poetry, Hughes’s prolific output included plays, essays and articles, some of which expressed his admiration for the Soviet Union and socialist principles. This led him to be investigated by the McCarthy Committee during the anti-Communist hysteria of the 1950s and it took a while for him to restore his reputation. However, by the 1960s his services to literature were recognised by the government and he was made a cultural emissary to Europe and Africa for the US State Department. Hughes died in 1967 in New York having lived into the Decade of Protest and seen many of the reforms he’d fought for introduced.
This recording features two of Hughes’s best known poems. One of Hughes’s poetic innovations was to draw on the rhythms of black musical traditions such as jazz and blues, but in ‘The Negro Speaks of Rivers’ it’s the heritage of Negro spirituals which is recalled by the poem’s majestic imagery and sonorous repetitions. Written when Hughes was only seventeen as he travelled by train across the Mississippi, ‘The Negro Speaks of Rivers’ is a beautiful statement of strength in the history of black people, which Hughes imagines stretching as far back as ancient Egypt and further into Africa and the cradle of civilisation. The poem returns at the end to America in a moment of optimistic alchemy when he sees the “muddy bosom” of the Mississippi “turn all golden in the sunset”.
‘I, Too’ written just before his return to the States from Europe and after he’d been denied passage on a ship because of his colour, has a contemporary feel in contrast to the mythical dimension of ‘The Negro Speaks of Rivers’. It is no less powerful however, in its expression of social injustice. The calm clear statements of the ‘I’ have an unstoppable force like the progress the poem envisages. Hughes’s dignified introductions to these poems and his beautiful speaking voice render them all the more moving.
This recording was made in 1955 by the jazz specialist label, Folkways. | <urn:uuid:bd95b83a-b5d8-48c3-8e68-94a6acf29e57> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://poetryarchive.org/poet/langston-hughes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00265.warc.gz | en | 0.982567 | 769 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.25576400... | 2 | B. 1902 D. 1967
I, too, sing America. - 'I, Too', Langston Hughes
About Langston Hughes
Langston Hughes (1902-1967) was the first black writer in America to earn his living from writing. Born in Joplin, Missouri, he had a migratory childhood following his parents’ separation, spending time in the American Mid-West and Mexico. He attended Columbia University from 1921-1922 but left, disillusioned by the coolness of his white peers. Hughes’ experience of racial exclusion was compounded by his sexual orientation which made him doubly separate from the “norm” of white society. His homosexuality remained hidden throughout his life, and referred to in his writing only through coded references, in the manner of one of his literary heroes, Walt Whitman. However, he did feel able to speak out against the racial oppression he witnessed all around him and had experienced first hand, and his first poems were published in the magazine Crisis which was run by which was run by the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People. After leaving University, Hughes travelled, first on a freighter to Africa – where the lack of political and economic freedom of the native people disturbed him – and then extensively in Europe before heading back to the USA. On his return he published his first collection, The Weary Blues, to great acclaim. From 1928-1930 he lived in New York and was a prominent member of the ‘Harlem Renaissance’, the name given to the flowering of intellectual and cultural activity amongst the black community of New York at the time. As well as poetry, Hughes’s prolific output included plays, essays and articles, some of which expressed his admiration for the Soviet Union and socialist principles. This led him to be investigated by the McCarthy Committee during the anti-Communist hysteria of the 1950s and it took a while for him to restore his reputation. However, by the 1960s his services to literature were recognised by the government and he was made a cultural emissary to Europe and Africa for the US State Department. Hughes died in 1967 in New York having lived into the Decade of Protest and seen many of the reforms he’d fought for introduced.
This recording features two of Hughes’s best known poems. One of Hughes’s poetic innovations was to draw on the rhythms of black musical traditions such as jazz and blues, but in ‘The Negro Speaks of Rivers’ it’s the heritage of Negro spirituals which is recalled by the poem’s majestic imagery and sonorous repetitions. Written when Hughes was only seventeen as he travelled by train across the Mississippi, ‘The Negro Speaks of Rivers’ is a beautiful statement of strength in the history of black people, which Hughes imagines stretching as far back as ancient Egypt and further into Africa and the cradle of civilisation. The poem returns at the end to America in a moment of optimistic alchemy when he sees the “muddy bosom” of the Mississippi “turn all golden in the sunset”.
‘I, Too’ written just before his return to the States from Europe and after he’d been denied passage on a ship because of his colour, has a contemporary feel in contrast to the mythical dimension of ‘The Negro Speaks of Rivers’. It is no less powerful however, in its expression of social injustice. The calm clear statements of the ‘I’ have an unstoppable force like the progress the poem envisages. Hughes’s dignified introductions to these poems and his beautiful speaking voice render them all the more moving.
This recording was made in 1955 by the jazz specialist label, Folkways. | 767 | ENGLISH | 1 |
: THE MONARCHY - KINGS AND QUEENS
Mary Tudor was born on the 18 February 1516 at Greenwich Palace. Her father was King Henry VIII. Her mother was Catherine of Aragon, a devout Roman Catholic. Mary would be their only child to survive and reach adulthood.
Mary was baptised in a Catholic ceremony at the Church of the Observant Friars in Greenwich. Several high ranking members of the nobility witnessed the event. Cardinal Wolsey stood as her godfather. Mary’s godmothers included Katherine Courtenay, Countess of Devon who was the daughter of Edward IV. Another godmother was Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury who was the daughter of George, Duke of Clarence (brother to Edward IV and Richard III).
Henry and Catherine took a keen interest in their daughter’s upbringing. Henry was very fond of her. No expense was spared in her household. One of her first governesses was Lady Margaret Bryan who was subsequently replaced by the Countess of Salisbury. The Countess would become a valued friend and supporter of both Mary and her mother. Catherine ensured Mary had a good education.
The Spaniard Juan Luis Vives was employed as one of her tutors. Vives advocated the education of women although he still emphasised the virtues of chastity and humility and the need to be a dutiful wife. Vives wrote On a Plan of Study for Children which outlined a course of study for Mary. Mary read from the Scriptures and also studied texts such as Utopia by Thomas More, the Dialogues of Plato and the Education of a Christian Prince by Erasmus. She also received lessons in Latin and French. Mary had a talent for playing the lute and the virginals. Mary also enjoyed dancing, hunting, riding and hawking. One of her most favourite pastimes would be gambling, often running up large debts.
Princess of Wales?
In 1525, at the age of nine, Mary was sent to live at Ludlow Castle with her own Court. The heir to the throne was usually given the title of the Prince of Wales. Although never officially invested with the title ‘Princess of Wales’, Mary was sent to preside over the Council of Wales in the Marches and represent royal authority. Mary remained there for about 18 months. In 1527 Henry VIII announced his intention to have the Pope annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Mary chose to support her mother. The relationship with her father deteriorated. In 1531 Henry banished Catherine from Court. Henry forbade Mary from seeing her mother. During this period Mary was frequently unwell, suffering with stomach pains and headaches.
Continue your reading with these great books (paid links)
The Terrible Tudors: Misery Mary (The Horrible Histories Collection)
Our Queen Mary I pages… | <urn:uuid:829b30c1-17a1-4456-ac7b-06cbad1fc146> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.britpolitics.co.uk/queen-mary-i-england-tudor-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00217.warc.gz | en | 0.982929 | 586 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.282566666603... | 12 | : THE MONARCHY - KINGS AND QUEENS
Mary Tudor was born on the 18 February 1516 at Greenwich Palace. Her father was King Henry VIII. Her mother was Catherine of Aragon, a devout Roman Catholic. Mary would be their only child to survive and reach adulthood.
Mary was baptised in a Catholic ceremony at the Church of the Observant Friars in Greenwich. Several high ranking members of the nobility witnessed the event. Cardinal Wolsey stood as her godfather. Mary’s godmothers included Katherine Courtenay, Countess of Devon who was the daughter of Edward IV. Another godmother was Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury who was the daughter of George, Duke of Clarence (brother to Edward IV and Richard III).
Henry and Catherine took a keen interest in their daughter’s upbringing. Henry was very fond of her. No expense was spared in her household. One of her first governesses was Lady Margaret Bryan who was subsequently replaced by the Countess of Salisbury. The Countess would become a valued friend and supporter of both Mary and her mother. Catherine ensured Mary had a good education.
The Spaniard Juan Luis Vives was employed as one of her tutors. Vives advocated the education of women although he still emphasised the virtues of chastity and humility and the need to be a dutiful wife. Vives wrote On a Plan of Study for Children which outlined a course of study for Mary. Mary read from the Scriptures and also studied texts such as Utopia by Thomas More, the Dialogues of Plato and the Education of a Christian Prince by Erasmus. She also received lessons in Latin and French. Mary had a talent for playing the lute and the virginals. Mary also enjoyed dancing, hunting, riding and hawking. One of her most favourite pastimes would be gambling, often running up large debts.
Princess of Wales?
In 1525, at the age of nine, Mary was sent to live at Ludlow Castle with her own Court. The heir to the throne was usually given the title of the Prince of Wales. Although never officially invested with the title ‘Princess of Wales’, Mary was sent to preside over the Council of Wales in the Marches and represent royal authority. Mary remained there for about 18 months. In 1527 Henry VIII announced his intention to have the Pope annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Mary chose to support her mother. The relationship with her father deteriorated. In 1531 Henry banished Catherine from Court. Henry forbade Mary from seeing her mother. During this period Mary was frequently unwell, suffering with stomach pains and headaches.
Continue your reading with these great books (paid links)
The Terrible Tudors: Misery Mary (The Horrible Histories Collection)
Our Queen Mary I pages… | 588 | ENGLISH | 1 |
You wouldn’t know the cemetery near Thorntown, Ind., was the resting place of nearly 50 African Americans. For a long time, it was a patch of grass, recognized only by a few decrepit stone tombstones and a black-and-white sign.
Four years ago, Reece Thompson of Troop 350 in nearby Advance, Ind., decided to do something after reading an article about the cemetery in a local newspaper. Since his older brother had restored a cemetery for his Eagle Scout project, Reece chose to do the same.
“Only a part of it was making it look pretty,” Reece says. “The other part was spreading awareness.”
The cemetery now has a new sign, a historical marker about the community, an iron fence and restored tombstones. But more importantly, it now has newfound meaning and history for the community.
“Although we have long had a list of 25 names of people buried there and have logged three more from research, it was not until Reece got involved … that it has been discovered that there may be as many as 49 graves,” says Karen Niemeyer, librarian at the Thorntown Public Library. “That, I think, is significant.”
A significant project
People began to settle around Thorntown in 1827. African-American families had established a community outside of town several years later. By 1870, the community outside of Thorntown — the Sugar Creek Community — had grown to more than 170 residents; however, in subsequent decades, the community began to dissipate and eventually dissolved.
In doing research for this project, Reece discovered the community’s cemetery likely was formed in 1869, not 1836 like the original sign stated.
“As the project went on, I did really like learning the history,” Reece says. “I learned how much this meant to people.”
To preserve this history, Reece partnered with numerous experts, including students at Ball State University who used ground-penetrating radar to identify where people were buried. Reece restored the headstones and found others that were buried.
It was a three-year endeavor that culminated in a dedication and unveiling of a state historical marker.
“This marker serves as a tangible reminder of this community,” says Casey Elizabeth Pfeiffer, historical marker program director at the Indiana State Library. “We’re able to restore these stories to the communities where they belong.” | <urn:uuid:df193b17-8d2b-4c2d-9d8b-00188b0cb628> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.lakeminnetonkadistrict.org/indiana-scout-restores-community-cemetery-for-eagle-scout-project/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00279.warc.gz | en | 0.982087 | 525 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.29271835088... | 5 | You wouldn’t know the cemetery near Thorntown, Ind., was the resting place of nearly 50 African Americans. For a long time, it was a patch of grass, recognized only by a few decrepit stone tombstones and a black-and-white sign.
Four years ago, Reece Thompson of Troop 350 in nearby Advance, Ind., decided to do something after reading an article about the cemetery in a local newspaper. Since his older brother had restored a cemetery for his Eagle Scout project, Reece chose to do the same.
“Only a part of it was making it look pretty,” Reece says. “The other part was spreading awareness.”
The cemetery now has a new sign, a historical marker about the community, an iron fence and restored tombstones. But more importantly, it now has newfound meaning and history for the community.
“Although we have long had a list of 25 names of people buried there and have logged three more from research, it was not until Reece got involved … that it has been discovered that there may be as many as 49 graves,” says Karen Niemeyer, librarian at the Thorntown Public Library. “That, I think, is significant.”
A significant project
People began to settle around Thorntown in 1827. African-American families had established a community outside of town several years later. By 1870, the community outside of Thorntown — the Sugar Creek Community — had grown to more than 170 residents; however, in subsequent decades, the community began to dissipate and eventually dissolved.
In doing research for this project, Reece discovered the community’s cemetery likely was formed in 1869, not 1836 like the original sign stated.
“As the project went on, I did really like learning the history,” Reece says. “I learned how much this meant to people.”
To preserve this history, Reece partnered with numerous experts, including students at Ball State University who used ground-penetrating radar to identify where people were buried. Reece restored the headstones and found others that were buried.
It was a three-year endeavor that culminated in a dedication and unveiling of a state historical marker.
“This marker serves as a tangible reminder of this community,” says Casey Elizabeth Pfeiffer, historical marker program director at the Indiana State Library. “We’re able to restore these stories to the communities where they belong.” | 502 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What can you do with money?
Money makes it easy for people to buy and sell things. It is seen as a reliable medium of exchange between buyer and seller.
But money has other uses, too. It helps you to store value. For instance, if you were given an ice cream worth £2, you could enjoy it right now, but if you didn’t it would melt – and that ‘value’ would disappear. But if you were given £2 instead, you could spend it any time you liked.
Businesses use money when they price things. If you get your car fixed by a mechanic, you’ll be charged in pounds and pence. The price could be listed in other units (bags of rice, pints of milk, etc) but money offers a shared standard that everyone can use, making it easy to compare prices.
What has money been like in the past?
Throughout history, people have used all sorts of things as money such as gold, feathers and cowrie shells. | <urn:uuid:0d00b906-6d80-407d-8b30-7fb62c20ddf3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/KnowledgeBank/what-is-money | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00491.warc.gz | en | 0.983341 | 213 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.21687234938144... | 18 | What can you do with money?
Money makes it easy for people to buy and sell things. It is seen as a reliable medium of exchange between buyer and seller.
But money has other uses, too. It helps you to store value. For instance, if you were given an ice cream worth £2, you could enjoy it right now, but if you didn’t it would melt – and that ‘value’ would disappear. But if you were given £2 instead, you could spend it any time you liked.
Businesses use money when they price things. If you get your car fixed by a mechanic, you’ll be charged in pounds and pence. The price could be listed in other units (bags of rice, pints of milk, etc) but money offers a shared standard that everyone can use, making it easy to compare prices.
What has money been like in the past?
Throughout history, people have used all sorts of things as money such as gold, feathers and cowrie shells. | 202 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When Did Memorial Day Begin?
The last Monday in May is set aside as a federal holiday in the United States to remember those that died while serving in the armed forces. This is now known as Memorial Day. It was first introduced on May 30,1868, as Decoration Day by a veterans group in order to remember the 600,000 soldiers who died during the American Civil War. The practice of decorating the graves of fallen soldiers has ancient roots, but the Civil War seemed to be the catalyst for the widespread practice in the United States. The selection of the last week in May is reported to have been chosen because it's the prime time for flowers to be in bloom. The common reference to the day as “Decoration Day” was slowly eclipsed by the use of “Memorial Day” and made official by federal law in 1967. To conform with the Uniform Monday Holiday Act of 1968, Memorial Day was moved from May 30 to the last Monday in May. The observance of Memorial Day is acknowledged by the placing of American flags on the graves of fallen soldiers, civic concerts and parades, and other public events to honor those who died during military service.
There are still plenty of U.S. business holidays to go in 2015. Our handy holiday calendar will make sure you don't miss a single one. | <urn:uuid:b62ffc56-13ec-4bb2-9192-c65adf55efd1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.redcort.com/blog/when-did-memorial-day-begin | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00367.warc.gz | en | 0.983426 | 273 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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... | 3 | When Did Memorial Day Begin?
The last Monday in May is set aside as a federal holiday in the United States to remember those that died while serving in the armed forces. This is now known as Memorial Day. It was first introduced on May 30,1868, as Decoration Day by a veterans group in order to remember the 600,000 soldiers who died during the American Civil War. The practice of decorating the graves of fallen soldiers has ancient roots, but the Civil War seemed to be the catalyst for the widespread practice in the United States. The selection of the last week in May is reported to have been chosen because it's the prime time for flowers to be in bloom. The common reference to the day as “Decoration Day” was slowly eclipsed by the use of “Memorial Day” and made official by federal law in 1967. To conform with the Uniform Monday Holiday Act of 1968, Memorial Day was moved from May 30 to the last Monday in May. The observance of Memorial Day is acknowledged by the placing of American flags on the graves of fallen soldiers, civic concerts and parades, and other public events to honor those who died during military service.
There are still plenty of U.S. business holidays to go in 2015. Our handy holiday calendar will make sure you don't miss a single one. | 286 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There have been two different Americas, and the big split came in 1913. From Jacob G. Hornberger at fff.org:
There have been two completely different Americas in U.S. history. Let’s examine twelve ways in which they differ.
1. For more than a century after the United States came into existence, there was no income taxation or IRS. People were free to keep everything they earned and decide for themselves what to do with it.
Today, income taxation and the IRS are a core feature of American life. The government essentially owns everyone’s income and decides how much people will be permitted to keep, much as a parent permits his children to have an allowance.
2. No Social Security. Earlier Americans rejected the concept of mandatory charity. People were left free to decide for themselves whether to help out their parents and others.
Today, Social Security is a core feature of American life. The federal government forces younger people to help out seniors by forcibly taking their money from them and giving it to seniors. Social Security is a classic example of a socialist program, one in which the government forcibly takes money from people to whom it belongs and gives it to people to whom it does not belong. | <urn:uuid:1f4ae72a-0df8-4cfa-a813-a3de95f30edf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://straightlinelogic.com/tag/welfare-state/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00000.warc.gz | en | 0.982071 | 250 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.05272197723... | 1 | There have been two different Americas, and the big split came in 1913. From Jacob G. Hornberger at fff.org:
There have been two completely different Americas in U.S. history. Let’s examine twelve ways in which they differ.
1. For more than a century after the United States came into existence, there was no income taxation or IRS. People were free to keep everything they earned and decide for themselves what to do with it.
Today, income taxation and the IRS are a core feature of American life. The government essentially owns everyone’s income and decides how much people will be permitted to keep, much as a parent permits his children to have an allowance.
2. No Social Security. Earlier Americans rejected the concept of mandatory charity. People were left free to decide for themselves whether to help out their parents and others.
Today, Social Security is a core feature of American life. The federal government forces younger people to help out seniors by forcibly taking their money from them and giving it to seniors. Social Security is a classic example of a socialist program, one in which the government forcibly takes money from people to whom it belongs and gives it to people to whom it does not belong. | 243 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The election of 1864 saw the country in the middle of the civil war. Abraham Lincoln sought out a 2nd term as president. Instead of running as a Republican, he joined the War Democrats and other Republicans to form the National Union Party.
Except he kicked out Hannibal Hamlin as his Vice President/running mate.
Instead War-Governor of Tennessee Andrew Johnson, a southern war democrat who supported the Union was chosen as Lincoln's running mate.
The were some other Republicans who felt rather betrayed by what was happening. They called themselves the Radicals Republicans, and nominated John C. Fremont as their candidate. He eventually dropped out of the race in favor of the country's success in the civil war.
Even though Lincoln thought he might lose his election, the Democratic party was even more spilt internally on the War or Peace issue. Eventually moderate George B. McClellan, a military general got the Democratic nomination.
Ironically Lincoln's fears did not come true since he won in a landslide. The Democrats were not very popular in the North to begin with, and their internal struggle set them back. Not to mention Lincoln's popularity with soldiers and support from War Democrats came in with sweeping victory. He won 22 out of 25 states, beating McClellan 212 electoral votes to 21. | <urn:uuid:5bbded60-311d-4ae9-9502-cc0d28111949> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://linkrandom.blogspot.com/2012/01/look-into-history-us-presidential_23.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00271.warc.gz | en | 0.981728 | 263 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.354487329721... | 4 | The election of 1864 saw the country in the middle of the civil war. Abraham Lincoln sought out a 2nd term as president. Instead of running as a Republican, he joined the War Democrats and other Republicans to form the National Union Party.
Except he kicked out Hannibal Hamlin as his Vice President/running mate.
Instead War-Governor of Tennessee Andrew Johnson, a southern war democrat who supported the Union was chosen as Lincoln's running mate.
The were some other Republicans who felt rather betrayed by what was happening. They called themselves the Radicals Republicans, and nominated John C. Fremont as their candidate. He eventually dropped out of the race in favor of the country's success in the civil war.
Even though Lincoln thought he might lose his election, the Democratic party was even more spilt internally on the War or Peace issue. Eventually moderate George B. McClellan, a military general got the Democratic nomination.
Ironically Lincoln's fears did not come true since he won in a landslide. The Democrats were not very popular in the North to begin with, and their internal struggle set them back. Not to mention Lincoln's popularity with soldiers and support from War Democrats came in with sweeping victory. He won 22 out of 25 states, beating McClellan 212 electoral votes to 21. | 275 | ENGLISH | 1 |
why is oklahoma called the sooner state
Thousands of people lined up on the border and, when the signal was given, they raced into the territory to claim their land. Some people went in early to claim their land. They became known as Sooners. Hence, Oklahoma’s nickname today is “The Sooner State”.
Sooners is the name given to settlers who entered the Unassigned Lands in what is now the state of Oklahoma before the official start of the Land Rush of 1889. President Benjamin Harrison officially proclaimed the Unassigned Lands open to settlement on April 22, 1889. As people lined up around the borders of the Oklahoma District, they waited for the official opening. It wasn’t until noon that it officially was opened to settlement. The name derived from the “sooner clause” of the act, which stated that anyone who entered and occupied the land prior to the opening time would be denied the right to claim land. | <urn:uuid:14b03e12-7433-491d-9a5e-51715659baf4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://what.youwacom.ma/2017/02/21/why-is-oklahoma-called-the-sooner-state-2017/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00196.warc.gz | en | 0.984229 | 198 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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-0.09185873717... | 4 | why is oklahoma called the sooner state
Thousands of people lined up on the border and, when the signal was given, they raced into the territory to claim their land. Some people went in early to claim their land. They became known as Sooners. Hence, Oklahoma’s nickname today is “The Sooner State”.
Sooners is the name given to settlers who entered the Unassigned Lands in what is now the state of Oklahoma before the official start of the Land Rush of 1889. President Benjamin Harrison officially proclaimed the Unassigned Lands open to settlement on April 22, 1889. As people lined up around the borders of the Oklahoma District, they waited for the official opening. It wasn’t until noon that it officially was opened to settlement. The name derived from the “sooner clause” of the act, which stated that anyone who entered and occupied the land prior to the opening time would be denied the right to claim land. | 197 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Tiberius
TIBERIUS (42 B.C.-37 A.D.), emperor of Rome, whose full name was Tiberius Claudius Nero, was born on the Palatine Hill on 16th November 42 B.C. When he became a member of the imperial family, the court genealogists made him out to be one of the ancient patrician Claudii; but the pedigree is at some points difficult to trace. His father, who bore the same name, was an officer of Julius Cæsar, who afterwards proposed to confer honours on the assassins, then joined Mark Antony's brother in his mad attack on Octavian, took refuge with Mark Antony, and returned to Rome when the general amnesty was proclaimed in 39 B.C. Livia, the mother of Tiberius, was also of the Claudian family, out of which her father had passed by adoption into that of the Livii Drusi. Early in 38 Livia was amicably ceded to Octavian (the future Augustus), and three months after her new marriage Drusus, brother to Tiberius, was born. Livia had no children by Augustus, and therefore devoted all her remarkable gifts to the advancement of her sons. They were treated with high consideration by the emperor, yet Augustus held firmly to the hope that his throne might be filled on his death by one in whose veins ran the blood of the Octavii; and not till Tiberius was past forty did there appear any probability that he would ever rise to be emperor. He passed through the list of state offices in the usual princely fashion, beginning with the quæstorship at the age of eighteen, and attaining the consulate for the first time at twenty-nine. From the great capacity for civil business which he displayed as emperor it may be inferred that he applied himself with determination to learn the business of government.
But from 22 to 6 B.C. and again from 4 to 10 A.D. by far the greater part of Tiberius's life was spent in the camp. His first service was as legionary tribune in one of the desperate and arduous wars which led to peace in the Spanish peninsula through the decimation, or rather the extermination, of the rebellious tribes. In 20 B.C. Augustus sent Tiberius with an army to seat Tigranes of Armenia on the throne as a Roman vassal. As Tiberius approached the frontier of Armenia, he found its throne vacant through the assassination of the king, and Tigranes stepped into his place without a blow being struck. Tiberius crowned Tigranes king with his own hand. Then the Parthian monarch grew alarmed and surrendered "the spoils and the standards of three Roman armies." The senate ordered a thanksgiving such as was usually celebrated in honour of a great victory. The following year was passed by Tiberius as governor of Transalpine Gaul. In the next year (15) he was despatched to aid his brother Drusus in subjugating the Ræti and Vindelici, peoples dwelling in the mountainous region whence the Rhine, Rhone, and Danube take their rise. Drusus attacked from the eastern side, while Tiberius operated from the upper waters of the Rhine, and by stern measures the mountaineers were reduced to a state of quietude, and could no longer cut communications between northern Italy and Gaul, nor prosecute their raids in both countries. In 12 B.C. Agrippa, the great general of Augustus, to whom he may be almost said to have owed his throne, and who was its chief support, died at the age of fifty-one, leaving Julia, the emperor's only child, a widow. Agrippina, daughter of Agrippa by an earlier marriage, was wife of Tiberius, and had borne him a son, Drusus, afterwards father of Germanicus. Livia with great difficulty prevailed upon Augustus to replace Agrippa by Tiberius, who was compelled to exchange Agrippina for Julia, to his bitter grief. During the year of mourning for Agrippa, which delayed his new marriage, Tiberius was occupied with a victorious campaign against the Pannonians, followed by successful expeditions in the three succeeding summers. For his victories in the Danube regions, the emperor conferred on him the distinctions which flowed from a military triumph in republican times (now first separated from the actual triumph), and he enjoyed the "ovation" or lesser form of triumphal entry into the capital. On the death of Drusus in the autumn of 9 B.C. Tiberius, whose reputation had hitherto been eclipsed by that of his brother, stepped into the position of first soldier of the empire. The army, if it did not warmly admire Tiberius, entertained a loyal confidence in a leader who, as Velleius tells us, always made the safety of his soldiers his first care. In the campaign of the year after Drusus s death Tiberius traversed all Germany between the Rhine and the Elbe, and met with slight opposition. But it would be too much to believe the statement of Velleius that "he reduced Germany almost to the position of a tributary province." He was rewarded with the full triumph, the military title of "imperator," and his second consulship, though the opposition of the powerful Sugambri had been only broken by an act of treachery, the guilt of which should perhaps be laid at the door of Augustus. In 7 B.C. there was another but insignificant campaign in Germany. Next year Augustus bestowed on his stepson the tribunician authority for five years. Tiberius was thus in the most formal manner associated with the emperor in the conduct of the government on the civil side ; but Tacitus (Ann., iii. 56) goes too far when he says that this promotion marked him out as the heir to the throne.
Tiberius now suddenly begged permission to retire to Rhodes and devote himself to study. He seems to have declined absolutely at the time to state his reasons for this course, but he obstinately adhered to it, in spite of the tears of Livia and the lamentations of Augustus to the senate that his son had betrayed him. If we may believe Suetonius, Tiberius determined to commit suicide by abstention from food, and Augustus only gave way when this design was all but accomplished. The departure from Italy was as secret as it could be made. Years afterwards, when Tiberius broke silence about his motives, he declared that he had retired in order to allow the young princes, Gaius and Lucius, sons of Julia, a free course. There was perhaps a portion of the truth wrapped up in this declaration. Like Agrippa, who retired to Mytilene to avoid the young Marcellus, Tiberius had clearly no taste to become the servant of the two children whom Augustus had adopted in their infancy and evidently destined to be joint emperors after his death. But it may well be believed that Tiberius, unlike Agrippa, had no burning ambition to see himself in the place destined for his stepsons; and it may have been in his eyes one of the attractions of exile that it released him from the obligation to aid in carrying out the far-reaching designs which Livia cherished for his sake. But the contemporaries of Tiberius were no doubt right in believing that the scandal of Julia's life did more than all else to render his position at Rome intolerable. His conduct to her from first to last gives a strong impression of his dignity and self-respect. When at last the emperor s eyes were opened, and he inflicted severe punishment upon his daughter, her husband, now divorced by the emperor's act, made earnest intercession for her, and did what he could to alleviate her suffering. At Rhodes Tiberius lived simply, passing his time mainly in the company of Greek professors, with whom he associated on pretty equal terms. He acquired a very considerable proficiency in the studies of the day, among which must be reckoned astrology. But all his attempts at composition, whether in prose or verse, were laboured and obscure. After five years absence from Rome, he begged for leave to return; but the boon was angrily refused, and Livia with difficulty got her son made nominally a legate of Augustus, so as in some degree to veil his disgrace. The next two years were spent in solitude and gloom. Then, on the intercession of Gaius, Augustus allowed Tiberius to come back to Rome, but on the express understanding that he was to hold aloof from all public functions, an understanding which he thoroughly carried out.
He had scarcely returned before death removed (2 A.D.) Lucius, the younger of the two princes, and a year and a half later Gaius also died. The emperor was thus left with only one remaining male descendant, Agrippa Postumus, youngest son of Julia, and still a boy. Four months after Gaius's death Augustus adopted Agrippa and at the same time Tiberius. The emperor now indicated clearly his expectation that Tiberius would be his principal successor. The two essential ingredients in the imperial authority—the proconsulare imperium and the tribunicia potestas—were conferred on Tiberius, and not on Agrippa, who was too young to receive them. Tiberius's career as a general now began anew. In two or three safe rather than brilliant campaigns he strengthened immensely the Roman hold on Germany, and established the winter camps of the legions in the interior, away from the Rhine.
In 5 A.D. it became necessary to attack Maroboduus, who by combining peoples formerly hostile to each other had constructed a formidable power, with its centre in Bohemia, menacing the Roman acquisitions in Germany, Noricum, and Pannonia. The operations were conducted both from the Rhine and from the Danube, Tiberius being in command of the southern army. Just as the decisive engagement was about to take place, Tiberius learned that Pannonia and Dalmatia were aflame with insurrection in his rear. He was therefore forced to conclude peace on terms honourable to Maroboduus. The terror inspired in Italy by the Pannonian and Dalmatian rebellion under the able chief Bato had had no parallel since the invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones. The four serious campaigns which the war cost displayed Tiberius at his best as a general. As he was about to celebrate his well-won triumphs, the terrible catastrophe to Varus and his legions turned the rejoicing into lasting sorrow, and produced a profound change in the Roman policy towards Germany. Although Tiberius with his nephew and adopted son Germanicus made in 9 and 10 A.D. two more marches into the interior of Germany, the Romans never again attempted to bound their domain by the Elbe, but clung to the neighbourhood of the Rhine. Tiberius was thus robbed in great part of the fruit of his campaigns; but nothing can deprive him of the credit of being a chief founder of the imperial system in the lands of Europe. From the beginning of 11, when he celebrated a magnificent triumph, to the time of the emperor s death in 14 Tiberius remained almost entirely in Italy, and held rather the position of joint emperor than that of expectant heir. Agrippa Postumus had proved his incapacity beyond hope, and had been banished to a desolate island. In all probability Tiberius was not present when Augustus died, although Livia spread reports (eagerly amplified by Velleius) of an affectionate interview and a lingering farewell.
Tiberius ascended the throne at the age of fifty-six. What struck his contemporaries most was his absolute impenetrability. As was said of a very different man, the poet Gray, "he never spoke out." All his feelings, desires, passions, and ambitions were locked behind an impassable barrier, and had to be interpreted by the very uncertain light of his external acts. It is recorded of him that only once did he as commander take counsel with his officers concerning military operations, and that was when the destruction of Varus's legions had made it imperatively necessary not lightly to risk the loss of a single soldier. He was an unparalleled master of passive and silent dissimulation, and the inevitable penalty of his inscrutability was widespread dislike and suspicion. But behind his defences there lay an intellect of high power, cold, clear, and penetrating all disguises. Few have ever possessed such mental vision, and he was probably never deceived either about the weaknesses of others or about his own. For the littleness and servility of public life in regions below the court he entertained a strong contempt. It is a question whether he ever liked or was liked by a single being; but he did his duty by those with whom he was connected after a thorough though stern and unlovable fashion. As a general he commanded the full confidence of his soldiers, though he was a severe disciplinarian; yet the men of his own legions greeted his accession to the throne with a mutiny. Tiberius proved himself capable in every department of the state more by virtue of industry and application than by genius. His mind moved so slowly and he was accustomed to deliberate so long that men sometimes made the mistake of deeming him a weakling and a waverer. He was in reality one of the most tenacious of men. When he had once formed an aim he could wait patiently for years till the favourable moment enabled him to achieve it, and if compelled to yield ground he never failed to recover it in the end. The key to much of his character lies in the observation that he had in early life set before himself a certain ideal of what a Roman in high position ought to be, and to this ideal he rigidly and religiously adhered. He may in one sense be said to have acted a part throughout life, but that part had entered into and interpenetrated his whole nature. His ideal of character was pretty much that of the two Catos. He practised sternness, silence, simplicity of life, and frugality as he deemed that they had been practised by the Fabricii, the Curii, and the Fabii. That Tiberius's character was stained by vice before he became emperor no one who fairly weighs the records can believe. The persuasion entertained by many at the end of his life that he had been always a monster of wickedness, but had succeeded in concealing the fact till he became emperor, has slightly, but only slightly, discoloured the narratives we possess of his earlier years. The change which came over him in the last years of his life seems to have been due to a kind of constitutional clouding of the spirits, which made him what the elder Pliny calls him, "the gloomiest of mankind," and disposed him to brood over mysteries and superstitions. As this gloom deepened his will grew weaker, his power tended to fall into the hands of unworthy instruments, terrors closed in around his mind, and his naturally clear vision was perturbed.
Throughout his reign Tiberius strove earnestly to do his duty to the empire at large; his guiding principle was to maintain with an almost superstitious reverence the constitutional forms which had been constructed by Augustus. Only two changes of moment were introduced. The imperial guard, hitherto only seen in the city in small detachments, was by the advice of Sejanus encamped permanently in full force close to the walls. By this measure the turbulence of the populace was kept in check. The officer in command of the guard became at once the most important of the emperor's lieutenants. The other change was the practically complete abolition of the old comitia. But the senate was treated with an almost hypocritical deference, and a pedantically precise compliance with the old republican forms was observed towards the senatorial magistrates. The care expended by Tiberius on the provinces was unremitting. His favourite maxim was that a good shepherd should shear the flock and not flay it. When he died he left the subject peoples of the empire in a condition of prosperity such as they had never known before and never knew again. Soldiers, governors, and officials of all kinds were kept in wholesome dread of vengeance if they oppressed those beneath them or encouraged irregularity of any kind. Strict economy permitted light taxation and enabled the emperor to show generosity in periods of exceptional distress. Public security both in Italy and abroad was maintained by a strong hand, and commerce was stimulated by the improvement of communications. Jurisdiction both within and without the capital was on the whole exercised with steadiness and equity, and the laws of the empire were at many points improved. The social and moral reforms of Augustus were upheld and carried further. Such risings against the emperor s authority as occurred within the Roman domain were put down with no great difficulty. The foreign or rather the frontier policy was a policy of peace, and it was pursued with considerable success. With few exceptions the duties of the Roman forces on the borders were confined to watching the peoples on the other side while they destroyed each other. On the Rhine, at least, masterly inactivity achieved tranquillity which lasted for a long period.
The disrepute which attaches to the reign of Tiberius has come mainly from three or four sources, from the lamentable story of the imperial household, from the tales of hideous debauchery practised in deep retirement at Caprese during the last eleven years of the emperor s life, from the tyranny which Sejanus was permitted to wield in his master's name, and from the political prosecutions and executions which Tiberius encouraged, more by silent compliance than by open incitement. The stories of immorality are recorded chiefly by Suetonius, who has evidently used a poisoned source, possibly the memoirs of the younger Agrippina, the mother of Nero. Tiberius loved to shroud himself in mystery, and such stories are probably the result of unfriendly attempts to uplift the darkness. If history ventures to doubt the blackness of Theodora, that of Tiberius grows continually lighter under the investigations of criticism. Suetonius makes the emperor s condition to have been one of mania, issuing frequently in the abandonment of all moral restraint. But in that case the authority of Tiberius, which was as firmly upheld during the years spent at Caprese as it had been earlier, must have fallen to pieces and come to an end. With respect to Sejanus it is impossible to acquit Tiberius of blame. If he was deceived in his favourite he must have been willing to be deceived. He conferred on Sejanus a position as great as had been held by Agrippa during the reign of Augustus, and the minister was actually, and all but formally, joint emperor. Of the administrative ability of Sejanus there can be no question; but the charm and secret of his power lay in the use he made of those apprehensions of personal danger which seem never to have been absent from his master s mind. The growth of "delation," the darkest shadow that lies on the reign, was in part a consequence of the supremacy and the arts of Sejanus. Historians of Rome in ancient times remembered Tiberius chiefly as the sovereign under whose rule prosecutions for treason on slight pretexts first became rife, and the hateful race of informers was first allowed to fatten on the gains of judicial murder. Augustus had allowed considerable licence of speech and writing against himself, and had made no attempt to set up a doctrine of constructive treason. But the history of the state trials of Tiberius's reign shows conclusively that the straining of the law proceeded in the first instance from the eager flattery of the senate, was in the earlier days checked and controlled to a great extent by the emperor, and was by him acquiesced in after a time with a sort of contemptuous indifference, till he developed, under the influence of his fears, a readiness to shed blood.
The principal authorities for the reign of Tiberius are Tacitus and Suetonius. The Annals of Tacitus were not published till nearly eighty years after the death of Tiberius. He rarely quotes an authority by name. In all probability he drew most largely from other historians who had preceded him; to some extent he availed himself of oral tradition; and of archives and original records he made some, but comparatively little, use. In his history of Tiberius two influences were at work, in almost equal strength : on the one hand he strives continually after fairness; on the other the bias of a man steeped in senatorial traditions forbids him to attain it. Tacitus is certainly not among the historians in whom our confidence grows by repeated reading. Suetonius was a biographer rather than an historian, and the ancient biographer .was even less given to exhaustive inquiry than the ancient historian; moreover Suetonius was not gifted with great critical faculty, though he told the truth so far as he could see it. His Lives of the Twelve Cæsars was written nearly at the time when Tacitus was composing the Annals, but was published a little later. Velleius Paterculus is by far the oldest authority for any part of Tiberius's life. He had been an officer under Tiberius, and he eulogizes his old general enthusiastically, feeling it necessary, however, to do less than justice to the achievements of Germanicus. To Velleius all defenders of Tiberius have eagerly appealed. In truth it is his silence alone which affords any external aid in repelling the charges of Tacitus and Suetonius, and the fact that Velleius published his work in the lifetime of his master deprives that silence of its value. The eulogy of Sejanus which is linked with that of Tiberius must needs shake faith in the scrupulousness of the author. It is still doubtful whether Dio Cassius (whose History ended with the year 229) in his narrative of the reign of Tiberius is to any great extent independent of Tacitus. In recent times a considerable mass of inscriptions has added to our knowledge of the administration of this emperor. The chief account of Tiberius in English is that contained in Dean Merivale's History of the Romans under the Empire. Mr Beesly has written an interesting defence of him in his Catiline, Clodius, and, Tiberius. The best recent history of this period is Hermann Schiller's Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit (Gotha, 1883). Numerous monographs relating to the reign have appeared in recent times on the Continent. The principles of the imperial administration of the provinces by Tiberius have been treated by Mommsen in the fifth volume of his History of Rome, translated into English under the title of The Roman Provinces from Augustus to Diocletian. (J. S. B.)
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TIBERIUS (42 B.C.-37 A.D.), emperor of Rome, whose full name was Tiberius Claudius Nero, was born on the Palatine Hill on 16th November 42 B.C. When he became a member of the imperial family, the court genealogists made him out to be one of the ancient patrician Claudii; but the pedigree is at some points difficult to trace. His father, who bore the same name, was an officer of Julius Cæsar, who afterwards proposed to confer honours on the assassins, then joined Mark Antony's brother in his mad attack on Octavian, took refuge with Mark Antony, and returned to Rome when the general amnesty was proclaimed in 39 B.C. Livia, the mother of Tiberius, was also of the Claudian family, out of which her father had passed by adoption into that of the Livii Drusi. Early in 38 Livia was amicably ceded to Octavian (the future Augustus), and three months after her new marriage Drusus, brother to Tiberius, was born. Livia had no children by Augustus, and therefore devoted all her remarkable gifts to the advancement of her sons. They were treated with high consideration by the emperor, yet Augustus held firmly to the hope that his throne might be filled on his death by one in whose veins ran the blood of the Octavii; and not till Tiberius was past forty did there appear any probability that he would ever rise to be emperor. He passed through the list of state offices in the usual princely fashion, beginning with the quæstorship at the age of eighteen, and attaining the consulate for the first time at twenty-nine. From the great capacity for civil business which he displayed as emperor it may be inferred that he applied himself with determination to learn the business of government.
But from 22 to 6 B.C. and again from 4 to 10 A.D. by far the greater part of Tiberius's life was spent in the camp. His first service was as legionary tribune in one of the desperate and arduous wars which led to peace in the Spanish peninsula through the decimation, or rather the extermination, of the rebellious tribes. In 20 B.C. Augustus sent Tiberius with an army to seat Tigranes of Armenia on the throne as a Roman vassal. As Tiberius approached the frontier of Armenia, he found its throne vacant through the assassination of the king, and Tigranes stepped into his place without a blow being struck. Tiberius crowned Tigranes king with his own hand. Then the Parthian monarch grew alarmed and surrendered "the spoils and the standards of three Roman armies." The senate ordered a thanksgiving such as was usually celebrated in honour of a great victory. The following year was passed by Tiberius as governor of Transalpine Gaul. In the next year (15) he was despatched to aid his brother Drusus in subjugating the Ræti and Vindelici, peoples dwelling in the mountainous region whence the Rhine, Rhone, and Danube take their rise. Drusus attacked from the eastern side, while Tiberius operated from the upper waters of the Rhine, and by stern measures the mountaineers were reduced to a state of quietude, and could no longer cut communications between northern Italy and Gaul, nor prosecute their raids in both countries. In 12 B.C. Agrippa, the great general of Augustus, to whom he may be almost said to have owed his throne, and who was its chief support, died at the age of fifty-one, leaving Julia, the emperor's only child, a widow. Agrippina, daughter of Agrippa by an earlier marriage, was wife of Tiberius, and had borne him a son, Drusus, afterwards father of Germanicus. Livia with great difficulty prevailed upon Augustus to replace Agrippa by Tiberius, who was compelled to exchange Agrippina for Julia, to his bitter grief. During the year of mourning for Agrippa, which delayed his new marriage, Tiberius was occupied with a victorious campaign against the Pannonians, followed by successful expeditions in the three succeeding summers. For his victories in the Danube regions, the emperor conferred on him the distinctions which flowed from a military triumph in republican times (now first separated from the actual triumph), and he enjoyed the "ovation" or lesser form of triumphal entry into the capital. On the death of Drusus in the autumn of 9 B.C. Tiberius, whose reputation had hitherto been eclipsed by that of his brother, stepped into the position of first soldier of the empire. The army, if it did not warmly admire Tiberius, entertained a loyal confidence in a leader who, as Velleius tells us, always made the safety of his soldiers his first care. In the campaign of the year after Drusus s death Tiberius traversed all Germany between the Rhine and the Elbe, and met with slight opposition. But it would be too much to believe the statement of Velleius that "he reduced Germany almost to the position of a tributary province." He was rewarded with the full triumph, the military title of "imperator," and his second consulship, though the opposition of the powerful Sugambri had been only broken by an act of treachery, the guilt of which should perhaps be laid at the door of Augustus. In 7 B.C. there was another but insignificant campaign in Germany. Next year Augustus bestowed on his stepson the tribunician authority for five years. Tiberius was thus in the most formal manner associated with the emperor in the conduct of the government on the civil side ; but Tacitus (Ann., iii. 56) goes too far when he says that this promotion marked him out as the heir to the throne.
Tiberius now suddenly begged permission to retire to Rhodes and devote himself to study. He seems to have declined absolutely at the time to state his reasons for this course, but he obstinately adhered to it, in spite of the tears of Livia and the lamentations of Augustus to the senate that his son had betrayed him. If we may believe Suetonius, Tiberius determined to commit suicide by abstention from food, and Augustus only gave way when this design was all but accomplished. The departure from Italy was as secret as it could be made. Years afterwards, when Tiberius broke silence about his motives, he declared that he had retired in order to allow the young princes, Gaius and Lucius, sons of Julia, a free course. There was perhaps a portion of the truth wrapped up in this declaration. Like Agrippa, who retired to Mytilene to avoid the young Marcellus, Tiberius had clearly no taste to become the servant of the two children whom Augustus had adopted in their infancy and evidently destined to be joint emperors after his death. But it may well be believed that Tiberius, unlike Agrippa, had no burning ambition to see himself in the place destined for his stepsons; and it may have been in his eyes one of the attractions of exile that it released him from the obligation to aid in carrying out the far-reaching designs which Livia cherished for his sake. But the contemporaries of Tiberius were no doubt right in believing that the scandal of Julia's life did more than all else to render his position at Rome intolerable. His conduct to her from first to last gives a strong impression of his dignity and self-respect. When at last the emperor s eyes were opened, and he inflicted severe punishment upon his daughter, her husband, now divorced by the emperor's act, made earnest intercession for her, and did what he could to alleviate her suffering. At Rhodes Tiberius lived simply, passing his time mainly in the company of Greek professors, with whom he associated on pretty equal terms. He acquired a very considerable proficiency in the studies of the day, among which must be reckoned astrology. But all his attempts at composition, whether in prose or verse, were laboured and obscure. After five years absence from Rome, he begged for leave to return; but the boon was angrily refused, and Livia with difficulty got her son made nominally a legate of Augustus, so as in some degree to veil his disgrace. The next two years were spent in solitude and gloom. Then, on the intercession of Gaius, Augustus allowed Tiberius to come back to Rome, but on the express understanding that he was to hold aloof from all public functions, an understanding which he thoroughly carried out.
He had scarcely returned before death removed (2 A.D.) Lucius, the younger of the two princes, and a year and a half later Gaius also died. The emperor was thus left with only one remaining male descendant, Agrippa Postumus, youngest son of Julia, and still a boy. Four months after Gaius's death Augustus adopted Agrippa and at the same time Tiberius. The emperor now indicated clearly his expectation that Tiberius would be his principal successor. The two essential ingredients in the imperial authority—the proconsulare imperium and the tribunicia potestas—were conferred on Tiberius, and not on Agrippa, who was too young to receive them. Tiberius's career as a general now began anew. In two or three safe rather than brilliant campaigns he strengthened immensely the Roman hold on Germany, and established the winter camps of the legions in the interior, away from the Rhine.
In 5 A.D. it became necessary to attack Maroboduus, who by combining peoples formerly hostile to each other had constructed a formidable power, with its centre in Bohemia, menacing the Roman acquisitions in Germany, Noricum, and Pannonia. The operations were conducted both from the Rhine and from the Danube, Tiberius being in command of the southern army. Just as the decisive engagement was about to take place, Tiberius learned that Pannonia and Dalmatia were aflame with insurrection in his rear. He was therefore forced to conclude peace on terms honourable to Maroboduus. The terror inspired in Italy by the Pannonian and Dalmatian rebellion under the able chief Bato had had no parallel since the invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones. The four serious campaigns which the war cost displayed Tiberius at his best as a general. As he was about to celebrate his well-won triumphs, the terrible catastrophe to Varus and his legions turned the rejoicing into lasting sorrow, and produced a profound change in the Roman policy towards Germany. Although Tiberius with his nephew and adopted son Germanicus made in 9 and 10 A.D. two more marches into the interior of Germany, the Romans never again attempted to bound their domain by the Elbe, but clung to the neighbourhood of the Rhine. Tiberius was thus robbed in great part of the fruit of his campaigns; but nothing can deprive him of the credit of being a chief founder of the imperial system in the lands of Europe. From the beginning of 11, when he celebrated a magnificent triumph, to the time of the emperor s death in 14 Tiberius remained almost entirely in Italy, and held rather the position of joint emperor than that of expectant heir. Agrippa Postumus had proved his incapacity beyond hope, and had been banished to a desolate island. In all probability Tiberius was not present when Augustus died, although Livia spread reports (eagerly amplified by Velleius) of an affectionate interview and a lingering farewell.
Tiberius ascended the throne at the age of fifty-six. What struck his contemporaries most was his absolute impenetrability. As was said of a very different man, the poet Gray, "he never spoke out." All his feelings, desires, passions, and ambitions were locked behind an impassable barrier, and had to be interpreted by the very uncertain light of his external acts. It is recorded of him that only once did he as commander take counsel with his officers concerning military operations, and that was when the destruction of Varus's legions had made it imperatively necessary not lightly to risk the loss of a single soldier. He was an unparalleled master of passive and silent dissimulation, and the inevitable penalty of his inscrutability was widespread dislike and suspicion. But behind his defences there lay an intellect of high power, cold, clear, and penetrating all disguises. Few have ever possessed such mental vision, and he was probably never deceived either about the weaknesses of others or about his own. For the littleness and servility of public life in regions below the court he entertained a strong contempt. It is a question whether he ever liked or was liked by a single being; but he did his duty by those with whom he was connected after a thorough though stern and unlovable fashion. As a general he commanded the full confidence of his soldiers, though he was a severe disciplinarian; yet the men of his own legions greeted his accession to the throne with a mutiny. Tiberius proved himself capable in every department of the state more by virtue of industry and application than by genius. His mind moved so slowly and he was accustomed to deliberate so long that men sometimes made the mistake of deeming him a weakling and a waverer. He was in reality one of the most tenacious of men. When he had once formed an aim he could wait patiently for years till the favourable moment enabled him to achieve it, and if compelled to yield ground he never failed to recover it in the end. The key to much of his character lies in the observation that he had in early life set before himself a certain ideal of what a Roman in high position ought to be, and to this ideal he rigidly and religiously adhered. He may in one sense be said to have acted a part throughout life, but that part had entered into and interpenetrated his whole nature. His ideal of character was pretty much that of the two Catos. He practised sternness, silence, simplicity of life, and frugality as he deemed that they had been practised by the Fabricii, the Curii, and the Fabii. That Tiberius's character was stained by vice before he became emperor no one who fairly weighs the records can believe. The persuasion entertained by many at the end of his life that he had been always a monster of wickedness, but had succeeded in concealing the fact till he became emperor, has slightly, but only slightly, discoloured the narratives we possess of his earlier years. The change which came over him in the last years of his life seems to have been due to a kind of constitutional clouding of the spirits, which made him what the elder Pliny calls him, "the gloomiest of mankind," and disposed him to brood over mysteries and superstitions. As this gloom deepened his will grew weaker, his power tended to fall into the hands of unworthy instruments, terrors closed in around his mind, and his naturally clear vision was perturbed.
Throughout his reign Tiberius strove earnestly to do his duty to the empire at large; his guiding principle was to maintain with an almost superstitious reverence the constitutional forms which had been constructed by Augustus. Only two changes of moment were introduced. The imperial guard, hitherto only seen in the city in small detachments, was by the advice of Sejanus encamped permanently in full force close to the walls. By this measure the turbulence of the populace was kept in check. The officer in command of the guard became at once the most important of the emperor's lieutenants. The other change was the practically complete abolition of the old comitia. But the senate was treated with an almost hypocritical deference, and a pedantically precise compliance with the old republican forms was observed towards the senatorial magistrates. The care expended by Tiberius on the provinces was unremitting. His favourite maxim was that a good shepherd should shear the flock and not flay it. When he died he left the subject peoples of the empire in a condition of prosperity such as they had never known before and never knew again. Soldiers, governors, and officials of all kinds were kept in wholesome dread of vengeance if they oppressed those beneath them or encouraged irregularity of any kind. Strict economy permitted light taxation and enabled the emperor to show generosity in periods of exceptional distress. Public security both in Italy and abroad was maintained by a strong hand, and commerce was stimulated by the improvement of communications. Jurisdiction both within and without the capital was on the whole exercised with steadiness and equity, and the laws of the empire were at many points improved. The social and moral reforms of Augustus were upheld and carried further. Such risings against the emperor s authority as occurred within the Roman domain were put down with no great difficulty. The foreign or rather the frontier policy was a policy of peace, and it was pursued with considerable success. With few exceptions the duties of the Roman forces on the borders were confined to watching the peoples on the other side while they destroyed each other. On the Rhine, at least, masterly inactivity achieved tranquillity which lasted for a long period.
The disrepute which attaches to the reign of Tiberius has come mainly from three or four sources, from the lamentable story of the imperial household, from the tales of hideous debauchery practised in deep retirement at Caprese during the last eleven years of the emperor s life, from the tyranny which Sejanus was permitted to wield in his master's name, and from the political prosecutions and executions which Tiberius encouraged, more by silent compliance than by open incitement. The stories of immorality are recorded chiefly by Suetonius, who has evidently used a poisoned source, possibly the memoirs of the younger Agrippina, the mother of Nero. Tiberius loved to shroud himself in mystery, and such stories are probably the result of unfriendly attempts to uplift the darkness. If history ventures to doubt the blackness of Theodora, that of Tiberius grows continually lighter under the investigations of criticism. Suetonius makes the emperor s condition to have been one of mania, issuing frequently in the abandonment of all moral restraint. But in that case the authority of Tiberius, which was as firmly upheld during the years spent at Caprese as it had been earlier, must have fallen to pieces and come to an end. With respect to Sejanus it is impossible to acquit Tiberius of blame. If he was deceived in his favourite he must have been willing to be deceived. He conferred on Sejanus a position as great as had been held by Agrippa during the reign of Augustus, and the minister was actually, and all but formally, joint emperor. Of the administrative ability of Sejanus there can be no question; but the charm and secret of his power lay in the use he made of those apprehensions of personal danger which seem never to have been absent from his master s mind. The growth of "delation," the darkest shadow that lies on the reign, was in part a consequence of the supremacy and the arts of Sejanus. Historians of Rome in ancient times remembered Tiberius chiefly as the sovereign under whose rule prosecutions for treason on slight pretexts first became rife, and the hateful race of informers was first allowed to fatten on the gains of judicial murder. Augustus had allowed considerable licence of speech and writing against himself, and had made no attempt to set up a doctrine of constructive treason. But the history of the state trials of Tiberius's reign shows conclusively that the straining of the law proceeded in the first instance from the eager flattery of the senate, was in the earlier days checked and controlled to a great extent by the emperor, and was by him acquiesced in after a time with a sort of contemptuous indifference, till he developed, under the influence of his fears, a readiness to shed blood.
The principal authorities for the reign of Tiberius are Tacitus and Suetonius. The Annals of Tacitus were not published till nearly eighty years after the death of Tiberius. He rarely quotes an authority by name. In all probability he drew most largely from other historians who had preceded him; to some extent he availed himself of oral tradition; and of archives and original records he made some, but comparatively little, use. In his history of Tiberius two influences were at work, in almost equal strength : on the one hand he strives continually after fairness; on the other the bias of a man steeped in senatorial traditions forbids him to attain it. Tacitus is certainly not among the historians in whom our confidence grows by repeated reading. Suetonius was a biographer rather than an historian, and the ancient biographer .was even less given to exhaustive inquiry than the ancient historian; moreover Suetonius was not gifted with great critical faculty, though he told the truth so far as he could see it. His Lives of the Twelve Cæsars was written nearly at the time when Tacitus was composing the Annals, but was published a little later. Velleius Paterculus is by far the oldest authority for any part of Tiberius's life. He had been an officer under Tiberius, and he eulogizes his old general enthusiastically, feeling it necessary, however, to do less than justice to the achievements of Germanicus. To Velleius all defenders of Tiberius have eagerly appealed. In truth it is his silence alone which affords any external aid in repelling the charges of Tacitus and Suetonius, and the fact that Velleius published his work in the lifetime of his master deprives that silence of its value. The eulogy of Sejanus which is linked with that of Tiberius must needs shake faith in the scrupulousness of the author. It is still doubtful whether Dio Cassius (whose History ended with the year 229) in his narrative of the reign of Tiberius is to any great extent independent of Tacitus. In recent times a considerable mass of inscriptions has added to our knowledge of the administration of this emperor. The chief account of Tiberius in English is that contained in Dean Merivale's History of the Romans under the Empire. Mr Beesly has written an interesting defence of him in his Catiline, Clodius, and, Tiberius. The best recent history of this period is Hermann Schiller's Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit (Gotha, 1883). Numerous monographs relating to the reign have appeared in recent times on the Continent. The principles of the imperial administration of the provinces by Tiberius have been treated by Mommsen in the fifth volume of his History of Rome, translated into English under the title of The Roman Provinces from Augustus to Diocletian. (J. S. B.)
- Horace, Odes, iv. 14. | 4,864 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dam, a young woman from a Tampuen minority community in Cambodia, is pregnant with her first child. She got married this year and is expecting a baby girl in October. Like many women around the world, pregnancy has given her a new perspective on life but for Dam this has focused her attention on one vital resource: water.
If Dam had become pregnant a few years ago, her experience of this would have been fraught with challenges. She used to have to collect water for her home 2-3 times a day. Even though there has been a well in her village since she was 10 years old this was often busy, so she would regularly go to a stream 1.5km away. The trip would take Dam up to an hour each time, so she often walked many kilometres each day to fetch enough water. Doing this while heavily pregnant would have been incredibly tiring.
Two years ago CARE constructed a new community pond in her village which provides much more water closer to Dam’s home. These days she only needs to spend about 10 minutes a day collecting water. Now she is pregnant, Dam says she appreciates this more than ever before.
CARE has also constructed toilets near Dam’s home whereas in the past she would have to go to the forest. “I didn’t like going to the bathroom in the forest. I was afraid to go to the bathroom at night because of animals and especially snakes,” she shares. Having toilets to use means she no longer has to fear this so she no longer tries to wait until morning. The physical reality of becoming a mother has also made Dam more aware of the benefits of the new toilets built in her village. She admits, “I think it would also have been difficult for me to squat and stand up since I am pregnant.”
These new facilities are complementing a change in attitude among some families. Collecting water has traditionally been a woman’s task, but this is slowly changing. Dam’s family works farming cassavas and they now take turns collecting water for the family. “In my family men and women collect equal amounts of water,” says Dam. She is being supported by those around her, so she is able to focus on keeping herself—and her baby— healthy.
Women in remote villages in north-east Cambodia still face many challenges ensuring they have safe deliveries and healthy babies. With the proximity of clean water to her home, Dam has one less difficulty to worry about.
These activities are part of WASH in Schools and Communities project, which is supported by the Australian Government through the Australian NGO Cooperation Program (ANCP).
Thanks to ANCP, women like Dam are spending less time collecting water. | <urn:uuid:77c1746e-8b1f-4c4e-8843-b969b0a5999e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.care-cambodia.org/single-post/2017/09/29/How-far-would-you-want-to-walk-while-pregnant | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00064.warc.gz | en | 0.989365 | 562 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.2286508381366... | 5 | Dam, a young woman from a Tampuen minority community in Cambodia, is pregnant with her first child. She got married this year and is expecting a baby girl in October. Like many women around the world, pregnancy has given her a new perspective on life but for Dam this has focused her attention on one vital resource: water.
If Dam had become pregnant a few years ago, her experience of this would have been fraught with challenges. She used to have to collect water for her home 2-3 times a day. Even though there has been a well in her village since she was 10 years old this was often busy, so she would regularly go to a stream 1.5km away. The trip would take Dam up to an hour each time, so she often walked many kilometres each day to fetch enough water. Doing this while heavily pregnant would have been incredibly tiring.
Two years ago CARE constructed a new community pond in her village which provides much more water closer to Dam’s home. These days she only needs to spend about 10 minutes a day collecting water. Now she is pregnant, Dam says she appreciates this more than ever before.
CARE has also constructed toilets near Dam’s home whereas in the past she would have to go to the forest. “I didn’t like going to the bathroom in the forest. I was afraid to go to the bathroom at night because of animals and especially snakes,” she shares. Having toilets to use means she no longer has to fear this so she no longer tries to wait until morning. The physical reality of becoming a mother has also made Dam more aware of the benefits of the new toilets built in her village. She admits, “I think it would also have been difficult for me to squat and stand up since I am pregnant.”
These new facilities are complementing a change in attitude among some families. Collecting water has traditionally been a woman’s task, but this is slowly changing. Dam’s family works farming cassavas and they now take turns collecting water for the family. “In my family men and women collect equal amounts of water,” says Dam. She is being supported by those around her, so she is able to focus on keeping herself—and her baby— healthy.
Women in remote villages in north-east Cambodia still face many challenges ensuring they have safe deliveries and healthy babies. With the proximity of clean water to her home, Dam has one less difficulty to worry about.
These activities are part of WASH in Schools and Communities project, which is supported by the Australian Government through the Australian NGO Cooperation Program (ANCP).
Thanks to ANCP, women like Dam are spending less time collecting water. | 539 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Biography of Franklin Delano Roosevelt Essay
FDR Changed the very idea of what it meant to be president of the United States. FDR used his genius political skills and charisma to direct this nation into his own dreams. His ability to communicate encouragement and confidence to the American people aided his presidency more than his legislations. Winston Churchill likened his first meeting with FDR to “uncorking a bottle of champagne.” All future presidents would be forced to reckon with his legacy.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born on January 30, 1882. He was so sickly that he almost did not survive, and his worried parents held off naming him for two months. His father was James Roosevelt, a graduate of …show more content…
The Chosen Running Mate
It was during his late college years that FDR met and fell in love with Eleanor Roosevelt, a distant cousin whom he had first met at a family Christmas party in 1898. Eleanor had had a very different family experience from FDR. Her father had doted on her, but her mother had separated from him because of his alcoholism. Her mother, who had once been a great beauty, mocked Eleanor for her plainness and favored her other children. Both Eleanor's mother and brother died of disease when Eleanor was eight years old, and she was sent to live with her | <urn:uuid:602805ce-105e-4a47-a3f9-2d0c4004910f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/biography-of-franklin-delano-roosevelt/F3CJF5K3XC | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00258.warc.gz | en | 0.993358 | 269 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | Biography of Franklin Delano Roosevelt Essay
FDR Changed the very idea of what it meant to be president of the United States. FDR used his genius political skills and charisma to direct this nation into his own dreams. His ability to communicate encouragement and confidence to the American people aided his presidency more than his legislations. Winston Churchill likened his first meeting with FDR to “uncorking a bottle of champagne.” All future presidents would be forced to reckon with his legacy.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born on January 30, 1882. He was so sickly that he almost did not survive, and his worried parents held off naming him for two months. His father was James Roosevelt, a graduate of …show more content…
The Chosen Running Mate
It was during his late college years that FDR met and fell in love with Eleanor Roosevelt, a distant cousin whom he had first met at a family Christmas party in 1898. Eleanor had had a very different family experience from FDR. Her father had doted on her, but her mother had separated from him because of his alcoholism. Her mother, who had once been a great beauty, mocked Eleanor for her plainness and favored her other children. Both Eleanor's mother and brother died of disease when Eleanor was eight years old, and she was sent to live with her | 279 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Wood & Son, England
This object is a commemorative plate with the image of Benito Juarez and Porfirio Diaz with the Mexican flag in the background. Benito Juarez and Porfirio Diaz played important roles in Mexican history during the 1800s. Both came from backgrounds connected to Mexico’s indigenous population. They would find themselves at the top of Mexican politics and eventually served as Presidents during the nineteenth and into the early twentieth centuries.
The Mexican-American War began in 1946 and marked the beginning of an aggressive campaign to expand the United States territory from coast to coast. Manifest Destiny had been a popular idea throughout the 19th century and was used in 1945 by John L. O’Sullivan, an editor for the Democratic Review. This idea was used to support the annexation of Texas and the acquisition of California, Utah, Nevada, Arizona and New Mexico by the United States . By 1948 the war was over and the United States now claimed a third of Mexican territory.
Benito Juarez was born 1806 in Oaxaca, Mexico. Despite his upbringing in a peasant Zapotec family, Juarez gained the education and connections needed to begin his participation in politics by 1831 as a lawyer and liberal politician. He participated in the denouncement of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and ex-President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna. Later he was also against the Mexican-American War. By 1957, Benito Juarez had gained the people’s support and was democratically elected as the President of Mexico where he served until his death in 1872.
Porfirio Diaz was born in 1830 in a poor mestizo, or part Indian family. Diaz joined the Mexican-American War at 16 although he never saw combat. An avid supporter of Juarez, he was brought under him as a protégé after the Mexican-American War. He supported Juarez’s regime as a prominent member in the military. During the French Intervention, when France took over Mexico and installed Maximilian of Austria-Hungary as a monarch, Diaz continued to play an important part in the military push against the French. He was present as the Battle of Puebla in 1862 which successfully pushed back the French from advancing on Mexico City and is celebrated today as Cinco de Mayo.
Porfirio Diaz would go on to become President from 1877 to 1880. After his handpicked successor failed him, he ran for reelection in 1884 and would soon become the dictator of Mexico until 1911. At that point his administration was opposed militarily by Francisco Madero which pushed Diaz into exile in France where he died in 1915. [Briana Miano edited by Joscelynn Garcia] | <urn:uuid:b60ffd04-ac97-46b6-bbeb-cecff03a5eb8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.texancultures.com/object-commemorative-plate-3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00549.warc.gz | en | 0.984943 | 558 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.3736692070960... | 8 | Wood & Son, England
This object is a commemorative plate with the image of Benito Juarez and Porfirio Diaz with the Mexican flag in the background. Benito Juarez and Porfirio Diaz played important roles in Mexican history during the 1800s. Both came from backgrounds connected to Mexico’s indigenous population. They would find themselves at the top of Mexican politics and eventually served as Presidents during the nineteenth and into the early twentieth centuries.
The Mexican-American War began in 1946 and marked the beginning of an aggressive campaign to expand the United States territory from coast to coast. Manifest Destiny had been a popular idea throughout the 19th century and was used in 1945 by John L. O’Sullivan, an editor for the Democratic Review. This idea was used to support the annexation of Texas and the acquisition of California, Utah, Nevada, Arizona and New Mexico by the United States . By 1948 the war was over and the United States now claimed a third of Mexican territory.
Benito Juarez was born 1806 in Oaxaca, Mexico. Despite his upbringing in a peasant Zapotec family, Juarez gained the education and connections needed to begin his participation in politics by 1831 as a lawyer and liberal politician. He participated in the denouncement of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and ex-President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna. Later he was also against the Mexican-American War. By 1957, Benito Juarez had gained the people’s support and was democratically elected as the President of Mexico where he served until his death in 1872.
Porfirio Diaz was born in 1830 in a poor mestizo, or part Indian family. Diaz joined the Mexican-American War at 16 although he never saw combat. An avid supporter of Juarez, he was brought under him as a protégé after the Mexican-American War. He supported Juarez’s regime as a prominent member in the military. During the French Intervention, when France took over Mexico and installed Maximilian of Austria-Hungary as a monarch, Diaz continued to play an important part in the military push against the French. He was present as the Battle of Puebla in 1862 which successfully pushed back the French from advancing on Mexico City and is celebrated today as Cinco de Mayo.
Porfirio Diaz would go on to become President from 1877 to 1880. After his handpicked successor failed him, he ran for reelection in 1884 and would soon become the dictator of Mexico until 1911. At that point his administration was opposed militarily by Francisco Madero which pushed Diaz into exile in France where he died in 1915. [Briana Miano edited by Joscelynn Garcia] | 596 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Towards the end of 1140, King Stephen had intervened in a dispute over the royal castle at Lincoln. Although Stephen had appointed William d’Aubigny, Earl of Lincoln, the castle had been seized by half-brothers, Ranulf of Chester and William of Roumare. Instead of persecuting the brothers for their actions, Stephen created de Roumare as the new earl of Lincoln, transferring d’Aubigny to Sussex. Shortly before Christmas, however, Stephen received a plea from the citizens of Lincoln, claiming mistreatment at the hands of their new earl and appealing for help. Stephen’s response was to gather a small force and march north.
On entering the city, Stephen found that Ranulf of Chester had fled and that only a small garrison remained. Earl William (of Roumare) was inside but refused to hand over the castle and so Stephen began his attack, expecting that those inside would not hold out too long. What Stephen did not realise, however, was that Ranulf had gone directly to his father-in-law, Robert of Gloucester, where he pledged fealty to Matilda in return for military support at Lincoln. For Robert, this was not just about protecting his daughter – still resident at Lincoln castle – it was also an opportunity to extend Matilda’s Angevin influence and territory beyond the southwest of England. Without a moment’s hesitation, Robert made ready for war.
When it came to raising an army, Robert looked to his allies in the southwest and the Welsh Marches. Several Welsh rulers also lent their support to the Angevin campaign. This was less through loyalty to Matilda, however, and more likely an attempt to profit from the chaotic situation in England. Since Stephen’s accession in 1135, there had been several skirmishes on the Anglo–Welsh border with a pitched battle in 1136. Though the details are sketchy, it appears to have been a Welsh victory.
Having arrived in Lincoln with only a besieging force, Stephen was considerably outnumbered and refused to heed the advice to avoid battle and seek reinforcements. Robert had gathered a significant number of men thanks to his supporters in the southwest and Welsh Marches. The two sides met on 2 February 1141 outside the city’s western wall. Contemporary accounts of the battle suggest that the royal army consisted of a central division containing King Stephen, who led his forces on foot, and a group of dismounted knights, flanked on both sides by a small group of cavalry. The Angevins adopted a very similar position, with Robert of Gloucester leading from the centre. Both flanks contained a number of Welsh infantry, though probably stood further forward than the other soldiers. The army also contained a large number of archers, most likely brought by Ranulf of Chester.
Battle of Lincoln in Henry of Huntingdon’s Chronicle
The Welsh infantry were the first victims of the battle. Attacked by both flanks of the Royalist cavalry, the ill-armed and ill-disciplined infantry were either cut down or fled from the field. In the next wave, the Angevins advanced, possibly aided by an arrow attack, and broke through the royal line. According to the chronicler, Henry of Huntingdon, this Angevin offensive forced several of Stephen’s key nobles to flee, including his commander, William of Ypres. Those who remained were now completely surrounded by the Angevins who ‘attacked it on every side, as if storming a castle.’ In the chaos, the King replaced his broken sword with a battle axe and made a ‘strong and most resolute resistance.’ But the axe soon broke, leaving Stephen defenceless. An unnamed Angevin soldier then hit him over the head with a rock and he was taken prisoner. With Stephen captured and the army routed, the Angevins rejoiced at their decisive victory. Matilda now had a real opportunity to take the throne. | <urn:uuid:de86124d-47f3-44a9-acb6-3f8f3e8f99e9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://erenow.net/postclassical/the-medieval-anarchy/7.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00068.warc.gz | en | 0.98051 | 819 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.517657... | 5 | Towards the end of 1140, King Stephen had intervened in a dispute over the royal castle at Lincoln. Although Stephen had appointed William d’Aubigny, Earl of Lincoln, the castle had been seized by half-brothers, Ranulf of Chester and William of Roumare. Instead of persecuting the brothers for their actions, Stephen created de Roumare as the new earl of Lincoln, transferring d’Aubigny to Sussex. Shortly before Christmas, however, Stephen received a plea from the citizens of Lincoln, claiming mistreatment at the hands of their new earl and appealing for help. Stephen’s response was to gather a small force and march north.
On entering the city, Stephen found that Ranulf of Chester had fled and that only a small garrison remained. Earl William (of Roumare) was inside but refused to hand over the castle and so Stephen began his attack, expecting that those inside would not hold out too long. What Stephen did not realise, however, was that Ranulf had gone directly to his father-in-law, Robert of Gloucester, where he pledged fealty to Matilda in return for military support at Lincoln. For Robert, this was not just about protecting his daughter – still resident at Lincoln castle – it was also an opportunity to extend Matilda’s Angevin influence and territory beyond the southwest of England. Without a moment’s hesitation, Robert made ready for war.
When it came to raising an army, Robert looked to his allies in the southwest and the Welsh Marches. Several Welsh rulers also lent their support to the Angevin campaign. This was less through loyalty to Matilda, however, and more likely an attempt to profit from the chaotic situation in England. Since Stephen’s accession in 1135, there had been several skirmishes on the Anglo–Welsh border with a pitched battle in 1136. Though the details are sketchy, it appears to have been a Welsh victory.
Having arrived in Lincoln with only a besieging force, Stephen was considerably outnumbered and refused to heed the advice to avoid battle and seek reinforcements. Robert had gathered a significant number of men thanks to his supporters in the southwest and Welsh Marches. The two sides met on 2 February 1141 outside the city’s western wall. Contemporary accounts of the battle suggest that the royal army consisted of a central division containing King Stephen, who led his forces on foot, and a group of dismounted knights, flanked on both sides by a small group of cavalry. The Angevins adopted a very similar position, with Robert of Gloucester leading from the centre. Both flanks contained a number of Welsh infantry, though probably stood further forward than the other soldiers. The army also contained a large number of archers, most likely brought by Ranulf of Chester.
Battle of Lincoln in Henry of Huntingdon’s Chronicle
The Welsh infantry were the first victims of the battle. Attacked by both flanks of the Royalist cavalry, the ill-armed and ill-disciplined infantry were either cut down or fled from the field. In the next wave, the Angevins advanced, possibly aided by an arrow attack, and broke through the royal line. According to the chronicler, Henry of Huntingdon, this Angevin offensive forced several of Stephen’s key nobles to flee, including his commander, William of Ypres. Those who remained were now completely surrounded by the Angevins who ‘attacked it on every side, as if storming a castle.’ In the chaos, the King replaced his broken sword with a battle axe and made a ‘strong and most resolute resistance.’ But the axe soon broke, leaving Stephen defenceless. An unnamed Angevin soldier then hit him over the head with a rock and he was taken prisoner. With Stephen captured and the army routed, the Angevins rejoiced at their decisive victory. Matilda now had a real opportunity to take the throne. | 804 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Carter was born in 1864 in Diamond Grove, Missouri during the time the Civil War was ending. A child of slave parents, he was raised by adoptive parents in the farmlands of southwest Missouri and early developed a love for nature. His formal education began at the age of twelve. Living during a time of intense racial discrimination, he was not allowed to attend his initial college choice, Highland University. Entering Simpson College in Iowa in 1887 as this school’s first Black student, he showed promise as an artist but his love for science led him to transfer to Iowa Agricultural College in 1891 to earn his degree in agriculture.
In 1897, after completing his master’s degree in agriculture, he worked for a short time as a faculty member at Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanics. However, that same year Booker T. Washington, founder of the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama (then known as the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute for Negroes), invited him to be the college’s first Director of Agriculture, a position he accepted and held it until his death.
Carter’s main work was in the Amercian south. He is perhaps best known for developing well over three hundred uses for the peanut. He also discovered many uses for the sweet potato, soybeans and pecans. He discovered the importance of rotating crops to allow nitrate-depleting crops to be alternated with nitrate-producing crops. This process, known as crop rotation, was received reluctantly at first by southern farmers who were more comfortable with the popular cotton crop. However Carter worked closely with them, helping them to understand how the cotton crop was depleting the soil of nitrates and how using multiple-crop rotation would be the more valuable solution. The economic value of cotton declined rapidly when the cotton crops were destroyed in the early 1900’s by an insect known as the boll weevil.
Carter’s inventions included making hundred of products useful for the home and farm. However, he patented very few of his inventions and is quoted as having said, “God gave them to me. How can I sell them to someone else?” His inventions included cosmetics, paints and gasoline, shampoos, facial cream and soap. He produced 500 shades of dyes. He also developed over 100 uses for sweet potatoes.
Carter spent the remainder of his life in Tuskegee Institute. He was a simple, humble man who cared not for fortune or fame. In an article entitled, “The Legacy of George Washington Carver”, the writer states that as a professor, “Carver taught his students that nature is the greatest teacher and that by understanding the forces in nature, one can understand the dynamics of agriculture.” He did receive several awards, however, including an honorary doctorate degree from Simpson College and the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP. President Franklin D. Roosevelt also dedicated a national monument in his honor. Carter died in 1943 at the age of 79.
Idea Finder:”George Washington Carver”
Iowa State University Digital Collections:”The legacy of George Washington Carver”
Intellectual Village:”George Washington Carver’s Inventions” | <urn:uuid:dfa44ef4-2987-4d24-874e-ac40835c3384> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://itchyfish.com/profiles-of-inventors-george-washington-carver/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00220.warc.gz | en | 0.984346 | 666 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.1646946370601654... | 3 | Carter was born in 1864 in Diamond Grove, Missouri during the time the Civil War was ending. A child of slave parents, he was raised by adoptive parents in the farmlands of southwest Missouri and early developed a love for nature. His formal education began at the age of twelve. Living during a time of intense racial discrimination, he was not allowed to attend his initial college choice, Highland University. Entering Simpson College in Iowa in 1887 as this school’s first Black student, he showed promise as an artist but his love for science led him to transfer to Iowa Agricultural College in 1891 to earn his degree in agriculture.
In 1897, after completing his master’s degree in agriculture, he worked for a short time as a faculty member at Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanics. However, that same year Booker T. Washington, founder of the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama (then known as the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute for Negroes), invited him to be the college’s first Director of Agriculture, a position he accepted and held it until his death.
Carter’s main work was in the Amercian south. He is perhaps best known for developing well over three hundred uses for the peanut. He also discovered many uses for the sweet potato, soybeans and pecans. He discovered the importance of rotating crops to allow nitrate-depleting crops to be alternated with nitrate-producing crops. This process, known as crop rotation, was received reluctantly at first by southern farmers who were more comfortable with the popular cotton crop. However Carter worked closely with them, helping them to understand how the cotton crop was depleting the soil of nitrates and how using multiple-crop rotation would be the more valuable solution. The economic value of cotton declined rapidly when the cotton crops were destroyed in the early 1900’s by an insect known as the boll weevil.
Carter’s inventions included making hundred of products useful for the home and farm. However, he patented very few of his inventions and is quoted as having said, “God gave them to me. How can I sell them to someone else?” His inventions included cosmetics, paints and gasoline, shampoos, facial cream and soap. He produced 500 shades of dyes. He also developed over 100 uses for sweet potatoes.
Carter spent the remainder of his life in Tuskegee Institute. He was a simple, humble man who cared not for fortune or fame. In an article entitled, “The Legacy of George Washington Carver”, the writer states that as a professor, “Carver taught his students that nature is the greatest teacher and that by understanding the forces in nature, one can understand the dynamics of agriculture.” He did receive several awards, however, including an honorary doctorate degree from Simpson College and the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP. President Franklin D. Roosevelt also dedicated a national monument in his honor. Carter died in 1943 at the age of 79.
Idea Finder:”George Washington Carver”
Iowa State University Digital Collections:”The legacy of George Washington Carver”
Intellectual Village:”George Washington Carver’s Inventions” | 666 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The modern rhino is what is left of the ancient beast we would today consider a unicorn. The rhino used to be an incredibly diverse species, with more than 250 known species identified. Now there are a mere five different species. Back in the Miocene period, which was around 23 million years ago, the rhino made up a reasonably large portion of the mammal fauna in countries such as Africa, Asia, Europe, and North America.
Analysis of rhino fossils have determined two distinct lineages of the ancient beast: one being Rhinocerotinae, which is comprised of modern rhinos as well as the recently extinct woolly rhino, and the second being the extinct Elasmotheriinae. Studies suggest that these two groups diverged pretty early on, around 35 million years ago. Elasmotheriinae eventually gave rise to what today we would think of like a unicorn!
Have you ever wondered what the world would be like if creatures from mythology roamed the Earth? Think no more! Recent evidence suggests that animals similar to our ideas of the mysterious unicorn wandered our lands right around the time of humans. Though they may not, in essence, be the same creature from legend, it comes strikingly close. It is possible that our ancestors once saw these beasts and morphed their image into what we see today. Let us take a closer look at this ancient creature and hopefully develop a new appreciation for the animal.
While we may not know precisely where these beautiful beasts came from, what we do know is that what we now know as a unicorn was an ancient version of a rhinoceros. This old soul had only one horn on the top of its head, just like the unicorns of today.
Elasmotherium is also known as the Giant Siberian Unicorn and is thought to have been alive during the Late Pliocene and Pleistocene eras. The oldest fossils show that they were active as long as 2.6 million years ago, but the most recent findings show that they went extinct only 29,000 years ago. The best-known species is Elasmotherium sibiricum, which was the size of a mammoth, covered in hair with one horn adorning its head.
Stories have circulated throughout history about the existence of unicorns; the first known mention of a unicorn comes from India. These stories depicted a creature with four legs with hooves, long manes, long fur, and one horn on the top of the head. Greek literature also points to a single-horned animal living in India.
Unicorns have also been sighted by Arabic travelers, who claim they have witnessed with their own eyes a creature with the body of a mule and the head of a camel, which is adorned with a single horn. The Arab-Persian culture used to view Elasmotherium as the bringer of truth and goodness to the world.
Chinese literature also mentions sighting a beast with the body of a deer with a single horn on its head, which they termed “K’i-lin.” During the Warring States period, a bronze statue was constructed that depicts a one-horned animal, much like Elasmotherium would have looked like.
It is also believed that the Bible may have mentioned the existence of a unicorn-like creature that was similar to a wild ox. In the context of Christianity, the one horn was thought to symbolize monotheism.
Then came the Middle Ages. Back then, the unicorn was actually viewed as a symbol of purity and was often associated with virgins. This is evidenced in the art that came from this time period. Also noteworthy during this time is that people would sell narwhal horns as unicorn horns to gullible buyers due to the magical properties they were thought to possess.
In 1866, a man by the name of Vasily Radlov uncovered a legend in the land of Siberia; according to the story, a “huge black bull” was killed by a single spear; the beast had had a single horn, and it was transported back to camp via sled.
From Russia comes more news of this ancient mystery. In a collection of ballads is found mention of an animal, dubbed the Indrik, that resembles the unicorn. However, their version of the hairy unicorn is not as lovely as it is today. Their version, which was often depicted in battle, is a symbol of lies. It was said the creature resided in the mountains and was believed to give birth to all other animals. They thought the beast saved the Earth from drought and that it roamed around at night.
Today, we don’t overthink about these creatures; they are most beloved by little girls with wild imaginations. | <urn:uuid:d5f5c9b0-c652-4289-a1dc-7cae38b80e71> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sciencesensei.com/terrifying-unicorn-like-creatures-used-to-exist/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00459.warc.gz | en | 0.980164 | 974 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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-0.0465684384107... | 3 | The modern rhino is what is left of the ancient beast we would today consider a unicorn. The rhino used to be an incredibly diverse species, with more than 250 known species identified. Now there are a mere five different species. Back in the Miocene period, which was around 23 million years ago, the rhino made up a reasonably large portion of the mammal fauna in countries such as Africa, Asia, Europe, and North America.
Analysis of rhino fossils have determined two distinct lineages of the ancient beast: one being Rhinocerotinae, which is comprised of modern rhinos as well as the recently extinct woolly rhino, and the second being the extinct Elasmotheriinae. Studies suggest that these two groups diverged pretty early on, around 35 million years ago. Elasmotheriinae eventually gave rise to what today we would think of like a unicorn!
Have you ever wondered what the world would be like if creatures from mythology roamed the Earth? Think no more! Recent evidence suggests that animals similar to our ideas of the mysterious unicorn wandered our lands right around the time of humans. Though they may not, in essence, be the same creature from legend, it comes strikingly close. It is possible that our ancestors once saw these beasts and morphed their image into what we see today. Let us take a closer look at this ancient creature and hopefully develop a new appreciation for the animal.
While we may not know precisely where these beautiful beasts came from, what we do know is that what we now know as a unicorn was an ancient version of a rhinoceros. This old soul had only one horn on the top of its head, just like the unicorns of today.
Elasmotherium is also known as the Giant Siberian Unicorn and is thought to have been alive during the Late Pliocene and Pleistocene eras. The oldest fossils show that they were active as long as 2.6 million years ago, but the most recent findings show that they went extinct only 29,000 years ago. The best-known species is Elasmotherium sibiricum, which was the size of a mammoth, covered in hair with one horn adorning its head.
Stories have circulated throughout history about the existence of unicorns; the first known mention of a unicorn comes from India. These stories depicted a creature with four legs with hooves, long manes, long fur, and one horn on the top of the head. Greek literature also points to a single-horned animal living in India.
Unicorns have also been sighted by Arabic travelers, who claim they have witnessed with their own eyes a creature with the body of a mule and the head of a camel, which is adorned with a single horn. The Arab-Persian culture used to view Elasmotherium as the bringer of truth and goodness to the world.
Chinese literature also mentions sighting a beast with the body of a deer with a single horn on its head, which they termed “K’i-lin.” During the Warring States period, a bronze statue was constructed that depicts a one-horned animal, much like Elasmotherium would have looked like.
It is also believed that the Bible may have mentioned the existence of a unicorn-like creature that was similar to a wild ox. In the context of Christianity, the one horn was thought to symbolize monotheism.
Then came the Middle Ages. Back then, the unicorn was actually viewed as a symbol of purity and was often associated with virgins. This is evidenced in the art that came from this time period. Also noteworthy during this time is that people would sell narwhal horns as unicorn horns to gullible buyers due to the magical properties they were thought to possess.
In 1866, a man by the name of Vasily Radlov uncovered a legend in the land of Siberia; according to the story, a “huge black bull” was killed by a single spear; the beast had had a single horn, and it was transported back to camp via sled.
From Russia comes more news of this ancient mystery. In a collection of ballads is found mention of an animal, dubbed the Indrik, that resembles the unicorn. However, their version of the hairy unicorn is not as lovely as it is today. Their version, which was often depicted in battle, is a symbol of lies. It was said the creature resided in the mountains and was believed to give birth to all other animals. They thought the beast saved the Earth from drought and that it roamed around at night.
Today, we don’t overthink about these creatures; they are most beloved by little girls with wild imaginations. | 972 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On 22nd August 1639 Madras (now Chennai) was founded by the East India Company who bought it as a piece of land from the local Nayak rulers.
In ancient times, the city of Chennai was known as Madraspatnam and was located in Tondaimandalam, an area flanked by the Pennar River of Nellore and the Pennar river of Cuddalore on each side. This area had a history of rule by the Cholas, the Pallavas, the Pandiyas and the Vijaynagar Empire. This was followed by the arrival of European traders and the first to arrive in the area were the Portuguese in 1522 who built a port here called Sao Tome after St. Thomas, who is believe to have preached here between 52 to 70 AD. The Portuguese were followed by the Dutch in 1612 who established their base in Pulicat, north of Chennai. Following the Dutch, came the British East India Company who bought a small piece of land stretching along the Coromandel Coast from the local Nayak rulers and also got their permission to build a fort, a factory and a warehouse in the area which they required for their trading purposes.
The city of Chennai as we see it today, was essentially a British settlement known as Fort St. George. The rulers of the Vijaynagar Empire who ruled the area, appointed chieftains called Nayaks to rule various regions of the province independently. In 1639, when the Brtish East India Company arrived in the area to establish a factory, Darmala Venkatadri Nayaka, a Telugu king and a powerful chieftain who was in charge of the area (what is present day Chennai). Darmala gave the British a piece of land sandwiched between the Cooum River and the Egmore River. What was given to the British by the Nayak chieftains was essentially a piece of waste land upon which the British proceeded to find Fort St. George which was essentially a settlement of British factory workers, merchants and other British residents.
This small settlement of the British gradually drew the attention of other East India traders such as the Portuguese and the Dutch who gradually joined the settlement. By 1649, Fort St. George had 19,000 residents due to which the East India Company expanded Fort St. George by constructing an additional wall. This expanded area came to be known as the Fort St. George settlement. According to a treaty signed with the Nayaks, the British and other European Christians were only allowed to colour the outside of their buildings white. Because of this, gradually over time, this area began to be known as “White Town”.
According to their agreement with the Nayaks, only Europeans were allowed to live in Fort St. George, since non-Indians were not allowed to buy property outside the area. On the other hand, other Europeans such as the Portuguese and other Catholic merchants had a different agreement with the Nayaks, through which they could set up trading posts and warehouses. Since the trade in the area was controlled by the East India Company, these non-British merchants signed an agreement with the British for settling on the East India Company land near White Town. Gradually, Indians arrived in this area as well and soon the Europeans were outnumbered. Violent clashes broke out between Hindus, Muslims and other Indian communities against the Europeans. Gradually, these non Europeans, mostly Hindu and Muslims, were given place near white town to set up a settlement and a wall was constructed to separate this new non-European settlement from White Town. This new area was known as “Black Town”. Originally, White Town and Black town were together known as Madras, a name given to the area by the British.
In the 17th century afflicted by plague and warfare, the population of Fort St. George fell drastically. Each time clashes between Europeans and non-Europeans broke out, the Europeans took refuge in Fort St. George. Eventually, the Fort became the core of the city, which eventually rebuilt itself. Fort St. George still stands and is home to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly and the office of the Chief Minister.
On 17th July 1996, the name of the city was changed from Madras to Chennai by the then Chief Minister of the state, M. Karunanidhi. The new name Chennai was derived from Chennaipattanam, a small town near Fort St. George. The reason for the name change was the linguistic pride associated with renaming a city in the vernacular, rather than being stuck with the name given to the city by the British.
Chennai today is the capital of Tamil Nadu and is a modern and cosmopolitan city. The city is an important commercial, cultural, economic and educational hub in south India. Chennai’s economy boasts of automobile, computer, hardware manufacturing and healthcare sectors. Nicknamed the “Detroit of India”, a large part of India’s automobile industry is based out of Chennai. Rich in arts and culture, Chennai is also an important centre for Carnatic music and Bharata Natyam dance.
Also on This Day:
1320: Nasiruddin Khusru was defeated by Ghazi Malik.
1921: Mahatma Gandhi made a bonfire of foreign clothes.
1979: President Sanjeeva Reddy dissolved the Lok Sabha and general elections were ordered at the end of the year to ensure political stability in the Central Government administration. | <urn:uuid:c867bd61-72eb-46b4-9810-97a3e4dcd482> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.mapsofindia.com/on-this-day/22nd-august-1639-madras-now-chennai-is-founded-by-the-east-india-company | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00031.warc.gz | en | 0.982326 | 1,122 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.5826408863... | 5 | On 22nd August 1639 Madras (now Chennai) was founded by the East India Company who bought it as a piece of land from the local Nayak rulers.
In ancient times, the city of Chennai was known as Madraspatnam and was located in Tondaimandalam, an area flanked by the Pennar River of Nellore and the Pennar river of Cuddalore on each side. This area had a history of rule by the Cholas, the Pallavas, the Pandiyas and the Vijaynagar Empire. This was followed by the arrival of European traders and the first to arrive in the area were the Portuguese in 1522 who built a port here called Sao Tome after St. Thomas, who is believe to have preached here between 52 to 70 AD. The Portuguese were followed by the Dutch in 1612 who established their base in Pulicat, north of Chennai. Following the Dutch, came the British East India Company who bought a small piece of land stretching along the Coromandel Coast from the local Nayak rulers and also got their permission to build a fort, a factory and a warehouse in the area which they required for their trading purposes.
The city of Chennai as we see it today, was essentially a British settlement known as Fort St. George. The rulers of the Vijaynagar Empire who ruled the area, appointed chieftains called Nayaks to rule various regions of the province independently. In 1639, when the Brtish East India Company arrived in the area to establish a factory, Darmala Venkatadri Nayaka, a Telugu king and a powerful chieftain who was in charge of the area (what is present day Chennai). Darmala gave the British a piece of land sandwiched between the Cooum River and the Egmore River. What was given to the British by the Nayak chieftains was essentially a piece of waste land upon which the British proceeded to find Fort St. George which was essentially a settlement of British factory workers, merchants and other British residents.
This small settlement of the British gradually drew the attention of other East India traders such as the Portuguese and the Dutch who gradually joined the settlement. By 1649, Fort St. George had 19,000 residents due to which the East India Company expanded Fort St. George by constructing an additional wall. This expanded area came to be known as the Fort St. George settlement. According to a treaty signed with the Nayaks, the British and other European Christians were only allowed to colour the outside of their buildings white. Because of this, gradually over time, this area began to be known as “White Town”.
According to their agreement with the Nayaks, only Europeans were allowed to live in Fort St. George, since non-Indians were not allowed to buy property outside the area. On the other hand, other Europeans such as the Portuguese and other Catholic merchants had a different agreement with the Nayaks, through which they could set up trading posts and warehouses. Since the trade in the area was controlled by the East India Company, these non-British merchants signed an agreement with the British for settling on the East India Company land near White Town. Gradually, Indians arrived in this area as well and soon the Europeans were outnumbered. Violent clashes broke out between Hindus, Muslims and other Indian communities against the Europeans. Gradually, these non Europeans, mostly Hindu and Muslims, were given place near white town to set up a settlement and a wall was constructed to separate this new non-European settlement from White Town. This new area was known as “Black Town”. Originally, White Town and Black town were together known as Madras, a name given to the area by the British.
In the 17th century afflicted by plague and warfare, the population of Fort St. George fell drastically. Each time clashes between Europeans and non-Europeans broke out, the Europeans took refuge in Fort St. George. Eventually, the Fort became the core of the city, which eventually rebuilt itself. Fort St. George still stands and is home to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly and the office of the Chief Minister.
On 17th July 1996, the name of the city was changed from Madras to Chennai by the then Chief Minister of the state, M. Karunanidhi. The new name Chennai was derived from Chennaipattanam, a small town near Fort St. George. The reason for the name change was the linguistic pride associated with renaming a city in the vernacular, rather than being stuck with the name given to the city by the British.
Chennai today is the capital of Tamil Nadu and is a modern and cosmopolitan city. The city is an important commercial, cultural, economic and educational hub in south India. Chennai’s economy boasts of automobile, computer, hardware manufacturing and healthcare sectors. Nicknamed the “Detroit of India”, a large part of India’s automobile industry is based out of Chennai. Rich in arts and culture, Chennai is also an important centre for Carnatic music and Bharata Natyam dance.
Also on This Day:
1320: Nasiruddin Khusru was defeated by Ghazi Malik.
1921: Mahatma Gandhi made a bonfire of foreign clothes.
1979: President Sanjeeva Reddy dissolved the Lok Sabha and general elections were ordered at the end of the year to ensure political stability in the Central Government administration. | 1,143 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By: Valeria Macias(Section Editor)
How young is too young in order for students to start thinking about college? For Independence Elementary, age isn’t a requirement for college. Recently, Independence Elementary hosted a college fair for their students from ages 4-10. The kids appeared very excited as soon as the fair began, they even started to cheer for their favorite colleges. As a way to add more excitement to the day, SGHS was invited to perform for the students. Cheer, dance, and band gave performances that left the kids in awe. With all these enthusiastic performances, the kids couldn’t help but to dance and cheer along. The principal, Milady Quito, talked to them and informed them about various colleges and what requirements they need in order to get in. Additionally, the school dedicated a whole week to college. Each day was portrayed as a different college and teachers spent an amount of the week teaching about the different factors for college, such as Cal states, UC’s, or privates.
Even though most of the kids don’t understand the concept of college yet, it’s never too early to learn. This way the kids are able to have a clear idea of what they want at a very early age. Though their perspectives on college aren’t very clear, some of them already know where they want to go in order to pursue a higher education. When asked why they wanted to go to college, their answers were all very similar. They all knew that they wanted to get to college in order to help out their parents and have a positive future with their families. Teaching kids about college at a much younger age is not only a benefit for the kids future but also helps them know what they aspire to be and how to prepare beforehand. Overall, you’re never too young to start thinking about your future. | <urn:uuid:b3df50fc-ba9a-4ab5-9660-6cecc907ab19> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sghsrambler.com/2019/11/14/how-young-is-too-young/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00545.warc.gz | en | 0.983096 | 385 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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How young is too young in order for students to start thinking about college? For Independence Elementary, age isn’t a requirement for college. Recently, Independence Elementary hosted a college fair for their students from ages 4-10. The kids appeared very excited as soon as the fair began, they even started to cheer for their favorite colleges. As a way to add more excitement to the day, SGHS was invited to perform for the students. Cheer, dance, and band gave performances that left the kids in awe. With all these enthusiastic performances, the kids couldn’t help but to dance and cheer along. The principal, Milady Quito, talked to them and informed them about various colleges and what requirements they need in order to get in. Additionally, the school dedicated a whole week to college. Each day was portrayed as a different college and teachers spent an amount of the week teaching about the different factors for college, such as Cal states, UC’s, or privates.
Even though most of the kids don’t understand the concept of college yet, it’s never too early to learn. This way the kids are able to have a clear idea of what they want at a very early age. Though their perspectives on college aren’t very clear, some of them already know where they want to go in order to pursue a higher education. When asked why they wanted to go to college, their answers were all very similar. They all knew that they wanted to get to college in order to help out their parents and have a positive future with their families. Teaching kids about college at a much younger age is not only a benefit for the kids future but also helps them know what they aspire to be and how to prepare beforehand. Overall, you’re never too young to start thinking about your future. | 370 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For generations Australians have been taught to believe the country was peacefully settled by Europeans. Discuss whether this is true or not.
Majority of Australians are taught to believe that Australia was a peacefully settled country by Europeans. Only Ancient Indigenous Australian communities know for a fact from their ancestors, that this is not true. Indigenous Australians lived in the country for thousands of years before the Europeans’ invasion. They believed the land owned them not they owned the land like the settlers believed.
The indigenous people respected the land and cared for it, they only used and killed what they needed and were smart resource planners. The developed new skills and immunity to the land and weather condition. When the Europeans arrived they considered the land as terra-nullius (no-mans land) which was free for the taking and they dis-respected and considered the local indigenous societies as nothing. This was also a gain for the Europeans as they didn’t own any land in the area yet.
Aborigines are natives to Australia and Tasmania. They have lived there for about 35,000 to 70,000 years. Their skin and hair are both dark. There are about 500 recorded tribes. Aboriginal tribes didn’t usually stay in one place for long, moving to watering places and setting up camp there. Aborigines lived in family groups and clans. Each clan has a place on their land where their spirits return when they die. They have to protect these places so they won’t upset their ancestral beings. The men were custodians, tool-makers, and hunters. The women took care of the children and gathered and fixed their food. The Aborigines used the land wisely and knew when to harvest the many plants they ate. Dingoes guarded their homes and helped the men hunt. The Aborigines were also traders. There were trade routes across the country. They traded stones, shells, boomerangs, and ochre, a yellow paint pigment. Along these trade routes they would have exchange ceremonies where they traded, sang songs, and danced.
... that organized the trade, definite African tribes that helped them in finding new ... lands, thus getting more slaves. The ships transporting slaves gathered people along the western coast, visiting slave ports. There were definite European countries ...
The Aborigines were totally isolated until 1788, when the English arrived. Their traditions included music, singing, dancing, and art. They did paintings on dried tree bark with natural black, brown, yellow, white, and sometimes red colours. The paintings were originally used for tribal ceremonies and then destroyed shortly after the ceremonies were finished. In the 1940’s, however, the paintings became popular with art collectors and they became more widely made and distributed, provided that there were enough eucalyptus trees in the area because they needed the bark from the tree to draw on.
At the time when Sydney Cove was settled by the British there were 300,000 Aborigines in Australia and about 250 different languages were spoken. Since they didn’t have a system of government, no permanent settlement, and no land ownership, the British made them move. Many of the Aborigines got smallpox, measles, venereal disease, influenza, whooping cough, pneumonia, and tuberculosis and died. European invaders cut down forests and brought foreign animals to Australia. By 1860 there were 20 million sheep in Australia. The cattle and sheep destroyed the Aborigines’ water holes. White settlers and Aborigines were at war for the land and water. By 1900, traditional Aboriginal society was still in small groups in central and northern Australia.
In the early 1900’s, laws to protect the Aborigines were passed in every state. They also made restrictions for the Aborigines on owning land, where they could live, and even to whom they could marry.
Finally in 1967 the Australians voted Aborigines real citizens. They were given the same rights as everyone else. Some people still argue that what the Europeans did was right and they call it a settlement? But majority of the population that do know the truth, know that what was done was wrong and un-humane and know it was an invasion to the indigenous society/culture.
... descendent. When the first Europeans arrived in Australia in 1788, Aborigines were living throughout Australia in well established groups. The first governors ... took only what they needed from the land. Aborigines often moved around to let the land replenish the resources. During the 19 ... were usually an unsafe workplace as well and inspections were made every now and then and if the workplace was ... | <urn:uuid:b6746053-cca1-403b-9c2b-4659c7b3ba6d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://educheer.com/essays/indeginous-australia-invasion-or-settlement/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00437.warc.gz | en | 0.986034 | 942 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.38744691014289... | 1 | For generations Australians have been taught to believe the country was peacefully settled by Europeans. Discuss whether this is true or not.
Majority of Australians are taught to believe that Australia was a peacefully settled country by Europeans. Only Ancient Indigenous Australian communities know for a fact from their ancestors, that this is not true. Indigenous Australians lived in the country for thousands of years before the Europeans’ invasion. They believed the land owned them not they owned the land like the settlers believed.
The indigenous people respected the land and cared for it, they only used and killed what they needed and were smart resource planners. The developed new skills and immunity to the land and weather condition. When the Europeans arrived they considered the land as terra-nullius (no-mans land) which was free for the taking and they dis-respected and considered the local indigenous societies as nothing. This was also a gain for the Europeans as they didn’t own any land in the area yet.
Aborigines are natives to Australia and Tasmania. They have lived there for about 35,000 to 70,000 years. Their skin and hair are both dark. There are about 500 recorded tribes. Aboriginal tribes didn’t usually stay in one place for long, moving to watering places and setting up camp there. Aborigines lived in family groups and clans. Each clan has a place on their land where their spirits return when they die. They have to protect these places so they won’t upset their ancestral beings. The men were custodians, tool-makers, and hunters. The women took care of the children and gathered and fixed their food. The Aborigines used the land wisely and knew when to harvest the many plants they ate. Dingoes guarded their homes and helped the men hunt. The Aborigines were also traders. There were trade routes across the country. They traded stones, shells, boomerangs, and ochre, a yellow paint pigment. Along these trade routes they would have exchange ceremonies where they traded, sang songs, and danced.
... that organized the trade, definite African tribes that helped them in finding new ... lands, thus getting more slaves. The ships transporting slaves gathered people along the western coast, visiting slave ports. There were definite European countries ...
The Aborigines were totally isolated until 1788, when the English arrived. Their traditions included music, singing, dancing, and art. They did paintings on dried tree bark with natural black, brown, yellow, white, and sometimes red colours. The paintings were originally used for tribal ceremonies and then destroyed shortly after the ceremonies were finished. In the 1940’s, however, the paintings became popular with art collectors and they became more widely made and distributed, provided that there were enough eucalyptus trees in the area because they needed the bark from the tree to draw on.
At the time when Sydney Cove was settled by the British there were 300,000 Aborigines in Australia and about 250 different languages were spoken. Since they didn’t have a system of government, no permanent settlement, and no land ownership, the British made them move. Many of the Aborigines got smallpox, measles, venereal disease, influenza, whooping cough, pneumonia, and tuberculosis and died. European invaders cut down forests and brought foreign animals to Australia. By 1860 there were 20 million sheep in Australia. The cattle and sheep destroyed the Aborigines’ water holes. White settlers and Aborigines were at war for the land and water. By 1900, traditional Aboriginal society was still in small groups in central and northern Australia.
In the early 1900’s, laws to protect the Aborigines were passed in every state. They also made restrictions for the Aborigines on owning land, where they could live, and even to whom they could marry.
Finally in 1967 the Australians voted Aborigines real citizens. They were given the same rights as everyone else. Some people still argue that what the Europeans did was right and they call it a settlement? But majority of the population that do know the truth, know that what was done was wrong and un-humane and know it was an invasion to the indigenous society/culture.
... descendent. When the first Europeans arrived in Australia in 1788, Aborigines were living throughout Australia in well established groups. The first governors ... took only what they needed from the land. Aborigines often moved around to let the land replenish the resources. During the 19 ... were usually an unsafe workplace as well and inspections were made every now and then and if the workplace was ... | 965 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today, on the first day of Black History Month, the remarkable life of Sojourner Truth is celebrated with a Google Doodle. After spending much of her adolescence and adulthood in slavery, Truth took destiny into her own hands at age 30. She fled to freedom, changed her name, and started life anew as a preacher, abolitionist, and women's rights advocate. Here are six facts you should know about this champion of equality.
1. She was born into slavery and first sold at age 9.
Sojourner Truth (née Isabella Baumfree) was born to slave parents in a Dutch community in Ulster County, New York, in 1797. After being separated from her family at age 9, she was sold three times to different slave owners, one of whom beat her for speaking Dutch and not understanding their English commands.
2. She ran away with her infant daughter.
In 1827, Truth and her infant daughter fled to a nearby abolitionist family's home, but she had to leave her other children behind. The abolitionist couple bought her freedom for $20 and helped her get on her feet.
3. She was the first black woman to successfully bring a lawsuit against a white man.
You may have noticed there's a courthouse in the background of today's Google Doodle. It references the time Truth sued a slaveholder for illegally selling her 5-year-old son, Peter, after the New York Anti-Slavery Law had passed. The legal battle lasted months, but she won her son back.
4. She became a preacher.
Once she was freed, Truth moved to New York City and started working for a local minister. She became a powerful speaker, preaching about faith, women's rights, and the abolition of slavery. She eventually changed her name to Sojourner Truth, explaining that the holy spirit called upon her to speak the truth. In 1851, she delivered her famous "Ain't I a Woman?" speech at a women’s convention in Akron, Ohio. The text of that speech is debated, but in one version she reportedly declared, "I have as much muscle as any man, and can do as much work as any man."
5. She met Abraham Lincoln.
Truth met and worked with plenty of well-known activists in her day, including Frederick Douglass and William Lloyd Garrison. Most famously, though, her efforts to recruit black Civil War soldiers put her on Abraham Lincoln's radar. She received an invitation to the White House in 1864, during which time President Lincoln showed her a Bible that had been given to him by black residents of Baltimore.
6. She will appear on the $10 bill.
In 2016, the U.S. Treasury announced it would unveil new currency designs in 2020 to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the 19th Amendment, which gave women the right to vote. Sojourner Truth was selected as one of five women to be incorporated on the back of the $10 bill, but as of 2018, the new treasury department officials wouldn't commit to going through with the bill designs.
Children's Television Workshop/Courtesy of Getty Images
Since it began airing in the fall of 1969, Sesame Street has become an indelible part of millions of children's formative years. Using a cast of colorful characters like Big Bird, Bert, Ernie, and Oscar the Grouch, along with a curriculum vetted by Sesame Workshop's child psychologists and other experts, the series is able to impart life lessons and illustrate educational tools that a viewer can use throughout their adolescence. You would be hard-pressed to find anyone—even Oscar—who would take issue with the show’s approach or its mission statement.
Yet that’s exactly what happened in early 1970, when a board of educational consultants in Mississippi gathered, polled one another, and decided that Sesame Street was too controversial for television.
The series had only been on the air for a few months when the newly formed Mississippi Authority for Educational Television (also known as the State Commission for Educational Television) held a regularly scheduled meeting in January 1970. The board had been created by the state legislature with appointees named by Governor John Bell Williams to evaluate shows that were set to air on the state’s Educational Television, or ETV, station. The five-member panel consisted of educators and private citizens, including a teacher and a principal, and was headed up by James McKay, a banker in Jackson, Mississippi.
McKay’s presence was notable for the fact that his father-in-law, Allen Thompson, had just retired after spending 20 years as mayor of Jackson. Highly resistant to integration in the city during his tenure in office, Thompson was also the founder of Freedom of Choice in the United States, or FOCUS, an activist group that promoted what they dubbed “freedom of choice” in public schools—a thinly veiled reference to segregation. Mississippi, long the most incendiary state in the nation when it came to civil rights, was still struggling with the racial tension of the 1960s. Systemic racism was an issue.
Entering this climate was Sesame Street, the show pioneered by Joan Ganz Cooney, a former journalist and television producer who became the executive director of the Children’s Television Workshop. On the series, the human cast was integrated, with black performers Matt Robinson and Loretta Long as Gordon and Susan, respectively, appearing alongside white actors Jada Rowland and Bob McGrath. The children of Sesame Street were also ethnically diverse.
Astrid Stawiarz, Getty Images
This appeared to be too much for the Authority, which discussed how lawmakers with control over ETV’s budget—which had just been set at $5,367,441—might find the mixed-race assembly offensive. The panel's participants were all white.
The board pushed the discussion aside until April 17, 1970, when they took an informal poll and decided, by a margin of three votes against two, to prohibit ETV from airing Sesame Street—a show that came free of charge to all public television stations. (The decision affected mainly viewers in and around Jackson, as the station had not yet expanded across the state and was not expected to do so until the fall of 1970.)
The members who were outvoted were plainly unhappy with the outcome and leaked the decision to The New York Times, which published a notice of the prohibition days later along with a quote from one of the board members.
“Some of the members of the commission were very much opposed to showing the series because it uses a highly integrated cast of children,” the person, who did not wish to be named, said. “Mainly the commission members felt that Mississippi was not yet ready for it.”
The reaction to such a transparent concession to racism was swift and predictably negative, both in and out of Mississippi. Board members who spoke with press, usually anonymously, claimed the decision was a simple “postponing” of the show, not an outright ban. The fear, they said, was that legislators who viewed ETV as having progressive values might shut down the project before it had a chance to get off the ground. It was still possible for opponents to suffocate it before it became part of the fabric of the state’s television offerings.
The concern was not entirely without merit. State representative Tullius Brady of Brookhaven said that ETV exerted “a subtle influence” on the minds of children and that the Ford Foundation, which funded educational programming, could use its influence for “evil purposes.” Other lawmakers had previously argued against shows that promoted integration.
Slaven Vlasic, Getty Images
Regardless of how the decision was justified, many took issue with it. In an anonymous editorial for the Delta Democrat-Times, a critic wrote:
“But Mississippi’s ETV commission won’t be showing it for the time being because of one fatal defect, as measured by Mississippi’s political leadership. Sesame Street is integrated. Some of its leading cast members are black, including the man who does much of the overt ‘teaching.’ The neighborhood of the ‘street’ is a mixed one. And all that, of course, goes against the Mississippi grain.”
Joan Ganz Cooney called the decision a “tragedy” for young people.
Fortunately, it was a tragedy with a short shelf life. The following month, the board reconvened and reversed its own informal poll result, approving of Sesame Street and agreeing that ETV could air it as soon as they received tapes of the program. Thanks to feeds from Memphis, New Orleans, and Alabama, Sesame Street could already be seen in parts of Mississippi. And thanks to the deluge of negative responses, it seemed pointless to try to placate politicians who still favored segregation.
In the fall of 1970, the Sesame Street cast appeared in person in Jackson and was met by representatives from the board, which helped to sponsor the live performance, though it’s not clear any apology was forthcoming.
Sesame Street would go on to win numerous awards and accolades over the proceeding 50 years, though it would not be the only children’s show to experience censorship on public television. In May 2019, ETV networks in Alabama and Arkansas refused to air an episode of the PBS animated series Arthur in which a rat and aardvark are depicted as a same-sex couple getting married.
Though Harry Houdini passed away more than 90 years ago, his mystique has never faded. The famed magician captured the imagination of the world with his death-defying stunts and performances, many of which still baffle modern magicians. Whether he was escaping from a straitjacket while suspended from a crane above the streets or getting out of his famed “Chinese water torture cell” with just moments of air to spare, Houdini had a habit of leaving everyone in awe. And with performances that spectacular, it shouldn’t come as a shock that his life was just as fascinating. Read on for some interesting facts about Harry Houdini.
1. Harry Houdini's real name was Ehrich Weiss.
He likely took the first part of his stage name from his childhood nickname, "Ehrie," although some sources say that his first name was a tribute to magician Harry Kellar. His last name, however, was definitely a tribute to French illusionist Jean-Eugène Robert-Houdin.
2. According to legend, He also named Buster Keaton, although inadvertently.
Along with Houdini, Buster's dad, Joe, was the co-owner of a traveling show called the Mohawk Indian Medicine Company. The story Buster tells (though some believe it's a myth) is that one day, when he was only about 6 months old, he took a tumble down a flight of stairs while he was under his dad's watch, but came out of it completely unscathed. Houdini remarked, "That was a real buster!" In those days, according to Keaton, buster meant a spill or a fall that had the potential to really hurt someone. Joe started calling him Buster, and the nickname stuck. His real name was Joseph Frank Keaton, if you're curious.
3. He introduced his famous milk can trick in 1908.
If you're not familiar with it, Houdini invented an oversized milk can that would be filled with water for his act. Once in the can, he would be handcuffed and sealed inside, then left behind a curtain to make his daring escape. When this became too commonplace, he further encased the milk can in a wooden crate. Perhaps building on this stunt, the folks at Joshua Tetley & Son, the brewers behind Tetley's beer, invited him to escape from a cask of their fine product. Houdini accepted and gave the stunt a go, but the task proved too difficult and he had to be rescued by his assistant, Franz Kokol.
4. Houdini probably didn't die from a sucker punch.
Houdini had long boasted of his physical prowess—and one of his claims was that he could withstand a punch from anyone. After a performance in Montreal on October 20, 1926, a student from McGill University asked him if this was true, and when Harry said it was, the student immediately punched him three times in the gut. Surprised by the blows, Houdini didn't have a chance to tighten his abs, which was part of his secret. He ultimately died of a ruptured appendix days later, which many people said was brought on by the punches. But that's not necessarily true.
Houdini had actually been suffering from appendicitis for a few days beforehand but hadn't done anything about it. In fact, he had continued to travel and do shows afterward. Finally, on October 24, 1926, he gave one last show and was immediately hospitalized. Unfortunately, he had let it go too long: on October 31, 1926, he died of peritonitis from his ruptured appendix.
5. The symbol of the Society of American Magicians is engraved on his tombstone.
Houdini was president of the Society of American Magicians when he died. And members are still invested in making sure the famed magician's gravesite at Machpelah Cemetary in Queens, New York, receives routine maintenance and restoration. Sadly, his beloved wife, Bess, is buried 10 miles away in Westchester; she wasn't allowed to be buried with him because she wasn't Jewish.
6. His wife, Bess, held a séance every year for 10 years on the anniversary of his death to see if he would get in touch.
Before Harry Houdini died, he and Bess made a pact that if there was a way to do it, Harry would contact her from the beyond. They even agreed upon a phrase that he would tell her so she would know it was really him speaking to her and not a ghostly imposter. When he failed to contact her on the 10th anniversary, she gave up, but the Houdini Museum in Scranton, Pennsylvania, still holds the séance every year. So far, no one has gotten Harry to communicate.
The secret code, by the way, was "Rosabelle- answer- tell- pray, answer- look- tell- answer, answer- tell." "Rosabelle" was the name of a song she sang in her vaudeville act when the two of them met, and the other words corresponded to letters of the alphabet in a language the two concocted for themselves. Combined, they spelled out "Believe."
7. Houdini was an avid aviator.
Though there's some dispute over the claim, Houdini is often recognized as the first person to ever make a controlled flight in a powered plane on Australian soil. The flight took place on March 18, 1910, in Diggers Rest, which is near Melbourne. In June, 1920, it was reported that Houdini was even making plans to embark upon what would have been the first transatlantic flight from Paris to New York. The plans, unfortunately, never materialized.
8. Houdini could also escape from copyright restrictions.
By 1912, Houdini added another act to his routine: the escape from the infamous "Chinese water torture cell," where the magician would be lowered upside-down into a water-filled tank while his feet were locked in stocks. It was a hit with crowds, and despite the overwhelming danger, Houdini repeatedly performed the stunt without a hitch. In fact, he was the only one who could legally perform this death-defying act. That's because Houdini found a way to copyright the cell routine in a pretty ingenious way. Since you couldn't copyright magic tricks, he first performed this escape as part of a one-act play called Houdini Upside Down! Well, you can copyright a play, and by incorporating the cell escape into the script, he was allowed to copyright the effect and would actively sue anyone who tried to imitate the stunt.
9. Although the Chinese Water Torture Cell didn't do him in, one of his performances nearly did.
In 1915, Houdini was buried in a pit with just dirt shoveled right on top of him for a stunt in Santa Ana, California. While trying to dig his way out, he started to panic and use up his precious air. He tried to call for help, but that's not exactly the easiest thing to do while covered in mounds of dirt. Finally, his hand broke the surface, and he was pulled to safety, where he promptly passed out. He later wrote that "The weight of the earth is killing."
10. You can still see one of his most famous stunts.
The straitjacket escape is one of Harry Houdini's most famous acts. For this one, Houdini would be strapped into the jacket and then suspended by his ankles very high in the air, usually from a crane or off a tall building. Once hoisted in the air, he would make a death-defying escape with countless onlookers below. You can still watch it below: | <urn:uuid:ae9663b8-9f3a-49c4-946f-171abb56322f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/572383/sojourner-truth-facts | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00432.warc.gz | en | 0.987227 | 3,589 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.21441227... | 1 | Today, on the first day of Black History Month, the remarkable life of Sojourner Truth is celebrated with a Google Doodle. After spending much of her adolescence and adulthood in slavery, Truth took destiny into her own hands at age 30. She fled to freedom, changed her name, and started life anew as a preacher, abolitionist, and women's rights advocate. Here are six facts you should know about this champion of equality.
1. She was born into slavery and first sold at age 9.
Sojourner Truth (née Isabella Baumfree) was born to slave parents in a Dutch community in Ulster County, New York, in 1797. After being separated from her family at age 9, she was sold three times to different slave owners, one of whom beat her for speaking Dutch and not understanding their English commands.
2. She ran away with her infant daughter.
In 1827, Truth and her infant daughter fled to a nearby abolitionist family's home, but she had to leave her other children behind. The abolitionist couple bought her freedom for $20 and helped her get on her feet.
3. She was the first black woman to successfully bring a lawsuit against a white man.
You may have noticed there's a courthouse in the background of today's Google Doodle. It references the time Truth sued a slaveholder for illegally selling her 5-year-old son, Peter, after the New York Anti-Slavery Law had passed. The legal battle lasted months, but she won her son back.
4. She became a preacher.
Once she was freed, Truth moved to New York City and started working for a local minister. She became a powerful speaker, preaching about faith, women's rights, and the abolition of slavery. She eventually changed her name to Sojourner Truth, explaining that the holy spirit called upon her to speak the truth. In 1851, she delivered her famous "Ain't I a Woman?" speech at a women’s convention in Akron, Ohio. The text of that speech is debated, but in one version she reportedly declared, "I have as much muscle as any man, and can do as much work as any man."
5. She met Abraham Lincoln.
Truth met and worked with plenty of well-known activists in her day, including Frederick Douglass and William Lloyd Garrison. Most famously, though, her efforts to recruit black Civil War soldiers put her on Abraham Lincoln's radar. She received an invitation to the White House in 1864, during which time President Lincoln showed her a Bible that had been given to him by black residents of Baltimore.
6. She will appear on the $10 bill.
In 2016, the U.S. Treasury announced it would unveil new currency designs in 2020 to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the 19th Amendment, which gave women the right to vote. Sojourner Truth was selected as one of five women to be incorporated on the back of the $10 bill, but as of 2018, the new treasury department officials wouldn't commit to going through with the bill designs.
Children's Television Workshop/Courtesy of Getty Images
Since it began airing in the fall of 1969, Sesame Street has become an indelible part of millions of children's formative years. Using a cast of colorful characters like Big Bird, Bert, Ernie, and Oscar the Grouch, along with a curriculum vetted by Sesame Workshop's child psychologists and other experts, the series is able to impart life lessons and illustrate educational tools that a viewer can use throughout their adolescence. You would be hard-pressed to find anyone—even Oscar—who would take issue with the show’s approach or its mission statement.
Yet that’s exactly what happened in early 1970, when a board of educational consultants in Mississippi gathered, polled one another, and decided that Sesame Street was too controversial for television.
The series had only been on the air for a few months when the newly formed Mississippi Authority for Educational Television (also known as the State Commission for Educational Television) held a regularly scheduled meeting in January 1970. The board had been created by the state legislature with appointees named by Governor John Bell Williams to evaluate shows that were set to air on the state’s Educational Television, or ETV, station. The five-member panel consisted of educators and private citizens, including a teacher and a principal, and was headed up by James McKay, a banker in Jackson, Mississippi.
McKay’s presence was notable for the fact that his father-in-law, Allen Thompson, had just retired after spending 20 years as mayor of Jackson. Highly resistant to integration in the city during his tenure in office, Thompson was also the founder of Freedom of Choice in the United States, or FOCUS, an activist group that promoted what they dubbed “freedom of choice” in public schools—a thinly veiled reference to segregation. Mississippi, long the most incendiary state in the nation when it came to civil rights, was still struggling with the racial tension of the 1960s. Systemic racism was an issue.
Entering this climate was Sesame Street, the show pioneered by Joan Ganz Cooney, a former journalist and television producer who became the executive director of the Children’s Television Workshop. On the series, the human cast was integrated, with black performers Matt Robinson and Loretta Long as Gordon and Susan, respectively, appearing alongside white actors Jada Rowland and Bob McGrath. The children of Sesame Street were also ethnically diverse.
Astrid Stawiarz, Getty Images
This appeared to be too much for the Authority, which discussed how lawmakers with control over ETV’s budget—which had just been set at $5,367,441—might find the mixed-race assembly offensive. The panel's participants were all white.
The board pushed the discussion aside until April 17, 1970, when they took an informal poll and decided, by a margin of three votes against two, to prohibit ETV from airing Sesame Street—a show that came free of charge to all public television stations. (The decision affected mainly viewers in and around Jackson, as the station had not yet expanded across the state and was not expected to do so until the fall of 1970.)
The members who were outvoted were plainly unhappy with the outcome and leaked the decision to The New York Times, which published a notice of the prohibition days later along with a quote from one of the board members.
“Some of the members of the commission were very much opposed to showing the series because it uses a highly integrated cast of children,” the person, who did not wish to be named, said. “Mainly the commission members felt that Mississippi was not yet ready for it.”
The reaction to such a transparent concession to racism was swift and predictably negative, both in and out of Mississippi. Board members who spoke with press, usually anonymously, claimed the decision was a simple “postponing” of the show, not an outright ban. The fear, they said, was that legislators who viewed ETV as having progressive values might shut down the project before it had a chance to get off the ground. It was still possible for opponents to suffocate it before it became part of the fabric of the state’s television offerings.
The concern was not entirely without merit. State representative Tullius Brady of Brookhaven said that ETV exerted “a subtle influence” on the minds of children and that the Ford Foundation, which funded educational programming, could use its influence for “evil purposes.” Other lawmakers had previously argued against shows that promoted integration.
Slaven Vlasic, Getty Images
Regardless of how the decision was justified, many took issue with it. In an anonymous editorial for the Delta Democrat-Times, a critic wrote:
“But Mississippi’s ETV commission won’t be showing it for the time being because of one fatal defect, as measured by Mississippi’s political leadership. Sesame Street is integrated. Some of its leading cast members are black, including the man who does much of the overt ‘teaching.’ The neighborhood of the ‘street’ is a mixed one. And all that, of course, goes against the Mississippi grain.”
Joan Ganz Cooney called the decision a “tragedy” for young people.
Fortunately, it was a tragedy with a short shelf life. The following month, the board reconvened and reversed its own informal poll result, approving of Sesame Street and agreeing that ETV could air it as soon as they received tapes of the program. Thanks to feeds from Memphis, New Orleans, and Alabama, Sesame Street could already be seen in parts of Mississippi. And thanks to the deluge of negative responses, it seemed pointless to try to placate politicians who still favored segregation.
In the fall of 1970, the Sesame Street cast appeared in person in Jackson and was met by representatives from the board, which helped to sponsor the live performance, though it’s not clear any apology was forthcoming.
Sesame Street would go on to win numerous awards and accolades over the proceeding 50 years, though it would not be the only children’s show to experience censorship on public television. In May 2019, ETV networks in Alabama and Arkansas refused to air an episode of the PBS animated series Arthur in which a rat and aardvark are depicted as a same-sex couple getting married.
Though Harry Houdini passed away more than 90 years ago, his mystique has never faded. The famed magician captured the imagination of the world with his death-defying stunts and performances, many of which still baffle modern magicians. Whether he was escaping from a straitjacket while suspended from a crane above the streets or getting out of his famed “Chinese water torture cell” with just moments of air to spare, Houdini had a habit of leaving everyone in awe. And with performances that spectacular, it shouldn’t come as a shock that his life was just as fascinating. Read on for some interesting facts about Harry Houdini.
1. Harry Houdini's real name was Ehrich Weiss.
He likely took the first part of his stage name from his childhood nickname, "Ehrie," although some sources say that his first name was a tribute to magician Harry Kellar. His last name, however, was definitely a tribute to French illusionist Jean-Eugène Robert-Houdin.
2. According to legend, He also named Buster Keaton, although inadvertently.
Along with Houdini, Buster's dad, Joe, was the co-owner of a traveling show called the Mohawk Indian Medicine Company. The story Buster tells (though some believe it's a myth) is that one day, when he was only about 6 months old, he took a tumble down a flight of stairs while he was under his dad's watch, but came out of it completely unscathed. Houdini remarked, "That was a real buster!" In those days, according to Keaton, buster meant a spill or a fall that had the potential to really hurt someone. Joe started calling him Buster, and the nickname stuck. His real name was Joseph Frank Keaton, if you're curious.
3. He introduced his famous milk can trick in 1908.
If you're not familiar with it, Houdini invented an oversized milk can that would be filled with water for his act. Once in the can, he would be handcuffed and sealed inside, then left behind a curtain to make his daring escape. When this became too commonplace, he further encased the milk can in a wooden crate. Perhaps building on this stunt, the folks at Joshua Tetley & Son, the brewers behind Tetley's beer, invited him to escape from a cask of their fine product. Houdini accepted and gave the stunt a go, but the task proved too difficult and he had to be rescued by his assistant, Franz Kokol.
4. Houdini probably didn't die from a sucker punch.
Houdini had long boasted of his physical prowess—and one of his claims was that he could withstand a punch from anyone. After a performance in Montreal on October 20, 1926, a student from McGill University asked him if this was true, and when Harry said it was, the student immediately punched him three times in the gut. Surprised by the blows, Houdini didn't have a chance to tighten his abs, which was part of his secret. He ultimately died of a ruptured appendix days later, which many people said was brought on by the punches. But that's not necessarily true.
Houdini had actually been suffering from appendicitis for a few days beforehand but hadn't done anything about it. In fact, he had continued to travel and do shows afterward. Finally, on October 24, 1926, he gave one last show and was immediately hospitalized. Unfortunately, he had let it go too long: on October 31, 1926, he died of peritonitis from his ruptured appendix.
5. The symbol of the Society of American Magicians is engraved on his tombstone.
Houdini was president of the Society of American Magicians when he died. And members are still invested in making sure the famed magician's gravesite at Machpelah Cemetary in Queens, New York, receives routine maintenance and restoration. Sadly, his beloved wife, Bess, is buried 10 miles away in Westchester; she wasn't allowed to be buried with him because she wasn't Jewish.
6. His wife, Bess, held a séance every year for 10 years on the anniversary of his death to see if he would get in touch.
Before Harry Houdini died, he and Bess made a pact that if there was a way to do it, Harry would contact her from the beyond. They even agreed upon a phrase that he would tell her so she would know it was really him speaking to her and not a ghostly imposter. When he failed to contact her on the 10th anniversary, she gave up, but the Houdini Museum in Scranton, Pennsylvania, still holds the séance every year. So far, no one has gotten Harry to communicate.
The secret code, by the way, was "Rosabelle- answer- tell- pray, answer- look- tell- answer, answer- tell." "Rosabelle" was the name of a song she sang in her vaudeville act when the two of them met, and the other words corresponded to letters of the alphabet in a language the two concocted for themselves. Combined, they spelled out "Believe."
7. Houdini was an avid aviator.
Though there's some dispute over the claim, Houdini is often recognized as the first person to ever make a controlled flight in a powered plane on Australian soil. The flight took place on March 18, 1910, in Diggers Rest, which is near Melbourne. In June, 1920, it was reported that Houdini was even making plans to embark upon what would have been the first transatlantic flight from Paris to New York. The plans, unfortunately, never materialized.
8. Houdini could also escape from copyright restrictions.
By 1912, Houdini added another act to his routine: the escape from the infamous "Chinese water torture cell," where the magician would be lowered upside-down into a water-filled tank while his feet were locked in stocks. It was a hit with crowds, and despite the overwhelming danger, Houdini repeatedly performed the stunt without a hitch. In fact, he was the only one who could legally perform this death-defying act. That's because Houdini found a way to copyright the cell routine in a pretty ingenious way. Since you couldn't copyright magic tricks, he first performed this escape as part of a one-act play called Houdini Upside Down! Well, you can copyright a play, and by incorporating the cell escape into the script, he was allowed to copyright the effect and would actively sue anyone who tried to imitate the stunt.
9. Although the Chinese Water Torture Cell didn't do him in, one of his performances nearly did.
In 1915, Houdini was buried in a pit with just dirt shoveled right on top of him for a stunt in Santa Ana, California. While trying to dig his way out, he started to panic and use up his precious air. He tried to call for help, but that's not exactly the easiest thing to do while covered in mounds of dirt. Finally, his hand broke the surface, and he was pulled to safety, where he promptly passed out. He later wrote that "The weight of the earth is killing."
10. You can still see one of his most famous stunts.
The straitjacket escape is one of Harry Houdini's most famous acts. For this one, Houdini would be strapped into the jacket and then suspended by his ankles very high in the air, usually from a crane or off a tall building. Once hoisted in the air, he would make a death-defying escape with countless onlookers below. You can still watch it below: | 3,595 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How to make a sausage spider
Well, we’ve come to the end of another term and we cannot believe how quickly the time is flying by. We are sure that you at home are as equally amazed at how much the children are progressing and it is only going to increase next term!
During this second term, every child has had the opportunity to develop their cookery skills in the kitchen with Mrs Potter. They have been making sausage spiders.
First, the children cut the sausages using their knife skills and learned how to use the knife correctly.
Next, they developed their fine motor skills by threading uncooked spaghetti through the sausage pieces. This needed very careful precision.
While the sausage spiders cooked, the children had the opportunity to discuss where food comes from (many children thought that milk came from Sainsbury’s so were surprised to learn it comes from a cow) and to think about which foods are healthy for us or unhealthy.
We were very pleased to see that all the children were excited to try their cooked products even if they were a bit unsure at first.
As the children announced at the end of our Nativity, we wish you all a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year. See you in 2020!
Year 6 Blog
This has been a jam packed term – just how we like it here in year 6.
Our Freedom topic has continued to interest and inspire as we have been considering the impacts of slavery in today’s society and how human rights aren’t always protected around the world. We have been building this information into our final speeches. After listening to and reading a range of famous speeches from great orators we have been learning how to write persuasive pieces using key skills such as emotive language, repetition and the power of three. We are so excited to present these to our audience of friends and parents on Thursday morning. We’re a little nervous too!
The last couple of weeks have been suitably festive. We were luckily enough to be given the opportunity to take part in a carol service at Clifton Cathedral – magical! We were visited by the music co-coordinator beforehand and taught a few Makaton signs to go alongside the well-loved lyrics, she was definitely impressed with how quickly we managed to learn them as well as to remember them. The service was very beautiful, there was even a real donkey.
To continue the festivities, we enjoyed watching the nativity performances by EYFS and KS1. To top it off we had a fantastic turnout for Christmas jumper day. This week we’ll be partying at our year 5 and 6 Christmas party and sharing a delicious Christmas dinner in our handmade party hats – phew!
Year 1 Blog
Samaritan Shoebox Appeal
As part of our topic, Childhood, Year 1 took part in the Samaritan Shoebox Appeal. Our aim was to fill one or two boxes per class but because of your amazing support we were able to fill nineteen boxes! We were overwhelmed by your donations! Year 1 know that every child has the right to play. Thanks to your kindness and the children’s hard work nineteen children will receive a lovely gift this Christmas with new toys to play with!
Reverend Peter visited Year 1 to collect all the shoe boxes so they could be sent off in time for Christmas. He thought the children were wonderful and very much enjoyed his visit. He presented Year 1 with a certificate thanking us for our extraordinary kindness. All the children loved hearing about how much the presents will mean to those who receive them.
Thank you again for your incredible generosity.
Year 3 Blog
This term, Year Three have been continuing their topic on Ancient Civilisations where we have been focussing on Ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece. To support their learning, we went on a trip to Bristol Museum where we took part in a workshop and had some time to explore. During the workshop, the children became archaeologists in order to study a range of artefacts, used their knowledge of Ancient Egypt to ask questions and they found out about the Egyptologist Amelia Edwards. The children really enjoyed their day and we feel it has deepened their understanding of this topic.
Next week, the pupils will take part in a Christmas Assembly. The children have been practicing their oracy skills to tell jokes, recite poems and offer interesting facts as well as working on their beautiful singing. They have all demonstrated positivity as well as responsibility when rehearsing their lines. We are all very excited to share it with you next week!
Our trip to Kingswood Fire Station
On Friday, Squirrel and Hedgehog class were lucky enough to visit Kingswood Fire Station. After walking there in the cold (without moaning!), we were greeted by Dean the fire fighter.
Squirrels had their fire safety talk first, which included the 5 steps to follow if there is a fire. Hedgehogs went to look around the fire engines and Sean showed them the various tools fire fighters use for different jobs. The classes then swapped and had similar discussions with the fire fighters. The children then got the chance to use the hoses- which they absolutely loved!
Whilst we were there, the station received an emergency call. The fire fighters had to get into their uniforms and into their fire engines as quickly as they could. It was very exciting for us to see the fire fighters in action.
We had a fantastic day and everything we have learned will help us to write our fire safety leaflets this term.
Thank you to Kingswood Fire Station for having us!
Our lovely year 6 classes have settled in beautifully to Badger and Woodpecker class. Not only do they look the part in their super smart shirts and ties but their behaviour and attitude is impeccable to match.
This term, as a whole school, we have been looking closely at the United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child and we have been making links to these throughout our topic.
Our topic this term is Freedom. We have been thinking about what freedom means to us, what freedom looked like throughout the Roman and Anglo Saxon era and at inspiring people from the past and present that stand up for their right to freedom and for the rights of others. We have been inspired by the actions of many and have been carefully considering how our small actions can change the world for the better.
Outside of the classroom this term, we were lucky enough to visit the Create Centre in Hotwells and to learn about what it means to be safe and to stay safe in a range of situations such as checking we’ve been given the correct change in the local shop and knowing how and when to call the emergency services. We were perfectly behaved and the staff there took the opportunity to tell our teachers how wonderful we were.
Reception children have been busy learning lots of new sounds. They learn four sounds a week and are enjoying learning how to form these correctly in a variety of interesting ways. Forming these in the sand and with paint have been a particular hit.
It is amazing now to see that they are beginning to be able to blend these sounds together to read short words. Fred the Frog helps us with this. Ask your child if they can tell you the sounds in the word sat (s – a – t). Remember you may see actions as they say these sounds too. This multi-sensory approach helps your child to retain their new knowledge.
Life in Reception continues to be great fun with children forming new friendships and building on their physical development, which will inevitably help with their fine motor skills and handwriting. We are really impressed with their independence and the positive attitude that they come into school with.
Welcome to Year 1!
All the children in Mouse and Rabbit class have had an amazing start to Year 1 and are always excited to learn.
We have been learning about who we are and where we live. As part of this, we went on a trip around Station Road so the children could learn more about their local area. We asked the children to describe what they saw on the walk. We walked up to the shops on Station Road where we saw a barber shop, a small bus stop and a big red post box. Then we walked down to the roundabout past the gardens which had colourful flowers and a stone owl. The children were very excited because we saw an ambulance, a police car and even a red fire engine. After that we stopped for a snack in Deerswood Play Area where we saw green grass and tall trees with red and yellow leaves. The children came up with all of these brilliant describing phrases, such as red leaves, during the walk. The children were so enthusiastic about are trip and are looking forward to writing a recount of the morning using these fantastic descriptions.
Welcome to Year 2!
The children have had a fantastic start to Year 2 already and are showing enthusiasm towards our first topic: ‘How do you know? The Great Fire of London.’
We began our topic by looking at fire fighters and finding out about the amazing work that they do. We are very excited to be visiting our local Fire Station next term to see them in action! We have also looked at the Notre Dame fire and the Grenfell Tower fire to help us to understand the importance of fire safety. Looking at these disasters has also helped us to understand more about the devastation of the Great Fire of London and how it affected people’s lives.
In Maths, we have started to look at place value and understanding numbers up to 100. We have had practical lessons making numbers with resources and writing a range of addition and subtraction equations. We have just moved on to partitioning numbers up to 100 so have been using plenty of resources to help our learning.
In writing, we have been learning the story of ‘Vlad and the Great Fire of London’ and have made up actions to help us to remember the story and characters. We will eventually be writing our own story using all the skills we have learnt, such as adjectives and writing in the past tense.
We are very excited to see where the year will take us! Keep up the hard work Squirrels and Hedgehogs!
Our superstar Year 3s have stepped up to the new challenge of Key Stage 2 with positivity and enthusiasm. We have started our new topic of Ancient Civilisations and we have begun to discuss the importance of other civilisations to us. They have also had great fun becoming archaeologists, decoding and writing in hieroglyphics and learning about the discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb. Next week, they will become journalists where they will reporting the discovery of the tomb in their own newspaper articles. As the term progresses, we look forward to learning more about Ancient Egypt before moving on to Ancient Greece.
Miss Withey and Mr Griffiths have been delighted with the children’s effort and attitude towards their learning. They are embodying the school’s values of being responsible, respectful, positive and kind. We both hope this continues for the rest of the term and beyond. | <urn:uuid:0684a2a8-62ef-406c-bb5a-d1a38ebd6e91> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.kingsforestschool.co.uk/category/blog/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00459.warc.gz | en | 0.980803 | 2,265 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.117266885... | 1 | How to make a sausage spider
Well, we’ve come to the end of another term and we cannot believe how quickly the time is flying by. We are sure that you at home are as equally amazed at how much the children are progressing and it is only going to increase next term!
During this second term, every child has had the opportunity to develop their cookery skills in the kitchen with Mrs Potter. They have been making sausage spiders.
First, the children cut the sausages using their knife skills and learned how to use the knife correctly.
Next, they developed their fine motor skills by threading uncooked spaghetti through the sausage pieces. This needed very careful precision.
While the sausage spiders cooked, the children had the opportunity to discuss where food comes from (many children thought that milk came from Sainsbury’s so were surprised to learn it comes from a cow) and to think about which foods are healthy for us or unhealthy.
We were very pleased to see that all the children were excited to try their cooked products even if they were a bit unsure at first.
As the children announced at the end of our Nativity, we wish you all a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year. See you in 2020!
Year 6 Blog
This has been a jam packed term – just how we like it here in year 6.
Our Freedom topic has continued to interest and inspire as we have been considering the impacts of slavery in today’s society and how human rights aren’t always protected around the world. We have been building this information into our final speeches. After listening to and reading a range of famous speeches from great orators we have been learning how to write persuasive pieces using key skills such as emotive language, repetition and the power of three. We are so excited to present these to our audience of friends and parents on Thursday morning. We’re a little nervous too!
The last couple of weeks have been suitably festive. We were luckily enough to be given the opportunity to take part in a carol service at Clifton Cathedral – magical! We were visited by the music co-coordinator beforehand and taught a few Makaton signs to go alongside the well-loved lyrics, she was definitely impressed with how quickly we managed to learn them as well as to remember them. The service was very beautiful, there was even a real donkey.
To continue the festivities, we enjoyed watching the nativity performances by EYFS and KS1. To top it off we had a fantastic turnout for Christmas jumper day. This week we’ll be partying at our year 5 and 6 Christmas party and sharing a delicious Christmas dinner in our handmade party hats – phew!
Year 1 Blog
Samaritan Shoebox Appeal
As part of our topic, Childhood, Year 1 took part in the Samaritan Shoebox Appeal. Our aim was to fill one or two boxes per class but because of your amazing support we were able to fill nineteen boxes! We were overwhelmed by your donations! Year 1 know that every child has the right to play. Thanks to your kindness and the children’s hard work nineteen children will receive a lovely gift this Christmas with new toys to play with!
Reverend Peter visited Year 1 to collect all the shoe boxes so they could be sent off in time for Christmas. He thought the children were wonderful and very much enjoyed his visit. He presented Year 1 with a certificate thanking us for our extraordinary kindness. All the children loved hearing about how much the presents will mean to those who receive them.
Thank you again for your incredible generosity.
Year 3 Blog
This term, Year Three have been continuing their topic on Ancient Civilisations where we have been focussing on Ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece. To support their learning, we went on a trip to Bristol Museum where we took part in a workshop and had some time to explore. During the workshop, the children became archaeologists in order to study a range of artefacts, used their knowledge of Ancient Egypt to ask questions and they found out about the Egyptologist Amelia Edwards. The children really enjoyed their day and we feel it has deepened their understanding of this topic.
Next week, the pupils will take part in a Christmas Assembly. The children have been practicing their oracy skills to tell jokes, recite poems and offer interesting facts as well as working on their beautiful singing. They have all demonstrated positivity as well as responsibility when rehearsing their lines. We are all very excited to share it with you next week!
Our trip to Kingswood Fire Station
On Friday, Squirrel and Hedgehog class were lucky enough to visit Kingswood Fire Station. After walking there in the cold (without moaning!), we were greeted by Dean the fire fighter.
Squirrels had their fire safety talk first, which included the 5 steps to follow if there is a fire. Hedgehogs went to look around the fire engines and Sean showed them the various tools fire fighters use for different jobs. The classes then swapped and had similar discussions with the fire fighters. The children then got the chance to use the hoses- which they absolutely loved!
Whilst we were there, the station received an emergency call. The fire fighters had to get into their uniforms and into their fire engines as quickly as they could. It was very exciting for us to see the fire fighters in action.
We had a fantastic day and everything we have learned will help us to write our fire safety leaflets this term.
Thank you to Kingswood Fire Station for having us!
Our lovely year 6 classes have settled in beautifully to Badger and Woodpecker class. Not only do they look the part in their super smart shirts and ties but their behaviour and attitude is impeccable to match.
This term, as a whole school, we have been looking closely at the United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child and we have been making links to these throughout our topic.
Our topic this term is Freedom. We have been thinking about what freedom means to us, what freedom looked like throughout the Roman and Anglo Saxon era and at inspiring people from the past and present that stand up for their right to freedom and for the rights of others. We have been inspired by the actions of many and have been carefully considering how our small actions can change the world for the better.
Outside of the classroom this term, we were lucky enough to visit the Create Centre in Hotwells and to learn about what it means to be safe and to stay safe in a range of situations such as checking we’ve been given the correct change in the local shop and knowing how and when to call the emergency services. We were perfectly behaved and the staff there took the opportunity to tell our teachers how wonderful we were.
Reception children have been busy learning lots of new sounds. They learn four sounds a week and are enjoying learning how to form these correctly in a variety of interesting ways. Forming these in the sand and with paint have been a particular hit.
It is amazing now to see that they are beginning to be able to blend these sounds together to read short words. Fred the Frog helps us with this. Ask your child if they can tell you the sounds in the word sat (s – a – t). Remember you may see actions as they say these sounds too. This multi-sensory approach helps your child to retain their new knowledge.
Life in Reception continues to be great fun with children forming new friendships and building on their physical development, which will inevitably help with their fine motor skills and handwriting. We are really impressed with their independence and the positive attitude that they come into school with.
Welcome to Year 1!
All the children in Mouse and Rabbit class have had an amazing start to Year 1 and are always excited to learn.
We have been learning about who we are and where we live. As part of this, we went on a trip around Station Road so the children could learn more about their local area. We asked the children to describe what they saw on the walk. We walked up to the shops on Station Road where we saw a barber shop, a small bus stop and a big red post box. Then we walked down to the roundabout past the gardens which had colourful flowers and a stone owl. The children were very excited because we saw an ambulance, a police car and even a red fire engine. After that we stopped for a snack in Deerswood Play Area where we saw green grass and tall trees with red and yellow leaves. The children came up with all of these brilliant describing phrases, such as red leaves, during the walk. The children were so enthusiastic about are trip and are looking forward to writing a recount of the morning using these fantastic descriptions.
Welcome to Year 2!
The children have had a fantastic start to Year 2 already and are showing enthusiasm towards our first topic: ‘How do you know? The Great Fire of London.’
We began our topic by looking at fire fighters and finding out about the amazing work that they do. We are very excited to be visiting our local Fire Station next term to see them in action! We have also looked at the Notre Dame fire and the Grenfell Tower fire to help us to understand the importance of fire safety. Looking at these disasters has also helped us to understand more about the devastation of the Great Fire of London and how it affected people’s lives.
In Maths, we have started to look at place value and understanding numbers up to 100. We have had practical lessons making numbers with resources and writing a range of addition and subtraction equations. We have just moved on to partitioning numbers up to 100 so have been using plenty of resources to help our learning.
In writing, we have been learning the story of ‘Vlad and the Great Fire of London’ and have made up actions to help us to remember the story and characters. We will eventually be writing our own story using all the skills we have learnt, such as adjectives and writing in the past tense.
We are very excited to see where the year will take us! Keep up the hard work Squirrels and Hedgehogs!
Our superstar Year 3s have stepped up to the new challenge of Key Stage 2 with positivity and enthusiasm. We have started our new topic of Ancient Civilisations and we have begun to discuss the importance of other civilisations to us. They have also had great fun becoming archaeologists, decoding and writing in hieroglyphics and learning about the discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb. Next week, they will become journalists where they will reporting the discovery of the tomb in their own newspaper articles. As the term progresses, we look forward to learning more about Ancient Egypt before moving on to Ancient Greece.
Miss Withey and Mr Griffiths have been delighted with the children’s effort and attitude towards their learning. They are embodying the school’s values of being responsible, respectful, positive and kind. We both hope this continues for the rest of the term and beyond. | 2,221 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Brings to light 12 forgotten Americans who made history such as Mary Elizabeth Bowser who pretended to be a slave so she could spy on a powerful Confederate family; Dave Kopay who was the first professional athlete to publicly declare he was gay; Henrietta Lacks, whose cells were used to create treatments for cancer, HIV, and many other diseases; and more. The book features historic photos, interesting sidebars, and thought-provoking prompts.
Throughout her life, Mary McLeod Bethune worked tirelessly to increase women's opportunities, from education to the military to the right to vote. Her activism led her to the White House as a consultant for several presidents. There, she helped advance important civil rights agendas.
Sojourner Truth was born into slavery. Freed before its abolition, she dedicated her life to speaking out against inequality in all forms. She became one of the nation's foremost abolitionists and an important women's-rights advocate.
W. E. B. Du Bois was born a few years after the end of the Civil War, and he dedicated his life to the fight for racial equality. Du Bois was highly educated, and he used his knowledge to speak out against segregation and the commonly held belief that blacks were inferior to whites.
Eighteenth-century inventor and astronomer Benjamin Banneker was widely known and respected in his time. Most of what he knew, he taught himself. His letter to Thomas Jefferson asked the future president to reconsider his racial prejudices. Later, abolitionists would use Banneker as proof that people of any race can be equally intelligent.
Booker T. Washington rose from his slavery beginnings to become a national leader in education and civil rights. Beginning his career as a teacher and developing into a renowned speaker, Washington's influence is still felt today through Tuskegee University, which he originally founded.
Born into slavery, Frederick Douglass was struck by the unfairness and cruelty of slave life and escaped as a young man to the North. A skilled speaker and writer of Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Douglass became a fierce fighter for the end of slavery and later led the early civil rights movement. | <urn:uuid:19f9a343-22e9-4ea2-8d0c-563fe49f34ed> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.biguniverse.com/library/books/forgotten-americans-who-made-history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00095.warc.gz | en | 0.987071 | 444 | 4 | 4 | [
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-0.1777966171503067,
0.17132693529129028... | 1 | Brings to light 12 forgotten Americans who made history such as Mary Elizabeth Bowser who pretended to be a slave so she could spy on a powerful Confederate family; Dave Kopay who was the first professional athlete to publicly declare he was gay; Henrietta Lacks, whose cells were used to create treatments for cancer, HIV, and many other diseases; and more. The book features historic photos, interesting sidebars, and thought-provoking prompts.
Throughout her life, Mary McLeod Bethune worked tirelessly to increase women's opportunities, from education to the military to the right to vote. Her activism led her to the White House as a consultant for several presidents. There, she helped advance important civil rights agendas.
Sojourner Truth was born into slavery. Freed before its abolition, she dedicated her life to speaking out against inequality in all forms. She became one of the nation's foremost abolitionists and an important women's-rights advocate.
W. E. B. Du Bois was born a few years after the end of the Civil War, and he dedicated his life to the fight for racial equality. Du Bois was highly educated, and he used his knowledge to speak out against segregation and the commonly held belief that blacks were inferior to whites.
Eighteenth-century inventor and astronomer Benjamin Banneker was widely known and respected in his time. Most of what he knew, he taught himself. His letter to Thomas Jefferson asked the future president to reconsider his racial prejudices. Later, abolitionists would use Banneker as proof that people of any race can be equally intelligent.
Booker T. Washington rose from his slavery beginnings to become a national leader in education and civil rights. Beginning his career as a teacher and developing into a renowned speaker, Washington's influence is still felt today through Tuskegee University, which he originally founded.
Born into slavery, Frederick Douglass was struck by the unfairness and cruelty of slave life and escaped as a young man to the North. A skilled speaker and writer of Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Douglass became a fierce fighter for the end of slavery and later led the early civil rights movement. | 438 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How to use commas in English writing
Commas are a bit of a curiosity in writing because some people seem to use them very regularly while others never appear to use them at all. Not surprisingly, both approaches are wrong.
The comma is an important element of punctuation which is required in some circumstances and highly desirable in others. There are, however, some occasions where there is an element of choice and this is sometimes where people become a little uncertain.
Here are the main ways in which we use commas in English:
We use commas to separate items in lists:
- He put his torch, map, guidebook, sandwiches and a drink in his bag.
- The teacher said that he was lazy, insolent, aggressive and disruptive.
- He lives in Paris, shops in London, and holidays in Spain.
- He told me to park the car, pay at the machine, walk to the doors and wait for him.
Note how the last item is introduced with and but there is normally no comma, although see the third sentence.
However, there can also be some uncertainty with lists where an adjective is being modified in some way. For example:
- She was pretty wet and covered with sea-weed when I first met her.
Or could this be:
- She was pretty, wet and covered with sea-weed when I first met her.
- He described his approach as new, Labour, liberal, democratic and open.
Or could it be:
- He described his approach as new Labour, liberal-democratic and open.
We use commas to separate two independent clauses that are joined by words like and, but, or, nor, so:
- The path was steep, but the walkers were determined.
- The accident was due to carelessness, and he was very annoyed.
- All he had to do was to pay a small monthly sum, or so he thought.
(Note that an independent clause is a group of words that could stand alone as a sentence.)
We use commas to separate a dependent clause (introduced by words like as, because, since, when, after, while etc.) from a main clause:
- As she was tired, he carried her rucksack. (dependent clause followed by main clause)
- Because she had a headache, she stopped working for a while. (dependent clause followed by main clause)
(Note that a dependent clause cannot stand alone but must be linked to another clause.)
Commas are used after an introductory word or phrase, or before an afterthought:
- However, winters are not always cold and wet.
- Nevertheless, it's time you started to take your work more seriously.
- First, before you do anything else, I want you to see a doctor.
- She wanted to do well but she didn't, unfortunately.
They are used to enclose extra information that interrupts the flow of the sentence:
- The old dog, once so lithe and strong, was reduced to skin and bone.
- She is, in terms of her results, the best triathlete in the world.
- His jacket, or what remained of it, could not hide his injury.
We use a comma where we add in an appropriate name or descriptive phrase to add further information about an individual or an object:
- The youngest driver, Lewis Hamilton, was the winner.
- The driver, an unemployed Russian, had no licence or insurance.
- The judge, a very charismatic man, led the demonstration.
We find commas after time phrases:
- At 9 o'clock, the meeting started:
- By 2006, the evidence for global warming was overwhelming.
- By the time of his retirement, he was quite famous.
Commas are used to balance contrasting phrases:
- He might lose his hair, (but) never his sense of humour.
- He might bark, but he'd never bite.
- The meeting is on Tuesday, not Thursday.
Commas are important in direct speech:
- "He's very angry," she said.
- "I'll always love you," he murmured.
- "I'll see what I can do," he said, "but I can't promise anything."
We often use commas to avoid ambiguity:
- My second sister, who lives in France, is teaching English.
- I'm hot, and bothered about what to do with the children.
- I'm feeling sick, and tired of listening to this speech.
We use commas to show that some words have been left out:
- Birmingham and London are the preferred venues; Bristol, the other option.
- French and German are doing well; Chinese, much better.
We need commas with some types of clauses:
Commas are also very important with a special group of clauses which are called essential and non-essential clauses, also known as defining and non-defining clauses. | <urn:uuid:c690788e-5c27-40b5-be6a-b789d0a2fde0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://waylink-english.co.uk/punctuation/commas | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00172.warc.gz | en | 0.981107 | 1,037 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.24264487... | 3 | How to use commas in English writing
Commas are a bit of a curiosity in writing because some people seem to use them very regularly while others never appear to use them at all. Not surprisingly, both approaches are wrong.
The comma is an important element of punctuation which is required in some circumstances and highly desirable in others. There are, however, some occasions where there is an element of choice and this is sometimes where people become a little uncertain.
Here are the main ways in which we use commas in English:
We use commas to separate items in lists:
- He put his torch, map, guidebook, sandwiches and a drink in his bag.
- The teacher said that he was lazy, insolent, aggressive and disruptive.
- He lives in Paris, shops in London, and holidays in Spain.
- He told me to park the car, pay at the machine, walk to the doors and wait for him.
Note how the last item is introduced with and but there is normally no comma, although see the third sentence.
However, there can also be some uncertainty with lists where an adjective is being modified in some way. For example:
- She was pretty wet and covered with sea-weed when I first met her.
Or could this be:
- She was pretty, wet and covered with sea-weed when I first met her.
- He described his approach as new, Labour, liberal, democratic and open.
Or could it be:
- He described his approach as new Labour, liberal-democratic and open.
We use commas to separate two independent clauses that are joined by words like and, but, or, nor, so:
- The path was steep, but the walkers were determined.
- The accident was due to carelessness, and he was very annoyed.
- All he had to do was to pay a small monthly sum, or so he thought.
(Note that an independent clause is a group of words that could stand alone as a sentence.)
We use commas to separate a dependent clause (introduced by words like as, because, since, when, after, while etc.) from a main clause:
- As she was tired, he carried her rucksack. (dependent clause followed by main clause)
- Because she had a headache, she stopped working for a while. (dependent clause followed by main clause)
(Note that a dependent clause cannot stand alone but must be linked to another clause.)
Commas are used after an introductory word or phrase, or before an afterthought:
- However, winters are not always cold and wet.
- Nevertheless, it's time you started to take your work more seriously.
- First, before you do anything else, I want you to see a doctor.
- She wanted to do well but she didn't, unfortunately.
They are used to enclose extra information that interrupts the flow of the sentence:
- The old dog, once so lithe and strong, was reduced to skin and bone.
- She is, in terms of her results, the best triathlete in the world.
- His jacket, or what remained of it, could not hide his injury.
We use a comma where we add in an appropriate name or descriptive phrase to add further information about an individual or an object:
- The youngest driver, Lewis Hamilton, was the winner.
- The driver, an unemployed Russian, had no licence or insurance.
- The judge, a very charismatic man, led the demonstration.
We find commas after time phrases:
- At 9 o'clock, the meeting started:
- By 2006, the evidence for global warming was overwhelming.
- By the time of his retirement, he was quite famous.
Commas are used to balance contrasting phrases:
- He might lose his hair, (but) never his sense of humour.
- He might bark, but he'd never bite.
- The meeting is on Tuesday, not Thursday.
Commas are important in direct speech:
- "He's very angry," she said.
- "I'll always love you," he murmured.
- "I'll see what I can do," he said, "but I can't promise anything."
We often use commas to avoid ambiguity:
- My second sister, who lives in France, is teaching English.
- I'm hot, and bothered about what to do with the children.
- I'm feeling sick, and tired of listening to this speech.
We use commas to show that some words have been left out:
- Birmingham and London are the preferred venues; Bristol, the other option.
- French and German are doing well; Chinese, much better.
We need commas with some types of clauses:
Commas are also very important with a special group of clauses which are called essential and non-essential clauses, also known as defining and non-defining clauses. | 968 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We begin our study of the Middle Ages in Europe, with a focus on the Feudal system of government. Please read the following links and other information on Feudalism to help support the videos and discussions we have in class. You will create a Feudal Pyramid to show what the system looked like. Use pictures, symbols and words to SHOW how the system worked. Click HERE, and HERE for student examples of Feudal pyramids.
Assignment – create a feudal pyramid that shows the relationships of each group and how this social system worked. Use images, pictures, drawings, diagrams, symbols, and words. Be creative and make yours unique.
Tues. (SS 2 / E block) or Wed. (SS 1 /A block)
The Feudal System was introduced to England following the invasion and conquest of the country by William I (The Conqueror).
The system had been used in France by the Normans from the time they first settled there in about 900AD. It was a simple, but effective system, where all land was owned by the King. One quarter was kept by the King as his personal property, some was given to the church and the rest was leased out under strict controls.
A simple plan showing how the Feudal System works
The King was in complete control under the Feudal System. He owned all the land in the country and decided who he would lease land to. He therefore only allowed those men he could trust to lease land from him. However, before they were given any land they had to swear an oath to remain faithful to the King at all times. The men who leased land from the King were known as Barons, they were wealthy, powerful and had complete control of the land they leased from the King.
Barons / Lords / Tennants in Chief
Barons leased land from the King which was known as a manor. They were known as the Lord of the Manor and were in complete control of this land. They established their own system of justice, minted their own money and set their own taxes. In return for the land they had been given by the King, the Barons had to serve on the royal council, pay rent and provide the King with Knights for military service when he demanded it. They also had to provide lodging and food for the King and his court when they traveled around the country. The Barons kept as much of their land as they wished for their own use, then divided the rest among their Knights. Barons were very rich.
Knights were given land by a Baron in return for military service when demanded by the King. They also had to protect the Baron and his family, as well as the Manor, from attack. The Knights kept as much of the land as they wished for their own personal use and distributed the rest to villeins (serfs). Although not as rich as the Barons, Knights were quite wealthy.
Serfs / Peasants / Villeins
Serfs, sometimes known as villeins, were given land by Knights. They had to provide the Knight with free labour, food and service whenever it was demanded. Villeins had no rights. They were not allowed to leave the Manor and had to ask their Lord’s permission before they could marry. Villeins were poor. | <urn:uuid:8f6f61c2-81fa-4e5d-96fe-80359e4a3cee> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://olkingcolescastle.wordpress.com/category/humanities/middle-ages/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00113.warc.gz | en | 0.992349 | 685 | 4.65625 | 5 | [
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0.2584884762763977,
0.1090639978647232,
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0.12716592848300934,
0.08287808299064... | 2 | We begin our study of the Middle Ages in Europe, with a focus on the Feudal system of government. Please read the following links and other information on Feudalism to help support the videos and discussions we have in class. You will create a Feudal Pyramid to show what the system looked like. Use pictures, symbols and words to SHOW how the system worked. Click HERE, and HERE for student examples of Feudal pyramids.
Assignment – create a feudal pyramid that shows the relationships of each group and how this social system worked. Use images, pictures, drawings, diagrams, symbols, and words. Be creative and make yours unique.
Tues. (SS 2 / E block) or Wed. (SS 1 /A block)
The Feudal System was introduced to England following the invasion and conquest of the country by William I (The Conqueror).
The system had been used in France by the Normans from the time they first settled there in about 900AD. It was a simple, but effective system, where all land was owned by the King. One quarter was kept by the King as his personal property, some was given to the church and the rest was leased out under strict controls.
A simple plan showing how the Feudal System works
The King was in complete control under the Feudal System. He owned all the land in the country and decided who he would lease land to. He therefore only allowed those men he could trust to lease land from him. However, before they were given any land they had to swear an oath to remain faithful to the King at all times. The men who leased land from the King were known as Barons, they were wealthy, powerful and had complete control of the land they leased from the King.
Barons / Lords / Tennants in Chief
Barons leased land from the King which was known as a manor. They were known as the Lord of the Manor and were in complete control of this land. They established their own system of justice, minted their own money and set their own taxes. In return for the land they had been given by the King, the Barons had to serve on the royal council, pay rent and provide the King with Knights for military service when he demanded it. They also had to provide lodging and food for the King and his court when they traveled around the country. The Barons kept as much of their land as they wished for their own use, then divided the rest among their Knights. Barons were very rich.
Knights were given land by a Baron in return for military service when demanded by the King. They also had to protect the Baron and his family, as well as the Manor, from attack. The Knights kept as much of the land as they wished for their own personal use and distributed the rest to villeins (serfs). Although not as rich as the Barons, Knights were quite wealthy.
Serfs / Peasants / Villeins
Serfs, sometimes known as villeins, were given land by Knights. They had to provide the Knight with free labour, food and service whenever it was demanded. Villeins had no rights. They were not allowed to leave the Manor and had to ask their Lord’s permission before they could marry. Villeins were poor. | 675 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This section looks at the setting and historical context of the novel Anita and Me by Meera Syal.
The Black Country
The Novel is set in the fictional town of Tollington which is in an area known as the Black Country. The Black Country is in the West Midlands to the north and west of Birmingham, England. The name Black Country originates from the nineteenth century and is due to the effects of industry when black smoke clouded the skies and black soot covered the communities in the area. During this period the region had become one of the most important parts of the Industrial Revolution in Britain being a major producer of metalwork, Machinery and goods which were mass-produced by the iron, steel and copper industries. Coal mining took place in hundreds of pits throughout the Black Country, producing coal required to power and heat factories and buildings such as iron foundries and steel mills.
Less than a hundred years later, by the mid-twentieth century, the industries that the area had become dependent on were now in decline. The closure of coal mines throughout the 1960s created high unemployment for the men who had worked there. The decline of the manufacturing industries was made worse in the late 1970s and early 1980s, with over 300,000 jobs lost. Men who were now unemployed expected to find work in factories. However, they found that many of the jobs were performed by women. World War II had shifted women’s roles in society, with many women finding jobs that were previously unavailable to them. World War II had also devastated the country and its population. The Government focused on rebuilding the country quickly and encouraged immigration from Europe and Commonwealth countries such as India and Pakistan. Some people resisted the changes to their communities and were prejudiced against immigrants who were perceived to be responsible for the lack of jobs.
Historical Events in India
India gained its independence from Britain on the 15 August 1947. At the same time, parts of India were partitioned off, mainly for political and religious reasons – West Pakistan (now Pakistan) and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) were created. The new Pakistan was to be a Muslim state while the main religions in India would be Hinduism and Sikhism. Hundreds of thousands of people were relocated, many against their will, to the country that was of their religion. Many people were angry and resistance caused violence and bloodshed in the regions. Partly due to the turmoil of partition there were many people who preferred to move Britain rather than relocate to live in an independent India or Pakistan. The British Nationality Act of 1948 granted the right to live in the UK for all those people who lived in colonies of the Empire. It is through this act and subsequent legislation that Meena’s family came to, and stayed in, the UK. There were direct benefits to Britain as the country had suffered many losses of life during World War II and many industries experienced a shortage of workers. The post-war establishment of the National Health Service meant that the UK needed more and more qualified staff and more importantly qualified to British standards and in British practices. Doctors and nurses from the British Empire were the perfect solution. Also, during the 1950s and 1960s, a large number of South Asians settled in the industrial towns of the West and East Midlands and the North to work in their factories and textiles businesses. Due to increased concern about the large numbers of former colonial citizens relocating to the UK the Commonwealth Immigrants Act was passed in 1962. This put more limitations on immigrants and prioritised qualified and educated professionals working in education and healthcare. | <urn:uuid:e0a2be48-43ca-4435-93be-9ccf63fff1b6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://revisionworld.com/a2-level-level-revision/english-literature-gcse-level/anita-and-me-meera-syal/setting-and-historical-context-anita-and-me | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00328.warc.gz | en | 0.98858 | 721 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.403959... | 3 | This section looks at the setting and historical context of the novel Anita and Me by Meera Syal.
The Black Country
The Novel is set in the fictional town of Tollington which is in an area known as the Black Country. The Black Country is in the West Midlands to the north and west of Birmingham, England. The name Black Country originates from the nineteenth century and is due to the effects of industry when black smoke clouded the skies and black soot covered the communities in the area. During this period the region had become one of the most important parts of the Industrial Revolution in Britain being a major producer of metalwork, Machinery and goods which were mass-produced by the iron, steel and copper industries. Coal mining took place in hundreds of pits throughout the Black Country, producing coal required to power and heat factories and buildings such as iron foundries and steel mills.
Less than a hundred years later, by the mid-twentieth century, the industries that the area had become dependent on were now in decline. The closure of coal mines throughout the 1960s created high unemployment for the men who had worked there. The decline of the manufacturing industries was made worse in the late 1970s and early 1980s, with over 300,000 jobs lost. Men who were now unemployed expected to find work in factories. However, they found that many of the jobs were performed by women. World War II had shifted women’s roles in society, with many women finding jobs that were previously unavailable to them. World War II had also devastated the country and its population. The Government focused on rebuilding the country quickly and encouraged immigration from Europe and Commonwealth countries such as India and Pakistan. Some people resisted the changes to their communities and were prejudiced against immigrants who were perceived to be responsible for the lack of jobs.
Historical Events in India
India gained its independence from Britain on the 15 August 1947. At the same time, parts of India were partitioned off, mainly for political and religious reasons – West Pakistan (now Pakistan) and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) were created. The new Pakistan was to be a Muslim state while the main religions in India would be Hinduism and Sikhism. Hundreds of thousands of people were relocated, many against their will, to the country that was of their religion. Many people were angry and resistance caused violence and bloodshed in the regions. Partly due to the turmoil of partition there were many people who preferred to move Britain rather than relocate to live in an independent India or Pakistan. The British Nationality Act of 1948 granted the right to live in the UK for all those people who lived in colonies of the Empire. It is through this act and subsequent legislation that Meena’s family came to, and stayed in, the UK. There were direct benefits to Britain as the country had suffered many losses of life during World War II and many industries experienced a shortage of workers. The post-war establishment of the National Health Service meant that the UK needed more and more qualified staff and more importantly qualified to British standards and in British practices. Doctors and nurses from the British Empire were the perfect solution. Also, during the 1950s and 1960s, a large number of South Asians settled in the industrial towns of the West and East Midlands and the North to work in their factories and textiles businesses. Due to increased concern about the large numbers of former colonial citizens relocating to the UK the Commonwealth Immigrants Act was passed in 1962. This put more limitations on immigrants and prioritised qualified and educated professionals working in education and healthcare. | 747 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Essay PreviewMore ↓
Identity in The Color of Water
The American Dictionary defines identity as the distinct personality of an individual. Many factors make up one's identity, such as race, one's relationship with society, and religion. People seek other people who with they can identify. One must interact with others and learn from his interests and their responses to find a suitable group. The process of finding a group allows one to discover his or her own identity. Through The Color of Water, James McBride demonstrates that one perceives his identity through feedback from others as well as through his own thoughts and emotions.
One aspect of identity where feedback can be given almost instantaneously is race, as it involves a person's skin color. Young children often ignore each others' races unless they are taught or given reason to do otherwise. McBride's race came to his attention at an early age. He noticed that both black people and white people stared at his white mother with her black family, letting him know that his family was different from what was considered normal and acceptable by society. Comparing skin color with his mother, he noticed that her skin was white while his was black. He became confused about his own color and uncomfortable with the fact that his mother was white. He wanted to be accepted by others, and he thought that life "would be easier if [his family was] just one color, black or white" (103). McBride became aware of his race at a younger age than most children. While he was comparing skin color with others, I was unconcerned about my race because people of similar skin color surrounded me. I was aware of black people, but, because most people that were around me were white, I never felt alienated because of my race. Also, my family was made up of one race, so I did not share McBride's confusion about his color. Because of his uncertainty, he was unsure of how he fit into society.
By analyzing his thoughts and emotions and others' feedback, one can also discover where he fits in relation to society when he experiments with different groups of people. McBride felt that his mother's color was hindering him, so he began his "own process of running, emotionally disconnecting [himself] from her" (138). Though he was previously an outstanding student, he dropped out of school and began his search for someone with whom he could identify.
How to Cite this Page
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- The book I chose to read was “The Color of Water: A Black Man’s Tribute to his White Mother” by James McBride. James McBride James McBride was a writer as well as held a degree in music composition. This particular selection was by far his best seller. This is a story about the author and his struggle to accept his biracial identity as well as his mother’s history. James was the eighth child out of twelve. His mother was of Jewish decent and his father was black. He struggled to accept this fact and was downright embarrassed of the fact he had a “white” mother as well as being scared of the fact she was white.... [tags: Family, Black people, White people, Miscegenation]
1147 words (3.3 pages)
- As a child grows and conforms to the world around them they go through various stages, one of the most important and detrimental stages in childhood development is gender identity. The development of the meaning of a child’s sex and gender can form the whole future of that child’s identity as a person. This decision whether accidental or genetic can effect that child’s life style views and social interactions for the rest of their lives. Ranging from making friends in school all the way to intimate relationships later on in life, gender identity can become an important aspect to ones future endeavors.... [tags: Gender, Gender identity, Transgender, Gender role]
1898 words (5.4 pages)
- In life, we face and overcome many challenges and struggles that help to define and build who we are. According to Orrison Swett Mardon, "Most of our obstacles would melt away if, instead of cowering before them, we should make up our minds to walk boldly through them." Ruth, Jade, and Marie do exactly that. Ruth McBride-Jordan in The Color of Water is a Jewish immigrant in America who desperately struggles to search for her identity in a time of great prejudices. Breaking free from her abusive father and religious intolerance, Ruth undergoes trials and changes that create the extraordinary life she leads.... [tags: James McBride Louise Erdrich]
1490 words (4.3 pages)
McBride's experiences in Kentucky taught him about life. The wise Chicken Man discouraged him from abandoning his education and urged him to do whatever he could to succeed in life. Jack told him that if he "put [himself] in God's hands" he could not "go wrong" (161). Out of trust, he listened to her and turned to God, and slowly he began to find his way in life. Like McBride, I too experimented with different groups of people in order to find out where I fit in relation to society. I was comfortable with a certain group; we had fun and I fit with them. However, my mother disapproved of the group and made me stay away from them. I then became friends with another group that supported my education and my well-being. I began to exert more effort into my education and horseback riding. Like McBride, I found the group that I fit in with and improved my life.
James McBride's mother, Ruth, also found a group of supportive people with beliefs that were similar to hers. She relied on her thoughts and emotions and others' feedback to discover the religious aspect of her identity. Her family was extremely strict in its Jewish beliefs, and her father was an Orthodox rabbi. Because her father forced her to spend her time outside of school working at his store, she became lonely and unhappy. At school, the painful name-calling she received from the other students made her feel further separated from society. With the exception of Frances, she was friendless. Ruth was "starving for love and affection" (83). When she escaped from her religious prison, she sought a new, forgiving religion with which she could identify. She found that she fit in with the Baptist religion. Although she did not blend in with them physically, she matched them in their spiritual beliefs. Unlike Ruth, I am not deeply religious. Most of my friends are not religious, either. Both Ruth and I found groups of people who had beliefs similar to ours, allowing us to identify more easily with our groups. Some of my friends are religious, and sometimes we have trouble understanding each others' beliefs. However, we still identify with each other because we have other common beliefs or interests, allowing us to feel comfortable with each other. Both Ruth and I have friends that we can identify with in some way.
In The Color of Water, James McBride searches for his identity, as everyone must do. One must overcome certain obstacles in order to get to know himself. Only once that he knows himself can he look for other people who are similar to him. Through identifying with other people, he learns about himself. McBride illustrates the process of discovering one's identity in The Color of Water. | <urn:uuid:d938f922-28a8-4f40-b362-182ded1e0208> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.123helpme.com/view.asp?id=7200 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00107.warc.gz | en | 0.984444 | 2,538 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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Identity in The Color of Water
The American Dictionary defines identity as the distinct personality of an individual. Many factors make up one's identity, such as race, one's relationship with society, and religion. People seek other people who with they can identify. One must interact with others and learn from his interests and their responses to find a suitable group. The process of finding a group allows one to discover his or her own identity. Through The Color of Water, James McBride demonstrates that one perceives his identity through feedback from others as well as through his own thoughts and emotions.
One aspect of identity where feedback can be given almost instantaneously is race, as it involves a person's skin color. Young children often ignore each others' races unless they are taught or given reason to do otherwise. McBride's race came to his attention at an early age. He noticed that both black people and white people stared at his white mother with her black family, letting him know that his family was different from what was considered normal and acceptable by society. Comparing skin color with his mother, he noticed that her skin was white while his was black. He became confused about his own color and uncomfortable with the fact that his mother was white. He wanted to be accepted by others, and he thought that life "would be easier if [his family was] just one color, black or white" (103). McBride became aware of his race at a younger age than most children. While he was comparing skin color with others, I was unconcerned about my race because people of similar skin color surrounded me. I was aware of black people, but, because most people that were around me were white, I never felt alienated because of my race. Also, my family was made up of one race, so I did not share McBride's confusion about his color. Because of his uncertainty, he was unsure of how he fit into society.
By analyzing his thoughts and emotions and others' feedback, one can also discover where he fits in relation to society when he experiments with different groups of people. McBride felt that his mother's color was hindering him, so he began his "own process of running, emotionally disconnecting [himself] from her" (138). Though he was previously an outstanding student, he dropped out of school and began his search for someone with whom he could identify.
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- James McBride's The Color of Water James McBride's memoir, The Color of Water, demonstrates a man's search for identity and a sense of self that derives from his multiracial family. His white mother, Ruth's abusive childhood as a Jew led her to search for acceptance in the African American community, where she made her large family from the two men she marries. James defines his identity by truth of his mother's pain and exceptionality, through the family she creates and the life she leaves behind.... [tags: Color Water McBride Memoir]
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McBride's experiences in Kentucky taught him about life. The wise Chicken Man discouraged him from abandoning his education and urged him to do whatever he could to succeed in life. Jack told him that if he "put [himself] in God's hands" he could not "go wrong" (161). Out of trust, he listened to her and turned to God, and slowly he began to find his way in life. Like McBride, I too experimented with different groups of people in order to find out where I fit in relation to society. I was comfortable with a certain group; we had fun and I fit with them. However, my mother disapproved of the group and made me stay away from them. I then became friends with another group that supported my education and my well-being. I began to exert more effort into my education and horseback riding. Like McBride, I found the group that I fit in with and improved my life.
James McBride's mother, Ruth, also found a group of supportive people with beliefs that were similar to hers. She relied on her thoughts and emotions and others' feedback to discover the religious aspect of her identity. Her family was extremely strict in its Jewish beliefs, and her father was an Orthodox rabbi. Because her father forced her to spend her time outside of school working at his store, she became lonely and unhappy. At school, the painful name-calling she received from the other students made her feel further separated from society. With the exception of Frances, she was friendless. Ruth was "starving for love and affection" (83). When she escaped from her religious prison, she sought a new, forgiving religion with which she could identify. She found that she fit in with the Baptist religion. Although she did not blend in with them physically, she matched them in their spiritual beliefs. Unlike Ruth, I am not deeply religious. Most of my friends are not religious, either. Both Ruth and I found groups of people who had beliefs similar to ours, allowing us to identify more easily with our groups. Some of my friends are religious, and sometimes we have trouble understanding each others' beliefs. However, we still identify with each other because we have other common beliefs or interests, allowing us to feel comfortable with each other. Both Ruth and I have friends that we can identify with in some way.
In The Color of Water, James McBride searches for his identity, as everyone must do. One must overcome certain obstacles in order to get to know himself. Only once that he knows himself can he look for other people who are similar to him. Through identifying with other people, he learns about himself. McBride illustrates the process of discovering one's identity in The Color of Water. | 2,511 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Students worked yesterday to investigate ways to build a circuit that ran off of one source and powered two receivers to their full capacity. This was a challenge, as they were use to working with series circuits.
However, after a session of exploring and trial and error, they are ready to build parallel circuits and answer the question "How can you use one source to power two receivers at their full capacity every time the circuit is closed?"
As a mini lesson today, I reminded students that a series circuit is a is a closed circuit in which the current follows one path.
Yesterday, I did not give the students the definition of a parallel circuit. I was saving that for right now. I wanted the students to explore and make sense of the situation before defining anything for them. However, now I explain that there are circuits, called parallel circuits, in which the current can follow more than one path.
Next, I ask the students to draw, on their whiteboards, a schematic that might be a solution to the problem of having only one source of energy and two receivers that need to be working in full force.
As they share their ideas, I asked them to look around for similarities and differences. This is a wonderful way to get their minds revved up for the activity.
As the students work, I usually begin circulating right away. Today I waited for them to build their circuits and requested them to send a representative to me in order to "observe" their work. Then, when I approach, I am able to ask the students to defend their work and prompt them to delve into their understanding further.
When these students approached me with a "We got it!" message, I sat down with them. It was obvious to me that they had a series circuit, but thought it was a parallel. I needed to review with them in a way that made sense to them (tracing the path) and then give them an idea of how to go about revising their model.
When the girls began to revise their model, I then guided them in their thinking until they were ready to draw their schematic.
This team was ready to share with me and I was impressed that their circuit was so simple, yet correct. They really understood that they did not need all of the components available on the supply table. I was then able to discuss with them "why" they made the design decisions that they did. This is a much more rigorous conversation. I am sorry that my sound was muffled at the end of the discussion by my hand, but the boy was explaining that if there were two sources, then each receiver would essentially be in its own circuit and they would become series circuits.
This team used a switch in one of the pathways. I decided to use this as a questioning prompt. You will hear the students discussing, using precise vocabulary, why their design works. However, as we moved into the discussion of the switch, which really controls just one bulb, I realized the students had a misconception. I do not correct them here, however, as I will use it in my lesson tomorrow. By the way, don't you love the expression "electricians" for electrons?!
To close, I asked the students to draw a schematic of their working parallel circuit. I will use these in a future lesson to begin the discussion of various solutions to one problem.
This is also a great exit ticket exercise, which will quickly create accountability for the students in expressing their learning and understanding. | <urn:uuid:ec23a83a-a0ae-4f6f-95ac-f23cee214a50> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://betterlesson.com/lesson/640999/parallel-circuits-day-2?from=master_teacher_curriculum | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00066.warc.gz | en | 0.989112 | 710 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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-0.102005265653133... | 1 | Students worked yesterday to investigate ways to build a circuit that ran off of one source and powered two receivers to their full capacity. This was a challenge, as they were use to working with series circuits.
However, after a session of exploring and trial and error, they are ready to build parallel circuits and answer the question "How can you use one source to power two receivers at their full capacity every time the circuit is closed?"
As a mini lesson today, I reminded students that a series circuit is a is a closed circuit in which the current follows one path.
Yesterday, I did not give the students the definition of a parallel circuit. I was saving that for right now. I wanted the students to explore and make sense of the situation before defining anything for them. However, now I explain that there are circuits, called parallel circuits, in which the current can follow more than one path.
Next, I ask the students to draw, on their whiteboards, a schematic that might be a solution to the problem of having only one source of energy and two receivers that need to be working in full force.
As they share their ideas, I asked them to look around for similarities and differences. This is a wonderful way to get their minds revved up for the activity.
As the students work, I usually begin circulating right away. Today I waited for them to build their circuits and requested them to send a representative to me in order to "observe" their work. Then, when I approach, I am able to ask the students to defend their work and prompt them to delve into their understanding further.
When these students approached me with a "We got it!" message, I sat down with them. It was obvious to me that they had a series circuit, but thought it was a parallel. I needed to review with them in a way that made sense to them (tracing the path) and then give them an idea of how to go about revising their model.
When the girls began to revise their model, I then guided them in their thinking until they were ready to draw their schematic.
This team was ready to share with me and I was impressed that their circuit was so simple, yet correct. They really understood that they did not need all of the components available on the supply table. I was then able to discuss with them "why" they made the design decisions that they did. This is a much more rigorous conversation. I am sorry that my sound was muffled at the end of the discussion by my hand, but the boy was explaining that if there were two sources, then each receiver would essentially be in its own circuit and they would become series circuits.
This team used a switch in one of the pathways. I decided to use this as a questioning prompt. You will hear the students discussing, using precise vocabulary, why their design works. However, as we moved into the discussion of the switch, which really controls just one bulb, I realized the students had a misconception. I do not correct them here, however, as I will use it in my lesson tomorrow. By the way, don't you love the expression "electricians" for electrons?!
To close, I asked the students to draw a schematic of their working parallel circuit. I will use these in a future lesson to begin the discussion of various solutions to one problem.
This is also a great exit ticket exercise, which will quickly create accountability for the students in expressing their learning and understanding. | 697 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Finnish paganismWikipedia open wikipedia design.
Finnish paganism was a pagan religion in Finland and Karelia before the Finnish people were Christian. Finnish paganism is close to Scandinavian paganism and Baltic paganism. The Finns believed that there were many gods.
Finnish paganism was animistic. This means that people believed nature was full of small and big spirits. The biggest spirits were gods who had names, the god of the sky was Ukko, the god of the forest was Tapio and the god of water was Ahti. There were many other spirits known by specific names.
Humans had a soul that was divided. "Self" and "me" were two different parts of the soul. If one's "self"-soul left him, he was not dead, but very ill. A Shaman could go to the spirit world to bring the soul back.
The Bear was considered a holy animal. If a bear was hunted down, he or she was celebrated with a ritual called Peijainen, usually a big celebration involving food and drink. The purpose of the ritual was to pacify the soul of the bear. A happy soul would then be reincarnated into another bear, so that people could eat bears in the future. The swan was a holy bird and people believed that killing a swan would cause the killer to die.
Some trees and stones were holy to Finns, along with some forests. These places were often used to offer gods or spirits a sacrifice sacrifice. The sacrifice was gift intended to make the spirit happy. This spirit would then help humans. For example, a happy spirit of the sea would guarantee a plentiful catch for a fisherman. At later times things that were given to spirits were small, such as: money, flowers, pieces of silver, alcohol or food.
The Finns believed that Earth was flat like a disc. Above Earth was sky-dome, a pot that was upside down. In the middle of the Earth was a pillar holding the sky, so that it did not drop. The North star was a nail in the top of this pillar. Land of the dead, Tuonela, was under Earth. The way to Tuonela was at the base of pillar that holds the sky. The rotational movement of the pillar caused a great whirl of water at the base of the pillar called Kinahmi and this could be used as access way to Tuonela.
People hoped that their dead relatives would go to Tuonela, because they did not like ghosts. However some times dead relatives were asked to help living people. Sometimes shamans went to Tuonela to ask souls for help. | <urn:uuid:993792f8-b7a6-4acc-ac93-39dc83dc8625> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wikizero.com/simple/Finnish_paganism | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00372.warc.gz | en | 0.989002 | 553 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.30417096614... | 1 | Finnish paganismWikipedia open wikipedia design.
Finnish paganism was a pagan religion in Finland and Karelia before the Finnish people were Christian. Finnish paganism is close to Scandinavian paganism and Baltic paganism. The Finns believed that there were many gods.
Finnish paganism was animistic. This means that people believed nature was full of small and big spirits. The biggest spirits were gods who had names, the god of the sky was Ukko, the god of the forest was Tapio and the god of water was Ahti. There were many other spirits known by specific names.
Humans had a soul that was divided. "Self" and "me" were two different parts of the soul. If one's "self"-soul left him, he was not dead, but very ill. A Shaman could go to the spirit world to bring the soul back.
The Bear was considered a holy animal. If a bear was hunted down, he or she was celebrated with a ritual called Peijainen, usually a big celebration involving food and drink. The purpose of the ritual was to pacify the soul of the bear. A happy soul would then be reincarnated into another bear, so that people could eat bears in the future. The swan was a holy bird and people believed that killing a swan would cause the killer to die.
Some trees and stones were holy to Finns, along with some forests. These places were often used to offer gods or spirits a sacrifice sacrifice. The sacrifice was gift intended to make the spirit happy. This spirit would then help humans. For example, a happy spirit of the sea would guarantee a plentiful catch for a fisherman. At later times things that were given to spirits were small, such as: money, flowers, pieces of silver, alcohol or food.
The Finns believed that Earth was flat like a disc. Above Earth was sky-dome, a pot that was upside down. In the middle of the Earth was a pillar holding the sky, so that it did not drop. The North star was a nail in the top of this pillar. Land of the dead, Tuonela, was under Earth. The way to Tuonela was at the base of pillar that holds the sky. The rotational movement of the pillar caused a great whirl of water at the base of the pillar called Kinahmi and this could be used as access way to Tuonela.
People hoped that their dead relatives would go to Tuonela, because they did not like ghosts. However some times dead relatives were asked to help living people. Sometimes shamans went to Tuonela to ask souls for help. | 541 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The effects of the german unification on russia
The full text of Wagner's essay is available online. An example of this is that each German State still had separate armies, but the armies were under Prussian order. This party opposed many of Bismarck's ideas and enticed him to make restrictions on Catholic education and work.
Following the upheavals, Wagner penned his essay, "Art and Revolution," in which he argued that the task of the artist is to effect political change through artistic expression. The new working class of Vienna joined the student demonstrations, developing an armed insurrection.
Germany russia map
Although Bismarck was pleasant to Austria, this was not the case towards the French. Emperor Ferdinand and his chief adviser Metternich directed troops to crush the demonstration. They were also inspired by street demonstrations of workers and artisans in Paris, France, from February , , which resulted in the abdication by King Louis Philippe of France and his exile in Britain. Emerging modes of transportation facilitated business and recreational travel, leading to contact and sometimes conflict among German speakers from throughout Central Europe. As travel became easier, faster, and less expensive, Germans started to see unity in factors other than their language. Emperor Alexander I of Russia venerates the mortal remains of Frederick the Great in presence of King Frederick William III and Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz in German migrations eastward[ edit ] Over the centuries there was a steady movement of Germans eastward , often into mostly Slavic areas and areas near to or controlled by Russia. Most historians have judged the Confederation as weak and ineffective, as well as an obstacle to the creation of a German nation-state. The words of August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben expressed not only the linguistic unity of the German people but also their geographic unity. Italy - Italy promised to help Prussia in any war against Austria, providing Austria was the aggressor and Italy gained Venetia in return. The czarist system collapsed in Politics were not the only difference; religion broke down nationalism as well. On March 18, a large demonstration occurred; when two shots were fired, the people feared that some of the 20, soldiers would be used against them. This stated that: Prussia was to control Schleswig Austria was to control Holstein which was sandwiched between Schleswig and Prussian territories Prussia was to have right of transit on military roads through Holstein Both duchies were to join the Zollverein even although Austria was not a member The treaty was unlikely to work. The upper inscription reads "agreement". Following their victory, Bismarck set up peaceful treaties with Austria to remain as future allies.
His foreign policy created alliances which was a major long term cause of WW1. Ireland, Greece, Spain, Portugal and Cyprus have all been driven into various forms of international receivership, in which Germany—as the principal creditor—calls the shots within the common currency.
Supporters of Grossdeutsch, or Greater Germany, insisted that Prussians and Austrians with a common language naturally should be part of one nation.
German Federation forces, led by Prussia and Austria defeated the Danish.
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The full text of Wagner's essay is available online. An example of this is that each German State still had separate armies, but the armies were under Prussian order. This party opposed many of Bismarck's ideas and enticed him to make restrictions on Catholic education and work.
Following the upheavals, Wagner penned his essay, "Art and Revolution," in which he argued that the task of the artist is to effect political change through artistic expression. The new working class of Vienna joined the student demonstrations, developing an armed insurrection.
Germany russia map
Although Bismarck was pleasant to Austria, this was not the case towards the French. Emperor Ferdinand and his chief adviser Metternich directed troops to crush the demonstration. They were also inspired by street demonstrations of workers and artisans in Paris, France, from February , , which resulted in the abdication by King Louis Philippe of France and his exile in Britain. Emerging modes of transportation facilitated business and recreational travel, leading to contact and sometimes conflict among German speakers from throughout Central Europe. As travel became easier, faster, and less expensive, Germans started to see unity in factors other than their language. Emperor Alexander I of Russia venerates the mortal remains of Frederick the Great in presence of King Frederick William III and Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz in German migrations eastward[ edit ] Over the centuries there was a steady movement of Germans eastward , often into mostly Slavic areas and areas near to or controlled by Russia. Most historians have judged the Confederation as weak and ineffective, as well as an obstacle to the creation of a German nation-state. The words of August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben expressed not only the linguistic unity of the German people but also their geographic unity. Italy - Italy promised to help Prussia in any war against Austria, providing Austria was the aggressor and Italy gained Venetia in return. The czarist system collapsed in Politics were not the only difference; religion broke down nationalism as well. On March 18, a large demonstration occurred; when two shots were fired, the people feared that some of the 20, soldiers would be used against them. This stated that: Prussia was to control Schleswig Austria was to control Holstein which was sandwiched between Schleswig and Prussian territories Prussia was to have right of transit on military roads through Holstein Both duchies were to join the Zollverein even although Austria was not a member The treaty was unlikely to work. The upper inscription reads "agreement". Following their victory, Bismarck set up peaceful treaties with Austria to remain as future allies.
His foreign policy created alliances which was a major long term cause of WW1. Ireland, Greece, Spain, Portugal and Cyprus have all been driven into various forms of international receivership, in which Germany—as the principal creditor—calls the shots within the common currency.
Supporters of Grossdeutsch, or Greater Germany, insisted that Prussians and Austrians with a common language naturally should be part of one nation.
German Federation forces, led by Prussia and Austria defeated the Danish.
based on 13 review | 656 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Elizabeth Cady Stanton Quotes (Author of The Womans Bible)
Women's Suffrage: Crash Course US History #31
A History of the Seneca Falls 1848 Women's Rights Convention
The credentials committee ruled that women were "constitutionally unfit for public and business meetings. Elizabeth Cady Stanton later credited conversations held with Lucretia Mott in that segregated women's section for the idea of holding a mass meeting to address the rights of women. William Lloyd Garrison arrived after the debate about women speaking; in protest of the decision, he spent the convention in the women's section. Lucretia Mott came from a Quaker tradition in which women were able to speak in church; Elizabeth Cady Stanton had already asserted her sense of women's equality by refusing to have the word "obey" included in her marriage ceremony. Both were committed to the cause of abolition of slavery; their experience in working for freedom in one arena seemed to solidify their sense that full human rights must be extended to women, too. But it was not until an visit of Lucretia Mott with her sister, Martha Coffin Wright, during an annual Quaker convention, that the idea of a women's rights convention turned into plans, and Seneca Falls became a reality. Hunt, at the home of Jane Hunt.
The Seneca Falls Convention was the first women's rights convention. Attracting widespread attention, it was soon followed by other women's rights conventions, including the Rochester Women's Rights Convention in Rochester, New York , two weeks later. Female Quakers local to the area organized the meeting along with Elizabeth Cady Stanton , who was not a Quaker.
home by another way childrens book
What Was the Seneca Falls Convention?
Despite scarce publicity, people—mostly area residents—showed up. On the first day, only women were allowed to attend the second day was open to men. All passed unanimously except for the ninth resolution, which demanded the right to vote for women. Stanton and African American abolitionist Frederick Douglass gave impassioned speeches in its defense before it eventually and barely passed. The five women who organized the Seneca Falls Convention were also active in the abolitionist movement , which called for the emancipation of slaves and the end of racial discrimination. They included:. Stanton and Mott first met in London in , where they were attending the World Anti-Slavery Convention with their husbands.
The Seneca Falls Convention is regarded by many as the birthplace of American feminism. She further described the unequal, separate spheres women are forced into and called for action. Among the resolutions were the rights to property and education. On July 20, the Declaration was ratified by the assembly. There was a fight regarding only one resolution: the right to vote. However, Stanton, along with abolitionist Frederick Douglass, argued the necessity of the vote and adopted the resolution. This event and the outrage it inspired led to the Seneca Falls Convention in | <urn:uuid:94a47029-3141-4d2c-976a-0aa274a30a98> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://smart-cycling.org/life/19031-elizabeth-cady-stanton-seneca-falls-convention-291-178.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00227.warc.gz | en | 0.981329 | 605 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.257661700248... | 2 | Elizabeth Cady Stanton Quotes (Author of The Womans Bible)
Women's Suffrage: Crash Course US History #31
A History of the Seneca Falls 1848 Women's Rights Convention
The credentials committee ruled that women were "constitutionally unfit for public and business meetings. Elizabeth Cady Stanton later credited conversations held with Lucretia Mott in that segregated women's section for the idea of holding a mass meeting to address the rights of women. William Lloyd Garrison arrived after the debate about women speaking; in protest of the decision, he spent the convention in the women's section. Lucretia Mott came from a Quaker tradition in which women were able to speak in church; Elizabeth Cady Stanton had already asserted her sense of women's equality by refusing to have the word "obey" included in her marriage ceremony. Both were committed to the cause of abolition of slavery; their experience in working for freedom in one arena seemed to solidify their sense that full human rights must be extended to women, too. But it was not until an visit of Lucretia Mott with her sister, Martha Coffin Wright, during an annual Quaker convention, that the idea of a women's rights convention turned into plans, and Seneca Falls became a reality. Hunt, at the home of Jane Hunt.
The Seneca Falls Convention was the first women's rights convention. Attracting widespread attention, it was soon followed by other women's rights conventions, including the Rochester Women's Rights Convention in Rochester, New York , two weeks later. Female Quakers local to the area organized the meeting along with Elizabeth Cady Stanton , who was not a Quaker.
home by another way childrens book
What Was the Seneca Falls Convention?
Despite scarce publicity, people—mostly area residents—showed up. On the first day, only women were allowed to attend the second day was open to men. All passed unanimously except for the ninth resolution, which demanded the right to vote for women. Stanton and African American abolitionist Frederick Douglass gave impassioned speeches in its defense before it eventually and barely passed. The five women who organized the Seneca Falls Convention were also active in the abolitionist movement , which called for the emancipation of slaves and the end of racial discrimination. They included:. Stanton and Mott first met in London in , where they were attending the World Anti-Slavery Convention with their husbands.
The Seneca Falls Convention is regarded by many as the birthplace of American feminism. She further described the unequal, separate spheres women are forced into and called for action. Among the resolutions were the rights to property and education. On July 20, the Declaration was ratified by the assembly. There was a fight regarding only one resolution: the right to vote. However, Stanton, along with abolitionist Frederick Douglass, argued the necessity of the vote and adopted the resolution. This event and the outrage it inspired led to the Seneca Falls Convention in | 604 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From the ancient period through the Scientific Revolution, science, medicine and technology have been associated with each other due to different people, ideas and events. In the ancient world, ancient knowledge created a connection between science, medicine and technology . The Greek Physician known as Hippocrates is recognized as one of the most significant people in medicine. Hippocrates believed the human body was made up of four humors; blood, yellow bile, black bile and phlegm. These humors were associated with Aristotle’s four elements air, water, fire and earth. Air with blood, water with phlegm,fire with yellow bile and earth with black bile. During the time it was stated that the human body had to have equal amounts of the four humors. If a person had too much of one of the humors, they would have to eliminate it to return to equilibrium or an even amount of humors throughout the body. This was later studied by Galen, a Greek Philosopher and Physician. Galen believed the four humors was associated with the human temperament and characteristics. Blood meant you were sanguine or active. Yellow Bile mean choleric or short tempered. Black bile meant melancholic or quiet. Phlegm meant phlegmatic or relaxed. With interests in the human anatomy, Galen performed dissections and vivisections on animals like pigs to understand the human anatomy. When a person had so much of one of the humors, physicians used technical procedures to cure people. If there was a lot of blood in a person or the person was sanguine, physicians would use they bloodletting procedure to eliminate blood on the body. The initial cures would be the use of herbal medicines and teas. If that didn’t work risky surgeries with the use of sharp knives were performed, these surgeries eventually led to death. An example of connections between science of technology would be the inventions of Archimedes. Archimedes was a Greek mathematician, engineer and inventor, he invented the lever which was used to lift and move objects and he invented the screw which was used to transfer water for agriculture from one place to another. Water is essential for human life however during the Roman Empire, many people didn’t live near water sources. Aqueducts were created to transfer water to different areas. In De Architectura, Vitruvius states that aqueducts must be built and the regulations must be met. Not only were aqueducts made, Romans also created Roman roads which was primarily used for combat. These paved roads were later used to transport goods from pin A to point B. The Middles Ages also created a connection between science, medicine and technology. People used science and technology to engineer plows, watermills and windmills to improve agriculture. Plows were created to turned the soil, with this method farmers can plants seeds and grow crops faster. Watermills and windmills were used to grind grain into flour, used as energy for mechanical purposes and used to pump water. In the medieval period, medicine was popularly practiced. Mondino de Luzzi, an Italian physician and surgeon, introduced the dissections in the medicine curriculum. During this time practicing and handling human bodies, this was seen as shameful. A person who performed surgery on bodies was known as a barber-surgeon or a demonstrator. The barber-surgeon would perform surgeries on cadavers while the professor gives orders. This would give medical students the opportunity to witness dissections. The Scientific Revolution was known as a logical time thus constructing a connection between science, medicine and technology. Andreas Vesalius, a Flemish physician and author of the On the Fabric of the Human Body, demonstrated and guided dissections for the public. In his book, he presents the body in great detail by writing about the muscles, veins, organs, bones and etc. Many students were eager to learn more about the human anatomy which led to the term autopsia, this meant students would learn about the human anatomy first hand observation. As the increase of interests in the human anatomy increase, anatomy theatres for example in Padua and Leiden were created. This scientific method was created for public observations which led to more ideas and research. More ideas and research was created, however it was difficult to learn because it was almost difficult to find illustrations on interested subjects. The wealthy people had an advantage because they could hire a scribe to rewrite a book for their studies. Johannes Gutenberg, a German inventor and publisher, created the printing press which was a movable printing machine. With his creation, illustrations and information could be shared faster and easier. More scientific and technological inventions included the compass used for expeditions and mapmaking, Leonardo’s flying machines and Ramelli book wheel. Different people, events and ideas greatly influenced the world through science, medicine and technology. | <urn:uuid:91e897d4-b518-4d8a-b39b-c978c9b30874> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://heliosenlighten.org/from-fire-and-earth-air-with-blood-water/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00145.warc.gz | en | 0.980636 | 1,002 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.09553670138... | 2 | From the ancient period through the Scientific Revolution, science, medicine and technology have been associated with each other due to different people, ideas and events. In the ancient world, ancient knowledge created a connection between science, medicine and technology . The Greek Physician known as Hippocrates is recognized as one of the most significant people in medicine. Hippocrates believed the human body was made up of four humors; blood, yellow bile, black bile and phlegm. These humors were associated with Aristotle’s four elements air, water, fire and earth. Air with blood, water with phlegm,fire with yellow bile and earth with black bile. During the time it was stated that the human body had to have equal amounts of the four humors. If a person had too much of one of the humors, they would have to eliminate it to return to equilibrium or an even amount of humors throughout the body. This was later studied by Galen, a Greek Philosopher and Physician. Galen believed the four humors was associated with the human temperament and characteristics. Blood meant you were sanguine or active. Yellow Bile mean choleric or short tempered. Black bile meant melancholic or quiet. Phlegm meant phlegmatic or relaxed. With interests in the human anatomy, Galen performed dissections and vivisections on animals like pigs to understand the human anatomy. When a person had so much of one of the humors, physicians used technical procedures to cure people. If there was a lot of blood in a person or the person was sanguine, physicians would use they bloodletting procedure to eliminate blood on the body. The initial cures would be the use of herbal medicines and teas. If that didn’t work risky surgeries with the use of sharp knives were performed, these surgeries eventually led to death. An example of connections between science of technology would be the inventions of Archimedes. Archimedes was a Greek mathematician, engineer and inventor, he invented the lever which was used to lift and move objects and he invented the screw which was used to transfer water for agriculture from one place to another. Water is essential for human life however during the Roman Empire, many people didn’t live near water sources. Aqueducts were created to transfer water to different areas. In De Architectura, Vitruvius states that aqueducts must be built and the regulations must be met. Not only were aqueducts made, Romans also created Roman roads which was primarily used for combat. These paved roads were later used to transport goods from pin A to point B. The Middles Ages also created a connection between science, medicine and technology. People used science and technology to engineer plows, watermills and windmills to improve agriculture. Plows were created to turned the soil, with this method farmers can plants seeds and grow crops faster. Watermills and windmills were used to grind grain into flour, used as energy for mechanical purposes and used to pump water. In the medieval period, medicine was popularly practiced. Mondino de Luzzi, an Italian physician and surgeon, introduced the dissections in the medicine curriculum. During this time practicing and handling human bodies, this was seen as shameful. A person who performed surgery on bodies was known as a barber-surgeon or a demonstrator. The barber-surgeon would perform surgeries on cadavers while the professor gives orders. This would give medical students the opportunity to witness dissections. The Scientific Revolution was known as a logical time thus constructing a connection between science, medicine and technology. Andreas Vesalius, a Flemish physician and author of the On the Fabric of the Human Body, demonstrated and guided dissections for the public. In his book, he presents the body in great detail by writing about the muscles, veins, organs, bones and etc. Many students were eager to learn more about the human anatomy which led to the term autopsia, this meant students would learn about the human anatomy first hand observation. As the increase of interests in the human anatomy increase, anatomy theatres for example in Padua and Leiden were created. This scientific method was created for public observations which led to more ideas and research. More ideas and research was created, however it was difficult to learn because it was almost difficult to find illustrations on interested subjects. The wealthy people had an advantage because they could hire a scribe to rewrite a book for their studies. Johannes Gutenberg, a German inventor and publisher, created the printing press which was a movable printing machine. With his creation, illustrations and information could be shared faster and easier. More scientific and technological inventions included the compass used for expeditions and mapmaking, Leonardo’s flying machines and Ramelli book wheel. Different people, events and ideas greatly influenced the world through science, medicine and technology. | 974 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William II (England)
WILLIAM II (in German, Wilhelm II, 1859–1941, ruled 1888–1918), German kaiser and king of Prussia.
William II, the last king of Prussia and German emperor, possessed a royal lineage that might well have been the envy of many another European sovereign. He was the eldest grandson of both the first German emperor, William I (r. 1871–1888), and Queen Victoria (r. 1837–1901), and was a descendant of Russian tsars as well. From the moment of his birth in 1859 he was destined for a great future but also beset by handicap, for as a result of his protracted delivery his left arm was paralyzed for life. Although the child learned to accept this misfortune and became remarkably adept at sports, his mother, Victoria, was mortified that her son was less than physically perfect. She made her disappointment evident, and thus began the pronounced estrangement between mother and son that endured until her death when William was forty-two.
William's education from the time that he was seven until he reached eighteen and was ready for a university was in the hands of the stern, unappeasable and relentless Georg Hinzpeter. No wonder that in 1877, when William finally escaped his grasp, he found great pleasure in his new life at the University of Bonn, where, however, he was an indifferent student. After two years he had had enough and took up a military career that was infinitely more to his liking. In the army, he would declare, he found not only his true vocation but also the warm family atmosphere that his mother had deliberately withheld. William's fellow officers greeted him cordially, but very few could detect any real military talent in their future ruler. Government officials, who periodically attempted to introduce William to diplomatic or domestic affairs, similarly found him unimpressive.
By the time William was in his mid-twenties he was an object of some concern. Willful, conceited, lazy, and unjustifiably self-impressed, he was to his father, the genuinely heroic Crown Prince, a bogus "compleat lieutenant" and to Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898), the imperial chancellor, a loquacious nullity. The thought of such a stripling on the throne was disquieting, but William II would follow old William I, born in 1797, and the Crown Prince, born in 1831. Young William's succession, it seemed, would be postponed for at least a decade or two, during which time he might somehow manage to become more mature. That optimistic hope fell to pieces in the fall of 1887, when the Crown Prince was diagnosed as suffering from a fatal carcinoma of the larynx. Whether he would live to succeed his ninety-year-old father seemed in doubt. William I died in March 1888, and ninety-nine days later the Crown Prince, who had succeeded him as Emperor Frederick III, expired from his malady. William II, at twenty-nine, was now the German kaiser and king of Prussia.
As ruler, the new kaiser was persuaded that he was endowed by God Almighty with powers and responsibilities and that his authority, thoroughly upheld by both the Prussian and imperial constitutions, was to be personally exercised however he wished. William was avidly supported in this estimation by his entourage, men frequently military by profession, almost entirely sycophantic in behavior, and whose principal qualification for appointment to the entourage was their unquestioning allegiance to the young ruler. This inflation of William II's ego was also served by his wife, the Empress Augusta Victoria (1858–1921), a lackluster, prosaic woman who lived entirely in her consort's shadow. The first casualty of William's personalized monarchy was Bismarck, a man of titanic self-assurance and Caesarian mien, who was sent packing early in 1890. The new chancellor, General Leo von Caprivi (1831–1899), found that the emperor and his entourage could not effectively be resisted, an experience
that his successor in 1894, Prince Chlodwig von Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst (1819–1901), also found to be true. Hohenlohe would last until 1900, when he yielded to Bernhard von Bülow (1849–1929), who was known as "the eel" for his oleaginous manner and suave handling of his imperial master. Although insistent on making full use of his prerogative, William was so inconstant and dilatory, so prone to sudden changes of opinion and to new enthusiasms, he in fact was not the supreme autocrat he believed himself to be. The so-called persönliches Regiment (personal regime) was actually exercised by his aristocratic minions in the military and civil bureaucracy.
The work that William's dutiful servants had to perform was complicated because of the kaiser's incessant, bombastic intrusions. The last kaiser believed himself to be a genius, especially at warfare and diplomacy, two areas he preferred to domestic affairs. Resolutely moral, anti-Catholic, and Francophobe, he wrote France off as racially inferior and eternally inimical to the German Empire. Toward Great Britain, the land of his disliked mother's birth, William was ambivalent. He envied its wealth but loathed what he considered its moral laxity and lust for power. The Slavs, like the French, were a lesser breed, but the Russian tsars, being like himself—autocrats of limitless power—could be useful allies. Since the Italians were beneath notice as Latins and degenerates and the minuscule kings from the house of Savoy little more than hairy dwarfs, only Austria-Hungary was a truly suitable ally for imperial Germany. William greatly admired Emperor Francis Joseph I (r. 1848–1916), and one of the very few consistent strands in his life was his devotion to the Habsburg sovereign. In diplomacy, William fostered the alliance of 1879 with Austria-Hungary, hoped in vain to rope Russia in as an ally, and alienated the British by his offensive behavior and by the construction beginning in 1898 of a vast battle-ship-based navy. By 1914, Germany had no allies other than Austria-Hungary, and that was perhaps more a liability than an asset.
Within Germany, William aspired to make himself popular, and to achieve this aim he began his reign trying to pose as the friend of the working class. This did not capture the multitudes and William eventually grew resentful of the ever increasing rise of the doctrinarily Marxist Social Democratic party, which following the elections of 1912 became the largest faction in the imperial legislature. Meanwhile, William had alienated the second most numerous party, the Catholic Center, by his resolute prejudice against Catholicism, nor did he have many admirers among the middle parties representing the interests of business and commerce. As a result, William's governments staggered through a series of parliamentary crises and the regime was increasingly discredited. William's own stature sank in popularity as a result of these difficulties and also because of a variety of scandals, some of them surrounding accusations of homosexuality involving a number of his closest associates in the entourage. The reign of the last kaiser was not only full of unresolved crises, it was also messy and unedifying.
Finally, William's regime was dreary. The kaiser's court, though splendid and run like clockwork, was a bore. The throne was adamantly opposed to any innovations in the arts and patronized only those who praised the sovereign and delivered traditional works of second- or third-rate quality. There was no place in William's artistic galaxy for Richard Georg Strauss (1864–1949) or Max Liebermann (1847–1935) or Gerhart Hauptmann (1862–1946).
Germany's antediluvian political system was paradoxically coexistent with one of the most remarkable economic upsurges any nation in Europe enjoyed in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Industry prospered and commerce spread around the world. William II is not entitled to any credit on this score, for he was snobbish toward the middle class although he envied their wealth. An occasional entrepreneur, notably the Krupps of Essen or Albert Ballin (1857–1918), the Hamburg shipping magnate, might fraternize with the kaiser, but none was ever part of the inner circle, and William remained as ignorant of economics as he was of almost everything else.
In 1913, William celebrated the twenty-fifth anniversary of his ascension to the Prussian and imperial throne. The occasion was appropriately pompous but also rather contrived, for the sovereign being honored was neither popular nor notably respected. Throughout his reign there were suspicions that he was mentally unbalanced, and many who knew him well believed this to be the case, citing as evidence William's irrepressible loquacity, incessant traveling, astounding tactlessness, and nervous prostration at moments of crisis. William in fact may have been the victim of porphyria, a genetic disorder that has mental as well as physical symptoms. The kaiser's Germany was rich, it was powerfully armed, but it had few friends, a number of notable enemies, and a marked lack of internal political stability. Just a year after the observance of the anniversary, Germany found itself at war, blockaded at sea and outnumbered on land. The fate of Germany, in that ominous moment in its history, rested on a man utterly unequal to the challenge, an emperor who, for all his splendor, was a vacuous, blundering epigone who reduced his splendid inheritance to inglorious ruin.
Röhl, John C. G., ed. Philipp Eulenburgs Politische Korrespondenz. 3 vols. Boppard am Rhein, 1976–1983.
Cecil, Lamar. Wilhelm II: Prince and Emperor, 1859–1900. Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989.
——. Wilhelm II: Emperor and Exile, 1900–1941. Chapel Hill, N.C., 1996.
Hull, Isabel V. The Entourage of Kaiser Wilhelm II, 1888–1918. Cambridge, U.K., 1982.
Röhl, John C. G. Young Wilhelm: The Kaiser's Early Life, 1859–1888. Translated by Jeremy Gaines and Rebecca Wallach. Cambridge, U.K., 1998.
——. The Kaiser's Personal Monarchy, 1888–1900. Cambridge, U.K., 2004.
Röhl, John C. G., and Nicolaus Sombart, eds. Kaiser Wilhelm II. New Interpretations: The Corfu Papers. Cambridge, U.K., 1982.
The last of the Hohenzollern rulers, William II (1859-1941) was emperor of Germany and king of Prussia from 1888 until his forced abdication in 1918.
In the crucial years before World War I, William II was the most powerful and most controversial figure in Europe. His domineering personality and the comparatively vague political structure of the post-Bismarck state combined to make his reign over the most advanced country in Europe both authoritarian and archaic.
William was born on Jan. 27, 1859. He was the son of Frederick III and Princess Victoria of England. William's views of his prerogatives were strongly influenced by his Prussian military education, amidst the subservience and flattery of his fellow cadets. After completing his studies at the University of Bonn, William entered the army and in 1881 married Princess Augusta Victoria of Schleswig Holstein.
William was an intelligent, dashing, impulsive young man who loved military display and believed in the divine nature of kingship; his strong personality overcame the serious handicap (for a horseman) of a withered left arm. His father found William immature, but Chancellor Otto von Bismarck considered him a more acceptable successor to his grandfather (and to Frederick the Great) than his liberal father. Conservative circles in Germany breathed a sigh of relief when the death of William I in 1888 was quickly followed by that of Frederick III. William II ascended the throne that year.
Differences between the young kaiser and the aging Bismarck soon were public knowledge. Serious questions of policy separated them, such as whether to renew the anti-Socialist legislation on the books since 1878, and in foreign affairs, whether to keep the alliance with Russia as well as with Austria, as Bismarck insisted. But basically the split was a personal one, the question being which man was to rule Germany. William forced Bismarck to resign in 1890, and thereafter he steered his own course.
It seemed to mark the beginning of a new era. William was the representative of a new generation that had grown up since German unification, and he was at home in the world of technology and of neoromantic German nationalism. Indeed, William gave the impression of dynamism. He was always in the public eye and caught, for a time, the imagination of his country. But he cared little for the day-to-day problems of government, and his "policies" were often shallow, short-lived, and contradictory. Thus the "Labor Emperor" of the early years of the reign soon became the implacable enemy of the Social Democratic working-class movement. In foreign policy his inconsistencies were even more glaring. England and Russia, in particular, were alternately wooed and rebuffed; both ultimately ended up as foes. Sometimes the Kaiser's sounder instincts were overridden by his advisers, as in the Morocco crisis of 1905, which William, who was essentially peaceful in intent, had not wished to provoke. But mainly his mistakes were his own.
Foreign opinion concerning the Kaiser was much more hostile than German opinion, and his often bellicose and pompous utterances did much to tarnish Germany's image abroad. Nevertheless, World War I and postwar depictions of him as the incarnation of all that was evil in Germany were grossly unfair. So little was he the martial leader of a militaristic nation that his authority in fact faded during World War I, and the military assumed increasing control. Belatedly, William tried to rally a warweary nation with promises of democratic reforms, but at the end of the war the German Republic was proclaimed without serious opposition. William abdicated in November 1918.
After his abdication William lived in quiet retirement in Doorn, Holland, not actively involved with the movement for a restoration of the monarchy. He died in Doorn on June 4, 1941.
Most studies of William II have been in a popular vein. Two good recent biographies are Virginia Cowles, The Kaiser (1963), and Michael Balfour, The Kaiser and His Time (1964). William's autobiographical My Early Life (trans. 1926) ends at 1888. □
David Richard Bates
Barlow, F. , William Rufus (1983).
William II (ca. 1058-1100) called William Rufus, "the Red," was king of England from 1087 to 1100. He attempted to wrest Normandy from his brother, and he quarreled about his rights over the Church with Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury.
William II was the second surviving son of William I and Matilda of Flanders. On the death of William I his lands were divided; his elder son Robert became Duke of Normandy, while William Rufus received England. He was crowned on Sept. 26, 1087. He had almost at once to face a rebellion in favor of Robert, led by their uncle Odo, Earl of Kent and Bishop of Bayeux. The rebels were defeated largely with the help of English levies, to whom William promised, among other things, less taxation and milder forest laws, but he did not keep his promise. In 1091 he attacked Normandy with some success; by the treaty of Rouen, Robert let him hold what he had won in return for help in restoring order and regaining the county of Maine. These promises too were only partially fulfilled.
Archbishop Lanfranc died in 1089. William, who seems to have been openly irreligious, kept the see vacant and exploited the leaderless Church through his able and unpopular minister Ranulf Flambard. But in 1093, thinking he was dying, he appointed as archbishop Anselm, Abbot of Bec, a leading theologian, who made every effort to decline the office. The King recovered, shook off his superstitious fears, and soon quarreled with the archbishop. The first dispute arose over the recognition of one of two rival popes; more trouble arose over the poor quality of the archbishop's knights; in addition William would not allow Anselm to visit the Pope to obtain his pallium. A council at Rockingham (February 1095) failed to make a decision about the arch-bishop's rights. The King wished for his deposition but was outmaneuvered by a papal legate to England.
In 1096 Duke Robert decided to go on crusade. To finance his expedition he offered to pledge the duchy to William for 100,000 marks. William raised the money in England and so got control of Normandy, where he restored order and attacked Maine and the French Vexin. He was considering a similar bargain with the Duke of Aquitaine, but on Aug. 2, 1100, while hunting in the New Forest with his brother Henry, he was killed by an arrow shot by Walter Tirel. His body was brought by a forester to Winchester and buried without ceremony in the Cathedral, while his brother seized his treasure and his throne.
William was an able ruler and in his disputes with Anselm was only claiming rights which his father had exercised. His reputation suffered because he was a homosexual and an irreligious man in an age when prejudices were strong and nearly all history was written by churchmen.
Useful information about William Rufus is provided in the biography of his brother by Charles Wendell David, Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy (1920). A good account of the England of William's time is in A. Lane Poole, From Domesday Book to Magna Carta, 1087-1216 (1951; 2d ed. 1955), and of Normandy in Charles Homer Haskins, Norman Institutions (1918).
Barlow, Frank, William Rufus, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. □ | <urn:uuid:bc5ad624-d7d3-4ea3-ab5e-1d6278509177> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/british-and-irish-history-biographies/william-ii-england | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00251.warc.gz | en | 0.982134 | 3,874 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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WILLIAM II (in German, Wilhelm II, 1859–1941, ruled 1888–1918), German kaiser and king of Prussia.
William II, the last king of Prussia and German emperor, possessed a royal lineage that might well have been the envy of many another European sovereign. He was the eldest grandson of both the first German emperor, William I (r. 1871–1888), and Queen Victoria (r. 1837–1901), and was a descendant of Russian tsars as well. From the moment of his birth in 1859 he was destined for a great future but also beset by handicap, for as a result of his protracted delivery his left arm was paralyzed for life. Although the child learned to accept this misfortune and became remarkably adept at sports, his mother, Victoria, was mortified that her son was less than physically perfect. She made her disappointment evident, and thus began the pronounced estrangement between mother and son that endured until her death when William was forty-two.
William's education from the time that he was seven until he reached eighteen and was ready for a university was in the hands of the stern, unappeasable and relentless Georg Hinzpeter. No wonder that in 1877, when William finally escaped his grasp, he found great pleasure in his new life at the University of Bonn, where, however, he was an indifferent student. After two years he had had enough and took up a military career that was infinitely more to his liking. In the army, he would declare, he found not only his true vocation but also the warm family atmosphere that his mother had deliberately withheld. William's fellow officers greeted him cordially, but very few could detect any real military talent in their future ruler. Government officials, who periodically attempted to introduce William to diplomatic or domestic affairs, similarly found him unimpressive.
By the time William was in his mid-twenties he was an object of some concern. Willful, conceited, lazy, and unjustifiably self-impressed, he was to his father, the genuinely heroic Crown Prince, a bogus "compleat lieutenant" and to Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898), the imperial chancellor, a loquacious nullity. The thought of such a stripling on the throne was disquieting, but William II would follow old William I, born in 1797, and the Crown Prince, born in 1831. Young William's succession, it seemed, would be postponed for at least a decade or two, during which time he might somehow manage to become more mature. That optimistic hope fell to pieces in the fall of 1887, when the Crown Prince was diagnosed as suffering from a fatal carcinoma of the larynx. Whether he would live to succeed his ninety-year-old father seemed in doubt. William I died in March 1888, and ninety-nine days later the Crown Prince, who had succeeded him as Emperor Frederick III, expired from his malady. William II, at twenty-nine, was now the German kaiser and king of Prussia.
As ruler, the new kaiser was persuaded that he was endowed by God Almighty with powers and responsibilities and that his authority, thoroughly upheld by both the Prussian and imperial constitutions, was to be personally exercised however he wished. William was avidly supported in this estimation by his entourage, men frequently military by profession, almost entirely sycophantic in behavior, and whose principal qualification for appointment to the entourage was their unquestioning allegiance to the young ruler. This inflation of William II's ego was also served by his wife, the Empress Augusta Victoria (1858–1921), a lackluster, prosaic woman who lived entirely in her consort's shadow. The first casualty of William's personalized monarchy was Bismarck, a man of titanic self-assurance and Caesarian mien, who was sent packing early in 1890. The new chancellor, General Leo von Caprivi (1831–1899), found that the emperor and his entourage could not effectively be resisted, an experience
that his successor in 1894, Prince Chlodwig von Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst (1819–1901), also found to be true. Hohenlohe would last until 1900, when he yielded to Bernhard von Bülow (1849–1929), who was known as "the eel" for his oleaginous manner and suave handling of his imperial master. Although insistent on making full use of his prerogative, William was so inconstant and dilatory, so prone to sudden changes of opinion and to new enthusiasms, he in fact was not the supreme autocrat he believed himself to be. The so-called persönliches Regiment (personal regime) was actually exercised by his aristocratic minions in the military and civil bureaucracy.
The work that William's dutiful servants had to perform was complicated because of the kaiser's incessant, bombastic intrusions. The last kaiser believed himself to be a genius, especially at warfare and diplomacy, two areas he preferred to domestic affairs. Resolutely moral, anti-Catholic, and Francophobe, he wrote France off as racially inferior and eternally inimical to the German Empire. Toward Great Britain, the land of his disliked mother's birth, William was ambivalent. He envied its wealth but loathed what he considered its moral laxity and lust for power. The Slavs, like the French, were a lesser breed, but the Russian tsars, being like himself—autocrats of limitless power—could be useful allies. Since the Italians were beneath notice as Latins and degenerates and the minuscule kings from the house of Savoy little more than hairy dwarfs, only Austria-Hungary was a truly suitable ally for imperial Germany. William greatly admired Emperor Francis Joseph I (r. 1848–1916), and one of the very few consistent strands in his life was his devotion to the Habsburg sovereign. In diplomacy, William fostered the alliance of 1879 with Austria-Hungary, hoped in vain to rope Russia in as an ally, and alienated the British by his offensive behavior and by the construction beginning in 1898 of a vast battle-ship-based navy. By 1914, Germany had no allies other than Austria-Hungary, and that was perhaps more a liability than an asset.
Within Germany, William aspired to make himself popular, and to achieve this aim he began his reign trying to pose as the friend of the working class. This did not capture the multitudes and William eventually grew resentful of the ever increasing rise of the doctrinarily Marxist Social Democratic party, which following the elections of 1912 became the largest faction in the imperial legislature. Meanwhile, William had alienated the second most numerous party, the Catholic Center, by his resolute prejudice against Catholicism, nor did he have many admirers among the middle parties representing the interests of business and commerce. As a result, William's governments staggered through a series of parliamentary crises and the regime was increasingly discredited. William's own stature sank in popularity as a result of these difficulties and also because of a variety of scandals, some of them surrounding accusations of homosexuality involving a number of his closest associates in the entourage. The reign of the last kaiser was not only full of unresolved crises, it was also messy and unedifying.
Finally, William's regime was dreary. The kaiser's court, though splendid and run like clockwork, was a bore. The throne was adamantly opposed to any innovations in the arts and patronized only those who praised the sovereign and delivered traditional works of second- or third-rate quality. There was no place in William's artistic galaxy for Richard Georg Strauss (1864–1949) or Max Liebermann (1847–1935) or Gerhart Hauptmann (1862–1946).
Germany's antediluvian political system was paradoxically coexistent with one of the most remarkable economic upsurges any nation in Europe enjoyed in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Industry prospered and commerce spread around the world. William II is not entitled to any credit on this score, for he was snobbish toward the middle class although he envied their wealth. An occasional entrepreneur, notably the Krupps of Essen or Albert Ballin (1857–1918), the Hamburg shipping magnate, might fraternize with the kaiser, but none was ever part of the inner circle, and William remained as ignorant of economics as he was of almost everything else.
In 1913, William celebrated the twenty-fifth anniversary of his ascension to the Prussian and imperial throne. The occasion was appropriately pompous but also rather contrived, for the sovereign being honored was neither popular nor notably respected. Throughout his reign there were suspicions that he was mentally unbalanced, and many who knew him well believed this to be the case, citing as evidence William's irrepressible loquacity, incessant traveling, astounding tactlessness, and nervous prostration at moments of crisis. William in fact may have been the victim of porphyria, a genetic disorder that has mental as well as physical symptoms. The kaiser's Germany was rich, it was powerfully armed, but it had few friends, a number of notable enemies, and a marked lack of internal political stability. Just a year after the observance of the anniversary, Germany found itself at war, blockaded at sea and outnumbered on land. The fate of Germany, in that ominous moment in its history, rested on a man utterly unequal to the challenge, an emperor who, for all his splendor, was a vacuous, blundering epigone who reduced his splendid inheritance to inglorious ruin.
Röhl, John C. G., ed. Philipp Eulenburgs Politische Korrespondenz. 3 vols. Boppard am Rhein, 1976–1983.
Cecil, Lamar. Wilhelm II: Prince and Emperor, 1859–1900. Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989.
——. Wilhelm II: Emperor and Exile, 1900–1941. Chapel Hill, N.C., 1996.
Hull, Isabel V. The Entourage of Kaiser Wilhelm II, 1888–1918. Cambridge, U.K., 1982.
Röhl, John C. G. Young Wilhelm: The Kaiser's Early Life, 1859–1888. Translated by Jeremy Gaines and Rebecca Wallach. Cambridge, U.K., 1998.
——. The Kaiser's Personal Monarchy, 1888–1900. Cambridge, U.K., 2004.
Röhl, John C. G., and Nicolaus Sombart, eds. Kaiser Wilhelm II. New Interpretations: The Corfu Papers. Cambridge, U.K., 1982.
The last of the Hohenzollern rulers, William II (1859-1941) was emperor of Germany and king of Prussia from 1888 until his forced abdication in 1918.
In the crucial years before World War I, William II was the most powerful and most controversial figure in Europe. His domineering personality and the comparatively vague political structure of the post-Bismarck state combined to make his reign over the most advanced country in Europe both authoritarian and archaic.
William was born on Jan. 27, 1859. He was the son of Frederick III and Princess Victoria of England. William's views of his prerogatives were strongly influenced by his Prussian military education, amidst the subservience and flattery of his fellow cadets. After completing his studies at the University of Bonn, William entered the army and in 1881 married Princess Augusta Victoria of Schleswig Holstein.
William was an intelligent, dashing, impulsive young man who loved military display and believed in the divine nature of kingship; his strong personality overcame the serious handicap (for a horseman) of a withered left arm. His father found William immature, but Chancellor Otto von Bismarck considered him a more acceptable successor to his grandfather (and to Frederick the Great) than his liberal father. Conservative circles in Germany breathed a sigh of relief when the death of William I in 1888 was quickly followed by that of Frederick III. William II ascended the throne that year.
Differences between the young kaiser and the aging Bismarck soon were public knowledge. Serious questions of policy separated them, such as whether to renew the anti-Socialist legislation on the books since 1878, and in foreign affairs, whether to keep the alliance with Russia as well as with Austria, as Bismarck insisted. But basically the split was a personal one, the question being which man was to rule Germany. William forced Bismarck to resign in 1890, and thereafter he steered his own course.
It seemed to mark the beginning of a new era. William was the representative of a new generation that had grown up since German unification, and he was at home in the world of technology and of neoromantic German nationalism. Indeed, William gave the impression of dynamism. He was always in the public eye and caught, for a time, the imagination of his country. But he cared little for the day-to-day problems of government, and his "policies" were often shallow, short-lived, and contradictory. Thus the "Labor Emperor" of the early years of the reign soon became the implacable enemy of the Social Democratic working-class movement. In foreign policy his inconsistencies were even more glaring. England and Russia, in particular, were alternately wooed and rebuffed; both ultimately ended up as foes. Sometimes the Kaiser's sounder instincts were overridden by his advisers, as in the Morocco crisis of 1905, which William, who was essentially peaceful in intent, had not wished to provoke. But mainly his mistakes were his own.
Foreign opinion concerning the Kaiser was much more hostile than German opinion, and his often bellicose and pompous utterances did much to tarnish Germany's image abroad. Nevertheless, World War I and postwar depictions of him as the incarnation of all that was evil in Germany were grossly unfair. So little was he the martial leader of a militaristic nation that his authority in fact faded during World War I, and the military assumed increasing control. Belatedly, William tried to rally a warweary nation with promises of democratic reforms, but at the end of the war the German Republic was proclaimed without serious opposition. William abdicated in November 1918.
After his abdication William lived in quiet retirement in Doorn, Holland, not actively involved with the movement for a restoration of the monarchy. He died in Doorn on June 4, 1941.
Most studies of William II have been in a popular vein. Two good recent biographies are Virginia Cowles, The Kaiser (1963), and Michael Balfour, The Kaiser and His Time (1964). William's autobiographical My Early Life (trans. 1926) ends at 1888. □
David Richard Bates
Barlow, F. , William Rufus (1983).
William II (ca. 1058-1100) called William Rufus, "the Red," was king of England from 1087 to 1100. He attempted to wrest Normandy from his brother, and he quarreled about his rights over the Church with Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury.
William II was the second surviving son of William I and Matilda of Flanders. On the death of William I his lands were divided; his elder son Robert became Duke of Normandy, while William Rufus received England. He was crowned on Sept. 26, 1087. He had almost at once to face a rebellion in favor of Robert, led by their uncle Odo, Earl of Kent and Bishop of Bayeux. The rebels were defeated largely with the help of English levies, to whom William promised, among other things, less taxation and milder forest laws, but he did not keep his promise. In 1091 he attacked Normandy with some success; by the treaty of Rouen, Robert let him hold what he had won in return for help in restoring order and regaining the county of Maine. These promises too were only partially fulfilled.
Archbishop Lanfranc died in 1089. William, who seems to have been openly irreligious, kept the see vacant and exploited the leaderless Church through his able and unpopular minister Ranulf Flambard. But in 1093, thinking he was dying, he appointed as archbishop Anselm, Abbot of Bec, a leading theologian, who made every effort to decline the office. The King recovered, shook off his superstitious fears, and soon quarreled with the archbishop. The first dispute arose over the recognition of one of two rival popes; more trouble arose over the poor quality of the archbishop's knights; in addition William would not allow Anselm to visit the Pope to obtain his pallium. A council at Rockingham (February 1095) failed to make a decision about the arch-bishop's rights. The King wished for his deposition but was outmaneuvered by a papal legate to England.
In 1096 Duke Robert decided to go on crusade. To finance his expedition he offered to pledge the duchy to William for 100,000 marks. William raised the money in England and so got control of Normandy, where he restored order and attacked Maine and the French Vexin. He was considering a similar bargain with the Duke of Aquitaine, but on Aug. 2, 1100, while hunting in the New Forest with his brother Henry, he was killed by an arrow shot by Walter Tirel. His body was brought by a forester to Winchester and buried without ceremony in the Cathedral, while his brother seized his treasure and his throne.
William was an able ruler and in his disputes with Anselm was only claiming rights which his father had exercised. His reputation suffered because he was a homosexual and an irreligious man in an age when prejudices were strong and nearly all history was written by churchmen.
Useful information about William Rufus is provided in the biography of his brother by Charles Wendell David, Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy (1920). A good account of the England of William's time is in A. Lane Poole, From Domesday Book to Magna Carta, 1087-1216 (1951; 2d ed. 1955), and of Normandy in Charles Homer Haskins, Norman Institutions (1918).
Barlow, Frank, William Rufus, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. □ | 4,120 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History 121 is a study of the United States from colonial and indigenous colonial beginnings to the period of the Civil War and early Reconstructions. This research paper will focus on the American Civil War.
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Abraham Lincoln made South Carolina’s succession from the Union on 20 December 1860 as a foregone conclusion just after he had worn the presidential election (Frank, 2006). The state had been waiting for a chance to unite with the south against the antislavery force and by 1 February 1861, there were five southern states. On 4 March 1861, Lincoln was sworn in as the president of the United States of America (Frank, 2006). He made a declaration that would restore the bonds with the Union. This resulted to the confederate guns opening fire on 12 April and it was the commencement of an era of war that saw many Americans die than in any other prior conflict. The seven states that had seceded did respond positively to the confederate action. When Virginia seceded on 17 April, other states followed suit and they included Arkansas, North Carolina and Tennessee. The slave states of Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland and Delaware remained loyal to the union despite showing sympathy to the south because the enlarged confederate and the free soil were on the border. Hence, each side entered the war with high hopes of winning the war. Despite the north, having an advantage of a population of 22 million that comprised of 23 states while the south had only 11 states with 9 million people that also comprised of the slaves. In addition, the north was industrially superior because it provided abundant facilities in the manufacturing of arm and ammunition and it had a superior railway system. The south also had certain advantages over the north in that the defensive war was to take place in its own territory. They also had a strong military tradition and they possessed military leaders who were experienced.
Bull Run in Virginia was the first large battle that stripped away the illusion that victory was to come quickly and easy. In contrast to the military failures in the East, the Union was able to attain success in the West and slow strategic victories at sea. Lincoln advocated a blockade on the Southern Coasts, which led to the prevention of exporting cotton to Europe and the importation of clothing, medical supplies and the much-needed ammunition to the South. In 1862, David Farragut a brilliant union naval commander wentto Mississippi river and forced New Orleans the largest city in the South to surrender. The Union won almost uninterrupted victories and led to 10,000 people to be killed and wounded on each side at Shiloh making it the highest number of casualties in America. The second confederate victory in Bull Run responded tentatively making General Robert E. Lee to retreat across the Potomac with his army intact thus making Lincoln to fire McClellan. Although Antietam was momentous, it was inconclusive in terms of military. When France and Great Britain were on the verge of recognizing confederacy, they did delay their decision, making the South suffer because they did not receive economic aid or the diplomatic recognition that it desperately wanted.
On July 22, 1862, Lincoln showed a draft of the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation to his cabinet but it was not until 1 January 1863 when Antietam gave Abraham Lincoln the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation that declared that slaves were free in the rebelling states (Frank, 2006). In the beginning, it had no or little impact because slaves were freed in the confederated states only, leaving slavery in boarder states but behind it all, it was now a desired objective by the Union. Emancipation Proclamation allowed the recruitment of African Americans in the Union army (Hart, 1994). Since the union had being sheltering the slaves who had escaped. Throughout this time, African American men had continued to put pressure on the army so that they could enlist them. Only a few commanders had made the incentive in the field to recruit southern African Americans into their forces but it was not until Lincoln issued the final Emancipation Proclamation that the federal army would officially accept black soldiers into its ranks (Hart, 1994).
The Emancipation Proclamation allowed them to be trained and recruited as soldiers who eventually fought in battles from Mississippi to Virginia (Hart, 1994). The Union’s military prospects in the East remained bleak despite the political gains that had been represented by the Emancipation Proclamation. In July 1863, victories at the Gettysburg and Vicksburg were a major turning point in the war despite the bloodshed. While in the West, the Union did gain control over Tennessee, thus creating a way in which to invade Georgia. This made some of the people to critical of the proclamation because it only freed some of the slaves.&nbssp; Frederick Douglass was jubilant because he felt that it was the end of slavery. Therefore, it would act as a moral bombshell to the Confederacy for they also feared that Lincoln would give in to pressure from northern conservatives thereby failing to keep his promise. Despite the opposition, the president remained firm on the issue of Emancipation Proclamation.
Hence, he had officially freed all slaves within the states or parts of states that were in rebellion and not in Union hands and it left one million slaves in Union territory still in bondage (Hart, 1994). Throughout the North, packed churches, meeting halls, the new African Americans, and their white allies celebrated while I the South, most slaves did not come to hear of the proclamation for months. This made the purpose of the Civil War to change from only fighting to preserve the Union but now fighting to end slavery.
On 9 April 1865, General Lee was surrounded by the union army giving him no other option than to surrender to Grant at Appomattox courthouse. Robert lee did win the admiration for his brilliance in leadership, greatness in defeat and ending the civil war months later. According to the war, it produced a greater hero in Abraham Lincoln in that he had been able to weld the union again by his warmth and generosity. 23 days later after General Lee surrendered; Lincoln unfolded a Generous Reconstruction policy but was later on assassinated after his last public address by John Wilkes Booth at Fords Theater. Since Lincoln had already set the stage in that, the southern states had never legally seceded because disloyal citizens had misled them.
Andrew Johnson in 1865 proceeded in carrying out Lincoln’s reconstruction program. Reconstruction began during the war and they continued to 1877 in an effort to solve the issues caused by reunion, specifically the legal status of the 11 breakaway states, the freedmen, and the Confederate leadership. Northern leaders during the war agreed that victory would require more than the end of fighting and that they had to encompass the two war goals: all forms of slavery had to be abolished and secession had to be repudiated. Lincoln and the Radical Republicans had disagreed sharply on the criteria for these goals and the degree of federal control that should imposed on the South. Eventually the disputes became central to the political debates after the Confederacy collapsed.
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0.3438143134117... | 1 | History 121 is a study of the United States from colonial and indigenous colonial beginnings to the period of the Civil War and early Reconstructions. This research paper will focus on the American Civil War.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
Abraham Lincoln made South Carolina’s succession from the Union on 20 December 1860 as a foregone conclusion just after he had worn the presidential election (Frank, 2006). The state had been waiting for a chance to unite with the south against the antislavery force and by 1 February 1861, there were five southern states. On 4 March 1861, Lincoln was sworn in as the president of the United States of America (Frank, 2006). He made a declaration that would restore the bonds with the Union. This resulted to the confederate guns opening fire on 12 April and it was the commencement of an era of war that saw many Americans die than in any other prior conflict. The seven states that had seceded did respond positively to the confederate action. When Virginia seceded on 17 April, other states followed suit and they included Arkansas, North Carolina and Tennessee. The slave states of Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland and Delaware remained loyal to the union despite showing sympathy to the south because the enlarged confederate and the free soil were on the border. Hence, each side entered the war with high hopes of winning the war. Despite the north, having an advantage of a population of 22 million that comprised of 23 states while the south had only 11 states with 9 million people that also comprised of the slaves. In addition, the north was industrially superior because it provided abundant facilities in the manufacturing of arm and ammunition and it had a superior railway system. The south also had certain advantages over the north in that the defensive war was to take place in its own territory. They also had a strong military tradition and they possessed military leaders who were experienced.
Bull Run in Virginia was the first large battle that stripped away the illusion that victory was to come quickly and easy. In contrast to the military failures in the East, the Union was able to attain success in the West and slow strategic victories at sea. Lincoln advocated a blockade on the Southern Coasts, which led to the prevention of exporting cotton to Europe and the importation of clothing, medical supplies and the much-needed ammunition to the South. In 1862, David Farragut a brilliant union naval commander wentto Mississippi river and forced New Orleans the largest city in the South to surrender. The Union won almost uninterrupted victories and led to 10,000 people to be killed and wounded on each side at Shiloh making it the highest number of casualties in America. The second confederate victory in Bull Run responded tentatively making General Robert E. Lee to retreat across the Potomac with his army intact thus making Lincoln to fire McClellan. Although Antietam was momentous, it was inconclusive in terms of military. When France and Great Britain were on the verge of recognizing confederacy, they did delay their decision, making the South suffer because they did not receive economic aid or the diplomatic recognition that it desperately wanted.
On July 22, 1862, Lincoln showed a draft of the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation to his cabinet but it was not until 1 January 1863 when Antietam gave Abraham Lincoln the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation that declared that slaves were free in the rebelling states (Frank, 2006). In the beginning, it had no or little impact because slaves were freed in the confederated states only, leaving slavery in boarder states but behind it all, it was now a desired objective by the Union. Emancipation Proclamation allowed the recruitment of African Americans in the Union army (Hart, 1994). Since the union had being sheltering the slaves who had escaped. Throughout this time, African American men had continued to put pressure on the army so that they could enlist them. Only a few commanders had made the incentive in the field to recruit southern African Americans into their forces but it was not until Lincoln issued the final Emancipation Proclamation that the federal army would officially accept black soldiers into its ranks (Hart, 1994).
The Emancipation Proclamation allowed them to be trained and recruited as soldiers who eventually fought in battles from Mississippi to Virginia (Hart, 1994). The Union’s military prospects in the East remained bleak despite the political gains that had been represented by the Emancipation Proclamation. In July 1863, victories at the Gettysburg and Vicksburg were a major turning point in the war despite the bloodshed. While in the West, the Union did gain control over Tennessee, thus creating a way in which to invade Georgia. This made some of the people to critical of the proclamation because it only freed some of the slaves.&nbssp; Frederick Douglass was jubilant because he felt that it was the end of slavery. Therefore, it would act as a moral bombshell to the Confederacy for they also feared that Lincoln would give in to pressure from northern conservatives thereby failing to keep his promise. Despite the opposition, the president remained firm on the issue of Emancipation Proclamation.
Hence, he had officially freed all slaves within the states or parts of states that were in rebellion and not in Union hands and it left one million slaves in Union territory still in bondage (Hart, 1994). Throughout the North, packed churches, meeting halls, the new African Americans, and their white allies celebrated while I the South, most slaves did not come to hear of the proclamation for months. This made the purpose of the Civil War to change from only fighting to preserve the Union but now fighting to end slavery.
On 9 April 1865, General Lee was surrounded by the union army giving him no other option than to surrender to Grant at Appomattox courthouse. Robert lee did win the admiration for his brilliance in leadership, greatness in defeat and ending the civil war months later. According to the war, it produced a greater hero in Abraham Lincoln in that he had been able to weld the union again by his warmth and generosity. 23 days later after General Lee surrendered; Lincoln unfolded a Generous Reconstruction policy but was later on assassinated after his last public address by John Wilkes Booth at Fords Theater. Since Lincoln had already set the stage in that, the southern states had never legally seceded because disloyal citizens had misled them.
Andrew Johnson in 1865 proceeded in carrying out Lincoln’s reconstruction program. Reconstruction began during the war and they continued to 1877 in an effort to solve the issues caused by reunion, specifically the legal status of the 11 breakaway states, the freedmen, and the Confederate leadership. Northern leaders during the war agreed that victory would require more than the end of fighting and that they had to encompass the two war goals: all forms of slavery had to be abolished and secession had to be repudiated. Lincoln and the Radical Republicans had disagreed sharply on the criteria for these goals and the degree of federal control that should imposed on the South. Eventually the disputes became central to the political debates after the Confederacy collapsed.
Most popular orders | 1,578 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Major Causes of the French Revolution
DBQ Essay: What were the major causes of the French Revolution? (Discuss three.)
The major cause of the French Revolution was the disputes between the different types of social classes in French society. The French Revolution of 1789-1799 was one of the most important events in the history of the world. The Revolution led to many changes in France, which at the time of the Revolution was the most powerful state in Europe. The Revolution led to the development of new political forces such as democracy and nationalism. It questioned the authority of kings, priests, and nobles. The Revolution also gave new meanings and new ideas to the political ideas of the people.
The French Revolution was spread over the ten year period between 1789 and 1799. The primary cause of the revolution was the disputes over the peoples’ differing ideas of reform. Before the beginning of the Revolution, only moderate reforms were wanted by the people. An example of why they wanted this was because of king Louis XIV’s actions. At the end of the seventeenth century, King Louis XIV’s wars began decreasing the royal finances dramatically. This worsened during the eighteenth century. The use of the money by Louis XIV angered the people and they wanted a new system of government.
The main cause of the Revolution was the differences between the three social classes that existed in France at that time. There was a severe amount of injustice in the tax system (doc.1). The third estate paid the highest taxes, while the first and third paid low taxes or none at all. The rent was to high, and the price on bread was above people’s economic ability to pay (doc.1). Although the third estate made up most of the population of France, it owned less land then the first and second estate (doc.2).
While the main cause of the French Revolution was the social inequality, there were other reasons, which caused the French to revolt. One was the idea’s of the Enlightment. The middle class of France was fortunately very educated and was able to inform others of their rights (doc.4). This allowed the lower class to understand why they should revolt against their current form of government. Something that also influenced the French was the American Revolution (doc.5). Lord Acton felt that the condition the economy of France was in did not alone bring the overthrow of the monarchy, he didn’t believe that the ideas of philosophers were not directly responsible for the outbreak, but that the Declaration of American Independence was the direct cause of the French Revolution (doc.5).
However, there was another important factor during these times. France suffered from harsh economic problems. Poor farm harvests by farmers hurt the economy, and trade rules from the Middle Ages still survived, making trade difficult. However, the most serious problem was the problem facing the government during this time. The French government borrowed much money to pay for the wars of Louis XIV. Louis still borrowed money to fight wars and to keep French power alive in Europe. These costs greatly increased the national debt, which was, at the time, already too high.
Between the years of 1789 and 1794, French life had changed dramatically. There were changes in the lifestyle of the people, as well as in clothes and art. The monarchies were gone, and the king no longer ruled. The National Assembly abolished all feudal customs and ended all slavery.
This time in French History was important to the people of France because of the different types of government they had. Socialism, liberalism and nationalism all were results of the French Revolution. It gave people the idea that if they tried, they could reorganize a society whenever it was needed. The greatest legacy of the French Revolution, however, was that people could change anything that they wanted with political ideas, words and laws. | <urn:uuid:008a44da-b134-4a73-ac9c-9e50288da45c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://e-lib.info/major-causes-of-the-french-revolution-54228/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00074.warc.gz | en | 0.983173 | 785 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.30422988533973... | 3 | Major Causes of the French Revolution
DBQ Essay: What were the major causes of the French Revolution? (Discuss three.)
The major cause of the French Revolution was the disputes between the different types of social classes in French society. The French Revolution of 1789-1799 was one of the most important events in the history of the world. The Revolution led to many changes in France, which at the time of the Revolution was the most powerful state in Europe. The Revolution led to the development of new political forces such as democracy and nationalism. It questioned the authority of kings, priests, and nobles. The Revolution also gave new meanings and new ideas to the political ideas of the people.
The French Revolution was spread over the ten year period between 1789 and 1799. The primary cause of the revolution was the disputes over the peoples’ differing ideas of reform. Before the beginning of the Revolution, only moderate reforms were wanted by the people. An example of why they wanted this was because of king Louis XIV’s actions. At the end of the seventeenth century, King Louis XIV’s wars began decreasing the royal finances dramatically. This worsened during the eighteenth century. The use of the money by Louis XIV angered the people and they wanted a new system of government.
The main cause of the Revolution was the differences between the three social classes that existed in France at that time. There was a severe amount of injustice in the tax system (doc.1). The third estate paid the highest taxes, while the first and third paid low taxes or none at all. The rent was to high, and the price on bread was above people’s economic ability to pay (doc.1). Although the third estate made up most of the population of France, it owned less land then the first and second estate (doc.2).
While the main cause of the French Revolution was the social inequality, there were other reasons, which caused the French to revolt. One was the idea’s of the Enlightment. The middle class of France was fortunately very educated and was able to inform others of their rights (doc.4). This allowed the lower class to understand why they should revolt against their current form of government. Something that also influenced the French was the American Revolution (doc.5). Lord Acton felt that the condition the economy of France was in did not alone bring the overthrow of the monarchy, he didn’t believe that the ideas of philosophers were not directly responsible for the outbreak, but that the Declaration of American Independence was the direct cause of the French Revolution (doc.5).
However, there was another important factor during these times. France suffered from harsh economic problems. Poor farm harvests by farmers hurt the economy, and trade rules from the Middle Ages still survived, making trade difficult. However, the most serious problem was the problem facing the government during this time. The French government borrowed much money to pay for the wars of Louis XIV. Louis still borrowed money to fight wars and to keep French power alive in Europe. These costs greatly increased the national debt, which was, at the time, already too high.
Between the years of 1789 and 1794, French life had changed dramatically. There were changes in the lifestyle of the people, as well as in clothes and art. The monarchies were gone, and the king no longer ruled. The National Assembly abolished all feudal customs and ended all slavery.
This time in French History was important to the people of France because of the different types of government they had. Socialism, liberalism and nationalism all were results of the French Revolution. It gave people the idea that if they tried, they could reorganize a society whenever it was needed. The greatest legacy of the French Revolution, however, was that people could change anything that they wanted with political ideas, words and laws. | 787 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Red Army was Mao’s lifeline during such incidents as the Long March. Without the dedication of those people in the Red Army, the Chinese Communist Party would have collapsed in the late 1920’s and 1930’s.
The Red Army was formed after Mao had led his followers into the mountains on the Hunan-Jiangxi border. To start with, the Red Army only numbered 1000 men but by 1928, it stood at 12,000 strong as many peasants came to join Mao. For them, Mao offered a future. Here was a political leader ordering his followers, and especially his army, not to harm the peasants. This group had been the victims of attacks by the Guomintang and the war lords who seemingly roamed areas of China free from authority. Here was a group of people who actively helped them – hence, why so many peasants joined the Communist Party.
To start with the Red Army was very poorly equipped. Bamboo spikes were the most common weapon to start with and guns were extremely rare. Therefore, the communists had to adapt. They became experts in guerrilla warfare. Some modern military historians consider Mao to have been the father of modern guerrilla tactics. In the case of the Communist Party, it was a matter of having to introduce tactics they could use. It was pointless training the Red Army in conventional tactics when they did not have the equipment necessary.
Mao’s tactics were very simple:
|“The enemy advances, we retreat.
The enemy camps, we harass.
The enemy tires, we attack.
The enemy retreats, we pursue.”
Mao’s army was very different from the Guomintang. Officers were forbidden from beating men in the ranks. Though officers had the right to decide orders etc. they were of equal importance to the men and all soldiers were encouraged to speak their minds freely. However, it would be wrong to portray the Red Army as a force without problems. In 1930, Mao ordered 2000 Red Army soldiers to be shot for staging a revolt.
The Red Army was sent out to help the peasants in Hunan. This help, given free of charge, converted many to the cause of Mao. The Red Army also had to abide by the “Six Principles of the Red Army”.
Put back all doors when you leave a house
Rice-stalk mattresses must all be bundled up again and returned
Be polite. Help people when you can.
Give back everything you borrow, even if it’s only a needle.
Pay for all things broken, even if only a chopstick.
Don’t help yourself or search for things when people are not in their houses.
In time, local communities in Hunan did not see the Red Army as a threat. It was this unexpected treatment that converted many to the Communists. It also lead to a big increase in the number of people who wanted to join the Red Army.
In 1929, Mao lead the Red Army to southern Jiangxi as the supply of food in Hunan was not large enough for the growing communist population. The journey lead to the deaths of about 50% of those on the march from cold, hunger and attacks by the Guomintang. Those who survived got to southern Jiangxi where they removed the landlords from power and gave the land to the peasants. This, obviously, proved to be a popular move and the numbers joining the Red Army soon got it back to strength and many saw that joining the Red Army would help to protect their new asset – land. By 1931, the land controlled by the communists contained a population of 1 million people.
The Red Army also protected the rights of women. Traditional peasant society had kept women as second class citizens. They were expected to do what their husbands told them to do or as their family said if they were unmarried. Under the Communists, this was not so. Women were given far more rights though, perhaps, not full equality. Hu Yepin, a communist writer, claimed that “women are like birds soaring in the skies.” Though this may have been a biased statement, women, under the rule of the communists, were a lot better off than they had been.
- The Red Army was Mao’s lifeline during such incidents as the Long March. Without the dedication of those people in the Red Army, the Chinese… | <urn:uuid:16ab6c9e-f897-4b00-81ec-9efc5f9aed94> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/the-red-army/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00071.warc.gz | en | 0.987645 | 902 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.2859867811203003... | 12 | The Red Army was Mao’s lifeline during such incidents as the Long March. Without the dedication of those people in the Red Army, the Chinese Communist Party would have collapsed in the late 1920’s and 1930’s.
The Red Army was formed after Mao had led his followers into the mountains on the Hunan-Jiangxi border. To start with, the Red Army only numbered 1000 men but by 1928, it stood at 12,000 strong as many peasants came to join Mao. For them, Mao offered a future. Here was a political leader ordering his followers, and especially his army, not to harm the peasants. This group had been the victims of attacks by the Guomintang and the war lords who seemingly roamed areas of China free from authority. Here was a group of people who actively helped them – hence, why so many peasants joined the Communist Party.
To start with the Red Army was very poorly equipped. Bamboo spikes were the most common weapon to start with and guns were extremely rare. Therefore, the communists had to adapt. They became experts in guerrilla warfare. Some modern military historians consider Mao to have been the father of modern guerrilla tactics. In the case of the Communist Party, it was a matter of having to introduce tactics they could use. It was pointless training the Red Army in conventional tactics when they did not have the equipment necessary.
Mao’s tactics were very simple:
|“The enemy advances, we retreat.
The enemy camps, we harass.
The enemy tires, we attack.
The enemy retreats, we pursue.”
Mao’s army was very different from the Guomintang. Officers were forbidden from beating men in the ranks. Though officers had the right to decide orders etc. they were of equal importance to the men and all soldiers were encouraged to speak their minds freely. However, it would be wrong to portray the Red Army as a force without problems. In 1930, Mao ordered 2000 Red Army soldiers to be shot for staging a revolt.
The Red Army was sent out to help the peasants in Hunan. This help, given free of charge, converted many to the cause of Mao. The Red Army also had to abide by the “Six Principles of the Red Army”.
Put back all doors when you leave a house
Rice-stalk mattresses must all be bundled up again and returned
Be polite. Help people when you can.
Give back everything you borrow, even if it’s only a needle.
Pay for all things broken, even if only a chopstick.
Don’t help yourself or search for things when people are not in their houses.
In time, local communities in Hunan did not see the Red Army as a threat. It was this unexpected treatment that converted many to the Communists. It also lead to a big increase in the number of people who wanted to join the Red Army.
In 1929, Mao lead the Red Army to southern Jiangxi as the supply of food in Hunan was not large enough for the growing communist population. The journey lead to the deaths of about 50% of those on the march from cold, hunger and attacks by the Guomintang. Those who survived got to southern Jiangxi where they removed the landlords from power and gave the land to the peasants. This, obviously, proved to be a popular move and the numbers joining the Red Army soon got it back to strength and many saw that joining the Red Army would help to protect their new asset – land. By 1931, the land controlled by the communists contained a population of 1 million people.
The Red Army also protected the rights of women. Traditional peasant society had kept women as second class citizens. They were expected to do what their husbands told them to do or as their family said if they were unmarried. Under the Communists, this was not so. Women were given far more rights though, perhaps, not full equality. Hu Yepin, a communist writer, claimed that “women are like birds soaring in the skies.” Though this may have been a biased statement, women, under the rule of the communists, were a lot better off than they had been.
- The Red Army was Mao’s lifeline during such incidents as the Long March. Without the dedication of those people in the Red Army, the Chinese… | 903 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Chapter 16 Summary
In “The Professor, Part One,” Albom explained how a series of childhood encounters with death and disease shaped Morrie’s desire to help others and why he went on to choose to become a professor. In “The Professor, Part Two,” Albom summarizes Morrie’s early career and the influence of the 1960s, and he contrasts Morrie’s worth with that of highly paid lawyers and businessmen.
After completing his doctorate at the University of Chicago, Morrie did a study in a mental hospital in the 1950s. Although this seems routine today, Albom points out that it was a breakthrough idea in the 1950s. Albom outlines the challenges that staff faced at the mental hospital, ranging from people who soiled their pants to people who refused to eat. At first, Morrie observed the day-to-day social interactions at the hospital and took notes; over time he also began to help people. Albom focuses on one story in which a woman would spend the entire day with body and face pressed against the floor. Morrie began to spend time with this woman and eventually convinced her to sit up and to return to her room during the day. Morrie discovered that the woman wanted someone to acknowledge her.
When Albom challenges his mentor that he is too influenced by the 1960s, Morrie responds that the ‘60s were a good time, especially compared to the decades that followed. Albom relates how Morrie and the sociology department not only taught their courses but also became politically active. For example, because poor grades could cause students to be drafted into the army to fight in the Vietnam War, Albom and his colleagues determined to award all students A grades....
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In “The Professor, Part One,” Albom explained how a series of childhood encounters with death and disease shaped Morrie’s desire to help others and why he went on to choose to become a professor. In “The Professor, Part Two,” Albom summarizes Morrie’s early career and the influence of the 1960s, and he contrasts Morrie’s worth with that of highly paid lawyers and businessmen.
After completing his doctorate at the University of Chicago, Morrie did a study in a mental hospital in the 1950s. Although this seems routine today, Albom points out that it was a breakthrough idea in the 1950s. Albom outlines the challenges that staff faced at the mental hospital, ranging from people who soiled their pants to people who refused to eat. At first, Morrie observed the day-to-day social interactions at the hospital and took notes; over time he also began to help people. Albom focuses on one story in which a woman would spend the entire day with body and face pressed against the floor. Morrie began to spend time with this woman and eventually convinced her to sit up and to return to her room during the day. Morrie discovered that the woman wanted someone to acknowledge her.
When Albom challenges his mentor that he is too influenced by the 1960s, Morrie responds that the ‘60s were a good time, especially compared to the decades that followed. Albom relates how Morrie and the sociology department not only taught their courses but also became politically active. For example, because poor grades could cause students to be drafted into the army to fight in the Vietnam War, Albom and his colleagues determined to award all students A grades....
(The entire section is 427 words.) | 371 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There is a legend that Bath was founded in 860 BC when Prince Bladud, father of King Lear, caught leprosy. He was banned from the court and was forced to look after pigs. The pigs also had a skin disease but after they wallowed in hot mud they were cured. Prince Bladud followed their example and was also cured. Later he became king and founded the city of Bath.
In reality it is not known exactly when the health giving qualities of Bath springs were first noticed. They were certainly known to the Romans who built a temple there around 50 AD. The temple was dedicated to Sul, a Celtic god and Minerva the Roman goddess of healing. (The Romans hoped to please everybody by dedicating it to both gods). They also built a public baths which was supplied by the hot springs.
In the 60s and 70s AD a town grew up on the site of Bath. It was called Aquae Sulis, the waters of Sul. In the late 2nd century a ditch was dug around Roman Bath and an earth rampart was erected. It probably had a wooden palisade on top. In the 3rd century it was replaced by a stone wall.
In the 4th century Roman civilization began to decline. The population of Roman towns decreased and trade shrank. The last Roman soldiers left England in 407 AD. What happened to Bath afterwards is not known for certain. Some people probably continued to live within the Roman walls and Bath was probably still a market for the local area. However the old, grand Roman buildings fell into disrepair and were replaced by simple wooden huts.
After the Romans left the Saxons invaded Eastern England. In 577 AD they won a battle at Dyrhan. They then captured Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester. The Saxons took over the settlements and life went on.
In the late 9th century Alfred the Great created a network of fortified towns across his kingdoms called burghs (from which we derive our word borough). If the Danes attacked all the local men could gather in the nearest burgh to fight them. Bath was one such burgh. By the 10th century it had a mint. So by that time Bath must have been a flourishing, although small, community. In 973 Edgar, the first king of all England was crowned in Bath.
In 1088 a rebellion occurred. The rebels sacked Bath and burned the monastery but the town soon recovered. The local Bishop moved his seat to Bath and in the early 12th century a great abbey was created which dominated Medieval Bath. The present building dates from the very end of the Medieval period. Oliver King was Bishop of Bath and Wells from 1495 to 1503. In 1499 he dreamed of angels ascending and descending ladders to Heaven. He heard a voice telling ‘a king’ to restore the church. The Bishop took the dream to mean he should rebuild the abbey.
During the Middle Ages the church also ran 2 almshouses in Bath, St John the Baptist’s and St Catherine’s. There was also a leper hostel outside the town walls. During the Middle Ages people still came to Bath to bathe in the hot springs hoping it would cure them of their ailments.
In 1189 Bath was given its first charter (a document granting the townspeople certain rights). The main industry in Medieval Bath was the manufacture of woolen cloth. The wool was spun. It was then fulled, this is when it is pounded in a mixture of water and clay to clean and thicken it. Wooden hammers worked by a watermill pounded the wool. The wool was then stretched on tenterhooks to dry. It was then dyed.
Henry VIII closed Bath abbey in 1539. Most of its buildings were then demolished.
During the 16th and 17th century the wool trade in Bath slowly declined. Increasingly Bath came to rely on sick people coming to bathe in the springs, hoping for a cure. It received a boost in the early 17th century when Anne of Denmark, wife of James I, came hoping to be cured of dropsy.
In 1590 Queen Elizabeth gave Bath a new charter. From then on Bath had a mayor and aldermen. There were some improvements in the little town. Bellots almshouses were built in 1609. In 1615 a ‘scavenger’ was appointed to clean the streets of Bath. In 1633 thatched roofs were banned because of the risk of fire.
However like all 17th century towns Bath suffered from outbreaks of the plague. It struck in 1604, 1625, 1636 and 1643.
In 1642 came civil war between king and parliament. In 1643 Bath was occupied by parliamentary troops. In July 1643 they fought a battle against the royalists north of the town. The royalists were victorious. The parliamentary army withdrew from the area and the royalists occupied Bath. However by 1645 the king was losing the civil war. In July 1645 the royalist commander in Bath surrendered to parliament.
In the late 17th century Bath continued to be a quiet market town. It largely depended on its springs. From 1661 Bath water was bottled and sold.
In the 18th century Bath became a much more genteel and fashionable place. It boomed in size. This was largely due to the efforts of Richard ‘Beau’ Nash 1674-1762 who was made Master of Ceremonies. Many fine buildings were erected in Bath in the 18th century. A Pump Room was built in 1706 (although the present one was built in 1795).
Architect John Wood the Elder 1704-1754 built Queen Square in 1728-1739
He built The Circus in 1754-60
His son John Wood the Younger was born in 1727. He built Royal Crescent in 1767-1774.
He also built Assembly Rooms in 1769-71. The Octagon was built in 1767 and Margaret Chapel was built in 1773.
Pulteney Bridge was built in 1774. It was named after William Pulteney the first Earl of Bath and it was designed by Robert Adam
From 1718 attempts were made to pave and properly clean the streets of Bath and to light them with oil lamps. A general hospital was built in Bath in 1742 and the first bank in Bath opened in 1768. Sydney Gardens opened in 1795.
During the Summer Georgian Bath was full of rich visitors. They played cards, went to balls and horse racing,they also went walking and horse riding. However the high life was only for a small minority. A great many poor people lived in Bath, as there were in every town. Despite the fine architecture there was also plenty of squalor and overcrowding in Bath.
In 1801 Bath had a population of 33,000. By the standards of the time it was a large and important town. However during the 19th century Bath lost its importance. It doubled in size but the new industrial towns grew at a much faster rate. Bath remained a market town, popular with tourists and shoppers.
The Theatre Royal was built in 1805. The Kennet and Avon canal opened in 1810.
Royal Victoria Park was laid out in 1830 and Parade Bridge was built in 1835.
Bath was linked to Bristol by rail in 1840 and to London by rail in 1841.
Like all cities in the 19th century Bath was a dirty and unsanitary place and it suffered an outbreak of cholera in 1849.
However conditions improved later in the 19th century. From 1880 horse drawn trams ran in the streets of Bath. Also in 1880 the old Roman baths were rediscovered. The first electric streetlights in Bath were switched on in 1890. Henrietta Park opened in 1897.
By the beginning of the 20th century the population of Bath had grown to over 65,000.
From 1904 electric trams ran in the streets of Bath but in 1939 they were replaced by buses.
The first council houses in Bath were built in 1907. More were built in the 1920s and 1930s (many of them to replace slums) and more still after 1945.
Bath was bombed during the Second World War. A raid in April 1942 killed 21 people and damaged or destroyed 1,500 buildings.
The American Museum opened in 1961. The Museum of Costume was founded in 1963. Bath University was founded in 1964. The Southgate Centre was built in 1972.
The Bath At Work Museum opened in 1978 and the Postal Museum was founded in 1979. The Herschel Museum opened in 1981. The National Centre of Photography was founded in 1981. Bath Museum of English Naive Art opened in 1987. Also in 1987 Bath was declared a World Heritage Site.
The Podium Shopping Centre opened in 1989. The Building of Bath Museum opened in 1992. Then in 1997 a Farmers Market opened in Bath.
Bath has so much to offer the traveler with such a diverse history ,most of the tourist attraction are within walking distance of the centre and the National Trust have various places to visit including Prior Park Landscape Garden and also the Bath skyline walk.There are so many hotels to choice from and a vast and varied choice of places to eat including some great pubs.
Parking can be expensive, Bath has 2 park and rides driving in the centre can become very busy if this puts you off it has a great train service .
I would recommend a trip to bath it is a stunning city with something for everyone, it can get busy on Saturdays with everyone flocking to sample the great shopping. Things to do in Bath
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0.3158242404460... | 1 | There is a legend that Bath was founded in 860 BC when Prince Bladud, father of King Lear, caught leprosy. He was banned from the court and was forced to look after pigs. The pigs also had a skin disease but after they wallowed in hot mud they were cured. Prince Bladud followed their example and was also cured. Later he became king and founded the city of Bath.
In reality it is not known exactly when the health giving qualities of Bath springs were first noticed. They were certainly known to the Romans who built a temple there around 50 AD. The temple was dedicated to Sul, a Celtic god and Minerva the Roman goddess of healing. (The Romans hoped to please everybody by dedicating it to both gods). They also built a public baths which was supplied by the hot springs.
In the 60s and 70s AD a town grew up on the site of Bath. It was called Aquae Sulis, the waters of Sul. In the late 2nd century a ditch was dug around Roman Bath and an earth rampart was erected. It probably had a wooden palisade on top. In the 3rd century it was replaced by a stone wall.
In the 4th century Roman civilization began to decline. The population of Roman towns decreased and trade shrank. The last Roman soldiers left England in 407 AD. What happened to Bath afterwards is not known for certain. Some people probably continued to live within the Roman walls and Bath was probably still a market for the local area. However the old, grand Roman buildings fell into disrepair and were replaced by simple wooden huts.
After the Romans left the Saxons invaded Eastern England. In 577 AD they won a battle at Dyrhan. They then captured Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester. The Saxons took over the settlements and life went on.
In the late 9th century Alfred the Great created a network of fortified towns across his kingdoms called burghs (from which we derive our word borough). If the Danes attacked all the local men could gather in the nearest burgh to fight them. Bath was one such burgh. By the 10th century it had a mint. So by that time Bath must have been a flourishing, although small, community. In 973 Edgar, the first king of all England was crowned in Bath.
In 1088 a rebellion occurred. The rebels sacked Bath and burned the monastery but the town soon recovered. The local Bishop moved his seat to Bath and in the early 12th century a great abbey was created which dominated Medieval Bath. The present building dates from the very end of the Medieval period. Oliver King was Bishop of Bath and Wells from 1495 to 1503. In 1499 he dreamed of angels ascending and descending ladders to Heaven. He heard a voice telling ‘a king’ to restore the church. The Bishop took the dream to mean he should rebuild the abbey.
During the Middle Ages the church also ran 2 almshouses in Bath, St John the Baptist’s and St Catherine’s. There was also a leper hostel outside the town walls. During the Middle Ages people still came to Bath to bathe in the hot springs hoping it would cure them of their ailments.
In 1189 Bath was given its first charter (a document granting the townspeople certain rights). The main industry in Medieval Bath was the manufacture of woolen cloth. The wool was spun. It was then fulled, this is when it is pounded in a mixture of water and clay to clean and thicken it. Wooden hammers worked by a watermill pounded the wool. The wool was then stretched on tenterhooks to dry. It was then dyed.
Henry VIII closed Bath abbey in 1539. Most of its buildings were then demolished.
During the 16th and 17th century the wool trade in Bath slowly declined. Increasingly Bath came to rely on sick people coming to bathe in the springs, hoping for a cure. It received a boost in the early 17th century when Anne of Denmark, wife of James I, came hoping to be cured of dropsy.
In 1590 Queen Elizabeth gave Bath a new charter. From then on Bath had a mayor and aldermen. There were some improvements in the little town. Bellots almshouses were built in 1609. In 1615 a ‘scavenger’ was appointed to clean the streets of Bath. In 1633 thatched roofs were banned because of the risk of fire.
However like all 17th century towns Bath suffered from outbreaks of the plague. It struck in 1604, 1625, 1636 and 1643.
In 1642 came civil war between king and parliament. In 1643 Bath was occupied by parliamentary troops. In July 1643 they fought a battle against the royalists north of the town. The royalists were victorious. The parliamentary army withdrew from the area and the royalists occupied Bath. However by 1645 the king was losing the civil war. In July 1645 the royalist commander in Bath surrendered to parliament.
In the late 17th century Bath continued to be a quiet market town. It largely depended on its springs. From 1661 Bath water was bottled and sold.
In the 18th century Bath became a much more genteel and fashionable place. It boomed in size. This was largely due to the efforts of Richard ‘Beau’ Nash 1674-1762 who was made Master of Ceremonies. Many fine buildings were erected in Bath in the 18th century. A Pump Room was built in 1706 (although the present one was built in 1795).
Architect John Wood the Elder 1704-1754 built Queen Square in 1728-1739
He built The Circus in 1754-60
His son John Wood the Younger was born in 1727. He built Royal Crescent in 1767-1774.
He also built Assembly Rooms in 1769-71. The Octagon was built in 1767 and Margaret Chapel was built in 1773.
Pulteney Bridge was built in 1774. It was named after William Pulteney the first Earl of Bath and it was designed by Robert Adam
From 1718 attempts were made to pave and properly clean the streets of Bath and to light them with oil lamps. A general hospital was built in Bath in 1742 and the first bank in Bath opened in 1768. Sydney Gardens opened in 1795.
During the Summer Georgian Bath was full of rich visitors. They played cards, went to balls and horse racing,they also went walking and horse riding. However the high life was only for a small minority. A great many poor people lived in Bath, as there were in every town. Despite the fine architecture there was also plenty of squalor and overcrowding in Bath.
In 1801 Bath had a population of 33,000. By the standards of the time it was a large and important town. However during the 19th century Bath lost its importance. It doubled in size but the new industrial towns grew at a much faster rate. Bath remained a market town, popular with tourists and shoppers.
The Theatre Royal was built in 1805. The Kennet and Avon canal opened in 1810.
Royal Victoria Park was laid out in 1830 and Parade Bridge was built in 1835.
Bath was linked to Bristol by rail in 1840 and to London by rail in 1841.
Like all cities in the 19th century Bath was a dirty and unsanitary place and it suffered an outbreak of cholera in 1849.
However conditions improved later in the 19th century. From 1880 horse drawn trams ran in the streets of Bath. Also in 1880 the old Roman baths were rediscovered. The first electric streetlights in Bath were switched on in 1890. Henrietta Park opened in 1897.
By the beginning of the 20th century the population of Bath had grown to over 65,000.
From 1904 electric trams ran in the streets of Bath but in 1939 they were replaced by buses.
The first council houses in Bath were built in 1907. More were built in the 1920s and 1930s (many of them to replace slums) and more still after 1945.
Bath was bombed during the Second World War. A raid in April 1942 killed 21 people and damaged or destroyed 1,500 buildings.
The American Museum opened in 1961. The Museum of Costume was founded in 1963. Bath University was founded in 1964. The Southgate Centre was built in 1972.
The Bath At Work Museum opened in 1978 and the Postal Museum was founded in 1979. The Herschel Museum opened in 1981. The National Centre of Photography was founded in 1981. Bath Museum of English Naive Art opened in 1987. Also in 1987 Bath was declared a World Heritage Site.
The Podium Shopping Centre opened in 1989. The Building of Bath Museum opened in 1992. Then in 1997 a Farmers Market opened in Bath.
Bath has so much to offer the traveler with such a diverse history ,most of the tourist attraction are within walking distance of the centre and the National Trust have various places to visit including Prior Park Landscape Garden and also the Bath skyline walk.There are so many hotels to choice from and a vast and varied choice of places to eat including some great pubs.
Parking can be expensive, Bath has 2 park and rides driving in the centre can become very busy if this puts you off it has a great train service .
I would recommend a trip to bath it is a stunning city with something for everyone, it can get busy on Saturdays with everyone flocking to sample the great shopping. Things to do in Bath
I’ll leave you with some pictures. | 2,256 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Kurī were Polynesian dogs which gradually died out in New Zealand. They were descended from the dogs brought to New Zealand from Polynesia, on the ancestral canoes of the Māori people in the 13th century. Kurī became bigger and more active than dogs on other Polynesian islands. Their average weight was between 13 and 15 kilograms.
Kurī were small, long-haired dogs about the size of a border collie. They had a small head, pricked ears, a terrier-like snout and a powerful jaw. The shoulders and neck were heavy, the legs were short, and the tail was bushy.
Some were black, some white, and others a combination with patches or spots. Some had yellow coats.
The kurī was also known as gurī by Māori in the South Island. Another name, pero, made some believe that kurī had been introduced by Spanish settlers, as perro is Spanish for dog. ‘Kararehe’ was later used by Māori to refer to any four-legged animal.
The term ‘Māori dog’ probably arose from ‘kurī māori’. But this actually means ‘[any] ordinary dog’.
Kurī, like other Polynesian dogs, did not bark, but howled. The sound was described as a ‘long, melancholy howl’, like that of a fox. The Māori word for its howl was ‘auau’, while the bark of the European dog was ‘pahupahu’.
Wherever Polynesian explorers travelled they would take dogs, pigs, chickens and rats. All except the kiore (Pacific rat) were domesticated, and they were all eaten. However, only kurī and kiore arrived in New Zealand. With no pigs – a source of protein in Polynesia – kurī became an important substitute.
In early Māori settlements, kurī probably had greater access to food, including moa and seals, than at later times. They were probably also more plentiful in the early days, which would explain why such a high percentage of dogs slaughtered for food were young. Their meat would have been tastier, and there would have been less need to retain breeding stock. During the later settlement period, kurī were fed mainly on fish, and slaughtered dogs were more likely to be adults.
It is unclear when kurī died out. Although scientists travelling with Captain James Cook saw the dogs throughout New Zealand (on voyages between 1770 and 1779), they probably became rare through cross-breeding with introduced dogs, and then disappeared altogether.
Irawaru is the guardian deity of kurī. He was the brother-in-law of Māui, the demigod. Māui was angered at his laziness, so while Irawaru was snoring, Māui pulled his ears, nose and spine into the form of a dog. When Māui’s two wives, Hinetūrepo and Hinetekahere, asked after their brother, he told them to call ‘Moi!’ – the call for a kurī. When they did, Irawaru came running.
Many accounts speak of the kurī in Hawaiki, the homeland of Māori ancestors, and its arrival in New Zealand. Their presence suggests that early Polynesian settlers did not lack food on their voyages, otherwise they would have eaten the dogs before reaching New Zealand.
One tradition tells of a Hawaiki chief, Houmaitawhiti, who had a dog named Pōtaka Tawhiti. A rival chief, Uenuku, ate the dog. Tamatekapua, Houmaitawhiti’s son, discovered this when the dog’s spirit howled from inside Uenuku’s stomach. The incident sparked the skirmishes that led to Tamatekapua making the long voyage to New Zealand in the Te Arawa canoe.
The explorer Kupe, often credited with discovering New Zealand, brought kurī with him on his canoe Matawhaorua. It is said that he left one dog waiting so long in Hokianga Harbour that it turned to stone.
Turi, captain of the Aotea canoe, gifted a kahu kurī (dogskin cloak) to his wife in exchange for the canoe, a gift from his father-in-law. When Turi stopped at Rangitāhua (the Kermadecs) on the way to New Zealand, two kurī were sacrificed to the god Maru.
The Tokomaru canoe, captained by Manaia, had a dog that jumped overboard as they neared New Zealand. The canoe was guided to land during the night by the dog’s noise.
Te Kurī-a-Pāoa (now Young Nick’s Head) was named by Pāoa, captain of the Horouta canoe, after his lost kurī.
The importance of kurī is illustrated by traditions in which a supernatural being takes the form of a dog.
Moekahu is a female god in the shape of a kurī. Like the wairua (spirits) of deceased people, dogs that had died were believed to go to Te Rēinga at the top of the North Island, but travelled a different path from that of humans.
Sayings referring to kurī were mostly terms of scorn. An idle person, sitting near the fire like a kurī, was ‘he whiore tahutahu’ (an often-singed tail). A coward was ‘he whiore hume’ (tail between the legs). ‘He kurī e pōtete ana’ (like a dog on a leading stick) described someone under another’s influence. ‘He ihu kurī, he tangata haere’ (a dog’s nose, a travelling man) could be a put-down, comparing visiting travellers to dogs who sniff out food. But sometimes a traveller would introduce himself with this phrase, and be sure of hospitality.
A kurī named Mohorangi was said to inhabit Whangaōkena Island (off East Cape). A young woman named Pōnuiawahine saw Mohorangi and was changed into a rock. This stands today in the sea off the island.
Two stone kurī were believed to haunt Lake Taupō. It was said that if strangers in canoes heard their noise and mistakenly made the usual call to a kurī, ‘Moi! Moi!’, a storm would arise and they would drown.
Kōpūwai, in the South Island, was a giant that had the head of a dog, with a pack of 10 two-headed dogs. In Waikaremoana, a terrifying kurī named Te Kurī-nui-a-Meko attacked some locals who had been hunting for fowl. They captured it in a large cage, and speared it to death.
Kurī flesh was considered a delicacy. A number of places were named for feasts where dog meat was on the menu. Hikawera, in Hawke’s Bay, a chief at Waiohiki, ordered 70 dogs to be slaughtered to feed travellers. The scraps were thrown in the river – hence its name, Tūtaekurī, meaning dog offal. The place where the animals were cooked on this occasion was called Te Umukurī (kurī oven).
On his 1769 voyage, Captain James Cook spoke of a kurī tasting almost as good as lamb. Sydney Parkinson, an artist on the voyage, compared it to coarse beef. An early explorer, Thomas Brunner, got so low on food he was forced to eat his dog Rover. This didn’t seem to distress him too much, as he noted that the flavour was very tasty, somewhere between mutton and pork. Māori gave him the nickname Kai Kurī (dog eater).
In the South Island, kurī were said to have been castrated to fatten them more quickly for eating.
Dog skins were used to make kahu kurī (cloaks), and a garment to ward off weapons. This was known as ‘he tāpahu o Irawaru’ (the protective cloak of Irawaru, god of dogs). The dog’s long, bushy tail was shaved for its hair, from which circlets for mourners were made, or to adorn weapons. Its bones were made into awls, pendants and necklaces, while the jaw and teeth were used for fish hooks. The teeth were also used as ear pendants.
One northern tribe got their name from using dog skins as a ruse in battle. Unable to defeat a fortified pā, they made the likeness of a stranded whale out of dogskin cloaks. The besieged people, coming out to harvest this bounty, were quickly overcome by the tribe, which was known as Ngāti Kurī from then on.
Traditional accounts describe kurī being used for hunting. Tūrongo, a Tainui chief, left his dog with his wife Mahinaarangi, from the East Coast, to guide her and catch game when she journeyed to his home. Tara, son of the explorer Whātonga, had a kurī that was also a renowned hunter.
In the 1800s, kurī were used for catching kiwi, kakapō, weka, pūkeko and māunu (moulting ducks). The fowler would often lure a kiwi by imitating its cry. As it came close, the fowler would release the dog, which he led on a rope, or give it enough slack to catch the bird. The Ngāi Tahu scholar Teone (Hōne) Taare Tīkao described how kurī were used to catch pūkeko, which are not good flyers. To flush out the birds, the people would beat the swamp during a strong north-west wind, and the birds would tire of flying against the wind. At this point, the dogs would catch them.
Some traditional accounts refer to wild kurī. At Waitomo there is a cave named Ruakurī (dogs’ den). Attacked there by wild kurī, a fowler and his companions organised large snares near the cave to capture them.
Wild or pestering dogs were also trapped in a tāwhiti (spring trap). The place name Tāwhitikurī (found throughout the country) indicates sites where this happened. A South Island custom was to tether a female dog that was in heat, and capture the wild dogs that were drawn to her.
In post-European times, feral packs of kurī–European dog cross-breeds were shot on sight and gradually exterminated.
Kurī were sacrificed on ceremonial occasions. Tohunga (priests) would sacrifice a dog to appease Tūmatauenga, the god of war, or other gods. Dogs were also used as a tapu food for tohunga (priests). In the 1830s at Mangakāhia, when a high-born woman was to get a moko (chin tattoo), one of the last kurī in the district was killed as tapu food for the tattooer.
Best, Elsdon. The forest lore of the Māori. Wellington: Te Papa Press, 2005 (originally published 1942).
Buck, Peter. The coming of the Maori. Wellington: Maori Purposes Fund Board/Whitcombe & Tombs, 1949.
Clark, G. ‘Kuri.’ In The handbook of New Zealand mammals, edited by Carolyn M. King, 256–260. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Reed, A. W. Reed book of Maori mythology. Revised by Ross Calman. Auckland: Reed, 2004.
Tīkao, Teone Taare. Tikao talks: ka taoka o te ao kohatu. Auckland: Penguin, 1990 (originally published 1939). | <urn:uuid:b5f0a560-858a-4ba4-924d-05690f8eec0c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://teara.govt.nz/en/kuri-polynesian-dogs/print | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00556.warc.gz | en | 0.986556 | 2,617 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.44115462899... | 5 | Kurī were Polynesian dogs which gradually died out in New Zealand. They were descended from the dogs brought to New Zealand from Polynesia, on the ancestral canoes of the Māori people in the 13th century. Kurī became bigger and more active than dogs on other Polynesian islands. Their average weight was between 13 and 15 kilograms.
Kurī were small, long-haired dogs about the size of a border collie. They had a small head, pricked ears, a terrier-like snout and a powerful jaw. The shoulders and neck were heavy, the legs were short, and the tail was bushy.
Some were black, some white, and others a combination with patches or spots. Some had yellow coats.
The kurī was also known as gurī by Māori in the South Island. Another name, pero, made some believe that kurī had been introduced by Spanish settlers, as perro is Spanish for dog. ‘Kararehe’ was later used by Māori to refer to any four-legged animal.
The term ‘Māori dog’ probably arose from ‘kurī māori’. But this actually means ‘[any] ordinary dog’.
Kurī, like other Polynesian dogs, did not bark, but howled. The sound was described as a ‘long, melancholy howl’, like that of a fox. The Māori word for its howl was ‘auau’, while the bark of the European dog was ‘pahupahu’.
Wherever Polynesian explorers travelled they would take dogs, pigs, chickens and rats. All except the kiore (Pacific rat) were domesticated, and they were all eaten. However, only kurī and kiore arrived in New Zealand. With no pigs – a source of protein in Polynesia – kurī became an important substitute.
In early Māori settlements, kurī probably had greater access to food, including moa and seals, than at later times. They were probably also more plentiful in the early days, which would explain why such a high percentage of dogs slaughtered for food were young. Their meat would have been tastier, and there would have been less need to retain breeding stock. During the later settlement period, kurī were fed mainly on fish, and slaughtered dogs were more likely to be adults.
It is unclear when kurī died out. Although scientists travelling with Captain James Cook saw the dogs throughout New Zealand (on voyages between 1770 and 1779), they probably became rare through cross-breeding with introduced dogs, and then disappeared altogether.
Irawaru is the guardian deity of kurī. He was the brother-in-law of Māui, the demigod. Māui was angered at his laziness, so while Irawaru was snoring, Māui pulled his ears, nose and spine into the form of a dog. When Māui’s two wives, Hinetūrepo and Hinetekahere, asked after their brother, he told them to call ‘Moi!’ – the call for a kurī. When they did, Irawaru came running.
Many accounts speak of the kurī in Hawaiki, the homeland of Māori ancestors, and its arrival in New Zealand. Their presence suggests that early Polynesian settlers did not lack food on their voyages, otherwise they would have eaten the dogs before reaching New Zealand.
One tradition tells of a Hawaiki chief, Houmaitawhiti, who had a dog named Pōtaka Tawhiti. A rival chief, Uenuku, ate the dog. Tamatekapua, Houmaitawhiti’s son, discovered this when the dog’s spirit howled from inside Uenuku’s stomach. The incident sparked the skirmishes that led to Tamatekapua making the long voyage to New Zealand in the Te Arawa canoe.
The explorer Kupe, often credited with discovering New Zealand, brought kurī with him on his canoe Matawhaorua. It is said that he left one dog waiting so long in Hokianga Harbour that it turned to stone.
Turi, captain of the Aotea canoe, gifted a kahu kurī (dogskin cloak) to his wife in exchange for the canoe, a gift from his father-in-law. When Turi stopped at Rangitāhua (the Kermadecs) on the way to New Zealand, two kurī were sacrificed to the god Maru.
The Tokomaru canoe, captained by Manaia, had a dog that jumped overboard as they neared New Zealand. The canoe was guided to land during the night by the dog’s noise.
Te Kurī-a-Pāoa (now Young Nick’s Head) was named by Pāoa, captain of the Horouta canoe, after his lost kurī.
The importance of kurī is illustrated by traditions in which a supernatural being takes the form of a dog.
Moekahu is a female god in the shape of a kurī. Like the wairua (spirits) of deceased people, dogs that had died were believed to go to Te Rēinga at the top of the North Island, but travelled a different path from that of humans.
Sayings referring to kurī were mostly terms of scorn. An idle person, sitting near the fire like a kurī, was ‘he whiore tahutahu’ (an often-singed tail). A coward was ‘he whiore hume’ (tail between the legs). ‘He kurī e pōtete ana’ (like a dog on a leading stick) described someone under another’s influence. ‘He ihu kurī, he tangata haere’ (a dog’s nose, a travelling man) could be a put-down, comparing visiting travellers to dogs who sniff out food. But sometimes a traveller would introduce himself with this phrase, and be sure of hospitality.
A kurī named Mohorangi was said to inhabit Whangaōkena Island (off East Cape). A young woman named Pōnuiawahine saw Mohorangi and was changed into a rock. This stands today in the sea off the island.
Two stone kurī were believed to haunt Lake Taupō. It was said that if strangers in canoes heard their noise and mistakenly made the usual call to a kurī, ‘Moi! Moi!’, a storm would arise and they would drown.
Kōpūwai, in the South Island, was a giant that had the head of a dog, with a pack of 10 two-headed dogs. In Waikaremoana, a terrifying kurī named Te Kurī-nui-a-Meko attacked some locals who had been hunting for fowl. They captured it in a large cage, and speared it to death.
Kurī flesh was considered a delicacy. A number of places were named for feasts where dog meat was on the menu. Hikawera, in Hawke’s Bay, a chief at Waiohiki, ordered 70 dogs to be slaughtered to feed travellers. The scraps were thrown in the river – hence its name, Tūtaekurī, meaning dog offal. The place where the animals were cooked on this occasion was called Te Umukurī (kurī oven).
On his 1769 voyage, Captain James Cook spoke of a kurī tasting almost as good as lamb. Sydney Parkinson, an artist on the voyage, compared it to coarse beef. An early explorer, Thomas Brunner, got so low on food he was forced to eat his dog Rover. This didn’t seem to distress him too much, as he noted that the flavour was very tasty, somewhere between mutton and pork. Māori gave him the nickname Kai Kurī (dog eater).
In the South Island, kurī were said to have been castrated to fatten them more quickly for eating.
Dog skins were used to make kahu kurī (cloaks), and a garment to ward off weapons. This was known as ‘he tāpahu o Irawaru’ (the protective cloak of Irawaru, god of dogs). The dog’s long, bushy tail was shaved for its hair, from which circlets for mourners were made, or to adorn weapons. Its bones were made into awls, pendants and necklaces, while the jaw and teeth were used for fish hooks. The teeth were also used as ear pendants.
One northern tribe got their name from using dog skins as a ruse in battle. Unable to defeat a fortified pā, they made the likeness of a stranded whale out of dogskin cloaks. The besieged people, coming out to harvest this bounty, were quickly overcome by the tribe, which was known as Ngāti Kurī from then on.
Traditional accounts describe kurī being used for hunting. Tūrongo, a Tainui chief, left his dog with his wife Mahinaarangi, from the East Coast, to guide her and catch game when she journeyed to his home. Tara, son of the explorer Whātonga, had a kurī that was also a renowned hunter.
In the 1800s, kurī were used for catching kiwi, kakapō, weka, pūkeko and māunu (moulting ducks). The fowler would often lure a kiwi by imitating its cry. As it came close, the fowler would release the dog, which he led on a rope, or give it enough slack to catch the bird. The Ngāi Tahu scholar Teone (Hōne) Taare Tīkao described how kurī were used to catch pūkeko, which are not good flyers. To flush out the birds, the people would beat the swamp during a strong north-west wind, and the birds would tire of flying against the wind. At this point, the dogs would catch them.
Some traditional accounts refer to wild kurī. At Waitomo there is a cave named Ruakurī (dogs’ den). Attacked there by wild kurī, a fowler and his companions organised large snares near the cave to capture them.
Wild or pestering dogs were also trapped in a tāwhiti (spring trap). The place name Tāwhitikurī (found throughout the country) indicates sites where this happened. A South Island custom was to tether a female dog that was in heat, and capture the wild dogs that were drawn to her.
In post-European times, feral packs of kurī–European dog cross-breeds were shot on sight and gradually exterminated.
Kurī were sacrificed on ceremonial occasions. Tohunga (priests) would sacrifice a dog to appease Tūmatauenga, the god of war, or other gods. Dogs were also used as a tapu food for tohunga (priests). In the 1830s at Mangakāhia, when a high-born woman was to get a moko (chin tattoo), one of the last kurī in the district was killed as tapu food for the tattooer.
Best, Elsdon. The forest lore of the Māori. Wellington: Te Papa Press, 2005 (originally published 1942).
Buck, Peter. The coming of the Maori. Wellington: Maori Purposes Fund Board/Whitcombe & Tombs, 1949.
Clark, G. ‘Kuri.’ In The handbook of New Zealand mammals, edited by Carolyn M. King, 256–260. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Reed, A. W. Reed book of Maori mythology. Revised by Ross Calman. Auckland: Reed, 2004.
Tīkao, Teone Taare. Tikao talks: ka taoka o te ao kohatu. Auckland: Penguin, 1990 (originally published 1939). | 2,514 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For most people (and here I include myself) mention of the name ‘King John’ conjures up images of the character from the tales of Robin Hood – a pantomime villain, rolling his eyes and gnashing his teeth.
At the same time, most people are aware that these tales are legendary, and, in their earliest versions, make no mention of John at all. The king was first inserted into the Robin Hood story in the 16th century, but his inclusion has no historical basis whatsoever.
Those who go in search of the real John therefore tend to suppose that he must have been unfairly maligned, and suspect that in reality he was not nearly as bad as legend maintains. In the 20th century, some historians put forward a case for the king’s defence, arguing that his badness was largely a later invention, and that his misfortunes as a ruler were mostly down to ill luck. So successful was this rehabilitation that, in the popular imagination, John is now often seen as being the victim of a posthumous smear campaign, a king no worse than most others – misreported and misunderstood.Among academics this interpretation has not fared nearly so well, for the simple reason that it requires certain fundamental facts about his reign to be downplayed or ignored completely. The reality is that John was not as bad as legend made out – he was worse.
To begin with, John was exceptionally cruel. People generally regard the Middle Ages as a cruel time, and there is indeed some justification for doing so. This was a period when you could be blinded, castrated or even killed by the king’s officials for taking a deer in the royal forest. Anyone who has read their Shakespeare knows that medieval kings and nobles were forever murdering and maiming each other, either on the field of battle or more discreetly in darkened castle chambers.
What was true of the Wars of the Roses, however, was not true of the 12th and 13th centuries, when stricter rules about combat and treatment of prisoners held sway. During these more chivalrous times, aristocrats did not expect to die in battle, and if they were taken prisoner they expected to be kept in honourable captivity until they could be ransomed. Nobles were killed in great numbers in Anglo-Saxon England and again in the later Middle Ages, but between 1076 and 1306 not one English earl was executed.
John repeatedly broke this taboo. Famously, he arranged the ‘disappearance’ of his nephew and rival, Arthur of Brittany, who contested the king’s claim to his inheritance until John captured him in 1202. Arthur’s fate was made famous by Shakespeare, who has him threatened with blinding but killed by accident, falling from his prison window as he tries to escape. During John’s reign the finger of suspicion was pointed more firmly at the king himself, with some contemporaries alleging that he murdered his nephew with his own hand. Others argued that John had acted with justification, noting that Arthur was taken while in armed rebellion against his uncle.
Starved to death
But Arthur was only the most famous of John’s victims. When the king captured his nephew in 1202, he also took prisoner hundreds of other knights, who expected to be held in honourable confinement. Yet when their friends and families in Anjou and Brittany continued to fight against him, John rounded up 22 of these knightly captives and sent them to Corfe Castle in Dorset, where they were starved to death.
His cruelty was almost unheard of. John’s brother Richard the Lionheart had reportedly starved a man to death, but this appears to have been an isolated incident. John, by contrast, killed people in this way en masse, and on more than one occasion. In 1210 he committed one of the most notorious acts of his reign by starving to death the wife and son of his former friend, William de Briouze.
This clearly shocked every other noble family in England, but did not deter the king from threatening to mete out similar treatment to others: in 1215 and 1216 he induced some of the Magna Carta rebels to surrender by threatening to starve their captive companions. “He kept his prisoners in such a horrible manner, and in such abject confinement,” wrote the author of the 13th-century History of William Marshal, “that it seemed an indignity and a disgrace to all those with him who witnessed such cruelty.”
Another of John’s major failings was cowardice. He was certainly not a milksop like Henry VI or Richard II, averse to armed conflict. For most of his reign John was at war with the king of France, Philip Augustus, and he did not hesitate to invade Scotland, Wales and Ireland when he felt that the rulers of those lands had crossed him. On several occasions he prosecuted successful sieges.
At Rochester in 1215 he famously forced the surrender of the mighty castle by undermining and partially collapsing its great tower.
Fleeing the French
It does not require any particular military genius, however, to carry out a siege, only superior resources in manpower and artillery. The real test for a military commander comes when the odds are less than certain. John was presented with this kind of situation several times, and each time his decision was the same.
When the king of France invaded Normandy in 1203, John failed to confront him and fled to England, an act of desertion that led directly to the duchy’s loss. He returned to the continent in 1206 and 1214 to try to regain lost ground, but on each occasion withdrew rapidly when told that his enemies were approaching. When the French finally invaded England in the spring of 1216, John watched them disembark on the beaches of Kent, briefly considered fighting them, then rode off in the opposite direction. So fast was his retreat on this occasion that he was three leagues away before his troops realised he had abandoned them. In an age when personal bravery mattered, John repeatedly showed his back to the enemy. “No man may ever trust him,” sang the troubadour Bertran de Born, “for his heart is soft and cowardly.”
Cruelty and cowardice were two of John’s most notable faults, but he had plenty of others besides. Contemporaries also regarded him as treacherous, remembering in particular his attempt to seize the throne for himself while his brother Richard was in captivity. They also complained that he forced himself on the wives and daughters of his barons. On top of all this there was the generally extortionate nature of his regime, with huge taxes and arbitrary fines, resulting in what is reckoned to have been the greatest level of financial exploitation in England since the Norman conquest. Small wonder that when he died in 1216, some chroniclers imagined him suffering the torments of hell.
It is a commonplace defence of John, still advanced in school textbooks, that contemporary opinion of him is not to be trusted, because all chroniclers were churchmen, who were biased against the king because he had attacked the church. John certainly persecuted the church with a particular fury after his row with the pope over the appointment of a new archbishop of Canterbury. He drove the monks of Canterbury into exile and eventually seized the lands of all the English clergy – moves that led to England being laid under interdict and the king himself being excommunicated. The clergy certainly had good reason to hate him.
But the assertion that all medieval chroniclers were churchmen is a fallacy. Plenty of laymen put pen to parchment during the Middle Ages, and John’s reign is no exception. Bertran de Born, the troubadour poet mentioned above, was a member of the lay aristocracy of southern France. The author of The History of William Marshal was also a layman, and repeatedly blames the disasters of John’s reign on the king’s own personality.
Another author, known as the Anonymous of Béthune, is also likely to have been a layman, since his chronicle dwells upon the concerns of a lay audience, and was written for an aristocratic patron, Robert of Béthune. Robert was a Flemish nobleman who fought on John’s side in the final years of his reign, and was well rewarded as a result. Yet even here the overall assessment of the king is damning. “He was a very bad man,” says the Anonymous, “more cruel than all others. He lusted after beautiful women and because of this he shamed the high men of the land, for which reason he was greatly hated. Whenever he could he told lies rather than the truth… He was brim-full of evil qualities.”
Clergymen and laymen alike were united in their detestation of John. Modern attempts to rehabilitate him require us to ignore this chorus of disapproval from his contemporaries as well as his own nefarious acts.
Historians quite rightly set out to challenge legends and dispel myths, but in this case the myth is a modern one. Any reasonable assessment of the sources must lead us to conclude that in the case of Bad King John, tradition had it about right.
How to be a good medieval king
The highest standards of conduct were expected of Plantagenet rulers. Sadly, John rarely managed to meet them…
Medieval kings were expected to be able to protect and defend their subjects from attack and to lead from the front. This was a risky business. Edward I narrowly escaped death by crossbow bolt; Richard I was not so lucky. Nor was King Harold, but he at least engaged his enemies when they landed on the shores of England and went down fighting alongside his men. John’s response in similar circumstances was to run away.
Do the lord’s work
Medieval kings were expected to be pious, and they could demonstrate this in a variety of ways — by distributing alms to the poor, for example, or building a new church. Some kings were extremely pious in their own devotions, such as the French king Louis IX. King John seems to have been reasonably observant, but his attack on the church led to him being written up as irreligious after his death.
Share your wealth
Those who waited on medieval monarchs did so in the hope of reward, so generous rulers were invariably praised. One of the few positive statements made about King John was that there was always plenty to eat and drink in his hall, and that he distributed robes to his men on a regular basis. When John’s son Henry III cut back on such expenditure to save up for his crusade, he was criticised for departing from the example of his father.
At the time of their coronation, medieval monarchs were required to swear an oath, part of which was a promise to do good justice. Good kings took this responsibility very seriously. After his death in 1307 Edward I was praised for the quality of his justice, and in his own letters the same king can be seen exhorting his officials to act justly. John was very active in hearing court cases, but his motivation was the money he could raise by imposing punitive fines.
Be prepared to listen
Maintaining yourself in government involves a simple trick – make sure more people want you to remain in power than want you out. Whether by summoning great councils or later parliaments, successful medieval rulers took steps to consult their more important subjects, noting their views, winning them round and channelling their ambitions. Bad kings like John were always accused of taking ‘evil counsel’, which meant relying on a clique of advisors.
Marc Morris is a historian and broadcaster whose books include A Great and Terrible King: Edward I and the Forging of Britain (Windmill, 2009).
This article was first published in the June 2015 issue of BBC History Magazine | <urn:uuid:6ed7b107-6ce8-4373-8004-439ca081371d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyextra.com/period/plantagenet/was-king-john-really-that-bad-yes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00079.warc.gz | en | 0.990063 | 2,456 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.049770489335... | 1 | For most people (and here I include myself) mention of the name ‘King John’ conjures up images of the character from the tales of Robin Hood – a pantomime villain, rolling his eyes and gnashing his teeth.
At the same time, most people are aware that these tales are legendary, and, in their earliest versions, make no mention of John at all. The king was first inserted into the Robin Hood story in the 16th century, but his inclusion has no historical basis whatsoever.
Those who go in search of the real John therefore tend to suppose that he must have been unfairly maligned, and suspect that in reality he was not nearly as bad as legend maintains. In the 20th century, some historians put forward a case for the king’s defence, arguing that his badness was largely a later invention, and that his misfortunes as a ruler were mostly down to ill luck. So successful was this rehabilitation that, in the popular imagination, John is now often seen as being the victim of a posthumous smear campaign, a king no worse than most others – misreported and misunderstood.Among academics this interpretation has not fared nearly so well, for the simple reason that it requires certain fundamental facts about his reign to be downplayed or ignored completely. The reality is that John was not as bad as legend made out – he was worse.
To begin with, John was exceptionally cruel. People generally regard the Middle Ages as a cruel time, and there is indeed some justification for doing so. This was a period when you could be blinded, castrated or even killed by the king’s officials for taking a deer in the royal forest. Anyone who has read their Shakespeare knows that medieval kings and nobles were forever murdering and maiming each other, either on the field of battle or more discreetly in darkened castle chambers.
What was true of the Wars of the Roses, however, was not true of the 12th and 13th centuries, when stricter rules about combat and treatment of prisoners held sway. During these more chivalrous times, aristocrats did not expect to die in battle, and if they were taken prisoner they expected to be kept in honourable captivity until they could be ransomed. Nobles were killed in great numbers in Anglo-Saxon England and again in the later Middle Ages, but between 1076 and 1306 not one English earl was executed.
John repeatedly broke this taboo. Famously, he arranged the ‘disappearance’ of his nephew and rival, Arthur of Brittany, who contested the king’s claim to his inheritance until John captured him in 1202. Arthur’s fate was made famous by Shakespeare, who has him threatened with blinding but killed by accident, falling from his prison window as he tries to escape. During John’s reign the finger of suspicion was pointed more firmly at the king himself, with some contemporaries alleging that he murdered his nephew with his own hand. Others argued that John had acted with justification, noting that Arthur was taken while in armed rebellion against his uncle.
Starved to death
But Arthur was only the most famous of John’s victims. When the king captured his nephew in 1202, he also took prisoner hundreds of other knights, who expected to be held in honourable confinement. Yet when their friends and families in Anjou and Brittany continued to fight against him, John rounded up 22 of these knightly captives and sent them to Corfe Castle in Dorset, where they were starved to death.
His cruelty was almost unheard of. John’s brother Richard the Lionheart had reportedly starved a man to death, but this appears to have been an isolated incident. John, by contrast, killed people in this way en masse, and on more than one occasion. In 1210 he committed one of the most notorious acts of his reign by starving to death the wife and son of his former friend, William de Briouze.
This clearly shocked every other noble family in England, but did not deter the king from threatening to mete out similar treatment to others: in 1215 and 1216 he induced some of the Magna Carta rebels to surrender by threatening to starve their captive companions. “He kept his prisoners in such a horrible manner, and in such abject confinement,” wrote the author of the 13th-century History of William Marshal, “that it seemed an indignity and a disgrace to all those with him who witnessed such cruelty.”
Another of John’s major failings was cowardice. He was certainly not a milksop like Henry VI or Richard II, averse to armed conflict. For most of his reign John was at war with the king of France, Philip Augustus, and he did not hesitate to invade Scotland, Wales and Ireland when he felt that the rulers of those lands had crossed him. On several occasions he prosecuted successful sieges.
At Rochester in 1215 he famously forced the surrender of the mighty castle by undermining and partially collapsing its great tower.
Fleeing the French
It does not require any particular military genius, however, to carry out a siege, only superior resources in manpower and artillery. The real test for a military commander comes when the odds are less than certain. John was presented with this kind of situation several times, and each time his decision was the same.
When the king of France invaded Normandy in 1203, John failed to confront him and fled to England, an act of desertion that led directly to the duchy’s loss. He returned to the continent in 1206 and 1214 to try to regain lost ground, but on each occasion withdrew rapidly when told that his enemies were approaching. When the French finally invaded England in the spring of 1216, John watched them disembark on the beaches of Kent, briefly considered fighting them, then rode off in the opposite direction. So fast was his retreat on this occasion that he was three leagues away before his troops realised he had abandoned them. In an age when personal bravery mattered, John repeatedly showed his back to the enemy. “No man may ever trust him,” sang the troubadour Bertran de Born, “for his heart is soft and cowardly.”
Cruelty and cowardice were two of John’s most notable faults, but he had plenty of others besides. Contemporaries also regarded him as treacherous, remembering in particular his attempt to seize the throne for himself while his brother Richard was in captivity. They also complained that he forced himself on the wives and daughters of his barons. On top of all this there was the generally extortionate nature of his regime, with huge taxes and arbitrary fines, resulting in what is reckoned to have been the greatest level of financial exploitation in England since the Norman conquest. Small wonder that when he died in 1216, some chroniclers imagined him suffering the torments of hell.
It is a commonplace defence of John, still advanced in school textbooks, that contemporary opinion of him is not to be trusted, because all chroniclers were churchmen, who were biased against the king because he had attacked the church. John certainly persecuted the church with a particular fury after his row with the pope over the appointment of a new archbishop of Canterbury. He drove the monks of Canterbury into exile and eventually seized the lands of all the English clergy – moves that led to England being laid under interdict and the king himself being excommunicated. The clergy certainly had good reason to hate him.
But the assertion that all medieval chroniclers were churchmen is a fallacy. Plenty of laymen put pen to parchment during the Middle Ages, and John’s reign is no exception. Bertran de Born, the troubadour poet mentioned above, was a member of the lay aristocracy of southern France. The author of The History of William Marshal was also a layman, and repeatedly blames the disasters of John’s reign on the king’s own personality.
Another author, known as the Anonymous of Béthune, is also likely to have been a layman, since his chronicle dwells upon the concerns of a lay audience, and was written for an aristocratic patron, Robert of Béthune. Robert was a Flemish nobleman who fought on John’s side in the final years of his reign, and was well rewarded as a result. Yet even here the overall assessment of the king is damning. “He was a very bad man,” says the Anonymous, “more cruel than all others. He lusted after beautiful women and because of this he shamed the high men of the land, for which reason he was greatly hated. Whenever he could he told lies rather than the truth… He was brim-full of evil qualities.”
Clergymen and laymen alike were united in their detestation of John. Modern attempts to rehabilitate him require us to ignore this chorus of disapproval from his contemporaries as well as his own nefarious acts.
Historians quite rightly set out to challenge legends and dispel myths, but in this case the myth is a modern one. Any reasonable assessment of the sources must lead us to conclude that in the case of Bad King John, tradition had it about right.
How to be a good medieval king
The highest standards of conduct were expected of Plantagenet rulers. Sadly, John rarely managed to meet them…
Medieval kings were expected to be able to protect and defend their subjects from attack and to lead from the front. This was a risky business. Edward I narrowly escaped death by crossbow bolt; Richard I was not so lucky. Nor was King Harold, but he at least engaged his enemies when they landed on the shores of England and went down fighting alongside his men. John’s response in similar circumstances was to run away.
Do the lord’s work
Medieval kings were expected to be pious, and they could demonstrate this in a variety of ways — by distributing alms to the poor, for example, or building a new church. Some kings were extremely pious in their own devotions, such as the French king Louis IX. King John seems to have been reasonably observant, but his attack on the church led to him being written up as irreligious after his death.
Share your wealth
Those who waited on medieval monarchs did so in the hope of reward, so generous rulers were invariably praised. One of the few positive statements made about King John was that there was always plenty to eat and drink in his hall, and that he distributed robes to his men on a regular basis. When John’s son Henry III cut back on such expenditure to save up for his crusade, he was criticised for departing from the example of his father.
At the time of their coronation, medieval monarchs were required to swear an oath, part of which was a promise to do good justice. Good kings took this responsibility very seriously. After his death in 1307 Edward I was praised for the quality of his justice, and in his own letters the same king can be seen exhorting his officials to act justly. John was very active in hearing court cases, but his motivation was the money he could raise by imposing punitive fines.
Be prepared to listen
Maintaining yourself in government involves a simple trick – make sure more people want you to remain in power than want you out. Whether by summoning great councils or later parliaments, successful medieval rulers took steps to consult their more important subjects, noting their views, winning them round and channelling their ambitions. Bad kings like John were always accused of taking ‘evil counsel’, which meant relying on a clique of advisors.
Marc Morris is a historian and broadcaster whose books include A Great and Terrible King: Edward I and the Forging of Britain (Windmill, 2009).
This article was first published in the June 2015 issue of BBC History Magazine | 2,456 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This tablet was erected in 1940 to honor the spirit of Marquis de Lafayette and the nation of France for their assistance in the American Revolution. The Marquis de Lafayette was a young French nobleman who volunteered to fight in the American Revolutionary War. After the war ended and he returned home, Lafayette only visited the United States a few times. On at least one occasion, he stopped by the town of Gallipolis, which had French roots itself, being settled by the so-called French 500. The plaque is just one of many objects in town referencing America’s French ally Lafayette.
The Marquis de Lafayette was born in 1757. He was orphaned at a young age and joined the French Royal Army at fourteen. In 1775, he heard about the American colonies’ struggle for independence and was excited by the idea of joining the cause. With help from his friend, the Comte de Broglie, Lafayette left for America with a letter from American diplomat Silas Deane promising him a position as a major general. The American government readily welcomed their noble, young volunteer and gave him his commission as Major General. Soon after, he met General George Washington, beginning a friendship that would last until Washington’s death. By the end of the American Revolutionary War, Lafayette had served in some of the harshest conditions, such as the infamous winter in Valley Forge, and had spent more than $200,000 of his own money on the colonies' efforts. Congress later repaid him and gave him land in the Louisiana territory.
Lafayette returned to the United States a few times in his remaining years, including one tour of the country in 1824 that attracted crowds at every stop. On that tour, Lafayette stayed at the Our House tavern and inn in Gallipolis. The tavern is now a museum which features some of his possessions. Lafayette died in 1834, but he was not forgotten by the people of Gallipolis. In town, there is a strip mall and apartment complex named after him in addition to the 1940 plaque dedicated to “the spirit of Lafayette”.
The plaque notes another French connection to the village of Gallipolis: the French 500. The name applies to a group of French settlers who came to Gallipolis in 1790. After arriving, they found out that the land they paid the Scioto Company for was never purchased from the Ohio Company, making their deeds worthless. Five years later, President Washington granted them free land in Scioto County, but the boundaries of counties in Ohio at this time were unclear. Some took advantage of this free land while others stayed behind and purchased land in Gallia County a second time. | <urn:uuid:ab18367c-df17-4fb3-bd57-8724b607f332> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/24881 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00255.warc.gz | en | 0.98465 | 544 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.4156823754310608... | 2 | This tablet was erected in 1940 to honor the spirit of Marquis de Lafayette and the nation of France for their assistance in the American Revolution. The Marquis de Lafayette was a young French nobleman who volunteered to fight in the American Revolutionary War. After the war ended and he returned home, Lafayette only visited the United States a few times. On at least one occasion, he stopped by the town of Gallipolis, which had French roots itself, being settled by the so-called French 500. The plaque is just one of many objects in town referencing America’s French ally Lafayette.
The Marquis de Lafayette was born in 1757. He was orphaned at a young age and joined the French Royal Army at fourteen. In 1775, he heard about the American colonies’ struggle for independence and was excited by the idea of joining the cause. With help from his friend, the Comte de Broglie, Lafayette left for America with a letter from American diplomat Silas Deane promising him a position as a major general. The American government readily welcomed their noble, young volunteer and gave him his commission as Major General. Soon after, he met General George Washington, beginning a friendship that would last until Washington’s death. By the end of the American Revolutionary War, Lafayette had served in some of the harshest conditions, such as the infamous winter in Valley Forge, and had spent more than $200,000 of his own money on the colonies' efforts. Congress later repaid him and gave him land in the Louisiana territory.
Lafayette returned to the United States a few times in his remaining years, including one tour of the country in 1824 that attracted crowds at every stop. On that tour, Lafayette stayed at the Our House tavern and inn in Gallipolis. The tavern is now a museum which features some of his possessions. Lafayette died in 1834, but he was not forgotten by the people of Gallipolis. In town, there is a strip mall and apartment complex named after him in addition to the 1940 plaque dedicated to “the spirit of Lafayette”.
The plaque notes another French connection to the village of Gallipolis: the French 500. The name applies to a group of French settlers who came to Gallipolis in 1790. After arriving, they found out that the land they paid the Scioto Company for was never purchased from the Ohio Company, making their deeds worthless. Five years later, President Washington granted them free land in Scioto County, but the boundaries of counties in Ohio at this time were unclear. Some took advantage of this free land while others stayed behind and purchased land in Gallia County a second time. | 568 | ENGLISH | 1 |
To start off, I wish all a happy and prosperous new year to those who read and take an interest in our blog. My first post of 2018 will look at the enslaved Zanj peoples of East Africa and reasons as to how rebellion ensued from 869 to 883 AD. for this January’s African History month.
An African History in Mesopotamia
The term Zanj is a name of Arab origin which is loosely translated to “Land and Black” and was coined by Muslim geographers in the Medieval period. The area was in and around the region of the East African coast, now modern-day Kenya and Tanzania and settled by Black Africans of Bantu heritage. Trade was prominent in this region with the Arab world that involved lucrative goods such as ivory and gold.
The slave trade of the Zanj peoples also dominated. They were shipped and important to work on the marshlands in the surrounding area to Basra in Mesopotamia, now Iraq and sold to Wealthy Arabs to cultivate the land, primarily for sugarcane. Basra was an important port city in the region, so it was accessible to transport the produce from the land and to import slaves. These marshlands were left for some time due to flooding, wealthy Arabs saw an opportunity to implement a plantation based economy by converting the disused land for arable farming, using intensive labour. This was why the Zanj peoples were considered and that the East African coast was near the Arab world. Some Zanj peoples worked in Salt flats close to Basra. It was not just in the region of Basra that Zanj peoples were imported for slavery, some were shipped to other Arab speaking regions that bordered the Indian Ocean.
The struggle of the Zanj peoples
The lives of the Zanj peoples were harsh and miserable with many accounts indicating punitive treatment from their masters. The living and working conditions is a major factor that contributed to the Zanj rebellion, but it was not necessarily the only standing factor.
Anarchy of Samarra (861-870 AD.)
The ruling Caliphate, the Abbasid Caliphate was heavily marred and weakened by internal discord relating to the Caliphate’s succession and struggle inevitably ensued. This period was known as the Anarchy of Samarra, seeing as court was held at Samarra at this time. The succession of the Caliph’s was violent seeing as they were killed, disposed, exiled or overthrown. This anarchy allowed rebels to implement their own policies of governance that replaced the existing system. This greatly affected taxation from provinces, the central government would otherwise have had and in turn created a loss. With less revenue from taxation it meant there was less money to pay for resources should external or internal conflict ensue. This, in a way swayed attention from the Zanj slave trade as it meant there was no ruling stability in the Caliphate and it greatly affected the prestige of the central government. As a result, it perhaps allowed a chance for rebellion.
The role of Ali Ibn Muhammed
So how did Ali Ibn Muhammed attract support from the Zanj peoples in Mesopotamia? As explored previously, the Zanj peoples clearly lived and worked in terrible conditions and that at the time of the Anarchy of Samarra it weakened the ruling system and as such it appears as if the last factor discussed in the form of Ali Ibn Muhammed ties together the previous two factors contributing to the rebellion.
Ali Ibn Muhammed did benefit from hearing the news concerning warring factions, particularly in Basra. Ali Ibn Muhammed eventually seized the opportunity to gain Zanj support in return for their liberation because of this, although initially he struggled to gain support. Some accounts note him as enquiring about their living and working conditions cultivating the land. To some Zanj, this appeared to be the opportunity for freedom, a life free from slavery. He managed to recruit a sizeable amount of Zanj slaves who were willing to rebel for the cause, along side other ethnic groups unhappy with the regime. | <urn:uuid:d58dc637-d964-483f-9ca6-4ca87d51e3d1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wuhstry.wordpress.com/2018/01/09/the-road-to-rebellion-zanj-rebellion/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00136.warc.gz | en | 0.980193 | 820 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.16599473357200... | 6 | To start off, I wish all a happy and prosperous new year to those who read and take an interest in our blog. My first post of 2018 will look at the enslaved Zanj peoples of East Africa and reasons as to how rebellion ensued from 869 to 883 AD. for this January’s African History month.
An African History in Mesopotamia
The term Zanj is a name of Arab origin which is loosely translated to “Land and Black” and was coined by Muslim geographers in the Medieval period. The area was in and around the region of the East African coast, now modern-day Kenya and Tanzania and settled by Black Africans of Bantu heritage. Trade was prominent in this region with the Arab world that involved lucrative goods such as ivory and gold.
The slave trade of the Zanj peoples also dominated. They were shipped and important to work on the marshlands in the surrounding area to Basra in Mesopotamia, now Iraq and sold to Wealthy Arabs to cultivate the land, primarily for sugarcane. Basra was an important port city in the region, so it was accessible to transport the produce from the land and to import slaves. These marshlands were left for some time due to flooding, wealthy Arabs saw an opportunity to implement a plantation based economy by converting the disused land for arable farming, using intensive labour. This was why the Zanj peoples were considered and that the East African coast was near the Arab world. Some Zanj peoples worked in Salt flats close to Basra. It was not just in the region of Basra that Zanj peoples were imported for slavery, some were shipped to other Arab speaking regions that bordered the Indian Ocean.
The struggle of the Zanj peoples
The lives of the Zanj peoples were harsh and miserable with many accounts indicating punitive treatment from their masters. The living and working conditions is a major factor that contributed to the Zanj rebellion, but it was not necessarily the only standing factor.
Anarchy of Samarra (861-870 AD.)
The ruling Caliphate, the Abbasid Caliphate was heavily marred and weakened by internal discord relating to the Caliphate’s succession and struggle inevitably ensued. This period was known as the Anarchy of Samarra, seeing as court was held at Samarra at this time. The succession of the Caliph’s was violent seeing as they were killed, disposed, exiled or overthrown. This anarchy allowed rebels to implement their own policies of governance that replaced the existing system. This greatly affected taxation from provinces, the central government would otherwise have had and in turn created a loss. With less revenue from taxation it meant there was less money to pay for resources should external or internal conflict ensue. This, in a way swayed attention from the Zanj slave trade as it meant there was no ruling stability in the Caliphate and it greatly affected the prestige of the central government. As a result, it perhaps allowed a chance for rebellion.
The role of Ali Ibn Muhammed
So how did Ali Ibn Muhammed attract support from the Zanj peoples in Mesopotamia? As explored previously, the Zanj peoples clearly lived and worked in terrible conditions and that at the time of the Anarchy of Samarra it weakened the ruling system and as such it appears as if the last factor discussed in the form of Ali Ibn Muhammed ties together the previous two factors contributing to the rebellion.
Ali Ibn Muhammed did benefit from hearing the news concerning warring factions, particularly in Basra. Ali Ibn Muhammed eventually seized the opportunity to gain Zanj support in return for their liberation because of this, although initially he struggled to gain support. Some accounts note him as enquiring about their living and working conditions cultivating the land. To some Zanj, this appeared to be the opportunity for freedom, a life free from slavery. He managed to recruit a sizeable amount of Zanj slaves who were willing to rebel for the cause, along side other ethnic groups unhappy with the regime. | 826 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our introduction to shapes began by asking the girls this question - "What is a shape".
One answer was that it is a circle.
Another thought it was a square.
As a continuation to straight and curved lines, the girls were able to distinguish shapes by asking these questions -
Which shapes have straight lines?
Which shapes have curved lines?
Which shape has 3 or 4 straight lines?
We took shape walks around campus and inside the buildings we were in. The girls discovered there were a lot of shapes outside in nature. The shrubs are circles or rectangles, along with the shapes on the sidewalks and our building. While we were planting lettuce seeds at the garden they compared the shapes of the different seeds they planted and found that there were no square or rectangle seeds. Inside our buildings there were many circle clocks, square and rectangle doors and windows along with triangle roofs on our toys.
When our parents came to visit the girls cut out shapes and made pictures from the shapes.
Lena made an elephant.
Meriwether made a house with bushes and a sun.
Camille made a firetruck.
All of our center work this week reinforced our questions and what we learned about different shapes. We drew shapes, sorted shapes, painted shapes, and used the smart board to draw shapes. We graphed our favorite shapes and counted to see which one was our favorite. The following pictures will show our center work. | <urn:uuid:87c66b4a-df39-4f21-8a55-7ce7b1c96755> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://hutchisonpk.weebly.com/burtclanton/shapes-shapes-all-around | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00341.warc.gz | en | 0.985474 | 294 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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-0.1169685646891594... | 1 | Our introduction to shapes began by asking the girls this question - "What is a shape".
One answer was that it is a circle.
Another thought it was a square.
As a continuation to straight and curved lines, the girls were able to distinguish shapes by asking these questions -
Which shapes have straight lines?
Which shapes have curved lines?
Which shape has 3 or 4 straight lines?
We took shape walks around campus and inside the buildings we were in. The girls discovered there were a lot of shapes outside in nature. The shrubs are circles or rectangles, along with the shapes on the sidewalks and our building. While we were planting lettuce seeds at the garden they compared the shapes of the different seeds they planted and found that there were no square or rectangle seeds. Inside our buildings there were many circle clocks, square and rectangle doors and windows along with triangle roofs on our toys.
When our parents came to visit the girls cut out shapes and made pictures from the shapes.
Lena made an elephant.
Meriwether made a house with bushes and a sun.
Camille made a firetruck.
All of our center work this week reinforced our questions and what we learned about different shapes. We drew shapes, sorted shapes, painted shapes, and used the smart board to draw shapes. We graphed our favorite shapes and counted to see which one was our favorite. The following pictures will show our center work. | 282 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Eugene V. Debs leaving the Federal Penitentiary in Atlanta, Georgia, on Christmas Day 1921. He had been imprisoned in 1918 under the Sedition Act, for giving a speech against participation in the First World War. President Warren G. Harding commuted his sentence to time served in December 1921. Scholars generally view Debs v. United States (1919), which upheld his conviction in the Supreme Court, as a low-water mark in the protection of free speech during wartime. (Image via Library of Congress, public domain)
Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. authored the unanimous Supreme Court decision in Debs v. United States, 249 U.S. 211 (1919), sustaining socialist leader Eugene V. Debs’s conviction under the Sedition Act of 1918.
Debs was a well-known public figure; he had received almost 1 million votes when he ran for President in 1912. On June 16, 1918, Debs gave a speech outside the Canton, Ohio, prison, where he had visited three Socialists convicted of violating the Sedition Act.
Debs arrested for speech even though he avoided illegal advocacy
Before an audience of about 1,200 people, Debs offered his support for the prisoners, saying that they were paying the price for “seeking to pave the way to better conditions for all mankind.” Debs, a pacifist, condemned the ongoing war but took care not to advocate any illegal activity and even commented to his audience that he had to be prudent with his word choice.
He was arrested for the speech, however, and was convicted of obstructing military recruitment and enlistment. Sentenced to 10 years in prison, Debs appealed his conviction, arguing his speech was protected by the First Amendment.
Just one week before the Debs opinion was announced, Holmes had introduced the “clear and present danger” test in Schenck v. United States (1919), suggesting that judges must examine the context in which the speech was made, rather than the “bad tendency” of the words alone as had been traditional in free-speech cases.
Holmes focused on Debs's underlying intent in his speech
In Debs, however, Holmes did not address the circumstances that may have led Debs’s speech to be potentially dangerous to recruitment. Instead, Holmes determined that even though Debs did not expressly advocate draft resistance, his intent and the general tendency of his words were together sufficient for a jury to convict him fairly.
According to Holmes, Debs’s warning that he had to be careful with his words meant that the audience was free to infer an underlying meaning. The decision did not discuss potentially salient differences between Debs and Schenck; for example, Schenck had addressed draft inductees, whereas Debs had spoken to a general audience.
Scholars generally view Debs as a low-water mark in the protection of free speech during wartime.
Holmes moved to a strong defense of First Amendment eight months later
One of the pressing questions in the history of the First Amendment concerns how Holmes moved from Debs in March 1919 to the strong defense of free speech he penned eight months later in his dissent in Abrams v United States (1919).
Holmes’s correspondence at the time reveals that although he never questioned the correctness of his decision, he was unhappy that the federal government had chosen to prosecute Debs and that he had been chosen to write the opinion.
Discussions over the value of free speech and dissent with Judge Learned Hand and political science professor Harold Laski, combined with an influential article by Ernst Freund criticizing the Debs decision in the May issue of The New Republic, may have led Holmes to reevaluate the relationship between political liberty and criticism of the government, as well as his own commitment to free speech.
In 1920, while in prison, Debs again ran for President and received almost 1 million votes. President Warren G. Harding commuted his sentence in 1921.Send Feedback on this article | <urn:uuid:92d9c9fb-6158-4dbe-95bf-be355f9b368f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://w1.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/289/debs-v-united-states | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00056.warc.gz | en | 0.985465 | 827 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.11575704813... | 4 | Eugene V. Debs leaving the Federal Penitentiary in Atlanta, Georgia, on Christmas Day 1921. He had been imprisoned in 1918 under the Sedition Act, for giving a speech against participation in the First World War. President Warren G. Harding commuted his sentence to time served in December 1921. Scholars generally view Debs v. United States (1919), which upheld his conviction in the Supreme Court, as a low-water mark in the protection of free speech during wartime. (Image via Library of Congress, public domain)
Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. authored the unanimous Supreme Court decision in Debs v. United States, 249 U.S. 211 (1919), sustaining socialist leader Eugene V. Debs’s conviction under the Sedition Act of 1918.
Debs was a well-known public figure; he had received almost 1 million votes when he ran for President in 1912. On June 16, 1918, Debs gave a speech outside the Canton, Ohio, prison, where he had visited three Socialists convicted of violating the Sedition Act.
Debs arrested for speech even though he avoided illegal advocacy
Before an audience of about 1,200 people, Debs offered his support for the prisoners, saying that they were paying the price for “seeking to pave the way to better conditions for all mankind.” Debs, a pacifist, condemned the ongoing war but took care not to advocate any illegal activity and even commented to his audience that he had to be prudent with his word choice.
He was arrested for the speech, however, and was convicted of obstructing military recruitment and enlistment. Sentenced to 10 years in prison, Debs appealed his conviction, arguing his speech was protected by the First Amendment.
Just one week before the Debs opinion was announced, Holmes had introduced the “clear and present danger” test in Schenck v. United States (1919), suggesting that judges must examine the context in which the speech was made, rather than the “bad tendency” of the words alone as had been traditional in free-speech cases.
Holmes focused on Debs's underlying intent in his speech
In Debs, however, Holmes did not address the circumstances that may have led Debs’s speech to be potentially dangerous to recruitment. Instead, Holmes determined that even though Debs did not expressly advocate draft resistance, his intent and the general tendency of his words were together sufficient for a jury to convict him fairly.
According to Holmes, Debs’s warning that he had to be careful with his words meant that the audience was free to infer an underlying meaning. The decision did not discuss potentially salient differences between Debs and Schenck; for example, Schenck had addressed draft inductees, whereas Debs had spoken to a general audience.
Scholars generally view Debs as a low-water mark in the protection of free speech during wartime.
Holmes moved to a strong defense of First Amendment eight months later
One of the pressing questions in the history of the First Amendment concerns how Holmes moved from Debs in March 1919 to the strong defense of free speech he penned eight months later in his dissent in Abrams v United States (1919).
Holmes’s correspondence at the time reveals that although he never questioned the correctness of his decision, he was unhappy that the federal government had chosen to prosecute Debs and that he had been chosen to write the opinion.
Discussions over the value of free speech and dissent with Judge Learned Hand and political science professor Harold Laski, combined with an influential article by Ernst Freund criticizing the Debs decision in the May issue of The New Republic, may have led Holmes to reevaluate the relationship between political liberty and criticism of the government, as well as his own commitment to free speech.
In 1920, while in prison, Debs again ran for President and received almost 1 million votes. President Warren G. Harding commuted his sentence in 1921.Send Feedback on this article | 857 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"I miss Pop-pop," the little boy said out of the blue while he stared out onto a snow covered yard. His mother was a bit startled by the statement as her son's grandfather had died six months ago and the little boy had not mentioned him for a couple of months. She thought that her son had moved on but then remembered that her son and his grandfather used to go sledding together.
Grief over the loss of a loved one is something everyone eventually experiences and yet very few feel comfortable discussing. Parents have a particular challenge when it comes to childhood grief. Children do not have the same ability to understand death that adults do nor do they have adults' ability to cope with the loss in the same way.
Due to these differences, parents naturally want to shield children from the full impact of the loss. The temptation is to use euphemisms to discuss the death like the loved one has "gone to sleep" or "has gone away". However, children take such statements literally and may become afraid of bedtime or not want to travel. It is best to be direct with children when someone has died and to wait for their questions. Children will help parents know how much detail they need through the questions they ask. Parents do not need to go into exhaustive detail about the death as that can overwhelm children.
Young children will not understand that death is permanent and may believe they have the power to bring the dead person back by doing their chores or completing their homework. Older children understand the permanence of death but are likely to have other questions. Parents will need to help clarify what death means and answer questions as they come up.
Once children understand that a person has died and is gone, their grieving process will start. Children react in a variety of ways to death. Some will feel sad, display anger, and want to talk about it while other children will not want to talk and express their grief through play and art. Children's grief reactions will be stronger at first and then diminish to a degree as time goes by.
However, grief and the grieving process has no time limit. Parents and other adults should allow children to express their grief when they are feeling it as presented in the scenario at the beginning of this article. In addition, parents should feel comfortable talking about the person who died in front of the children. This models that it is okay to talk about the person and gives the message to children that others are also going through the sense of loss that they feel.
Grief can pop up throughout the rest of children's lives as they reach various milestones. For example, they may graduate from college and think back to how their loved one always pushed them to do well academically. Since grief continues to have an impact long after the initial death, it is important for parents and adults to recognize that it is an on-going issue for children.
Last week was Children's Grief Awareness Day which is always the third Tuesday in November, right before Thanksgiving. Its purpose is to bring attention to the fact that support can make all the difference in the life of a grieving child. It just takes parents and adults acknowledging the grief and to be willing to talk about it with children.
Dan Florell, Ph.D., is an associate professor at Eastern Kentucky University and has a private practice, MindPsi (www.mindpsi.net). Praveena Salins, M.D., is a pediatrician at Madison Pediatric Associates (www.madisonpeds.com). | <urn:uuid:b53ddf14-6abe-4efe-884e-4d09a589c382> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.richmondregister.com/community/guidance-on-children-s-grief/article_3315b7f9-7287-5433-aa9d-193f3cd7cc7d.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00180.warc.gz | en | 0.981087 | 711 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.319005608558... | 1 | "I miss Pop-pop," the little boy said out of the blue while he stared out onto a snow covered yard. His mother was a bit startled by the statement as her son's grandfather had died six months ago and the little boy had not mentioned him for a couple of months. She thought that her son had moved on but then remembered that her son and his grandfather used to go sledding together.
Grief over the loss of a loved one is something everyone eventually experiences and yet very few feel comfortable discussing. Parents have a particular challenge when it comes to childhood grief. Children do not have the same ability to understand death that adults do nor do they have adults' ability to cope with the loss in the same way.
Due to these differences, parents naturally want to shield children from the full impact of the loss. The temptation is to use euphemisms to discuss the death like the loved one has "gone to sleep" or "has gone away". However, children take such statements literally and may become afraid of bedtime or not want to travel. It is best to be direct with children when someone has died and to wait for their questions. Children will help parents know how much detail they need through the questions they ask. Parents do not need to go into exhaustive detail about the death as that can overwhelm children.
Young children will not understand that death is permanent and may believe they have the power to bring the dead person back by doing their chores or completing their homework. Older children understand the permanence of death but are likely to have other questions. Parents will need to help clarify what death means and answer questions as they come up.
Once children understand that a person has died and is gone, their grieving process will start. Children react in a variety of ways to death. Some will feel sad, display anger, and want to talk about it while other children will not want to talk and express their grief through play and art. Children's grief reactions will be stronger at first and then diminish to a degree as time goes by.
However, grief and the grieving process has no time limit. Parents and other adults should allow children to express their grief when they are feeling it as presented in the scenario at the beginning of this article. In addition, parents should feel comfortable talking about the person who died in front of the children. This models that it is okay to talk about the person and gives the message to children that others are also going through the sense of loss that they feel.
Grief can pop up throughout the rest of children's lives as they reach various milestones. For example, they may graduate from college and think back to how their loved one always pushed them to do well academically. Since grief continues to have an impact long after the initial death, it is important for parents and adults to recognize that it is an on-going issue for children.
Last week was Children's Grief Awareness Day which is always the third Tuesday in November, right before Thanksgiving. Its purpose is to bring attention to the fact that support can make all the difference in the life of a grieving child. It just takes parents and adults acknowledging the grief and to be willing to talk about it with children.
Dan Florell, Ph.D., is an associate professor at Eastern Kentucky University and has a private practice, MindPsi (www.mindpsi.net). Praveena Salins, M.D., is a pediatrician at Madison Pediatric Associates (www.madisonpeds.com). | 695 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This topic guide will help you work with the topic of Brexit. The guide is mainly intended for use in English class, but it may also be relevant for other school subjects such as History or Social Studies.
The guide is designed to give you a good overview of the ongoing Brexit process, as well as some historical background on the issue. You can also find specific suggestions for texts to use as reference points, as well as ideas for further thematic perspectives.
This topic guide was last updated on December 13, 2019.
The UK has been a member of the EU community since 1973. Its membership has not been without its conflicts, however, but over time the nation has negotiated a number of special agreements. Among other things, they do not use the common European currency.
During the 1990s there was rising scepticism towards the EU in Britain, especially following the Maastrict Treaty of 1992, which gave the Union more power. One sympton of this rising scepticism was the founding of the EU-sceptical right-wing political party UKIP in 1993.
In connection with the general election in the UK in 2015, the sitting Prime Minister David Cameron promised to call a referendum on the UK's membership of the EU if he was reelected. The election resulted in a decisive Conservative victory, and the Party was now able to organise a referendum on EU membership. The issue became known as "Brexit" (a combination of "Britain" and "exit").
UK politicians were split into two factions on the issue. The Remain campaign wanted the UK to continue its membership of the EU, while the Leave campaign wished to leave the Union. David Cameron was a supporter of Remain, but the rest of the Conservative Party was very split on the issue and also included some eager Leave supporters. UKIP was a strong supporter of the Leave campaign and had a huge influence on the debates leading up to the referendum.
The debate on the issue was often aggressive, as both sides tried to present an image of the negative consequences that would result if the opposing faction won. The Leave campaign tended to focus on questions of economy, immigration and the importance of self-government, while the Remain campaign focused on the advantages that the UK enjoyed as part of the EU.
Even though political analysts had predicted that referendum would result in a Remain decision, the result surprisingly turned out to be a narrow majority for Leave. David Cameron viewed this outcome as a personal defeat and immediately resigned as both Prime Minister and leader of the Conservative Party. Theresa May took his place shortly afterwards.
Following the referendum, Theresa May chose to invoke the so-called "Article 50" in March of 2017, which meant that the UK would leave the EU after two years - March 2019. Within this time frame, a new deal for UK-EU cooperation was meant to be negotiated.
However, it has proven extremely difficult for Theresa May to secure a Brexit deal. After an overwhelming majority in Parliament voted down her proposed deal several times in the beginning of 2019, May was forced to ask for extensions of the Brexit deadline, in order to give the UK more time to negotiate a deal that might be accepted by both the EU and Parliament. After even more failed attempts at securing such a deal, Theresa May finally decided to announce her resignation and leave the task to her successor, Boris Johnson.
The new Brexit deadline was set to be October 31, 2019. However, Johnson also failed to secure approval for a Brexit deal within the time limit, and he was forced to ask the EU for a further extension.
The most recent deadline is January 31, 2020, although the UK does have the option of leaving the EU earlier than this date if they manage to secure an agreement. | <urn:uuid:40a8d527-b5a1-4704-aa5c-7287784d1af1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studienett.no/brexit | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00312.warc.gz | en | 0.98472 | 750 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.04258154... | 8 | This topic guide will help you work with the topic of Brexit. The guide is mainly intended for use in English class, but it may also be relevant for other school subjects such as History or Social Studies.
The guide is designed to give you a good overview of the ongoing Brexit process, as well as some historical background on the issue. You can also find specific suggestions for texts to use as reference points, as well as ideas for further thematic perspectives.
This topic guide was last updated on December 13, 2019.
The UK has been a member of the EU community since 1973. Its membership has not been without its conflicts, however, but over time the nation has negotiated a number of special agreements. Among other things, they do not use the common European currency.
During the 1990s there was rising scepticism towards the EU in Britain, especially following the Maastrict Treaty of 1992, which gave the Union more power. One sympton of this rising scepticism was the founding of the EU-sceptical right-wing political party UKIP in 1993.
In connection with the general election in the UK in 2015, the sitting Prime Minister David Cameron promised to call a referendum on the UK's membership of the EU if he was reelected. The election resulted in a decisive Conservative victory, and the Party was now able to organise a referendum on EU membership. The issue became known as "Brexit" (a combination of "Britain" and "exit").
UK politicians were split into two factions on the issue. The Remain campaign wanted the UK to continue its membership of the EU, while the Leave campaign wished to leave the Union. David Cameron was a supporter of Remain, but the rest of the Conservative Party was very split on the issue and also included some eager Leave supporters. UKIP was a strong supporter of the Leave campaign and had a huge influence on the debates leading up to the referendum.
The debate on the issue was often aggressive, as both sides tried to present an image of the negative consequences that would result if the opposing faction won. The Leave campaign tended to focus on questions of economy, immigration and the importance of self-government, while the Remain campaign focused on the advantages that the UK enjoyed as part of the EU.
Even though political analysts had predicted that referendum would result in a Remain decision, the result surprisingly turned out to be a narrow majority for Leave. David Cameron viewed this outcome as a personal defeat and immediately resigned as both Prime Minister and leader of the Conservative Party. Theresa May took his place shortly afterwards.
Following the referendum, Theresa May chose to invoke the so-called "Article 50" in March of 2017, which meant that the UK would leave the EU after two years - March 2019. Within this time frame, a new deal for UK-EU cooperation was meant to be negotiated.
However, it has proven extremely difficult for Theresa May to secure a Brexit deal. After an overwhelming majority in Parliament voted down her proposed deal several times in the beginning of 2019, May was forced to ask for extensions of the Brexit deadline, in order to give the UK more time to negotiate a deal that might be accepted by both the EU and Parliament. After even more failed attempts at securing such a deal, Theresa May finally decided to announce her resignation and leave the task to her successor, Boris Johnson.
The new Brexit deadline was set to be October 31, 2019. However, Johnson also failed to secure approval for a Brexit deal within the time limit, and he was forced to ask the EU for a further extension.
The most recent deadline is January 31, 2020, although the UK does have the option of leaving the EU earlier than this date if they manage to secure an agreement. | 789 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Robert Burns (1759-96) is best known for his poems and songs that reflect Scotland's cultural heritage. He was born in Alloway, Ayrshire, Scotland, the first of seven children belonging to William Burnes, a tenant farmer, and his wife Agnes Broun. Burns had little formal education, but he read English literature and absorbed the traditional, largely oral Scots-language folk songs and tales of his rural environment. He began to compose songs in 1774, and published his first book, Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, in 1786. The work was a critical success, and its poems in both Scots and English, on a range of topics, established Burns’s broad appeal. While building his literary reputation, Burns worked as a farmer, and in 1788 he was appointed an excise officer in Ellisland. He spent the final 12 years of his life collecting and editing traditional Scottish folk songs for collections including The Scots Musical Museum and A Select Collection of Original Scotish [sic] Airs for the Voice. Burns contributed hundreds of Scottish songs to these anthologies, sometimes rewriting traditional lyrics and setting them to new or revised music. Burns’s works were widely distributed throughout Scotland and beyond in chapbooks. These small, inexpensive eight-page booklets were often illustrated with woodcuts and printed on coarse paper. Chapbooks (called garlands if they included songs) were a popular form of entertainment in the 18th and early 19th centuries and the principal way that ordinary people encountered songs and poetry. They were distributed by traveling "chapmen" who sold the books at markets and door-to-door in rural areas. Chapbooks often included poems by more than one author, and the authors were not identified. This book, from the G. Ross Roy Collection at the University of South Carolina, includes Burns’s "Up in the Morning Early" and "My Nanie, O." | <urn:uuid:b3da999c-c5f8-4d2d-8cf9-ea5fd89c66ae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wdl.org/en/item/recent/2010/11/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00074.warc.gz | en | 0.985543 | 396 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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-0.07075500... | 1 | Robert Burns (1759-96) is best known for his poems and songs that reflect Scotland's cultural heritage. He was born in Alloway, Ayrshire, Scotland, the first of seven children belonging to William Burnes, a tenant farmer, and his wife Agnes Broun. Burns had little formal education, but he read English literature and absorbed the traditional, largely oral Scots-language folk songs and tales of his rural environment. He began to compose songs in 1774, and published his first book, Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, in 1786. The work was a critical success, and its poems in both Scots and English, on a range of topics, established Burns’s broad appeal. While building his literary reputation, Burns worked as a farmer, and in 1788 he was appointed an excise officer in Ellisland. He spent the final 12 years of his life collecting and editing traditional Scottish folk songs for collections including The Scots Musical Museum and A Select Collection of Original Scotish [sic] Airs for the Voice. Burns contributed hundreds of Scottish songs to these anthologies, sometimes rewriting traditional lyrics and setting them to new or revised music. Burns’s works were widely distributed throughout Scotland and beyond in chapbooks. These small, inexpensive eight-page booklets were often illustrated with woodcuts and printed on coarse paper. Chapbooks (called garlands if they included songs) were a popular form of entertainment in the 18th and early 19th centuries and the principal way that ordinary people encountered songs and poetry. They were distributed by traveling "chapmen" who sold the books at markets and door-to-door in rural areas. Chapbooks often included poems by more than one author, and the authors were not identified. This book, from the G. Ross Roy Collection at the University of South Carolina, includes Burns’s "Up in the Morning Early" and "My Nanie, O." | 404 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On December 10, 1791, the Hive, a ship carrying Irish convicts, ran aground just outside of Sydney, Australia.
The wreck of the convict transport Hive was found on the south coast of New South Wales, Australia in 1994. The vessel was transporting 250 Irish convicts to Australia when it was shipwrecked in Jervis Bay in 1835.
The Hive was built in 1820 in England at Deptford (now part of London) and first sailed to Australia in 1834 with 250 male prisoners.
On August 24, 1835, the Hive departed for Australia after picking up prisoners in Dublin and Cork. On December 10, 1835, the ship ran aground on a sandy beach just short of Sydney.
Local people, including Aboriginal people from Wreck Bay and Alexander Berry, helped to rescue over 300 of those on board, including passengers, soldiers, crew and 250 Irish convicts. When word of the wreck reached Sydney, rescue ships were sent to pick up the vessel’s passengers and cargo.
A boatswain drowned in the surf while trying to rescue a young crew member. It would be the only death that occurred during the event.
According to the New South Wales Government's Environment and Heritage website, the incident contributed to naming the bight Wreck Bay.
The Illawarra Mercury published an edited excerpt from Smith’s book describing the wreck and the rescue of the passengers and cargo: “After a voyage of 109 days, across 13,000 miles of ocean, with Sydney Town only a day's sail away, the convict ship Hive was beached.
“To that point, it was just an ordinary night at sea. Two hundred and fifty Irishmen were locked, as usual, in their prison deck. Their guard, numbering 29 soldiers from the 28th Regiment, were mostly relaxing below, a lucky few with their wives and children. The commander of the guard, 25-year-old Lieutenant Edward Lugard, was in his cabin. The surgeon Dr. Anthony Donoghoe was busy updating documents he must hand to officials in Sydney. It had been an uneventful voyage: no extreme weather; no attempted mutinies; few people seeking medical attention and those just as likely to be soldiers as prisoners.
“The master, Captain John Thomas Nutting, was also below, indulging in some mysterious activity that later evidence suggests was linked to the contents of a bottle.
“In this relaxed atmosphere, the shock of running aground was magnified. "The confusion and terror that prevailed at this time is not to be described," wrote one of the passengers. Women screamed and kept screaming. Children wailed in fright.
“On the prison deck, men, at risk of death, yelled and swore mutiny if they were not released,” Smith writes of the night of December 10, 1835.
“Confusion below was matched by confusion and strife above. When land was sighted earlier in the day, chief officer Edward Canney had warned the captain that the course he was setting from Montagu Island might bring them too close in during the night.
“Captain Nutting, who had been out in his reckoning several times during the voyage, resented Canney's advice. "Mind your own business. One person is sufficient to navigate the ship," he snapped.
“When third mate Thomas Morgan took over for the night watch, Canney again expressed concern but the captain was insistent. After posting lookouts, he ordered the ship be kept under full sail, then retired to his stateroom.
“Canney too went below but he remained uneasy. Shortly before 10 pm, an alarmed Morgan hurried to Canney's cabin, blurting out dire news: "There's something white on the port bow. It looks like breakers."
“Canney rushed on deck yelling, "Hard-a-port!" On a vessel like the Hive, this would turn her to starboard, away to clear water. But it was too late to maneuver. Under full sail and carried forward by the swell, the Hive began running through sand. As she started to wedge, Canney's attempt to swing her round created a hard jolt that shocked everyone on board into realizing something was wrong.
“By the time Captain Nutting appeared on deck, Canney had ordered the topsail furled and the mainyards back. The master was furious. "Who the hell ordered the foretop clued-up?" he demanded. "I did, sir. I was trying to make her turn off," Canney replied. When Nutting countermanded what he had done, Canney forced the issue by asking formally for orders. But the master suddenly tired of the argument. "Do what you think best," he shrugged. Canney organized the crew to furl all sails fore and aft, heave the spars overboard and clear the longboat ready for hoisting.
“It was at first light that Canney reported to Nutting that the longboat was ready for launching. To his dismay the captain instead ordered the small jolly boat should be lowered from the starboard quarter, the side of the ship that was being lashed by surf. Canney had no choice but to obey. Unable to convince the captain to lower the longboat, Canney chose to join Ensign Kelly and one of the experienced hands on the jolly.
“Predictably, as soon as she touched water, she capsized and was smashed against the ship. Flung into the surf, Canney managed to grab hold of a rope thrown him. Simultaneously, however, he realized that Kelly, dressed in the heavy red uniform of the British army, was in danger of drowning. Canney somehow got the rope round Kelly and had him hauled on deck, saving his life.
“Meanwhile the third man had surfed to the beach by clinging to the upturned boat. Edward Canney then followed him ashore with the hawser line, which he made fast on land before returning to the Hive.
“Back on board, he found the captain intended that everyone make their way individually through the surf by clinging to the hawser. Again Canney remonstrated, proposing the longboat as a safer way to get them to the beach. One observer estimated that at least half the 300 people would have drowned if Nutting's plan had been allowed to stand.
“When the captain peremptorily refused to use the longboat, Dr Donoghoe intervened.
“With the formal support of Edward Lugard as commander of the guard, the surgeon deposed Captain Nutting and gave organizational control to Canney, who accepted.
“Near dawn, they finally got the longboat clear and hoisted out. Her first load was women and children accompanied by some of the guard. Just descending from the ship into the boat was a challenge for the passengers. Very likely some were slung over the shoulders of experienced seamen.
“Next they must successfully ride the surf to shore in conditions none had encountered before. Even with the bigger boat, there was a risk of capsizing. Determined to avoid a tragedy, it seems Canney personally escorted each boatload to the beach. On the deck of the Hive, Henry Lugard watched with admiration: "Thus with almost indescribable difficulties, up to his neck in water all the time, did Mr Edward Canney safely land and save the lives of 300 men, women and children without one single accident," he wrote.
Smith writes of the site that greeted the wrecked passengers as dawn approached: “As the first beams of the sun rose out of the ocean, the Hive's passengers could see they were in a wide bay. The ship had grounded "south of Jervis Bay in a deep bight between Cape St George (to the north) and Sussex Haven".
“Daylight also revealed that the Hive was no more than her own length—120 feet—from shore with about four to five feet depth around her. At low tide it would be possible to wade out.
“They had only the vaguest idea of where they were. "A day's sail from Sydney" was no help when confronted with a vast scrubby wilderness. What lay in between and how were they going to get there? The answer appeared, walking along the beach towards them.
“Emerging at sunrise from their settlement at the northern end of the bay, the indigenous people must have been shocked to find over 300 men, women and children milling around on their land. But over nearly 50 years, even in the remote Booderee bush, they had become used to Europeans and their strange habits.
“They approached in friendship, offering help.
“The Europeans would have been frightened when they first saw the Aborigines - as well as carrying their nets, they had spears for fishing. Soldiers reached for their muskets. Fortunately, Edward Lugard held his nerve until the goodwill of the indigenous people became obvious.
“By sign language and broken English they offered to guide someone to the nearest European who, their gestures indicated, was "up the hill." There was no way of estimating how far that meant. As the most junior officer, Ensign Waldron Kelly was again given the hard job.
“It was 8.30 am when Kelly set out. Approximately two hours later he was at Erowal, the farm of John Lamb Esquire, which spanned the ridge between St George's Basin and Jervis Bay.
“Captain Lamb took Kelly another 15 miles north to an estate named Coolangatta on the banks of the Shoalhaven River. It was owned by Alexander Berry, one of the most prominent settlers in the colony. Lamb and Kelly reached it at 8 pm, almost exactly 12 hours after Kelly set out.
“Berry knew the south coast well. He cross-examined the ensign until he was confident he understood exactly where the ship lay. While Kelly slept, Berry wrote to the colonial secretary, Alexander Macleay, giving more precise directions and warning that the Hive was "in a situation of great danger and most likely ... will go to pieces in the first southerly gale". He had been particularly alarmed to learn some previously secret information: the Hive was carrying treasure. £40,000 in coin was the figure Berry quoted, although official documents state it was £10,000. To Berry's horror, it seemed to have been overlooked and was still afloat in the hold of the Hive.
“News that the Hive was wrecked caused a sensation in Sydney. The press were competing for every last detail and anxious residents devoured everything the papers could tell them. On Monday morning, December 14, the Sydney Herald reported, "Orders were immediately given to despatch HM brig Zebra and the Revenue Cutter to the assistance of the unfortunate people on board. In the course of the afternoon yesterday, the Tamar steam-packet was sent on the same errand."
“Five days later the Tamar was back carrying four soldiers of the 28th, eight women, 11 children and 106 prisoners.
“On January 7, Alexander Berry's schooner Edward brought in the remainder of the stores, the ship's crew of 28 and Captain Nutting. Within days, Nutting had persuaded the enterprising local owner of a schooner called the Blackbird to help salvage what was left of the Hive.
“On January 25 the Herald reported the farce that ensued.
'The Blackbird's boats made 22 trips ferrying goods to the shore. Then the wind changed. That night a strong southerly turned into a violent gale. The Blackbird started to drift. Not even a second anchor would hold her as she began to drive towards the shore. Everything that had been carefully loaded during the day was now thrown overboard and full sails ordered up. After striking the sand several times, she 'carried up high on the beach,' out of danger.'"
For more information on "The Luck of the Irish," visit the Amazon page here
Do you know of any stories of when Irish convicts were transported to Australia? Share in the comments | <urn:uuid:d4daf964-9b9c-4ddb-9b7e-9d3459f46c34> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.irishcentral.com/roots/history/irish-convict-shipwreck-australia | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00012.warc.gz | en | 0.983714 | 2,530 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.359932452440261... | 10 | On December 10, 1791, the Hive, a ship carrying Irish convicts, ran aground just outside of Sydney, Australia.
The wreck of the convict transport Hive was found on the south coast of New South Wales, Australia in 1994. The vessel was transporting 250 Irish convicts to Australia when it was shipwrecked in Jervis Bay in 1835.
The Hive was built in 1820 in England at Deptford (now part of London) and first sailed to Australia in 1834 with 250 male prisoners.
On August 24, 1835, the Hive departed for Australia after picking up prisoners in Dublin and Cork. On December 10, 1835, the ship ran aground on a sandy beach just short of Sydney.
Local people, including Aboriginal people from Wreck Bay and Alexander Berry, helped to rescue over 300 of those on board, including passengers, soldiers, crew and 250 Irish convicts. When word of the wreck reached Sydney, rescue ships were sent to pick up the vessel’s passengers and cargo.
A boatswain drowned in the surf while trying to rescue a young crew member. It would be the only death that occurred during the event.
According to the New South Wales Government's Environment and Heritage website, the incident contributed to naming the bight Wreck Bay.
The Illawarra Mercury published an edited excerpt from Smith’s book describing the wreck and the rescue of the passengers and cargo: “After a voyage of 109 days, across 13,000 miles of ocean, with Sydney Town only a day's sail away, the convict ship Hive was beached.
“To that point, it was just an ordinary night at sea. Two hundred and fifty Irishmen were locked, as usual, in their prison deck. Their guard, numbering 29 soldiers from the 28th Regiment, were mostly relaxing below, a lucky few with their wives and children. The commander of the guard, 25-year-old Lieutenant Edward Lugard, was in his cabin. The surgeon Dr. Anthony Donoghoe was busy updating documents he must hand to officials in Sydney. It had been an uneventful voyage: no extreme weather; no attempted mutinies; few people seeking medical attention and those just as likely to be soldiers as prisoners.
“The master, Captain John Thomas Nutting, was also below, indulging in some mysterious activity that later evidence suggests was linked to the contents of a bottle.
“In this relaxed atmosphere, the shock of running aground was magnified. "The confusion and terror that prevailed at this time is not to be described," wrote one of the passengers. Women screamed and kept screaming. Children wailed in fright.
“On the prison deck, men, at risk of death, yelled and swore mutiny if they were not released,” Smith writes of the night of December 10, 1835.
“Confusion below was matched by confusion and strife above. When land was sighted earlier in the day, chief officer Edward Canney had warned the captain that the course he was setting from Montagu Island might bring them too close in during the night.
“Captain Nutting, who had been out in his reckoning several times during the voyage, resented Canney's advice. "Mind your own business. One person is sufficient to navigate the ship," he snapped.
“When third mate Thomas Morgan took over for the night watch, Canney again expressed concern but the captain was insistent. After posting lookouts, he ordered the ship be kept under full sail, then retired to his stateroom.
“Canney too went below but he remained uneasy. Shortly before 10 pm, an alarmed Morgan hurried to Canney's cabin, blurting out dire news: "There's something white on the port bow. It looks like breakers."
“Canney rushed on deck yelling, "Hard-a-port!" On a vessel like the Hive, this would turn her to starboard, away to clear water. But it was too late to maneuver. Under full sail and carried forward by the swell, the Hive began running through sand. As she started to wedge, Canney's attempt to swing her round created a hard jolt that shocked everyone on board into realizing something was wrong.
“By the time Captain Nutting appeared on deck, Canney had ordered the topsail furled and the mainyards back. The master was furious. "Who the hell ordered the foretop clued-up?" he demanded. "I did, sir. I was trying to make her turn off," Canney replied. When Nutting countermanded what he had done, Canney forced the issue by asking formally for orders. But the master suddenly tired of the argument. "Do what you think best," he shrugged. Canney organized the crew to furl all sails fore and aft, heave the spars overboard and clear the longboat ready for hoisting.
“It was at first light that Canney reported to Nutting that the longboat was ready for launching. To his dismay the captain instead ordered the small jolly boat should be lowered from the starboard quarter, the side of the ship that was being lashed by surf. Canney had no choice but to obey. Unable to convince the captain to lower the longboat, Canney chose to join Ensign Kelly and one of the experienced hands on the jolly.
“Predictably, as soon as she touched water, she capsized and was smashed against the ship. Flung into the surf, Canney managed to grab hold of a rope thrown him. Simultaneously, however, he realized that Kelly, dressed in the heavy red uniform of the British army, was in danger of drowning. Canney somehow got the rope round Kelly and had him hauled on deck, saving his life.
“Meanwhile the third man had surfed to the beach by clinging to the upturned boat. Edward Canney then followed him ashore with the hawser line, which he made fast on land before returning to the Hive.
“Back on board, he found the captain intended that everyone make their way individually through the surf by clinging to the hawser. Again Canney remonstrated, proposing the longboat as a safer way to get them to the beach. One observer estimated that at least half the 300 people would have drowned if Nutting's plan had been allowed to stand.
“When the captain peremptorily refused to use the longboat, Dr Donoghoe intervened.
“With the formal support of Edward Lugard as commander of the guard, the surgeon deposed Captain Nutting and gave organizational control to Canney, who accepted.
“Near dawn, they finally got the longboat clear and hoisted out. Her first load was women and children accompanied by some of the guard. Just descending from the ship into the boat was a challenge for the passengers. Very likely some were slung over the shoulders of experienced seamen.
“Next they must successfully ride the surf to shore in conditions none had encountered before. Even with the bigger boat, there was a risk of capsizing. Determined to avoid a tragedy, it seems Canney personally escorted each boatload to the beach. On the deck of the Hive, Henry Lugard watched with admiration: "Thus with almost indescribable difficulties, up to his neck in water all the time, did Mr Edward Canney safely land and save the lives of 300 men, women and children without one single accident," he wrote.
Smith writes of the site that greeted the wrecked passengers as dawn approached: “As the first beams of the sun rose out of the ocean, the Hive's passengers could see they were in a wide bay. The ship had grounded "south of Jervis Bay in a deep bight between Cape St George (to the north) and Sussex Haven".
“Daylight also revealed that the Hive was no more than her own length—120 feet—from shore with about four to five feet depth around her. At low tide it would be possible to wade out.
“They had only the vaguest idea of where they were. "A day's sail from Sydney" was no help when confronted with a vast scrubby wilderness. What lay in between and how were they going to get there? The answer appeared, walking along the beach towards them.
“Emerging at sunrise from their settlement at the northern end of the bay, the indigenous people must have been shocked to find over 300 men, women and children milling around on their land. But over nearly 50 years, even in the remote Booderee bush, they had become used to Europeans and their strange habits.
“They approached in friendship, offering help.
“The Europeans would have been frightened when they first saw the Aborigines - as well as carrying their nets, they had spears for fishing. Soldiers reached for their muskets. Fortunately, Edward Lugard held his nerve until the goodwill of the indigenous people became obvious.
“By sign language and broken English they offered to guide someone to the nearest European who, their gestures indicated, was "up the hill." There was no way of estimating how far that meant. As the most junior officer, Ensign Waldron Kelly was again given the hard job.
“It was 8.30 am when Kelly set out. Approximately two hours later he was at Erowal, the farm of John Lamb Esquire, which spanned the ridge between St George's Basin and Jervis Bay.
“Captain Lamb took Kelly another 15 miles north to an estate named Coolangatta on the banks of the Shoalhaven River. It was owned by Alexander Berry, one of the most prominent settlers in the colony. Lamb and Kelly reached it at 8 pm, almost exactly 12 hours after Kelly set out.
“Berry knew the south coast well. He cross-examined the ensign until he was confident he understood exactly where the ship lay. While Kelly slept, Berry wrote to the colonial secretary, Alexander Macleay, giving more precise directions and warning that the Hive was "in a situation of great danger and most likely ... will go to pieces in the first southerly gale". He had been particularly alarmed to learn some previously secret information: the Hive was carrying treasure. £40,000 in coin was the figure Berry quoted, although official documents state it was £10,000. To Berry's horror, it seemed to have been overlooked and was still afloat in the hold of the Hive.
“News that the Hive was wrecked caused a sensation in Sydney. The press were competing for every last detail and anxious residents devoured everything the papers could tell them. On Monday morning, December 14, the Sydney Herald reported, "Orders were immediately given to despatch HM brig Zebra and the Revenue Cutter to the assistance of the unfortunate people on board. In the course of the afternoon yesterday, the Tamar steam-packet was sent on the same errand."
“Five days later the Tamar was back carrying four soldiers of the 28th, eight women, 11 children and 106 prisoners.
“On January 7, Alexander Berry's schooner Edward brought in the remainder of the stores, the ship's crew of 28 and Captain Nutting. Within days, Nutting had persuaded the enterprising local owner of a schooner called the Blackbird to help salvage what was left of the Hive.
“On January 25 the Herald reported the farce that ensued.
'The Blackbird's boats made 22 trips ferrying goods to the shore. Then the wind changed. That night a strong southerly turned into a violent gale. The Blackbird started to drift. Not even a second anchor would hold her as she began to drive towards the shore. Everything that had been carefully loaded during the day was now thrown overboard and full sails ordered up. After striking the sand several times, she 'carried up high on the beach,' out of danger.'"
For more information on "The Luck of the Irish," visit the Amazon page here
Do you know of any stories of when Irish convicts were transported to Australia? Share in the comments | 2,540 | ENGLISH | 1 |
President elected in 1869 who formed
Presidential elections were held in Liberia in May The result was a victory for Edward Presidential elections Views. Read · Edit · View history. The United States presidential election of was the 21st quadrennial presidential election, .. The committee was most likely created because the Republicans could not It reported to the House of Representatives on February 23, Andrew Johnson (December 29, – July 31, ) was the 17th President of the United States, serving from to After brief service in the Tennessee Senate, Johnson was elected to the federal House of Johnson implemented his own form of Presidential Reconstruction – a series of proclamations directing.
Results of the presidential election of , won by Ulysses S. Grant with electoral votes. The incumbent President, Andrew Johnson (who had ascended to the Presidency in following the assassination of Change History!. Oct 27, United States presidential election of , American presidential election held on Nov. 3, , in which Republican Ulysses S. Grant. Oct 29, At age 46, he became the youngest president-elect in U.S. history up to The failed plot resulted in a financial panic on September 24,
Presidential Election of A Resource Guide (Virtual Services and On February 10, , the Electoral College votes for the presidential election of were to the present and encompasses key events and eras in American history. Schuyler Colfax, 17th Vice President () once admirable reputation until he disappeared into the forgotten recesses of American history. . As the presidential election approached, Speaker Colfax believed the nomination of. Grant was later elected the 18th President of the United States (–), working Ulysses S. Grant quarreled with the President and aligned himself with the He started writing his recollections to pay off his debts and provide for his. September 24, , became known as "Black Friday" when a financial panic Fisk and Gould befriended President Ulysses S. Grant's brother-in-law and friend, . The act established penalties in the form of fines and jail time for attempts to. | <urn:uuid:dbb4f1f2-3170-42f6-b3c3-571bb2c9aeba> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://iburihysid.tk/humor/president-elected-in-1869-who-formed.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00307.warc.gz | en | 0.982435 | 421 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.2859277427196502... | 1 | President elected in 1869 who formed
Presidential elections were held in Liberia in May The result was a victory for Edward Presidential elections Views. Read · Edit · View history. The United States presidential election of was the 21st quadrennial presidential election, .. The committee was most likely created because the Republicans could not It reported to the House of Representatives on February 23, Andrew Johnson (December 29, – July 31, ) was the 17th President of the United States, serving from to After brief service in the Tennessee Senate, Johnson was elected to the federal House of Johnson implemented his own form of Presidential Reconstruction – a series of proclamations directing.
Results of the presidential election of , won by Ulysses S. Grant with electoral votes. The incumbent President, Andrew Johnson (who had ascended to the Presidency in following the assassination of Change History!. Oct 27, United States presidential election of , American presidential election held on Nov. 3, , in which Republican Ulysses S. Grant. Oct 29, At age 46, he became the youngest president-elect in U.S. history up to The failed plot resulted in a financial panic on September 24,
Presidential Election of A Resource Guide (Virtual Services and On February 10, , the Electoral College votes for the presidential election of were to the present and encompasses key events and eras in American history. Schuyler Colfax, 17th Vice President () once admirable reputation until he disappeared into the forgotten recesses of American history. . As the presidential election approached, Speaker Colfax believed the nomination of. Grant was later elected the 18th President of the United States (–), working Ulysses S. Grant quarreled with the President and aligned himself with the He started writing his recollections to pay off his debts and provide for his. September 24, , became known as "Black Friday" when a financial panic Fisk and Gould befriended President Ulysses S. Grant's brother-in-law and friend, . The act established penalties in the form of fines and jail time for attempts to. | 452 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alexander III of Macedon commonly known as Alexander the Great was a king ( basileus) of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the Argead . Read a biography about Alexander the Great from his early life to becoming a Asia Minor and pharaoh of Egypt became 'great king' of Persia at the age of Alexander the Great served as king of Macedonia from to B.C. During his time of leadership, he united Greece, reestablished the.
alexander the great for kids
Alexander the Great was an ancient Macedonian ruler and one of history's greatest military minds who—as King of Macedonia and. Alexander III of Macedon, known as Alexander the Great (21 July BCE – 10 or 11 June BCE), was the son of King Philip II of Macedon. Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia (– BCE) who overthrew the Persian Already in his lifetime the subject of fabulous stories, he later became the.
Aristotle instructing the younger Alexander the Great By , just four years after he became king, Alexander had conquered Syria and then. Alexander the Great, a Macedonian king, conquered the eastern In B.C.E., at age 20, Alexander became king of Macedonia when a. Alexander the Great was a king of Macedonia who conquered an empire that He arranged for Alexander to be tutored by Aristotle himself .
alexander the great biography
The precocious Alexander was already a seasoned commander in the Macedonian army when he became king at the age of 20 in B.C. Alexander III the Great, the King of Macedonia and conqueror of the Persian Philip hired the Greek philosopher Aristotle to be Alexander's personal tutor. Not bad for a kid who became the King of Macedon at the age of Many of Alexander's accomplishments were made possible by his father, Philip of Macedon. Did Alexander want to become a Great King, like Darius? Did he want to be worshiped as a living god? When, in , Alexander sacked. Alexander the Great was born on July 20, BC. He died at the young age of 32 in BC having accomplished much in his short life. He reigned as king from . Alexander III of Macedon (– BC), better known as Alexander the the Great was about to invade Persia in BC, the Persian King. Alexander is born in Pella, the Macedonian capital, at about the time his father becomes king of Macedonia. Philip II's expansion of the kingdom, an unfolding. In BCE, after Philip was killed, Alexander was quickly crowned as the king. After subduing any serious threats to his rule, and with the Greek city-states now . In BCE, in the Pella region of Macedonia, King Philip's wife Queen Olympia gave birth to a Eventually Alexander would be known as Alexander the Great. In 23 years as king he created a professional and fearsome army that Alexander took to Asia with him – the best army in the ancient world.
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-0.1125747114419937... | 3 | Alexander III of Macedon commonly known as Alexander the Great was a king ( basileus) of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the Argead . Read a biography about Alexander the Great from his early life to becoming a Asia Minor and pharaoh of Egypt became 'great king' of Persia at the age of Alexander the Great served as king of Macedonia from to B.C. During his time of leadership, he united Greece, reestablished the.
alexander the great for kids
Alexander the Great was an ancient Macedonian ruler and one of history's greatest military minds who—as King of Macedonia and. Alexander III of Macedon, known as Alexander the Great (21 July BCE – 10 or 11 June BCE), was the son of King Philip II of Macedon. Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia (– BCE) who overthrew the Persian Already in his lifetime the subject of fabulous stories, he later became the.
Aristotle instructing the younger Alexander the Great By , just four years after he became king, Alexander had conquered Syria and then. Alexander the Great, a Macedonian king, conquered the eastern In B.C.E., at age 20, Alexander became king of Macedonia when a. Alexander the Great was a king of Macedonia who conquered an empire that He arranged for Alexander to be tutored by Aristotle himself .
alexander the great biography
The precocious Alexander was already a seasoned commander in the Macedonian army when he became king at the age of 20 in B.C. Alexander III the Great, the King of Macedonia and conqueror of the Persian Philip hired the Greek philosopher Aristotle to be Alexander's personal tutor. Not bad for a kid who became the King of Macedon at the age of Many of Alexander's accomplishments were made possible by his father, Philip of Macedon. Did Alexander want to become a Great King, like Darius? Did he want to be worshiped as a living god? When, in , Alexander sacked. Alexander the Great was born on July 20, BC. He died at the young age of 32 in BC having accomplished much in his short life. He reigned as king from . Alexander III of Macedon (– BC), better known as Alexander the the Great was about to invade Persia in BC, the Persian King. Alexander is born in Pella, the Macedonian capital, at about the time his father becomes king of Macedonia. Philip II's expansion of the kingdom, an unfolding. In BCE, after Philip was killed, Alexander was quickly crowned as the king. After subduing any serious threats to his rule, and with the Greek city-states now . In BCE, in the Pella region of Macedonia, King Philip's wife Queen Olympia gave birth to a Eventually Alexander would be known as Alexander the Great. In 23 years as king he created a professional and fearsome army that Alexander took to Asia with him – the best army in the ancient world.
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- How to get gopro videos on mac | 690 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the latter part of the nineteenth century, the United States had many crises in which they had to “fix” or at least attempt to fix in order for the country to continue. The crises included money, or lack thereof, labor issues, race relation problems, differences between urban and rural areas, and the intellectual reforms. Each of the issues took a significant role in the shaping of the United States at this time.
Money became a problem throughout the 1870s-1900s. Many lived in poverty and at the beginning most still relied of trading, rather than paper money. Lears states “…most could merely dream of quick profits, and only a handful could make money beget mony.” (Lears 51) This handful quickly adopted a laissez-faire mindset. Along with the Social Darwinists, believe that “life was a completion for survival” (Hicks 1.12). On the other side of the spectrum, the working people adopted the idea of collectivity in order to weaken the impact of individual capitalism on their lives.
One of the capitalists was Andrew Carnegie who came from an out-of-work family and was one of the few who could claim to be “self-made” (58). As a young man, Carnegie learned about insider trading and later refined the art. He “accumulated capital by trading shares in overcapitalized companies and skimming profits from inflated stock prices.” (59) He was a prime example of the “rags to riches” American dream.
Many Americans looked for ways to “get rich quick”. Many turned to the stock markets, gambling, or gold camps to attempt “lucky strikes” (66). Lotteries also became popular. The thought of instant success got the attention of the many impoverished of the time. Those who didn’t jump on the wagon of the get rich quick mindset had to work extremely hard in order to survive, let alone live comfortably.
Labor proved a large issue during the Gilded Age. Workers had to deal with “unregulated workplace[s]: recurring wage cuts and prolonged unemployment.” (73) The workers were no longer demanded as in the past. They were replaced by machinery or cheaper labor. They became referred to as “hands”, not people. During this time the working people got upset to the point of striking. The first nationwide strike was the Railroad Strike of 1877. This strike was the worst labor violence to its time, but somehow the economy increased at an exceptional rate.
During this time, businesses sought to control every aspect of the business from the workers to the market where they sold the goods. The businesses gained control of most things, including the support of the federal government. During this time period the federal government ruled mostly with the business so the businesses weren’t controlled as they should have been. The workers had to deal “wage cuts, speedups, stretchouts” (82). The after effects of these changes caused many labor uprisings within the factories. Many of these were controlled by “policemen and soldiers firing into crowds of protestors.” (82) By this time the Knights of Labor was established.
They believed that the United States were being “undermined by the combined forces of monopoly, political corruption, cutthroat competition, and wage labor.” (3.25) The Knights not only tried to help the working white man, but also tried to remedy the situation of the bad organization of women, immigrant, and black workers. They requested eight hour work days, abolition of child labor, equal pay for equal work, and graduated income tax. Throughout the Gilded Age, the Knights were involved in most of the major labor disputes. After all the problems, the American Federation of Labor was formed and gave the businesses greater stability.
Labor seemed to just be a problem of the time. Race on the other hand had been a continuous battle for centuries and it wasn’t just with African-Americans. It also included the Native Americans. The Natives were pressured to “renegotiate treaties and confine themselves to more restricted… | <urn:uuid:7c57f2db-f116-420a-bf55-fcfa1b789e27> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Visions-Of-Rebirth-Essay-565214.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00434.warc.gz | en | 0.981827 | 867 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.16080561280250... | 1 | During the latter part of the nineteenth century, the United States had many crises in which they had to “fix” or at least attempt to fix in order for the country to continue. The crises included money, or lack thereof, labor issues, race relation problems, differences between urban and rural areas, and the intellectual reforms. Each of the issues took a significant role in the shaping of the United States at this time.
Money became a problem throughout the 1870s-1900s. Many lived in poverty and at the beginning most still relied of trading, rather than paper money. Lears states “…most could merely dream of quick profits, and only a handful could make money beget mony.” (Lears 51) This handful quickly adopted a laissez-faire mindset. Along with the Social Darwinists, believe that “life was a completion for survival” (Hicks 1.12). On the other side of the spectrum, the working people adopted the idea of collectivity in order to weaken the impact of individual capitalism on their lives.
One of the capitalists was Andrew Carnegie who came from an out-of-work family and was one of the few who could claim to be “self-made” (58). As a young man, Carnegie learned about insider trading and later refined the art. He “accumulated capital by trading shares in overcapitalized companies and skimming profits from inflated stock prices.” (59) He was a prime example of the “rags to riches” American dream.
Many Americans looked for ways to “get rich quick”. Many turned to the stock markets, gambling, or gold camps to attempt “lucky strikes” (66). Lotteries also became popular. The thought of instant success got the attention of the many impoverished of the time. Those who didn’t jump on the wagon of the get rich quick mindset had to work extremely hard in order to survive, let alone live comfortably.
Labor proved a large issue during the Gilded Age. Workers had to deal with “unregulated workplace[s]: recurring wage cuts and prolonged unemployment.” (73) The workers were no longer demanded as in the past. They were replaced by machinery or cheaper labor. They became referred to as “hands”, not people. During this time the working people got upset to the point of striking. The first nationwide strike was the Railroad Strike of 1877. This strike was the worst labor violence to its time, but somehow the economy increased at an exceptional rate.
During this time, businesses sought to control every aspect of the business from the workers to the market where they sold the goods. The businesses gained control of most things, including the support of the federal government. During this time period the federal government ruled mostly with the business so the businesses weren’t controlled as they should have been. The workers had to deal “wage cuts, speedups, stretchouts” (82). The after effects of these changes caused many labor uprisings within the factories. Many of these were controlled by “policemen and soldiers firing into crowds of protestors.” (82) By this time the Knights of Labor was established.
They believed that the United States were being “undermined by the combined forces of monopoly, political corruption, cutthroat competition, and wage labor.” (3.25) The Knights not only tried to help the working white man, but also tried to remedy the situation of the bad organization of women, immigrant, and black workers. They requested eight hour work days, abolition of child labor, equal pay for equal work, and graduated income tax. Throughout the Gilded Age, the Knights were involved in most of the major labor disputes. After all the problems, the American Federation of Labor was formed and gave the businesses greater stability.
Labor seemed to just be a problem of the time. Race on the other hand had been a continuous battle for centuries and it wasn’t just with African-Americans. It also included the Native Americans. The Natives were pressured to “renegotiate treaties and confine themselves to more restricted… | 831 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Five Dialogues - The ancient Greek Philosopher Plato was born around 425 BCE to an aristocratic family. He enjoyed the privilege of being a student of Socrates, but would eventually go on to form his own school, the Academy. Plato, most remembered for his philosophical work "The Republic," was disciplined in all forms of writing. His dialogues are among the most popular and still studied by students and lovers of philosophy. Plato wrote his dialogues to reflect the wisdom that Socrates had imparted to the students. In fact, while many of Socrates' dialogues with his other students are recorded in Plato's writings, Plato's own voice never appears in any of the dialogues. In "Five Dialogues," Plato's works "Euthyphro," "Apology," "Critico," "Meno," and "Phaedo" all feature Socrates speaking to a student or friend who is asking about laws, the virtue of mankind, the purpose of the gods, and death. Each dialogue searches through different facets of philosophy and makes the reader question their own personal beliefs and morals. While there is no underlying storyline, the dialogues follow important moments in Socrates' life, from his trial to his death. He was charged by the government for not believing in the Greek gods and was eventually put to death by having to drink the poison Hemlock. Plato's works strove to record and safeguard his teacher's wisdom for future generations to discover. | <urn:uuid:b2d53ca4-820b-4501-8467-d027dd10ef73> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://buybookspro.com/book/638681452/five-dialogues | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00277.warc.gz | en | 0.990241 | 293 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.43273553252220154,... | 3 | Five Dialogues - The ancient Greek Philosopher Plato was born around 425 BCE to an aristocratic family. He enjoyed the privilege of being a student of Socrates, but would eventually go on to form his own school, the Academy. Plato, most remembered for his philosophical work "The Republic," was disciplined in all forms of writing. His dialogues are among the most popular and still studied by students and lovers of philosophy. Plato wrote his dialogues to reflect the wisdom that Socrates had imparted to the students. In fact, while many of Socrates' dialogues with his other students are recorded in Plato's writings, Plato's own voice never appears in any of the dialogues. In "Five Dialogues," Plato's works "Euthyphro," "Apology," "Critico," "Meno," and "Phaedo" all feature Socrates speaking to a student or friend who is asking about laws, the virtue of mankind, the purpose of the gods, and death. Each dialogue searches through different facets of philosophy and makes the reader question their own personal beliefs and morals. While there is no underlying storyline, the dialogues follow important moments in Socrates' life, from his trial to his death. He was charged by the government for not believing in the Greek gods and was eventually put to death by having to drink the poison Hemlock. Plato's works strove to record and safeguard his teacher's wisdom for future generations to discover. | 299 | ENGLISH | 1 |
ys Research Papers
The Message in The Ignored Lessons of Anne Frank
In Bettelheim’s essay, The Ignored Lessons of Anne Frank, he criticizes Anne Frank’s father because of the way he had his whole family hiding out in the attic of one family. Bettelheim claims he is not criticizing Mr. Frank, he just wants his readers to reexamine the way we read history. In his essay, Bettelheim concinced me that we, as readers should look again at the text and realize all the possibilities that the Franks had.Order now
In the essay, the author points out that most of the other Jewish families who did decide to go into hiding did so separately, so if one family member were to get caught, the others still might have a chance.
As Bettelheim points out that the chief desire of the Franks was to continue to live together as if they were free, in the same manner that they had been living in. At the time when I was reading The Diary of Anne Frank, I had never thought that there was any other way that they could have lived. I never once considered that they should split up.
Another important issue that the author brings up is the fact that the Franks were better informed than other Jews about the extirmination camps. The other Jews had no knowledge about these camps, making it a little bit more reasonable for the others to want to stick together as a family. The Franks, however, knew this and they still did nothing to prepare for the Nazis.
The author also had some ideas for the Franks to prepare for the invasion when the Nazis came, even though they stayed together. He suggested that Mr. Frank could have had some form of protection, such as a gun; Mr. Frank could have tried to detain the police when they came, while his family could try to run to safety. Sure, Mr. Frank would have been killed of beaten, but he could have done a better job of protecting his family.
The most important point that Bettelheim makes is why he thinks that the movie and play are such enormous successes. He declares that the ending in which Anne says, “In spite of everything, I still believe that the people are really good at heart,” is ficticious. He says that this sentence is improbable when one considers that she was starved to death, had watched her sister meet the same fate before she did, knew that her mother had been murdered, and had watched untold thousands of adults and children being killed. Bettelheim states that as readers like the play and movie because with this ending, we can adhere to a false sense that all men are really good at heart and we are encouraged to believe that there never really was an Auschwitz.
In conclusion, after reading everything that Bettelheim stated, he changed my perspective on the book, as well as the play and movie. I still think that Anne Frank is a courageous and admirable person, and I feel the same about her father, although I would hope that given the same circumstances he would reconsider his choice to have his family split up, instead of having them stay together.
Even though it seemed nice to stay together and be a family, it would have been much more practical to split up. If Mr. Frank would have chosen to do this, there is no telling what might have happened to the family. Anne Frank, her mother, or sister might have lived. . | <urn:uuid:d1959f27-7bd2-4a63-a94b-399db2305cd2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://artscolumbia.org/essays/the-ignored-lessons-of-anne-frank-exploratory-essa-essay-105858/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00510.warc.gz | en | 0.992274 | 704 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.4162869453430... | 3 | ys Research Papers
The Message in The Ignored Lessons of Anne Frank
In Bettelheim’s essay, The Ignored Lessons of Anne Frank, he criticizes Anne Frank’s father because of the way he had his whole family hiding out in the attic of one family. Bettelheim claims he is not criticizing Mr. Frank, he just wants his readers to reexamine the way we read history. In his essay, Bettelheim concinced me that we, as readers should look again at the text and realize all the possibilities that the Franks had.Order now
In the essay, the author points out that most of the other Jewish families who did decide to go into hiding did so separately, so if one family member were to get caught, the others still might have a chance.
As Bettelheim points out that the chief desire of the Franks was to continue to live together as if they were free, in the same manner that they had been living in. At the time when I was reading The Diary of Anne Frank, I had never thought that there was any other way that they could have lived. I never once considered that they should split up.
Another important issue that the author brings up is the fact that the Franks were better informed than other Jews about the extirmination camps. The other Jews had no knowledge about these camps, making it a little bit more reasonable for the others to want to stick together as a family. The Franks, however, knew this and they still did nothing to prepare for the Nazis.
The author also had some ideas for the Franks to prepare for the invasion when the Nazis came, even though they stayed together. He suggested that Mr. Frank could have had some form of protection, such as a gun; Mr. Frank could have tried to detain the police when they came, while his family could try to run to safety. Sure, Mr. Frank would have been killed of beaten, but he could have done a better job of protecting his family.
The most important point that Bettelheim makes is why he thinks that the movie and play are such enormous successes. He declares that the ending in which Anne says, “In spite of everything, I still believe that the people are really good at heart,” is ficticious. He says that this sentence is improbable when one considers that she was starved to death, had watched her sister meet the same fate before she did, knew that her mother had been murdered, and had watched untold thousands of adults and children being killed. Bettelheim states that as readers like the play and movie because with this ending, we can adhere to a false sense that all men are really good at heart and we are encouraged to believe that there never really was an Auschwitz.
In conclusion, after reading everything that Bettelheim stated, he changed my perspective on the book, as well as the play and movie. I still think that Anne Frank is a courageous and admirable person, and I feel the same about her father, although I would hope that given the same circumstances he would reconsider his choice to have his family split up, instead of having them stay together.
Even though it seemed nice to stay together and be a family, it would have been much more practical to split up. If Mr. Frank would have chosen to do this, there is no telling what might have happened to the family. Anne Frank, her mother, or sister might have lived. . | 697 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Get our free book (in Spanish or English) on rainwater now - To Catch the Rain.
Moore's Law describes an important trend in the history of computer hardware: that the number of transistors that can be inexpensively placed on an integrated circuit is increasing exponentially, doubling approximately every two years.
The origins of Moore's Law came from a speech made famous by Gordon Moore, who later became the founder of Intel in 1965. He observed that the number of micro-components that could be placed in an integrated circuit (microchip) of the lowest manufacturing cost was doubling every year and that this trend would likely continue into the future. This later started to be known as Moore's Law. It was later determined that they would double every 2 years. | <urn:uuid:358d6274-aa4f-4c07-a754-4e6a63639ea0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.appropedia.org/Moore%27s_law | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00083.warc.gz | en | 0.980906 | 153 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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-0.39174330... | 2 | Get our free book (in Spanish or English) on rainwater now - To Catch the Rain.
Moore's Law describes an important trend in the history of computer hardware: that the number of transistors that can be inexpensively placed on an integrated circuit is increasing exponentially, doubling approximately every two years.
The origins of Moore's Law came from a speech made famous by Gordon Moore, who later became the founder of Intel in 1965. He observed that the number of micro-components that could be placed in an integrated circuit (microchip) of the lowest manufacturing cost was doubling every year and that this trend would likely continue into the future. This later started to be known as Moore's Law. It was later determined that they would double every 2 years. | 156 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gaebelein's Annotated Bible
These be the words which Moses spake unto all Israel on this side Jordan in the wilderness, in the plain over against the Red sea, between Paran, and Tophel, and Laban, and Hazeroth, and Dizahab.Analysis and Annotations
I. THE FIRST DISCOURSE OF MOSES AND RETROSPECT
1. The Introduction
The people were still on this side of Jordan in the wilderness. The second verse, containing a parenthetical statement, gives the story of their unbelief, as recorded in the Book of Numbers. “There are eleven days’ journey from Horeb by the way of Mount Seir unto Kadesh-barnea.” They might have reached the place they occupied now, facing Jordan and the land, in eleven days. It took them almost forty years. Unbelief had kept them back. It was towards the end of the fortieth year, in the eleventh month, that Moses began his wonderful addresses. In the first month of that memorable year Miriam had died (Numbers 20:1). His brother Aaron had died in the fifth month (Numbers 33:38). Moses was soon to follow him at the close of the fortieth year, at the ripe age of one hundred and twenty. Forty years were spent by Moses in the palaces of Egypt; forty years he was a shepherd in the land of Midian and forty years he was the leader of God’s people through the wilderness. Before he went to the top of Pisgah to behold the land and to die, he pours out his heart in the presence of all Israel. His words were “according unto all that the Lord had given him.” All he had received from the Lord, he passed on faithfully to the Lord’s people. “Moses verily was faithful in all God’s house, as a servant, for a testimony of those things, which were to be spoken afterward” (Hebrews 3:5). Once more, therefore, he placed the words of the Lord before their hearts. This is the blessed object of ministry, to make known what God has revealed. True ministry is to deliver the message received. “For I delivered unto you first of all that which I also received” (1Corinthians 15:3). Moses declared the Law unto them (verse 5). The Hebrew word “declare” means “to make plain.” it is used in Habakkuk 2:2.
The LORD our God spake unto us in Horeb, saying, Ye have dwelt long enough in this mount:2. From Horeb to Kadesh
1. The command to go in and to possess the land (Deuteronomy 1:6-8)
2. The appointment of judges reviewed (Deuteronomy 1:9-18)
3. The failure to possess the land (Deuteronomy 1:19-33)
4. The judgment of God (Deuteronomy 1:34-46)
In the beginning of our annotations we must guard once more against the misleading conception, that the book of Deuteronomy is nothing but a rehearsal of previous history. On account of this wrong estimate, the book has not received the close study it deserves and God’s people have missed the blessing, which results from such a study. It is true, Deuteronomy contains much that is retrospective, but it is far from being mere repetition. Spiritual lessons are found here, which are very much needed at the present time.
God had spoken at Horeb, “Ye have dwelt long enough in this mount.” This communication is not found in the book of Numbers, though the opening chapters of that book presuppose such a command. Not a word is said here of the cloud and the trumpets, the twofold means by which Jehovah guided and directed His people. We therefore learn, that the Lord also spoke in direct words to them. He had watched their dwelling at Horeb; the purpose He had with them at that mountain was accomplished and now they had been instructed to move. It reveals the loving interest the Lord took in His people and in their movements. And He is still the same, who controls the tarrying and the journeying of His people. Every word in verses 7 and 8 reveals the divine purpose to lead His people at once into the land, which He had sworn unto Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (Genesis 22:16). The land was set before them; all they needed was to go forward in faith and possess it. They failed miserably.
The nation had greatly multiplied and Moses was not able to bear them alone (Exodus 18:17-18; Numbers 11:14). To guard against any misunderstanding of his word: “I am not able to bear you myself” Moses added the gracious wish “the LORD God of your fathers make you a thousand times so many more as ye are and bless you, as He hath promised you!” These beautiful words still breathe the warmth of the loving heart of Moses and they are also expressing his faith in the promise of Jehovah. Provision was made for the relief of Moses. There is no discrepancy here with the statements in Exodus and Numbers on this matter. Moses in his address does not give a repetition of the historical-chronological facts, and circumstances, but simply mentions them incidentally as leading up to the main object of his address. It was failure on his part, when he complained of his burden. We learned this in our annotations of Numbers 11. May we think here of the great burden-bearer, our Lord, who never fails His people and who never complains. We can cast our burdens and cares upon Him and shall ever find that He careth for us.
The sending out of the spies is next mentioned. Here we find the hidden things uncovered and the motives are given, which prompted the people to ask for the spies. They asked for the spies themselves. So we learn that the wish did not come from the Lord, nor from Moses. When Jehovah saw the desire of their hearts and heard their request, He commanded the sending out of the spies. He knew in what it would result. Moses was ignorant of that, therefore, the saying pleased him well. If the people had faith in God they would have been obedient at once and gone up to possess the land. The story of their unbelief and rebellion follows. Fearful was the accusation, which came from their lips. “Because the Lord hated us, He hath brought us forth out of the land of Egypt to deliver us into the hands of the Amorites, to destroy us.” What ingratitude and blindness! The Lord, who had so graciously delivered them out of Egypt, who had overthrown the hosts of Egypt, who had given them the bread from heaven and water out of the rock, Him they accused of hatred.
The words of Moses to inspire the murmuring people with new courage (verses 29-31) do not appear in the book of Numbers. Deuteronomy is clearly not a mere rehearsal of what took place. Moses honored the Lord by the words he spoke. He did not share the unbelief of the people. The concluding paragraph of the first chapter shows the judgment, which fell upon that unbelieving generation. The opening words of Moses in this book are of a solemn character. Unbelief and disobedience had brought judgment upon the people. God’s demands here and throughout this book are faith and obedience as the expression of faith. Confidence in Him and obedience, unswerving obedience He asks of us; He can never dispense with these. We find these demands of Jehovah everywhere. Obedience is the way to blessing and the enjoyment of what Jehovah is, while disobedience plunges into darkness and despair. And how significant are the burning exhortations to obedience from the lips of the servant of God, whose failure by being disobedient and self-willed had deprived him from entering into the land! | <urn:uuid:38316476-4114-4a47-b8fc-86b8c1ddf11a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://biblehub.com/commentaries/gaebelein/deuteronomy/1.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00260.warc.gz | en | 0.980749 | 1,672 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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These be the words which Moses spake unto all Israel on this side Jordan in the wilderness, in the plain over against the Red sea, between Paran, and Tophel, and Laban, and Hazeroth, and Dizahab.Analysis and Annotations
I. THE FIRST DISCOURSE OF MOSES AND RETROSPECT
1. The Introduction
The people were still on this side of Jordan in the wilderness. The second verse, containing a parenthetical statement, gives the story of their unbelief, as recorded in the Book of Numbers. “There are eleven days’ journey from Horeb by the way of Mount Seir unto Kadesh-barnea.” They might have reached the place they occupied now, facing Jordan and the land, in eleven days. It took them almost forty years. Unbelief had kept them back. It was towards the end of the fortieth year, in the eleventh month, that Moses began his wonderful addresses. In the first month of that memorable year Miriam had died (Numbers 20:1). His brother Aaron had died in the fifth month (Numbers 33:38). Moses was soon to follow him at the close of the fortieth year, at the ripe age of one hundred and twenty. Forty years were spent by Moses in the palaces of Egypt; forty years he was a shepherd in the land of Midian and forty years he was the leader of God’s people through the wilderness. Before he went to the top of Pisgah to behold the land and to die, he pours out his heart in the presence of all Israel. His words were “according unto all that the Lord had given him.” All he had received from the Lord, he passed on faithfully to the Lord’s people. “Moses verily was faithful in all God’s house, as a servant, for a testimony of those things, which were to be spoken afterward” (Hebrews 3:5). Once more, therefore, he placed the words of the Lord before their hearts. This is the blessed object of ministry, to make known what God has revealed. True ministry is to deliver the message received. “For I delivered unto you first of all that which I also received” (1Corinthians 15:3). Moses declared the Law unto them (verse 5). The Hebrew word “declare” means “to make plain.” it is used in Habakkuk 2:2.
The LORD our God spake unto us in Horeb, saying, Ye have dwelt long enough in this mount:2. From Horeb to Kadesh
1. The command to go in and to possess the land (Deuteronomy 1:6-8)
2. The appointment of judges reviewed (Deuteronomy 1:9-18)
3. The failure to possess the land (Deuteronomy 1:19-33)
4. The judgment of God (Deuteronomy 1:34-46)
In the beginning of our annotations we must guard once more against the misleading conception, that the book of Deuteronomy is nothing but a rehearsal of previous history. On account of this wrong estimate, the book has not received the close study it deserves and God’s people have missed the blessing, which results from such a study. It is true, Deuteronomy contains much that is retrospective, but it is far from being mere repetition. Spiritual lessons are found here, which are very much needed at the present time.
God had spoken at Horeb, “Ye have dwelt long enough in this mount.” This communication is not found in the book of Numbers, though the opening chapters of that book presuppose such a command. Not a word is said here of the cloud and the trumpets, the twofold means by which Jehovah guided and directed His people. We therefore learn, that the Lord also spoke in direct words to them. He had watched their dwelling at Horeb; the purpose He had with them at that mountain was accomplished and now they had been instructed to move. It reveals the loving interest the Lord took in His people and in their movements. And He is still the same, who controls the tarrying and the journeying of His people. Every word in verses 7 and 8 reveals the divine purpose to lead His people at once into the land, which He had sworn unto Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (Genesis 22:16). The land was set before them; all they needed was to go forward in faith and possess it. They failed miserably.
The nation had greatly multiplied and Moses was not able to bear them alone (Exodus 18:17-18; Numbers 11:14). To guard against any misunderstanding of his word: “I am not able to bear you myself” Moses added the gracious wish “the LORD God of your fathers make you a thousand times so many more as ye are and bless you, as He hath promised you!” These beautiful words still breathe the warmth of the loving heart of Moses and they are also expressing his faith in the promise of Jehovah. Provision was made for the relief of Moses. There is no discrepancy here with the statements in Exodus and Numbers on this matter. Moses in his address does not give a repetition of the historical-chronological facts, and circumstances, but simply mentions them incidentally as leading up to the main object of his address. It was failure on his part, when he complained of his burden. We learned this in our annotations of Numbers 11. May we think here of the great burden-bearer, our Lord, who never fails His people and who never complains. We can cast our burdens and cares upon Him and shall ever find that He careth for us.
The sending out of the spies is next mentioned. Here we find the hidden things uncovered and the motives are given, which prompted the people to ask for the spies. They asked for the spies themselves. So we learn that the wish did not come from the Lord, nor from Moses. When Jehovah saw the desire of their hearts and heard their request, He commanded the sending out of the spies. He knew in what it would result. Moses was ignorant of that, therefore, the saying pleased him well. If the people had faith in God they would have been obedient at once and gone up to possess the land. The story of their unbelief and rebellion follows. Fearful was the accusation, which came from their lips. “Because the Lord hated us, He hath brought us forth out of the land of Egypt to deliver us into the hands of the Amorites, to destroy us.” What ingratitude and blindness! The Lord, who had so graciously delivered them out of Egypt, who had overthrown the hosts of Egypt, who had given them the bread from heaven and water out of the rock, Him they accused of hatred.
The words of Moses to inspire the murmuring people with new courage (verses 29-31) do not appear in the book of Numbers. Deuteronomy is clearly not a mere rehearsal of what took place. Moses honored the Lord by the words he spoke. He did not share the unbelief of the people. The concluding paragraph of the first chapter shows the judgment, which fell upon that unbelieving generation. The opening words of Moses in this book are of a solemn character. Unbelief and disobedience had brought judgment upon the people. God’s demands here and throughout this book are faith and obedience as the expression of faith. Confidence in Him and obedience, unswerving obedience He asks of us; He can never dispense with these. We find these demands of Jehovah everywhere. Obedience is the way to blessing and the enjoyment of what Jehovah is, while disobedience plunges into darkness and despair. And how significant are the burning exhortations to obedience from the lips of the servant of God, whose failure by being disobedient and self-willed had deprived him from entering into the land! | 1,655 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who Was Edmonia Lewis?
Edmonia Lewis' first notable commercial success was a bust of Colonel Robert Gould Shaw. The money she earned selling copies of the bust allowed her to sail to Rome, Italy, where she mastered working in marble. She quickly achieved success as a sculptor. The circumstances of her death in 1907 are unclear.
Hailed as the first professional African American and Native American sculptor, Lewis had little training but overcame numerous obstacles to become a respected artist.
Elusive when it came to personal details, Lewis claimed different years of birth throughout out her life, but research seems to indicate she was born around 1844 in upstate New York. The daughter of a black father and part-Ojibwa mother, she was orphaned at an early age and, as she later claimed, was raised by some of her mother's relatives.
With the support and encouragement of a successful older brother, Lewis attended Oberlin College in Ohio where she emerged as a talented artist. The abolitionist movement was active on the Oberlin campus and would greatly influence her later work. But life at Oberlin came to a violent end when Lewis was falsely accused of poisoning two white classmates. Captured and beaten by a white mob, Lewis recovered from the attack and then escaped to Boston, Massachusetts, after the charges against her were dropped.
In Boston, Lewis befriended abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison and sculptor Edward A. Brackett. It was Brackett who taught Lewis sculpture and helped propel her to set up her own studio. By the early 1860s, her clay and plaster medallions of Garrison, John Brown and other abolitionist leaders gave her a small measure of commercial success.
In 1864, Lewis created a bust of Colonel Robert Shaw, a Civil War hero who had died leading the all-black 54th Massachusetts Regiment. This was her most famous work to date and the money she earned from the sale of copies of the bust allowed her to move to Rome, home to a number of expatriate American artists, including several women.
Life in Rome
In Italy, Lewis continued to work as an artist. Her work over the next several decades moved between African American themes to subjects influenced by her devout Catholicism.
One of her most prized works was "Forever Free" (1867), a sculpture depicting a black man and woman emerging from the bonds of slavery. Another piece, "The Arrow Maker" (1866), draws on her Native American roots and shows a father teaching his young daughter how to make an arrow. Lewis also created busts of American presidents including Ulysses S. Grant and Abraham Lincoln.
One of her most famous works was a depiction of the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra, titled "The Death of Cleopatra." Met with critical acclaim when she showed it at the Philadelphia Exposition in 1876 and in Chicago two years later, the two-ton sculpture never returned to Italy with its creator because Lewis couldn't afford the shipping costs. It was placed in storage and rediscovered several decades after her death.
Much like her childhood, Lewis's final years are shrouded in mystery. Until the 1890s, she continued to exhibit her work and was even visited by Frederick Douglass in Rome, but little is known about the last decade or so of her life. It was speculated that Lewis spent her last years in Rome, Italy, but the recent discovery of death documents indicate that she died in London, England, in 1907.
In recent decades, however, Lewis's life and art have received posthumous acclaim. Her pieces are now part of the permanent collections of the Howard University Gallery of Art and the Smithsonian American Art Museum.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | <urn:uuid:814a0a80-b651-498d-99fc-bbab95de64b5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.biography.com/artist/edmonia-lewis | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00392.warc.gz | en | 0.982487 | 773 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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-0.0419097... | 2 | Who Was Edmonia Lewis?
Edmonia Lewis' first notable commercial success was a bust of Colonel Robert Gould Shaw. The money she earned selling copies of the bust allowed her to sail to Rome, Italy, where she mastered working in marble. She quickly achieved success as a sculptor. The circumstances of her death in 1907 are unclear.
Hailed as the first professional African American and Native American sculptor, Lewis had little training but overcame numerous obstacles to become a respected artist.
Elusive when it came to personal details, Lewis claimed different years of birth throughout out her life, but research seems to indicate she was born around 1844 in upstate New York. The daughter of a black father and part-Ojibwa mother, she was orphaned at an early age and, as she later claimed, was raised by some of her mother's relatives.
With the support and encouragement of a successful older brother, Lewis attended Oberlin College in Ohio where she emerged as a talented artist. The abolitionist movement was active on the Oberlin campus and would greatly influence her later work. But life at Oberlin came to a violent end when Lewis was falsely accused of poisoning two white classmates. Captured and beaten by a white mob, Lewis recovered from the attack and then escaped to Boston, Massachusetts, after the charges against her were dropped.
In Boston, Lewis befriended abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison and sculptor Edward A. Brackett. It was Brackett who taught Lewis sculpture and helped propel her to set up her own studio. By the early 1860s, her clay and plaster medallions of Garrison, John Brown and other abolitionist leaders gave her a small measure of commercial success.
In 1864, Lewis created a bust of Colonel Robert Shaw, a Civil War hero who had died leading the all-black 54th Massachusetts Regiment. This was her most famous work to date and the money she earned from the sale of copies of the bust allowed her to move to Rome, home to a number of expatriate American artists, including several women.
Life in Rome
In Italy, Lewis continued to work as an artist. Her work over the next several decades moved between African American themes to subjects influenced by her devout Catholicism.
One of her most prized works was "Forever Free" (1867), a sculpture depicting a black man and woman emerging from the bonds of slavery. Another piece, "The Arrow Maker" (1866), draws on her Native American roots and shows a father teaching his young daughter how to make an arrow. Lewis also created busts of American presidents including Ulysses S. Grant and Abraham Lincoln.
One of her most famous works was a depiction of the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra, titled "The Death of Cleopatra." Met with critical acclaim when she showed it at the Philadelphia Exposition in 1876 and in Chicago two years later, the two-ton sculpture never returned to Italy with its creator because Lewis couldn't afford the shipping costs. It was placed in storage and rediscovered several decades after her death.
Much like her childhood, Lewis's final years are shrouded in mystery. Until the 1890s, she continued to exhibit her work and was even visited by Frederick Douglass in Rome, but little is known about the last decade or so of her life. It was speculated that Lewis spent her last years in Rome, Italy, but the recent discovery of death documents indicate that she died in London, England, in 1907.
In recent decades, however, Lewis's life and art have received posthumous acclaim. Her pieces are now part of the permanent collections of the Howard University Gallery of Art and the Smithsonian American Art Museum.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | 792 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When you think about a brooch, you might think of your grandmother’s beautiful and intricate butterfly pin. Or maybe you’ve read about the various adornments that Queen Elizabeth II wears on special occasions.
But for people living in the Victorian era, something as simple as a brooch was weighted with meaning and heavily scrutinized by society. There were certain brooches for certain occasions, and one of those occasions was mourning. The New-York Historical installation Life Cut Short: Hamilton’s Hair and the Art of Mourning Jewelry (now on view) features over 50 pieces of mourning jewelry, including several gorgeous brooches, many of which contain locks of human hair. Yes, that’s right, you heard correctly! During the Victorian Age, it was common for mourners to snip locks from the deceased before they were buried. Those locks of hair were then used for different types of jewelry, simple, yet elegantly braided creations that memorialized the dead.
Brooches themselves likely date back to the Bronze Age. But their curious place in the ritual of grief and mourning was secured in England around 1861, when Queen Victoria’s husband, Prince Albert, died at the age of 42. Distraught, Victoria entered into a period of mourning that lasted the remainder of her life. Her intense ritualization of mourning spread throughout England and quickly made its way to the United States via newspapers and other publications. She also wore brooches made of her late husband’s hair to symbolize her mourning.
It’s important to note that mourning jewelry was primarily a custom of the monied classes. The brooches used for mourning were often opulent, using the finest stones and metals money could buy. Obviously, only the mercantile elite could afford such a luxury. Most families didn’t have the money to create customized jewelry or to take time off from factory work to isolate themselves during a mourning period.
But it’s also important to note that the opulence was governed by a strict set of rules. According to James Steven Curl’s book The Victorian Celebration of Death (1972), these included wearing heavy black wool, having women in mourning conceal their faces with arsenic laced veils, and refraining from engaging in social gatherings that included people outside of the immediate family. Widows had to go through what Dr. Sonia Bedikian, a former historian at New York University, defines as the three stages of mourning.
The first stage, known as full mourning, required widows to wear only black wool, regardless of the time of the year, for one year and a day. This stage also prohibited widows from leaving the house. They were not allowed to wear elaborate ornaments, which included most brooches. Because of this, we don’t see many brooches made that were designated for this period of mourning. When they were worn, they were mostly black with some pearls. According to Martha Fales’ book Jewelry in America (1995), other colors were not used until the second phase of mourning, which lasted nine months. Fales explains that popular women’s journals from the time instructed women to wear ornaments that were “simple and plain,” with muted colors like grey and purple. The final stage of mourning was more subdued. It lasted for six months and mourners were allowed to socialize and wear lighter colors again.
According to the Geological Institute of America, the most common materials to ornament brooches were onyx, pearls, dark tortoise shell, and black enamel. The brooch was a unique way to showcase mourning during the second and third stages of mourning, because it was worn directly above the heart. This placement symbolized the attachment that the mourning women had to the deceased.
Some brooches weren’t your “run of the mill” braid with pearl accents. Some were actually a bit wacky, but strangely beautiful. Take, for example, this brooch pictured to the right.
Dated between 1800 and 1830, it catches the eye because it includes a unique painting as well as the hair. Sometimes, New York’s wealthy mourners hired miniaturists to create tiny portraits to help them mourn. Miniaturists commonly added locks or strands of hair belonging to the deceased. This way, the mourner would have a stronger connection to the item.
The Victorians created a system to mourn and followed it vehemently. If anyone was found to be out of line with the stage of mourning they were in, it was not uncommon for them to be shunned by their friends and family. What makes this system of mourning so much more interesting is that it extended into the very clothes they wore and even what jewelry they put on. Losing a loved one is not ever easy, and mourning is something that everyone will have to experience at some point in time. What made the Victorians so unique is how they expressed these emotions. Something as simple as a brooch, when inspected more closely, can actually reveal some unspoken truths about these customs.
Check out New-York Historical’s installation Life Cut Short: Hamilton’s Hair and the Art of Mourning Jewelry through May 10.
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0.2553402185440... | 5 | When you think about a brooch, you might think of your grandmother’s beautiful and intricate butterfly pin. Or maybe you’ve read about the various adornments that Queen Elizabeth II wears on special occasions.
But for people living in the Victorian era, something as simple as a brooch was weighted with meaning and heavily scrutinized by society. There were certain brooches for certain occasions, and one of those occasions was mourning. The New-York Historical installation Life Cut Short: Hamilton’s Hair and the Art of Mourning Jewelry (now on view) features over 50 pieces of mourning jewelry, including several gorgeous brooches, many of which contain locks of human hair. Yes, that’s right, you heard correctly! During the Victorian Age, it was common for mourners to snip locks from the deceased before they were buried. Those locks of hair were then used for different types of jewelry, simple, yet elegantly braided creations that memorialized the dead.
Brooches themselves likely date back to the Bronze Age. But their curious place in the ritual of grief and mourning was secured in England around 1861, when Queen Victoria’s husband, Prince Albert, died at the age of 42. Distraught, Victoria entered into a period of mourning that lasted the remainder of her life. Her intense ritualization of mourning spread throughout England and quickly made its way to the United States via newspapers and other publications. She also wore brooches made of her late husband’s hair to symbolize her mourning.
It’s important to note that mourning jewelry was primarily a custom of the monied classes. The brooches used for mourning were often opulent, using the finest stones and metals money could buy. Obviously, only the mercantile elite could afford such a luxury. Most families didn’t have the money to create customized jewelry or to take time off from factory work to isolate themselves during a mourning period.
But it’s also important to note that the opulence was governed by a strict set of rules. According to James Steven Curl’s book The Victorian Celebration of Death (1972), these included wearing heavy black wool, having women in mourning conceal their faces with arsenic laced veils, and refraining from engaging in social gatherings that included people outside of the immediate family. Widows had to go through what Dr. Sonia Bedikian, a former historian at New York University, defines as the three stages of mourning.
The first stage, known as full mourning, required widows to wear only black wool, regardless of the time of the year, for one year and a day. This stage also prohibited widows from leaving the house. They were not allowed to wear elaborate ornaments, which included most brooches. Because of this, we don’t see many brooches made that were designated for this period of mourning. When they were worn, they were mostly black with some pearls. According to Martha Fales’ book Jewelry in America (1995), other colors were not used until the second phase of mourning, which lasted nine months. Fales explains that popular women’s journals from the time instructed women to wear ornaments that were “simple and plain,” with muted colors like grey and purple. The final stage of mourning was more subdued. It lasted for six months and mourners were allowed to socialize and wear lighter colors again.
According to the Geological Institute of America, the most common materials to ornament brooches were onyx, pearls, dark tortoise shell, and black enamel. The brooch was a unique way to showcase mourning during the second and third stages of mourning, because it was worn directly above the heart. This placement symbolized the attachment that the mourning women had to the deceased.
Some brooches weren’t your “run of the mill” braid with pearl accents. Some were actually a bit wacky, but strangely beautiful. Take, for example, this brooch pictured to the right.
Dated between 1800 and 1830, it catches the eye because it includes a unique painting as well as the hair. Sometimes, New York’s wealthy mourners hired miniaturists to create tiny portraits to help them mourn. Miniaturists commonly added locks or strands of hair belonging to the deceased. This way, the mourner would have a stronger connection to the item.
The Victorians created a system to mourn and followed it vehemently. If anyone was found to be out of line with the stage of mourning they were in, it was not uncommon for them to be shunned by their friends and family. What makes this system of mourning so much more interesting is that it extended into the very clothes they wore and even what jewelry they put on. Losing a loved one is not ever easy, and mourning is something that everyone will have to experience at some point in time. What made the Victorians so unique is how they expressed these emotions. Something as simple as a brooch, when inspected more closely, can actually reveal some unspoken truths about these customs.
Check out New-York Historical’s installation Life Cut Short: Hamilton’s Hair and the Art of Mourning Jewelry through May 10.
Written by Laura Ochoa Rincon, Marie Zimmerman Foundation intern | 1,066 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Biography Paul Laurence Dunbar: Highlights of A Life Although the life story of Paul Laurence Dunbar begins and ends in Dayton, Ohio, the story of his literary work carries far beyond the confines of the city where he lived and died. Matilda had been married previously and had two sons from that relationship.
Biography Paul Laurence Dunbar: Highlights of A Life Although the life story of Paul Laurence Dunbar begins and A biography of paul laurence dunbar in Dayton, Ohio, the story of his literary work carries far beyond the confines of the city where he lived and died.
As one of the first nationally-known African-American writers, Dunbar's life reflects many of the larger historical trends of the country and the city in which he was raised. Despite humble beginnings, Dunbar's short life produced a legacy of critically acclaimed literature that influenced writers of the Harlem Renaissance and continues to influence contemporary American literature into the 21st century.
Matilda had been married previously and had two sons from that relationship. Following Paul's birth, relations between Joshua and Matilda were challenged by Joshua's difficulties in finding work and his growing alcoholism.
Soon pregnant with Joshua's second child, Matilda eventually left her husband, taking her children and returning to live with her mother, where Matilda gave birth to a daughter, who died when she was two years old.
Matilda eventually divorced Joshua, who passed away in when Paul was 13 years old. Many of their experiences of slave and plantation life influenced Dunbar's later writings. The relationship between Matilda and her son, Paul, was a strong one. Recognizing that Paul displayed an early talent with words, Matilda worked to ensure he received the best education possible.
His two older step-brothers dropped out of school in order to find work and help support the family, but Matilda would not let the same thing happen to Paul. At Central, he was the only African American in his class, of which Orville Wright was also a member.
During high school, Paul wrote and published poems in his school newspaper, eventually serving as editor, and was also an active member in the literary and debate societies.
His poetry was also published in the local Dayton Herald, and Dunbar edited a new, but short-lived, African American paper, The Tattler, which was printed by his classmate, Orville Wright.
Dunbar hoped his success in achieving a high school diploma and in publishing a number of his early poems would translate either into an opportunity to attend college or begin a career in journalism.
He approached the Dayton Herald, which had published a number of his early works, but was not able to secure employment on their staff.
In fact, Dunbar quickly discovered that job prospects for a well-educated young African American in Dayton were rather limited. Faced with decreasing funds, Dunbar eventually became an elevator operator in the Callahan building, an office building located in downtown Dayton.
He became known for his habit of reading and writing poetry in his free moments. Dunbar's early poems, including "A Banjo Song" and "The Ol' Tunes," reflect both the sentimentality and the colloquial patterns familiar to Riley's readers. Based on the recommendation of one of his former teachers, Dunbar was invited to speak at the convention of the Western Association of Writers, which met in Dayton in Delivering a poetic address in what was noted as a resonant and beautiful voice, Dunbar impressed the audience so much that comments about his address were published in papers across the country, most notably in an article by poet James Newton Matthews.
Attending the World's Columbian Exhibition in Chicago later that year, Dunbar garnered the support of noted civil rights leader Frederick Douglass, who also provided Dunbar a job in the Haitian pavilion at the fair. With support from Dr. Tobey became Dunbar's greatest patron, offering emotional and financial support throughout his career, favors which Dunbar was eventually able to repay.
Tobey also received an inscribed copy of every book Dunbar published.
This second work marked the shift of Dunbar's acclaim from local to national in scope. The collection contained works in standard English the Majors of the title and in dialect the Minor poems. It was these "minor" poems, however, which caught the interest of William Dean Howells, the editor of Harper's Weekly, who published a review of the book in the June 27, edition, coincidentally Dunbar's 24th birthday.
This particular issue of the magazine also featured a report on the nomination of William McKinley for the presidency, which markedly increased the circulation. Howells' lengthy review brought national attention, especially to Dunbar's poems of dialect, which Howells singled out for critical praise.
Poet James Whitcomb Riley wrote Dunbar to encourage him to continue writing. Dunbar's third book, Lyrics of Lowly Life, combined the poems of his first two books and included a special introduction written by Howells.
With new attention and ever-growing praise for his works, Dunbar began touring and delivering public readings around the United States. InDunbar traveled to London to spend several months touring and reading in the English literary circles.
Upon his return to the United States, Dunbar worked briefly at the Library of Congress before leaving the position to continue his writing full time.
Serious health issues developed, however, as Dunbar suffered from several bouts of pneumonia. After a courtship of several years, mostly by letter, Dunbar eloped with Alice Ruth Moore, a fellow African American literary figure successful in her own right, in March The following year Dunbar's health problems worsened, and he was diagnosed with tuberculosis.
Attempts to medicate with alcohol proved unsuccessful as a cure, and his subsequent alcoholism served to increase the troubled relationship between the Dunbars.
Alice Moore Dunbar eventually left her husband inand although the couple never officially divorced, Alice refused any contact with Dunbar for the rest of his life. His health deteriorating, Dunbar returned home to Dayton and to his mother, Matilda, spending the last three years of his life under her care.Biography Paul Laurence Dunbar: Highlights of A Life.
Although the life story of Paul Laurence Dunbar begins and ends in Dayton, Ohio, the story of his literary work carries far beyond the confines of the city where he lived and died.
Synopsis. Paul Laurence Dunbar was an African-American writer of the late 19th and early 20th centuries who wrote verse and short stories, many of which were written in black dialect despite the Born: Jun 27, Paul Laurence Dunbar, a poet and novelist, was the first African American author to gain national recognition and a wide popular audience.
His writings portray the African American life of his leslutinsduphoenix.com: Feb 09, Paul Laurence Dunbar Biography Paul Laurence Dunbar was the first African-American to gain national eminence as a poet.
Born in in Dayton, Ohio, he was the son of ex-slaves and classmate to Orville Wright of aviation fame. Paul Laurence Dunbar: Paul Laurence Dunbar, U.S. author whose reputation rests upon his verse and short stories written in black dialect.
He was the first black writer in the U.S. to make a concerted attempt to live by his writings and one of . Biography of Paul Laurence Dunbar Dunbar was born in Dayton, Ohio to parents who had escaped from slavery; his father was a veteran of the American Civil War, having served in the 55th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment and the 5th Massachusetts Colored Cavalry Regiment. | <urn:uuid:a4c8fc00-0545-4862-a21f-1a388fa713f7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://horelejugy.leslutinsduphoenix.com/a-biography-of-paul-laurence-dunbar-36709hy.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00100.warc.gz | en | 0.985989 | 1,578 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.1799472421... | 1 | Biography Paul Laurence Dunbar: Highlights of A Life Although the life story of Paul Laurence Dunbar begins and ends in Dayton, Ohio, the story of his literary work carries far beyond the confines of the city where he lived and died. Matilda had been married previously and had two sons from that relationship.
Biography Paul Laurence Dunbar: Highlights of A Life Although the life story of Paul Laurence Dunbar begins and A biography of paul laurence dunbar in Dayton, Ohio, the story of his literary work carries far beyond the confines of the city where he lived and died.
As one of the first nationally-known African-American writers, Dunbar's life reflects many of the larger historical trends of the country and the city in which he was raised. Despite humble beginnings, Dunbar's short life produced a legacy of critically acclaimed literature that influenced writers of the Harlem Renaissance and continues to influence contemporary American literature into the 21st century.
Matilda had been married previously and had two sons from that relationship. Following Paul's birth, relations between Joshua and Matilda were challenged by Joshua's difficulties in finding work and his growing alcoholism.
Soon pregnant with Joshua's second child, Matilda eventually left her husband, taking her children and returning to live with her mother, where Matilda gave birth to a daughter, who died when she was two years old.
Matilda eventually divorced Joshua, who passed away in when Paul was 13 years old. Many of their experiences of slave and plantation life influenced Dunbar's later writings. The relationship between Matilda and her son, Paul, was a strong one. Recognizing that Paul displayed an early talent with words, Matilda worked to ensure he received the best education possible.
His two older step-brothers dropped out of school in order to find work and help support the family, but Matilda would not let the same thing happen to Paul. At Central, he was the only African American in his class, of which Orville Wright was also a member.
During high school, Paul wrote and published poems in his school newspaper, eventually serving as editor, and was also an active member in the literary and debate societies.
His poetry was also published in the local Dayton Herald, and Dunbar edited a new, but short-lived, African American paper, The Tattler, which was printed by his classmate, Orville Wright.
Dunbar hoped his success in achieving a high school diploma and in publishing a number of his early poems would translate either into an opportunity to attend college or begin a career in journalism.
He approached the Dayton Herald, which had published a number of his early works, but was not able to secure employment on their staff.
In fact, Dunbar quickly discovered that job prospects for a well-educated young African American in Dayton were rather limited. Faced with decreasing funds, Dunbar eventually became an elevator operator in the Callahan building, an office building located in downtown Dayton.
He became known for his habit of reading and writing poetry in his free moments. Dunbar's early poems, including "A Banjo Song" and "The Ol' Tunes," reflect both the sentimentality and the colloquial patterns familiar to Riley's readers. Based on the recommendation of one of his former teachers, Dunbar was invited to speak at the convention of the Western Association of Writers, which met in Dayton in Delivering a poetic address in what was noted as a resonant and beautiful voice, Dunbar impressed the audience so much that comments about his address were published in papers across the country, most notably in an article by poet James Newton Matthews.
Attending the World's Columbian Exhibition in Chicago later that year, Dunbar garnered the support of noted civil rights leader Frederick Douglass, who also provided Dunbar a job in the Haitian pavilion at the fair. With support from Dr. Tobey became Dunbar's greatest patron, offering emotional and financial support throughout his career, favors which Dunbar was eventually able to repay.
Tobey also received an inscribed copy of every book Dunbar published.
This second work marked the shift of Dunbar's acclaim from local to national in scope. The collection contained works in standard English the Majors of the title and in dialect the Minor poems. It was these "minor" poems, however, which caught the interest of William Dean Howells, the editor of Harper's Weekly, who published a review of the book in the June 27, edition, coincidentally Dunbar's 24th birthday.
This particular issue of the magazine also featured a report on the nomination of William McKinley for the presidency, which markedly increased the circulation. Howells' lengthy review brought national attention, especially to Dunbar's poems of dialect, which Howells singled out for critical praise.
Poet James Whitcomb Riley wrote Dunbar to encourage him to continue writing. Dunbar's third book, Lyrics of Lowly Life, combined the poems of his first two books and included a special introduction written by Howells.
With new attention and ever-growing praise for his works, Dunbar began touring and delivering public readings around the United States. InDunbar traveled to London to spend several months touring and reading in the English literary circles.
Upon his return to the United States, Dunbar worked briefly at the Library of Congress before leaving the position to continue his writing full time.
Serious health issues developed, however, as Dunbar suffered from several bouts of pneumonia. After a courtship of several years, mostly by letter, Dunbar eloped with Alice Ruth Moore, a fellow African American literary figure successful in her own right, in March The following year Dunbar's health problems worsened, and he was diagnosed with tuberculosis.
Attempts to medicate with alcohol proved unsuccessful as a cure, and his subsequent alcoholism served to increase the troubled relationship between the Dunbars.
Alice Moore Dunbar eventually left her husband inand although the couple never officially divorced, Alice refused any contact with Dunbar for the rest of his life. His health deteriorating, Dunbar returned home to Dayton and to his mother, Matilda, spending the last three years of his life under her care.Biography Paul Laurence Dunbar: Highlights of A Life.
Although the life story of Paul Laurence Dunbar begins and ends in Dayton, Ohio, the story of his literary work carries far beyond the confines of the city where he lived and died.
Synopsis. Paul Laurence Dunbar was an African-American writer of the late 19th and early 20th centuries who wrote verse and short stories, many of which were written in black dialect despite the Born: Jun 27, Paul Laurence Dunbar, a poet and novelist, was the first African American author to gain national recognition and a wide popular audience.
His writings portray the African American life of his leslutinsduphoenix.com: Feb 09, Paul Laurence Dunbar Biography Paul Laurence Dunbar was the first African-American to gain national eminence as a poet.
Born in in Dayton, Ohio, he was the son of ex-slaves and classmate to Orville Wright of aviation fame. Paul Laurence Dunbar: Paul Laurence Dunbar, U.S. author whose reputation rests upon his verse and short stories written in black dialect.
He was the first black writer in the U.S. to make a concerted attempt to live by his writings and one of . Biography of Paul Laurence Dunbar Dunbar was born in Dayton, Ohio to parents who had escaped from slavery; his father was a veteran of the American Civil War, having served in the 55th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment and the 5th Massachusetts Colored Cavalry Regiment. | 1,567 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Predappio is a quiet little town of some 6,100 inhabitants in the rich Italian region of Emilia-Romagna, some 150 miles north of Rome. It is known today mostly for its annual fair of songbirds and as the place where Mussolini was born in 1883. Here, more than a decade after his violent death in 1945, Mussolini was finally laid to rest like an ancient tribal king, in a stately underground “crypt”—mausoleum might be a more appropriate word—and here his remaining fans still worship him three times a year. Two of Mussolini’s favorite architects, Florestano Di Fausto and Cesare Bassani, had built the crypt in 1930, a high point in the dictator’s career.
At that time he had been courted by both Winston Churchill (“If I were Italian I would don the Fascist Black Shirt”) and Adolf Hitler (in Mein Kampf). The Pope called him “a man of Providence.” Nicholas Murray Butler, the president of Columbia University, compared him to Cromwell, and Cardinal O’Connell of Boston said he was a “genius in the field of government given to Italy by God.”1 He is also said to have enjoyed wide popular support. In a fascinating new book, The Body of Il Duce, Sergio Luzzatto observes that “for twenty years after Mussolini’s march on Rome of October 1922…the majority of Italians passionately loved Il Duce.” There is evidence that his popularity was particularly strong in the late 1920s and early 1930s, when the country was stable, there was little effective opposition, and Mussolini had not yet begun his disastrous military adventurism. But it is difficult to accurately measure the true extent of his following in a one-party state that had resorted to government terrorism and still seriously curtailed the freedom of the press.
The reasons for Mussolini’s rise to power were complex. Italy after World War I was a divided, crisis-ridden country and conservatives, socialists, and Catholics were unable to agree on a common program. Mussolini saw the instability as a chance to build up a base of supporters, some of them angry veterans, who were willing to use violence and intimidation to achieve power. The march on Rome itself was a show of force, even though there were far fewer Blackshirts supporting Mussolini than he later claimed, and most were poorly armed. “I could have turned this deaf and grey Chamber into a bivouac for my legions,” he said to the Chamber of Deputies after being nominated as prime minister by a panicking, dim-witted king. “I could have barred up parliament and formed a government only of Fascists. I could have, but I have not wanted to, at least not for the moment.”2
It was the beginning of Mussolini’s emergence as a dictator, which in the absence of a clear Fascist majority was made possible by the intimidation and assassination of his main political opponents and, as Luzzatto suggests, by his ability to act out the role of a powerful leader—a quality that apparently held a lasting fascination…
This is exclusive content for subscribers only.
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Continue reading this article, and thousands more from our archive, for the low introductory rate of just $1 an issue. Choose a Print, Digital, or All Access subscription. | <urn:uuid:bac9bfb1-70f4-4bfa-b7de-7fa6b8ec32ad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2006/02/23/a-shrine-to-mussolini/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00034.warc.gz | en | 0.986381 | 727 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.610336303710937... | 2 | Predappio is a quiet little town of some 6,100 inhabitants in the rich Italian region of Emilia-Romagna, some 150 miles north of Rome. It is known today mostly for its annual fair of songbirds and as the place where Mussolini was born in 1883. Here, more than a decade after his violent death in 1945, Mussolini was finally laid to rest like an ancient tribal king, in a stately underground “crypt”—mausoleum might be a more appropriate word—and here his remaining fans still worship him three times a year. Two of Mussolini’s favorite architects, Florestano Di Fausto and Cesare Bassani, had built the crypt in 1930, a high point in the dictator’s career.
At that time he had been courted by both Winston Churchill (“If I were Italian I would don the Fascist Black Shirt”) and Adolf Hitler (in Mein Kampf). The Pope called him “a man of Providence.” Nicholas Murray Butler, the president of Columbia University, compared him to Cromwell, and Cardinal O’Connell of Boston said he was a “genius in the field of government given to Italy by God.”1 He is also said to have enjoyed wide popular support. In a fascinating new book, The Body of Il Duce, Sergio Luzzatto observes that “for twenty years after Mussolini’s march on Rome of October 1922…the majority of Italians passionately loved Il Duce.” There is evidence that his popularity was particularly strong in the late 1920s and early 1930s, when the country was stable, there was little effective opposition, and Mussolini had not yet begun his disastrous military adventurism. But it is difficult to accurately measure the true extent of his following in a one-party state that had resorted to government terrorism and still seriously curtailed the freedom of the press.
The reasons for Mussolini’s rise to power were complex. Italy after World War I was a divided, crisis-ridden country and conservatives, socialists, and Catholics were unable to agree on a common program. Mussolini saw the instability as a chance to build up a base of supporters, some of them angry veterans, who were willing to use violence and intimidation to achieve power. The march on Rome itself was a show of force, even though there were far fewer Blackshirts supporting Mussolini than he later claimed, and most were poorly armed. “I could have turned this deaf and grey Chamber into a bivouac for my legions,” he said to the Chamber of Deputies after being nominated as prime minister by a panicking, dim-witted king. “I could have barred up parliament and formed a government only of Fascists. I could have, but I have not wanted to, at least not for the moment.”2
It was the beginning of Mussolini’s emergence as a dictator, which in the absence of a clear Fascist majority was made possible by the intimidation and assassination of his main political opponents and, as Luzzatto suggests, by his ability to act out the role of a powerful leader—a quality that apparently held a lasting fascination…
This is exclusive content for subscribers only.
Get unlimited access to The New York Review for just $1 an issue!
Continue reading this article, and thousands more from our archive, for the low introductory rate of just $1 an issue. Choose a Print, Digital, or All Access subscription. | 717 | ENGLISH | 1 |
this article was originally featured on Yahoo Science News.
Earth was hit with a devastating comet strike around 11,000 BC, ancient stone carvings reveal
Ancient stone carvings, found in what is widely considered to be "the world's first temple", have revealed that the planet was likely hit with a devastating comet strike over 13,000 years ago. According to researchers, who analysed symbols on carvings found on a pillar called the Vulture Stone in Turkey's Göbekli Tepe temple, a swarm of comet fragments hit the Earth in around 11,000BC. Researchers suggest that the historical event may have sparked the rise of civilisation.
Experts from the University of Edinburgh studied and decoded the symbols found in Göbekli Tepe, which is an ancient megalithic site located in southern Turkey, not far from the Syrian border. Researchers say that the evidence uncovered indicates that Göbekli Tepe, which was constructed "on a top hill," may have served as an observatory.
"It is very likely the people of Göbekli Tepe were making accurate measurements of Earth's precession from around 10,950 BC onwards, and they had a good understanding of this process, at least from an observational perspective," researchers said in their study, which has been published in Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry. "It is very likely that the people of GT [Göbekli Tepe] had been keen astronomers for a very long time."
Researchers noted that "The evidence and proposed mechanisms for this event are keenly debated right now." However, the researchers matched the animal carvings, interpreted as astronomical symbols, to stars and constellations, using computers and concluded that the event occurred around "10950 BC ± 250 yrs", which they said "corresponds closely to the proposed Younger Dryas event, estimated at 10890 BC."
The Younger Dryas, also referred to as the Big Freeze, is believed to have lasted around 1,000 years during which the Earth is considered to have experienced "abrupt" climate change. Some experts believe that the Younger Dryas had a profound impact on humans and may have lead to a transformation of civilisation from hunter-gathering to early farming.
Edinburgh University researchers noted in their study that the people of Göbekli Tepe likely viewed the comet impact on Earth as "important to record the Earth's precession over very long timescales in a very visible and enduring fashion."
Researchers speculated that the carvings depicting the event were placed in the temple "to communicate to potentially sceptical generations that followed that a great truth about the ordering of the world was known, and that this truth was important for their continued prosperity, and perhaps survival."
Researchers also noted that the carving of a headless man in one the temple's of the stone pillars indicated that "the event lead to loss of life."
"That the people of GT remained interested in this date even several millennia later suggests it was a very important event that had a significant impact on their cultural development," researchers added. | <urn:uuid:a5371ce8-d793-493b-bed7-2ba8258b8db0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.blackdiamondsocialclub.com/single-post/2017/04/24/Earth-hit-by-comet-strike-around-11000-BC | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00434.warc.gz | en | 0.983862 | 625 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.408613622188568... | 1 | this article was originally featured on Yahoo Science News.
Earth was hit with a devastating comet strike around 11,000 BC, ancient stone carvings reveal
Ancient stone carvings, found in what is widely considered to be "the world's first temple", have revealed that the planet was likely hit with a devastating comet strike over 13,000 years ago. According to researchers, who analysed symbols on carvings found on a pillar called the Vulture Stone in Turkey's Göbekli Tepe temple, a swarm of comet fragments hit the Earth in around 11,000BC. Researchers suggest that the historical event may have sparked the rise of civilisation.
Experts from the University of Edinburgh studied and decoded the symbols found in Göbekli Tepe, which is an ancient megalithic site located in southern Turkey, not far from the Syrian border. Researchers say that the evidence uncovered indicates that Göbekli Tepe, which was constructed "on a top hill," may have served as an observatory.
"It is very likely the people of Göbekli Tepe were making accurate measurements of Earth's precession from around 10,950 BC onwards, and they had a good understanding of this process, at least from an observational perspective," researchers said in their study, which has been published in Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry. "It is very likely that the people of GT [Göbekli Tepe] had been keen astronomers for a very long time."
Researchers noted that "The evidence and proposed mechanisms for this event are keenly debated right now." However, the researchers matched the animal carvings, interpreted as astronomical symbols, to stars and constellations, using computers and concluded that the event occurred around "10950 BC ± 250 yrs", which they said "corresponds closely to the proposed Younger Dryas event, estimated at 10890 BC."
The Younger Dryas, also referred to as the Big Freeze, is believed to have lasted around 1,000 years during which the Earth is considered to have experienced "abrupt" climate change. Some experts believe that the Younger Dryas had a profound impact on humans and may have lead to a transformation of civilisation from hunter-gathering to early farming.
Edinburgh University researchers noted in their study that the people of Göbekli Tepe likely viewed the comet impact on Earth as "important to record the Earth's precession over very long timescales in a very visible and enduring fashion."
Researchers speculated that the carvings depicting the event were placed in the temple "to communicate to potentially sceptical generations that followed that a great truth about the ordering of the world was known, and that this truth was important for their continued prosperity, and perhaps survival."
Researchers also noted that the carving of a headless man in one the temple's of the stone pillars indicated that "the event lead to loss of life."
"That the people of GT remained interested in this date even several millennia later suggests it was a very important event that had a significant impact on their cultural development," researchers added. | 645 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The ancient Egyptian civilization was one of the oldest and most advanced civilizations in the world. It was based in ancient North Africa along the lower course of the Nile River in what is now the country of Egypt. Today, the world knows this civilization for its pharaohs, pyramids, and mummies but there are many other fascinating facts associated with Ancient Egypt.
Ancient Egyptians Admired And Worshipped Cats
Ancient Egyptians respected and adored cats. The felines played an important role in their social and religious practices. Several deities of ancient Egypt like Bastet and Sekhmet have cat-like heads. It was believed that cats protected the Egyptian pharaohs from evil including venomous snakes. Cats were even mummified in ancient Egypt and statues commemorating cats were also built. The Egyptian Book of the Dead also mentions cats.
Egyptian Pharaohs Had Large Waistlines
While Egyptian art and films based on Egypt always depict pharaohs with trim and statuesque figures, the reality was quite different. The ancient Egyptian diet that was rich in sugary foods like wine, honey, bread, and beer led to bulging royal waistlines. Physical examination of mummies has revealed that many Egyptian royals suffered from obesity-related issues and even diabetes. For example, the legendary Queen Hatshepsut from the 15th century was obese and balding although the sarcophagus depicted her as slender.
Egyptians Revered Animals And Kept Pets
Animals occupied a special place in the hearts of ancient Egyptians. Many were revered as incarnations of gods or kept as household pets. Cats, as mentioned previously, were very popular. However, other animals like dogs, baboons, ibises, hawks, and even lions were also respected. When a pet owner would die, the pets were also mummified and buried with the dead owner. It is believed the ancient Egyptian policemen even used trained dogs and monkeys to assist them in their duties.
Specialized Doctors Were Available In Ancient Egypt
Although most physicians of the ancient world lacked specialization, those in ancient Egypt were often specialized to treat specific body parts just like the present-day medical specialists. Accounts of early travelers and historians mention such doctors in ancient Egypt.
Both Sexes Wore Makeup In Ancient Egypt
Both men and women of ancient Egypt wore makeup in copious amounts. Makeup in the form of kohl was applied to the eyes. It was believed to protect against the wrath of gods Horus and Ra. Malachite and galena ores were used to prepare kohl. It was applied around the eyes. Women would also use red paint to stain their cheeks and henna to color their nails and hands. Both men and women used perfumes made of myrrh, cinnamon, and oil.
Ancient Egyptians Loved Playing Board Games
Many paintings from Ancient Egypt depict royals and common people engrossed in board games. The “Senet”, “Dogs and Jackals,” and “Mehen” were played by the ancient Egyptians. The love for such games was so intense that sometimes the game boards were buried with the owners' body after death.
Ancient Egyptians Were Masters Of Invention
Ancient Egyptians were more advanced than many civilizations that came after them. They were experts in the field of scientific invention. Many of the modern-day things used today were already in use in ancient Egypt. These people used papyrus for writing. It was prepared from the pith of the papyrus plant that grew along the Nile River. They also invented toothpaste. They used burnt powdered eggshells, pumice, ash, and ox hooves to prepare the toothpaste.
The Afterlife Was Of Paramount Importance In Their Lives
The ancient Egyptians had a staunch belief in the afterlife and their activities were often guided by this belief. Upon death, they were buried by their loved ones along with all the things they loved or owned including slaves, pets, jewelry, household goods, and more. Even the bodies of the dead were mummified. It was all done in the belief that these things might be needed by the dead ones in their next life.
Ancient Egyptians Had Deities For Everything
Over 2,000 deities were worshipped in Ancient Egypt. There were gods for almost everything. For example, Hathor was the Egyptian "Cow goddess" associated with health and womanly love. Osiris was the God of Death and Ra was the Sun God. Goddess Isis was linked with motherhood, protection, and funerary rites.
Ancient Egyptian Women Had Many Rights And Freedoms
Although many women in the present times are fighting to get their basic rights and freedoms recognized, those in ancient Egypt enjoyed a great deal of financial and legal independence. They could buy and sell properties, divorce and remarry, and receive equal pay as men. They could also make their wills and serve on juries.
About the Author
Oishimaya is an Indian native, currently residing in Kolkata. She has earned her Ph.D. degree and is presently engaged in full-time freelance writing and editing. She is an avid reader and travel enthusiast and is sensitively aware of her surroundings, both locally and globally. She loves mingling with people of eclectic cultures and also participates in activities concerning wildlife conservation.
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0.126472726464271... | 2 | The ancient Egyptian civilization was one of the oldest and most advanced civilizations in the world. It was based in ancient North Africa along the lower course of the Nile River in what is now the country of Egypt. Today, the world knows this civilization for its pharaohs, pyramids, and mummies but there are many other fascinating facts associated with Ancient Egypt.
Ancient Egyptians Admired And Worshipped Cats
Ancient Egyptians respected and adored cats. The felines played an important role in their social and religious practices. Several deities of ancient Egypt like Bastet and Sekhmet have cat-like heads. It was believed that cats protected the Egyptian pharaohs from evil including venomous snakes. Cats were even mummified in ancient Egypt and statues commemorating cats were also built. The Egyptian Book of the Dead also mentions cats.
Egyptian Pharaohs Had Large Waistlines
While Egyptian art and films based on Egypt always depict pharaohs with trim and statuesque figures, the reality was quite different. The ancient Egyptian diet that was rich in sugary foods like wine, honey, bread, and beer led to bulging royal waistlines. Physical examination of mummies has revealed that many Egyptian royals suffered from obesity-related issues and even diabetes. For example, the legendary Queen Hatshepsut from the 15th century was obese and balding although the sarcophagus depicted her as slender.
Egyptians Revered Animals And Kept Pets
Animals occupied a special place in the hearts of ancient Egyptians. Many were revered as incarnations of gods or kept as household pets. Cats, as mentioned previously, were very popular. However, other animals like dogs, baboons, ibises, hawks, and even lions were also respected. When a pet owner would die, the pets were also mummified and buried with the dead owner. It is believed the ancient Egyptian policemen even used trained dogs and monkeys to assist them in their duties.
Specialized Doctors Were Available In Ancient Egypt
Although most physicians of the ancient world lacked specialization, those in ancient Egypt were often specialized to treat specific body parts just like the present-day medical specialists. Accounts of early travelers and historians mention such doctors in ancient Egypt.
Both Sexes Wore Makeup In Ancient Egypt
Both men and women of ancient Egypt wore makeup in copious amounts. Makeup in the form of kohl was applied to the eyes. It was believed to protect against the wrath of gods Horus and Ra. Malachite and galena ores were used to prepare kohl. It was applied around the eyes. Women would also use red paint to stain their cheeks and henna to color their nails and hands. Both men and women used perfumes made of myrrh, cinnamon, and oil.
Ancient Egyptians Loved Playing Board Games
Many paintings from Ancient Egypt depict royals and common people engrossed in board games. The “Senet”, “Dogs and Jackals,” and “Mehen” were played by the ancient Egyptians. The love for such games was so intense that sometimes the game boards were buried with the owners' body after death.
Ancient Egyptians Were Masters Of Invention
Ancient Egyptians were more advanced than many civilizations that came after them. They were experts in the field of scientific invention. Many of the modern-day things used today were already in use in ancient Egypt. These people used papyrus for writing. It was prepared from the pith of the papyrus plant that grew along the Nile River. They also invented toothpaste. They used burnt powdered eggshells, pumice, ash, and ox hooves to prepare the toothpaste.
The Afterlife Was Of Paramount Importance In Their Lives
The ancient Egyptians had a staunch belief in the afterlife and their activities were often guided by this belief. Upon death, they were buried by their loved ones along with all the things they loved or owned including slaves, pets, jewelry, household goods, and more. Even the bodies of the dead were mummified. It was all done in the belief that these things might be needed by the dead ones in their next life.
Ancient Egyptians Had Deities For Everything
Over 2,000 deities were worshipped in Ancient Egypt. There were gods for almost everything. For example, Hathor was the Egyptian "Cow goddess" associated with health and womanly love. Osiris was the God of Death and Ra was the Sun God. Goddess Isis was linked with motherhood, protection, and funerary rites.
Ancient Egyptian Women Had Many Rights And Freedoms
Although many women in the present times are fighting to get their basic rights and freedoms recognized, those in ancient Egypt enjoyed a great deal of financial and legal independence. They could buy and sell properties, divorce and remarry, and receive equal pay as men. They could also make their wills and serve on juries.
About the Author
Oishimaya is an Indian native, currently residing in Kolkata. She has earned her Ph.D. degree and is presently engaged in full-time freelance writing and editing. She is an avid reader and travel enthusiast and is sensitively aware of her surroundings, both locally and globally. She loves mingling with people of eclectic cultures and also participates in activities concerning wildlife conservation.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 1,102 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Siren was a type of sea-spirit from Greek Mythology akin to the mermaid. However, unlike the relatively harmless merfolk Sirens were often depicted as deadly temptresses who would lure sailors towards rocky shores via their hypnotic singing, causing the sailors to crash into the rocks and meet with a watery demise.
The reasoning behind the Sirens' actions were never truly explained though in Greek mythology (like many mythologies) the supernatural world often had little explanation and the spirits and gods could torment mortals as they saw fit - Sirens were not gods but they were sometimes said to be related to the great sea-god known as Poseidon.
Sirens have been depicted in several forms over the centuries, sometimes they are seen as women with birdlike features similar to the Harpies and other times they are depicted as attractive mermaids - no matter their appearance Sirens always share the quality of a haunting singing voice that is irresistible to mortals. It is said that once a sailor heard the Sirens' song he was doomed to follow it, suggesting it was extremely powerful. The sirens are mentioned in two famous Greek Epics. In the Odyssey, Odysseus devised a clever plan to overcome the spirits, he had his men plug their ears with wax then tied himself to the ship mast as they sailed through the Sirens' territory - his crewmates were thus able to navigate safely, however Odysseus was afflicted by the Sirens' call and demanded to be set free to join them: luckily for him his crew knew better and ignored his demands and once the Sirens' song faded from earshot Odysseus began to regain his sanity again.
In Jason and the Argonauts, Jason ordered Orpheus, the great musician, to play his lyre so beautifully that the song of the Sirens would have no power over the crew. They made it safely past thanks to Orpheus. | <urn:uuid:936fb6a4-961e-4d19-b21b-8648d3d343e0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://villains.fandom.com/wiki/Siren_(mythology) | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00307.warc.gz | en | 0.991536 | 391 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.0393171... | 1 | A Siren was a type of sea-spirit from Greek Mythology akin to the mermaid. However, unlike the relatively harmless merfolk Sirens were often depicted as deadly temptresses who would lure sailors towards rocky shores via their hypnotic singing, causing the sailors to crash into the rocks and meet with a watery demise.
The reasoning behind the Sirens' actions were never truly explained though in Greek mythology (like many mythologies) the supernatural world often had little explanation and the spirits and gods could torment mortals as they saw fit - Sirens were not gods but they were sometimes said to be related to the great sea-god known as Poseidon.
Sirens have been depicted in several forms over the centuries, sometimes they are seen as women with birdlike features similar to the Harpies and other times they are depicted as attractive mermaids - no matter their appearance Sirens always share the quality of a haunting singing voice that is irresistible to mortals. It is said that once a sailor heard the Sirens' song he was doomed to follow it, suggesting it was extremely powerful. The sirens are mentioned in two famous Greek Epics. In the Odyssey, Odysseus devised a clever plan to overcome the spirits, he had his men plug their ears with wax then tied himself to the ship mast as they sailed through the Sirens' territory - his crewmates were thus able to navigate safely, however Odysseus was afflicted by the Sirens' call and demanded to be set free to join them: luckily for him his crew knew better and ignored his demands and once the Sirens' song faded from earshot Odysseus began to regain his sanity again.
In Jason and the Argonauts, Jason ordered Orpheus, the great musician, to play his lyre so beautifully that the song of the Sirens would have no power over the crew. They made it safely past thanks to Orpheus. | 401 | ENGLISH | 1 |
I was listening to a program on NPR last week, and the host of the show was interviewing the rapper Ice-T, the self-professed “original gangster.” She asked him what led him to a life of crime prior to his emergence as a superstar. Ice-T talked about growing up in the streets, how he progressed from petty crime to drug dealing and pimping.
What I found enlightening, and immediately applied to our work at aha! Process, was his next comment. Ice-T said that when he was growing up, the only male role models he had were drug dealers and pimps. These men had the things that he wanted. So Ice-T and the other people he grew up with deduced that the way to get things they wanted was to deal drugs or pimp.
This is key to understanding poverty – this is what many of our students see today. There are not enough positive role models for our children in poverty. They never see lawyers, businesspeople, or government leaders. All they know about teachers is what they learn in school. There are few positive role models that are available to our children.
So, as educators, we must become the positive role models that our children need. We need to exhibit success, positive attitudes, and good choices. Our students are crying out for positive role models. Can we, as teachers, bridge the gap with our students and hold ourselves to higher standards to be the role models they need? | <urn:uuid:f8a27518-3613-4a87-9827-1370e2ee0fb3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ahaprocess.com/being-a-mentor-every-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00407.warc.gz | en | 0.990338 | 305 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.26407051086... | 4 | I was listening to a program on NPR last week, and the host of the show was interviewing the rapper Ice-T, the self-professed “original gangster.” She asked him what led him to a life of crime prior to his emergence as a superstar. Ice-T talked about growing up in the streets, how he progressed from petty crime to drug dealing and pimping.
What I found enlightening, and immediately applied to our work at aha! Process, was his next comment. Ice-T said that when he was growing up, the only male role models he had were drug dealers and pimps. These men had the things that he wanted. So Ice-T and the other people he grew up with deduced that the way to get things they wanted was to deal drugs or pimp.
This is key to understanding poverty – this is what many of our students see today. There are not enough positive role models for our children in poverty. They never see lawyers, businesspeople, or government leaders. All they know about teachers is what they learn in school. There are few positive role models that are available to our children.
So, as educators, we must become the positive role models that our children need. We need to exhibit success, positive attitudes, and good choices. Our students are crying out for positive role models. Can we, as teachers, bridge the gap with our students and hold ourselves to higher standards to be the role models they need? | 292 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Archaeologists are claiming that these ancient Southwest Indians were involved in cannibalism. They noticed bones in Chaco canyon that the bones and the skulls were cracked open and charred . In at least 50 cases, The archaeologist speak of the Anasazi as violent and that their theory on Cannabilism really was evident due to the charring of the skulls. Stating, the breaks of the bones were distinctive marks used by cutting with sharp and parallel cuts. Also stating the bones were cut the same way as you would cut wild game. This theory is very sensitive to hear about this, and Native Americans find it dehumanizing, which obviously this theory is! But, pre-historic people dates very far back to cannibalism due to starvation and warfares.
The Anasazi were referred as “The ancient ones” and are famous for their Cliff Pueblo’s , baskets and pottery that are highly sought after by high rolling collectors. This ancient civilization started as early as 700-1500 C.E and are descendants to the Pueblo Indians such as Hopi and Zuni. They lived in 20 communities along the Rio grande in New Mexico, and Northern Arizona as well as Colorado and Utah.The biggest question many archaeologist and scientists have is what happened and where did the Anasazi go? Was it due to drought, or wars with other tribes? No one truly knows this question , but scientists speculate poor sanitation, pests, and environmental degradation may have played a part, and are confused about this. The Anasazi were extremely interested in the stars.
Here are a couple of Anasazi petroglyphs
More than 7,000 petroglyphs have been catalogued throughout the southwest.
Here are are the cliff Pueblo dwellings names. Cliff Palace-Mesa Verde National park, Canyon de Chelly ,Chaco Canyon, Hovenweed Wupatki National monument(by the way, I am going their soon!)
Also here are a few Anasazi pottery for you to see. | <urn:uuid:13866adc-b9ef-4446-ac6a-ae0c4553cb69> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://desertexplorations.com/2020/01/09/anasazi-the-ancient-ones-cannibalism-and-the-star-people/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00002.warc.gz | en | 0.984445 | 423 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.3378386497497... | 11 | Archaeologists are claiming that these ancient Southwest Indians were involved in cannibalism. They noticed bones in Chaco canyon that the bones and the skulls were cracked open and charred . In at least 50 cases, The archaeologist speak of the Anasazi as violent and that their theory on Cannabilism really was evident due to the charring of the skulls. Stating, the breaks of the bones were distinctive marks used by cutting with sharp and parallel cuts. Also stating the bones were cut the same way as you would cut wild game. This theory is very sensitive to hear about this, and Native Americans find it dehumanizing, which obviously this theory is! But, pre-historic people dates very far back to cannibalism due to starvation and warfares.
The Anasazi were referred as “The ancient ones” and are famous for their Cliff Pueblo’s , baskets and pottery that are highly sought after by high rolling collectors. This ancient civilization started as early as 700-1500 C.E and are descendants to the Pueblo Indians such as Hopi and Zuni. They lived in 20 communities along the Rio grande in New Mexico, and Northern Arizona as well as Colorado and Utah.The biggest question many archaeologist and scientists have is what happened and where did the Anasazi go? Was it due to drought, or wars with other tribes? No one truly knows this question , but scientists speculate poor sanitation, pests, and environmental degradation may have played a part, and are confused about this. The Anasazi were extremely interested in the stars.
Here are a couple of Anasazi petroglyphs
More than 7,000 petroglyphs have been catalogued throughout the southwest.
Here are are the cliff Pueblo dwellings names. Cliff Palace-Mesa Verde National park, Canyon de Chelly ,Chaco Canyon, Hovenweed Wupatki National monument(by the way, I am going their soon!)
Also here are a few Anasazi pottery for you to see. | 421 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Explain the economic basis of African slavery and its impact on the emerging nation. Included the following please: 1 – Discuss the economic basis of slavery by identifying three or more economic factors that contributed to African slavery in the US. 2 – Explain the impact slavery had on the United States as an emerging nation.
Slavery plays a very important role in the history of America. Between 1619 and 1865, the economy of the American continent depended hugely on slavery, and it developed as a flourishing trade. Africa seemed to be a very good hunting ground for slaves. During the search for slaves, many brutal incidents were being encountered. At first, Native Indians were being harnessed as slaves, but because they resisted, revolted or escaped, the interest slowly began shifting to the Africans.
The African slaves seemed to be very useful in plantation in the West Indies and also for doing labor in the American mainland. Initially, it began as indentured servitude (providing bonded labor for a certain time period) in Virginia (an English Colony in 1619), but slowly it was converted to racial slavery. No laws for slavery existed at that time in Virginia, but following introduction of indentured servitude, lifetime slavery was being recognized under the local law by the 1640’s. Slaves helped in cultivating several crops such as coffee, rice, sugarcane, tobacco, rice, cotton, etc.
Slavery also helped the British, as they gained significantly from the utilization of slaves in America. Often British ships left British ports to the West coast of Africa to hunt for slaves. They even exchanged goods in return for slaves. These were then being carried over to the West Indies or Mainland America to be traded for agricultural produce. These products were then being utilized in Britain.
The landowners seemed to rely more on slave practices. The law-makers also ensured that the interests of the landowners were being maintained by providing legislations that were favorable to employ slaves. These slaves seemed to be very useful in plantations and estates.
Slavery had a great impact on the history of the US. In between 1776 and 1850, dealing with slaves was done on the basis of their skin color. The dark-skinned slaves worked in the fields, whereas the light-skinned ones worked inside homes.
During the 18th century democratic and humanitarian ideas began to develop in America. It emerged from the serious malpractices committed against the slaves. The French Revolution had given ideas of the importance of human rights and the need for revolt in order to secure these rights. The Quaker movement also began to discourage slavery and pronounce it as a social evil. Many Northern states in the US began to adopt anti-slavery laws in the late 18th century and the early 19th century. In Massachusetts, following the Quork Walker slave case (in 1780), slavery was abolished in the state, and the saying ‘all men born free and equal’, was derived. Slavery was considered as a sin by religious leaders. People who engaged slaves had to repent for their sins and had to free them from captivity. However, the Southern United States was not freed of slavery until the 19th century.
One of the reasons for the American Civil war was the conflicting ideas regarding slavery. The North considered free labor to exist, whereas the South believed in slavery. A majority of the politicians of the South owned slaves. These politicians needed support in order to keep their plantations prosperous. After, the American Civil War in the early 1860’s, slavery was abolished in the US. Abraham Lincoln promised freedom to all slaves in 1863. During the late 19th century, efforts were being made to free all slaves held in captivity. | <urn:uuid:5c564a13-d6b3-4232-831a-d2a8d0a9a4b4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://webgamesday.com/slavery-and-its-impact-on-the-emerging-nation/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00533.warc.gz | en | 0.982422 | 752 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.05176573619... | 5 | Explain the economic basis of African slavery and its impact on the emerging nation. Included the following please: 1 – Discuss the economic basis of slavery by identifying three or more economic factors that contributed to African slavery in the US. 2 – Explain the impact slavery had on the United States as an emerging nation.
Slavery plays a very important role in the history of America. Between 1619 and 1865, the economy of the American continent depended hugely on slavery, and it developed as a flourishing trade. Africa seemed to be a very good hunting ground for slaves. During the search for slaves, many brutal incidents were being encountered. At first, Native Indians were being harnessed as slaves, but because they resisted, revolted or escaped, the interest slowly began shifting to the Africans.
The African slaves seemed to be very useful in plantation in the West Indies and also for doing labor in the American mainland. Initially, it began as indentured servitude (providing bonded labor for a certain time period) in Virginia (an English Colony in 1619), but slowly it was converted to racial slavery. No laws for slavery existed at that time in Virginia, but following introduction of indentured servitude, lifetime slavery was being recognized under the local law by the 1640’s. Slaves helped in cultivating several crops such as coffee, rice, sugarcane, tobacco, rice, cotton, etc.
Slavery also helped the British, as they gained significantly from the utilization of slaves in America. Often British ships left British ports to the West coast of Africa to hunt for slaves. They even exchanged goods in return for slaves. These were then being carried over to the West Indies or Mainland America to be traded for agricultural produce. These products were then being utilized in Britain.
The landowners seemed to rely more on slave practices. The law-makers also ensured that the interests of the landowners were being maintained by providing legislations that were favorable to employ slaves. These slaves seemed to be very useful in plantations and estates.
Slavery had a great impact on the history of the US. In between 1776 and 1850, dealing with slaves was done on the basis of their skin color. The dark-skinned slaves worked in the fields, whereas the light-skinned ones worked inside homes.
During the 18th century democratic and humanitarian ideas began to develop in America. It emerged from the serious malpractices committed against the slaves. The French Revolution had given ideas of the importance of human rights and the need for revolt in order to secure these rights. The Quaker movement also began to discourage slavery and pronounce it as a social evil. Many Northern states in the US began to adopt anti-slavery laws in the late 18th century and the early 19th century. In Massachusetts, following the Quork Walker slave case (in 1780), slavery was abolished in the state, and the saying ‘all men born free and equal’, was derived. Slavery was considered as a sin by religious leaders. People who engaged slaves had to repent for their sins and had to free them from captivity. However, the Southern United States was not freed of slavery until the 19th century.
One of the reasons for the American Civil war was the conflicting ideas regarding slavery. The North considered free labor to exist, whereas the South believed in slavery. A majority of the politicians of the South owned slaves. These politicians needed support in order to keep their plantations prosperous. After, the American Civil War in the early 1860’s, slavery was abolished in the US. Abraham Lincoln promised freedom to all slaves in 1863. During the late 19th century, efforts were being made to free all slaves held in captivity. | 781 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Upnor Castle is an Elizabethan artillery fort located on the west bank of the River Medway in Kent. It is in the village of Upnor, opposite and a short distance downriver from the Chatham Dockyard, at one time a key naval facility
The fort was intended to protect both the dockyard and ships of the Royal Navy anchored in the Medway. It was constructed between 1559–67 on the orders of Elizabeth I, during a period of tension with Spain and other European powers. The castle consists of a two-storeyed main building protected by a curtain wall and towers, with a triangular gun platform projecting into the river. It was garrisoned by about 80 men with a peak armament of around 20 cannon of various calibres.
Despite its strategic importance, the castle and the defences of the Thames and Medway were badly neglected during the 17th century. The Dutch Republic mounted an unexpected naval raid in June 1667, and the Dutch fleet was able to breach the defences, capturing two warships and burning others at anchor in the river at Chatham, in one of the worst defeats suffered by the Royal Navy. Upnor Castle acquitted itself better than many of the other defensive sites along the upper Medway, despite its lack of provisioning. Gun fire from the fort and from adjoining emplacements forced a Dutch retreat after a couple of days, before they were able to burn the dockyard itself.
The raid exposed the weaknesses of the Medway defences and led to the castle losing its role as an artillery fortification. New and stronger forts were built further downriver over the following two centuries, culminating in the construction of massive casemated forts such as Garrison Point Fort, Hoo, and Darnet Forts. Upnor Castle became a naval ammunition depot, storing great quantities of gunpowder, ammunition, and cannon to replenish the warships that came to Chatham for repair and resupply. It remained in military use until as late as 1945.
Upnor Rd, Rochester ME2 4XG | <urn:uuid:01bbf176-9577-44dc-8b17-41405ea17d21> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ghosthuntertours.co.uk/product-page/upnor-castle | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00223.warc.gz | en | 0.983371 | 415 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.356809467077... | 3 | Upnor Castle is an Elizabethan artillery fort located on the west bank of the River Medway in Kent. It is in the village of Upnor, opposite and a short distance downriver from the Chatham Dockyard, at one time a key naval facility
The fort was intended to protect both the dockyard and ships of the Royal Navy anchored in the Medway. It was constructed between 1559–67 on the orders of Elizabeth I, during a period of tension with Spain and other European powers. The castle consists of a two-storeyed main building protected by a curtain wall and towers, with a triangular gun platform projecting into the river. It was garrisoned by about 80 men with a peak armament of around 20 cannon of various calibres.
Despite its strategic importance, the castle and the defences of the Thames and Medway were badly neglected during the 17th century. The Dutch Republic mounted an unexpected naval raid in June 1667, and the Dutch fleet was able to breach the defences, capturing two warships and burning others at anchor in the river at Chatham, in one of the worst defeats suffered by the Royal Navy. Upnor Castle acquitted itself better than many of the other defensive sites along the upper Medway, despite its lack of provisioning. Gun fire from the fort and from adjoining emplacements forced a Dutch retreat after a couple of days, before they were able to burn the dockyard itself.
The raid exposed the weaknesses of the Medway defences and led to the castle losing its role as an artillery fortification. New and stronger forts were built further downriver over the following two centuries, culminating in the construction of massive casemated forts such as Garrison Point Fort, Hoo, and Darnet Forts. Upnor Castle became a naval ammunition depot, storing great quantities of gunpowder, ammunition, and cannon to replenish the warships that came to Chatham for repair and resupply. It remained in military use until as late as 1945.
Upnor Rd, Rochester ME2 4XG | 434 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The most fearsome weapon at sea during the First World War was the submarine. Even when the danger came from another submarine.
By May of 1918, the German submarines were beginning to be neutralized by the varying forms of technology employed by the Allies. Wireless radio detection, sound listening devices, primitive us of airplanes and sheer seamanship were all helping to reverse the tide of submarine losses.
That doesn’t mean that all of the losses were curbed. This story talks about the sinking of the troopship SS Lincoln in May 1918. What makes the story fascinating is the detailed account of an American Naval officer who was captured after the sinking and recorded his experiences. This glimpse inside a U-boat operation reveals the way the crew lived and also documents the real life interaction between and American submarine and the U-boat.
The story is an awesome recording of all of the dynamics of the naval war and the courage and bravery of the men involved. It is also one of the pieces of the puzzle that will lead up to understanding the need for a fast attack submarine as the years pass. I call it the Dueling Denizens and the Daring Escape. The first hand telling of life aboard a German submarine and one of its attacks is a little recorded story that comes from a variety of pieced together stories and out of print books. But it starts with the sinking of the SS Lincoln
SS President Lincoln was a troop transport in the United States Navy during World War I.
Formerly the German steamer President Lincoln of the Hamburg-American Line, it was built by Harland and Wolff in Belfast in 1907. Seized in New York harbor in 1917, it was turned over to the Shipping Board and transferred to the Navy for operation as a troop transport.
Having been damaged severely by her German crew, the President Lincoln underwent extensive repairs and conversion at Robin’s Dry Dock and Repair Company in Brooklyn, New York before being re-commissioned as a Navy troop transport at Brooklyn on 25 July 1917. Commander Yates Stirling, Jr. was then placed in command.
The President Lincoln made five voyages from New York to France. Transporting approximately 23,000 American troops to Brest, France and St. Nazaire, four cycles were completed without incident: October-November 1917, December 1917- January 1918, February-March, and March-May. She sailed from New York on her fifth and final trip to Europe on 10 May 1918. Arriving at Brest on the 23rd, she disembarked troops, and — escorted by destroyers — got underway on the 29th with troopships Rijndam, Susquehanna and Antigone for the return voyage to the U.S.
At sundown on 30 May 1918, having passed through the so-called “danger zone” of submarine activity, the destroyers left the convoy to proceed alone. At about 09:00 on 31 May 1918, the President Lincoln was struck by three torpedoes from the German submarine U-90, and sank about 20 minutes later. Of the 715 people aboard, 26 men were lost with the ship, and a Lieutenant Edouard Izac was taken aboard U–90 as prisoner. Survivors were rescued from lifeboats late that night by destroyers Warrington and Smith. They were taken to France, arriving at Brest on 2 June.
The following excerpt comes from a period book written by John Langdon Leighton about submarine warfare in the First World War. It briefly discusses the type of warfare that was developing between submarines during the later stages of the war. The description comes from an incident involving an American Naval Officer that was taken prisoner and subsequently escaped his captors.
Edouard Victor Michel Izac (December 18, 1891 – January 18, 1990) was a lieutenant in the United States Navy during World War I, a Representative from California and a Medal of Honor recipient. (Note the spelling of the American officer in the book which was slightly altered. Historical records show that they were the same person.)
Simsadus: London; the American navy in Europe, by John Langdon Leighton.
New York, H. Holt and Company, 1920.
“A good idea of the life on the submarine is gained by the following extracts from the report of Lieutenant Isaacs, U. S. N., who was taken prisoner 0n the U-90 when the “President Lincoln” was sunk on May 30th, 1918.
“The U-90 was built in 1916; it is about 160 ft. long, and carries two six-inch guns, one forward and one aft of the conning tower. The captain of the U-90, Captain Remy, boasted that he could make sixteen knots speed on the surface and that he had demonstrated the superiority of the speed of German submarines, as compared with the speed of American submarines, sometime previously when he had a ‘run-in’ with the U. S. Submarine AL-4.
” He said that both submarines had maneuvered to fire a torpedo at each other and that in so doing both had submerged two or three times and that finally he was able to fire the torpedo at the American submarine after getting into position, which he was able to do because of his superior speed. Just as he fired the AL-4 dove and his torpedo passed a few feet over her.
Special note: From an article of the Proceedings Magazine of January 1920 concerning qualifying as a submarine watch officer: “In the war zone, standing a watch on a submarine is a very responsible duty. This is especially true when there are hostile submarines likely to be submerged in your vicinity. As an example the following is related. The U. S. S. AL-4 was cruising on her patrol “billet” charging batteries, when on her starboard bow, at a distance of about 1000 yards, the officer of the watch sighted a periscope. He immediately made the “crash” dive signal and the submarine dived. Her hull had hardly settled below the water, when a torpedo from the hostile craft passed directly over her. Here the good eyesight, quick judgment, and proper execution of the correct procedure by the officer of the watch alone saved his vessel.”
Captain Remy never submerged to a depth greater than 200 ft., though he claimed to be able to submerge 300 ft. The last day out, on the way back to Kiel while passing through the Kattegat, he travelled submerged for over ten hours at a depth of 200 ft. I doubt if he could make more than eight knots when submerged. He carried a crew of forty-two men and officers. One officer, Kapitan-Leutnant Kahn was aboard for the purposes of instruction, having had his request granted by the German Admiralty to command a submarine of his own. While I was at Wilhelmshaven Kapitan-Leutnant Kahn came to see me in prison and told me that he had just received orders to take command of a new submarine.
“Of the crew of forty-two men, two were warrant officers, one a navigator and the other the machinist. The captain’s three assistants were lieutenants, corresponding to our grade of ensign. One was a German Naval Academy man, who entered the Navy in 1913; he was a deck officer. Another was a Reserve ensign from the Merchant Fleet, who spoke English very well, having been in America and England in peace time on various steamers. The other officer was a regular, who had gone to a special school for engineers and he was responsible for the efficiency of the machinery; he did not stand a deck watch. The deck watch was stood by the navigator and the two ensigns.
Captain Remy took the wheel when ships were sighted and when passing through dangerous waters. He had entered the Navy in 1905 and had travelled considerably, having been in America in 1911 on a German cruiser which had put in at Charleston, S. C., and into New York, at both of which places he had been hospitably entertained.
He liked America but could not understand why America had entered the war. He believed, as all Germans are taught to believe by Governmental propaganda, that our entry into the war must have had as its motive the rendering safe of the millions we loaned to France and England early in the war.
“The U-90 carried eight torpedoes. On this cruise she had sunk only two ships of about 2000 tons apiece. Captain Remy said that they seldom fired torpedoes at a range greater than 1000 yards and if possible he approached to within 500 yards of his prey.
“The submarine rolled a little in the Atlantic, though we had no very rough weather. In the North Sea the choppy seas seemed hardly to affect it and under the surface there was no sensation of being in motion. The air inside the submarine when we were submerged on the last day out for ten hours became very disagreeable. However, several tanks of oxy gen were carried which could have been used in case of necessity. The water-tight doors between the different compartments were kept closed at all times after entering the North Sea.
The officers and crew smoked in the coming tower or on deck, but nowhere else. The wardroom was about six feet wide and seven feet long and here we ate at a table; the food was kept in lockers in the wardroom. Here also they put in hammock hooks and swung a hammock for me to sleep in, alongside two bunks used by Kahn and one of the other officers. Just forward of this room was a smaller compartment, known as the Captain’s cabin, in which he had his desk and bunk, with scarcely room for either. Forward of this cabin was a sleeping compartment for the men and forward of this was the forward torpedo room; I was never allowed to enter the torpedo rooms. Aft of the ward room on the starboard side was a small cabin, about four feet wide and six feet long, occupied by the other two officers. Across a passage on the port side was the radio room and aft of this was the control room; here there were always two men on watch.
Aft of the control room was the other living compartment for the men, and here the food was cooked and meals served. Aft of this was the engine room and the after-torpedo room. The men slept in hammocks and on the decks; they were very dirty for there was no water with which to wash. In the wardroom we had enough to wash our hands and faces once every day, but that was all. A little wine was carried for the officers. The food consisted chiefly of sausage, which was served at every meal, and canned bread and lard, which they called marmalade. Remy told me, however, that the crews on the submarines were the only people in Germany who had an unlimited amount of meat and other foods. We had practically four meals every day: breakfast at 8 A. M., dinner at noon, and at 4. P. M. what they called ‘kaffee’; at 8 P. M. we had supper but practically every meal was the same. Kaffee at 4 P. M. apparently corresponded to our tea, but the sausage, or as they called it ‘wurst’ was placed on the table at every meal. After supper we played cards, sometimes bridge and sometimes a new game which I was taught.
“Captain Remy tried in every possible way to make things pleasant for me and whenever I asked him an impossible question, that is a question which he thought he ought not to answer, he invariably said so, so that I have great confidence that what he told me was the truth.
“The U-90 and most of the German Submarines were out usually not more than four or five weeks and then in port about six or seven weeks. The service was not severe, for Remy got leave as often as he cared to have it and indeed it was deemed the height of good fortune by the regular officers to be assigned to a submarine. After making three round trips they were entitled to the Iron Cross and to leave, which leave covered the duration of the stay of the submarine in port. They received extra money and they got the best food in Germany, besides which for every day which they submerged both officers and men received extra money. For all these reasons the submarine service was very popular.”
Lieutenant Isaacs had many interesting and harrowing experiences in German prison camps. Shortly after he had been taken off the submarine and placed in prison, he was summoned before the Commander of the base, who immediately asked him why America had declared war. This under ordinary conditions is a rather difficult question to answer, not because there was a lack of reasons, but because in order to answer it well, a certain amount of thought is necessary. Lieutenant Isaacs apparently believed that any thought on the matter would be wasted and so informed the German Admiral that America had declared war because the American people thought the German people so many swine. From then on things did not go very well with Lieutenant Isaacs. He was transferred to a prison camp from which he escaped, and was arrested.
While en route to another prison camp he jumped out of the train window and landed on his head on the railroad bed. The train stopped and though he had regained consciousness from his fall, he was forced to surrender to the German soldiers when they began shooting at him. He was then kicked all the way to the next town, a distance of about nine miles. He planned another escape from the next camp and so was transferred again. Here, in making plans for a third attempt to escape, he found that Russian prisoners were acting as informants for the camp authorities. He confided in a few English and Americans, and according to pre-arranged plans, one night, a good many of them escaped by short-circuiting the lighting system of the camp.
He then walked for three nights, hiding during the day, to the Swiss border, and swam the Rhine. In Switzerland he reported to the American Consul, who informed Admiral Sims and Isaacs was ordered to Paris and then to London. He arrived in London about ten days later, very much undaunted in spirit and apparently not much the worse for the treatment he had received in the German prison camps.”
Welcomed to the Department of the Navy as a hero, Izac was promoted to lieutenant commander within a few months and assigned to a prestigious post as the director of munitions at the Navy Yard in Washington D.C., moving there with his family. He was subsequently awarded the Medal of Honor by Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt on November 11, 1920, with whom he became friends. In addition, he was awarded the Italian Croce di Guerra and the Cross of Montenegro. However, the injuries he sustained to his knees in his escape attempts ended his Navy career and Izac was forced to retire.
The U-90 Surrendered 20 November 1918 and was broken up between 1919–1920. In September of 1918, KL Remy was appointed as commander of the new U 137 still completing at Kiel. This boat would never be commissioned due to the war’s end. Remy died 15 Jan 1965 in Schliersee, Bayern.
The 1920’s would be a difficult time for the United States Navy and for submarines in general. But the tenacity of the men who sailed on them and had a vision for their future use would help them survive the cutting knives of the bureaucrats and politicians. America would have a viable submarine force for the next war and the birth of the idea of modern fast attack would continue to grow and become reality. | <urn:uuid:4fff447f-8471-4267-822c-525efc0966c1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://theleansubmariner.com/2019/12/27/dueling-denizens-and-the-daring-escape/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00110.warc.gz | en | 0.989124 | 3,324 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.790267586708... | 11 | The most fearsome weapon at sea during the First World War was the submarine. Even when the danger came from another submarine.
By May of 1918, the German submarines were beginning to be neutralized by the varying forms of technology employed by the Allies. Wireless radio detection, sound listening devices, primitive us of airplanes and sheer seamanship were all helping to reverse the tide of submarine losses.
That doesn’t mean that all of the losses were curbed. This story talks about the sinking of the troopship SS Lincoln in May 1918. What makes the story fascinating is the detailed account of an American Naval officer who was captured after the sinking and recorded his experiences. This glimpse inside a U-boat operation reveals the way the crew lived and also documents the real life interaction between and American submarine and the U-boat.
The story is an awesome recording of all of the dynamics of the naval war and the courage and bravery of the men involved. It is also one of the pieces of the puzzle that will lead up to understanding the need for a fast attack submarine as the years pass. I call it the Dueling Denizens and the Daring Escape. The first hand telling of life aboard a German submarine and one of its attacks is a little recorded story that comes from a variety of pieced together stories and out of print books. But it starts with the sinking of the SS Lincoln
SS President Lincoln was a troop transport in the United States Navy during World War I.
Formerly the German steamer President Lincoln of the Hamburg-American Line, it was built by Harland and Wolff in Belfast in 1907. Seized in New York harbor in 1917, it was turned over to the Shipping Board and transferred to the Navy for operation as a troop transport.
Having been damaged severely by her German crew, the President Lincoln underwent extensive repairs and conversion at Robin’s Dry Dock and Repair Company in Brooklyn, New York before being re-commissioned as a Navy troop transport at Brooklyn on 25 July 1917. Commander Yates Stirling, Jr. was then placed in command.
The President Lincoln made five voyages from New York to France. Transporting approximately 23,000 American troops to Brest, France and St. Nazaire, four cycles were completed without incident: October-November 1917, December 1917- January 1918, February-March, and March-May. She sailed from New York on her fifth and final trip to Europe on 10 May 1918. Arriving at Brest on the 23rd, she disembarked troops, and — escorted by destroyers — got underway on the 29th with troopships Rijndam, Susquehanna and Antigone for the return voyage to the U.S.
At sundown on 30 May 1918, having passed through the so-called “danger zone” of submarine activity, the destroyers left the convoy to proceed alone. At about 09:00 on 31 May 1918, the President Lincoln was struck by three torpedoes from the German submarine U-90, and sank about 20 minutes later. Of the 715 people aboard, 26 men were lost with the ship, and a Lieutenant Edouard Izac was taken aboard U–90 as prisoner. Survivors were rescued from lifeboats late that night by destroyers Warrington and Smith. They were taken to France, arriving at Brest on 2 June.
The following excerpt comes from a period book written by John Langdon Leighton about submarine warfare in the First World War. It briefly discusses the type of warfare that was developing between submarines during the later stages of the war. The description comes from an incident involving an American Naval Officer that was taken prisoner and subsequently escaped his captors.
Edouard Victor Michel Izac (December 18, 1891 – January 18, 1990) was a lieutenant in the United States Navy during World War I, a Representative from California and a Medal of Honor recipient. (Note the spelling of the American officer in the book which was slightly altered. Historical records show that they were the same person.)
Simsadus: London; the American navy in Europe, by John Langdon Leighton.
New York, H. Holt and Company, 1920.
“A good idea of the life on the submarine is gained by the following extracts from the report of Lieutenant Isaacs, U. S. N., who was taken prisoner 0n the U-90 when the “President Lincoln” was sunk on May 30th, 1918.
“The U-90 was built in 1916; it is about 160 ft. long, and carries two six-inch guns, one forward and one aft of the conning tower. The captain of the U-90, Captain Remy, boasted that he could make sixteen knots speed on the surface and that he had demonstrated the superiority of the speed of German submarines, as compared with the speed of American submarines, sometime previously when he had a ‘run-in’ with the U. S. Submarine AL-4.
” He said that both submarines had maneuvered to fire a torpedo at each other and that in so doing both had submerged two or three times and that finally he was able to fire the torpedo at the American submarine after getting into position, which he was able to do because of his superior speed. Just as he fired the AL-4 dove and his torpedo passed a few feet over her.
Special note: From an article of the Proceedings Magazine of January 1920 concerning qualifying as a submarine watch officer: “In the war zone, standing a watch on a submarine is a very responsible duty. This is especially true when there are hostile submarines likely to be submerged in your vicinity. As an example the following is related. The U. S. S. AL-4 was cruising on her patrol “billet” charging batteries, when on her starboard bow, at a distance of about 1000 yards, the officer of the watch sighted a periscope. He immediately made the “crash” dive signal and the submarine dived. Her hull had hardly settled below the water, when a torpedo from the hostile craft passed directly over her. Here the good eyesight, quick judgment, and proper execution of the correct procedure by the officer of the watch alone saved his vessel.”
Captain Remy never submerged to a depth greater than 200 ft., though he claimed to be able to submerge 300 ft. The last day out, on the way back to Kiel while passing through the Kattegat, he travelled submerged for over ten hours at a depth of 200 ft. I doubt if he could make more than eight knots when submerged. He carried a crew of forty-two men and officers. One officer, Kapitan-Leutnant Kahn was aboard for the purposes of instruction, having had his request granted by the German Admiralty to command a submarine of his own. While I was at Wilhelmshaven Kapitan-Leutnant Kahn came to see me in prison and told me that he had just received orders to take command of a new submarine.
“Of the crew of forty-two men, two were warrant officers, one a navigator and the other the machinist. The captain’s three assistants were lieutenants, corresponding to our grade of ensign. One was a German Naval Academy man, who entered the Navy in 1913; he was a deck officer. Another was a Reserve ensign from the Merchant Fleet, who spoke English very well, having been in America and England in peace time on various steamers. The other officer was a regular, who had gone to a special school for engineers and he was responsible for the efficiency of the machinery; he did not stand a deck watch. The deck watch was stood by the navigator and the two ensigns.
Captain Remy took the wheel when ships were sighted and when passing through dangerous waters. He had entered the Navy in 1905 and had travelled considerably, having been in America in 1911 on a German cruiser which had put in at Charleston, S. C., and into New York, at both of which places he had been hospitably entertained.
He liked America but could not understand why America had entered the war. He believed, as all Germans are taught to believe by Governmental propaganda, that our entry into the war must have had as its motive the rendering safe of the millions we loaned to France and England early in the war.
“The U-90 carried eight torpedoes. On this cruise she had sunk only two ships of about 2000 tons apiece. Captain Remy said that they seldom fired torpedoes at a range greater than 1000 yards and if possible he approached to within 500 yards of his prey.
“The submarine rolled a little in the Atlantic, though we had no very rough weather. In the North Sea the choppy seas seemed hardly to affect it and under the surface there was no sensation of being in motion. The air inside the submarine when we were submerged on the last day out for ten hours became very disagreeable. However, several tanks of oxy gen were carried which could have been used in case of necessity. The water-tight doors between the different compartments were kept closed at all times after entering the North Sea.
The officers and crew smoked in the coming tower or on deck, but nowhere else. The wardroom was about six feet wide and seven feet long and here we ate at a table; the food was kept in lockers in the wardroom. Here also they put in hammock hooks and swung a hammock for me to sleep in, alongside two bunks used by Kahn and one of the other officers. Just forward of this room was a smaller compartment, known as the Captain’s cabin, in which he had his desk and bunk, with scarcely room for either. Forward of this cabin was a sleeping compartment for the men and forward of this was the forward torpedo room; I was never allowed to enter the torpedo rooms. Aft of the ward room on the starboard side was a small cabin, about four feet wide and six feet long, occupied by the other two officers. Across a passage on the port side was the radio room and aft of this was the control room; here there were always two men on watch.
Aft of the control room was the other living compartment for the men, and here the food was cooked and meals served. Aft of this was the engine room and the after-torpedo room. The men slept in hammocks and on the decks; they were very dirty for there was no water with which to wash. In the wardroom we had enough to wash our hands and faces once every day, but that was all. A little wine was carried for the officers. The food consisted chiefly of sausage, which was served at every meal, and canned bread and lard, which they called marmalade. Remy told me, however, that the crews on the submarines were the only people in Germany who had an unlimited amount of meat and other foods. We had practically four meals every day: breakfast at 8 A. M., dinner at noon, and at 4. P. M. what they called ‘kaffee’; at 8 P. M. we had supper but practically every meal was the same. Kaffee at 4 P. M. apparently corresponded to our tea, but the sausage, or as they called it ‘wurst’ was placed on the table at every meal. After supper we played cards, sometimes bridge and sometimes a new game which I was taught.
“Captain Remy tried in every possible way to make things pleasant for me and whenever I asked him an impossible question, that is a question which he thought he ought not to answer, he invariably said so, so that I have great confidence that what he told me was the truth.
“The U-90 and most of the German Submarines were out usually not more than four or five weeks and then in port about six or seven weeks. The service was not severe, for Remy got leave as often as he cared to have it and indeed it was deemed the height of good fortune by the regular officers to be assigned to a submarine. After making three round trips they were entitled to the Iron Cross and to leave, which leave covered the duration of the stay of the submarine in port. They received extra money and they got the best food in Germany, besides which for every day which they submerged both officers and men received extra money. For all these reasons the submarine service was very popular.”
Lieutenant Isaacs had many interesting and harrowing experiences in German prison camps. Shortly after he had been taken off the submarine and placed in prison, he was summoned before the Commander of the base, who immediately asked him why America had declared war. This under ordinary conditions is a rather difficult question to answer, not because there was a lack of reasons, but because in order to answer it well, a certain amount of thought is necessary. Lieutenant Isaacs apparently believed that any thought on the matter would be wasted and so informed the German Admiral that America had declared war because the American people thought the German people so many swine. From then on things did not go very well with Lieutenant Isaacs. He was transferred to a prison camp from which he escaped, and was arrested.
While en route to another prison camp he jumped out of the train window and landed on his head on the railroad bed. The train stopped and though he had regained consciousness from his fall, he was forced to surrender to the German soldiers when they began shooting at him. He was then kicked all the way to the next town, a distance of about nine miles. He planned another escape from the next camp and so was transferred again. Here, in making plans for a third attempt to escape, he found that Russian prisoners were acting as informants for the camp authorities. He confided in a few English and Americans, and according to pre-arranged plans, one night, a good many of them escaped by short-circuiting the lighting system of the camp.
He then walked for three nights, hiding during the day, to the Swiss border, and swam the Rhine. In Switzerland he reported to the American Consul, who informed Admiral Sims and Isaacs was ordered to Paris and then to London. He arrived in London about ten days later, very much undaunted in spirit and apparently not much the worse for the treatment he had received in the German prison camps.”
Welcomed to the Department of the Navy as a hero, Izac was promoted to lieutenant commander within a few months and assigned to a prestigious post as the director of munitions at the Navy Yard in Washington D.C., moving there with his family. He was subsequently awarded the Medal of Honor by Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt on November 11, 1920, with whom he became friends. In addition, he was awarded the Italian Croce di Guerra and the Cross of Montenegro. However, the injuries he sustained to his knees in his escape attempts ended his Navy career and Izac was forced to retire.
The U-90 Surrendered 20 November 1918 and was broken up between 1919–1920. In September of 1918, KL Remy was appointed as commander of the new U 137 still completing at Kiel. This boat would never be commissioned due to the war’s end. Remy died 15 Jan 1965 in Schliersee, Bayern.
The 1920’s would be a difficult time for the United States Navy and for submarines in general. But the tenacity of the men who sailed on them and had a vision for their future use would help them survive the cutting knives of the bureaucrats and politicians. America would have a viable submarine force for the next war and the birth of the idea of modern fast attack would continue to grow and become reality. | 3,402 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cc the Roles of Women in Latin America and Western Europe
The roles of women in Latin America and Western Europe from 1750-1914 were alike in the neither having many rights, but differed in their mindset of the matter and drive to change it. Women in Latin America during this time period were content to remain at home. They saw their duties as being a wife and a mother above all else. These women could not vote. They could not gain a position in business or politics. However, they did have the right to participate in political discussions. The lack of freedom these women had did not drive them to fight for equality.
The view on their roles in the society was fueled by their heavily Catholic background. Because of the way Catholicism viewed their women, they did little to make any advances toward suffrage or any other rights. In Western Europe, women worked hard to make changes to their subservient roles. They had very few rights. They were able to participate in political discussions and could work in small business if alongside her husband and only if she was of lower class. They could not vote, divorce or work in political office.
When the “Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen” was written, the women fired back with their own version of it, the “Declaration of Rights of Women and Citizen” written by Olympe de Gouges. In this declaration they demanded the right to vote, divorce, own property in marriage, be educated and have a career. Because of their persistent attitudes toward equality, West European women began to gain rights. Women in both regions of Latin America and Western Europe, had very few rights but were allowed to participate in discussions if they so chose to.
They could not vote, or attain any position of important standing. They differed in the sense of their drive to change things in regards to their being viewed as subservient. While Europe fought for their rights, Latin America accepted their main duties to be in the household. They stayed home, worked hard and raised families. Europe wanted how their own voice in their government as well as equal rights to those of men and therefore their made attempts to gain said rights.
Because of their drive and ambition, these women did began to get what they were fighting for, whereas those in Latin America did not gain the right to vote and so on until later. Latin American women had little to no ambition to fight for equal rights and did not mind staying at home and just being a wife and mother. However, Western European women fought for their rights and ability to participate in government. Because of their persistency, European women eventually did get what they wanted while Latin American women’s gaining of suffrage and other rights were delayed. | <urn:uuid:100d2800-0e0e-4e64-9482-a4936ad3ff37> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/cc-the-roles-of-women-in-latin-america-and-western-europe | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00364.warc.gz | en | 0.991333 | 558 | 4.34375 | 4 | [
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The roles of women in Latin America and Western Europe from 1750-1914 were alike in the neither having many rights, but differed in their mindset of the matter and drive to change it. Women in Latin America during this time period were content to remain at home. They saw their duties as being a wife and a mother above all else. These women could not vote. They could not gain a position in business or politics. However, they did have the right to participate in political discussions. The lack of freedom these women had did not drive them to fight for equality.
The view on their roles in the society was fueled by their heavily Catholic background. Because of the way Catholicism viewed their women, they did little to make any advances toward suffrage or any other rights. In Western Europe, women worked hard to make changes to their subservient roles. They had very few rights. They were able to participate in political discussions and could work in small business if alongside her husband and only if she was of lower class. They could not vote, divorce or work in political office.
When the “Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen” was written, the women fired back with their own version of it, the “Declaration of Rights of Women and Citizen” written by Olympe de Gouges. In this declaration they demanded the right to vote, divorce, own property in marriage, be educated and have a career. Because of their persistent attitudes toward equality, West European women began to gain rights. Women in both regions of Latin America and Western Europe, had very few rights but were allowed to participate in discussions if they so chose to.
They could not vote, or attain any position of important standing. They differed in the sense of their drive to change things in regards to their being viewed as subservient. While Europe fought for their rights, Latin America accepted their main duties to be in the household. They stayed home, worked hard and raised families. Europe wanted how their own voice in their government as well as equal rights to those of men and therefore their made attempts to gain said rights.
Because of their drive and ambition, these women did began to get what they were fighting for, whereas those in Latin America did not gain the right to vote and so on until later. Latin American women had little to no ambition to fight for equal rights and did not mind staying at home and just being a wife and mother. However, Western European women fought for their rights and ability to participate in government. Because of their persistency, European women eventually did get what they wanted while Latin American women’s gaining of suffrage and other rights were delayed. | 551 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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