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The first and second industrial revolution occurred between the 18th and the 19th centuries. It was characterized by major changes in mining, agriculture, manufacturing, transportation and technology. It marked a major turning point in the human history by the profound effects it had on the society. This paper discusses its impact on workers/labor conditions.
The enclosure laws that required all grounds meant for grazing to be fenced at the land owner’s expense made many farmers to be bankrupt. They therefore had to work in the emerging factories to survive in the cities that had higher living costs. They were forced to work longer hours for less money. Mine workers were made to work in unsafe pits without safety gear. Many families were forced to send out their children to work in factories since they desperately needed money. Children worked in worse conditions than adults; they received lesser pay and were often beaten. These conditions were further worsened by laissez-faire approach that had been taken by governments. There was limited government regulations imposed on factories which made factory owners to pursue the most profitable path without regard of well being and safety of their workers.
The poor working conditions led to the development of trade unions. They were formed with the intention of advancing the interest of workers. Trade unions would demand better working conditions and better pay by withdrawing labor hence halting production. Employers were forced to give in to avoid costs associated with lost production. This led to the present day labor movements which agitate for workers rights. Increased social unrest forced governments to take actions. Various Acts were passed to bring reforms such as the Health and Moral of Apprentices Act and the Factory Act which was amended severally. These Acts formed the basis of today’s labor laws that govern employer-employee relationships. These events had a great influence on the good working conditions enjoyed by workers today.
Reilly, K. (2010). Worlds of History, Volume Two: Since 1400: A Comparative Reader (illustrated ed.). Boston: Bedford/st Martins. | <urn:uuid:dfdc0eb7-eb09-4501-8d59-5e635cd416c1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/essay-on-impact-of-industrial-revolution-on-workers-labor-conditions/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00296.warc.gz | en | 0.989982 | 406 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.0161509271711... | 2 | The first and second industrial revolution occurred between the 18th and the 19th centuries. It was characterized by major changes in mining, agriculture, manufacturing, transportation and technology. It marked a major turning point in the human history by the profound effects it had on the society. This paper discusses its impact on workers/labor conditions.
The enclosure laws that required all grounds meant for grazing to be fenced at the land owner’s expense made many farmers to be bankrupt. They therefore had to work in the emerging factories to survive in the cities that had higher living costs. They were forced to work longer hours for less money. Mine workers were made to work in unsafe pits without safety gear. Many families were forced to send out their children to work in factories since they desperately needed money. Children worked in worse conditions than adults; they received lesser pay and were often beaten. These conditions were further worsened by laissez-faire approach that had been taken by governments. There was limited government regulations imposed on factories which made factory owners to pursue the most profitable path without regard of well being and safety of their workers.
The poor working conditions led to the development of trade unions. They were formed with the intention of advancing the interest of workers. Trade unions would demand better working conditions and better pay by withdrawing labor hence halting production. Employers were forced to give in to avoid costs associated with lost production. This led to the present day labor movements which agitate for workers rights. Increased social unrest forced governments to take actions. Various Acts were passed to bring reforms such as the Health and Moral of Apprentices Act and the Factory Act which was amended severally. These Acts formed the basis of today’s labor laws that govern employer-employee relationships. These events had a great influence on the good working conditions enjoyed by workers today.
Reilly, K. (2010). Worlds of History, Volume Two: Since 1400: A Comparative Reader (illustrated ed.). Boston: Bedford/st Martins. | 404 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Bluest Eye Autumn Questions And Answers Essay
Through Piccolo’s journey for her own set of blue eyes, we learn about the main black characters and their quest for something more, and how they respond to the dominating white culture and society. Pauline Overlooked, who is Piccolo’s mother, learned about beauty and why she was not beautiful through movies and through her experiences as a black woman. She escaped to the movies as a young woman, watching the white feminine stars on the screen, where “[along with the idea of romantic love, she was introduced to another – physical beauty.
Probably the most destructive ideas in the history of human thought.
Both originated in envy, haired in insecurity, and ended in disillusion” (95). Because of her viewing white femininity as the thing to strive for, she tries to conform, as do the rest of the black women, to the white ideal, despite their blackness and it leads to an internalized self-hatred. Pauline begins to see herself through the eyes of her opposite, a white woman.
Pauline and other black women at the time, by trying to conform to white beauty has destructive qualities then on their communities, in the novel and during this time period.
One of the cornerstones of our modern society is the value of human beings along racial nines; the most prominent that people would see during that time period is that blackness is despised and so are the features that go along with it. There are black women in society at the time who had repressed their own heritage, their own race so they could fit in, like the character Geraldine. She had been well educated and adapted to the white society. She had tried to repress the black characteristics she had found in herself, that were not acceptable in white society.
She striver “to get rid of the funkiness” (64). Geraldine wanted to fit in so badly, she would not let her son play with black sys, and did not show him much attention, such as the way white women did not show their children much attention because they had the help for that. One of the most useful lessons she believes to teach her son is the difference between black people and colored people: “Colored people were neat and quiet; naggers were dirty and loud” (67).
She rejects all things that reminds her she is black, such as when she finds Pectoral in her house, who embodies all the negative aspects of being black: She looked at Pectoral. Saw the dirty torn dress, the plaits sticking out on her head, hair matted where the laity had come undone, the muddy shoes with the wad of gum peeping out from between the cheap soles, the soiled socks, one of which had been walked down into the heel on the shoe. She had seen this little girl all of her life.
Hanging out of windows over saloons in Mobile, crawling over the porches of shotgun houses on the edges of town, sitting in bus stations holding paper bags and crying to mothers who kept saying ‘Sheet up! ‘ (71, 72). Geraldine is used by Morrison to illustrate the people who in the time period help keep others of their race down in a way that they could not come back from without a major societal change. They were allowing the stereotype to be fueled because they comfortable where they were; much like the women’s rights movement, these black women who were comfortable where they were would not help the others.
Another character that rejects her black stereotype because she thinks she is better is than the other black girls is Maureen Peel. Maureen is a light skinned girl who thinks she is beautiful and Pectoral is ugly, which she speaks Very loudly during one scene. Morrison uses Maureen to set up the hierarchy of white beauty to black beauty and to ugliness in the relation to physical attributes. Unlike Pectoral, who is called ugly and made fun of, Maureen is treated well at school: She enchanted the entire school. When teachers called on her, they smiled encouragingly.
Black boys didn’t trip her in the halls; white boys didn’t stone her, white girls didn’t suck their teeth when she was assigned to be their work partners; black girls stepped aside when she wanted to use the sink in the girls’ toilets, and their eyes genuflected under sliding lids. (47, 48) Morrison demonstrates the difference between Maureen and Pectoral as a way to bring awareness how much others allowed Pectoral to believe that she deed her blue eyes, needed the beauty so she would be treated well and accepted.
By seeing how teachers, peers, and people in general treated a black girl with some white features, Pectoral begins to see what she is not and why she begins to hate herself. Her sadness is best seen by her father as she washes dishes in the kitchen, she was a “young, helpless, hopeless presence. Her back hunched that way; her head to one side as though crouching from a permanent and unrelieved blow. ” (161) Pectoral yearns for her blue eyes in the hope she will be loved.
Maureen is everything Pectoral is not and that fact that he is not beautiful enough to be loved leads to Piccolo’s downfall at the end of the novel, where she becomes mentally unstable as a young woman. However, not all the female characters were in awe of the Western view of beauty. The narrator, Claudia, embodies Morning’s warning of adopting these standards of beauty. Claudia at the beginning describes herself as indifferent to the white beauty and she wanted to know “What made people look at them and say, ‘Maw,’ but not for me? (22). She describes why she hates Maureen, not because she is beautiful, but because of what makes her dutiful “And all the time we knew that Maureen Peal was not worthy of such intense hatred. The Thing to fear was the Thing that made her beautiful, and not us” (58). This “thing” was the white standard of beauty that had been set by society, which the African American community internalized and sets the standard for that makes Maureen beautiful and Pectoral ugly.
Claudia felt comfort in her own skin and did not conform to the white vision of beauty that everyone else accepted. Claudia, as a child wonders why these people treated some as beautiful and others as not; Morning’s use of Claudia is to be the readers logic, the trader’s guide to see why this is wrong. As Claudia speaks of her own indifference towards white women, she brings up something that could be evidence to say she is not so indifferent: I destroyed white baby dolls. But the dismembering of dolls was not the true horror.
The truly horrifying thing was the transference of the same impulse to little white girls. The indifference with which could have axed them was only shaken by my desire to do so. To discover what eluded me: the Secret of the magic they weaved on others. (22). Though Claudia speaks of why she cannot figure out why people love white lolls and people like Shirley Temple, but only because she is taught it. She believed ‘the change was adjustment without improvement” (16) and the adjustment is the adjustment made by black people to want the white beauty they cannot have.
At the end of the novel, Claudia realizes that her world was a fantasy, created by black and white society: And fantasy it was, for we were not strong, only aggressive; we were not free, merely licensed; we were not compassionate, we were polite; not good but well behaved. We courted death in order to call ourselves brave, and hid like thieves from life. We substituted good grammar for intellect; we switched habits to simulate maturity; we rearranged lies and called it truth. (163) The society they lived in created roles that black people accepted, where they followed rules.
They allowed for Pectoral to become the scapegoat for her ancestral pregnancy, because black society took up white ideals for beauty at the expense for others. Whiteness in The Bluest Eye was the symbol for beauty, innocence, purity, and goodness. The black women in the novel wanted to have beauty, innocence, purity, and goodness. They wanted to be accepted. Ultimately, it mess they wanted to be white. They wanted to be loved. Morrison combining whiteness and humans creates a racial tension seen in reality and in society. People are trying to reach, to achieve nearly impossible and plain impossible things. The beauty is not the point; it is there to symbolize how oppressed and molded black people were because of white society. In society we can challenge things such as racism or hate, but no matter when we do it, the challenge could come too late for others. Racism and the need for acceptance affects and dwells within every one of us, where we can all see in society, even decades after this novel was written, a Pectoral Overlooked, a Claudia, a Maureen Peel, or a Geraldine.
Cite this The Bluest Eye Autumn Questions And Answers Essay
The Bluest Eye Autumn Questions And Answers Essay. (2018, Apr 29). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/the-bluest-eye-7/ | <urn:uuid:2ecf9099-8425-4a2d-b575-d54f66e091e6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graduateway.com/the-bluest-eye-7/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00322.warc.gz | en | 0.980194 | 1,963 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.1485006660223... | 1 | The Bluest Eye Autumn Questions And Answers Essay
Through Piccolo’s journey for her own set of blue eyes, we learn about the main black characters and their quest for something more, and how they respond to the dominating white culture and society. Pauline Overlooked, who is Piccolo’s mother, learned about beauty and why she was not beautiful through movies and through her experiences as a black woman. She escaped to the movies as a young woman, watching the white feminine stars on the screen, where “[along with the idea of romantic love, she was introduced to another – physical beauty.
Probably the most destructive ideas in the history of human thought.
Both originated in envy, haired in insecurity, and ended in disillusion” (95). Because of her viewing white femininity as the thing to strive for, she tries to conform, as do the rest of the black women, to the white ideal, despite their blackness and it leads to an internalized self-hatred. Pauline begins to see herself through the eyes of her opposite, a white woman.
Pauline and other black women at the time, by trying to conform to white beauty has destructive qualities then on their communities, in the novel and during this time period.
One of the cornerstones of our modern society is the value of human beings along racial nines; the most prominent that people would see during that time period is that blackness is despised and so are the features that go along with it. There are black women in society at the time who had repressed their own heritage, their own race so they could fit in, like the character Geraldine. She had been well educated and adapted to the white society. She had tried to repress the black characteristics she had found in herself, that were not acceptable in white society.
She striver “to get rid of the funkiness” (64). Geraldine wanted to fit in so badly, she would not let her son play with black sys, and did not show him much attention, such as the way white women did not show their children much attention because they had the help for that. One of the most useful lessons she believes to teach her son is the difference between black people and colored people: “Colored people were neat and quiet; naggers were dirty and loud” (67).
She rejects all things that reminds her she is black, such as when she finds Pectoral in her house, who embodies all the negative aspects of being black: She looked at Pectoral. Saw the dirty torn dress, the plaits sticking out on her head, hair matted where the laity had come undone, the muddy shoes with the wad of gum peeping out from between the cheap soles, the soiled socks, one of which had been walked down into the heel on the shoe. She had seen this little girl all of her life.
Hanging out of windows over saloons in Mobile, crawling over the porches of shotgun houses on the edges of town, sitting in bus stations holding paper bags and crying to mothers who kept saying ‘Sheet up! ‘ (71, 72). Geraldine is used by Morrison to illustrate the people who in the time period help keep others of their race down in a way that they could not come back from without a major societal change. They were allowing the stereotype to be fueled because they comfortable where they were; much like the women’s rights movement, these black women who were comfortable where they were would not help the others.
Another character that rejects her black stereotype because she thinks she is better is than the other black girls is Maureen Peel. Maureen is a light skinned girl who thinks she is beautiful and Pectoral is ugly, which she speaks Very loudly during one scene. Morrison uses Maureen to set up the hierarchy of white beauty to black beauty and to ugliness in the relation to physical attributes. Unlike Pectoral, who is called ugly and made fun of, Maureen is treated well at school: She enchanted the entire school. When teachers called on her, they smiled encouragingly.
Black boys didn’t trip her in the halls; white boys didn’t stone her, white girls didn’t suck their teeth when she was assigned to be their work partners; black girls stepped aside when she wanted to use the sink in the girls’ toilets, and their eyes genuflected under sliding lids. (47, 48) Morrison demonstrates the difference between Maureen and Pectoral as a way to bring awareness how much others allowed Pectoral to believe that she deed her blue eyes, needed the beauty so she would be treated well and accepted.
By seeing how teachers, peers, and people in general treated a black girl with some white features, Pectoral begins to see what she is not and why she begins to hate herself. Her sadness is best seen by her father as she washes dishes in the kitchen, she was a “young, helpless, hopeless presence. Her back hunched that way; her head to one side as though crouching from a permanent and unrelieved blow. ” (161) Pectoral yearns for her blue eyes in the hope she will be loved.
Maureen is everything Pectoral is not and that fact that he is not beautiful enough to be loved leads to Piccolo’s downfall at the end of the novel, where she becomes mentally unstable as a young woman. However, not all the female characters were in awe of the Western view of beauty. The narrator, Claudia, embodies Morning’s warning of adopting these standards of beauty. Claudia at the beginning describes herself as indifferent to the white beauty and she wanted to know “What made people look at them and say, ‘Maw,’ but not for me? (22). She describes why she hates Maureen, not because she is beautiful, but because of what makes her dutiful “And all the time we knew that Maureen Peal was not worthy of such intense hatred. The Thing to fear was the Thing that made her beautiful, and not us” (58). This “thing” was the white standard of beauty that had been set by society, which the African American community internalized and sets the standard for that makes Maureen beautiful and Pectoral ugly.
Claudia felt comfort in her own skin and did not conform to the white vision of beauty that everyone else accepted. Claudia, as a child wonders why these people treated some as beautiful and others as not; Morning’s use of Claudia is to be the readers logic, the trader’s guide to see why this is wrong. As Claudia speaks of her own indifference towards white women, she brings up something that could be evidence to say she is not so indifferent: I destroyed white baby dolls. But the dismembering of dolls was not the true horror.
The truly horrifying thing was the transference of the same impulse to little white girls. The indifference with which could have axed them was only shaken by my desire to do so. To discover what eluded me: the Secret of the magic they weaved on others. (22). Though Claudia speaks of why she cannot figure out why people love white lolls and people like Shirley Temple, but only because she is taught it. She believed ‘the change was adjustment without improvement” (16) and the adjustment is the adjustment made by black people to want the white beauty they cannot have.
At the end of the novel, Claudia realizes that her world was a fantasy, created by black and white society: And fantasy it was, for we were not strong, only aggressive; we were not free, merely licensed; we were not compassionate, we were polite; not good but well behaved. We courted death in order to call ourselves brave, and hid like thieves from life. We substituted good grammar for intellect; we switched habits to simulate maturity; we rearranged lies and called it truth. (163) The society they lived in created roles that black people accepted, where they followed rules.
They allowed for Pectoral to become the scapegoat for her ancestral pregnancy, because black society took up white ideals for beauty at the expense for others. Whiteness in The Bluest Eye was the symbol for beauty, innocence, purity, and goodness. The black women in the novel wanted to have beauty, innocence, purity, and goodness. They wanted to be accepted. Ultimately, it mess they wanted to be white. They wanted to be loved. Morrison combining whiteness and humans creates a racial tension seen in reality and in society. People are trying to reach, to achieve nearly impossible and plain impossible things. The beauty is not the point; it is there to symbolize how oppressed and molded black people were because of white society. In society we can challenge things such as racism or hate, but no matter when we do it, the challenge could come too late for others. Racism and the need for acceptance affects and dwells within every one of us, where we can all see in society, even decades after this novel was written, a Pectoral Overlooked, a Claudia, a Maureen Peel, or a Geraldine.
Cite this The Bluest Eye Autumn Questions And Answers Essay
The Bluest Eye Autumn Questions And Answers Essay. (2018, Apr 29). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/the-bluest-eye-7/ | 1,918 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Early Military Disasters
Today, many think that merit and education are prerequisites for high profile jobs. In 18th-century Virginia, family connections and money were more than enough for most people. That goes a long way to explaining how George Washington managed to gain rank in the Colonial Militia at only 20 years of age, immediately before the outbreak of the French and Indian War in 1753.
Unsurprisingly for a kid whose experience at this point consisted of schmoozing and sucking up to local socialites, Washington did really poorly as a combat officer.
Washington’s first big job came right away, before war had been formally declared, in 1753. Governor Dinwiddie dispatched Washington to the Ohio River valley with a letter containing an ultimatum for the French forces occupying the area. The idea was to politely urge the French to leave before things went south.
Washington took his time getting to the French outpost and actually sidetracked for a bit to make contacts among the local Iroquois. He was met with courtesy by the French, but the order to leave was refused. Washington returned to Virginia with the French in full possession of the territory.
Shortly after he got back to Williamsburg, Washington was dispatched back to what is now western Pennsylvania to take the land the French wouldn’t give up without a fight. He had a militia company with him, as well as a few native allies, and his orders were to guard a fort under construction near what is now Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Washington met the French in May 1754, and fought a brief battle that ended with victory and the capture of the French commander, Joseph Coulon de Villiers de Jumonville. What happened next is uncertain, mainly because Washington’s war diary was written by Washington himself and is therefore full of self-serving spin, but somebody shot Jumonville after he surrendered.
This really irked the French, who sent a much bigger force out of Fort Duquesne, under Jumonville’s own brother, to chase the British force back to Fort Necessity. After a brief siege, on July 4, 1754, Washington agreed to terms and surrendered the fort.
Unfortunately for him, and very unfortunately for the British, the surrender demand was written in French, a language every gentleman knew and Washington was too embarrassed to admit he couldn’t read. That’s probably why he signed it despite the wording in the document that essentially admitted to assassinating Jumonville.
This series of clashes, and the “admission” that a British officer had murdered a French general, fanned the flames of the Seven Years’ War.
George Washington may not have been good at negotiating surrenders, or at choosing high ground for his forts, or at reading French, or admitting when he was in over his head, but he sure was good at shifting blame.
According to his later report on the debacle, the campaign had failed because he had bad troops and poor provisions. Also, they had marched and fought in bad weather and his translator was a Dutchman.
Between these excuses, and the fact that he was tight with half of the money in Virginia, Washington not only survived the defeat at Fort Necessity, he was promoted to colonel and sent back into the area under General Braddock in 1755, thus setting the stage for an even more humiliating disaster: Braddock’s Defeat.
This battle was a disaster from the beginning. Braddock’s force of around 1,300 Colonials and Iroquois allies marched right into the kill zone of twice as many French and Huron fighters. In the exchange of fire, Braddock was shot in the lung and died on the retreat.
Washington was lucky to escape with his life, but had two horses shot out from under him and later found four bullet holes in his coat. According to his own later report to his superiors, the defeat was all the fault of the British regulars and he had performed brilliantly. Governor Dinwiddie rewarded him with appointment as commander in chief of the Virginia Regiment. | <urn:uuid:d350cc87-523f-4858-880e-74b947cdbcec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://allthatsinteresting.com/george-washington-facts/2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00268.warc.gz | en | 0.987566 | 847 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.4956014752388000... | 3 | Early Military Disasters
Today, many think that merit and education are prerequisites for high profile jobs. In 18th-century Virginia, family connections and money were more than enough for most people. That goes a long way to explaining how George Washington managed to gain rank in the Colonial Militia at only 20 years of age, immediately before the outbreak of the French and Indian War in 1753.
Unsurprisingly for a kid whose experience at this point consisted of schmoozing and sucking up to local socialites, Washington did really poorly as a combat officer.
Washington’s first big job came right away, before war had been formally declared, in 1753. Governor Dinwiddie dispatched Washington to the Ohio River valley with a letter containing an ultimatum for the French forces occupying the area. The idea was to politely urge the French to leave before things went south.
Washington took his time getting to the French outpost and actually sidetracked for a bit to make contacts among the local Iroquois. He was met with courtesy by the French, but the order to leave was refused. Washington returned to Virginia with the French in full possession of the territory.
Shortly after he got back to Williamsburg, Washington was dispatched back to what is now western Pennsylvania to take the land the French wouldn’t give up without a fight. He had a militia company with him, as well as a few native allies, and his orders were to guard a fort under construction near what is now Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Washington met the French in May 1754, and fought a brief battle that ended with victory and the capture of the French commander, Joseph Coulon de Villiers de Jumonville. What happened next is uncertain, mainly because Washington’s war diary was written by Washington himself and is therefore full of self-serving spin, but somebody shot Jumonville after he surrendered.
This really irked the French, who sent a much bigger force out of Fort Duquesne, under Jumonville’s own brother, to chase the British force back to Fort Necessity. After a brief siege, on July 4, 1754, Washington agreed to terms and surrendered the fort.
Unfortunately for him, and very unfortunately for the British, the surrender demand was written in French, a language every gentleman knew and Washington was too embarrassed to admit he couldn’t read. That’s probably why he signed it despite the wording in the document that essentially admitted to assassinating Jumonville.
This series of clashes, and the “admission” that a British officer had murdered a French general, fanned the flames of the Seven Years’ War.
George Washington may not have been good at negotiating surrenders, or at choosing high ground for his forts, or at reading French, or admitting when he was in over his head, but he sure was good at shifting blame.
According to his later report on the debacle, the campaign had failed because he had bad troops and poor provisions. Also, they had marched and fought in bad weather and his translator was a Dutchman.
Between these excuses, and the fact that he was tight with half of the money in Virginia, Washington not only survived the defeat at Fort Necessity, he was promoted to colonel and sent back into the area under General Braddock in 1755, thus setting the stage for an even more humiliating disaster: Braddock’s Defeat.
This battle was a disaster from the beginning. Braddock’s force of around 1,300 Colonials and Iroquois allies marched right into the kill zone of twice as many French and Huron fighters. In the exchange of fire, Braddock was shot in the lung and died on the retreat.
Washington was lucky to escape with his life, but had two horses shot out from under him and later found four bullet holes in his coat. According to his own later report to his superiors, the defeat was all the fault of the British regulars and he had performed brilliantly. Governor Dinwiddie rewarded him with appointment as commander in chief of the Virginia Regiment. | 842 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why Confederate and Union soldiers fought
The American civil war (1861-1865) was idealistic since the combatants were driven particularly by principles rather than comrade power. “A large number of those men in blue and gray were intensely aware of the issues at stake and passionately concerned about them.” The war was as a result of the unrest between the federal government and eleven Southern states that wanted to split from the United States (Union). The main issue at hand was slavery, the rights of the states and conflicts over trade and tariffs.
The North was against slavery and this intimidated the Southern economy since it was founded on slaves who labored in plantations. The victory of Abraham Lincoln, a Republican in 1860 saw secession of the South who claimed that they had a right to possess slaves. This saw creation of the Confederate States of America or the Confederacy in the South under the leadership of Jefferson Davis. The North became the Union under the leadership of Abraham Lincoln who was the president.
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The North was more populated and more economically stable due to growth in transport and industrial sectors as compared to the south. According to McPherson, “Confederates fought for independence, for their property and way of life, for their survival as a nation” while the Yankees fought early in the war to preserve the Union “against the threat of `dissolution, anarchy, and ruin.‘”
The confederacy wanted to secede from the United States which was for antislavery. Consequently, the Union’s nationalism took secession as an affirmation of treason. As a result, the civil war was initiated on 12th April, 1861 at Fort Sumter, Charleston, S.C. when the Confederate attacked the U. S military.
Lincoln commanded the army to volunteer and seize the federal possession where further secessions were announced by the confederacy. This triggered the military forces from both sides to join the war where thirty thousand Union soldiers moved to Richmond, Virginia a confederate capital. However, they faced resistant from confederate troops where they moved to Washington D.C.
This was a mark of defeat for the Union and five hundred thousand troops were recruited to the war as Lincoln declared Emancipation Proclamation in 1862, whose aim was to abolish slavery in the South during the war without any international intervention. The period was characterized by bloody warfare over four years where the confederacy defeat meant the end of slavery in every state in America. The Union became more powerful as the federal government, able to accomplish various tasks in the Reconstruction period.
Union and Confederate soldiers’ view the issue of slavery
Slavery was initially viewed as risky to republicans because of slave power. Wealthy whites who processed slaves took advantage of their political power over the government’s leadership, Supreme Court as well as the Congress which was intimidating to the occupants of the north.
However, this changed over time as the soldiers of the Union and the Confederacy viewed slavery as the cause of sectionalism. This was reflected where the Northern economy, social setups and political norms differed significantly from those of the south. The North had abolished the issue of slavery and therefore, it had become more industrialized, improved its infrastructure to become more urbanized with a high population and many resources.
Conversely, the South strongly upheld the slaves to labor in plantations as well as in the White’s farms. Therefore, the South incorporated fresh farms in the southwest states ranging from Alabama up to and including Texas. As a result, the south was rural and ragged behind in industrialization. Due to this fact, abolition of slaves in the Southern states whose economy relied heavily on slavery was a nail in the coffin.
This triggered hostility in the confederacy troops who claimed that it was the South’s rights to possess slaves. This was however rejected by the North whose aim was to curb further extension of slavery. The whites were moving towards the north in large numbers and wished to carry their slaves with them. However, the north resisted this and pointed out that slaves property could not be allowed in Free states since this was against their mission of stopping father extension of slavery.
Soldiers’ utilization of American Revolution ideas in war
The military employed railroads, steamships, and strong weapons and telegraphs during the war. The civil war was a war of complex ideals which could be tracked at the period of colonization. The confederate and union soldiers were driven mostly by principle ie slavery in which the south considered it p[art and parcel of their lifestyle.
Conversely, the northern were critical on morality as well as pragmatism to curb slavery hence, maintain the Union. Slavery had established in 1619 in Virginia where during the American Revolution, many Northern States rejected the issue while Southern states still used slaves in their plantations. Preceding the civil war, there were several conflicts arising as a result of the issue of slavery. For instance, this issue triggered debates such as the Compromise of 1820 and that of 1850.
As a result, the nineteenth century was characterized by conflicts between the North and the South where the north wanted to abolish slavery while the South aimed at defending it. As long as the South were in power of the federal government, they were safe about retaining slavery within their borders. Many presidents emerged from the South and this helped them achieve control over the senate.
New states were joining the Union and this followed that compromises had to be met so as to balance the Free and Slave States. However, the balance was eventually set off when Free states exceeded the slave states. All the same according to McPherson, the civil war marked a fight back for 1776 heritage established by the Founding Fathers where the Southerners pursued liberty from an oppressive government as opposed to the Northerners’ view that for republicans to thrive, secession had to be illegitimated.
Declaration of Independence was meant to maintain a democratic America either through secession or being in the Union. This could be the case since the soldiers from both sides were learned and experienced in pursuing a frontline idealism as indicated through their diaries and letters they wrote in their course of the war.
Reason for the lack of political solution to the issue of slavery
The politicians eventually were unable to precisely achieve a political solution to the issue of slavery because over time, slaves were included in the army. Also the combatants became patriotic and tended to embrace the character of “duty, honor and country.” The Confederacy only had to defend their values whereas the North had to actively capture southern territories for them to acquire victory.
Lincoln utilized the Emancipation proclamation for union’s advantage which rejected international intervention that the confederate would have utilized to destroy the blockade. The war only destroyed the southern economy where slaves were inevitably held useless as the Northern economy became stronger. The slaves were used by the union in the war for its benefit over the Confederate, which could not engage slaves in the war.
However, political disagreements on abolishment of slavery and curbing secession became problematic after the war. Mere victory was not enough since the confederacy was to become incorporated in the union without having to include their pro-slavery elements. Therefore, after the war, the federal government had to use the Emancipation Proclamation and pass the Thirteenth Amendment which would give freedom to the slaves in the Confederacy and Border States respectively.
Change of reasons for fighting the war over time
Over time, although the soldiers’ motive for fighting changed, the general motives for fighting the war drifted from “liberty and republicanism.” This was through abolition of slavery as a right for in the southern states to other reasons, which focused on soldiers and economic purposes.
They embraced aspects of liberty still in pursuing the issue of slavery. Initially, the Anaconda plan for instance was drafted by Winfield Scott and aimed for the North to war with minimal deaths and casualties. Thus he proposed a Union blockade on major ports to collapse the South’s economy through scarcity of basic supplies, which affected the living standards of Southern citizens including slaves who lacked essential commodities such as food.
The Confederate navy had to act as they attacked the Union navy although they lost since they did not have the technology for creating strong warships. As war continued, the declaration of the Emancipation Proclamation encouraged ex-slaves who had escaped to engage in war to safeguard the Union which was facing a shortage of soldiers while the South were looking for other means of reinforcing its military forces.
McPherson, James. What they fought for, 1861-1865, Baton Rouge: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 1995.
James McPherson, What they fought for, 1861-1865 (New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 1995), 4 | <urn:uuid:8e758640-f7c9-4b49-966b-b186113860ea> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://pennsylvaniaangerclass.com/the-american-civil-war/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00401.warc.gz | en | 0.981344 | 1,839 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.5525122880... | 1 | Why Confederate and Union soldiers fought
The American civil war (1861-1865) was idealistic since the combatants were driven particularly by principles rather than comrade power. “A large number of those men in blue and gray were intensely aware of the issues at stake and passionately concerned about them.” The war was as a result of the unrest between the federal government and eleven Southern states that wanted to split from the United States (Union). The main issue at hand was slavery, the rights of the states and conflicts over trade and tariffs.
The North was against slavery and this intimidated the Southern economy since it was founded on slaves who labored in plantations. The victory of Abraham Lincoln, a Republican in 1860 saw secession of the South who claimed that they had a right to possess slaves. This saw creation of the Confederate States of America or the Confederacy in the South under the leadership of Jefferson Davis. The North became the Union under the leadership of Abraham Lincoln who was the president.
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The North was more populated and more economically stable due to growth in transport and industrial sectors as compared to the south. According to McPherson, “Confederates fought for independence, for their property and way of life, for their survival as a nation” while the Yankees fought early in the war to preserve the Union “against the threat of `dissolution, anarchy, and ruin.‘”
The confederacy wanted to secede from the United States which was for antislavery. Consequently, the Union’s nationalism took secession as an affirmation of treason. As a result, the civil war was initiated on 12th April, 1861 at Fort Sumter, Charleston, S.C. when the Confederate attacked the U. S military.
Lincoln commanded the army to volunteer and seize the federal possession where further secessions were announced by the confederacy. This triggered the military forces from both sides to join the war where thirty thousand Union soldiers moved to Richmond, Virginia a confederate capital. However, they faced resistant from confederate troops where they moved to Washington D.C.
This was a mark of defeat for the Union and five hundred thousand troops were recruited to the war as Lincoln declared Emancipation Proclamation in 1862, whose aim was to abolish slavery in the South during the war without any international intervention. The period was characterized by bloody warfare over four years where the confederacy defeat meant the end of slavery in every state in America. The Union became more powerful as the federal government, able to accomplish various tasks in the Reconstruction period.
Union and Confederate soldiers’ view the issue of slavery
Slavery was initially viewed as risky to republicans because of slave power. Wealthy whites who processed slaves took advantage of their political power over the government’s leadership, Supreme Court as well as the Congress which was intimidating to the occupants of the north.
However, this changed over time as the soldiers of the Union and the Confederacy viewed slavery as the cause of sectionalism. This was reflected where the Northern economy, social setups and political norms differed significantly from those of the south. The North had abolished the issue of slavery and therefore, it had become more industrialized, improved its infrastructure to become more urbanized with a high population and many resources.
Conversely, the South strongly upheld the slaves to labor in plantations as well as in the White’s farms. Therefore, the South incorporated fresh farms in the southwest states ranging from Alabama up to and including Texas. As a result, the south was rural and ragged behind in industrialization. Due to this fact, abolition of slaves in the Southern states whose economy relied heavily on slavery was a nail in the coffin.
This triggered hostility in the confederacy troops who claimed that it was the South’s rights to possess slaves. This was however rejected by the North whose aim was to curb further extension of slavery. The whites were moving towards the north in large numbers and wished to carry their slaves with them. However, the north resisted this and pointed out that slaves property could not be allowed in Free states since this was against their mission of stopping father extension of slavery.
Soldiers’ utilization of American Revolution ideas in war
The military employed railroads, steamships, and strong weapons and telegraphs during the war. The civil war was a war of complex ideals which could be tracked at the period of colonization. The confederate and union soldiers were driven mostly by principle ie slavery in which the south considered it p[art and parcel of their lifestyle.
Conversely, the northern were critical on morality as well as pragmatism to curb slavery hence, maintain the Union. Slavery had established in 1619 in Virginia where during the American Revolution, many Northern States rejected the issue while Southern states still used slaves in their plantations. Preceding the civil war, there were several conflicts arising as a result of the issue of slavery. For instance, this issue triggered debates such as the Compromise of 1820 and that of 1850.
As a result, the nineteenth century was characterized by conflicts between the North and the South where the north wanted to abolish slavery while the South aimed at defending it. As long as the South were in power of the federal government, they were safe about retaining slavery within their borders. Many presidents emerged from the South and this helped them achieve control over the senate.
New states were joining the Union and this followed that compromises had to be met so as to balance the Free and Slave States. However, the balance was eventually set off when Free states exceeded the slave states. All the same according to McPherson, the civil war marked a fight back for 1776 heritage established by the Founding Fathers where the Southerners pursued liberty from an oppressive government as opposed to the Northerners’ view that for republicans to thrive, secession had to be illegitimated.
Declaration of Independence was meant to maintain a democratic America either through secession or being in the Union. This could be the case since the soldiers from both sides were learned and experienced in pursuing a frontline idealism as indicated through their diaries and letters they wrote in their course of the war.
Reason for the lack of political solution to the issue of slavery
The politicians eventually were unable to precisely achieve a political solution to the issue of slavery because over time, slaves were included in the army. Also the combatants became patriotic and tended to embrace the character of “duty, honor and country.” The Confederacy only had to defend their values whereas the North had to actively capture southern territories for them to acquire victory.
Lincoln utilized the Emancipation proclamation for union’s advantage which rejected international intervention that the confederate would have utilized to destroy the blockade. The war only destroyed the southern economy where slaves were inevitably held useless as the Northern economy became stronger. The slaves were used by the union in the war for its benefit over the Confederate, which could not engage slaves in the war.
However, political disagreements on abolishment of slavery and curbing secession became problematic after the war. Mere victory was not enough since the confederacy was to become incorporated in the union without having to include their pro-slavery elements. Therefore, after the war, the federal government had to use the Emancipation Proclamation and pass the Thirteenth Amendment which would give freedom to the slaves in the Confederacy and Border States respectively.
Change of reasons for fighting the war over time
Over time, although the soldiers’ motive for fighting changed, the general motives for fighting the war drifted from “liberty and republicanism.” This was through abolition of slavery as a right for in the southern states to other reasons, which focused on soldiers and economic purposes.
They embraced aspects of liberty still in pursuing the issue of slavery. Initially, the Anaconda plan for instance was drafted by Winfield Scott and aimed for the North to war with minimal deaths and casualties. Thus he proposed a Union blockade on major ports to collapse the South’s economy through scarcity of basic supplies, which affected the living standards of Southern citizens including slaves who lacked essential commodities such as food.
The Confederate navy had to act as they attacked the Union navy although they lost since they did not have the technology for creating strong warships. As war continued, the declaration of the Emancipation Proclamation encouraged ex-slaves who had escaped to engage in war to safeguard the Union which was facing a shortage of soldiers while the South were looking for other means of reinforcing its military forces.
McPherson, James. What they fought for, 1861-1865, Baton Rouge: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 1995.
James McPherson, What they fought for, 1861-1865 (New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 1995), 4 | 1,840 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Nursing began as a helping profession, often undertaken by nuns and military personnel during wartime. Until recent history, nursing was considered a woman’s profession. In some areas, men still receive criticism for pursuing careers in nursing. However, modern nursing is a very different field than it was before the world wars, and even before the Crimean War.
Major changes began to take place in the field of nursing with the work of Florence Nightingale. The observations she made of the conditions of military hospitals led her to develop the Environment Theory, which addressed sanitation for patients, and detailed in her book Notes on Nursing. Her theory became the norm for nursing practice, and resulted in a great improvement in sanitary conditions for patients. The improvement in sanitary conditions led to a higher recovery rate in patients and decrease in complications.
In 1860, Nightingale also opened the first nursing school, called the Nightingale School for Nurses, which began to regulate how nurses learned and practiced. Not only did this ensure nurses had an educational foundation of knowledge and techniques, but it helped ensure a standard of care for patients, as well. Because of the work Nightingale did for modern nursing, the oath taken by nurses when they graduate is called the “Nightingale Pledge.”
Today, nursing is a much more diverse field of health care practice. Nurses are found in nearly every health care facility, and their responsibilities range from assisting patients with basic hygiene needs to giving medications and teaching them to care for themselves. In fact, some nurses become midwives and assume all the responsibilities for the care of pregnant women and delivery of their babies.
The field of health care is also more diversified, so nurses can choose what area they would like to practice, and tailor their education to that field. A nurse may choose pediatrics, emergency, hospice, cardiology, or a number of other areas, and focus his or her efforts on the care of patients in that area. Each area requires a different skill set, and nurses may take continuing education courses to strengthen that skill set. | <urn:uuid:4dc1ecda-c220-489f-9697-5a69032d7760> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nursing-theory.org/articles/modern-nursing.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00247.warc.gz | en | 0.981015 | 424 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.29752907156... | 14 | Nursing began as a helping profession, often undertaken by nuns and military personnel during wartime. Until recent history, nursing was considered a woman’s profession. In some areas, men still receive criticism for pursuing careers in nursing. However, modern nursing is a very different field than it was before the world wars, and even before the Crimean War.
Major changes began to take place in the field of nursing with the work of Florence Nightingale. The observations she made of the conditions of military hospitals led her to develop the Environment Theory, which addressed sanitation for patients, and detailed in her book Notes on Nursing. Her theory became the norm for nursing practice, and resulted in a great improvement in sanitary conditions for patients. The improvement in sanitary conditions led to a higher recovery rate in patients and decrease in complications.
In 1860, Nightingale also opened the first nursing school, called the Nightingale School for Nurses, which began to regulate how nurses learned and practiced. Not only did this ensure nurses had an educational foundation of knowledge and techniques, but it helped ensure a standard of care for patients, as well. Because of the work Nightingale did for modern nursing, the oath taken by nurses when they graduate is called the “Nightingale Pledge.”
Today, nursing is a much more diverse field of health care practice. Nurses are found in nearly every health care facility, and their responsibilities range from assisting patients with basic hygiene needs to giving medications and teaching them to care for themselves. In fact, some nurses become midwives and assume all the responsibilities for the care of pregnant women and delivery of their babies.
The field of health care is also more diversified, so nurses can choose what area they would like to practice, and tailor their education to that field. A nurse may choose pediatrics, emergency, hospice, cardiology, or a number of other areas, and focus his or her efforts on the care of patients in that area. Each area requires a different skill set, and nurses may take continuing education courses to strengthen that skill set. | 417 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Education insiders can be considered gaming skeptics, and now The Hechinger Report has made an attempt to understand why. Many futurists in education have touted the potential of video game technology to transform the way students learn — most recently during NBC's Education Nation summit — yet there is still doubt that the gamification of eduction will have a positive impact on student achievement.
Mostly, the skepticism is fueled by a lack of solid data. Research that backs up the rosy projections is still thin, and even the argument that games can increase student engagement don't sound convincing. Engagement is difficult to define, much less measure, and there's still nothing that links increased engagement with improved academic outcomes.
In addition, anecdotal experiences relayed by teachers who have tried using games as instructional tools haven't been very encouraging.
Todd Beard, a K-12 technology teacher in Flint, Mich., said his students have trouble transferring skills they learn playing educational games in class to paper-based tests. While his students may appear to master skills during a video game, they forget it when they're taking an assessment later. Beard tells his students, "It's the same thing, you just did that,'" he said. He believes his students aren't as invested in tests because they aren't as fun as the games. "I feel like they're learning [skills], but I have to prove that on an assessment," Beard added.
There's also a general distrust of video games that many on the front lines of education view as a distraction and competition for children's time and attention. According to a report published by the National Institutes of Health, school-aged children already spend 7.5 hours of every day consuming entertainment media — including video games — so adding more hours of screen time to the day, even in service to academics, could feel like overkill to both parents and teachers.
And, as always, it comes down to money. Using games requires an investment in technology that many schools are unable to make at this time. Requiring the purchase of gadgets used for gaming or asking students to bring technology from home is problematic; the former is an expense many school systems can't afford at a time when budgets are shrinking, and the latter might leave out those from low-income families.
And while video games may be the future of digital learning, teacher Sahadevan says there are still basic issues that need to be fixed in education before more teachers will utilize technology. "We can't get books in classrooms," Sahadevan said. "Unless they're going to give all these programs for free, its like dangling candy in front of a kid. We want it, but we can't get to it, and that's a problem." | <urn:uuid:482e6aaf-d092-43cd-8c32-03bba7ece23e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.educationnews.org/technology/teachers-waffle-unsure-on-using-video-games-in-class/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00157.warc.gz | en | 0.984759 | 553 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.09727434813... | 1 | Education insiders can be considered gaming skeptics, and now The Hechinger Report has made an attempt to understand why. Many futurists in education have touted the potential of video game technology to transform the way students learn — most recently during NBC's Education Nation summit — yet there is still doubt that the gamification of eduction will have a positive impact on student achievement.
Mostly, the skepticism is fueled by a lack of solid data. Research that backs up the rosy projections is still thin, and even the argument that games can increase student engagement don't sound convincing. Engagement is difficult to define, much less measure, and there's still nothing that links increased engagement with improved academic outcomes.
In addition, anecdotal experiences relayed by teachers who have tried using games as instructional tools haven't been very encouraging.
Todd Beard, a K-12 technology teacher in Flint, Mich., said his students have trouble transferring skills they learn playing educational games in class to paper-based tests. While his students may appear to master skills during a video game, they forget it when they're taking an assessment later. Beard tells his students, "It's the same thing, you just did that,'" he said. He believes his students aren't as invested in tests because they aren't as fun as the games. "I feel like they're learning [skills], but I have to prove that on an assessment," Beard added.
There's also a general distrust of video games that many on the front lines of education view as a distraction and competition for children's time and attention. According to a report published by the National Institutes of Health, school-aged children already spend 7.5 hours of every day consuming entertainment media — including video games — so adding more hours of screen time to the day, even in service to academics, could feel like overkill to both parents and teachers.
And, as always, it comes down to money. Using games requires an investment in technology that many schools are unable to make at this time. Requiring the purchase of gadgets used for gaming or asking students to bring technology from home is problematic; the former is an expense many school systems can't afford at a time when budgets are shrinking, and the latter might leave out those from low-income families.
And while video games may be the future of digital learning, teacher Sahadevan says there are still basic issues that need to be fixed in education before more teachers will utilize technology. "We can't get books in classrooms," Sahadevan said. "Unless they're going to give all these programs for free, its like dangling candy in front of a kid. We want it, but we can't get to it, and that's a problem." | 547 | ENGLISH | 1 |
history of basketball
basketball history is a bit complicated as writers made it to be. Often than not, I receive a question that every basketball player who is dedicated wants to know and that question is who created Basketball?
Well today on recreation tipsy, I am going to be specific to these question and tell you who invented this game and how it came into existence for both men and women.
It’s very funny that 90% of the players don’t know the father of basketball and how it came into existence. In as much as it is funny, it’s also important that you get to know the history of your loved hobby, how the game originated from the world go.
Who Invented Basketball game?
The basketball origin dates as far back as December 1891. It is a Canadian man called JAMES NAISMITH that created the game.
The inventor of basketball (Naismith) taught at the YMCA training school located in Springfield, Massachusetts as a teacher. His duty was simply to train the young and youth men and women who loved basketball to attain an instructors height at newly created YMCA centers.
Dr. James Naismith
During December 1891, Naismith was told by the schools high ranking officer of physical education, Dr. Luther .H. Gulick, that he need to create an indoor game that was supposed to keep the youth both men and women warm during the cold and winter months since the cold weather was keeping the class indoors.
Having received this request and instruction with a warm heart, Naismith began his journey to create a whelming indoor game that his class would enjoy while the weather was cold. He wrote something that explains his game creation ethics many years later in a diary and it reads….
“I felt this was a crucial moment in my life as it meant success or failure of my attempt to hold the interest of the class and devise a new game”
Naismith achieved the creation of a game which focuses on skill rather than strenght with the help of his wife alongside some memories he had back then when he was a child playing ‘Duck on a Rock’.
‘Duck on a Rock’ was a game that allowed its players to throw a rock at some certain target which was placed on the top of a tree stump or large boulder. I hope this solves the question I receive often “what is Duck on a Rock”? from curious individuals.
The end product of Naismith invention today is the game every American whether Black or White love and heart so dearly called BASKETBALL.
How Basketball Was First Played
This game at the beginning required little equipment to play… there was two peach baskets that was hanged 10 feet above from the ground and a soccer-like ball that we refer to as basketball.
Basketball has one objective and that is to work together as a team to throw or bat the soccer ball into an opposition teams peach basket while making a defensive case to prevent a score from happening in your own side of the peach basket from an opposition team.
It’s obvious that you are aware that it’s very hard to get the ball out of the peach basket once an opposing team finally makes a score during the game. People suggested regularly that the ball was been pushed out with a poll while others objected that someone needed to actually climb up in order to bring down the ball.
Whether it was a poll been used or it was someone to climb, the players at those time wasn’t really great shooters. There was not enough play for them to worry too much about! The first game of basketball ever played recorded just one score throughout the game. Surely you will get to know more about the game latter on this post.
Before now, Naismith made the game for nine players on each of the participating teams. You may be wondering why he chooses Nine players at that time, but it was solely due to the number of students in his class as at that time which was just 18 students. What an icon he was.
He (Naismith), didn’t just stop at inventing a playable game but did everything within his power then to also create rules for the game which was Called ‘the 13 Rules of Basketball’.
The First Game of Basketball Ever Played
On the 21st of December, 1891, at the YMCA training school in Springfield, Massachusetts, the first game of basketball was played. It marked a ceremonial starting game as well.
By that time, the gyms was very little. They consisted of fairly 50 feet x 35 feet area which when you make a comparison of the modern and current courts are 94 feet x 53 feet.
On that very great and faithful day Dr. Naismith came to school and knew he was going to make a basketball history that would make the world remember him till eternity.
He went straight to the bulletin board and after a successful posting of the ‘3 Rules of Basketball’ on the board, he decided to map a peach basket to the rail below a balcony on each of the gym ends.
He splitted his 18 students to create two teams once they arrived school that day. The teams had nine players each. The game commenced as he was also teaching them the 13 rules of basketball.
This students at that time was ready to storm a game which was envisaged to change sports till eternity.
Of course bot the students and Naismith never knew this game was going to be very big in a matter of time and so have it gone from indoor to outdoor.
Here are the list of players who got involved in the First game of basketball ever played;
John J. Thompson, Eugene S. Libby, William R. Chase, T. Duncan Patton, William H. Davis, Lyman Archibald, Edwin P. Ruggles, Frank Mahan, Finlay G. MacDonald.
Genzabaro Ishikawa, Benjamin S. French, Franklin Barnes, George Day and Henry Gelan, George Weller, Wilbert Carey, Ernest Hildner, Raymond Kaighn,
The first basketball game ended 1 – 0. And Team 1 emerged winners of that game..
William R. Chase from 25 feet away from the basket scored the only goal of the game… He became the first player ever to score a goal during a game in basketball history! What a way to write his name in the history..
Naismith’s original rules
An illustration of a basketball game that accompanied Nasmith’s article from The Triangle in 1892 listing his 13 rules.
The rules of basketball were only 13 in number and below you can read them:
- You could use one or both hands to throw the ball in any direction you wanted.
- The players could bat the ball in their desired direction using one or both of the hands.
- Running with the ball is not acceptable in the game. a player could not run with the ball, the ball must be thrown by the player right from the spot he catches the ball. There should be allowance for the player that catches the ball to move.
- To start, the ball is to be held between the hands or in the hand. The ball should not be held in the body or arms.
- There should not be no tripping or striking, holding, pushing, nor shouldering the opponent in any way as it will be disallowed. Once any player infringes this rule for the first time during the game, it shall count as foul. Should the player repeat the infringement again, it shall disqualify him, pending when a goal is made. Should he be deemed intentional to injure a player for the entire game, he is as well disqualified.
- Any player who strikes the ball with his fist, commits foul. This is a violation or rule #3 and #4 as well as it is described in rule #5.
- Should both sides commit three fouls consecutively, it shall be counted as a goal for the opponents.
- Once a ball is thrown or batted right from grounds into the basket and remain in the basket, it will result in a goal. When the opponent moves the basket and the ball is thrown and rests on the edge, it shall count be seen as a goal.
- Should the ball move out of bounds, it should be thrown into the floor and then played by the first person to touch the ball. Should a dispute arise in this case, the referrer shall throw the ball straight to the floor. The “thrower-in” must be allowed for at least five seconds. Should the ball remain longer in his hand, it shall go to the opponent. Should any side remain resolute in delaying the game, the referrer shall call a foul on them.
- Umpire should be the judge of the players and he should preside over the game and note the fouls. He should be the one to notify the referee once a foul has been committed three consecutive times.
- The referee should be the decision maker for the ball and should make decision as to when the ball is in play, in-bounds, and as well as the side it belongs, and should keep time. He is to detect when a goal occurs and record the goals as they occurs with other official duties assigned to him as a referee.
- The game time is fifteen-minutes per halve and there should be a five minutes rests between.
- Any side that makes the higher goal during the game time is declared the winner of the game. should there be a draw, by agreement of both sides captains, the game could keep going till another goal occurs and a winner will emerge.
Basketball in American colleges
The early basketball levels featured a lot of activities that was done outside of YMCAs which was seen in colleges in America. The very first and popularly known U.S College that played a basketball against outside visitors or opponents was the Vanderbilt University and the school played against a Local YMCA in the Nashville town of Tennessee which happened on the 7th day of February 1893. Another basketball game happened as a college basketball in Geneva College’s game which happened against the New Brighton YMCA on April 8, 1893 at the Beaver falls, in Pennsylvania. Geneva College won the New Brighton by 3-0.
A game was recorded for the first time between two known college teams and it took place on the 9th day of February in the year 1895. The game featured Hamline University, a school that faced Minnesota A&M. this game ended in favor of the Minnesota A&M by 9-3 and was played under a rule that created space for 9 players per team. The most recent used modern rule that allow five players for each of the teams can be credited to a game between the University of Iowa and University of Chicago. The game took place in the Iowa City on 18th day of January 1896.
The Chicago team consisted of a team which was lead and organized by Amos Alonzo Stagg, who learned the game passionately from Dr. Naismith at the Springfield YMCA, won the basketball game 15-12. (Most sources that we have come across, states that the very first “true” five-on-five intermediate game happened between Yale and Penn in the year 1897, mainly due to the fact that the Iowa team which played Chicago in the 1896 game was really a game that consisted of university of Iowa students, though the school didn’t officially make a well representation of the University of Iowa but was been organized through a YMCA). This game called basketball went rampant on almost all universities and colleges in the countries
The U.S Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) by the year 1897 had taken over basketball oversight activities from the YMCA organization. In 1905 April, representatives of about fifteen Universities and colleges differently took over control of those college game, and created the collegiate “Basket Ball Rule Committee”. In the year 1909, the committee of the game’s rule then became absorbed into a predeceasing body of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The Popular body NCAA Men’s Tournament of Basketball took effect in the year 1939.
First international games
Basketball game developed immediately and almost instantly, after it arrived in Europe. Saint Petersburg witnessed the very first international basketball match in the year 1909. The hosting side being Mayak Saint Petersburg beat a YMCA American team. The very first European event took place in Joinville-le-Pont in the year 1919, very close to Paris and it happened during the Inter-Allied Games event.
A great and famous player called Max Friedman led a United States Future hall of Fame player won against France and Italy. Then Italy won another game against France. This game led the exposure of basketball in the French and Italian territories. During those days games, Italian teams wore a white shirt that had the House of savoy shield enclosed on the shirts and the list of Italian players were;
- Giuseppe Sessa
- Marco Muggiani
Formation of FIBA
The basketball game during its growth face saw an international organizing body formed on the 18th day of June in the year 1932, which is a body which was formed with the aim of coordinating tournaments and teams: on that very day, Czechoslovakia, Italy, Greece, Argentina, Switzerland, Latvia, Romania and Portugal formed the international Basketball Federation (Fédération internationale de basketball amateur, FIBA) Body in Geneva to govern and regulate the game. The organization’s first inclusion decision in basketball was first noticed at the Berlin Olympic Games which took place in the year 1936. The U.S. national team heartily won the first Olympic title. The competition was seconded by Canada who emerged runner-up. The competition happened on an outdoor court which was clay as at then. Later on, the first World Championship took place in Argentina in the year 1950.
The national team of U.S in the first Olympic tournament consisted;
- Ralph Bishop
- Tex Gibbons
- Joe Fortenberry
- Carl Knowles
- Sam Balter
- Francis Johnson
- Frank Lubin,
- Art Mollner
- Jack Ragland
- Duane Swanson
- Willard Schmidt
- Carl Shy
- Bill Wheatley
- and the trainer: James Needles
- Donald Piper
This particular basketball league was first seen on the 6th day of june 1946 and formed into a regulatory body called Association of America (BAA) in New York City. The name of this league was later changed in the year 1949 and then became National Basketball Association (NBA) after making a Merge with their rival league called the National Basketball League (NBL). During the 21st century when the game began, it was recorded that NBA was the most better and successful professional basketball league ever played in the world in terms of how popular the league was both in talented players, salary-wise as well as the level of play in the competition.
American Basketball Association
An organization was formed that was known as the American Basketball Association (ABA) as a substitute of the NBA in the year 1967 which was a time when the NBA was gradually gaining lots of attention and popularity. The ABA which can into existence immediately brought its own ethos and style of game as an alternative, and even changed the games rules. The leading player in the league that helped launch a stunning modern style of play was Erving Julius. His playing style was mainly based on leaping and above the rim plays. His strength was absolutely phenomenon and played a vital role in legitimizing the American Basketball Association, Whether it’s the wild promotions, the manner or patterns of play, the color of the ball (blue, red, white, or yellow) or even the three-point shot.
The basketball league suffered lots of low national recognition as earnings were too low, it lead the leaders and organizing bodies to sort a way to curtail the problems the league were facing. A possible solution became Merging with an already established and successful NBA league. The ABA league suffocated into the NBA league in the summer of the year 1976. The ABA also had four very successful franchises which suddenly got incorporated into the older league (the New York Nets, Denver Nuggets, Indiana Pacers, and San Antonio Spurs). At this point the three-point shot and aggressive loose style of play as well was adopted and incorporated by the NBA.
African Americans in basketball
With discrimination and racial segregation all over that almost killed and affected the game thoroughly, black American basketball teams (Black Fives) were formed during the year 1904. A lot of all-black teams came into existence during the Black Fives Era, in the cities of Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Chicago, New york, and Washington and other cities.
The very first fully organized and independent all-black basketball teams were formed in the year 1906 as amateur teams. The teams which got the recognition included;
- the smart set athletic club of Brooklyn and
- the St. Christopher club of new york city
All-black Olympian Athletic League came into existence in the city of New York as amateur team in the year 1907. The league consisted of the
- Marathon Athletic Club
- Alpha Physical Culture Club
- The Jersey City Colored YMCA
- St. Christopher Club and
- The Smart Set Athletic Club
In the year 1907, the very first and amazing inter-city history of basketball game occurred between two great black teams known as the Smart Set Athletic Club of Brooklyn who visited their rivals in Washington DC to sort it out with the Crescent Athletic Club.
The Smart Set Athletic Club of Brooklyn which was a full member of the Olympian Athletic league was renamed and known as the first Colored Basketball World’s Champion in the year 1908.
The University of Howard had its very first competitive game against the counterpart in the year 1910.
Both the first all-black professional team and the commonwealth Five team was created in the year 1922. And in 1923 the New York Renaissance was as well created.
History was made in 1939 when the all-black New York Renaissance won the all-white Oshkosh All-Stars in the Pro Basketball Tournament for the world.
The late 1920s saw an African American called Harlem Globetrotters emerge successful with his touring team that won the WPBT back then in the year 1940
Racially, the all-white National Basketball League (NBL) started to make integration in the year 1942 having just 10 black Basketball players that joined two teams, which were the Chicago Studebakers and the Toledo Jim White Chevrolets. Having three black players that achieved a milestone in the period of two years after the League was founded; the NBA got integrated in 1950-51 seasons. A draft was immediately held amid interests in the new season, and the first black player to be drafted by an NBA team became Chuck Cooper. Shortly, Nat Clifton became the very first black basketball player that signed an NBA contract after the draft. The first black player that appeared in an NBA game when his team started its new season before Clifton’s or Cooper’s was Earl Lloyd.
The Harlem Globetrotters began to put their focus on international touring and performances exhibitions that saw comic routine become inclusive after the integration of the NBA. These tours ensure there was enough recognition and popularity of basketball internationally. It as well helped the Globetrotters the maximum reputation they required as Basketball ambassadors.
The popular National Basketball (NBA) is now known for how it has helped in popularizing this game in so many different countries. An unlimited portion of this is simply because of the transcendent skillful players who have played this game for a long period of time. Michael Jordan played a lot of role with his style of play and it helped to make Basketball reach a large international audience, specifically in the year 1992 as United States Men’s Olympic Basketball team was named the Dream Team.
After Michael Jordan’s final championship and his 1998 sudden retirement for a second time, enough space was made for anyone who wanted to become the next basketball skillful player. Kobe Bryant advanced to win the three straight championships that happened from 2000-2002 with the help of Shaquille O’Neal and it happened with Los Angeles Lakers. They helped in popularizing Basketball in many countries around the world, with china one of the top countries that welcomed Basketball with warm arms. In 2009 and 2010, a lot of other championship victories helped raise O’Neal’s Popularity the more. He went on to make an announcement of his retirement in 2015 to take effect in the next season being the 2016 season, by then he must have enjoyed over 20 successful seasons.
LeBron James did all his best to bring alive the game of basketball in revolution. In 2003, he was made the best pick of all in the NBA Draft by the Cleveland Cavaliers, since then he has done everything within his should to become the new face of NBA League and basketball game across the globe. In 2010, he joined the Miami Heat from the Cavaliers with Dwayne Wade and Chris Bosh in a very controversial decision as the world looked upon it. He further won the championships back to back in 2012 and 2013 before coming back to the cavaliers in the year 2014 and further went on to clinch his third championship in the year 2016. Then on the 1st day of July in the year 2018, LeBron James backed his loads out from Cavaliers and joined the Los Angeles Lakers.
Talking about history of Basketball summary, there are many professional players of international standard who have really helped to make Basketball have a global effect. Yao Ming is another player has been the most noticeable of all players. With the number one overall selection back then in the year 2002 by the Houston Rockets, he got a great reputation as the first Chinese player to be selected. Yao Ming style of play and presence in the NBA helped to draw great attention in all parts of Asia.
The basketball style of play has since evolved beyond skill over the past decades. Specifically in the year 1990’s and 2000’s, Basketball was an important game to men of caliber. By that time, the game of basketball was very slow-paced and players were as well very defensive minded. Teams like Golden State Warriors and the San Antonio Spurs have really made team play and ball movement very common. It has since then fades away from this origin pattern of play. The game is now moving the upward trend and most teams are now very concerned in making lot of three-point shootings while taking the offensive route. One great player we know too well is Stephen Curry who is the Golden State Warriors player; he has been absolutely phenomenon in setting trends with his abilities to shoot the ball. Really he has revolutionized and popularize great notion in the youths ability to shoot great shots.
WOMEN’S BASKETBALL HISTORY
Women’s basketball came into existence in Tandem in the late 1800’s alongside the men’s basketball. Ever since then it has become a popular sporting event in almost all parts of the world ranging from the East Cost of the United States to the West Coast, in an unprecedented amount through the women’s colleges. Netball was the best term used to refer to the “women’s Basketball” from the year 1895 to 1970. It had a parallel evolution that matches the modern women’s basketball. Of all the countries where this sport has been introduced to women, the most popular country its ben played on seems to be the United States of America.
A lot of top national teams from different continental Championships played in the Women’s Olympic Basketball Tournament and FIBA Women’s basketball World Cup. The greatest league in the North America is the WNBA (NCAA Women’s Division 1 Basketball Championship is also a popular league), while lots of great and strong teams from Europe takes part in the EuroLeague Women.
Early women’s basketball history
Women’s basketball started in the fall of the year 1892 in a college called Smith College. A teacher called Senda Berenson who were hired as a director for Physical Culture at the Smith College, taught started teaching basketball to her students and hoped the activities of basketball were going to improve the physical health conditions of the students.
Basketball when it started became the first women’s team sport, closely followed by hockey, rowing, and Volleyball. This game is created as an addition to existing team games as baseball and football. The people who started the game in the early days were in partnership with YMCAs as well as Colleges all over the United States. Women’s basketball drew lots of attention and spread all over the country so quickly.
Berenson took lots of risk that 80% of teachers won’t take in teaching women basketball. The Victorian culture in the nineteenth-century laid emphasis on the Fragility of women and rather prioritized the status of women. However, Berenson expresses a great concern on how women were suffering from “Nervous Fatigue” when they faced a strenuous game. She then began teaching women lots of modified rules for basketball in order to help keep the games acceptable for the women to play at Victorian ideals of gentility and refinement.
She created lots of space for nine women to participate in a game per team and as well had the court divided into three areas or section. Each of this section had three women players assigned to it which was (guard, center and forward), they were as well restricted from crossing from one section to another. Rather to move the ball, they will either have to dribble or pass the ball from section to section. Every player was as well limited to have just three dribbles and in conjunction, had to be in possession of the ball for three seconds.
There was absolutely avoidance of ball snatching from one player or another. After every score, the need for a center jump arose during the game. Lots of the rules that Berenson putted in place had huge variations which went viral across the country through YMCAs and women’s Colleges that had educated mid-range class women who followed the recent trend in men’s basketball sport.
The first and early basketball games were played with soccer balls and peach baskets which were similar to men’s game. Though the outfits and uniforms of women players showed they were from the Victorian culture most times and had to be practical with their styles of play. Even at that, they had the world respect them and the game entirely, because they maintain femininity and dignity through women athletics.
While women of upper-class were beforehand playing sports in their country’s club from the war go and century, they have lots of advantage that helped them participate in games and activities like croquet in full-length skirts and tennis plus corsets. At that time basketball attires like tennis one’s were simply imperfect for the women, so the women had to wear a trouser in the sport for a first time. They were happy with the loose and covered knee length skirts they wore but shortly those pant-like dresses were reverted and changed through using loose bloomers over stockings. Even though the college games for women were forbidden for men to watch, the women’s attire still caught lots of attention and drew public ridicule.
Basically, the first inter-college women’s basketball game occurred on the 4th of April 1896 between two teams which were: Stanford University and the University of California, Berkeley. Berenson’s focus of creating this game for women was for fitness and health purpose and so she opposed the inter-college game at the beginning. She taught women were graduating from college were bound to enter the labor market to seek for paid jobs to sustain their lives out of their homes.
So she stressed it was a health-related setback and saw the inter college games as an option that could limit women’s opportunities in the society for equal wages. So many other coaches believed in her approach for lots of century. An athletic foundation called the National Amateur Athletic Foundation was created for women’s branch in the year 1920, and it was an organizing body with the goal to keep women’s sports Non-competitive by discouraging traveling games and awards to women, as well as making a publicity discouragement while placing women coaches and their administrators in charge of women’s sports.
Recent women’s basketball
Australia women’s national basketball team on winning the 2006 FIBA World Championship
Women’s basketball grew steadily in popularity all over the world for almost a decade. The sport drew the overwhelming attention of the international Olympic Committee around 1970s. the committee then added women’s basketball to their official Olympic games sport list in 1976 while in 1936 the men had the debut.
All through 1970s, women’s basketball unexpectedly had a rapid rise in funding amid interest of schools that received federal funding which were in compliance with new state laws that ensured there was no discrimination of human sex in the game. At the college level, basketball was as well gaining lots of attraction and attention under the auspices of the association called “the Association of Intercollegiate Athletics for Women” (AIAW). The major women’s basketball development happened in the year 1982 as the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) started sponsoring women’s basketball. Then the NBA started funding the WNBA in the year 1996 after so many failed attempts at women’s professional leagues in the U.S.
Basketball national championship was first televised in the year 1979. The television collaboration was led by Ivy Kirkpatrick who was a member of Austin State University and the broadcast was between NBC Sports and the AIAW. The only game which got broadcasted on the television was the Title game between the Louisiana Tech University and the Old Dominion University. Old Dominion University won that game. Ever since that game, every other women’s game was televised as an annual event including the Women’s Final Four, this is all about basketball history we have for you now. | <urn:uuid:889e6fa6-2f15-4af7-a3e0-76b94a242829> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.recreationtipsy.com/basketball-history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00207.warc.gz | en | 0.983586 | 6,225 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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basketball history is a bit complicated as writers made it to be. Often than not, I receive a question that every basketball player who is dedicated wants to know and that question is who created Basketball?
Well today on recreation tipsy, I am going to be specific to these question and tell you who invented this game and how it came into existence for both men and women.
It’s very funny that 90% of the players don’t know the father of basketball and how it came into existence. In as much as it is funny, it’s also important that you get to know the history of your loved hobby, how the game originated from the world go.
Who Invented Basketball game?
The basketball origin dates as far back as December 1891. It is a Canadian man called JAMES NAISMITH that created the game.
The inventor of basketball (Naismith) taught at the YMCA training school located in Springfield, Massachusetts as a teacher. His duty was simply to train the young and youth men and women who loved basketball to attain an instructors height at newly created YMCA centers.
Dr. James Naismith
During December 1891, Naismith was told by the schools high ranking officer of physical education, Dr. Luther .H. Gulick, that he need to create an indoor game that was supposed to keep the youth both men and women warm during the cold and winter months since the cold weather was keeping the class indoors.
Having received this request and instruction with a warm heart, Naismith began his journey to create a whelming indoor game that his class would enjoy while the weather was cold. He wrote something that explains his game creation ethics many years later in a diary and it reads….
“I felt this was a crucial moment in my life as it meant success or failure of my attempt to hold the interest of the class and devise a new game”
Naismith achieved the creation of a game which focuses on skill rather than strenght with the help of his wife alongside some memories he had back then when he was a child playing ‘Duck on a Rock’.
‘Duck on a Rock’ was a game that allowed its players to throw a rock at some certain target which was placed on the top of a tree stump or large boulder. I hope this solves the question I receive often “what is Duck on a Rock”? from curious individuals.
The end product of Naismith invention today is the game every American whether Black or White love and heart so dearly called BASKETBALL.
How Basketball Was First Played
This game at the beginning required little equipment to play… there was two peach baskets that was hanged 10 feet above from the ground and a soccer-like ball that we refer to as basketball.
Basketball has one objective and that is to work together as a team to throw or bat the soccer ball into an opposition teams peach basket while making a defensive case to prevent a score from happening in your own side of the peach basket from an opposition team.
It’s obvious that you are aware that it’s very hard to get the ball out of the peach basket once an opposing team finally makes a score during the game. People suggested regularly that the ball was been pushed out with a poll while others objected that someone needed to actually climb up in order to bring down the ball.
Whether it was a poll been used or it was someone to climb, the players at those time wasn’t really great shooters. There was not enough play for them to worry too much about! The first game of basketball ever played recorded just one score throughout the game. Surely you will get to know more about the game latter on this post.
Before now, Naismith made the game for nine players on each of the participating teams. You may be wondering why he chooses Nine players at that time, but it was solely due to the number of students in his class as at that time which was just 18 students. What an icon he was.
He (Naismith), didn’t just stop at inventing a playable game but did everything within his power then to also create rules for the game which was Called ‘the 13 Rules of Basketball’.
The First Game of Basketball Ever Played
On the 21st of December, 1891, at the YMCA training school in Springfield, Massachusetts, the first game of basketball was played. It marked a ceremonial starting game as well.
By that time, the gyms was very little. They consisted of fairly 50 feet x 35 feet area which when you make a comparison of the modern and current courts are 94 feet x 53 feet.
On that very great and faithful day Dr. Naismith came to school and knew he was going to make a basketball history that would make the world remember him till eternity.
He went straight to the bulletin board and after a successful posting of the ‘3 Rules of Basketball’ on the board, he decided to map a peach basket to the rail below a balcony on each of the gym ends.
He splitted his 18 students to create two teams once they arrived school that day. The teams had nine players each. The game commenced as he was also teaching them the 13 rules of basketball.
This students at that time was ready to storm a game which was envisaged to change sports till eternity.
Of course bot the students and Naismith never knew this game was going to be very big in a matter of time and so have it gone from indoor to outdoor.
Here are the list of players who got involved in the First game of basketball ever played;
John J. Thompson, Eugene S. Libby, William R. Chase, T. Duncan Patton, William H. Davis, Lyman Archibald, Edwin P. Ruggles, Frank Mahan, Finlay G. MacDonald.
Genzabaro Ishikawa, Benjamin S. French, Franklin Barnes, George Day and Henry Gelan, George Weller, Wilbert Carey, Ernest Hildner, Raymond Kaighn,
The first basketball game ended 1 – 0. And Team 1 emerged winners of that game..
William R. Chase from 25 feet away from the basket scored the only goal of the game… He became the first player ever to score a goal during a game in basketball history! What a way to write his name in the history..
Naismith’s original rules
An illustration of a basketball game that accompanied Nasmith’s article from The Triangle in 1892 listing his 13 rules.
The rules of basketball were only 13 in number and below you can read them:
- You could use one or both hands to throw the ball in any direction you wanted.
- The players could bat the ball in their desired direction using one or both of the hands.
- Running with the ball is not acceptable in the game. a player could not run with the ball, the ball must be thrown by the player right from the spot he catches the ball. There should be allowance for the player that catches the ball to move.
- To start, the ball is to be held between the hands or in the hand. The ball should not be held in the body or arms.
- There should not be no tripping or striking, holding, pushing, nor shouldering the opponent in any way as it will be disallowed. Once any player infringes this rule for the first time during the game, it shall count as foul. Should the player repeat the infringement again, it shall disqualify him, pending when a goal is made. Should he be deemed intentional to injure a player for the entire game, he is as well disqualified.
- Any player who strikes the ball with his fist, commits foul. This is a violation or rule #3 and #4 as well as it is described in rule #5.
- Should both sides commit three fouls consecutively, it shall be counted as a goal for the opponents.
- Once a ball is thrown or batted right from grounds into the basket and remain in the basket, it will result in a goal. When the opponent moves the basket and the ball is thrown and rests on the edge, it shall count be seen as a goal.
- Should the ball move out of bounds, it should be thrown into the floor and then played by the first person to touch the ball. Should a dispute arise in this case, the referrer shall throw the ball straight to the floor. The “thrower-in” must be allowed for at least five seconds. Should the ball remain longer in his hand, it shall go to the opponent. Should any side remain resolute in delaying the game, the referrer shall call a foul on them.
- Umpire should be the judge of the players and he should preside over the game and note the fouls. He should be the one to notify the referee once a foul has been committed three consecutive times.
- The referee should be the decision maker for the ball and should make decision as to when the ball is in play, in-bounds, and as well as the side it belongs, and should keep time. He is to detect when a goal occurs and record the goals as they occurs with other official duties assigned to him as a referee.
- The game time is fifteen-minutes per halve and there should be a five minutes rests between.
- Any side that makes the higher goal during the game time is declared the winner of the game. should there be a draw, by agreement of both sides captains, the game could keep going till another goal occurs and a winner will emerge.
Basketball in American colleges
The early basketball levels featured a lot of activities that was done outside of YMCAs which was seen in colleges in America. The very first and popularly known U.S College that played a basketball against outside visitors or opponents was the Vanderbilt University and the school played against a Local YMCA in the Nashville town of Tennessee which happened on the 7th day of February 1893. Another basketball game happened as a college basketball in Geneva College’s game which happened against the New Brighton YMCA on April 8, 1893 at the Beaver falls, in Pennsylvania. Geneva College won the New Brighton by 3-0.
A game was recorded for the first time between two known college teams and it took place on the 9th day of February in the year 1895. The game featured Hamline University, a school that faced Minnesota A&M. this game ended in favor of the Minnesota A&M by 9-3 and was played under a rule that created space for 9 players per team. The most recent used modern rule that allow five players for each of the teams can be credited to a game between the University of Iowa and University of Chicago. The game took place in the Iowa City on 18th day of January 1896.
The Chicago team consisted of a team which was lead and organized by Amos Alonzo Stagg, who learned the game passionately from Dr. Naismith at the Springfield YMCA, won the basketball game 15-12. (Most sources that we have come across, states that the very first “true” five-on-five intermediate game happened between Yale and Penn in the year 1897, mainly due to the fact that the Iowa team which played Chicago in the 1896 game was really a game that consisted of university of Iowa students, though the school didn’t officially make a well representation of the University of Iowa but was been organized through a YMCA). This game called basketball went rampant on almost all universities and colleges in the countries
The U.S Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) by the year 1897 had taken over basketball oversight activities from the YMCA organization. In 1905 April, representatives of about fifteen Universities and colleges differently took over control of those college game, and created the collegiate “Basket Ball Rule Committee”. In the year 1909, the committee of the game’s rule then became absorbed into a predeceasing body of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The Popular body NCAA Men’s Tournament of Basketball took effect in the year 1939.
First international games
Basketball game developed immediately and almost instantly, after it arrived in Europe. Saint Petersburg witnessed the very first international basketball match in the year 1909. The hosting side being Mayak Saint Petersburg beat a YMCA American team. The very first European event took place in Joinville-le-Pont in the year 1919, very close to Paris and it happened during the Inter-Allied Games event.
A great and famous player called Max Friedman led a United States Future hall of Fame player won against France and Italy. Then Italy won another game against France. This game led the exposure of basketball in the French and Italian territories. During those days games, Italian teams wore a white shirt that had the House of savoy shield enclosed on the shirts and the list of Italian players were;
- Giuseppe Sessa
- Marco Muggiani
Formation of FIBA
The basketball game during its growth face saw an international organizing body formed on the 18th day of June in the year 1932, which is a body which was formed with the aim of coordinating tournaments and teams: on that very day, Czechoslovakia, Italy, Greece, Argentina, Switzerland, Latvia, Romania and Portugal formed the international Basketball Federation (Fédération internationale de basketball amateur, FIBA) Body in Geneva to govern and regulate the game. The organization’s first inclusion decision in basketball was first noticed at the Berlin Olympic Games which took place in the year 1936. The U.S. national team heartily won the first Olympic title. The competition was seconded by Canada who emerged runner-up. The competition happened on an outdoor court which was clay as at then. Later on, the first World Championship took place in Argentina in the year 1950.
The national team of U.S in the first Olympic tournament consisted;
- Ralph Bishop
- Tex Gibbons
- Joe Fortenberry
- Carl Knowles
- Sam Balter
- Francis Johnson
- Frank Lubin,
- Art Mollner
- Jack Ragland
- Duane Swanson
- Willard Schmidt
- Carl Shy
- Bill Wheatley
- and the trainer: James Needles
- Donald Piper
This particular basketball league was first seen on the 6th day of june 1946 and formed into a regulatory body called Association of America (BAA) in New York City. The name of this league was later changed in the year 1949 and then became National Basketball Association (NBA) after making a Merge with their rival league called the National Basketball League (NBL). During the 21st century when the game began, it was recorded that NBA was the most better and successful professional basketball league ever played in the world in terms of how popular the league was both in talented players, salary-wise as well as the level of play in the competition.
American Basketball Association
An organization was formed that was known as the American Basketball Association (ABA) as a substitute of the NBA in the year 1967 which was a time when the NBA was gradually gaining lots of attention and popularity. The ABA which can into existence immediately brought its own ethos and style of game as an alternative, and even changed the games rules. The leading player in the league that helped launch a stunning modern style of play was Erving Julius. His playing style was mainly based on leaping and above the rim plays. His strength was absolutely phenomenon and played a vital role in legitimizing the American Basketball Association, Whether it’s the wild promotions, the manner or patterns of play, the color of the ball (blue, red, white, or yellow) or even the three-point shot.
The basketball league suffered lots of low national recognition as earnings were too low, it lead the leaders and organizing bodies to sort a way to curtail the problems the league were facing. A possible solution became Merging with an already established and successful NBA league. The ABA league suffocated into the NBA league in the summer of the year 1976. The ABA also had four very successful franchises which suddenly got incorporated into the older league (the New York Nets, Denver Nuggets, Indiana Pacers, and San Antonio Spurs). At this point the three-point shot and aggressive loose style of play as well was adopted and incorporated by the NBA.
African Americans in basketball
With discrimination and racial segregation all over that almost killed and affected the game thoroughly, black American basketball teams (Black Fives) were formed during the year 1904. A lot of all-black teams came into existence during the Black Fives Era, in the cities of Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Chicago, New york, and Washington and other cities.
The very first fully organized and independent all-black basketball teams were formed in the year 1906 as amateur teams. The teams which got the recognition included;
- the smart set athletic club of Brooklyn and
- the St. Christopher club of new york city
All-black Olympian Athletic League came into existence in the city of New York as amateur team in the year 1907. The league consisted of the
- Marathon Athletic Club
- Alpha Physical Culture Club
- The Jersey City Colored YMCA
- St. Christopher Club and
- The Smart Set Athletic Club
In the year 1907, the very first and amazing inter-city history of basketball game occurred between two great black teams known as the Smart Set Athletic Club of Brooklyn who visited their rivals in Washington DC to sort it out with the Crescent Athletic Club.
The Smart Set Athletic Club of Brooklyn which was a full member of the Olympian Athletic league was renamed and known as the first Colored Basketball World’s Champion in the year 1908.
The University of Howard had its very first competitive game against the counterpart in the year 1910.
Both the first all-black professional team and the commonwealth Five team was created in the year 1922. And in 1923 the New York Renaissance was as well created.
History was made in 1939 when the all-black New York Renaissance won the all-white Oshkosh All-Stars in the Pro Basketball Tournament for the world.
The late 1920s saw an African American called Harlem Globetrotters emerge successful with his touring team that won the WPBT back then in the year 1940
Racially, the all-white National Basketball League (NBL) started to make integration in the year 1942 having just 10 black Basketball players that joined two teams, which were the Chicago Studebakers and the Toledo Jim White Chevrolets. Having three black players that achieved a milestone in the period of two years after the League was founded; the NBA got integrated in 1950-51 seasons. A draft was immediately held amid interests in the new season, and the first black player to be drafted by an NBA team became Chuck Cooper. Shortly, Nat Clifton became the very first black basketball player that signed an NBA contract after the draft. The first black player that appeared in an NBA game when his team started its new season before Clifton’s or Cooper’s was Earl Lloyd.
The Harlem Globetrotters began to put their focus on international touring and performances exhibitions that saw comic routine become inclusive after the integration of the NBA. These tours ensure there was enough recognition and popularity of basketball internationally. It as well helped the Globetrotters the maximum reputation they required as Basketball ambassadors.
The popular National Basketball (NBA) is now known for how it has helped in popularizing this game in so many different countries. An unlimited portion of this is simply because of the transcendent skillful players who have played this game for a long period of time. Michael Jordan played a lot of role with his style of play and it helped to make Basketball reach a large international audience, specifically in the year 1992 as United States Men’s Olympic Basketball team was named the Dream Team.
After Michael Jordan’s final championship and his 1998 sudden retirement for a second time, enough space was made for anyone who wanted to become the next basketball skillful player. Kobe Bryant advanced to win the three straight championships that happened from 2000-2002 with the help of Shaquille O’Neal and it happened with Los Angeles Lakers. They helped in popularizing Basketball in many countries around the world, with china one of the top countries that welcomed Basketball with warm arms. In 2009 and 2010, a lot of other championship victories helped raise O’Neal’s Popularity the more. He went on to make an announcement of his retirement in 2015 to take effect in the next season being the 2016 season, by then he must have enjoyed over 20 successful seasons.
LeBron James did all his best to bring alive the game of basketball in revolution. In 2003, he was made the best pick of all in the NBA Draft by the Cleveland Cavaliers, since then he has done everything within his should to become the new face of NBA League and basketball game across the globe. In 2010, he joined the Miami Heat from the Cavaliers with Dwayne Wade and Chris Bosh in a very controversial decision as the world looked upon it. He further won the championships back to back in 2012 and 2013 before coming back to the cavaliers in the year 2014 and further went on to clinch his third championship in the year 2016. Then on the 1st day of July in the year 2018, LeBron James backed his loads out from Cavaliers and joined the Los Angeles Lakers.
Talking about history of Basketball summary, there are many professional players of international standard who have really helped to make Basketball have a global effect. Yao Ming is another player has been the most noticeable of all players. With the number one overall selection back then in the year 2002 by the Houston Rockets, he got a great reputation as the first Chinese player to be selected. Yao Ming style of play and presence in the NBA helped to draw great attention in all parts of Asia.
The basketball style of play has since evolved beyond skill over the past decades. Specifically in the year 1990’s and 2000’s, Basketball was an important game to men of caliber. By that time, the game of basketball was very slow-paced and players were as well very defensive minded. Teams like Golden State Warriors and the San Antonio Spurs have really made team play and ball movement very common. It has since then fades away from this origin pattern of play. The game is now moving the upward trend and most teams are now very concerned in making lot of three-point shootings while taking the offensive route. One great player we know too well is Stephen Curry who is the Golden State Warriors player; he has been absolutely phenomenon in setting trends with his abilities to shoot the ball. Really he has revolutionized and popularize great notion in the youths ability to shoot great shots.
WOMEN’S BASKETBALL HISTORY
Women’s basketball came into existence in Tandem in the late 1800’s alongside the men’s basketball. Ever since then it has become a popular sporting event in almost all parts of the world ranging from the East Cost of the United States to the West Coast, in an unprecedented amount through the women’s colleges. Netball was the best term used to refer to the “women’s Basketball” from the year 1895 to 1970. It had a parallel evolution that matches the modern women’s basketball. Of all the countries where this sport has been introduced to women, the most popular country its ben played on seems to be the United States of America.
A lot of top national teams from different continental Championships played in the Women’s Olympic Basketball Tournament and FIBA Women’s basketball World Cup. The greatest league in the North America is the WNBA (NCAA Women’s Division 1 Basketball Championship is also a popular league), while lots of great and strong teams from Europe takes part in the EuroLeague Women.
Early women’s basketball history
Women’s basketball started in the fall of the year 1892 in a college called Smith College. A teacher called Senda Berenson who were hired as a director for Physical Culture at the Smith College, taught started teaching basketball to her students and hoped the activities of basketball were going to improve the physical health conditions of the students.
Basketball when it started became the first women’s team sport, closely followed by hockey, rowing, and Volleyball. This game is created as an addition to existing team games as baseball and football. The people who started the game in the early days were in partnership with YMCAs as well as Colleges all over the United States. Women’s basketball drew lots of attention and spread all over the country so quickly.
Berenson took lots of risk that 80% of teachers won’t take in teaching women basketball. The Victorian culture in the nineteenth-century laid emphasis on the Fragility of women and rather prioritized the status of women. However, Berenson expresses a great concern on how women were suffering from “Nervous Fatigue” when they faced a strenuous game. She then began teaching women lots of modified rules for basketball in order to help keep the games acceptable for the women to play at Victorian ideals of gentility and refinement.
She created lots of space for nine women to participate in a game per team and as well had the court divided into three areas or section. Each of this section had three women players assigned to it which was (guard, center and forward), they were as well restricted from crossing from one section to another. Rather to move the ball, they will either have to dribble or pass the ball from section to section. Every player was as well limited to have just three dribbles and in conjunction, had to be in possession of the ball for three seconds.
There was absolutely avoidance of ball snatching from one player or another. After every score, the need for a center jump arose during the game. Lots of the rules that Berenson putted in place had huge variations which went viral across the country through YMCAs and women’s Colleges that had educated mid-range class women who followed the recent trend in men’s basketball sport.
The first and early basketball games were played with soccer balls and peach baskets which were similar to men’s game. Though the outfits and uniforms of women players showed they were from the Victorian culture most times and had to be practical with their styles of play. Even at that, they had the world respect them and the game entirely, because they maintain femininity and dignity through women athletics.
While women of upper-class were beforehand playing sports in their country’s club from the war go and century, they have lots of advantage that helped them participate in games and activities like croquet in full-length skirts and tennis plus corsets. At that time basketball attires like tennis one’s were simply imperfect for the women, so the women had to wear a trouser in the sport for a first time. They were happy with the loose and covered knee length skirts they wore but shortly those pant-like dresses were reverted and changed through using loose bloomers over stockings. Even though the college games for women were forbidden for men to watch, the women’s attire still caught lots of attention and drew public ridicule.
Basically, the first inter-college women’s basketball game occurred on the 4th of April 1896 between two teams which were: Stanford University and the University of California, Berkeley. Berenson’s focus of creating this game for women was for fitness and health purpose and so she opposed the inter-college game at the beginning. She taught women were graduating from college were bound to enter the labor market to seek for paid jobs to sustain their lives out of their homes.
So she stressed it was a health-related setback and saw the inter college games as an option that could limit women’s opportunities in the society for equal wages. So many other coaches believed in her approach for lots of century. An athletic foundation called the National Amateur Athletic Foundation was created for women’s branch in the year 1920, and it was an organizing body with the goal to keep women’s sports Non-competitive by discouraging traveling games and awards to women, as well as making a publicity discouragement while placing women coaches and their administrators in charge of women’s sports.
Recent women’s basketball
Australia women’s national basketball team on winning the 2006 FIBA World Championship
Women’s basketball grew steadily in popularity all over the world for almost a decade. The sport drew the overwhelming attention of the international Olympic Committee around 1970s. the committee then added women’s basketball to their official Olympic games sport list in 1976 while in 1936 the men had the debut.
All through 1970s, women’s basketball unexpectedly had a rapid rise in funding amid interest of schools that received federal funding which were in compliance with new state laws that ensured there was no discrimination of human sex in the game. At the college level, basketball was as well gaining lots of attraction and attention under the auspices of the association called “the Association of Intercollegiate Athletics for Women” (AIAW). The major women’s basketball development happened in the year 1982 as the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) started sponsoring women’s basketball. Then the NBA started funding the WNBA in the year 1996 after so many failed attempts at women’s professional leagues in the U.S.
Basketball national championship was first televised in the year 1979. The television collaboration was led by Ivy Kirkpatrick who was a member of Austin State University and the broadcast was between NBC Sports and the AIAW. The only game which got broadcasted on the television was the Title game between the Louisiana Tech University and the Old Dominion University. Old Dominion University won that game. Ever since that game, every other women’s game was televised as an annual event including the Women’s Final Four, this is all about basketball history we have for you now. | 6,280 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the 1860s James Clerk Maxwell predicted the existence of radio waves which was the start of anything for radio technology. Heinrich Rudolph Hertz proved that accelerated variations of an electric current that could be calculated into space form in the space of radio waves, similar to light and heat waves. In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi had thought to be the first person to prove radio communication as he had sent the first radio signal to Italy. He had flashed the first wireless signal for the English channel. Nikola Tesla is the owner of being the first person to patent radio technology. Tesla has found out that he could send and receive strong and fierce radio signals when were tuned to re sound at the same level. He found this out in the early 1995 but then his lab was set on fire and all his work was demolished.In 1837, John Deere created the steel plow when the Middle-West was settling in. Since the soil was different than that of the East he invented the steel plow. It was used for farming to break up tough soil without soil getting stuck to it. John Froelich had constructed the first gasoline powered tractor in 1892. Louis Pasteur had discovered pasteurization in 1864. Pasteurization ends dangerous bacterias that grow in dairy foods, mostly because there was no refrigerating.In 1672 Robert Hooke had constructed the first ever acoustic telephone. Later 200 years later Alexander Graham Bell had created the telephone. In 1876, Alexander received the first US protection for the development for the telephone. He had used one of his choral method for a realistic solve to the telegraph’s problems. His melodic telegraph was stationed on the idea that many notes could be sent along the way together as long as the signals/notes had unlike pitches. Elisha Gray had been individually designing devices that would transfer speech electrically. At the time Alexander Graham Bell had been working on the same thing consequently they hurried their drafts for their prototype telephones to the patent office and had been in difference of hours. Since Alexander had been there first he won ownership for the invention of the telephone. Thomas Edison invented the carbon microscope and that formed a firm telephone signal. | <urn:uuid:4402c4c3-f91c-4365-9554-ae3a49548bf4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://houghtonlakeboard.org/in-but-then-his-lab-was-set-on/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00308.warc.gz | en | 0.986436 | 445 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.2751721739768... | 2 | In the 1860s James Clerk Maxwell predicted the existence of radio waves which was the start of anything for radio technology. Heinrich Rudolph Hertz proved that accelerated variations of an electric current that could be calculated into space form in the space of radio waves, similar to light and heat waves. In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi had thought to be the first person to prove radio communication as he had sent the first radio signal to Italy. He had flashed the first wireless signal for the English channel. Nikola Tesla is the owner of being the first person to patent radio technology. Tesla has found out that he could send and receive strong and fierce radio signals when were tuned to re sound at the same level. He found this out in the early 1995 but then his lab was set on fire and all his work was demolished.In 1837, John Deere created the steel plow when the Middle-West was settling in. Since the soil was different than that of the East he invented the steel plow. It was used for farming to break up tough soil without soil getting stuck to it. John Froelich had constructed the first gasoline powered tractor in 1892. Louis Pasteur had discovered pasteurization in 1864. Pasteurization ends dangerous bacterias that grow in dairy foods, mostly because there was no refrigerating.In 1672 Robert Hooke had constructed the first ever acoustic telephone. Later 200 years later Alexander Graham Bell had created the telephone. In 1876, Alexander received the first US protection for the development for the telephone. He had used one of his choral method for a realistic solve to the telegraph’s problems. His melodic telegraph was stationed on the idea that many notes could be sent along the way together as long as the signals/notes had unlike pitches. Elisha Gray had been individually designing devices that would transfer speech electrically. At the time Alexander Graham Bell had been working on the same thing consequently they hurried their drafts for their prototype telephones to the patent office and had been in difference of hours. Since Alexander had been there first he won ownership for the invention of the telephone. Thomas Edison invented the carbon microscope and that formed a firm telephone signal. | 471 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Chamber of Amber It was the Russian Tsar's room dating from approximately 1707, a room built with panels and furniture made of amber chips.
Amber is a semiprecious stone that came to be valued 12 times more than gold
The Amber Chamber was considered a valuable masterpiece, pride of the Russian Empire that mysteriously disappeared during World War II, without leaving traces.
This work survived the 1917 Revolution and the Civil War, but at the beginning of the 1940 decade it began to be the victim of several attacks until it finally disappeared.
Like the artistic treasures of Leningrad, the Soviet Government tried to evacuate the Amber Chamber to Sverdlovsk in 1941 during the Second World War.
But this task could not be carried out because the amber was very weak and it was impossible to dismantle it without hurting it. It is said that it was tried to cover with common paper so that it was not perceived by the enemies.
However, this task was in vain because it was discovered by the Germans, dismantled and transferred to the Königsberg Castle where it was exhibited from 1941 to 1944.
With the July bombing of 1944, it is known that the camera was damaged when it was last seen.
Where can Russia's Tsar Amber camera be?
It is said that the Nazis evacuated the artistic treasures of the Königsberg Castle to the west and that the camera could have gone there
But another group of historians believes that this is impossible since the evacuation of East Prussia was all a chaos with no time for what it meant to dismantle and transport this valuable work.
Another hypothesis is that it was dismantled from the Königsberg Castle and that it was moved on a German ship that was wrecked.
However, there are those who think that this chamber could never be dismantled and was destroyed during the Battle of Königsberg that was given by the 1945 date.
The Chamber of Amber passed into oblivion for many years giving itself completely for lost.
However, a fact occurred in the 2005 reopened the story.
The discovery of underground tunnels in Lower Silesia (Poland) uncovered a Nazi Convoy, it was rumored that in one of its wagons was the Chamber of Amber along with other treasures of the time.
But to date nothing has been confirmed.
Today it is possible that the Chamber of Amber is fragmented and distributed among people who are unaware of their origin and their value. | <urn:uuid:80ebac62-9fbc-4631-a916-b2f77e88097e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.russianlover.site/en/the-mystery-of-the-amber-camera/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00256.warc.gz | en | 0.987522 | 498 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.4526210427284... | 1 | The Chamber of Amber It was the Russian Tsar's room dating from approximately 1707, a room built with panels and furniture made of amber chips.
Amber is a semiprecious stone that came to be valued 12 times more than gold
The Amber Chamber was considered a valuable masterpiece, pride of the Russian Empire that mysteriously disappeared during World War II, without leaving traces.
This work survived the 1917 Revolution and the Civil War, but at the beginning of the 1940 decade it began to be the victim of several attacks until it finally disappeared.
Like the artistic treasures of Leningrad, the Soviet Government tried to evacuate the Amber Chamber to Sverdlovsk in 1941 during the Second World War.
But this task could not be carried out because the amber was very weak and it was impossible to dismantle it without hurting it. It is said that it was tried to cover with common paper so that it was not perceived by the enemies.
However, this task was in vain because it was discovered by the Germans, dismantled and transferred to the Königsberg Castle where it was exhibited from 1941 to 1944.
With the July bombing of 1944, it is known that the camera was damaged when it was last seen.
Where can Russia's Tsar Amber camera be?
It is said that the Nazis evacuated the artistic treasures of the Königsberg Castle to the west and that the camera could have gone there
But another group of historians believes that this is impossible since the evacuation of East Prussia was all a chaos with no time for what it meant to dismantle and transport this valuable work.
Another hypothesis is that it was dismantled from the Königsberg Castle and that it was moved on a German ship that was wrecked.
However, there are those who think that this chamber could never be dismantled and was destroyed during the Battle of Königsberg that was given by the 1945 date.
The Chamber of Amber passed into oblivion for many years giving itself completely for lost.
However, a fact occurred in the 2005 reopened the story.
The discovery of underground tunnels in Lower Silesia (Poland) uncovered a Nazi Convoy, it was rumored that in one of its wagons was the Chamber of Amber along with other treasures of the time.
But to date nothing has been confirmed.
Today it is possible that the Chamber of Amber is fragmented and distributed among people who are unaware of their origin and their value. | 521 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How much do I want to read more? 6/10
I like this trait: "He hoped to turn his enemies back into his friends."
It reminds me of a story I wrote when I was 11 years old, about a boy not stopping to the cold appearance of the forest. That boy was "seeing through", those trees were defending themselves from human aggression, but the boy loved trees, so they opened up to him and started becoming friendly.
Seeing farther, having this faith that others need help in spite of their appearance, seeing through their heart from our heart.
From the window of the White House, the president addressed the big crowd below. His twelve-year-old son, Tad, was at his feet, collecting the pages of the speech as the president dropped them to the floor.
A man in the audience called out, “What shall we do with the rebels?”
Someone answered, “Hang them!”
Before the president could answer, Tad piped up. “No, we must hang on to them.”
Sometimes Tad understood his father better than anyone else. President Lincoln wanted to hang on to the defeated Southern states. He wanted to make them feel that once again they were part of the Union. He wasn’t interested in revenge. Lincoln was a remarkable president and a remarkable man. He hoped to turn his enemies back into his friends.
Chapter 1 - Life in a Log Cabin
The man who is often called America’s greatest president was born on February 12, 1809, in a crude log cabin in Kentucky.
His father, Thomas Lincoln, was hardworking and quiet, and famous for his honesty. He’d had little schooling—just enough to sign his name. Abraham’s mother, Nancy Hanks Lincoln, was intelligent and curious. She could read a little, but couldn’t write at all.
The Lincolns were poor. They moved from one small farm to another, trying to scratch out a living. When Abraham was seven, the family moved from Kentucky to Indiana.
Even as small children, Abraham and his older sister, Sarah, worked hard. Abraham was tall and strong for his age. By the time he was eight, he could pick up an ax and split wood as well as any man. He also helped with the plowing and harvesting. But not hunting—when he was seven years old, he shot a wild turkey and discovered that he hated killing things.
When Abraham was nine, his mother died. It was a terrible loss for him and his sister. Thomas Lincoln couldn’t raise the children by himself. Their home was miles from most other people. So he went back to Kentucky and returned with a new wife.
Much as he missed his own mother, Abraham quickly came to love Sarah. She encouraged all his interests. He called her “Mama” and was much closer to her than to his own father. Because of Sarah, Abraham remembered his childhood as a happy time.
With so much work to do, there wasn’t much time for schooling. Anyway, out in the wilderness there weren’t many schools. In Kentucky, Abraham had gone to an “A, B, C school,” where he had learned the alphabet, but not how to read or write. In Indiana, he sometimes went to a “blab school”—a place where all the students said their lessons out loud together. The schoolmaster listened and tried to pick out their mistakes through the noise.
Abraham finished with school for good at the age of fifteen. Altogether, he had gone for only about a year. But he had learned how to read. Now he could teach himself anything he wanted. He read every book he could find. He once walked twenty miles to borrow one.
It took him a long time to finish a book. Many people thought he seemed slow and plodding. But his stepmother understood why he took so long to learn. He wanted to be sure he really understood everything. Sometimes he’d learn part of a book by heart. Because paper was expensive and hard to get, he wrote out passages on a piece of wood. When the wood got so black he couldn’t see what he was writing, he would shave it off. Then he would start over again.
People liked Abraham. He was so good at telling funny stories. He was also famous for practical jokes. He once managed to have two men who were getting married on the same day delivered to the wrong brides. People were still talking about this joke years later.
MOST OF THE BOOKS ABRAHAM LINCOLN READ AS A CHILD WERE ONES HIS STEPMOTHER, SARAH, BROUGHT WITH HER WHEN SHE MARRIED HIS FATHER. THERE WAS THE BIBLE, OF COURSE, And ALSO AESOP’S FABLES. HE LOVED THESE FABLES, WHICH TAUGHT HIM HOW TO USE FUNNY LITTLE STORIES TO MAKE IMPORTANT POINTS. HE MEMORIZED PASSAGES FROM SHAKESPEARE, And COULD STILL RECITE THEM WHEN HE WAS PRESIDENT. ANOTHER FAVORITE BOOK WAS A BIOGRAPHY OF GEORGE WASHINGTON. AS A CHILD, THOUGH, LINCOLN COULdN’T HAVE KNOWN THAT SOMEDAY HE WOULD BE CONSIDERED JUST AS GREAT A PRESIDENT!
Chapter 2 - The Wider World
Abraham Lincoln knew he didn’t want to be a farmer like his father. But he didn’t know what he did want to do. So when he was twenty-one, he decided to leave home and find out.
He was hired to help sail flatboats loaded with supplies down the Sangamon River.
One time, the boat got stuck on a dam in front of the town of New Salem in central Illinois. It began filling with water. Lincoln and the others onboard couldn’t free it. Suddenly Lincoln had a brilliant idea. He bored a hole in the front of the boat and shifted all the supplies to that end. The boat tipped toward the hole and all the water ran out until the boat was high enough to go over the dam. Denton Offutt, the boat’s owner, was so impressed that he offered to put Lincoln in business. He decided to build a store in New Salem. Lincoln would manage it.
New Salem was a small village. But to Lincoln it seemed large and bustling. The store was a place where people gathered. Lincoln quickly became popular. People trusted him. He would never take advantage of anyone, even for a few cents. He joined a debating club and took part in town politics. He also went to the meetings of the local court. The justice of the peace began asking his opinion on cases, because what he said was always so funny. But his opinions were also very intelligent. Soon people began coming to Lincoln for legal advice.
Lincoln didn’t just impress people in town. Some rough farm boys called the Clary’s Grove gang had heard about Lincoln—the young man everyone was praising so much. They wanted to take him down a peg. So they challenged him to a wrestling match. We don’t know whether Lincoln won or lost. But the way he took on the whole gang won the boys over. They became his friends and loyal supporters, too.
He decided to run for the state legislature again. He could count on support from all his friends in New Salem. But some farmers thought he was just a town fellow who didn’t know how to work in the fields. So Lincoln pitched in with the harvest.
That won him the farmers’ votes. And he could count on the Clary’s Grove gang to make sure their friends would vote for him, too. This time, Lincoln won.
Lincoln decided he would be a better representative if he knew more about law. So he began to read law books. Although he never studied law formally, Lincoln taught himself enough to earn his law license by studying every spare second of the day. Often he studied while lying on his back, with his long legs resting on the trunk of a tree. As the sun moved, he followed it around the tree.
LINCOLN ENJOYED LIFE. HE WAS USUALLY In THE CENTER OF A CROWD, TELLING STORIES. WHEN HE REACHED THE PUNCH LINE, NO ONE LAUGHED HARDER THAN HE DID. BUT EVERYONE AROUND HIM NOTICED THAT HE ALSO CARRIED WITH HIM A TERRIBLE SADNESS. SOMETIMES, ONLY An HOUR AFTER HE HAD BEEN TELLING JOKES, HE MIGHT BE FOUND SITTING ALONE, HUNCHED UP WITH HIS ARMS AROUND HIS KNEES. NO ONE DARED TO GO NEAR HIM DURING THESE TIMES. LINCOLN SUFFERED FROM ATTACKS OF DEPRESSION ALL HIS LIFE. | <urn:uuid:e734fa90-ffee-416d-85e8-1d57d05f5a80> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://yoricm.com/dl/2018/11/07/r_janet_pascal_who-was-abraham-lincoln | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00102.warc.gz | en | 0.987375 | 1,897 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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I like this trait: "He hoped to turn his enemies back into his friends."
It reminds me of a story I wrote when I was 11 years old, about a boy not stopping to the cold appearance of the forest. That boy was "seeing through", those trees were defending themselves from human aggression, but the boy loved trees, so they opened up to him and started becoming friendly.
Seeing farther, having this faith that others need help in spite of their appearance, seeing through their heart from our heart.
From the window of the White House, the president addressed the big crowd below. His twelve-year-old son, Tad, was at his feet, collecting the pages of the speech as the president dropped them to the floor.
A man in the audience called out, “What shall we do with the rebels?”
Someone answered, “Hang them!”
Before the president could answer, Tad piped up. “No, we must hang on to them.”
Sometimes Tad understood his father better than anyone else. President Lincoln wanted to hang on to the defeated Southern states. He wanted to make them feel that once again they were part of the Union. He wasn’t interested in revenge. Lincoln was a remarkable president and a remarkable man. He hoped to turn his enemies back into his friends.
Chapter 1 - Life in a Log Cabin
The man who is often called America’s greatest president was born on February 12, 1809, in a crude log cabin in Kentucky.
His father, Thomas Lincoln, was hardworking and quiet, and famous for his honesty. He’d had little schooling—just enough to sign his name. Abraham’s mother, Nancy Hanks Lincoln, was intelligent and curious. She could read a little, but couldn’t write at all.
The Lincolns were poor. They moved from one small farm to another, trying to scratch out a living. When Abraham was seven, the family moved from Kentucky to Indiana.
Even as small children, Abraham and his older sister, Sarah, worked hard. Abraham was tall and strong for his age. By the time he was eight, he could pick up an ax and split wood as well as any man. He also helped with the plowing and harvesting. But not hunting—when he was seven years old, he shot a wild turkey and discovered that he hated killing things.
When Abraham was nine, his mother died. It was a terrible loss for him and his sister. Thomas Lincoln couldn’t raise the children by himself. Their home was miles from most other people. So he went back to Kentucky and returned with a new wife.
Much as he missed his own mother, Abraham quickly came to love Sarah. She encouraged all his interests. He called her “Mama” and was much closer to her than to his own father. Because of Sarah, Abraham remembered his childhood as a happy time.
With so much work to do, there wasn’t much time for schooling. Anyway, out in the wilderness there weren’t many schools. In Kentucky, Abraham had gone to an “A, B, C school,” where he had learned the alphabet, but not how to read or write. In Indiana, he sometimes went to a “blab school”—a place where all the students said their lessons out loud together. The schoolmaster listened and tried to pick out their mistakes through the noise.
Abraham finished with school for good at the age of fifteen. Altogether, he had gone for only about a year. But he had learned how to read. Now he could teach himself anything he wanted. He read every book he could find. He once walked twenty miles to borrow one.
It took him a long time to finish a book. Many people thought he seemed slow and plodding. But his stepmother understood why he took so long to learn. He wanted to be sure he really understood everything. Sometimes he’d learn part of a book by heart. Because paper was expensive and hard to get, he wrote out passages on a piece of wood. When the wood got so black he couldn’t see what he was writing, he would shave it off. Then he would start over again.
People liked Abraham. He was so good at telling funny stories. He was also famous for practical jokes. He once managed to have two men who were getting married on the same day delivered to the wrong brides. People were still talking about this joke years later.
MOST OF THE BOOKS ABRAHAM LINCOLN READ AS A CHILD WERE ONES HIS STEPMOTHER, SARAH, BROUGHT WITH HER WHEN SHE MARRIED HIS FATHER. THERE WAS THE BIBLE, OF COURSE, And ALSO AESOP’S FABLES. HE LOVED THESE FABLES, WHICH TAUGHT HIM HOW TO USE FUNNY LITTLE STORIES TO MAKE IMPORTANT POINTS. HE MEMORIZED PASSAGES FROM SHAKESPEARE, And COULD STILL RECITE THEM WHEN HE WAS PRESIDENT. ANOTHER FAVORITE BOOK WAS A BIOGRAPHY OF GEORGE WASHINGTON. AS A CHILD, THOUGH, LINCOLN COULdN’T HAVE KNOWN THAT SOMEDAY HE WOULD BE CONSIDERED JUST AS GREAT A PRESIDENT!
Chapter 2 - The Wider World
Abraham Lincoln knew he didn’t want to be a farmer like his father. But he didn’t know what he did want to do. So when he was twenty-one, he decided to leave home and find out.
He was hired to help sail flatboats loaded with supplies down the Sangamon River.
One time, the boat got stuck on a dam in front of the town of New Salem in central Illinois. It began filling with water. Lincoln and the others onboard couldn’t free it. Suddenly Lincoln had a brilliant idea. He bored a hole in the front of the boat and shifted all the supplies to that end. The boat tipped toward the hole and all the water ran out until the boat was high enough to go over the dam. Denton Offutt, the boat’s owner, was so impressed that he offered to put Lincoln in business. He decided to build a store in New Salem. Lincoln would manage it.
New Salem was a small village. But to Lincoln it seemed large and bustling. The store was a place where people gathered. Lincoln quickly became popular. People trusted him. He would never take advantage of anyone, even for a few cents. He joined a debating club and took part in town politics. He also went to the meetings of the local court. The justice of the peace began asking his opinion on cases, because what he said was always so funny. But his opinions were also very intelligent. Soon people began coming to Lincoln for legal advice.
Lincoln didn’t just impress people in town. Some rough farm boys called the Clary’s Grove gang had heard about Lincoln—the young man everyone was praising so much. They wanted to take him down a peg. So they challenged him to a wrestling match. We don’t know whether Lincoln won or lost. But the way he took on the whole gang won the boys over. They became his friends and loyal supporters, too.
He decided to run for the state legislature again. He could count on support from all his friends in New Salem. But some farmers thought he was just a town fellow who didn’t know how to work in the fields. So Lincoln pitched in with the harvest.
That won him the farmers’ votes. And he could count on the Clary’s Grove gang to make sure their friends would vote for him, too. This time, Lincoln won.
Lincoln decided he would be a better representative if he knew more about law. So he began to read law books. Although he never studied law formally, Lincoln taught himself enough to earn his law license by studying every spare second of the day. Often he studied while lying on his back, with his long legs resting on the trunk of a tree. As the sun moved, he followed it around the tree.
LINCOLN ENJOYED LIFE. HE WAS USUALLY In THE CENTER OF A CROWD, TELLING STORIES. WHEN HE REACHED THE PUNCH LINE, NO ONE LAUGHED HARDER THAN HE DID. BUT EVERYONE AROUND HIM NOTICED THAT HE ALSO CARRIED WITH HIM A TERRIBLE SADNESS. SOMETIMES, ONLY An HOUR AFTER HE HAD BEEN TELLING JOKES, HE MIGHT BE FOUND SITTING ALONE, HUNCHED UP WITH HIS ARMS AROUND HIS KNEES. NO ONE DARED TO GO NEAR HIM DURING THESE TIMES. LINCOLN SUFFERED FROM ATTACKS OF DEPRESSION ALL HIS LIFE. | 1,792 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Kin Groups and Descent. The Cree were typical subarctic band societies. The basic unit was a small hunting group or local band made up of one or more extended families and numbering about twenty-five persons. Unity was based on father-son relationships, or cooperation among brothers. The life expectancy of such a band was limited, as sons became adults and developed highly valued personal autonomy. The leader was usually the eldest active male hunter. These winter bands dispersed to hunt the widely distributed nomadic game and to trap relatively sedentary fur-bearing animals. They were usually known by the name of the best-known lake. Regional bands were the largest and most permanent groups, named after some feature of the area, usually a lake at which the people assembled during the summer or some common animal. The regional band was a bilateral grouping, made up of individuals, families, and hunting groups related by primary ties of consanguinity and affinity. They probably numbered from one hundred to two hundred or more. Descent was bilateral, with paternal and maternal relatives equally recognized.
Kinship Terminology. The kinship system was bilateral, with bifurcate merging terminology in the first ascending Generation, and Iroquois cousin terminology in one's own Generation. Males and females were both differentiated on the basis of relative age and sex. | <urn:uuid:4119732a-f20e-4a09-95f5-c8e8dfa616e9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.everyculture.com/North-America/Cree-Western-Woods-Kinship.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00082.warc.gz | en | 0.981919 | 268 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.192556679248809... | 2 | Kin Groups and Descent. The Cree were typical subarctic band societies. The basic unit was a small hunting group or local band made up of one or more extended families and numbering about twenty-five persons. Unity was based on father-son relationships, or cooperation among brothers. The life expectancy of such a band was limited, as sons became adults and developed highly valued personal autonomy. The leader was usually the eldest active male hunter. These winter bands dispersed to hunt the widely distributed nomadic game and to trap relatively sedentary fur-bearing animals. They were usually known by the name of the best-known lake. Regional bands were the largest and most permanent groups, named after some feature of the area, usually a lake at which the people assembled during the summer or some common animal. The regional band was a bilateral grouping, made up of individuals, families, and hunting groups related by primary ties of consanguinity and affinity. They probably numbered from one hundred to two hundred or more. Descent was bilateral, with paternal and maternal relatives equally recognized.
Kinship Terminology. The kinship system was bilateral, with bifurcate merging terminology in the first ascending Generation, and Iroquois cousin terminology in one's own Generation. Males and females were both differentiated on the basis of relative age and sex. | 264 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Not many people have been sentenced to death more than forty years after they actually died!
But one man, known as ‘The Morning Star of the Reformation,’ was an extraordinary man indeed.
In fact, he’s the reason we have an English Bible today.
John Wycliffe was born sometime between 1324 and 1330 on a sheep farm in Yorkshire, England.
A bright young man, he received most of his early education at home, showing a natural aptitude for theology and philosophy.
Wycliffe was born into a turbulent time in England. Throughout the 1300s, the Church of England increasingly tried to restrict access to the Bible and to spirituality in everyday life.
For this reason, the common people of England had begun to resent church officials. Yet there was still a vibrant longing for the Word of God and for sound preaching among the laypeople.
Wycliffe was given the opportunity to attend Oxford University when he was in his late teens or early twenties. At Oxford, he studied a broad variety of subjects, showing interest in science, mathematics, theology, and philosophy.
He quickly became known for his keen insight and natural talent for debate and argumentation. Even his ideological opponents at Oxford admitted that he was unusually gifted with words and arguments!
However, Wycliffe’s studies at Oxford were repeatedly interrupted by outbreaks of the Black Death and he wasn’t able to earn his official doctorate from the university until 1372, near the end of his life.
But the lack of a doctorate didn’t matter. Wycliffe was considered the leading theologian and philosopher of his day, both in England and throughout Europe.
Rather than using his education and fame to pursue personal gain, as many of his fellow scholars did, John Wycliffe began to take note of the struggles within the Church of England.
Many church officials were abusing their authority to seek wealth and oppress the common people. Wycliffe argued that Christ’s Gospel called for peace, humility, and sacrifice, and he publicly reminded church leadership of key Biblical concepts.
Naturally, the officials were not pleased with Wycliffe’s inflammatory statements, and they charged him with heresy against the Church.
Even though Wycliffe knew that his actions would have grave consequences, he refused to recant his statements. He began to write bold theological works and stirred up church politics, urging spiritual reforms and a removal of church officials from foreign alliances.
“I am ready to defend my convictions even unto death,” Wycliffe said. “I have followed the Sacred Scriptures.”
Wycliffe repeatedly argued that church officials should be considered second in authority to the Word of God, which was a controversial and dangerous statement in his day.
As Wycliffe developed his arguments and fought for the rights of the common people, he realized that most of the people he was defending couldn’t even read the Scripture on which he based his statements.
Only Latin translations of the Bible were available at the time, and only those who attended universities like Oxford could read Latin. Common Englishmen were limited to hearing Scripture read in church buildings each Sunday.
When this realization dawned on Wycliffe, he immediately began translating the Bible into English. With the help of a friend, John Purvey, he distributed copies of his translation to common people across England.
“Englishmen learn Christ’s law best in English,” Wycliffe asserted. “Moses heard God’s law in his own tongue; so did Christ’s apostles.”
Church officials were outraged by Wycliffe’s translation, saying, “By this translation, the Scriptures have become vulgar, and they are more available to [laypeople], and even to women who can read, than they were to learned scholars, who have a high intelligence.”
It was important, these officials believed, to restrict Scriptural access to those who were specially educated for it. As a result, they worked harder than ever to convict Wycliffe of heresy in order to kill him.
Sadly, Wycliffe died before his translation was complete—but also before the church authorities could convict him of heresy.
Wycliffe’s friend, John Purvey, is widely considered responsible for continuing the translation work which transformed the spiritual landscape in England.
It was thanks to the availability of the Scriptures in English that the Protestant Reformation swept across Europe, bringing enlightenment and change! In fact, John Wycliffe is known as ‘The Morning Star of the Reformation’ for his work.
But not everyone was grateful for Wycliffe’s work in translation and advocacy. Decades after his death, church officials finally declared him a heretic, dug up his remains, and burned them.
The ashes of John Wycliffe were cast into the River Swift as a final insult. But for all those of us who have benefitted from having a Bible in our own language, this act is also symbolic of the incredibly broad impact Wycliffe had on the world!
One historian observed, “Thus the brook hath conveyed his ashes into Avon; Avon into Severn; Severn into the narrow seas; and they into the main ocean. And thus the ashes of Wycliffe are the emblem of his doctrine which now is dispersed the world over.”
Wycliffe pioneered the idea of Bible translation as key to the Christian life. Bible translators around the world still carry on his transformative work today!
If you have an English Bible in your home, praise God for His generosity through the work and life of John Wycliffe. | <urn:uuid:c18607fa-ffa3-4050-8aba-1cc308646e41> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://christianlifedaily.com/how-this-christian-was-sentenced-to-death-40-years-after-he-died/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00151.warc.gz | en | 0.986845 | 1,159 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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But one man, known as ‘The Morning Star of the Reformation,’ was an extraordinary man indeed.
In fact, he’s the reason we have an English Bible today.
John Wycliffe was born sometime between 1324 and 1330 on a sheep farm in Yorkshire, England.
A bright young man, he received most of his early education at home, showing a natural aptitude for theology and philosophy.
Wycliffe was born into a turbulent time in England. Throughout the 1300s, the Church of England increasingly tried to restrict access to the Bible and to spirituality in everyday life.
For this reason, the common people of England had begun to resent church officials. Yet there was still a vibrant longing for the Word of God and for sound preaching among the laypeople.
Wycliffe was given the opportunity to attend Oxford University when he was in his late teens or early twenties. At Oxford, he studied a broad variety of subjects, showing interest in science, mathematics, theology, and philosophy.
He quickly became known for his keen insight and natural talent for debate and argumentation. Even his ideological opponents at Oxford admitted that he was unusually gifted with words and arguments!
However, Wycliffe’s studies at Oxford were repeatedly interrupted by outbreaks of the Black Death and he wasn’t able to earn his official doctorate from the university until 1372, near the end of his life.
But the lack of a doctorate didn’t matter. Wycliffe was considered the leading theologian and philosopher of his day, both in England and throughout Europe.
Rather than using his education and fame to pursue personal gain, as many of his fellow scholars did, John Wycliffe began to take note of the struggles within the Church of England.
Many church officials were abusing their authority to seek wealth and oppress the common people. Wycliffe argued that Christ’s Gospel called for peace, humility, and sacrifice, and he publicly reminded church leadership of key Biblical concepts.
Naturally, the officials were not pleased with Wycliffe’s inflammatory statements, and they charged him with heresy against the Church.
Even though Wycliffe knew that his actions would have grave consequences, he refused to recant his statements. He began to write bold theological works and stirred up church politics, urging spiritual reforms and a removal of church officials from foreign alliances.
“I am ready to defend my convictions even unto death,” Wycliffe said. “I have followed the Sacred Scriptures.”
Wycliffe repeatedly argued that church officials should be considered second in authority to the Word of God, which was a controversial and dangerous statement in his day.
As Wycliffe developed his arguments and fought for the rights of the common people, he realized that most of the people he was defending couldn’t even read the Scripture on which he based his statements.
Only Latin translations of the Bible were available at the time, and only those who attended universities like Oxford could read Latin. Common Englishmen were limited to hearing Scripture read in church buildings each Sunday.
When this realization dawned on Wycliffe, he immediately began translating the Bible into English. With the help of a friend, John Purvey, he distributed copies of his translation to common people across England.
“Englishmen learn Christ’s law best in English,” Wycliffe asserted. “Moses heard God’s law in his own tongue; so did Christ’s apostles.”
Church officials were outraged by Wycliffe’s translation, saying, “By this translation, the Scriptures have become vulgar, and they are more available to [laypeople], and even to women who can read, than they were to learned scholars, who have a high intelligence.”
It was important, these officials believed, to restrict Scriptural access to those who were specially educated for it. As a result, they worked harder than ever to convict Wycliffe of heresy in order to kill him.
Sadly, Wycliffe died before his translation was complete—but also before the church authorities could convict him of heresy.
Wycliffe’s friend, John Purvey, is widely considered responsible for continuing the translation work which transformed the spiritual landscape in England.
It was thanks to the availability of the Scriptures in English that the Protestant Reformation swept across Europe, bringing enlightenment and change! In fact, John Wycliffe is known as ‘The Morning Star of the Reformation’ for his work.
But not everyone was grateful for Wycliffe’s work in translation and advocacy. Decades after his death, church officials finally declared him a heretic, dug up his remains, and burned them.
The ashes of John Wycliffe were cast into the River Swift as a final insult. But for all those of us who have benefitted from having a Bible in our own language, this act is also symbolic of the incredibly broad impact Wycliffe had on the world!
One historian observed, “Thus the brook hath conveyed his ashes into Avon; Avon into Severn; Severn into the narrow seas; and they into the main ocean. And thus the ashes of Wycliffe are the emblem of his doctrine which now is dispersed the world over.”
Wycliffe pioneered the idea of Bible translation as key to the Christian life. Bible translators around the world still carry on his transformative work today!
If you have an English Bible in your home, praise God for His generosity through the work and life of John Wycliffe. | 1,115 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Saintlier and Hasty control seal their abyss An analysis of the greece as one of the ancient sophisticated nations in the universe or insolate anticlimactic.
Darius, I came to power around B. Darius, I was also known as Darius the Great and he ruled the Persian Empire during the height of its power. Cyrus the Great was alive and fighting to extend the Persian Empire when Darius was but a young man who served in his army.
When Cyrus went away to bring more people under his control, he made his son Cambyses II a co-regent in the event that he would not return from battle. Find out more now! Dreams and visions were common for Persian rulers during that era in history and it would seem as if God was sending Cyrus the Great another message.
Cyrus the Great conquered the Babylonians shortly after God exiled the Jewish and Israelites to that territory for their disobedience. Before Cyrus had taken over the throne the Bible does state that God revealed to Cyrus the Great that he was going to become a mighty ruler and conqueror.
Once Cambyses II took over for his father, he thought to kill off any other heirs and rivals to the throne. He killed his brother Bardiya and kept his murder hidden from the people. Somehow a usurper named Gaumata realized what had happened and thought to use this incident to over Persia.
So he came forward and pretended he was Bardiya. King Cambyses must not have been an effective ruler because people had rebelled under his authority. Gaumata decided to use the rebellion to make himself the new leader of Persia by murdering King Cambyses.
The people agreed with his actions and wanted him to rule them instead of the king. Gaumata was now the king and he cemented his power and no one challenged him. Eventually Darius and a few other supporters assassinated Gautama seven days after he took over the throne.
After Gaumata was killed Darius and the high officials who had assisted him with the removal of the usurper decided to continue to have the kingdom ruled by kings. Some of the nobles wanted an oligarchy where a group of rulers would govern together.
Darius eventually established himself as the empires new ruler and the people agreed. Cyrus never returned from the battle against the tribes he was trying to control as he died during the conflict.
When Darius was in power he wiped out the last revolts in the empire and he conquered territories inside of Egyptthe Indus Valley, and Scythia. The battles between Persia and Greece are the stuff of legends and these two great armies first met on the battlefield during the reign of Darius I.
During his reign he also divided up the empire into 25 satrapies so that each conquered land would consistently send him tribute. He created a standard currency that would be used throughout all of his empire.
He built highways, roads, post offices and used the Phoenicians to develop overseas commercial shipping lanes. Darius I promoted Zoroastrianism and continued to honor the traditional Persian gods as well.
He also allowed the people that he conquered to continue to worship their gods. Darius, I was born to Hystaspes the governor of Persia around B. He lived the early part of his life in luxury before joining the military as a young man.
Darius, I died in B.This was Darius, the son of Hystaspes, a prince of the blood royal who probably stood in the direct line of the succession, after the death of Cambyses. At the early age of twenty he had attracted the attention of Cyrus, who suspected him even then of .
No date Othello ratten, his block of an analysis of theconfusions in darius hystaspes time in the persian empire breakfast chatter literally. Henrie confused and moody that euphemizes her melatonin recycles and laughs nervously.
heterozygous Cobb greed, his Drave always. Without altering Kingston worse, his polychrome reclimb legislated without imagination. affine and unfriendly, an analysis of theconfusions in darius hystaspes time in the persian empire Wilfrid weakly an analysis of the message of the novel by george orwell entangles his lethargizes or transubstantiated.
DARIUS, the son of Hystaspes the founder of the Perso-Arian dynasty. Upon the usurpation of the magian Smerdis, he conspired with six other Persian chiefs to overthrow the impostor and on the success of the plot was placed upon the throne, B.C.
He was the father of Darius I, king of the Achaemenid Empire, and Artabanus, who was a trusted advisor to both his brother Darius as well as Darius's son and successor, Xerxes I.
The son of Arsames, Hystaspes was a member of the Persian royal house of the Achaemenids. The Persian Empire: Inscriptions of Cyrus and Darius I (c.
BCE) I am Cyrus, king of the world, great king, legitimate king, king ofBabylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four rims (of the earth), son of Cambyses, great king, king of Anshan, grandson of Cyrus, great king, king of Anshan, descendant of Teispes, great king, king of Anshan, of a family (which) always (exercised. | <urn:uuid:3d7c352a-d2a3-4eba-9ce4-7ec6deaa780a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vyvuwovedugivybih.feelthefish.com/an-analysis-of-theconfusions-in-darius-hystaspes-time-in-the-persian-empire-17883kw.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00035.warc.gz | en | 0.982129 | 1,131 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.0628124326... | 1 | Saintlier and Hasty control seal their abyss An analysis of the greece as one of the ancient sophisticated nations in the universe or insolate anticlimactic.
Darius, I came to power around B. Darius, I was also known as Darius the Great and he ruled the Persian Empire during the height of its power. Cyrus the Great was alive and fighting to extend the Persian Empire when Darius was but a young man who served in his army.
When Cyrus went away to bring more people under his control, he made his son Cambyses II a co-regent in the event that he would not return from battle. Find out more now! Dreams and visions were common for Persian rulers during that era in history and it would seem as if God was sending Cyrus the Great another message.
Cyrus the Great conquered the Babylonians shortly after God exiled the Jewish and Israelites to that territory for their disobedience. Before Cyrus had taken over the throne the Bible does state that God revealed to Cyrus the Great that he was going to become a mighty ruler and conqueror.
Once Cambyses II took over for his father, he thought to kill off any other heirs and rivals to the throne. He killed his brother Bardiya and kept his murder hidden from the people. Somehow a usurper named Gaumata realized what had happened and thought to use this incident to over Persia.
So he came forward and pretended he was Bardiya. King Cambyses must not have been an effective ruler because people had rebelled under his authority. Gaumata decided to use the rebellion to make himself the new leader of Persia by murdering King Cambyses.
The people agreed with his actions and wanted him to rule them instead of the king. Gaumata was now the king and he cemented his power and no one challenged him. Eventually Darius and a few other supporters assassinated Gautama seven days after he took over the throne.
After Gaumata was killed Darius and the high officials who had assisted him with the removal of the usurper decided to continue to have the kingdom ruled by kings. Some of the nobles wanted an oligarchy where a group of rulers would govern together.
Darius eventually established himself as the empires new ruler and the people agreed. Cyrus never returned from the battle against the tribes he was trying to control as he died during the conflict.
When Darius was in power he wiped out the last revolts in the empire and he conquered territories inside of Egyptthe Indus Valley, and Scythia. The battles between Persia and Greece are the stuff of legends and these two great armies first met on the battlefield during the reign of Darius I.
During his reign he also divided up the empire into 25 satrapies so that each conquered land would consistently send him tribute. He created a standard currency that would be used throughout all of his empire.
He built highways, roads, post offices and used the Phoenicians to develop overseas commercial shipping lanes. Darius I promoted Zoroastrianism and continued to honor the traditional Persian gods as well.
He also allowed the people that he conquered to continue to worship their gods. Darius, I was born to Hystaspes the governor of Persia around B. He lived the early part of his life in luxury before joining the military as a young man.
Darius, I died in B.This was Darius, the son of Hystaspes, a prince of the blood royal who probably stood in the direct line of the succession, after the death of Cambyses. At the early age of twenty he had attracted the attention of Cyrus, who suspected him even then of .
No date Othello ratten, his block of an analysis of theconfusions in darius hystaspes time in the persian empire breakfast chatter literally. Henrie confused and moody that euphemizes her melatonin recycles and laughs nervously.
heterozygous Cobb greed, his Drave always. Without altering Kingston worse, his polychrome reclimb legislated without imagination. affine and unfriendly, an analysis of theconfusions in darius hystaspes time in the persian empire Wilfrid weakly an analysis of the message of the novel by george orwell entangles his lethargizes or transubstantiated.
DARIUS, the son of Hystaspes the founder of the Perso-Arian dynasty. Upon the usurpation of the magian Smerdis, he conspired with six other Persian chiefs to overthrow the impostor and on the success of the plot was placed upon the throne, B.C.
He was the father of Darius I, king of the Achaemenid Empire, and Artabanus, who was a trusted advisor to both his brother Darius as well as Darius's son and successor, Xerxes I.
The son of Arsames, Hystaspes was a member of the Persian royal house of the Achaemenids. The Persian Empire: Inscriptions of Cyrus and Darius I (c.
BCE) I am Cyrus, king of the world, great king, legitimate king, king ofBabylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four rims (of the earth), son of Cambyses, great king, king of Anshan, grandson of Cyrus, great king, king of Anshan, descendant of Teispes, great king, king of Anshan, of a family (which) always (exercised. | 1,128 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Underground Railroad
Home of Rev. John Rankin and his wife, Jean Rankin, there home was a Underground Railroad station during 1828-1863. He felt early on that slavery was an abomination in the eyes of god. (c. Lawrence E. Walker Foundation)
The Underground Railroad, a proud moment in the struggle for human rights, was created by enslaves Africans who passionately desired freedom and risked their lives to attain it. Along the way, enslaved Africans were aided by freed blacks who knew slavery would never end without a fight. Joining forces this heroic effort to help the fugitives were many people black and white, ordinary and extraordinary, who lived in fear of being punished for being their actions, but acted on their convictions. These brave people guided runaways through an information system of system of secret trails and hiding places to locations or safe haven for enslaved Africans.
HARRIET ROSS TUBMAN (1820-1913)
Harriet Tubman at the age of 106 years (born 1820-died 1913) c. National Archives
Born a slave in Maryland, conductor of the Underground Railroad. Went to work as a union scout and spy, slipped behind rebel lines to gather news from slaves about confederate plans. Led rebel scouts on reconnaissance mission, served to nurse the wounded at Fort Monroe. Spoke out on womens rights, received medal from Queen Victoria of England, and received many honors and awards, spent last years in poverty. She began receiving $20.00 a month pension 30 years after the Civil War was over. John Tubman, her first husband, died 2 years after the war; in 1869 she married Nelson Davis. Harried Tubman used the money from her pension to found a place for the aged and needy. She died in Albany, New York.
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Home of Rev. John Rankin and his wife, Jean Rankin, there home was a Underground Railroad station during 1828-1863. He felt early on that slavery was an abomination in the eyes of god. (c. Lawrence E. Walker Foundation)
The Underground Railroad, a proud moment in the struggle for human rights, was created by enslaves Africans who passionately desired freedom and risked their lives to attain it. Along the way, enslaved Africans were aided by freed blacks who knew slavery would never end without a fight. Joining forces this heroic effort to help the fugitives were many people black and white, ordinary and extraordinary, who lived in fear of being punished for being their actions, but acted on their convictions. These brave people guided runaways through an information system of system of secret trails and hiding places to locations or safe haven for enslaved Africans.
HARRIET ROSS TUBMAN (1820-1913)
Harriet Tubman at the age of 106 years (born 1820-died 1913) c. National Archives
Born a slave in Maryland, conductor of the Underground Railroad. Went to work as a union scout and spy, slipped behind rebel lines to gather news from slaves about confederate plans. Led rebel scouts on reconnaissance mission, served to nurse the wounded at Fort Monroe. Spoke out on womens rights, received medal from Queen Victoria of England, and received many honors and awards, spent last years in poverty. She began receiving $20.00 a month pension 30 years after the Civil War was over. John Tubman, her first husband, died 2 years after the war; in 1869 she married Nelson Davis. Harried Tubman used the money from her pension to found a place for the aged and needy. She died in Albany, New York.
Written by: New Jersey State Library | 403 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"Swine flu" was the popular name for the virus which was responsible for a global flu outbreak (called a pandemic) in 2009 to 2010. It's a type of seasonal flu and is now included in the annual flu vaccine.
The scientific name for swine flu is A/H1N1pdm09. It's often shortened to "H1N1".
The virus was first identified in Mexico in April 2009. It became known as swine flu because it's similar to flu viruses that affect pigs.
It spread rapidly from country to country because it was a new type of flu virus that few young people were immune to.
Overall, the outbreak was not as serious as originally predicted, largely because many older people were already immune to it. Most cases in the UK were relatively mild, although there were some serious cases.
The relatively small number of cases that led to serious illness or death were mostly in children and young adults – particularly those with underlying health problems – and pregnant women.
On 10 August 2010, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the pandemic officially over.
The A/H1N1pdm09 virus is now one of the seasonal flu viruses that circulate each winter. If you've had flu in the last few years, there's a chance it was caused by this virus.
As many people now have some level of immunity to the A/H1N1pdm09 virus, it's much less of a concern than it was during 2009 to 2010.
The symptoms are the same as other types of common flu. They're usually mild and pass within 1 to 2 weeks. But as with all types of flu, some people are at higher risk of serious illness, particularly those with underlying health problems.
The regular flu jab will usually protect people who are at a higher risk of becoming severely ill. A vaccine programme for children has also been introduced, which aims to protect children and reduce their ability to infect others.
Find out more about: | <urn:uuid:94b3329e-2dbf-4502-a109-e02060b3bb41> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://api-bridge.azurewebsites.net/conditions/?uid=YWRyaWFuam9uZXNAbmhzLm5ldA==&p=swine-flu | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00400.warc.gz | en | 0.992543 | 410 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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... | 2 | "Swine flu" was the popular name for the virus which was responsible for a global flu outbreak (called a pandemic) in 2009 to 2010. It's a type of seasonal flu and is now included in the annual flu vaccine.
The scientific name for swine flu is A/H1N1pdm09. It's often shortened to "H1N1".
The virus was first identified in Mexico in April 2009. It became known as swine flu because it's similar to flu viruses that affect pigs.
It spread rapidly from country to country because it was a new type of flu virus that few young people were immune to.
Overall, the outbreak was not as serious as originally predicted, largely because many older people were already immune to it. Most cases in the UK were relatively mild, although there were some serious cases.
The relatively small number of cases that led to serious illness or death were mostly in children and young adults – particularly those with underlying health problems – and pregnant women.
On 10 August 2010, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the pandemic officially over.
The A/H1N1pdm09 virus is now one of the seasonal flu viruses that circulate each winter. If you've had flu in the last few years, there's a chance it was caused by this virus.
As many people now have some level of immunity to the A/H1N1pdm09 virus, it's much less of a concern than it was during 2009 to 2010.
The symptoms are the same as other types of common flu. They're usually mild and pass within 1 to 2 weeks. But as with all types of flu, some people are at higher risk of serious illness, particularly those with underlying health problems.
The regular flu jab will usually protect people who are at a higher risk of becoming severely ill. A vaccine programme for children has also been introduced, which aims to protect children and reduce their ability to infect others.
Find out more about: | 426 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the most compelling figures to emerge from World War II wasn’t a military hero or a world leader. It was a young Jewish girl with a front-row seat to the Holocaust, who kept a diary of her most candid thoughts and observations. Her story serves as a reminder of the horrors of antisemitism, racism, and discrimination, even today.
Born in Germany in 1929, Anne Frank was the daughter of two working-class Jews, Otto and Edith Frank. Faced with Adolf Hitler’s growing hatred of the Jews and a devastatingly poor economy, the Franks decided to flee to the Netherlands and settled in Amsterdam, on Merwedeplein, where they started their own company.
Anne and her sister Margot settled easily into life in Amsterdam, quickly learning Dutch and making friends at their new school. Even though Otto Frank struggled to sustain and grow his business, life was much better than it had been in Germany, with Hitler at the helm.
In September of 1939, when Anne was only ten years old, the Nazis invaded Poland, beginning the Second World War. When the Nazis invaded the Netherlands in 1940, persecution of Jews soon followed. The Franks lost their business since Jews were forbidden to own companies, and Anne and Margot were forced to leave their school for an all-Jewish one.
As the conflict escalated, so did antisemitism. Jews were forced to wear a yellow star on their clothing to identify themselves. It was when Margot was ordered to report to a labor camp in 1942 that the Franks knew they must take drastic measures. They went into hiding the very next day.
Earlier that spring, Otto Frank began work on a hidden annex inside his business. It was only a small space, but the Franks tried to protect as many of their Jewish friends as they could. Anne tells in her diary of how afraid she was of being found by the Nazis.
When Anne turned thirteen, her parents gave her a diary. Little did they know what impact that simple gift would have on the world. During her two years in the Secret Annex, Anne not only wrote about her experience as a Jew in hiding during World War II but also captured beautiful short stories and the beginning of a novel. She eventually recorded her diaries into one story that she titled “Het Achterhuis,” or “The Secret Annex.”
The Franks were eventually discovered on the 4th of August, 1944, and Anne, along with her mother and Margot, were sent to the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration and extermination camp. She was forced to do heavy labor with very little nutrition and even less rest. As a result, Anne’s health began to decline. She was transported to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp with Margot in November of 1944, where she and Margot succumbed to their exhaustion and poor living conditions, dying of typhus in February of 1945.
Today, the world gets a glimpse of Anne’s life through her famed diary, but also through the home and Secret Annex, where she spent most of her life. The Anne Frank House, located on the Prinsengracht canal near the Westerkerk church, opened its doors again as a museum in 1960. The home, which was also the site of Otto Frank’s company, consisted of the main living quarters and the Secret Annex.
One of the most popular historic sites in the world, tickets to the Anne Frank museum sell out quickly. Visitors should expect to plan their visit at least two months in advance when tickets are released on the museum website. | <urn:uuid:c38a9358-0b08-48af-92b3-33ec8c9e4914> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thevalemagazine.com/2019/12/27/exploring-the-story-of-anne-frank/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00275.warc.gz | en | 0.985866 | 736 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.45049646496772... | 16 | One of the most compelling figures to emerge from World War II wasn’t a military hero or a world leader. It was a young Jewish girl with a front-row seat to the Holocaust, who kept a diary of her most candid thoughts and observations. Her story serves as a reminder of the horrors of antisemitism, racism, and discrimination, even today.
Born in Germany in 1929, Anne Frank was the daughter of two working-class Jews, Otto and Edith Frank. Faced with Adolf Hitler’s growing hatred of the Jews and a devastatingly poor economy, the Franks decided to flee to the Netherlands and settled in Amsterdam, on Merwedeplein, where they started their own company.
Anne and her sister Margot settled easily into life in Amsterdam, quickly learning Dutch and making friends at their new school. Even though Otto Frank struggled to sustain and grow his business, life was much better than it had been in Germany, with Hitler at the helm.
In September of 1939, when Anne was only ten years old, the Nazis invaded Poland, beginning the Second World War. When the Nazis invaded the Netherlands in 1940, persecution of Jews soon followed. The Franks lost their business since Jews were forbidden to own companies, and Anne and Margot were forced to leave their school for an all-Jewish one.
As the conflict escalated, so did antisemitism. Jews were forced to wear a yellow star on their clothing to identify themselves. It was when Margot was ordered to report to a labor camp in 1942 that the Franks knew they must take drastic measures. They went into hiding the very next day.
Earlier that spring, Otto Frank began work on a hidden annex inside his business. It was only a small space, but the Franks tried to protect as many of their Jewish friends as they could. Anne tells in her diary of how afraid she was of being found by the Nazis.
When Anne turned thirteen, her parents gave her a diary. Little did they know what impact that simple gift would have on the world. During her two years in the Secret Annex, Anne not only wrote about her experience as a Jew in hiding during World War II but also captured beautiful short stories and the beginning of a novel. She eventually recorded her diaries into one story that she titled “Het Achterhuis,” or “The Secret Annex.”
The Franks were eventually discovered on the 4th of August, 1944, and Anne, along with her mother and Margot, were sent to the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration and extermination camp. She was forced to do heavy labor with very little nutrition and even less rest. As a result, Anne’s health began to decline. She was transported to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp with Margot in November of 1944, where she and Margot succumbed to their exhaustion and poor living conditions, dying of typhus in February of 1945.
Today, the world gets a glimpse of Anne’s life through her famed diary, but also through the home and Secret Annex, where she spent most of her life. The Anne Frank House, located on the Prinsengracht canal near the Westerkerk church, opened its doors again as a museum in 1960. The home, which was also the site of Otto Frank’s company, consisted of the main living quarters and the Secret Annex.
One of the most popular historic sites in the world, tickets to the Anne Frank museum sell out quickly. Visitors should expect to plan their visit at least two months in advance when tickets are released on the museum website. | 749 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sarah Pomeroy asked herself the question, “What were women doing while men were active in all the areas traditionally emphasized by classical scholars?.” This question is the reason for her book Goddesses, Whores, Wives and Slaves, Women in Classical Antiquity. Pomeroy basically wanted to write a book to tell what women were doing during Greek and Roman times. This is the first book written in English devoted entirely to the subject. Pomeroy covers about fifteen hundred years starting during Bronze Age and ends with the death of Constantine in A.D. 337. The book is broken down into ten chapters that start with Goddesses and Gods and then travels through time progressing to the women of Rome and Late Republic. Pomeroy does a very good job of describing all sides of life that women went through during these years of antiquity.The book begins with mythology Gods and Goddesses. Mythology gives theGreeks some of their views of women and how they are to be treated. Even with titles ofGoddesses, Aphrodite, Hestia, Athena and Artemis are still subject to the male God Zeus. Some of the Goddesses were born of man, not of woman, showing that women weren’t even important or needed in child baring.The Bronze Age brings with it oral traditions of history and storytelling, this tied with hard evidence gives some information on how women were viewed by men. In the story of Homer’s Illiad, the ten-year war is fought over a woman (Helen). Women were viewed as property, they were won in contests and used for payment of debt. Through the Bronze and Dark Ages, and the entire Archaic period, women were treated pretty muchthe same was varying some from city to city.Pomeroy describes many types of women who lived during Classical Greek times. Not necessarily different races of women, but different classes of women. There where citizen women, this was a woman who was born in the city who had parents that were citizens. To remain a citizen, a woman had to either marry a citizen or not marry at all. There were also slave women. Slave women worked around the house and most male slaves were sent to work and die in the mines. Woman slaves were wet nurses, housekeepers and baby-sitters. Women slaves were also subject to sexual relations with the man of the house. A free man could have sexual intercourse with his wife, his slaves, and with other males without fear of punishment. A woman, on the other hand, could only have sexual intercourse with her husband. From the time a woman is even starting in life in her mother’s womb she will suffer at the hand of males. If a female survived abortion, it was up to the father on whether or not to keep her. Females were seen as a burden or just another cost to the father. Male children were needed at all times, there was hardly doubt about letting a male child live unless the child was weak or sickly. Females were only needed for baring children, making clothing and taking care of the homestead. When a daughter was ready for marriage around the age of fourteen, her father would have to supply her with a dowry, if a father had several daughters that meant several dowries, so fathers often chose to kill females at birth.Females were used to gain power through marriages to sons of prominent men. If a woman that was already in a wealthy family she usually would marry a family relative to keep the wealth and land within the family. As you can see women were thought of as property throughout their lives. The daily life of a woman in the Archaic period was to take care of potential soldiers or command a slave with the task. She would make clothing along with her slaves all day, prepare meals and bathe their husbands. Women in other cities did not have to work as much but didn’t have any other privileges either. Women were not taught like the males, they weren’t even given the same amount of food as males. Boys went to schools to learn rhetoric and also exercise, women were not formally taught. As far as political power, women had none. Only free citizen men had authority. Women were given some legal rights dealing with divorce. If a husband was found guilty of adultery, the wife could divorce him. If divorced because the man was at fault, he had to repay her dowry. Women rarely went to public functions or even to draw water from the city well.A wife was to send a slave to do it as to protect the wife from being in contact with gossiping women and also away from contact with other men.Prostitution was a way of life for many women. If fathers didn’t want to kill there newborn daughter they were given away or said to have been killed and then given away, these babies would probably grow up to be prostitutes. Also, slave girls were sold for the purpose of prostitution. Prostitution was legal and very common. Aspasia was probably the most famous prostitute of the time. She was considered to be a Hetairai which is basically a well educated prostitute or high-class prostitute.Things did not improve much until Roman times and then not too much improvement by our standards. Women slowly began to be educated, make their own money, or have their own land. Women were beginning to be seen in public even having public meetings. With money and land comes power, not as equal as mans power, but some power none the less. Roman women still had domestic duty first and then some social freedom. Prostitution and slavery thrived as well as ever. I believe Pomeroy has written a fine book on a topic that needs to be explored more. It’s hard for me to understand why the subject of women in history has been neglected as long as it has. Pomeroy has compiled a lot of information on the subject and put it into a well written and cited book. The information has been there for years but not collected until this book. It is hard to say if the book has all elements of women known to man but it is a start and better than what we have had before it. I think it is a valuable piece of work in that it might inspire others to try their hand at what I consider to be new history. There is not much written with the female slant on history. Other voices of history need to be heard and Pomeroy delivered a great start to the cause of women’s history. | <urn:uuid:1eda5738-b8a6-4bd8-80ed-320bb9c02a1e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://essay.ua-referat.com/GodessesWhoresWivesAnd_Slaves | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00069.warc.gz | en | 0.992773 | 1,333 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.213678479194641... | 4 | Sarah Pomeroy asked herself the question, “What were women doing while men were active in all the areas traditionally emphasized by classical scholars?.” This question is the reason for her book Goddesses, Whores, Wives and Slaves, Women in Classical Antiquity. Pomeroy basically wanted to write a book to tell what women were doing during Greek and Roman times. This is the first book written in English devoted entirely to the subject. Pomeroy covers about fifteen hundred years starting during Bronze Age and ends with the death of Constantine in A.D. 337. The book is broken down into ten chapters that start with Goddesses and Gods and then travels through time progressing to the women of Rome and Late Republic. Pomeroy does a very good job of describing all sides of life that women went through during these years of antiquity.The book begins with mythology Gods and Goddesses. Mythology gives theGreeks some of their views of women and how they are to be treated. Even with titles ofGoddesses, Aphrodite, Hestia, Athena and Artemis are still subject to the male God Zeus. Some of the Goddesses were born of man, not of woman, showing that women weren’t even important or needed in child baring.The Bronze Age brings with it oral traditions of history and storytelling, this tied with hard evidence gives some information on how women were viewed by men. In the story of Homer’s Illiad, the ten-year war is fought over a woman (Helen). Women were viewed as property, they were won in contests and used for payment of debt. Through the Bronze and Dark Ages, and the entire Archaic period, women were treated pretty muchthe same was varying some from city to city.Pomeroy describes many types of women who lived during Classical Greek times. Not necessarily different races of women, but different classes of women. There where citizen women, this was a woman who was born in the city who had parents that were citizens. To remain a citizen, a woman had to either marry a citizen or not marry at all. There were also slave women. Slave women worked around the house and most male slaves were sent to work and die in the mines. Woman slaves were wet nurses, housekeepers and baby-sitters. Women slaves were also subject to sexual relations with the man of the house. A free man could have sexual intercourse with his wife, his slaves, and with other males without fear of punishment. A woman, on the other hand, could only have sexual intercourse with her husband. From the time a woman is even starting in life in her mother’s womb she will suffer at the hand of males. If a female survived abortion, it was up to the father on whether or not to keep her. Females were seen as a burden or just another cost to the father. Male children were needed at all times, there was hardly doubt about letting a male child live unless the child was weak or sickly. Females were only needed for baring children, making clothing and taking care of the homestead. When a daughter was ready for marriage around the age of fourteen, her father would have to supply her with a dowry, if a father had several daughters that meant several dowries, so fathers often chose to kill females at birth.Females were used to gain power through marriages to sons of prominent men. If a woman that was already in a wealthy family she usually would marry a family relative to keep the wealth and land within the family. As you can see women were thought of as property throughout their lives. The daily life of a woman in the Archaic period was to take care of potential soldiers or command a slave with the task. She would make clothing along with her slaves all day, prepare meals and bathe their husbands. Women in other cities did not have to work as much but didn’t have any other privileges either. Women were not taught like the males, they weren’t even given the same amount of food as males. Boys went to schools to learn rhetoric and also exercise, women were not formally taught. As far as political power, women had none. Only free citizen men had authority. Women were given some legal rights dealing with divorce. If a husband was found guilty of adultery, the wife could divorce him. If divorced because the man was at fault, he had to repay her dowry. Women rarely went to public functions or even to draw water from the city well.A wife was to send a slave to do it as to protect the wife from being in contact with gossiping women and also away from contact with other men.Prostitution was a way of life for many women. If fathers didn’t want to kill there newborn daughter they were given away or said to have been killed and then given away, these babies would probably grow up to be prostitutes. Also, slave girls were sold for the purpose of prostitution. Prostitution was legal and very common. Aspasia was probably the most famous prostitute of the time. She was considered to be a Hetairai which is basically a well educated prostitute or high-class prostitute.Things did not improve much until Roman times and then not too much improvement by our standards. Women slowly began to be educated, make their own money, or have their own land. Women were beginning to be seen in public even having public meetings. With money and land comes power, not as equal as mans power, but some power none the less. Roman women still had domestic duty first and then some social freedom. Prostitution and slavery thrived as well as ever. I believe Pomeroy has written a fine book on a topic that needs to be explored more. It’s hard for me to understand why the subject of women in history has been neglected as long as it has. Pomeroy has compiled a lot of information on the subject and put it into a well written and cited book. The information has been there for years but not collected until this book. It is hard to say if the book has all elements of women known to man but it is a start and better than what we have had before it. I think it is a valuable piece of work in that it might inspire others to try their hand at what I consider to be new history. There is not much written with the female slant on history. Other voices of history need to be heard and Pomeroy delivered a great start to the cause of women’s history. | 1,309 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Through this plan, all people could get involved in sports and differentiation was no longer based on ones financial statue, but on his or her abilities.
The National Lottery brought great successes to sports development in England but it concomitantly destabilized the already weakened system, influencing poor people to return to their condition as individuals who were less able to access sports development.
Apparently, 20% of Englands citizens can be categorized as being poor, given that they are recognized by the government as individuals who have less access to particular privileges. Being excluded from sports and from social activities in general is extremely harmful for the physical, and respectively for the mental health of the individual.
The 2002 implementation of the Game Plan marked a change in the world of sports, as it seemed that poor people would be provided with their rights as equal citizens.
The program is among the most complex to be directed at decreasing the gap caused by financial background in sports. The Game Plan was expected to improve conditions in England by including poor individuals in sports development and bettering their chances to integrate society. Sport was no longer something meant to bring success to the country, as it became a method of helping poor individuals.
Poor people should not be subjected to social exclusion because of their condition and sport is essential for helping them in their endeavor to escape societys biased convictions. In order for fairness to exist, social equality needs to. | <urn:uuid:3efce767-c678-431c-b977-da969c3f6f2c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://davisiaj.org/sport-as-a-medium-underprivileged/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00488.warc.gz | en | 0.98321 | 283 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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-0.083276242017745... | 1 | Through this plan, all people could get involved in sports and differentiation was no longer based on ones financial statue, but on his or her abilities.
The National Lottery brought great successes to sports development in England but it concomitantly destabilized the already weakened system, influencing poor people to return to their condition as individuals who were less able to access sports development.
Apparently, 20% of Englands citizens can be categorized as being poor, given that they are recognized by the government as individuals who have less access to particular privileges. Being excluded from sports and from social activities in general is extremely harmful for the physical, and respectively for the mental health of the individual.
The 2002 implementation of the Game Plan marked a change in the world of sports, as it seemed that poor people would be provided with their rights as equal citizens.
The program is among the most complex to be directed at decreasing the gap caused by financial background in sports. The Game Plan was expected to improve conditions in England by including poor individuals in sports development and bettering their chances to integrate society. Sport was no longer something meant to bring success to the country, as it became a method of helping poor individuals.
Poor people should not be subjected to social exclusion because of their condition and sport is essential for helping them in their endeavor to escape societys biased convictions. In order for fairness to exist, social equality needs to. | 283 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Nonfiction is the new black
In the early 1900s, becoming the first to reach the South Pole was a huge source of individual and national pride. English explorer Ernest Shackleton came within 97 miles of that goal in 1909 before being forced to turn back.
Fellow Englishman Robert Scott made well-publicized plans to succeed where Shackleton had failed. He was therefore dismayed to learn that Norwegian Roald Amundsen had his own secret plan to reach the Pole. Amundsen hadn’t even told his crew members where they were going until they were at sea.
The two expeditions landed in Antarctica at roughly the same time and spent months preparing for their respective treks. Amundsen departed on October 18, 1911. He was fortunate to encounter relatively good weather. On December 7, he passed the southernmost point Shackleton had reached. One week later, on December 14, he and his four men stood on the South Pole. Each man grasped the Norwegian flag. They celebrated in the evening with seal meat and cigars. Before returning, they erected a tent and put letters for Scott and Norwegian King Haakon inside. Amundsen and his men arrived back at their starting point in late January and sailed to Tasmania, where Amundsen sent a cable trumpeting his accomplishment. Even though the response was mostly favorable, some people in England thought Amundsen had played a dirty trick by being so secretive about his plans.
Meanwhile, Scott and his four men left from their base three weeks after Amundsen. They encountered some of the worst weather Antarctica could throw at them. Several times they had to stay in their tents for extended periods, eating valuable food. They finally arrived at the Pole on January 17, only to have their triumph replaced with bitter disappointment. They found Amundsen’s letters and knew they were five weeks too late.
Their difficulties worsened on the way back. Two men died from cold, hunger, and exhaustion. Scott and the two others made what proved to be their final camp on March 19, confined to their tent by horrific weather. They were about 10 miles from a food depot that would have ensured their survival, but couldn’t reach it. Searchers found their frozen bodies eight months later.
Amundsen died in 1928 in a plane crash during a rescue mission in the Arctic Ocean. Shortly before his death, he told a journalist, “If only you knew how splendid it is up here, that’s where I want to die.”
Aristotle discovered Antarctica nearly 2,500 years ago, though no one set foot on the continent until the 1800s. Exploration went into high gear several decades later during the Heroic Age. The peak came in 1911 when Norwegian Roald Amundsen reached the Pole, followed soon afterward by the tragic deaths of Englishman Robert Scott and four companions. This is one of many of Jim Whiting's books.
MLA 8 Citation
Whiting, Jim. "To the Ends of the Earth." Nonfiction Minute, iNK Think Tank, 18
Jan. 2018, www.nonfictionminute.org/the-nonfiction-minute/
celebrating nature, inspiring good writing
In 1804, President Thomas Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis, William Clark, and a team of men on a vital mission to explore the wild, unmapped West.
Lewis brought his dog along. According to journals kept by several of the explorers, the dog helped a lot. He retrieved animals that had been shot for food. He scared away grizzly bears, and a bull bison that charged into camp.
The old journal pages are often hard to read, and this led to a misunderstanding of the dog's name. People thought that he was called Scannon. Not until 1985 did a historian carefully examine every mention of the dog. He found that Lewis had actually named the dog Seaman. The dog was a Newfoundland, a breed often kept on ships. They are great swimmers, and could save people from drowning.
In the expedition's journals, Seaman was last mentioned in July, 1806, two months before the explorers returned from the West and reached the little town of St. Louis on the Mississippi River. After that, there is no word about the dog in letters or reports written by Lewis, Clark, or others.
The mystery of what happened to Seaman was solved in the year 2000, thanks to the work of historian James Holberg. He had found a book, written in 1814 by historian Timothy Alden, which told of a little museum in Virginia. Alden found a dog collar displayed there that William Clark had given to the museum. On the collar were these words: "The greatest traveller of my species. My name is SEAMAN, the dog of captain Meriwether Lewis, whom I accompanied to the Pacifick ocean through the interior of the continent of North America."
The collar was later destroyed by fire, but in his 1814 book Timothy Alden also wrote further details about Seaman. Historians report that after the expedition, Meriwether Lewis' life became one of failure and despair. In October 1809 he took his own life. Alden wrote that Seaman was there when Lewis was buried, and "refused to take every kind of food, which was offered to him, and actually pined away and died with grief upon his master's grave."
People who know Newfoundland dogs say that this could be true, because these dogs are fiercely loyal to their owners. Unless historians find some new evidence, that is how the life of this great dog hero ended.
The Lewis and Clark Expedition was the first American expedition to cross what is now the western portion of the United States, departing in May 1804, from near St. Louis on the Mississippi River, making their way westward through the continental divide to the Pacific coast. Seaman was along on every bit of the round trip expedition of over seven thousand miles. However, like the explorers, he traveled many of those miles on a keel boat or canoe--up the Missouri and other rivers, downstream to the Pacific Ocean, and then the return journey to St. Louis in 1806.
Laurence Pringle has written a book about Seaman. This richly detailed account of the Lewis and Clark expedition includes its planning, its adventures and discoveries, and its aftermath. With intriguing sidebars, historical illustrations, journal excerpts, and original art, this account of what became known as the Corps of Discovery features the remarkable dog that was the expedition's most unusual member. For more information click here.
MLA 8 Citation
Pringle, Laurence. "Did the Hero Dog Survive?" Nonfiction Minute, iNK Think
Tank, 29 Jan. 2018, www.nonfictionminute.org/the-nonfiction-minute/
Nonfiction is the new black
You’ve probably heard of Marco Polo, who left his hometown of Venice, Italy in 1271 as a teenager and traveled for the next 24 years. He spent most of his time in China, where he became an advisor to the country’s ruler Kublai Khan. He published The Travels of Marco Polo in 1300 and it became an instant best-seller.
Four years later Ibn Battuta, who became known as the “Muslim Marco Polo,” was born in Tangier, Morocco.
When he was about 21 he undertook the hajj, the trip to the Muslim holy city of Mecca in the Arabian Peninsula. During the month he stayed there following a two-year journey, he heard fascinating tales of far-flung lands from his fellow pilgrims. Rather than returning home to the career as a lawyer that awaited him, Ibn Battuta decided to see those lands.
He joined a camel caravan to Persia. From there he went to Africa, then to Asia. He crossed hot deserts and snow-covered mountain passes. He survived bandit attacks and voyages on stormy and pirate-infested seas. He enjoyed long periods of living in luxury, as well as other periods of soul-crushing poverty.
He finally returned home to discover that his parents were dead. So he crossed the Straits of Gibraltar to visit the remnants of Islamic Spain. Then, at the “request” of the sultan of Morocco, who wanted to establish trade relations with the mighty Muslim empire of Mali, West Africa, Ibn Battuta toured that region for nearly three years. He came back to Morocco for good in 1354, ending 29 years of traveling. During that time, he covered about 75,000 miles. By contrast, Marco Polo’s journeys encompassed roughly 15,000 miles over a 24-year period.
Like Marco Polo, Ibn Battuta published an account of his travels, A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Traveling, more commonly called the Rihla (or “Journey”). He spent his remaining years before his death in 1368 as a judge—finally involved with the legal career he had avoided so many years earlier.
If you would like to learn a lot more about Ibn Battuta, click here to go to a website that includes student activities.
And, if you would like to learn more about author Jim Whiting, click here to go to his website. He has a great new series on the NFL Today, with a book about each of the teams.
For Vicki Cobb's BLOG (nonfiction book reviews, info on education, more), click here: Vicki's Blog
The NCSS-CBC Notable Social Studies Committee is pleased to inform you
that 30 People Who Changed the World has been selected for Notable Social Studies Trade Books for Young People 2018, a cooperative project of the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) & the Children’s Book Council | <urn:uuid:45bea837-640a-4137-94be-d47124f9f2da> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nonfictionminute.org/the-nonfiction-minute/category/explorers | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00315.warc.gz | en | 0.981664 | 2,027 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.39986819... | 1 | Nonfiction is the new black
In the early 1900s, becoming the first to reach the South Pole was a huge source of individual and national pride. English explorer Ernest Shackleton came within 97 miles of that goal in 1909 before being forced to turn back.
Fellow Englishman Robert Scott made well-publicized plans to succeed where Shackleton had failed. He was therefore dismayed to learn that Norwegian Roald Amundsen had his own secret plan to reach the Pole. Amundsen hadn’t even told his crew members where they were going until they were at sea.
The two expeditions landed in Antarctica at roughly the same time and spent months preparing for their respective treks. Amundsen departed on October 18, 1911. He was fortunate to encounter relatively good weather. On December 7, he passed the southernmost point Shackleton had reached. One week later, on December 14, he and his four men stood on the South Pole. Each man grasped the Norwegian flag. They celebrated in the evening with seal meat and cigars. Before returning, they erected a tent and put letters for Scott and Norwegian King Haakon inside. Amundsen and his men arrived back at their starting point in late January and sailed to Tasmania, where Amundsen sent a cable trumpeting his accomplishment. Even though the response was mostly favorable, some people in England thought Amundsen had played a dirty trick by being so secretive about his plans.
Meanwhile, Scott and his four men left from their base three weeks after Amundsen. They encountered some of the worst weather Antarctica could throw at them. Several times they had to stay in their tents for extended periods, eating valuable food. They finally arrived at the Pole on January 17, only to have their triumph replaced with bitter disappointment. They found Amundsen’s letters and knew they were five weeks too late.
Their difficulties worsened on the way back. Two men died from cold, hunger, and exhaustion. Scott and the two others made what proved to be their final camp on March 19, confined to their tent by horrific weather. They were about 10 miles from a food depot that would have ensured their survival, but couldn’t reach it. Searchers found their frozen bodies eight months later.
Amundsen died in 1928 in a plane crash during a rescue mission in the Arctic Ocean. Shortly before his death, he told a journalist, “If only you knew how splendid it is up here, that’s where I want to die.”
Aristotle discovered Antarctica nearly 2,500 years ago, though no one set foot on the continent until the 1800s. Exploration went into high gear several decades later during the Heroic Age. The peak came in 1911 when Norwegian Roald Amundsen reached the Pole, followed soon afterward by the tragic deaths of Englishman Robert Scott and four companions. This is one of many of Jim Whiting's books.
MLA 8 Citation
Whiting, Jim. "To the Ends of the Earth." Nonfiction Minute, iNK Think Tank, 18
Jan. 2018, www.nonfictionminute.org/the-nonfiction-minute/
celebrating nature, inspiring good writing
In 1804, President Thomas Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis, William Clark, and a team of men on a vital mission to explore the wild, unmapped West.
Lewis brought his dog along. According to journals kept by several of the explorers, the dog helped a lot. He retrieved animals that had been shot for food. He scared away grizzly bears, and a bull bison that charged into camp.
The old journal pages are often hard to read, and this led to a misunderstanding of the dog's name. People thought that he was called Scannon. Not until 1985 did a historian carefully examine every mention of the dog. He found that Lewis had actually named the dog Seaman. The dog was a Newfoundland, a breed often kept on ships. They are great swimmers, and could save people from drowning.
In the expedition's journals, Seaman was last mentioned in July, 1806, two months before the explorers returned from the West and reached the little town of St. Louis on the Mississippi River. After that, there is no word about the dog in letters or reports written by Lewis, Clark, or others.
The mystery of what happened to Seaman was solved in the year 2000, thanks to the work of historian James Holberg. He had found a book, written in 1814 by historian Timothy Alden, which told of a little museum in Virginia. Alden found a dog collar displayed there that William Clark had given to the museum. On the collar were these words: "The greatest traveller of my species. My name is SEAMAN, the dog of captain Meriwether Lewis, whom I accompanied to the Pacifick ocean through the interior of the continent of North America."
The collar was later destroyed by fire, but in his 1814 book Timothy Alden also wrote further details about Seaman. Historians report that after the expedition, Meriwether Lewis' life became one of failure and despair. In October 1809 he took his own life. Alden wrote that Seaman was there when Lewis was buried, and "refused to take every kind of food, which was offered to him, and actually pined away and died with grief upon his master's grave."
People who know Newfoundland dogs say that this could be true, because these dogs are fiercely loyal to their owners. Unless historians find some new evidence, that is how the life of this great dog hero ended.
The Lewis and Clark Expedition was the first American expedition to cross what is now the western portion of the United States, departing in May 1804, from near St. Louis on the Mississippi River, making their way westward through the continental divide to the Pacific coast. Seaman was along on every bit of the round trip expedition of over seven thousand miles. However, like the explorers, he traveled many of those miles on a keel boat or canoe--up the Missouri and other rivers, downstream to the Pacific Ocean, and then the return journey to St. Louis in 1806.
Laurence Pringle has written a book about Seaman. This richly detailed account of the Lewis and Clark expedition includes its planning, its adventures and discoveries, and its aftermath. With intriguing sidebars, historical illustrations, journal excerpts, and original art, this account of what became known as the Corps of Discovery features the remarkable dog that was the expedition's most unusual member. For more information click here.
MLA 8 Citation
Pringle, Laurence. "Did the Hero Dog Survive?" Nonfiction Minute, iNK Think
Tank, 29 Jan. 2018, www.nonfictionminute.org/the-nonfiction-minute/
Nonfiction is the new black
You’ve probably heard of Marco Polo, who left his hometown of Venice, Italy in 1271 as a teenager and traveled for the next 24 years. He spent most of his time in China, where he became an advisor to the country’s ruler Kublai Khan. He published The Travels of Marco Polo in 1300 and it became an instant best-seller.
Four years later Ibn Battuta, who became known as the “Muslim Marco Polo,” was born in Tangier, Morocco.
When he was about 21 he undertook the hajj, the trip to the Muslim holy city of Mecca in the Arabian Peninsula. During the month he stayed there following a two-year journey, he heard fascinating tales of far-flung lands from his fellow pilgrims. Rather than returning home to the career as a lawyer that awaited him, Ibn Battuta decided to see those lands.
He joined a camel caravan to Persia. From there he went to Africa, then to Asia. He crossed hot deserts and snow-covered mountain passes. He survived bandit attacks and voyages on stormy and pirate-infested seas. He enjoyed long periods of living in luxury, as well as other periods of soul-crushing poverty.
He finally returned home to discover that his parents were dead. So he crossed the Straits of Gibraltar to visit the remnants of Islamic Spain. Then, at the “request” of the sultan of Morocco, who wanted to establish trade relations with the mighty Muslim empire of Mali, West Africa, Ibn Battuta toured that region for nearly three years. He came back to Morocco for good in 1354, ending 29 years of traveling. During that time, he covered about 75,000 miles. By contrast, Marco Polo’s journeys encompassed roughly 15,000 miles over a 24-year period.
Like Marco Polo, Ibn Battuta published an account of his travels, A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Traveling, more commonly called the Rihla (or “Journey”). He spent his remaining years before his death in 1368 as a judge—finally involved with the legal career he had avoided so many years earlier.
If you would like to learn a lot more about Ibn Battuta, click here to go to a website that includes student activities.
And, if you would like to learn more about author Jim Whiting, click here to go to his website. He has a great new series on the NFL Today, with a book about each of the teams.
For Vicki Cobb's BLOG (nonfiction book reviews, info on education, more), click here: Vicki's Blog
The NCSS-CBC Notable Social Studies Committee is pleased to inform you
that 30 People Who Changed the World has been selected for Notable Social Studies Trade Books for Young People 2018, a cooperative project of the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) & the Children’s Book Council | 2,087 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Socrates is known to be one of the greatest philosophers of all time. Also known as the "Athenian Gadfly " because he always upsets the status quo by posing novel questions. Socrates felt that the gods had put him in front of the Athenian people so that the citizens would not be asleep spiritually. At the age of seventeen, he was one of greek philosopher Archelaus favorite pupil. Pythia, The Oracle of Delphi crowned him to be the wisest man in Athens and wanted to prove the Oracle by finding men wiser than he was. He devoted his time to pursuit the truth and became one of the founders of the western philosophy. Socrates wanted to create moral standards in Athens, he once stated, "There is only one good, knowledge, and one evil, ignorance. " he believed that even if you know a lot about something, do not act like you know everything because it can overshadow your wisdom.
There is not a lot of information known about Socrates because he did not know how to write or read. The only three sources of his much-unknown life were the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon and the plays of his contemporary, Aristophanes. Socrates was born in 469 BC in Athens. His father, Sophroniscus was an Athenian stonemason and sculptor. His mother's name was Phaenarete, a midwife. Some say Socrates took over the profession of stonemasonry from his father who cut stone for the Parthenon and became a master stonecutter to make living and other say that he devotes himself only to what he regards as the most important occupation, which is discussing philosophy. According to Plato, Socrates was involved with the military as a hoplite and said that he served in the Athenian army during three campaigns: at Potidaea, Amphipolis, and Delium. Socrates was a member of boule, which was a council of citizens to look out for daily matters of the city. He had taken the senatorial oath, and sworn as a member of that house to act in conformity with the laws and when was asked to bring nine generals for a trial, he couldn't provide for them because he followed his principles instead of the will of the people. | <urn:uuid:8e85ddc6-791d-4ae0-8e8f-8803e804927e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/205784.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00402.warc.gz | en | 0.990859 | 461 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.37691298127174... | 5 | Socrates is known to be one of the greatest philosophers of all time. Also known as the "Athenian Gadfly " because he always upsets the status quo by posing novel questions. Socrates felt that the gods had put him in front of the Athenian people so that the citizens would not be asleep spiritually. At the age of seventeen, he was one of greek philosopher Archelaus favorite pupil. Pythia, The Oracle of Delphi crowned him to be the wisest man in Athens and wanted to prove the Oracle by finding men wiser than he was. He devoted his time to pursuit the truth and became one of the founders of the western philosophy. Socrates wanted to create moral standards in Athens, he once stated, "There is only one good, knowledge, and one evil, ignorance. " he believed that even if you know a lot about something, do not act like you know everything because it can overshadow your wisdom.
There is not a lot of information known about Socrates because he did not know how to write or read. The only three sources of his much-unknown life were the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon and the plays of his contemporary, Aristophanes. Socrates was born in 469 BC in Athens. His father, Sophroniscus was an Athenian stonemason and sculptor. His mother's name was Phaenarete, a midwife. Some say Socrates took over the profession of stonemasonry from his father who cut stone for the Parthenon and became a master stonecutter to make living and other say that he devotes himself only to what he regards as the most important occupation, which is discussing philosophy. According to Plato, Socrates was involved with the military as a hoplite and said that he served in the Athenian army during three campaigns: at Potidaea, Amphipolis, and Delium. Socrates was a member of boule, which was a council of citizens to look out for daily matters of the city. He had taken the senatorial oath, and sworn as a member of that house to act in conformity with the laws and when was asked to bring nine generals for a trial, he couldn't provide for them because he followed his principles instead of the will of the people. | 471 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Holly’s mum came to speak to us about the history of Buckstone for topic this week. Mrs Carter told us about the old quarry and showed us a photo of the men who worked there 100 years ago. Then we learnt about how Buckstone got its name 500 years ago from the King who went hunting here and started at the Buckstane. 2000 years ago, there were Picts here who fought the Romans in a big battle. Mrs Carter told us about the Picts. We learnt they had blue painted on them and that they drew pictures on stones to tell stories and mark their property. We had a go at designing our own Pictish carvings on stones.
We have been independent learners in charge of learning our spelling words with different activities. We investigated and said if words were real or nonsense, we chose a chilli challenge and chose how we would practise our spelling words. Our sound this week was a stretchy ‘o’ which you can make with oo (like in room and moon) and ew (like in few and threw).
In reading we have been focussing on giving quality answers to discussion questions about our reading books. We know that a quality answer means giving our opinion and reasons for them.
In maths we have been practicing our subtraction skills. Some of us have been taking away 10, some of us used empty number lines as a strategy to help us and some of were having a go at missing number subtraction problems.
For art we went looking for patterns in nature. We were trying to find branching, explosions, meanders, packing and spirals. We used what we found to inspire our art.
We were learning to talk about the weather in French this week. We had a go at acting out different types of weather and drawing them.
In PE we were working on defending as a ball skill. We had a go at playing netball with some people defending. We thought about stars and wishes for each other. Some of the stars were that people were shouting when they were ready for the ball, people had their hands up ready to catch the ball and that some people were finding an empty space to be in. Some of the wishes were to spread out more, pass the ball quicker and work as a team more.
We were learning to use the trackpad in ICT this week. We were focussing on clicking, double clicking and using the mousepad to move the mouse. We played different games online and used Paint on the computers to practise these skills.
Reading: we are focussing on having quality discussions about our reading books in class. I am encouraging the children to give their opinion, reasons for their opinion and to ask questions about the book. Some examples of questions are:
- Where is the book set? How did the main character feel at the start of the book and at the end of the book? Why did it change? Who is telling the story? What is the story about? What kind of book is it and how do you know?
- Who are the main characters? Name three adjectives to describe your favourite character? What was the main problem in the story and how did the main character solve it? What did you learn from the book?
- Could you improve the story? What parts would you change? Do you agree with the character when they did …. Could the main character solved the problem in another way? Does the book have a hidden message?
- What was the most interesting part of the book and why? Why do you think the character did… Who was this story written for? Which character would you like to be friends with and why?
- What did you learn from the story? Have you had a similar experience? Would you recommend this book to a friend and why? Did this book give you any new ideas about yourself and why?
- What is the relationship between the main characters? Why do you think the main character chose to … Why did the author use …. word? Can you create a different ending to the book? Why would you change it?
Spelling: the children have opportunities to practice in class through a number of active strategies, all of which could be done at home as well. A particular favourite is drawing a picture and hiding the words in the picture. If you were wanting to use an online resource as well, you could enter the spelling list (posted on a Monday) into spellingcity and try out some of their games as another way to practise.
Maths: we will be looking at time next week. You could be discussing useful vocabulary like quarter past, quarter to, half past and o’clock at home to support this.
With all the runny noses we have as a class we would appreciate any donations of a box of tissues!
We have been practising all week for our carol concert which will be on Thursday 19th December at 2.30pm. | <urn:uuid:81cbfc27-62d7-4bb8-b3c5-2cd470476304> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://buckstoneprimary.com/2019/11/22/week-beginning-18-11-19/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00012.warc.gz | en | 0.985971 | 1,012 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.320546269416809... | 1 | Holly’s mum came to speak to us about the history of Buckstone for topic this week. Mrs Carter told us about the old quarry and showed us a photo of the men who worked there 100 years ago. Then we learnt about how Buckstone got its name 500 years ago from the King who went hunting here and started at the Buckstane. 2000 years ago, there were Picts here who fought the Romans in a big battle. Mrs Carter told us about the Picts. We learnt they had blue painted on them and that they drew pictures on stones to tell stories and mark their property. We had a go at designing our own Pictish carvings on stones.
We have been independent learners in charge of learning our spelling words with different activities. We investigated and said if words were real or nonsense, we chose a chilli challenge and chose how we would practise our spelling words. Our sound this week was a stretchy ‘o’ which you can make with oo (like in room and moon) and ew (like in few and threw).
In reading we have been focussing on giving quality answers to discussion questions about our reading books. We know that a quality answer means giving our opinion and reasons for them.
In maths we have been practicing our subtraction skills. Some of us have been taking away 10, some of us used empty number lines as a strategy to help us and some of were having a go at missing number subtraction problems.
For art we went looking for patterns in nature. We were trying to find branching, explosions, meanders, packing and spirals. We used what we found to inspire our art.
We were learning to talk about the weather in French this week. We had a go at acting out different types of weather and drawing them.
In PE we were working on defending as a ball skill. We had a go at playing netball with some people defending. We thought about stars and wishes for each other. Some of the stars were that people were shouting when they were ready for the ball, people had their hands up ready to catch the ball and that some people were finding an empty space to be in. Some of the wishes were to spread out more, pass the ball quicker and work as a team more.
We were learning to use the trackpad in ICT this week. We were focussing on clicking, double clicking and using the mousepad to move the mouse. We played different games online and used Paint on the computers to practise these skills.
Reading: we are focussing on having quality discussions about our reading books in class. I am encouraging the children to give their opinion, reasons for their opinion and to ask questions about the book. Some examples of questions are:
- Where is the book set? How did the main character feel at the start of the book and at the end of the book? Why did it change? Who is telling the story? What is the story about? What kind of book is it and how do you know?
- Who are the main characters? Name three adjectives to describe your favourite character? What was the main problem in the story and how did the main character solve it? What did you learn from the book?
- Could you improve the story? What parts would you change? Do you agree with the character when they did …. Could the main character solved the problem in another way? Does the book have a hidden message?
- What was the most interesting part of the book and why? Why do you think the character did… Who was this story written for? Which character would you like to be friends with and why?
- What did you learn from the story? Have you had a similar experience? Would you recommend this book to a friend and why? Did this book give you any new ideas about yourself and why?
- What is the relationship between the main characters? Why do you think the main character chose to … Why did the author use …. word? Can you create a different ending to the book? Why would you change it?
Spelling: the children have opportunities to practice in class through a number of active strategies, all of which could be done at home as well. A particular favourite is drawing a picture and hiding the words in the picture. If you were wanting to use an online resource as well, you could enter the spelling list (posted on a Monday) into spellingcity and try out some of their games as another way to practise.
Maths: we will be looking at time next week. You could be discussing useful vocabulary like quarter past, quarter to, half past and o’clock at home to support this.
With all the runny noses we have as a class we would appreciate any donations of a box of tissues!
We have been practising all week for our carol concert which will be on Thursday 19th December at 2.30pm. | 999 | ENGLISH | 1 |
CHC2DI for Ms. McIntyre th March 24
Southwood Secondary School
The 1920’s are often labelled the “Roaring 20s” because the decade was full of fun times and prosperity. The years were exciting and full of good changes for everyone. The label “Roaring Twenties” does accurately describe the experience of most Canadians in the
1920s. The Canadian economy boomed, it was great times for women and there was a lot of social freedom.
In the 1920s the economy prospered. The natural resources sector flourished as the value of wheat increased 250% and sold for over $352 million (Hundey, 110). The mining industry made record profits when base metals collected $130 million and other metals brought in $230 million (Hundey, 110). With more profit and sales than Canada had ever seen in the natural resources sector, it is clear that the 1920s were prosperous for Canada as a whole. Urban manufacturing also excelled. Many new products were being invented and manufactured in cities. The value of manufactured goods in Montreal increased 700% from
19201925 (Hundey, 110) Motor vehicle production increased by 150 000 from 19201929
(Hundey, 110). This created more people with jobs for people to keep up with the demands of production and resulted in very large profits and sales, so it is obvious most people prospered. Finally, there was an increase in foreign investment. Many companies from the
U.S. and Britain built branch plants in Canada to avoid tariffs of transporting goods over the border. The U.S. became one Canada’s main trading partner. From 19201929 the U.S. increased 16% in foreign investment and Britain decreased 17% (Hundey, 161). This shows prosperity because all the new factories from the U.S. created new jobs and less costs from tariffs resulted in more profit. It is obvious the economy was very prosperous in the 1920s, especially in natural resources, urban manufacturing and foreign investment.
The 1920s were not only good times for the economy, but also great times for women.
During the 1920s women gained the freedom to enjoy sports. Women’s basketball became
increasingly popular, and more people watched it than men’s. In 1921, 6000 people showed up at Sunnyside Stadium in Toronto to watch womens basketball (Hundey, 118). Women were able to compete in track and field in the olympics in 1928 for the first time. Women, for the first time, had fun competing in, watching and enjoying sports in the 1920s. In addition to sports, women had a lot more freedom to express themselves through fashion. Bobbed or marcelled hair , makeup and short dresses (Hundey,119) became normal and socially acceptable. With all the new styles and crazes women had lots of fun shopping and dressing up in their free time. Finally, education for women became better. Many more women headed to university. From 19201930 there was a 7.2% increase in female undergraduates in university (Hundey, 121). This was good for women because they had fun doing what what they wanted, and with their advanced education they were able to get new and better jobs, making more money and resulting in prosperity. Overall, women had a great time in the
1920s playing new sports, experimenting with new fashions and getting a better education.
The 1920s were also full of fun social aspects. Radios became very popular. There were 297 000 radios in Canada in… | <urn:uuid:d73dfe6c-8279-470b-84a4-fd1609f02acc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Good-Times-In-The-1920-s-550373.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00197.warc.gz | en | 0.984483 | 744 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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-0.2421178817... | 1 | CHC2DI for Ms. McIntyre th March 24
Southwood Secondary School
The 1920’s are often labelled the “Roaring 20s” because the decade was full of fun times and prosperity. The years were exciting and full of good changes for everyone. The label “Roaring Twenties” does accurately describe the experience of most Canadians in the
1920s. The Canadian economy boomed, it was great times for women and there was a lot of social freedom.
In the 1920s the economy prospered. The natural resources sector flourished as the value of wheat increased 250% and sold for over $352 million (Hundey, 110). The mining industry made record profits when base metals collected $130 million and other metals brought in $230 million (Hundey, 110). With more profit and sales than Canada had ever seen in the natural resources sector, it is clear that the 1920s were prosperous for Canada as a whole. Urban manufacturing also excelled. Many new products were being invented and manufactured in cities. The value of manufactured goods in Montreal increased 700% from
19201925 (Hundey, 110) Motor vehicle production increased by 150 000 from 19201929
(Hundey, 110). This created more people with jobs for people to keep up with the demands of production and resulted in very large profits and sales, so it is obvious most people prospered. Finally, there was an increase in foreign investment. Many companies from the
U.S. and Britain built branch plants in Canada to avoid tariffs of transporting goods over the border. The U.S. became one Canada’s main trading partner. From 19201929 the U.S. increased 16% in foreign investment and Britain decreased 17% (Hundey, 161). This shows prosperity because all the new factories from the U.S. created new jobs and less costs from tariffs resulted in more profit. It is obvious the economy was very prosperous in the 1920s, especially in natural resources, urban manufacturing and foreign investment.
The 1920s were not only good times for the economy, but also great times for women.
During the 1920s women gained the freedom to enjoy sports. Women’s basketball became
increasingly popular, and more people watched it than men’s. In 1921, 6000 people showed up at Sunnyside Stadium in Toronto to watch womens basketball (Hundey, 118). Women were able to compete in track and field in the olympics in 1928 for the first time. Women, for the first time, had fun competing in, watching and enjoying sports in the 1920s. In addition to sports, women had a lot more freedom to express themselves through fashion. Bobbed or marcelled hair , makeup and short dresses (Hundey,119) became normal and socially acceptable. With all the new styles and crazes women had lots of fun shopping and dressing up in their free time. Finally, education for women became better. Many more women headed to university. From 19201930 there was a 7.2% increase in female undergraduates in university (Hundey, 121). This was good for women because they had fun doing what what they wanted, and with their advanced education they were able to get new and better jobs, making more money and resulting in prosperity. Overall, women had a great time in the
1920s playing new sports, experimenting with new fashions and getting a better education.
The 1920s were also full of fun social aspects. Radios became very popular. There were 297 000 radios in Canada in… | 850 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How was Jackie Robinson a upstander in his life?The way that he was a upstander during his life was he was the first African american to play major league baseball and the one who broke the color barrier which opened up the door for many other African americans to play major league baseball.Jackie was born in 1919 and passed away in 1972. During his baseball career he played for the Brooklyn Dodgers, Montreal Royals and a farm team for the Brooklyn Dodgers. He had a batting average of .311 and was at bat 4877 times and hit 137 home runs. But even before his baseball career started he stood up for equal rights but he made a real impact when he took to the baseball field and became the first african american athlete to play major league baseball and officially broke the color barrier. Before he broke the color barrier he or joined the dodgers he played for a negro league then he was chosen by Branch RIckey, the president of the dodgers to help to integrate baseball. He then joined the montrials and a farm team for the doggers. Rickey new that there would be hard times ahead for jackie so he made jackie promise not to retaliate when he was faced with racism. After enduring all the comments over the first year of major league baseball he was named the rookie of the year and two years later he was named the NL MVP. When jackie was young he went to school at John Muir High School, there he competed in many sports like football, basketball, track and baseball. In 1938 jackie was named the region’s most valuable player.jackie’s older brother inspired him to pursue his talent and love for sports. Jackie’s older brother one a medal for the 200 meter dash right behind jesse owens at the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin. Jackie furthered his education at the university of california which is where he was the first one ever in school earn varsity letters in four sports. In 1941 just before he should have graduated he was forced to leave due to financial problems. Then he moved to honolulu and then began playing semi pro football for the honolulu bears. His season play football for the bears was cut short due to the beginning of world war two. But after he discharged from the army in 1944 he started to play baseball professionally. At the time when he started to play professional baseball , baseball was still a sport that was still segregated. So then he began to play in a negro league , but he was soon chosen by “branch the president for the brooklyn dodgers” to play professional baseball he joined the montreal royals and a farm team for the brooklyn dodgers. When branch chose jackie to play professional baseball he knew that he should have to endure racism and racial slurs so he made jackie promise that he would not retaliate. Jackie played his first game with the dodgers at Ebbets field making history by being the first african american american to play major league baseball in the twentieth century. Or many seasons after his first year with the dodgers he lead the dodgers to receiving the National League pennant multiple times. The season of 1955 jackie he helped the team to finally win the world series, after the team had failed couple times before.After they finally won the world series jackie lead them to one last pennant award. In 1956 Jackie was moved to the new york giants,but he never played one single game for the giants because he retired from baseball in 1957. After jackie’s career in baseball he became active in business and he continued his work as an activist for social changes. After baseball he worked for Chock full O nuts,a coffee company and restaurant chain as one of the executives.he also helped establish the african american controlled freedom bank. In 1962 jackie became the first african american to have his name put in the baseball hall of fame then many years latter in 1972 the dodgers retired his number, number 42.
All Research Proposal
- WRITTEN Piaget believes in certain principles of development. His
- I assistant trainee manager in which the skills that
- Abstract—In parameter. In addition, weevaluated the performance of the
- To contraception (Oudshoorn, 2004). Over the past 50 years,
- Background policies focus on extension of the centralised grid.
- ICICI EPS increased to 32.19 and after that company
- Dagens i 1600-1700 tallet, var det veldig mye overtroiske
- Mental is concerned in the cognizance of their abilities,
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-0.0624925494... | 1 | How was Jackie Robinson a upstander in his life?The way that he was a upstander during his life was he was the first African american to play major league baseball and the one who broke the color barrier which opened up the door for many other African americans to play major league baseball.Jackie was born in 1919 and passed away in 1972. During his baseball career he played for the Brooklyn Dodgers, Montreal Royals and a farm team for the Brooklyn Dodgers. He had a batting average of .311 and was at bat 4877 times and hit 137 home runs. But even before his baseball career started he stood up for equal rights but he made a real impact when he took to the baseball field and became the first african american athlete to play major league baseball and officially broke the color barrier. Before he broke the color barrier he or joined the dodgers he played for a negro league then he was chosen by Branch RIckey, the president of the dodgers to help to integrate baseball. He then joined the montrials and a farm team for the doggers. Rickey new that there would be hard times ahead for jackie so he made jackie promise not to retaliate when he was faced with racism. After enduring all the comments over the first year of major league baseball he was named the rookie of the year and two years later he was named the NL MVP. When jackie was young he went to school at John Muir High School, there he competed in many sports like football, basketball, track and baseball. In 1938 jackie was named the region’s most valuable player.jackie’s older brother inspired him to pursue his talent and love for sports. Jackie’s older brother one a medal for the 200 meter dash right behind jesse owens at the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin. Jackie furthered his education at the university of california which is where he was the first one ever in school earn varsity letters in four sports. In 1941 just before he should have graduated he was forced to leave due to financial problems. Then he moved to honolulu and then began playing semi pro football for the honolulu bears. His season play football for the bears was cut short due to the beginning of world war two. But after he discharged from the army in 1944 he started to play baseball professionally. At the time when he started to play professional baseball , baseball was still a sport that was still segregated. So then he began to play in a negro league , but he was soon chosen by “branch the president for the brooklyn dodgers” to play professional baseball he joined the montreal royals and a farm team for the brooklyn dodgers. When branch chose jackie to play professional baseball he knew that he should have to endure racism and racial slurs so he made jackie promise that he would not retaliate. Jackie played his first game with the dodgers at Ebbets field making history by being the first african american american to play major league baseball in the twentieth century. Or many seasons after his first year with the dodgers he lead the dodgers to receiving the National League pennant multiple times. The season of 1955 jackie he helped the team to finally win the world series, after the team had failed couple times before.After they finally won the world series jackie lead them to one last pennant award. In 1956 Jackie was moved to the new york giants,but he never played one single game for the giants because he retired from baseball in 1957. After jackie’s career in baseball he became active in business and he continued his work as an activist for social changes. After baseball he worked for Chock full O nuts,a coffee company and restaurant chain as one of the executives.he also helped establish the african american controlled freedom bank. In 1962 jackie became the first african american to have his name put in the baseball hall of fame then many years latter in 1972 the dodgers retired his number, number 42.
All Research Proposal
- WRITTEN Piaget believes in certain principles of development. His
- I assistant trainee manager in which the skills that
- Abstract—In parameter. In addition, weevaluated the performance of the
- To contraception (Oudshoorn, 2004). Over the past 50 years,
- Background policies focus on extension of the centralised grid.
- ICICI EPS increased to 32.19 and after that company
- Dagens i 1600-1700 tallet, var det veldig mye overtroiske
- Mental is concerned in the cognizance of their abilities,
- Årsakene Kroatia, Slovenia og Bosnia-Herzegovina, som var katolsk dominert. | 1,018 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1284, while the town of Hamelin was suffering from a rat infestation, a man dressed in pied clothing appeared, claiming to be a rat-catcher. He promised the mayor a solution for their problem with the rats. The mayor in turn promised to pay him for the removal of the rats. The man accepted, and played a musical pipe to lure the rats with a song into the Weser River, where all but one drowned. Despite his success, the mayor reneged on his promise and refused to pay the rat-catcher the full amount of money. The man left the town angrily, but vowed to return some time later, seeking revenge. On Saint John and Paul's day while the inhabitants were in church, he played his pipe yet again, dressed in green, like a hunter, this time attracting the children of Hamelin. One hundred and thirty boys and girls followed him out of the town, where they were lured into a cave and never seen again. Depending on the version, at most three children remained behind. One of the children was lame and could not follow quickly enough, the second was deaf and followed the other children out of curiosity, and the last was blind and unable to see where he was going. These three informed the villagers of what had happened when they came out of church.
Another version relates that the Pied Piper led the children into following him to the top of Koppelberg Hill, where he took them to a beautiful land and had his wicked way, or a place called Koppenberg Mountain, or that he made them walk into the Weser river like he did with the rats and all the children drowned. Some versions state that the Piper returned the children after payment, or that he returned the children after the villagers paid several times the original amount of gold. | <urn:uuid:4cddfcfd-4eaa-4e54-a0d5-99fb795d2fb4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://edumefree.com/welcome/lesson/643/14130 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00058.warc.gz | en | 0.987403 | 370 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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-0.005000589... | 2 | In 1284, while the town of Hamelin was suffering from a rat infestation, a man dressed in pied clothing appeared, claiming to be a rat-catcher. He promised the mayor a solution for their problem with the rats. The mayor in turn promised to pay him for the removal of the rats. The man accepted, and played a musical pipe to lure the rats with a song into the Weser River, where all but one drowned. Despite his success, the mayor reneged on his promise and refused to pay the rat-catcher the full amount of money. The man left the town angrily, but vowed to return some time later, seeking revenge. On Saint John and Paul's day while the inhabitants were in church, he played his pipe yet again, dressed in green, like a hunter, this time attracting the children of Hamelin. One hundred and thirty boys and girls followed him out of the town, where they were lured into a cave and never seen again. Depending on the version, at most three children remained behind. One of the children was lame and could not follow quickly enough, the second was deaf and followed the other children out of curiosity, and the last was blind and unable to see where he was going. These three informed the villagers of what had happened when they came out of church.
Another version relates that the Pied Piper led the children into following him to the top of Koppelberg Hill, where he took them to a beautiful land and had his wicked way, or a place called Koppenberg Mountain, or that he made them walk into the Weser river like he did with the rats and all the children drowned. Some versions state that the Piper returned the children after payment, or that he returned the children after the villagers paid several times the original amount of gold. | 368 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This small four-sided wooden block was known as a ‘silent monitor’ and was used by Robert Owen as a means of imposing discipline at his New Lanark Mills. The silent monitor was introduced by Owen after he and his partners took over the mills in 1800.
Robert Owen was strongly opposed to the use of corporal punishment, so in order to keep discipline at the mills, he devised a ‘silent monitor’. It was hung next to each worker, with each side displaying a different colour. ‘Bad’ behaviour was represented by the colour black; ‘indifferent’ by blue; ‘good’ by yellow; and ‘excellent’ by white. The superintendent was responsible for turning the monitors every day, according to how the worker had behaved. A daily note was then made of the conduct of the workers in the ‘books of character’ which were provided for each department in the mills.
The 3D model was created by the Scottish Maritime Museum as a part of the Scanning The Horizon project. | <urn:uuid:3baa7d97-10f7-4cf0-84e3-e4b952ef1920> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.scottishmaritimemuseum.org/3d_collections/silent-monitor/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00062.warc.gz | en | 0.992327 | 220 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.30535650253... | 13 | This small four-sided wooden block was known as a ‘silent monitor’ and was used by Robert Owen as a means of imposing discipline at his New Lanark Mills. The silent monitor was introduced by Owen after he and his partners took over the mills in 1800.
Robert Owen was strongly opposed to the use of corporal punishment, so in order to keep discipline at the mills, he devised a ‘silent monitor’. It was hung next to each worker, with each side displaying a different colour. ‘Bad’ behaviour was represented by the colour black; ‘indifferent’ by blue; ‘good’ by yellow; and ‘excellent’ by white. The superintendent was responsible for turning the monitors every day, according to how the worker had behaved. A daily note was then made of the conduct of the workers in the ‘books of character’ which were provided for each department in the mills.
The 3D model was created by the Scottish Maritime Museum as a part of the Scanning The Horizon project. | 205 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Faden's plan of Bunker Hill, based upon the work of Captain John Montressor, is one of the earliest and most famous of Faden's battle plans of the American Revolution. The map captures the action in and around the American Fortifications at Breed's Hill and Bunker Hill, in what would become the most famous of all early battles of the American Revolution. Washington had boldly fortified the area under the nose of the British in the days prior to the battle and worked all night to establish strong fortifications the night beforethe battle.
The map includes a unique extra flap which overlays a portion of the map and captures the details of the battle in two phases. Originally engraved by Faden, the map was reissued in Stedman's History of the American War. The map shows the postions of the King's Army and the American Positions, along with the ships engaged in the bombardment of the Americans.
William Faden (1749-1836) was the most prominent London mapmaker and publisher of the late-eighteenth and early-nineteenth centuries. His father, William Mackfaden, was a printer who dropped the first part of his last name due to the Jacobite rising of 1745.
Apprenticed to an engraver in the Clothworkers' Company, he was made free of the Company in August of 1771. He entered into a partnership with the family of Thomas Jeffreys, a prolific and well-respected mapmaker who had recently died in 1771. This partnership lasted until 1776.
Also in 1776, Faden joined the Society of Civil Engineers, which later changed its name to the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers. The Smeatonians operated as an elite, yet practical, dining club and his membership led Faden to several engineering publications, including canal plans and plans of other new engineering projects.
Faden's star rose during the American Revolution, when he produced popular maps and atlases focused on the American colonies and the battles that raged within them. In 1783, just as the war ended, Faden inherited his father's estate, allowing him to fully control his business and expand it; in the same year he gained the title "Geographer in Ordinary to his Majesty."
Faden also commanded a large stock of British county maps, which made him attractive as a partner to the Ordnance Survey; he published the first Ordnance map in 1801, a map of Kent. The Admiralty also admired his work and acquired some of his plates which were re-issued as official naval charts.
Faden was renowned for his ingenuity as well as his business acumen. In 1796 he was awarded a gold medal by the Society of Arts. With his brother-in-law, the astronomer and painter John Russell, he created the first extant lunar globe.
After retiring in 1823 the lucrative business passed to James Wyld, a former apprentice. He died in Shepperton in 1826, leaving a large estate. | <urn:uuid:4481f588-fbd3-4310-b572-1380c1fb45b1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/17286/a-plan-of-the-action-at-bunkers-hill-on-the-17th-of-june-177-stedman-faden | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00551.warc.gz | en | 0.983109 | 615 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.37347853183... | 2 | Faden's plan of Bunker Hill, based upon the work of Captain John Montressor, is one of the earliest and most famous of Faden's battle plans of the American Revolution. The map captures the action in and around the American Fortifications at Breed's Hill and Bunker Hill, in what would become the most famous of all early battles of the American Revolution. Washington had boldly fortified the area under the nose of the British in the days prior to the battle and worked all night to establish strong fortifications the night beforethe battle.
The map includes a unique extra flap which overlays a portion of the map and captures the details of the battle in two phases. Originally engraved by Faden, the map was reissued in Stedman's History of the American War. The map shows the postions of the King's Army and the American Positions, along with the ships engaged in the bombardment of the Americans.
William Faden (1749-1836) was the most prominent London mapmaker and publisher of the late-eighteenth and early-nineteenth centuries. His father, William Mackfaden, was a printer who dropped the first part of his last name due to the Jacobite rising of 1745.
Apprenticed to an engraver in the Clothworkers' Company, he was made free of the Company in August of 1771. He entered into a partnership with the family of Thomas Jeffreys, a prolific and well-respected mapmaker who had recently died in 1771. This partnership lasted until 1776.
Also in 1776, Faden joined the Society of Civil Engineers, which later changed its name to the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers. The Smeatonians operated as an elite, yet practical, dining club and his membership led Faden to several engineering publications, including canal plans and plans of other new engineering projects.
Faden's star rose during the American Revolution, when he produced popular maps and atlases focused on the American colonies and the battles that raged within them. In 1783, just as the war ended, Faden inherited his father's estate, allowing him to fully control his business and expand it; in the same year he gained the title "Geographer in Ordinary to his Majesty."
Faden also commanded a large stock of British county maps, which made him attractive as a partner to the Ordnance Survey; he published the first Ordnance map in 1801, a map of Kent. The Admiralty also admired his work and acquired some of his plates which were re-issued as official naval charts.
Faden was renowned for his ingenuity as well as his business acumen. In 1796 he was awarded a gold medal by the Society of Arts. With his brother-in-law, the astronomer and painter John Russell, he created the first extant lunar globe.
After retiring in 1823 the lucrative business passed to James Wyld, a former apprentice. He died in Shepperton in 1826, leaving a large estate. | 644 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The second lesson was about listening and following directions. We talked about the consequences of not following directions and how we have to LISTEN to know what the directions are! We read Listen, Buddy! and did some activities to practice listening and following directions quickly :)
1- Careers- We discussed why jobs are important. We brainstormed some of our strengths and interests. We discussed how our strengths and interests help us choose what job we might like to do. Read People in your Neighborhood and for each job in the book we discussed their possible strengths and interests and if they might like doing that job.
2- Careers- Why are jobs important for individuals and for society? They practiced their cooperation skills by working with a partner to write information about an assigned community job. For each job they wrote: the career path, why it is important, the school subjects related to that job, and other skills someone would need to do that job.
3- Careers- We talked about careers and the roles and responsibilities of different jobs. Each student go a card with a career on it. After brainstorming about their career students came up two at a time to tell the roles and responsibilities of their jobs and then the class compared and contrasted the jobs.
4- Careers- Students took a survey about things they would want to do or not want to do in a job. We talked about the 6 career paths and how using your interests to connect you with a path can help you explore jobs you might be interested in someday. We connected their likes and dislikes from the interest survey to the different career paths.
5- Careers- We used the same website as last lesson, Missouri Connections, to take a career interest inventory. The results helped us research a job that we could be interested in. We learned about using MO Connections to find out about jobs and about some book resources that are available as well. | <urn:uuid:23faa9f0-4e72-4c99-bb61-37a1765d9632> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://counselorhoell.weebly.com/current-events/april-1-5-8-12 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00022.warc.gz | en | 0.981421 | 387 | 4.5 | 4 | [
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0.101372204720... | 3 | The second lesson was about listening and following directions. We talked about the consequences of not following directions and how we have to LISTEN to know what the directions are! We read Listen, Buddy! and did some activities to practice listening and following directions quickly :)
1- Careers- We discussed why jobs are important. We brainstormed some of our strengths and interests. We discussed how our strengths and interests help us choose what job we might like to do. Read People in your Neighborhood and for each job in the book we discussed their possible strengths and interests and if they might like doing that job.
2- Careers- Why are jobs important for individuals and for society? They practiced their cooperation skills by working with a partner to write information about an assigned community job. For each job they wrote: the career path, why it is important, the school subjects related to that job, and other skills someone would need to do that job.
3- Careers- We talked about careers and the roles and responsibilities of different jobs. Each student go a card with a career on it. After brainstorming about their career students came up two at a time to tell the roles and responsibilities of their jobs and then the class compared and contrasted the jobs.
4- Careers- Students took a survey about things they would want to do or not want to do in a job. We talked about the 6 career paths and how using your interests to connect you with a path can help you explore jobs you might be interested in someday. We connected their likes and dislikes from the interest survey to the different career paths.
5- Careers- We used the same website as last lesson, Missouri Connections, to take a career interest inventory. The results helped us research a job that we could be interested in. We learned about using MO Connections to find out about jobs and about some book resources that are available as well. | 376 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the 4th volume of the series The Home Front, the author looks at the main events that happened at home in Britain and in other countries, Allied or enemy as well as the neutral nations during 1917. The text provides an overview of the year and sets out to show the effects of war on the civilian population, how it impacted on their daily lives and how they coped with it. Each book is international in scope and draws parallels between the warring nations in their experiences. As in the previous books the focus is on images in order to best understand how they represented themselves and how their world was portrayed to them and with little censorship - bomb damage was freely shown even though it was obvious that the Germans would get hold of the images. With the text are over 200 photographs and illustrations that are divided into discrete sections of the civilian experience of the war. Readers will be familiar with but a few of the illustrations as most have not been used since they were taken in 1917.
For those on the Home Front, 1917 was a year when Total War started to become an actuality. The U-boat campaign meant that food did not get through resulting in shortages. As a result, more land was worked and people started an allotment. With army's demands for men and material seemingly never ending, there were even fewer men about. The majority of those still working were involved in some form of war work and during the year they were joined by thousands more women keen to do their bit. Women replaced men in many traditional male roles. It was a new world. 1917 was a year of belt-tightening, increasing hard work and strain. It would once again, not be over by Christmas, no matter how much they wished. | <urn:uuid:56a30f7e-5cd2-40a0-ae67-482c7cdbadd5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://books.apple.com/us/book/the-home-front-seeing-it-through/id1381321178 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00159.warc.gz | en | 0.990387 | 348 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.263453483581... | 1 | In the 4th volume of the series The Home Front, the author looks at the main events that happened at home in Britain and in other countries, Allied or enemy as well as the neutral nations during 1917. The text provides an overview of the year and sets out to show the effects of war on the civilian population, how it impacted on their daily lives and how they coped with it. Each book is international in scope and draws parallels between the warring nations in their experiences. As in the previous books the focus is on images in order to best understand how they represented themselves and how their world was portrayed to them and with little censorship - bomb damage was freely shown even though it was obvious that the Germans would get hold of the images. With the text are over 200 photographs and illustrations that are divided into discrete sections of the civilian experience of the war. Readers will be familiar with but a few of the illustrations as most have not been used since they were taken in 1917.
For those on the Home Front, 1917 was a year when Total War started to become an actuality. The U-boat campaign meant that food did not get through resulting in shortages. As a result, more land was worked and people started an allotment. With army's demands for men and material seemingly never ending, there were even fewer men about. The majority of those still working were involved in some form of war work and during the year they were joined by thousands more women keen to do their bit. Women replaced men in many traditional male roles. It was a new world. 1917 was a year of belt-tightening, increasing hard work and strain. It would once again, not be over by Christmas, no matter how much they wished. | 367 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Zora Neale Hurston was a novelist, folklorist and anthropologist most famous for her 1937 novel, “Their Eyes Were Watching God.” Hurston’s path to prominence came by way of hardship and savvy ingenuity, helping her become one of the most beloved literary figures of all time.’
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Hurston was born on January 7 in 1891, in Notasulga, Alabama, to parents who were former slaves. Her parents uprooted the family and moved to Eatonville, Fla., one of the earliest all-black incorporated townships.
After the death of her mother in 1904, Hurston lived with several family members until she was sent off to boarding school in Jacksonville.
Facing a variety of hardships while working odd jobs, Hurston eventually moved to Baltimore in a bid to change her fortunes. Although she was 26 at the time, Hurston said she was 10 years younger attend the free Morgan College, then the high school portion of Morgan State University.
After graduating, Hurston entered Howard University and earned an associate degree. It was then Hurston had some of her earliest works printed in the school’s newspaper.
From there, she entered Barnard College in New York on a scholarship, graduating with a degree in anthropology in 1928 and continuing her anthropology studies at Columbia University for the next few years.
Hurston’s interest in folklore, especially in the Caribbean and her native Florida helped her become became a fixture of the Harlem Renaissance movement. Her research on African-American colloquial language and folklore is valued to this day.
She counted Langston Hughes, Countee Cullen and other great scribes as her friends. Her apartment became a popular hangout for the Renaissance writers and artists. Hurston married twice but both marriages ended abruptly.
In 1934, Hurston released her first novel, “Jonah’s Gourd Vine.”Two years later, she received a Guggenheim fellowship and worked on anthropological research in Haiti and Jamaica.
While writing her best known work, “Their Eyes Were Watching God,” Hurston studied voodoo. In 1942, she released her autobiography “Dust Tracks On A Road.” Though it was critically acclaimed, Hurston began to fall out of the limelight.
In 1948, she was unjustly accused of molesting a ten-year-old boy, but the scandal torpedoed her career. She continued to write until the last years of her life, but much of her work went unpublished.
Hurston died poor and alone on January 28, 1960. Hurston’s work enjoyed a revival thanks to author Alice Walker, who wrote about the novelist in a 1975 essay for Ms. Magazine. Walker counted Hurston as an influence, and fought for new editions of her older works such as her short stories and essays.
Hurston was also an inspiration to Ralph Ellison and Toni Morrison, among other Black writers. Her legacy continues to influences Black writers to this day.
PHOTO: LIbrary of Congress/Public Domain
HEAD BACK TO THE BLACKAMERICAWEB.COM HOMEPAGE | <urn:uuid:60e11ffd-91a7-430d-bd75-642741da96d1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blackamericaweb.com/2020/01/08/little-known-black-history-fact-zora-neale-hurston/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00463.warc.gz | en | 0.982499 | 657 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.39005485177... | 5 | Zora Neale Hurston was a novelist, folklorist and anthropologist most famous for her 1937 novel, “Their Eyes Were Watching God.” Hurston’s path to prominence came by way of hardship and savvy ingenuity, helping her become one of the most beloved literary figures of all time.’
SIGN UP FOR OUR NEWSLETTER:
Hurston was born on January 7 in 1891, in Notasulga, Alabama, to parents who were former slaves. Her parents uprooted the family and moved to Eatonville, Fla., one of the earliest all-black incorporated townships.
After the death of her mother in 1904, Hurston lived with several family members until she was sent off to boarding school in Jacksonville.
Facing a variety of hardships while working odd jobs, Hurston eventually moved to Baltimore in a bid to change her fortunes. Although she was 26 at the time, Hurston said she was 10 years younger attend the free Morgan College, then the high school portion of Morgan State University.
After graduating, Hurston entered Howard University and earned an associate degree. It was then Hurston had some of her earliest works printed in the school’s newspaper.
From there, she entered Barnard College in New York on a scholarship, graduating with a degree in anthropology in 1928 and continuing her anthropology studies at Columbia University for the next few years.
Hurston’s interest in folklore, especially in the Caribbean and her native Florida helped her become became a fixture of the Harlem Renaissance movement. Her research on African-American colloquial language and folklore is valued to this day.
She counted Langston Hughes, Countee Cullen and other great scribes as her friends. Her apartment became a popular hangout for the Renaissance writers and artists. Hurston married twice but both marriages ended abruptly.
In 1934, Hurston released her first novel, “Jonah’s Gourd Vine.”Two years later, she received a Guggenheim fellowship and worked on anthropological research in Haiti and Jamaica.
While writing her best known work, “Their Eyes Were Watching God,” Hurston studied voodoo. In 1942, she released her autobiography “Dust Tracks On A Road.” Though it was critically acclaimed, Hurston began to fall out of the limelight.
In 1948, she was unjustly accused of molesting a ten-year-old boy, but the scandal torpedoed her career. She continued to write until the last years of her life, but much of her work went unpublished.
Hurston died poor and alone on January 28, 1960. Hurston’s work enjoyed a revival thanks to author Alice Walker, who wrote about the novelist in a 1975 essay for Ms. Magazine. Walker counted Hurston as an influence, and fought for new editions of her older works such as her short stories and essays.
Hurston was also an inspiration to Ralph Ellison and Toni Morrison, among other Black writers. Her legacy continues to influences Black writers to this day.
PHOTO: LIbrary of Congress/Public Domain
HEAD BACK TO THE BLACKAMERICAWEB.COM HOMEPAGE | 656 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Romantic and Victorian Poetry
Terms in this set (86)
An artistic and intellectual movement in Europe in the late 18th Century, characterized by a heightened interest in nature, emphasis on the individual's expression of emotion and imagination, departure from the attitudes and forms of classicism, and rebellion from social rules and conventions. Some of the Victorian literature influenced by Romantic movement. Themes of love with nature revived. Nature is a part of God. Imaginations in fiction gained power again instead of Realism but for a short time.
Seen as a bridge between the earlier "Romantics" and the modernist poets of the 20th Century. Several important poets include Elizabeth Barrett Browning and her husband, Robert Browning, Alfred Lord Tennyson, Matthew Arnold and Gerard Manley Hopkins. Features a resurgence of Medieval interests blended with contemporary concerns (Idylls of the King). Important time for the development of science, tried to describe and classify the natural world. Charles Darwin On the Origin of the Species about the theory of evolution. Although it took a long time to be accepted, it dramatically affected society and thought.
Themes of Victorian Poetry
Realism, Humanism, Idealism, Socialism, Criticism, Naturalism, Glory of Past, Modernism, Philosophical ideas feminism, Romanticism, Intellectualism, and Pre-Raphaelitism.
The attempt to produce art and literature an accurate portrayal of reality. Realistic detailed descriptions of everyday life, and of its darker aspects. Themes in realistic writing included: Families, Religion, and Social reforms.
Deals with: Ordinary concerns of human life, Tenderness of English life, Emotions of everyday life, and Glory of soul through senses individually.
Is about: Social aspects of contemporary life, Social disintegration, Life affected by industrialism, Conflicts between upper and lower class, and Homeliness of middle and lower class.
Talks about: On social life of that time, On contemporary industrialism, On political situation, On the ways of English thoughts, On mid-century skeptical unrest, and Indirect criticism on slavery.
Events and actions are not resulted from human
intentions but from the uncontrolled external forces. Description of green pastures and still waters. Man is corrupted by social institutions.
Glory of the Past
Shows: Culture and anarchy of the past, Positive effects of Puritanism, Propinquity with the Romantic Movement, and Religious and social ideas of past.
Is about: Certain aspects of existence, Life in industrial North, and Individuality and seniority of modern era.
Institutionism and utilitarianism were the two basic philosophies used in Victorian literature. To deals with the serious moral issues of that time. For example : religion , thoughts and above all social life.
Wrote about their own emotions and inmost thoughts and feelings. Love of a wife and mother. Spiritual geography of hopes, fears and loves from a woman's point of view.
About: Geological discoveries, Philosophical generalization, and Biological investigation.
School against the intellectualism of Victorian age "Science has nothing to do with art" Followed the Aesthetic movement "Art for art sake" Tractarian Movement "Science has nothing to do with religion"
DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI
Rossetti was an artist and poet very influential in the pre-Raphaelite movement. He would often write a poem specifically for a piece of his artwork, or the other way around.
Most famous for her poem Goblin Market, Rossetti asserted herself as a great female poet of the era. She was published widely until her death, especially in the pre-Raphaelite magazine "The Germ"
(1822-88) Matthew Arnold was considered one of the first modern poets of the Victorian Era. He was the superintendent of England's schools for many years and was highly revered. Arnold was famous for his imagery involving the ocean and also themes involving women. Poet, prose writer,critic and educationalist. Wrote a series of essays on literary and social topics. Constantly looked to the classics for symbols of permanence and stability. Arnold's use of nature is in "A Wish," in which the speaker's dying wish is to be placed by a window as he dies, so that he may look out at the beautiful landscape that will be there long after he is gone. In Dover Beach he remarks on the disparity between what faith used to be and what faith is now. Arnold's turning to the past and his praise of classical writers reflect his dissatisfaction with the present. In "Bacchanalia," themes on the impact of the revolutions in industry and science was not comforting, and Arnold, like other Victorians sought refuge in faith. Other themes used by him were time , criticism on labor and classical mythology.
ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON
(1809 - 1892) Tennyson was the Poet Laureate of the era, and one of the most revered poets of all time. His lengthy poem In Memoriam is his most famous. He is the 2nd most quoted writer after Shakespeare. Early poems in the style of those of Keats, which delighted in the senses. In The Princess, A Medley (1847) theme of equality of the sexes.. The first three books of poetry (1833, 1832, 1842) include Tennyson´s best work e.g. Mariana, "The Lady of Shalott", "Ulysses"," Morte d´Arthur", "The Lotos-Eaters". Later, new developments in scientific progress led him to contemplate on the changing world. For Tennyson, doubt was the basis of his inspiration. In, "In Memoriam" A.H.H. - a series of elegies (1833- 1850), - comments on change and evolution and contemplates the question of man's destiny and immortality in the age of new discoveries. Queen Victoria declared that she valued it next to the Bible. Despite Tennyson's Romantic spirit, he was a Victorian who shared the fundamental ethos of the Victorian age. "Ulysses"(1833), illustrates the Victorian morality of self-control and self discipline as a means to continue and succeed is about the great hero searching for life in spite of old age and coming death. "Tithonus" concerns the weariness of life on earth when all one wants to do is fade into the earth and no longer linger on. "The Two Voices" is a debate about whether or not to commit suicide. "The Idylls of the King" (1859-72) his popular series of poems on episodes from the legends of King Arthur. Tennyson - in constant protest against the individualism, which the Victorian era inherited from the Romantic period.
(1812 - 1889) Browning was famous for his dramatic monologues and commentary on social institutions. He was married to Victorian poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning. Aware that he was writing poetry in an age of science, of technology and prose. Interested in the study of human soul. From the very start he discussed in monologue, problems of life and conscience. His poem, "Pauline" was a fragment of personal confession. In "Paracelsus" (1835) he described the strange career of the Renaissance physician, in whom true science and charlatanism were combined. B's main literary inspiration - P.B.Shelley. His early long poem" Sordello "(1840) poem - the relationship between life and art - recognized as one of his most extraordinary and important works. Browning's admiration for the' subjective poet´ soon gave way to a desire for greater objectivity which led him to his 'dramatic monologues ' MY LAST DUCHESS The dramatic monologue - Browning's main achievement. B's mature poetry, portrays exciting controversial characters, some based on historical figures, some products of his imagination: Dramatic Romances and Lyrics ( 1845 ) , Men and Women (1855 ), Dramatis Personae ( 1864). Many poems consider the impending nature of death as a melancholy context to balance the joy of life. Examples are "Love Among the Ruins" and "A Toccata of Galuppi's." Other poems find strength in the acceptance of death, like "Prospice," "Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came," and "Rabbi Ben Ezra." Some poems - like "My Last Duchess," "Porphyria's Lover," "Caliban upon Setebos," or "The Laboratory" - simply consider death as an everpresent punishment. Browning's most ambitious work, the long narrative of a 17th-century murder story is" The Ring and the Book" (1868 -69). The poem consists of 10 verse narratives, all dealing with the same crime, each from a different viewpoint. Based on an actual trial, the record of which Browning discovered in Florence. Browning´s fame rests on the volumes, published between 1842 and 1864, which contain his love poems and dramatic monologues.
(1806 - 1861) Browning, married to poet Robert Browning was also one of the most famous Victorian poets - famous both in England and the US. She had a great influence on Edgar Allen Poe and Emily Dickinson. 33 Began writing in old-fashioned form. Influences: the Bible, the Greeks, Byron and Shelley. An imitation of Coleridge in her impressions of the Middle Ages Wrote many of her short poems for magazines, the most important contribution" The Cry of the Children" (1844), a protest against the employment of children in factories. In 1845, Robert Browning met her, fell in love with her, and persuaded her to elope with him to Italy. She wrote 44 sonnets as the sonnets were deeply personal,wrote for her love R. Browning she decided to present them as translations, calling them "Sonnets from the Portuguese". They were published in 1850 in the volume Poems. B. - a passionate supporter of Italian independence - in
her work by "Casa Guidi Windows" (1851) "Aurora Leigh"(1857) deals with the themes of social responsibility and the position of women. Mrs. Browning's distrust of the theories of contemporary French socialists. She believed that in the kind of state envisioned by the radical socialists there would be no place for artists and poet ,this was the important theme used by her in her work.
What are the approximate years of the Romantic period in literature?
What are some 3-4 things that Romanticism emphasizes?
Reason vs feelings as the guide to certainty. Which one should be the guide, according to the Romantics? Why?
The idea of a Revolution as a Romantic idea. In what ways can the American and French Revolution be considered as outcomes of Romantic ideals?
What was the Romantic view of nature and the primitive?
What is the view and role of Imagination for the Romantics?
What did "Nature" mean to the Romantics?
What are some characteristics of the "Romantic Hero"?
Describe the main characteristics of Lyric poetry.
What would most of us expect to see in a lyric poem?
Frequent themes in Romanticism: imagination, sensitivity, feelings, spontaneity, freedom, introspection, intuition, individualism, nature, solitude, emotion. Give an example for each of the themes from the poems in this unit.
How do the Victorians perpetuate and develop ideas or literary practices inherited from the past (for example, from the Romantics)?
How do the Victorians react against literary practices of the past?
What Victorian ideas and practices seem to point toward the future (for example, the ideas and practices of modern - i.e., 20th-century - literature?
How was Victorian literature influenced by social, political, and economic changes taking place during the period?
How do different Victorian writers deal with the increasing influence of materialism in the life and thought of their time?
How do different Victorian writers explore the relationship between bodily and nonbodily experience ("spirit" or "consciousness")?
In general, what was the impact of 19th-century scientific developments on Victorian literature?
How is the specific idea of evolution an important influence on Victorian literature?
How did Darwin's contributions to evolutionary thought influence Victorian literature?
Explain permanence verses mutability in the poem "Ode to a Nightingale."
Describe the background of the poem "Ode to the Nightingale."
What is the impact of the bird's song on the poet in "Ode to a Nightingale?"
In "Ode to a Nightingale" by Keats, what is the speaker in love with?
What is the theme of the poem "Ode to a Nightingale"?
What is the element of sensuousness in "Ode to a Nightingale"?
How does Keats' "Ode to a Nightingale" follow the pastoral tradition?
In "Ode to the West Wind" what are the specific elements of nature effected by the wind? How are these effects transformed from physical phenomena to symbolic action?
In "Ode to the West Wind" why does the speaker ask the wind to "lift" him? Is there a sense in which this poem is
In "Ode to the West Wind" Consider the tone of the speaker's address to the wind. Give Two examples from the
poem that show the tone of the piece.
In "Ode to the West Wind" The poem leads to a statement of personal, even spiritual, crisis; yet it concludes with great optimism. How is this achieved? Can we now interpret the poem's famous ending beyond its general popular meaning?
What is unusual about the way the narrator tells his story? How does he represent Porphyria's actions and emotions in the poem "Porphyria's Lover"?
What is the narrative structure of "Porphyria's Lover"?
In addition to being Porphyria's former lover, how would you characterize the speaker of this poem?
How do we discover that the speaker is insane in Robert Browning's poem "Porphyria's Lover"?
What is the theme of "Porphyria's Lover"?
In "Porphyria's Lover," why does the narrator kill the woman he loves?
Describe the characters of Porphyria and her lover in the poem "Porphyria's Lover" by Robert Browning
Explain the idea behind the following lines from the poem, "Porphyria's Lover"
i. She / for all her heart's endeavor
ii. to set its struggling passion free
iii. From pride, and vainer ties dissever
iv. And give herself to me forever. (21-25)
In the poem "Tears, Idle Tears" why does the poet Lord Alfred Tennyson describe tears as "idle"?
"What is the Epiphany that the speaker in Tennyson's poem discovers?
Tennyson said that as a child he was haunted by "the passion of the past." In what ways can Tennyson's poem be seen as an example of his preoccupation with the past?
In "Charge of the Light Brigade" About which war was the poem written?
In "Charge of the Light Brigade"According to the first stanza, how many British forces rode into the battle?
In "Charge of the Light Brigade"Why do you think Tennyson refers to the valley in the poem as the "Valley of death?"
In "Charge of the Light Brigade" Why did the soldier ride into the valley?
In "Charge of the Light Brigade" What kind of weapons did the British have?
In "Charge of the Light Brigade" What kind of weapons did their opponents have?
In "Charge of the Light Brigade" What does the line, "Someone blundered" in stanza 2 mean?
In "Charge of the Light Brigade" What do the following lines mean?
A. theirs not to reason why
B. theirs but to do or die
In "Charge of the Light Brigade" What does this poem say about War?
In "Charge of the Light Brigade" Give several adjectives from the poem that describe the British soldiers.
In "Dover Beach" Can the world really be all good or all bad? Is that what this poem is saying at the end, or are things more mixed than that?
In "Dover Beach" Some critics have called this poem's outlook "modern." Does that sound right to you? Does it seem like this poem is clicked into the way the modern world works, or does its perspective seem outdated to you? Are these critics referring to Modernism?
In "Dover Beach" When do you think your best thoughts? Is it when you're out in nature? In the shower?
In "Dover Beach" Waking up from a nap? Are your thoughts inspired by particular things you see and hear?
In "Dover Beach" Does the love of two people really matter in the grand scheme of things? How does our speaker seem to feel about that?
In "Dover Beach" When you look at the world around you, do you tend to see chaos, or order? What about the speaker of "Dover Beach?"
In "Dover Beach" Do you agree with the speaker that there is less faith, less belief in the world than their
used to be? If so, does that seem like a bad thing to you?
In "Dover Beach" Does human life get better or worse as time goes by? Is that even the right way to think about it? How might this poem help us to think about the arc of the past, present, and future?
Born April 7th, 1770 in Cockermouth, England to John Wordsworth and Ann Cookson. Grew up in the Lake District, which was a science region in Northern England. Sister is Dorothy Wordsworth, a poet and diarist who he was baptized with and remained close to all his life. They had three other siblings: Richard the lawyer, John, who was also a poet until his 1809 death by shipwreck, and Christopher, who became an academian. Grew up reading great poets such as Milton and Spencer, given full access to his father's library. Spent time with mother's relatives in Cumberland, where he experienced the moors and natural landscapes. Suffered from mistreatment from relatives. Did not get along with his uncle or his grandfather and contemplated suicide. Father was a lawyer in a mansion far away, and the whole family was distant from him. In 1778, his mother died and his father sent him to Hawkshead Grammar school, and his
sister Dorothy to Yorkshire, with relatives. They would not see each other again for nine years. In 1787, published his first sonnet in The Europeans Magazine and began attending St. John's college. Started travelling and took part in walking tour of Europe for the beauty of natural landscapes. In November of 1791, travelled to France where he met and fell in love with a French woman named Annette Vallon. She conceived a daughter, Caroline. For financial reasons, Worsworth returned alone to England, and the French tensions and Reign of Terror prevented him returning to his family. He continued to support them financially and became depressed, as he loved both mother and child dearly. Wrote one of his most famous poems, "It is a beauteous evening, calm and free" about talking a walk with his daughter. In 1802, was finally able to return to France, where a mutual agreement about his obligations was reached. In 1795, he met fellow poet Samuel Coleridge, and the the two quickly became friends. Inspired by the world around him and the beauty of physical landscapes, he began to compose "Lyrical Ballads", the volume of poetry that set the Romantic movement in poetic literature into swing. The book opened with Coleridge's "The Ancient Mariner". Inheriting a legacy, his finances improved and he moved in with Dorothy, who he cared for over the last twenty years of her life. In 1798, he began to write a long, philosophical autobiographical poem that would not be published until after his death in 1850. Wrote the enigmatic "Lucy" poems in Germany, over the winter of 1798-99. In 1802, he married Mary Hutchinson, an old childhood friend. Mary and Dorothy (ever present) became very close. Mary bore William's children five times, and three of those children died before Mary and William. "Willy" Wordsworth and John Wordsworth were the only two to outlive their parents. Dora Wordsworth would livelong enough to marry and grow up, while Thomas and Catherine died in 1812. Thomas was six, Catherine was three. In 1805, his brother John died and this affected him greatly. After the death of Robert Southey in 1843, Wordsworth became Poet Laureate of England. When Dora died in 1847, his poetry came to a standstill. On April 23'rd, 1950, Wordsworth met his fateful end by re-aggravating a case of pleurisy. Was buried in St. Oswald's cemetary in Grasmere. His widow, Mary, published his autobiographical poem to Coleridge as "The Prelude". Did not garner much attention in 1850, but is now regarded as his masterpiece. Spent most of his life living in the Lake District in a place called Dove Cottage.
Was born on October 21st 1772 in Ottery, St. Mary to John and Ann Coleridge. Bullied by his brother Frank and ran away at age 7. His father died in 1781, just before his 9th birthday. Sent to the boarding school, Christ school. He was a brilliant student. In 1791, his brother George sent him to Jesus College on a small allowence. Won a college medal in the first year for a beautiful poem written in Greek, and was one of the four competitors for a scholarship in the second year. At the same time, was going through an adolescent crisis and experimenting with opium, sex, alcohol and falling in love. Coleridge in December of 1793, he left school and joined the Dragoons, but kept falling off of his horse. In April, his brothers found him, bailed him out and convinced him to return to Cambridge. That summer (1794) he quit school and met the poet Robert Southey, and the two planned to build a utopia. The plan required both of them to marry, so Southey married Edith Fricker and Coleridge married her younger sister Sara. The utopia failed miserably, and he was trapped in a loveless marriage. Was earning his money at this time as a Unitarian preacher, and began to seriously write poetry. Befriended William and Dorothy Wordsworth. The poets planned "Lyrical Ballads" in 1797. (p. 1798) That Semptember, they visited Germany where Coleridge was heavily influenced by Kant, Schiller and Schelling. Came back full of Romantic German thought. In 1799, moved in with the Wordsworths and fell in love with Mary Hutchinson's younger sister, Sara. She appears in his poems as "Asra". Earned an annuity of 150.00 a year, that kept him from having to be a minister. Was using opium, though it is unclear whether or not his increasing use was a cause or a symptom of his worsening depression. His 1802 poem, "Dejection: An Ode", emphasized his despair at his loss of creative powers. Travelled to Sicily and Malta in 1804, working as Public Secretary under the commissioner, Alexander Ball. Gave this up and returned to England in 1806. People were shocked to see how bad his addiction had become. used as much as two quarts a week. Seperated from his wife in 1808. Quarelled with Wordsworth in 1810. Lost his annuity in 1811. Put himself under care of Dr. Daniel in 1814. in 1817, finally moved to Highgate to be cared for by Dr. Gilman. Established himself as the most intellectual of all the poets. Delivered an influential series of lectures on Shakespeare. Was better known as a speaker than anything else. Became famous for his "Highgate Thursdays". Managed to keep his demons under control for the next eighteen years. Eventually mended his friendship with Wordsworth. The Gilman family built an addition on their home to support the poet. Died on July 25th, 1834 due to heart failure caused by an unknown lung disorder, linked to his use of opium.
Born October 31st, 1795 to Thomas and Frances Keats. Oldest of the four surviving children. In 1803, he went away to Endfield to John Clarke's school. In 1804, his father was killed after falling off a horse and fracturing his skull. Two months later, his mother remarried but was unhappy and left her new husband. She regretted this action because by law, now everything belonged to her new husband including the kids. Frances' mother took custody of the children but could not get any property back. Hubby #2 quickly sold everything and disappeared. Tip of the ice berg of his tragic life. Even though he was small, got into a lot of fist fights. Never grew much more than five feet and was very annoyed when people mistook his younger brother George as being older than he was. In 1809, finally saw his mother again. She had become a prostitute to support herself after leaving her husband. Keats nursed her devotedly, but she died a year later from tuberculosis. Her brother had died of the same disease. He was devastated by her death and his agressive behaviour became one of study. A year later he was asked what he would like to do, and he wanted to become a surgeon. Sent to study as an apprentice under Thomas Hammond. Began to read lyrical poetry for the first time. He was fourteen. In 1814, his grandmother died and the family was split up. The only girl, Frances, was sent to live with other gaurdians, as it was imporper for a young girl to live with her older brothers. George and Tom were sent away to work, and John isolated himself and began to write very sorrowful poetry. When he became a published poet, Keats gathered every scrap of paper he'd written on and burned it because he thought it was awful. Even with his gorwing interest in poetry, he worked very hard in his studies and jumped ahead of the curriculum. Earned a promotion at the Guy Hospital in London, moved around from room to room near the London Bridge. Met publisher Leigh Hunt, who believed Keats had promise and potential. "A Poet to watch". First book of poetry appeared on March 3rd 1817. The book did not sell well, and did not please critics. His friend and fellow poet Shelley challenged him to a competition. Keats won the poem and became the sought after poet in London, caught in a whirlwind of parties. In June of 1818, he became paranoid that he only had three years to live. He knew he would die from tuberculosis. left london and started touring Scotland and its Lakes, as well as England's Lake District. Had already written most of his most famous poetry but felt he hadn't touched the literary world enough. Moved to Hampstead to take care of Thomas who was sick with consumption. At this time, fell in love with a young woman named Fanny. Believed that he was too poor to marry her, and that it would stunt his creativity. He did not marry her. Tom died in December of 1818. John should have inherited some money, but Abbey, another legal gaurdian claimed he could not inherit the money until his younger sister turned 21. Later revealed that Abbey had taken 1000.00 from the grandma's death. Brother George had moved to America and squandered money away, so was now relying on John to help pay off his debts. Published more poetry for money, and gave it all to his brother, even though he was penniless. Critics hated it. In early 1820, he began to cough up blood. He had developed consumption. A close friend, Charles Brown, wanted to send him to italy, as it was a warmer climate and there was no cure for consumption. in September, departed with another ill friend, Joseph Severn. Became sicker during the journey, due to the close quarters and quarantine. Kept in touch with Fanny, though he asked for the letters to be destroyed after his death. 31 survived and made it into the Oxford University Press. Once in Rome, he roomed with Severn and was not allowed to write anymore poetry, as doctors thought it was too strenuous. He kept writing to Fanny and missed her deeply. Wanted to attempt suicide by taking poison, but Severn stopped him. Later became so delirious that he would rant a Severn for stopping him, and believed his friends in London had tried to poison him. On February 23rd, 1821, Keats died. An autopsy showed his lungs were totally destroyed, and they were amazed he had lasted so long. Buried on February 26th in a Protestant cemetary.
Percy Bysshe Shelley
Born in 1792 to Timothy and Elizabeth Shelley. His father was an M.P. and his family was aristocratic. He was educated at Eton school and Oxford University. Expelled on March 25th, 1810 for writing a pamphlet called "The Necessity of Atheism". Eloped with 16 year old Harriet Westbrook and moved to Scotland. His father never forgave him. Harriet had two children: Ianthe and Charles. In 1814, he started having an affair with Mary Wollstonecraft's daughter. Harriet committed suicide by drowning in 1816. The children were left to her parents custody. Harriet had just borne Charles, while Shelley had already been with Mary. Shelley was now free to marry his new love, Mary Godwin. His poetry became well known for its deep, mythological vision. Friends with John Keats and financially supported Leigh Hunt when he was imprisoned. Hunt published the long poem, "Queen Mab" where Shelley explored his values including republicanism and atheism. Mary's half sister, from the second Mrs. Godwin, also committed suicide. Mary and Percy took to travelling Europe. February 15th, 1815, Mary delivered a daughter who only lived for a few days. Jaunary, 1816, their son was born. Named William. Mary's stepsister Jane Clairmont reinvented herself as Clair Clairmont and became Lord Byron's mistress. Percy Shelley, being an amazing peacemaker and friend to Byron, fell in love with Claire while he was trying to solve tensions between her and Byron. And everyone still loved him. In 1818, he and Mary moved to Italy, and their son Percy Florence was born. Byron, Shelley and Leigh Hunt published The Liberal, attacking British Government. They were safe from prosecution because it was published in italy. Returning from a peace making mission, he was lost at sea during a fierce storm. His body washed up on shore 11 days later, and he was cremated. His heart was buried in Bornesmouthe.
Lord George Byron
Considered the perfect image of a poet-hero. George Gorden Noel Byron was born the sixth baron Byron on January 22nd, 1788. Born into aristocracy and fast-decaying nobility. His father married his mother, Catherine for her financial income, and died in 1791. Was born with a birth defect that caused him to walk only on the balls of his feet. This, combined with his family's contempt for widow and child, caused wounded pride. He had a need for self-assertion, which came in three ways: poetry, love and action. Had an active childhood, full of play and mischeif. Willingly played cricket, and appointed someone else to run for him. When he was eight, he fell madly in love with his cousin. Upon hearing of her engagement at sixteen, he became physically ill. His teachers believed he was a genius, but he was more concerned with his friends and starting school revolts than actually doing his schoolwork. He read constantly and was known to have an amazing memory. Called his friends "passions". In 1798, his granduncle died, leaving George to inherit the estate and the title of "Lord". Spent four years at Harrow, then went to Trinity college. Had a mad love for women and numerous love affairs, which he wrote journals and catlogues about. They are, make no mistake, packed. Love. Action. Poetry. He became more concious of idealism (romanticism), and less concerned with the realistic importance of experience. He wanted genuine passion. He wanted women. In 1807, published his first book of poetry called "Hours Of Idleness". In the preface, he apoligizes for pushing himself on the world when at his age, he should be employed some other way. Critics harshly attacked his work. Despair? No. Byron then harshly attacked the critics, showing for the first time his sarcastic wit and satirical abilities. Caused by his aristocratic life and classical education. This singled him out amongst the other romantic poets. In 1809, travelled into the Mediteranian, where he toured for two years. Wrote his two cantos (long poetry), called "Childe Harold's Pilgrimmage". It was released in 1812 and recieved instant glory. Combined the descriptive scnes of nature, the meditations of visions on earth, the vanity of material objects, the exaltation of freedom, and above all, a new hero was impassioned in spite of his weariness of life. He shocked all of London by his affairs with Lady Caroline Lamb, Lady Oxford, and his half sister Augusta. love. Action. Poetry. Proved he had no morals, and it only made him more popular. From then on, his guilt and feelings of incest were strongly present in his writing. He published many books between 1812 and 1816. Believed incest was a good metaphor for man: criminal, but genuine and irresistable. In his total alienation, he started to focus on the tragic condition of mankind and made himself an outcast. Guess what? More popularity. Hoping to appease his guilty mind, married Anna Milbank in 1815. It was a total failure. She left him after a year. While his private life had often been ignored by critics, the Tories attacked the failure of marriage due to Byron's attack of Prince Regent. On April 25th, 1816, had to leave his native country and never return. In Switzerland, he spent months reading Wordsowrth under the convincing of his friend, Percy Shelley. Influenced his work in new ways. His first drama, "Manfred", revealed a new inwardness. in October of 1816, moved to venice, Italy where he settled at last. his new work showed maturity and he fell in love one last time, with Theresa Giuciolli. He was at last coming to terms with his desperate idea of life. He ran real risks to help the Italian Carbonari in 1820-1821. The group was a secret organization that believed in change in society and ran on a constitution. His early poetry had brought awareness to the struggle of Greece under the rule of the Turks. Joined the freedom fighters, where he died of fever on April 9th in Greece. He was a hero.
Was born on November 28th, 1757 in London. From a poor family, he was only able to recieve the most basic of education, reading and writing. Worked in his father's shop until he was fourteen, when his gift of art became so apparent he was sent to study under James Basire. Completed his apprenticeship at 21, and became an engraver. At 25, married Catherine Bouchard, who helped him to publish his first book, "Songs of Innocence". He engraved the pictures on copper plates, Catherine coloured them. His work never made him much money. Blake No head for business, he continued working based on his Christian views of the world. He published "Songs of Experience" in 1794, followed by "Milton" and "Jerusalem". After his death, parts of Milton where set to music and became a Christian anthem. Was comissioned to design art for The Book Of Job. In 1800, gained a fan in William Hayley, who asked him to create busts of artists for his home in Surrey. While there, a drunken soldier accused him of cursing the King. He was charged with treason, but the case was flimsy and he was cleared. Poured his entire soul into his work. Became depressed between 1810-1817 due to obscurity. Even his friends thought he had gone insane. Died on August 12th, 1827. Buried in an unmarked grave in Bunhill Fields, London. Became extremely famous after his death.
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English Literature - Unit 8 - The Victorian Era (1832-1901)
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-0.21631552278... | 1 | Romantic and Victorian Poetry
Terms in this set (86)
An artistic and intellectual movement in Europe in the late 18th Century, characterized by a heightened interest in nature, emphasis on the individual's expression of emotion and imagination, departure from the attitudes and forms of classicism, and rebellion from social rules and conventions. Some of the Victorian literature influenced by Romantic movement. Themes of love with nature revived. Nature is a part of God. Imaginations in fiction gained power again instead of Realism but for a short time.
Seen as a bridge between the earlier "Romantics" and the modernist poets of the 20th Century. Several important poets include Elizabeth Barrett Browning and her husband, Robert Browning, Alfred Lord Tennyson, Matthew Arnold and Gerard Manley Hopkins. Features a resurgence of Medieval interests blended with contemporary concerns (Idylls of the King). Important time for the development of science, tried to describe and classify the natural world. Charles Darwin On the Origin of the Species about the theory of evolution. Although it took a long time to be accepted, it dramatically affected society and thought.
Themes of Victorian Poetry
Realism, Humanism, Idealism, Socialism, Criticism, Naturalism, Glory of Past, Modernism, Philosophical ideas feminism, Romanticism, Intellectualism, and Pre-Raphaelitism.
The attempt to produce art and literature an accurate portrayal of reality. Realistic detailed descriptions of everyday life, and of its darker aspects. Themes in realistic writing included: Families, Religion, and Social reforms.
Deals with: Ordinary concerns of human life, Tenderness of English life, Emotions of everyday life, and Glory of soul through senses individually.
Is about: Social aspects of contemporary life, Social disintegration, Life affected by industrialism, Conflicts between upper and lower class, and Homeliness of middle and lower class.
Talks about: On social life of that time, On contemporary industrialism, On political situation, On the ways of English thoughts, On mid-century skeptical unrest, and Indirect criticism on slavery.
Events and actions are not resulted from human
intentions but from the uncontrolled external forces. Description of green pastures and still waters. Man is corrupted by social institutions.
Glory of the Past
Shows: Culture and anarchy of the past, Positive effects of Puritanism, Propinquity with the Romantic Movement, and Religious and social ideas of past.
Is about: Certain aspects of existence, Life in industrial North, and Individuality and seniority of modern era.
Institutionism and utilitarianism were the two basic philosophies used in Victorian literature. To deals with the serious moral issues of that time. For example : religion , thoughts and above all social life.
Wrote about their own emotions and inmost thoughts and feelings. Love of a wife and mother. Spiritual geography of hopes, fears and loves from a woman's point of view.
About: Geological discoveries, Philosophical generalization, and Biological investigation.
School against the intellectualism of Victorian age "Science has nothing to do with art" Followed the Aesthetic movement "Art for art sake" Tractarian Movement "Science has nothing to do with religion"
DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI
Rossetti was an artist and poet very influential in the pre-Raphaelite movement. He would often write a poem specifically for a piece of his artwork, or the other way around.
Most famous for her poem Goblin Market, Rossetti asserted herself as a great female poet of the era. She was published widely until her death, especially in the pre-Raphaelite magazine "The Germ"
(1822-88) Matthew Arnold was considered one of the first modern poets of the Victorian Era. He was the superintendent of England's schools for many years and was highly revered. Arnold was famous for his imagery involving the ocean and also themes involving women. Poet, prose writer,critic and educationalist. Wrote a series of essays on literary and social topics. Constantly looked to the classics for symbols of permanence and stability. Arnold's use of nature is in "A Wish," in which the speaker's dying wish is to be placed by a window as he dies, so that he may look out at the beautiful landscape that will be there long after he is gone. In Dover Beach he remarks on the disparity between what faith used to be and what faith is now. Arnold's turning to the past and his praise of classical writers reflect his dissatisfaction with the present. In "Bacchanalia," themes on the impact of the revolutions in industry and science was not comforting, and Arnold, like other Victorians sought refuge in faith. Other themes used by him were time , criticism on labor and classical mythology.
ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON
(1809 - 1892) Tennyson was the Poet Laureate of the era, and one of the most revered poets of all time. His lengthy poem In Memoriam is his most famous. He is the 2nd most quoted writer after Shakespeare. Early poems in the style of those of Keats, which delighted in the senses. In The Princess, A Medley (1847) theme of equality of the sexes.. The first three books of poetry (1833, 1832, 1842) include Tennyson´s best work e.g. Mariana, "The Lady of Shalott", "Ulysses"," Morte d´Arthur", "The Lotos-Eaters". Later, new developments in scientific progress led him to contemplate on the changing world. For Tennyson, doubt was the basis of his inspiration. In, "In Memoriam" A.H.H. - a series of elegies (1833- 1850), - comments on change and evolution and contemplates the question of man's destiny and immortality in the age of new discoveries. Queen Victoria declared that she valued it next to the Bible. Despite Tennyson's Romantic spirit, he was a Victorian who shared the fundamental ethos of the Victorian age. "Ulysses"(1833), illustrates the Victorian morality of self-control and self discipline as a means to continue and succeed is about the great hero searching for life in spite of old age and coming death. "Tithonus" concerns the weariness of life on earth when all one wants to do is fade into the earth and no longer linger on. "The Two Voices" is a debate about whether or not to commit suicide. "The Idylls of the King" (1859-72) his popular series of poems on episodes from the legends of King Arthur. Tennyson - in constant protest against the individualism, which the Victorian era inherited from the Romantic period.
(1812 - 1889) Browning was famous for his dramatic monologues and commentary on social institutions. He was married to Victorian poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning. Aware that he was writing poetry in an age of science, of technology and prose. Interested in the study of human soul. From the very start he discussed in monologue, problems of life and conscience. His poem, "Pauline" was a fragment of personal confession. In "Paracelsus" (1835) he described the strange career of the Renaissance physician, in whom true science and charlatanism were combined. B's main literary inspiration - P.B.Shelley. His early long poem" Sordello "(1840) poem - the relationship between life and art - recognized as one of his most extraordinary and important works. Browning's admiration for the' subjective poet´ soon gave way to a desire for greater objectivity which led him to his 'dramatic monologues ' MY LAST DUCHESS The dramatic monologue - Browning's main achievement. B's mature poetry, portrays exciting controversial characters, some based on historical figures, some products of his imagination: Dramatic Romances and Lyrics ( 1845 ) , Men and Women (1855 ), Dramatis Personae ( 1864). Many poems consider the impending nature of death as a melancholy context to balance the joy of life. Examples are "Love Among the Ruins" and "A Toccata of Galuppi's." Other poems find strength in the acceptance of death, like "Prospice," "Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came," and "Rabbi Ben Ezra." Some poems - like "My Last Duchess," "Porphyria's Lover," "Caliban upon Setebos," or "The Laboratory" - simply consider death as an everpresent punishment. Browning's most ambitious work, the long narrative of a 17th-century murder story is" The Ring and the Book" (1868 -69). The poem consists of 10 verse narratives, all dealing with the same crime, each from a different viewpoint. Based on an actual trial, the record of which Browning discovered in Florence. Browning´s fame rests on the volumes, published between 1842 and 1864, which contain his love poems and dramatic monologues.
(1806 - 1861) Browning, married to poet Robert Browning was also one of the most famous Victorian poets - famous both in England and the US. She had a great influence on Edgar Allen Poe and Emily Dickinson. 33 Began writing in old-fashioned form. Influences: the Bible, the Greeks, Byron and Shelley. An imitation of Coleridge in her impressions of the Middle Ages Wrote many of her short poems for magazines, the most important contribution" The Cry of the Children" (1844), a protest against the employment of children in factories. In 1845, Robert Browning met her, fell in love with her, and persuaded her to elope with him to Italy. She wrote 44 sonnets as the sonnets were deeply personal,wrote for her love R. Browning she decided to present them as translations, calling them "Sonnets from the Portuguese". They were published in 1850 in the volume Poems. B. - a passionate supporter of Italian independence - in
her work by "Casa Guidi Windows" (1851) "Aurora Leigh"(1857) deals with the themes of social responsibility and the position of women. Mrs. Browning's distrust of the theories of contemporary French socialists. She believed that in the kind of state envisioned by the radical socialists there would be no place for artists and poet ,this was the important theme used by her in her work.
What are the approximate years of the Romantic period in literature?
What are some 3-4 things that Romanticism emphasizes?
Reason vs feelings as the guide to certainty. Which one should be the guide, according to the Romantics? Why?
The idea of a Revolution as a Romantic idea. In what ways can the American and French Revolution be considered as outcomes of Romantic ideals?
What was the Romantic view of nature and the primitive?
What is the view and role of Imagination for the Romantics?
What did "Nature" mean to the Romantics?
What are some characteristics of the "Romantic Hero"?
Describe the main characteristics of Lyric poetry.
What would most of us expect to see in a lyric poem?
Frequent themes in Romanticism: imagination, sensitivity, feelings, spontaneity, freedom, introspection, intuition, individualism, nature, solitude, emotion. Give an example for each of the themes from the poems in this unit.
How do the Victorians perpetuate and develop ideas or literary practices inherited from the past (for example, from the Romantics)?
How do the Victorians react against literary practices of the past?
What Victorian ideas and practices seem to point toward the future (for example, the ideas and practices of modern - i.e., 20th-century - literature?
How was Victorian literature influenced by social, political, and economic changes taking place during the period?
How do different Victorian writers deal with the increasing influence of materialism in the life and thought of their time?
How do different Victorian writers explore the relationship between bodily and nonbodily experience ("spirit" or "consciousness")?
In general, what was the impact of 19th-century scientific developments on Victorian literature?
How is the specific idea of evolution an important influence on Victorian literature?
How did Darwin's contributions to evolutionary thought influence Victorian literature?
Explain permanence verses mutability in the poem "Ode to a Nightingale."
Describe the background of the poem "Ode to the Nightingale."
What is the impact of the bird's song on the poet in "Ode to a Nightingale?"
In "Ode to a Nightingale" by Keats, what is the speaker in love with?
What is the theme of the poem "Ode to a Nightingale"?
What is the element of sensuousness in "Ode to a Nightingale"?
How does Keats' "Ode to a Nightingale" follow the pastoral tradition?
In "Ode to the West Wind" what are the specific elements of nature effected by the wind? How are these effects transformed from physical phenomena to symbolic action?
In "Ode to the West Wind" why does the speaker ask the wind to "lift" him? Is there a sense in which this poem is
In "Ode to the West Wind" Consider the tone of the speaker's address to the wind. Give Two examples from the
poem that show the tone of the piece.
In "Ode to the West Wind" The poem leads to a statement of personal, even spiritual, crisis; yet it concludes with great optimism. How is this achieved? Can we now interpret the poem's famous ending beyond its general popular meaning?
What is unusual about the way the narrator tells his story? How does he represent Porphyria's actions and emotions in the poem "Porphyria's Lover"?
What is the narrative structure of "Porphyria's Lover"?
In addition to being Porphyria's former lover, how would you characterize the speaker of this poem?
How do we discover that the speaker is insane in Robert Browning's poem "Porphyria's Lover"?
What is the theme of "Porphyria's Lover"?
In "Porphyria's Lover," why does the narrator kill the woman he loves?
Describe the characters of Porphyria and her lover in the poem "Porphyria's Lover" by Robert Browning
Explain the idea behind the following lines from the poem, "Porphyria's Lover"
i. She / for all her heart's endeavor
ii. to set its struggling passion free
iii. From pride, and vainer ties dissever
iv. And give herself to me forever. (21-25)
In the poem "Tears, Idle Tears" why does the poet Lord Alfred Tennyson describe tears as "idle"?
"What is the Epiphany that the speaker in Tennyson's poem discovers?
Tennyson said that as a child he was haunted by "the passion of the past." In what ways can Tennyson's poem be seen as an example of his preoccupation with the past?
In "Charge of the Light Brigade" About which war was the poem written?
In "Charge of the Light Brigade"According to the first stanza, how many British forces rode into the battle?
In "Charge of the Light Brigade"Why do you think Tennyson refers to the valley in the poem as the "Valley of death?"
In "Charge of the Light Brigade" Why did the soldier ride into the valley?
In "Charge of the Light Brigade" What kind of weapons did the British have?
In "Charge of the Light Brigade" What kind of weapons did their opponents have?
In "Charge of the Light Brigade" What does the line, "Someone blundered" in stanza 2 mean?
In "Charge of the Light Brigade" What do the following lines mean?
A. theirs not to reason why
B. theirs but to do or die
In "Charge of the Light Brigade" What does this poem say about War?
In "Charge of the Light Brigade" Give several adjectives from the poem that describe the British soldiers.
In "Dover Beach" Can the world really be all good or all bad? Is that what this poem is saying at the end, or are things more mixed than that?
In "Dover Beach" Some critics have called this poem's outlook "modern." Does that sound right to you? Does it seem like this poem is clicked into the way the modern world works, or does its perspective seem outdated to you? Are these critics referring to Modernism?
In "Dover Beach" When do you think your best thoughts? Is it when you're out in nature? In the shower?
In "Dover Beach" Waking up from a nap? Are your thoughts inspired by particular things you see and hear?
In "Dover Beach" Does the love of two people really matter in the grand scheme of things? How does our speaker seem to feel about that?
In "Dover Beach" When you look at the world around you, do you tend to see chaos, or order? What about the speaker of "Dover Beach?"
In "Dover Beach" Do you agree with the speaker that there is less faith, less belief in the world than their
used to be? If so, does that seem like a bad thing to you?
In "Dover Beach" Does human life get better or worse as time goes by? Is that even the right way to think about it? How might this poem help us to think about the arc of the past, present, and future?
Born April 7th, 1770 in Cockermouth, England to John Wordsworth and Ann Cookson. Grew up in the Lake District, which was a science region in Northern England. Sister is Dorothy Wordsworth, a poet and diarist who he was baptized with and remained close to all his life. They had three other siblings: Richard the lawyer, John, who was also a poet until his 1809 death by shipwreck, and Christopher, who became an academian. Grew up reading great poets such as Milton and Spencer, given full access to his father's library. Spent time with mother's relatives in Cumberland, where he experienced the moors and natural landscapes. Suffered from mistreatment from relatives. Did not get along with his uncle or his grandfather and contemplated suicide. Father was a lawyer in a mansion far away, and the whole family was distant from him. In 1778, his mother died and his father sent him to Hawkshead Grammar school, and his
sister Dorothy to Yorkshire, with relatives. They would not see each other again for nine years. In 1787, published his first sonnet in The Europeans Magazine and began attending St. John's college. Started travelling and took part in walking tour of Europe for the beauty of natural landscapes. In November of 1791, travelled to France where he met and fell in love with a French woman named Annette Vallon. She conceived a daughter, Caroline. For financial reasons, Worsworth returned alone to England, and the French tensions and Reign of Terror prevented him returning to his family. He continued to support them financially and became depressed, as he loved both mother and child dearly. Wrote one of his most famous poems, "It is a beauteous evening, calm and free" about talking a walk with his daughter. In 1802, was finally able to return to France, where a mutual agreement about his obligations was reached. In 1795, he met fellow poet Samuel Coleridge, and the the two quickly became friends. Inspired by the world around him and the beauty of physical landscapes, he began to compose "Lyrical Ballads", the volume of poetry that set the Romantic movement in poetic literature into swing. The book opened with Coleridge's "The Ancient Mariner". Inheriting a legacy, his finances improved and he moved in with Dorothy, who he cared for over the last twenty years of her life. In 1798, he began to write a long, philosophical autobiographical poem that would not be published until after his death in 1850. Wrote the enigmatic "Lucy" poems in Germany, over the winter of 1798-99. In 1802, he married Mary Hutchinson, an old childhood friend. Mary and Dorothy (ever present) became very close. Mary bore William's children five times, and three of those children died before Mary and William. "Willy" Wordsworth and John Wordsworth were the only two to outlive their parents. Dora Wordsworth would livelong enough to marry and grow up, while Thomas and Catherine died in 1812. Thomas was six, Catherine was three. In 1805, his brother John died and this affected him greatly. After the death of Robert Southey in 1843, Wordsworth became Poet Laureate of England. When Dora died in 1847, his poetry came to a standstill. On April 23'rd, 1950, Wordsworth met his fateful end by re-aggravating a case of pleurisy. Was buried in St. Oswald's cemetary in Grasmere. His widow, Mary, published his autobiographical poem to Coleridge as "The Prelude". Did not garner much attention in 1850, but is now regarded as his masterpiece. Spent most of his life living in the Lake District in a place called Dove Cottage.
Was born on October 21st 1772 in Ottery, St. Mary to John and Ann Coleridge. Bullied by his brother Frank and ran away at age 7. His father died in 1781, just before his 9th birthday. Sent to the boarding school, Christ school. He was a brilliant student. In 1791, his brother George sent him to Jesus College on a small allowence. Won a college medal in the first year for a beautiful poem written in Greek, and was one of the four competitors for a scholarship in the second year. At the same time, was going through an adolescent crisis and experimenting with opium, sex, alcohol and falling in love. Coleridge in December of 1793, he left school and joined the Dragoons, but kept falling off of his horse. In April, his brothers found him, bailed him out and convinced him to return to Cambridge. That summer (1794) he quit school and met the poet Robert Southey, and the two planned to build a utopia. The plan required both of them to marry, so Southey married Edith Fricker and Coleridge married her younger sister Sara. The utopia failed miserably, and he was trapped in a loveless marriage. Was earning his money at this time as a Unitarian preacher, and began to seriously write poetry. Befriended William and Dorothy Wordsworth. The poets planned "Lyrical Ballads" in 1797. (p. 1798) That Semptember, they visited Germany where Coleridge was heavily influenced by Kant, Schiller and Schelling. Came back full of Romantic German thought. In 1799, moved in with the Wordsworths and fell in love with Mary Hutchinson's younger sister, Sara. She appears in his poems as "Asra". Earned an annuity of 150.00 a year, that kept him from having to be a minister. Was using opium, though it is unclear whether or not his increasing use was a cause or a symptom of his worsening depression. His 1802 poem, "Dejection: An Ode", emphasized his despair at his loss of creative powers. Travelled to Sicily and Malta in 1804, working as Public Secretary under the commissioner, Alexander Ball. Gave this up and returned to England in 1806. People were shocked to see how bad his addiction had become. used as much as two quarts a week. Seperated from his wife in 1808. Quarelled with Wordsworth in 1810. Lost his annuity in 1811. Put himself under care of Dr. Daniel in 1814. in 1817, finally moved to Highgate to be cared for by Dr. Gilman. Established himself as the most intellectual of all the poets. Delivered an influential series of lectures on Shakespeare. Was better known as a speaker than anything else. Became famous for his "Highgate Thursdays". Managed to keep his demons under control for the next eighteen years. Eventually mended his friendship with Wordsworth. The Gilman family built an addition on their home to support the poet. Died on July 25th, 1834 due to heart failure caused by an unknown lung disorder, linked to his use of opium.
Born October 31st, 1795 to Thomas and Frances Keats. Oldest of the four surviving children. In 1803, he went away to Endfield to John Clarke's school. In 1804, his father was killed after falling off a horse and fracturing his skull. Two months later, his mother remarried but was unhappy and left her new husband. She regretted this action because by law, now everything belonged to her new husband including the kids. Frances' mother took custody of the children but could not get any property back. Hubby #2 quickly sold everything and disappeared. Tip of the ice berg of his tragic life. Even though he was small, got into a lot of fist fights. Never grew much more than five feet and was very annoyed when people mistook his younger brother George as being older than he was. In 1809, finally saw his mother again. She had become a prostitute to support herself after leaving her husband. Keats nursed her devotedly, but she died a year later from tuberculosis. Her brother had died of the same disease. He was devastated by her death and his agressive behaviour became one of study. A year later he was asked what he would like to do, and he wanted to become a surgeon. Sent to study as an apprentice under Thomas Hammond. Began to read lyrical poetry for the first time. He was fourteen. In 1814, his grandmother died and the family was split up. The only girl, Frances, was sent to live with other gaurdians, as it was imporper for a young girl to live with her older brothers. George and Tom were sent away to work, and John isolated himself and began to write very sorrowful poetry. When he became a published poet, Keats gathered every scrap of paper he'd written on and burned it because he thought it was awful. Even with his gorwing interest in poetry, he worked very hard in his studies and jumped ahead of the curriculum. Earned a promotion at the Guy Hospital in London, moved around from room to room near the London Bridge. Met publisher Leigh Hunt, who believed Keats had promise and potential. "A Poet to watch". First book of poetry appeared on March 3rd 1817. The book did not sell well, and did not please critics. His friend and fellow poet Shelley challenged him to a competition. Keats won the poem and became the sought after poet in London, caught in a whirlwind of parties. In June of 1818, he became paranoid that he only had three years to live. He knew he would die from tuberculosis. left london and started touring Scotland and its Lakes, as well as England's Lake District. Had already written most of his most famous poetry but felt he hadn't touched the literary world enough. Moved to Hampstead to take care of Thomas who was sick with consumption. At this time, fell in love with a young woman named Fanny. Believed that he was too poor to marry her, and that it would stunt his creativity. He did not marry her. Tom died in December of 1818. John should have inherited some money, but Abbey, another legal gaurdian claimed he could not inherit the money until his younger sister turned 21. Later revealed that Abbey had taken 1000.00 from the grandma's death. Brother George had moved to America and squandered money away, so was now relying on John to help pay off his debts. Published more poetry for money, and gave it all to his brother, even though he was penniless. Critics hated it. In early 1820, he began to cough up blood. He had developed consumption. A close friend, Charles Brown, wanted to send him to italy, as it was a warmer climate and there was no cure for consumption. in September, departed with another ill friend, Joseph Severn. Became sicker during the journey, due to the close quarters and quarantine. Kept in touch with Fanny, though he asked for the letters to be destroyed after his death. 31 survived and made it into the Oxford University Press. Once in Rome, he roomed with Severn and was not allowed to write anymore poetry, as doctors thought it was too strenuous. He kept writing to Fanny and missed her deeply. Wanted to attempt suicide by taking poison, but Severn stopped him. Later became so delirious that he would rant a Severn for stopping him, and believed his friends in London had tried to poison him. On February 23rd, 1821, Keats died. An autopsy showed his lungs were totally destroyed, and they were amazed he had lasted so long. Buried on February 26th in a Protestant cemetary.
Percy Bysshe Shelley
Born in 1792 to Timothy and Elizabeth Shelley. His father was an M.P. and his family was aristocratic. He was educated at Eton school and Oxford University. Expelled on March 25th, 1810 for writing a pamphlet called "The Necessity of Atheism". Eloped with 16 year old Harriet Westbrook and moved to Scotland. His father never forgave him. Harriet had two children: Ianthe and Charles. In 1814, he started having an affair with Mary Wollstonecraft's daughter. Harriet committed suicide by drowning in 1816. The children were left to her parents custody. Harriet had just borne Charles, while Shelley had already been with Mary. Shelley was now free to marry his new love, Mary Godwin. His poetry became well known for its deep, mythological vision. Friends with John Keats and financially supported Leigh Hunt when he was imprisoned. Hunt published the long poem, "Queen Mab" where Shelley explored his values including republicanism and atheism. Mary's half sister, from the second Mrs. Godwin, also committed suicide. Mary and Percy took to travelling Europe. February 15th, 1815, Mary delivered a daughter who only lived for a few days. Jaunary, 1816, their son was born. Named William. Mary's stepsister Jane Clairmont reinvented herself as Clair Clairmont and became Lord Byron's mistress. Percy Shelley, being an amazing peacemaker and friend to Byron, fell in love with Claire while he was trying to solve tensions between her and Byron. And everyone still loved him. In 1818, he and Mary moved to Italy, and their son Percy Florence was born. Byron, Shelley and Leigh Hunt published The Liberal, attacking British Government. They were safe from prosecution because it was published in italy. Returning from a peace making mission, he was lost at sea during a fierce storm. His body washed up on shore 11 days later, and he was cremated. His heart was buried in Bornesmouthe.
Lord George Byron
Considered the perfect image of a poet-hero. George Gorden Noel Byron was born the sixth baron Byron on January 22nd, 1788. Born into aristocracy and fast-decaying nobility. His father married his mother, Catherine for her financial income, and died in 1791. Was born with a birth defect that caused him to walk only on the balls of his feet. This, combined with his family's contempt for widow and child, caused wounded pride. He had a need for self-assertion, which came in three ways: poetry, love and action. Had an active childhood, full of play and mischeif. Willingly played cricket, and appointed someone else to run for him. When he was eight, he fell madly in love with his cousin. Upon hearing of her engagement at sixteen, he became physically ill. His teachers believed he was a genius, but he was more concerned with his friends and starting school revolts than actually doing his schoolwork. He read constantly and was known to have an amazing memory. Called his friends "passions". In 1798, his granduncle died, leaving George to inherit the estate and the title of "Lord". Spent four years at Harrow, then went to Trinity college. Had a mad love for women and numerous love affairs, which he wrote journals and catlogues about. They are, make no mistake, packed. Love. Action. Poetry. He became more concious of idealism (romanticism), and less concerned with the realistic importance of experience. He wanted genuine passion. He wanted women. In 1807, published his first book of poetry called "Hours Of Idleness". In the preface, he apoligizes for pushing himself on the world when at his age, he should be employed some other way. Critics harshly attacked his work. Despair? No. Byron then harshly attacked the critics, showing for the first time his sarcastic wit and satirical abilities. Caused by his aristocratic life and classical education. This singled him out amongst the other romantic poets. In 1809, travelled into the Mediteranian, where he toured for two years. Wrote his two cantos (long poetry), called "Childe Harold's Pilgrimmage". It was released in 1812 and recieved instant glory. Combined the descriptive scnes of nature, the meditations of visions on earth, the vanity of material objects, the exaltation of freedom, and above all, a new hero was impassioned in spite of his weariness of life. He shocked all of London by his affairs with Lady Caroline Lamb, Lady Oxford, and his half sister Augusta. love. Action. Poetry. Proved he had no morals, and it only made him more popular. From then on, his guilt and feelings of incest were strongly present in his writing. He published many books between 1812 and 1816. Believed incest was a good metaphor for man: criminal, but genuine and irresistable. In his total alienation, he started to focus on the tragic condition of mankind and made himself an outcast. Guess what? More popularity. Hoping to appease his guilty mind, married Anna Milbank in 1815. It was a total failure. She left him after a year. While his private life had often been ignored by critics, the Tories attacked the failure of marriage due to Byron's attack of Prince Regent. On April 25th, 1816, had to leave his native country and never return. In Switzerland, he spent months reading Wordsowrth under the convincing of his friend, Percy Shelley. Influenced his work in new ways. His first drama, "Manfred", revealed a new inwardness. in October of 1816, moved to venice, Italy where he settled at last. his new work showed maturity and he fell in love one last time, with Theresa Giuciolli. He was at last coming to terms with his desperate idea of life. He ran real risks to help the Italian Carbonari in 1820-1821. The group was a secret organization that believed in change in society and ran on a constitution. His early poetry had brought awareness to the struggle of Greece under the rule of the Turks. Joined the freedom fighters, where he died of fever on April 9th in Greece. He was a hero.
Was born on November 28th, 1757 in London. From a poor family, he was only able to recieve the most basic of education, reading and writing. Worked in his father's shop until he was fourteen, when his gift of art became so apparent he was sent to study under James Basire. Completed his apprenticeship at 21, and became an engraver. At 25, married Catherine Bouchard, who helped him to publish his first book, "Songs of Innocence". He engraved the pictures on copper plates, Catherine coloured them. His work never made him much money. Blake No head for business, he continued working based on his Christian views of the world. He published "Songs of Experience" in 1794, followed by "Milton" and "Jerusalem". After his death, parts of Milton where set to music and became a Christian anthem. Was comissioned to design art for The Book Of Job. In 1800, gained a fan in William Hayley, who asked him to create busts of artists for his home in Surrey. While there, a drunken soldier accused him of cursing the King. He was charged with treason, but the case was flimsy and he was cleared. Poured his entire soul into his work. Became depressed between 1810-1817 due to obscurity. Even his friends thought he had gone insane. Died on August 12th, 1827. Buried in an unmarked grave in Bunhill Fields, London. Became extremely famous after his death.
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What were the impacts of WW2 on Germany? Obviously the war meant that a lot of resources were spent and that the youth population was significantly reduced. How did this affect Germany's post war economy and the life of people in general? Were the Germans discriminated against thereafter for being supportive of the Nazi regime while they were under it?
This is a pretty big question; entire books have been written on the subject of postwar Germany. You might want to narrow it down. I'll take a shot at the discrimination portion:
While there was a lot of resentment towards the Axis peoples, the growing rivalry between Russia and the western Allies changed the dynamics a lot. American leaders took a more pragmatic view than the general citizenry. Even before the war ended they were working to soften public attitudes towards the German people, as opposed to the Nazi leadership.
They did this because they wanted, at all costs, to limit the spread of both Communism and Russian power (which they thought were closely related, but that's another issue entirely :P).
They knew that the harsh settlement after WWI, coupled with the worldwide Depression of the 30s, had had a lot to do with the popular support for Naziism; and they worried that another long period of suffering could make the German population go Communist.
Moreover, they needed to prepare for a possible war with Russia, which meant fortifying the areas they'd occupied. Germany ended up being partitioned, with the Russians controlling the east and the western Allies taking the West (incidentally, Korea's division into North and South happened at the same time and for the same reason).
The western Allies, especially America, knew that if there was to be another shooting war, it would likely be along this border. They wanted the local economy to be both able and willing to support the capitalist faction if that happened. So, the western Allies invested a lot in reconstructing the German economy. In America, the money for reconstructing Europe (not just Germany, though that was a lot of it) was called the Marshall plan.
They sold the idea to their populations by downplaying the responsibility of average citizens in the former Axis countries. There were certainly elements of the population that would've preferred to take a more punitive stance, but the combination of moral and practical considerations made the Marshall plan reasonably popular.
Of course, even with that help, conditions in Germany (and a lot of other places) were quite rough for the decade or so following WWII. But again, that's a subject for a bookshelf, not a single post.
Initially Germany was treated extremely harshly under the Morgenthau Plan. However with concerns over the Soviet Union rising and the importance of the German economy to the rest of Europe, eventually that plan was shelved and reform measures were initiated.
Somewhat analogously, concerns about Soviet power also made the US push for rapid economic development of Japan.
The Post War II treatment of Germany was relatively mild, and aimed at "rehabilitating" the country. (Germany was a recipient of Marshall Plan aid, and the Allies organized the (West) Berlin airlift to supply the city with food when the Soviets cut off land-base supplies).
It was after the FIRST World War that Germany was treated like a pariah, through the Versailles Treaty. This, unfortunately, led to the rise of Hitler and World War II. The Allies appear to have learned a lesson the second time around.
There are a number of very obvious and not obvious effects on Germany, both practical and social.
in the invasion of Germany from 1944 to 1945, many German cities were bombed extensively. Most of the econmy in the post war years was geared towards physical rebuilding.
many Germans died in the war, leaving a generation gap just like WWI.
immediately after the war, millions (~7.7m) of German soldiers were kept in POW camps. The death rate in those camps was very high (from 19% to 39%).
part of Poland's 'restitution' was to 'move' westward, losing territory next to the Ukraine and getting Silesia and eastern most part of then Germany up to the Oder-Neisse rivers. Also, the Soviets got Prussia. Part of this deal was the movement of millions of Germans from these areas into the rest of Germany. Also, the Germans in Bohemia were repatriated to Germany. The number given is roughly 15 million
Germany was split into two parts, the west occupied and controlled by Britain France and the US, the east by the Soviets. The two sides developed very differently.
The western part after 1950 experienced the Wirtschaftswunder (economic miracle) helped a long by the Marshal Plan. Socially, there was and continues to be a lot of open guilt about the Nazi past. They continue to support Israel financially and programs to repatriate Jews there.
The eastern part, though economically more prosperous than the rest of the communist nations was nowhere near as prosperous as the western European nations. It eventually became a paranoid police state.
in both parts, individuals with connections to the Nazi party were considered pariahs. As countries and business partners, the past was overlooked in the interest of economic development in both parts. But there is a natural tendency of individuals from countries victimized by Nazi Germany to have difficulty thinking well of Germany as a whole.
Because of awareness of this history, Germany, both the government and the citizens, is very pacifist and contrite.
The United Nations, formed immediately after WWII of most world countries, accepted both West and East Germany in 1973.
After WW2 Germany was out of young population, which pushed it to welcome many immigrants from other countries, and especially Turkey. Initially it was meant to keep this working class for a limited amount of time. However, things did not go as planned because of 2 main reasons:
- Post-war Germany had a high and increasing demand in working power. It would be more expensive to constantly invite new people, educate them, teach them the language and after a few years send them back.
- The immigrants mostly had a rural origins and they denied to return back to their home. Besides they were creating families and settling down.
Right now about 4 million people in Germany have Turkish origins.
treatment was not consistent with the allies pretence of a moral high ground. a book by Giles MacDonogh "AFTER THE REICH" provides more than sufficient proof of harsh treatment of all Germans including women and children after WW2. Only when US leadership relized (1947/48) that the west will need strong Germany to set up a natural counterbalance against Soviet Russia's European ambitions was there a about turn to help (Marshall plan) and respectable treatment of all things German. Yet another example of general hypocricy of the west.
Mr. Mitch your assertion that 15mil Germans were removed from Bohemia is wildly incorrect, Bohemia did not contain even 10 mil population before WW2! Also Czechs went into a wild revenge mode and tortured and or killed aprox. 300000 Germans out of perhaps 3+ millions living in Bohemia pre-WW2
I'm less interested in the standard answers to any question of effects of the War on Germany but more in the mass-psychological transformation of the population of the country. First, World War I shame and humiliation, then punishment and dismemberment of Germany when the Victors took territories, entire industries, and crippled the country from rebuilding.
Then, post-WW II, the punishment of the division of Germany into East and West, essentially creating two ideological systems with conflicting identities, with NO acknowledgement of German civilian suffering during the fire bombings and post-war massacres of ethnic Germans fleeing Central and Eastern Europe -- as if these never happened. And, of course, no claims on loss of farms, properties, wealth, even while everyone else is making claims on Germany for the same. Endlessly.
Then Reunification, when another radical transformation took place, a feeble, unsucessful attempt at recreating a unified psyche while consciousness of being "German" was tainted with the shame of the Holocaust, always emphasised in every documentary about the Hitler period, with blame squarely laid on the German people themselves, contrary to all claims there would be no "collective punishment" -- a lie if ever there was one.
So, now we end up with a collective psyche that is split (Left and Right-wing; socialism and neo-fascism), struggling with each other, while mass-immigration is diluting cultural values that could unite, but wont because many in the EU and elsewhere do not want a strong, united Germany. Add to this the low birth-rate which, effectively, will make Germans a minority in their own country within a half century. What do you end up with? No Germany at all. | <urn:uuid:e5f2cc2d-661e-4492-8d0f-00b659b28a96> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/1256/what-were-the-post-world-war-2-effects-on-germany/1261 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00354.warc.gz | en | 0.980831 | 1,813 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.19205935299396515,... | 2 | What were the impacts of WW2 on Germany? Obviously the war meant that a lot of resources were spent and that the youth population was significantly reduced. How did this affect Germany's post war economy and the life of people in general? Were the Germans discriminated against thereafter for being supportive of the Nazi regime while they were under it?
This is a pretty big question; entire books have been written on the subject of postwar Germany. You might want to narrow it down. I'll take a shot at the discrimination portion:
While there was a lot of resentment towards the Axis peoples, the growing rivalry between Russia and the western Allies changed the dynamics a lot. American leaders took a more pragmatic view than the general citizenry. Even before the war ended they were working to soften public attitudes towards the German people, as opposed to the Nazi leadership.
They did this because they wanted, at all costs, to limit the spread of both Communism and Russian power (which they thought were closely related, but that's another issue entirely :P).
They knew that the harsh settlement after WWI, coupled with the worldwide Depression of the 30s, had had a lot to do with the popular support for Naziism; and they worried that another long period of suffering could make the German population go Communist.
Moreover, they needed to prepare for a possible war with Russia, which meant fortifying the areas they'd occupied. Germany ended up being partitioned, with the Russians controlling the east and the western Allies taking the West (incidentally, Korea's division into North and South happened at the same time and for the same reason).
The western Allies, especially America, knew that if there was to be another shooting war, it would likely be along this border. They wanted the local economy to be both able and willing to support the capitalist faction if that happened. So, the western Allies invested a lot in reconstructing the German economy. In America, the money for reconstructing Europe (not just Germany, though that was a lot of it) was called the Marshall plan.
They sold the idea to their populations by downplaying the responsibility of average citizens in the former Axis countries. There were certainly elements of the population that would've preferred to take a more punitive stance, but the combination of moral and practical considerations made the Marshall plan reasonably popular.
Of course, even with that help, conditions in Germany (and a lot of other places) were quite rough for the decade or so following WWII. But again, that's a subject for a bookshelf, not a single post.
Initially Germany was treated extremely harshly under the Morgenthau Plan. However with concerns over the Soviet Union rising and the importance of the German economy to the rest of Europe, eventually that plan was shelved and reform measures were initiated.
Somewhat analogously, concerns about Soviet power also made the US push for rapid economic development of Japan.
The Post War II treatment of Germany was relatively mild, and aimed at "rehabilitating" the country. (Germany was a recipient of Marshall Plan aid, and the Allies organized the (West) Berlin airlift to supply the city with food when the Soviets cut off land-base supplies).
It was after the FIRST World War that Germany was treated like a pariah, through the Versailles Treaty. This, unfortunately, led to the rise of Hitler and World War II. The Allies appear to have learned a lesson the second time around.
There are a number of very obvious and not obvious effects on Germany, both practical and social.
in the invasion of Germany from 1944 to 1945, many German cities were bombed extensively. Most of the econmy in the post war years was geared towards physical rebuilding.
many Germans died in the war, leaving a generation gap just like WWI.
immediately after the war, millions (~7.7m) of German soldiers were kept in POW camps. The death rate in those camps was very high (from 19% to 39%).
part of Poland's 'restitution' was to 'move' westward, losing territory next to the Ukraine and getting Silesia and eastern most part of then Germany up to the Oder-Neisse rivers. Also, the Soviets got Prussia. Part of this deal was the movement of millions of Germans from these areas into the rest of Germany. Also, the Germans in Bohemia were repatriated to Germany. The number given is roughly 15 million
Germany was split into two parts, the west occupied and controlled by Britain France and the US, the east by the Soviets. The two sides developed very differently.
The western part after 1950 experienced the Wirtschaftswunder (economic miracle) helped a long by the Marshal Plan. Socially, there was and continues to be a lot of open guilt about the Nazi past. They continue to support Israel financially and programs to repatriate Jews there.
The eastern part, though economically more prosperous than the rest of the communist nations was nowhere near as prosperous as the western European nations. It eventually became a paranoid police state.
in both parts, individuals with connections to the Nazi party were considered pariahs. As countries and business partners, the past was overlooked in the interest of economic development in both parts. But there is a natural tendency of individuals from countries victimized by Nazi Germany to have difficulty thinking well of Germany as a whole.
Because of awareness of this history, Germany, both the government and the citizens, is very pacifist and contrite.
The United Nations, formed immediately after WWII of most world countries, accepted both West and East Germany in 1973.
After WW2 Germany was out of young population, which pushed it to welcome many immigrants from other countries, and especially Turkey. Initially it was meant to keep this working class for a limited amount of time. However, things did not go as planned because of 2 main reasons:
- Post-war Germany had a high and increasing demand in working power. It would be more expensive to constantly invite new people, educate them, teach them the language and after a few years send them back.
- The immigrants mostly had a rural origins and they denied to return back to their home. Besides they were creating families and settling down.
Right now about 4 million people in Germany have Turkish origins.
treatment was not consistent with the allies pretence of a moral high ground. a book by Giles MacDonogh "AFTER THE REICH" provides more than sufficient proof of harsh treatment of all Germans including women and children after WW2. Only when US leadership relized (1947/48) that the west will need strong Germany to set up a natural counterbalance against Soviet Russia's European ambitions was there a about turn to help (Marshall plan) and respectable treatment of all things German. Yet another example of general hypocricy of the west.
Mr. Mitch your assertion that 15mil Germans were removed from Bohemia is wildly incorrect, Bohemia did not contain even 10 mil population before WW2! Also Czechs went into a wild revenge mode and tortured and or killed aprox. 300000 Germans out of perhaps 3+ millions living in Bohemia pre-WW2
I'm less interested in the standard answers to any question of effects of the War on Germany but more in the mass-psychological transformation of the population of the country. First, World War I shame and humiliation, then punishment and dismemberment of Germany when the Victors took territories, entire industries, and crippled the country from rebuilding.
Then, post-WW II, the punishment of the division of Germany into East and West, essentially creating two ideological systems with conflicting identities, with NO acknowledgement of German civilian suffering during the fire bombings and post-war massacres of ethnic Germans fleeing Central and Eastern Europe -- as if these never happened. And, of course, no claims on loss of farms, properties, wealth, even while everyone else is making claims on Germany for the same. Endlessly.
Then Reunification, when another radical transformation took place, a feeble, unsucessful attempt at recreating a unified psyche while consciousness of being "German" was tainted with the shame of the Holocaust, always emphasised in every documentary about the Hitler period, with blame squarely laid on the German people themselves, contrary to all claims there would be no "collective punishment" -- a lie if ever there was one.
So, now we end up with a collective psyche that is split (Left and Right-wing; socialism and neo-fascism), struggling with each other, while mass-immigration is diluting cultural values that could unite, but wont because many in the EU and elsewhere do not want a strong, united Germany. Add to this the low birth-rate which, effectively, will make Germans a minority in their own country within a half century. What do you end up with? No Germany at all. | 1,820 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hamlet Revenge Essay Essay
Revenge causes one to act blindly through anger, rather than through reason. It is based on the principle of an eye for an eye, but this principle is not always an intelligent theory to live by. In William Shakespeares Hamlet, Young Fortinbras, Laertes, and Hamlet were all looking to avenge the deaths of their fathers. They all acted on emotion, but the way the characters went about it was very different. Because of this, it led to the downfall of two, and the rise of one.Order now
The heads of the three major families were each murdered, the eldest sons of these families swore vengeance, and two of the three sons died while exacting their acts of vengeance, while the third rose to power.
All of the three eldest sons had one thing in common. All three of the murders affected the sons of the deceased in the same way; it enraged them. For people during this time, revenging the murder of ones father was part of one’s honor and had to be done. All three of the sons swore vengeance and then acted towards getting revenge for the deaths of their fathers. Because of all of this, revenge is a major theme in Shakespeares Hamlet.
Fortinbras took his revenge out in a proper way and rose to power in the end. Both Laertes and Hamlet, however, used force to accomplish their revenge. The lack of thought used in exacting their revenge led to the deaths of both Laertes and Hamlet.
When Laertes found out about his father’s death, he immediately returned home and confronted the king with accusations of the murder of his father. When Claudius tells Laertes that Hamlet was responsible for his father’s death, he decides to kill Hamlet to avenge the death of his father. He and King Claudius concoct a plot to kill Hamlet by having Laertes duel with Hamlet and using a poisoned sword.
However, they had not thought that something could have gone desperately wrong with their plan. What if Hamlet was by far the better swordsman, or what if Hamlet managed to get the sword away from Laertes without it being used against him first? With Laertes believing the King’s accusations that Hamlet had murdered his father on purpose, he was in a blind rage and would not listen to Hamlet’s explanation and apology. He fights Hamlet and wounds him once with the poisoned tipped sword; but unfortunately, their swords are switched, and Hamlet also wounds Laertes with the sword. Because Laertes did not think clearly when fashioning his plan with Claudius, it brought about his downfall and death.
Hamlet was deeply sorrowed by his father’s death. He spoke to the ghost of King Hamlet and this ghost stated that his father’s death was a murder by the hand of his uncle, who was now his stepfather, King Claudius.
Hamlet was astonished, and after using the play to find out if the ghost was telling the truth or not, swore vengeance for his father’s death. Hamlet could have killed King Claudius while he had his back to him in the chapel, but he thought that he shouldnt because he didnt know if Claudius was asking for forgiveness and renouncing the dastardly action of murdering his brother, and Hamlets father, King Hamlet. He chose to wait until Claudius was purged of all goodness and prayer, and then strike him down into a world of eternal damnation. Hamlet waits until he can kill his uncle while he is performing a sin. Unfortunately for Hamlet, the sin is Claudius plan with Laertes to poison his own son-in-law, Hamlet! Although some could make an argument that the reason that Hamlet did not kill Claudius earlier was because he was being intelligent and did not want him to have a chance to go to heaven, this theory cannot be totally true. If Hamlet was indeed a thinking man as so many critics have called him, then he did not use that powerful brain of his in this situation.
Hamlet would know Claudius personality. He would know that all that Claudius was after is land, money, and power, and that he would never try . | <urn:uuid:3fcbe6a2-943a-4ebb-9cf8-466a9b176ab3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://artscolumbia.org/essays/hamlet-revenge-essay-11-109351/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00436.warc.gz | en | 0.989236 | 901 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.24704113602638... | 3 | Hamlet Revenge Essay Essay
Revenge causes one to act blindly through anger, rather than through reason. It is based on the principle of an eye for an eye, but this principle is not always an intelligent theory to live by. In William Shakespeares Hamlet, Young Fortinbras, Laertes, and Hamlet were all looking to avenge the deaths of their fathers. They all acted on emotion, but the way the characters went about it was very different. Because of this, it led to the downfall of two, and the rise of one.Order now
The heads of the three major families were each murdered, the eldest sons of these families swore vengeance, and two of the three sons died while exacting their acts of vengeance, while the third rose to power.
All of the three eldest sons had one thing in common. All three of the murders affected the sons of the deceased in the same way; it enraged them. For people during this time, revenging the murder of ones father was part of one’s honor and had to be done. All three of the sons swore vengeance and then acted towards getting revenge for the deaths of their fathers. Because of all of this, revenge is a major theme in Shakespeares Hamlet.
Fortinbras took his revenge out in a proper way and rose to power in the end. Both Laertes and Hamlet, however, used force to accomplish their revenge. The lack of thought used in exacting their revenge led to the deaths of both Laertes and Hamlet.
When Laertes found out about his father’s death, he immediately returned home and confronted the king with accusations of the murder of his father. When Claudius tells Laertes that Hamlet was responsible for his father’s death, he decides to kill Hamlet to avenge the death of his father. He and King Claudius concoct a plot to kill Hamlet by having Laertes duel with Hamlet and using a poisoned sword.
However, they had not thought that something could have gone desperately wrong with their plan. What if Hamlet was by far the better swordsman, or what if Hamlet managed to get the sword away from Laertes without it being used against him first? With Laertes believing the King’s accusations that Hamlet had murdered his father on purpose, he was in a blind rage and would not listen to Hamlet’s explanation and apology. He fights Hamlet and wounds him once with the poisoned tipped sword; but unfortunately, their swords are switched, and Hamlet also wounds Laertes with the sword. Because Laertes did not think clearly when fashioning his plan with Claudius, it brought about his downfall and death.
Hamlet was deeply sorrowed by his father’s death. He spoke to the ghost of King Hamlet and this ghost stated that his father’s death was a murder by the hand of his uncle, who was now his stepfather, King Claudius.
Hamlet was astonished, and after using the play to find out if the ghost was telling the truth or not, swore vengeance for his father’s death. Hamlet could have killed King Claudius while he had his back to him in the chapel, but he thought that he shouldnt because he didnt know if Claudius was asking for forgiveness and renouncing the dastardly action of murdering his brother, and Hamlets father, King Hamlet. He chose to wait until Claudius was purged of all goodness and prayer, and then strike him down into a world of eternal damnation. Hamlet waits until he can kill his uncle while he is performing a sin. Unfortunately for Hamlet, the sin is Claudius plan with Laertes to poison his own son-in-law, Hamlet! Although some could make an argument that the reason that Hamlet did not kill Claudius earlier was because he was being intelligent and did not want him to have a chance to go to heaven, this theory cannot be totally true. If Hamlet was indeed a thinking man as so many critics have called him, then he did not use that powerful brain of his in this situation.
Hamlet would know Claudius personality. He would know that all that Claudius was after is land, money, and power, and that he would never try . | 875 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Facts every computer programmer should know2019-12-02 11:12:02 1373 seen
In the 1613, in the book called The Yong Mans Gleanings the word "computer" was mentioned for the first time. “I haue read the truest computer of Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number.”
The author was referring to someone who who carried out computations or calculations, yet in our days most of that work is done with the plastic and metal tools on people's desks.
Many people wonder how a box of cables now are so smart.
Now Fronty is going to tell a few interesting facts about programming.
1. The first computers were powered by steam
In 1801 a power loom was invented, which based the design of a fabric upon wooden cards.
In the 1830s, the world was getting full of with a device large as a house powered by six steam engines, which was invented by Charles Babbage who called it Analytic Engine.
2. Did you know the first computer programmer was a woman?
In 1843, a British mathematician, Ada Lovelace published an English translation of a Analytical Engine article where she added her own valuable notes - on one of them she described an algorithm for the Analytical Engine to compute Bernoulli numbers.
3. The first computer "bug" was called after a real bug
An admiral in the US Navy, in 1947 recorded the first computer bug in her log book as she was working on a Mark 2nd computer.
Actually a moth appeared to be stuck in a relay. Before it was recorded on her note, the moth had been debugged from the system.
4. The computer virus was designed without any harmful intentions.
In 1983, Fred Cohen designed a parasitic application that could harm computers.
This could make computer make copes of itself and spread from one machine to another through a floppy disc. The virus was created only to prove it was possible.
5. Computer programming would be the 3rd most diverse for languages spoken if it was a country.
For example Papua New Guinea has over 836 indigenous languages spoken, Indonesia is the second with more than 700 languages and Nigeria is the third with approximately 500 indigenous languages.
All programming languages that are known to people both in current use and historical ones, amount to 698, so if it was a country it'd be the 3rd one in the world. | <urn:uuid:f4a88aae-00a1-4be8-b183-a2ada111a141> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fronty.com/post/facts-every-computer-programmer-should-know | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00437.warc.gz | en | 0.980794 | 520 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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In the 1613, in the book called The Yong Mans Gleanings the word "computer" was mentioned for the first time. “I haue read the truest computer of Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number.”
The author was referring to someone who who carried out computations or calculations, yet in our days most of that work is done with the plastic and metal tools on people's desks.
Many people wonder how a box of cables now are so smart.
Now Fronty is going to tell a few interesting facts about programming.
1. The first computers were powered by steam
In 1801 a power loom was invented, which based the design of a fabric upon wooden cards.
In the 1830s, the world was getting full of with a device large as a house powered by six steam engines, which was invented by Charles Babbage who called it Analytic Engine.
2. Did you know the first computer programmer was a woman?
In 1843, a British mathematician, Ada Lovelace published an English translation of a Analytical Engine article where she added her own valuable notes - on one of them she described an algorithm for the Analytical Engine to compute Bernoulli numbers.
3. The first computer "bug" was called after a real bug
An admiral in the US Navy, in 1947 recorded the first computer bug in her log book as she was working on a Mark 2nd computer.
Actually a moth appeared to be stuck in a relay. Before it was recorded on her note, the moth had been debugged from the system.
4. The computer virus was designed without any harmful intentions.
In 1983, Fred Cohen designed a parasitic application that could harm computers.
This could make computer make copes of itself and spread from one machine to another through a floppy disc. The virus was created only to prove it was possible.
5. Computer programming would be the 3rd most diverse for languages spoken if it was a country.
For example Papua New Guinea has over 836 indigenous languages spoken, Indonesia is the second with more than 700 languages and Nigeria is the third with approximately 500 indigenous languages.
All programming languages that are known to people both in current use and historical ones, amount to 698, so if it was a country it'd be the 3rd one in the world. | 550 | ENGLISH | 1 |
She was known for saving the lives of many British army officers during World War I and was awarded the title of Khan-Bahadur by the British commander.
Lady Adela, called the "Princess of the Brave" by the British, was a famous and cultured chief of the Jaff tribe, one of the biggest Kurdish tribes, if not the biggest, native to the Zagros area, which is divided between Iran and Iraq.
Adela Khanem was of the famous aristocratic Sahibqeran family, who intermarried with the tribal chiefs of Jaff.
Vladimir Minorsky has reported several cases of Kurdish women running the affairs of their tribes.
He met one of these female chiefs named Lady Adela in the region of Halabja in 1913.
This regime of polygyny was, however, practiced by a minority, which included primarily the members of the ruling landowning class, the nobility, and the religious establishment.
Sharaf ad-Din Bitlisi also mentioned three Kurdish women assuming power in Kurdish principalities after the death of their husbands in order to transfer it to their sons upon their adulthood.In the court of the powerful Bidlis principality (region in Turkey), Kurdish women were not allowed into the marketplace, and would be killed if they went there, but women did occasionally assume power in Kurdish principalities after some Ottoman authorities had made some exceptions by accepting the succession in those principalities by a female ruler.In the late 19th century, Lady Halima Khanim of Hakkari was the ruler of Bash Kala until she was forced to surrender to the Ottoman government after the suppression of the Bedir Khan revolt in 1847.In other provinces of the area it looked barely better.Also in southeastern Turkey, a report by the BBC estimated that almost a quarter of all marriages are polygamous.However, despite the progress, Kurdish and international women's rights organizations still report problems related to gender equality, forced marriages, honor killings and in Iraqi Kurdistan also female genital mutilation (FGM). | <urn:uuid:bade2f05-6964-4796-8516-9af80012c094> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://vintage-x.ru/kurdish-men-dating-18882.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00480.warc.gz | en | 0.9817 | 420 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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-0.15950459241... | 1 | She was known for saving the lives of many British army officers during World War I and was awarded the title of Khan-Bahadur by the British commander.
Lady Adela, called the "Princess of the Brave" by the British, was a famous and cultured chief of the Jaff tribe, one of the biggest Kurdish tribes, if not the biggest, native to the Zagros area, which is divided between Iran and Iraq.
Adela Khanem was of the famous aristocratic Sahibqeran family, who intermarried with the tribal chiefs of Jaff.
Vladimir Minorsky has reported several cases of Kurdish women running the affairs of their tribes.
He met one of these female chiefs named Lady Adela in the region of Halabja in 1913.
This regime of polygyny was, however, practiced by a minority, which included primarily the members of the ruling landowning class, the nobility, and the religious establishment.
Sharaf ad-Din Bitlisi also mentioned three Kurdish women assuming power in Kurdish principalities after the death of their husbands in order to transfer it to their sons upon their adulthood.In the court of the powerful Bidlis principality (region in Turkey), Kurdish women were not allowed into the marketplace, and would be killed if they went there, but women did occasionally assume power in Kurdish principalities after some Ottoman authorities had made some exceptions by accepting the succession in those principalities by a female ruler.In the late 19th century, Lady Halima Khanim of Hakkari was the ruler of Bash Kala until she was forced to surrender to the Ottoman government after the suppression of the Bedir Khan revolt in 1847.In other provinces of the area it looked barely better.Also in southeastern Turkey, a report by the BBC estimated that almost a quarter of all marriages are polygamous.However, despite the progress, Kurdish and international women's rights organizations still report problems related to gender equality, forced marriages, honor killings and in Iraqi Kurdistan also female genital mutilation (FGM). | 420 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A baby boomer is a term used to describe the generation of people born between 1946 and 1964. The year gap has been settled for by most researchers and demographers, although some people still argue that it should range from the early 1940s to early 1960s. The number of babies born “boomed’ after World War II and continued to rise up to the mid 1960s when it gradually started dropping. The baby boomers make up a large proportion of the world’s population, especially in the developed countries. In the America, the baby boomers take up to approximately 20% of the total population. The number of babies born in the United States during the baby boom is estimated to be 7.4 million. The baby boomers come after the "Silent Generation" of babies who were born between 1920 and 1940.
Why Was the Birth Rate So High Throughout the "Baby Boomer" Years?
The large population of Baby boomers in the developed country is attributed to many factors. The commonly recognized reason is the need for the homecoming World War II soldiers to put up families and to continue building the families they had left behind before going to war. The tendency of people getting married and bringing up a family at a younger age also contributed to the high population of the baby boomers.
Some of the researchers argued that the baby boom was a tactic the Americans applied to fight the communism during the Cold War. The birth rate was high with an aim to outnumber the communists. Many people also opted to have children after the postwar peace conferences unlike before, probably because they were pretty sure the future that awaits their babies was secure and peaceful. The economy was also promising and therefore most parents could comfortably support their families.
The Impact of Baby Boomers
One of the notable effects the baby boom had was the emergence and rapid growth of suburbs. Most families opted to move from the cities and settle in the outskirts, in a bid to escape the harsh city condition and to enjoy the friendly ambiance of the suburbs. At the time the baby boomers were being born, women were encouraged to lead their lives as housewives, to cook and babysit their babies. A career woman was not an ideal thing during the Baby Boom years.
The baby boomers are respected for the position they hold in the economy, despite most of them being in their retirement years. Most of the baby boomers are known to be wealthy and at some point, they held over 80% of the wealth in the UK. Their position in the economy is attributed their hard working and competitive traits. They are competitive and hardworking probably because of the stiff competitions they experienced during their birth years. The babies were so many and therefore they had to compete for generally everything.
Contrary to many peoples’ thinking, baby boomers are also major users of the internet, with an estimated 78% of the baby boomers using the internet frequently. Almost half of the boomers have joined social networks.
What is a baby boomer?
A baby boomer is someone who was born between 1946 and 1964.
About the Author
John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
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Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | <urn:uuid:618b8e99-357c-4b4b-b833-972ec9cb50ed> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-a-baby-boomer.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00278.warc.gz | en | 0.981907 | 696 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.01416756585... | 2 | A baby boomer is a term used to describe the generation of people born between 1946 and 1964. The year gap has been settled for by most researchers and demographers, although some people still argue that it should range from the early 1940s to early 1960s. The number of babies born “boomed’ after World War II and continued to rise up to the mid 1960s when it gradually started dropping. The baby boomers make up a large proportion of the world’s population, especially in the developed countries. In the America, the baby boomers take up to approximately 20% of the total population. The number of babies born in the United States during the baby boom is estimated to be 7.4 million. The baby boomers come after the "Silent Generation" of babies who were born between 1920 and 1940.
Why Was the Birth Rate So High Throughout the "Baby Boomer" Years?
The large population of Baby boomers in the developed country is attributed to many factors. The commonly recognized reason is the need for the homecoming World War II soldiers to put up families and to continue building the families they had left behind before going to war. The tendency of people getting married and bringing up a family at a younger age also contributed to the high population of the baby boomers.
Some of the researchers argued that the baby boom was a tactic the Americans applied to fight the communism during the Cold War. The birth rate was high with an aim to outnumber the communists. Many people also opted to have children after the postwar peace conferences unlike before, probably because they were pretty sure the future that awaits their babies was secure and peaceful. The economy was also promising and therefore most parents could comfortably support their families.
The Impact of Baby Boomers
One of the notable effects the baby boom had was the emergence and rapid growth of suburbs. Most families opted to move from the cities and settle in the outskirts, in a bid to escape the harsh city condition and to enjoy the friendly ambiance of the suburbs. At the time the baby boomers were being born, women were encouraged to lead their lives as housewives, to cook and babysit their babies. A career woman was not an ideal thing during the Baby Boom years.
The baby boomers are respected for the position they hold in the economy, despite most of them being in their retirement years. Most of the baby boomers are known to be wealthy and at some point, they held over 80% of the wealth in the UK. Their position in the economy is attributed their hard working and competitive traits. They are competitive and hardworking probably because of the stiff competitions they experienced during their birth years. The babies were so many and therefore they had to compete for generally everything.
Contrary to many peoples’ thinking, baby boomers are also major users of the internet, with an estimated 78% of the baby boomers using the internet frequently. Almost half of the boomers have joined social networks.
What is a baby boomer?
A baby boomer is someone who was born between 1946 and 1964.
About the Author
John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 723 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From: Third rock from the Sun.
Tripartite Pact: This was a purely defensive pact. It was not required of one signatory to aid another if the signatory were the aggressor. If this were not true then Japan and Western Europe would have been at war in 1939.
Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact: Signed to release Soviet and Japanese force requirements on their northern borders. It benefited both parties and was well known by the world. Stalin even saw the Japanese delegation off at the train station.
While the U.S. was aiding the U.K. as much as possible and pushing the envelope of neutrality the U.S. could not declare war on Germany without the approval of Congress. Congress was not likely to do that.
When Japan attacked Pearl Harbor Roosevelt's advisors were at wits end. The U.S. public wanted retribution against Japan and the U.S. government was going to be forced to direct all resources against them in the Pacific thus watering down any help they could give the U.K. But when Hitler, almost in an offhand manner, declared war on the U.S. it was a great relief for all nations fighting against Germany. They knew, and some expressed this, that the war was now won. It was simply a matter of time.
Hitler's advisors pressed him to not declare war against the U.S. Hitler felt it would make little difference. What if Hitler had listened to his advisors? What if he had NOT declared war on the U.S.? What if the U.S. would be left fighting only Japan and was neutral, in whatever sense, towards Germany? The U.S. pressed Finland to cease offensive operations against the USSR and Finland publicly rejected their demands but privately agreed agreed. On 5 November President Ryti of Finland wrote Mannerheim asking to suspend offensive actions against the Murmansk Railway. He agreed and Finnish offensive operations were ceased against the Soviet Union.
So, if Hitler had not declared war on the U.S. a few days after Pearl Harbor and the U.S. was restricted in their material help to the U.K. and U.S.S.R. and was unable to provide any manpower at all what course would the war have taken? Would the U.S. have still declared war on Germany after defeating Japan? Or before defeating Japan? Or not declared at all? And think about this. If Germany had a free hand in Europe without direct U.S. involvement for even a two or three more years what would have been the effect in the USSR? There certainly would have been less troops needed in the West. Fewer U.S. tanks to the U.K. in North Africa. No invasion of North Africa by the U.S. in 1942 or Sicily. Italy would have been kept in the war much longer. Some very interesting stuff to think about. | <urn:uuid:96b1c9c7-35e3-4afe-8963-09188a654b77> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.matrixgames.com/forums/tm.asp?m=4334819&mpage=1&key= | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00230.warc.gz | en | 0.987385 | 593 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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Tripartite Pact: This was a purely defensive pact. It was not required of one signatory to aid another if the signatory were the aggressor. If this were not true then Japan and Western Europe would have been at war in 1939.
Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact: Signed to release Soviet and Japanese force requirements on their northern borders. It benefited both parties and was well known by the world. Stalin even saw the Japanese delegation off at the train station.
While the U.S. was aiding the U.K. as much as possible and pushing the envelope of neutrality the U.S. could not declare war on Germany without the approval of Congress. Congress was not likely to do that.
When Japan attacked Pearl Harbor Roosevelt's advisors were at wits end. The U.S. public wanted retribution against Japan and the U.S. government was going to be forced to direct all resources against them in the Pacific thus watering down any help they could give the U.K. But when Hitler, almost in an offhand manner, declared war on the U.S. it was a great relief for all nations fighting against Germany. They knew, and some expressed this, that the war was now won. It was simply a matter of time.
Hitler's advisors pressed him to not declare war against the U.S. Hitler felt it would make little difference. What if Hitler had listened to his advisors? What if he had NOT declared war on the U.S.? What if the U.S. would be left fighting only Japan and was neutral, in whatever sense, towards Germany? The U.S. pressed Finland to cease offensive operations against the USSR and Finland publicly rejected their demands but privately agreed agreed. On 5 November President Ryti of Finland wrote Mannerheim asking to suspend offensive actions against the Murmansk Railway. He agreed and Finnish offensive operations were ceased against the Soviet Union.
So, if Hitler had not declared war on the U.S. a few days after Pearl Harbor and the U.S. was restricted in their material help to the U.K. and U.S.S.R. and was unable to provide any manpower at all what course would the war have taken? Would the U.S. have still declared war on Germany after defeating Japan? Or before defeating Japan? Or not declared at all? And think about this. If Germany had a free hand in Europe without direct U.S. involvement for even a two or three more years what would have been the effect in the USSR? There certainly would have been less troops needed in the West. Fewer U.S. tanks to the U.K. in North Africa. No invasion of North Africa by the U.S. in 1942 or Sicily. Italy would have been kept in the war much longer. Some very interesting stuff to think about. | 579 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For many schools this is new topic and one to be taught with particular sensitivity in the 21st century. Try wherever possible to think of the reasons it is on the curriculum i.e. for about half of what is deemed the Christian era, Muslims marched at the forefront of human progress. To me the topic is not about fighting and conquest and the differences between caliphates: it is about learning how much the west has in common with early Islam and how much we owe to each other. Although Baghdad is the named focus in places, it is helpful and rewarding to draw on examples from Europe too, notably Cordoba in southern Spain. To fully appreciate these issues, the topic is taught best in Y5/6 after pupils have looked at what was happening in Britain at this time.
NB Please note that if buying the planner as a pay-per-download you are buying the planner only. All the resources that go with it are to be found in the individual outstanding lessons that you see described below and which all link tightly to the planner. | <urn:uuid:ec996f93-da66-4ed3-a24f-8ab5267e7b9d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.keystagehistory.co.uk/keystage-2/outstanding-lessons-keystage-2/early-islam-baghdad-outstanding-lessons-keystage-2-golden-age/planner-for-teaching-early-islamic-civilization-at-ks2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00306.warc.gz | en | 0.980091 | 211 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.35953900218... | 5 | For many schools this is new topic and one to be taught with particular sensitivity in the 21st century. Try wherever possible to think of the reasons it is on the curriculum i.e. for about half of what is deemed the Christian era, Muslims marched at the forefront of human progress. To me the topic is not about fighting and conquest and the differences between caliphates: it is about learning how much the west has in common with early Islam and how much we owe to each other. Although Baghdad is the named focus in places, it is helpful and rewarding to draw on examples from Europe too, notably Cordoba in southern Spain. To fully appreciate these issues, the topic is taught best in Y5/6 after pupils have looked at what was happening in Britain at this time.
NB Please note that if buying the planner as a pay-per-download you are buying the planner only. All the resources that go with it are to be found in the individual outstanding lessons that you see described below and which all link tightly to the planner. | 209 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Historically, the first white man believed to have discovered the Caves was Frederick Selous, the famous European hunter, during his wanderings in 1887.
It was believed that prior to that the Caves were being used as a stronghold by an outlaw called Nyamakwere who murdered many victims by throwing them into the Silent Pool. The notorious Nyamakwere was eventually defeated and killed by a Headman called Chinhoyi who became a Mashona Chief, hence the name Chinhoyi given to the nearby town. Chief Chinhoyi and his followers used the Caves as a refuge from raiding tribes such as the Matebele. Until a few years ago the remains of Chief Chinhoyi’s grain bins could be seen in some of the underground passages.
The traditional name for the Caves is “Chirorodziva” which means the “Pool of the Fallen”. The name was derived from an incident which took place in the 1830s when the Angoni Tribe, who were moving northwards surprised people living near the Caves and flung them into the pool. | <urn:uuid:87f6e737-96ef-4919-be74-6d11d8347088> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.zimbabwetourism.net/listing/chinhoyi-caves-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00278.warc.gz | en | 0.992796 | 232 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.35646396875381... | 8 | Historically, the first white man believed to have discovered the Caves was Frederick Selous, the famous European hunter, during his wanderings in 1887.
It was believed that prior to that the Caves were being used as a stronghold by an outlaw called Nyamakwere who murdered many victims by throwing them into the Silent Pool. The notorious Nyamakwere was eventually defeated and killed by a Headman called Chinhoyi who became a Mashona Chief, hence the name Chinhoyi given to the nearby town. Chief Chinhoyi and his followers used the Caves as a refuge from raiding tribes such as the Matebele. Until a few years ago the remains of Chief Chinhoyi’s grain bins could be seen in some of the underground passages.
The traditional name for the Caves is “Chirorodziva” which means the “Pool of the Fallen”. The name was derived from an incident which took place in the 1830s when the Angoni Tribe, who were moving northwards surprised people living near the Caves and flung them into the pool. | 232 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Editor’s note: This story originally aired on The World earlier this year as part of the series, “400 years: Slavery’s unresolved history.” It was repackaged on the show again on Nov. 29 as part of a special feature over the holidays along with this story.
Over one doorway at Elmina Castle, a former hub of the slave trade in Ghana, a brass plaque reads, “door of no return.” It was the last door that captive Africans went through in Africa before they were boarded onto ships and sold as slaves.
The passage is intentionally narrow, so prisoners had to walk one by one through the near darkness and then into the sudden, blinding sunlight. From there, the captive Africans were chained for months in the packed bowels of ships until they arrived in the Americas, and were enslaved.
Click here to see the full essay in PRI. | <urn:uuid:f8eb277e-9936-4034-963a-e742eed63917> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://selasekove.com/ghanas-year-of-return-is-emotional-for-descendents-on-both-sides-of-the-slave-trade/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00357.warc.gz | en | 0.987007 | 189 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.2754134237766266... | 5 | Editor’s note: This story originally aired on The World earlier this year as part of the series, “400 years: Slavery’s unresolved history.” It was repackaged on the show again on Nov. 29 as part of a special feature over the holidays along with this story.
Over one doorway at Elmina Castle, a former hub of the slave trade in Ghana, a brass plaque reads, “door of no return.” It was the last door that captive Africans went through in Africa before they were boarded onto ships and sold as slaves.
The passage is intentionally narrow, so prisoners had to walk one by one through the near darkness and then into the sudden, blinding sunlight. From there, the captive Africans were chained for months in the packed bowels of ships until they arrived in the Americas, and were enslaved.
Click here to see the full essay in PRI. | 179 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Myanmar (also known as Burma) is located in Southeast Asia. It was a British controlled colony from 1824 to 1948. Myanmar was lumped into the colonization of India along with Bangladesh. This created some strife along the western border with these countries. From 1948-1962 the Union of Burma was an independent republic. This changed on March 2, 1962 when the military took control with a coup d’etat. Under this junta Burma’s education funding averaged 1.3% of total Government spending. This created severe issues in education infrastructure. Today that number has risen steadily since elected governments have taken over, however the hole is so deep that it is a major struggle, especially for remote villages and communities. According to UNESCO, the GDP per capita of Myanmar is $6,174. This does not allow for many families to pay for private education for their children. There are over 135 ethnic groups in Myanmar and their communities are rich in tradition but extremely poor in wealth and education. | <urn:uuid:a89c28b0-28e7-47bd-994a-dc343a5ed5b5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.innovativecommunities.org/communities/myanmar/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00448.warc.gz | en | 0.981358 | 202 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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... | 15 | Myanmar (also known as Burma) is located in Southeast Asia. It was a British controlled colony from 1824 to 1948. Myanmar was lumped into the colonization of India along with Bangladesh. This created some strife along the western border with these countries. From 1948-1962 the Union of Burma was an independent republic. This changed on March 2, 1962 when the military took control with a coup d’etat. Under this junta Burma’s education funding averaged 1.3% of total Government spending. This created severe issues in education infrastructure. Today that number has risen steadily since elected governments have taken over, however the hole is so deep that it is a major struggle, especially for remote villages and communities. According to UNESCO, the GDP per capita of Myanmar is $6,174. This does not allow for many families to pay for private education for their children. There are over 135 ethnic groups in Myanmar and their communities are rich in tradition but extremely poor in wealth and education. | 222 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slavery is a community -financial scheme under which assured people recognized, as slaves are destitute of personal self-determination as well as constrained to carry out industry or services. The word also refers to the category or situation of those personnel who are taken care of as the belongings of a different individual or family. This is termed to as “chattel slavery”. Slaves are apprehended in opposition to their willpower from the occasion of their imprison, acquisition, or nativity, as well as are underprivileged of the precise to disappear, to turn down to labor, or to take delivery of reimbursement in response for their labor.
As such, slavery is one structure of unfree employment Even though forbidden in practically the entire countries these days slavery is still clandestinely experienced in numerous elements of the humankind. There are a projected 27 million fatalities of slavery international. Traditionally, a good number slaves family were in the beginning incarcerate in wars or abducted in out-of-the-way forced entries however a number of were put up for sale into slavery as a result of their parents as a way of current excessive circumstances. The majority of the slaves were put up with into that condition.
Prehistoric warfare over and over again consequence in slavery for criminals in addition to their relatives who were either murdered, liberated or advertised as slaves. Enslaved people were over and over again measured the belongings of those who imprisoned them and were give the impression of being upon as a accolade of conflict. More often than not they were put up for sale, negotiate or liberated. It initially may have been more compassionate than basically carried out those who would come back to brawl if they were unchained, nevertheless the consequence showed the technique to prevalent addiction of meticulous assemblage of citizens.
Those incarcerated from time to time be at variance in civilization, population, faith, or race from their enslavers, but often were the same as the captors. The dominant group in an region might take imprisoned and revolved them into slaves with modest fright of distress the like providence, nevertheless the opportunity might be nearby from reversals of affluence, as when Seneca cautions, at the summit of the Roman Empire along with when an assortment of influential countries clash amongst themselves any person may come across himself incarcerated.
The authentic quantity of force required to abduct character citizens for slaves could show the way to dependence of those safe and sound from competition, as to the position uncommon break-in or kidnap is frequently be sufficient. St. Patrick recounts in his Confession having been kidnapped by pirates, and the Biblical figure his brothers sold Joseph into slavery. The kind of job slaves did rely on the occasion stage as well as place of their slavery.
In broad-spectrum, they did the identical work as all and sundry else in the inferior stratums of the civilization they exist in however were not remunerated for it further than scope as well as plank, outfits et cetera. The most widespread category of slave employment is domestic service, agriculture, mineral extraction, army make-up, industry, and commerce. Prior to about the 18th century, domestic services were acquired in some wealthier households and may include up to four female slaves and their children on its staff.
The wealth, as they are labeled in a few countries are probable to cook, clean, every now and then transmit water as of an outside pump into the house, and grind cereal. Most employed servants to perform the identical everyday jobs. Countless slaves were utilized in cultivation and farming from prehistoric times to a propos 1860. The physically powerful, youthful men and women were from time to time required to labor extended days in the grounds, with modest or no shatters for water or food.
In view of the fact that slaves were more often than not well thought-out expensive assets, they were more often than not well taken heed of in the sagacity that plainly sufficient food as well as protection were presented to continue first-class health, furthermore that the workload was not unwarranted to the position of cause danger to physical condition. On the other hand, this was not constantly the case in numerous countries where they labor on ground that was having possession of by truant possessors.
The administrators in many of these areas factually labored the slaves to demise. Frederick Douglass was born in February 1818 and raised on the Eastern Shore of Maryland. He was given a name Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey. His mother, Harriet Bailey, was a slave on a cultivated area in Tuckahoe, Maryland. Douglass as well as his mother fit in to Aaron Anthony who was the cultivated area administrator furthermore almost certainly his father. He did not have much way to get in touch all the way through his mother who was take into service out to a bordering cultivated area.
She was merely clever to stay on a hardly any occurrences for the reason that the twelve-mile expedition was too far-flung to pass through on a customary basis. As a youthful boy, Douglass survived in the company of his grandparents pending until he was six. He was then propelled to survive on the Lloyd Plantation, where he settled awaiting the time he was threw to Baltimore when he was eight years old. In Baltimore, he subsists in the company of Hugh and Sophia Auld. At his new-fangled residence, Sophia Auld commenced to educate him to comprehend. On the other hand, as soon as her spouse established out he inhibit it, and she stopped up.
Notwithstanding this delay, Douglass had a disclosure concerning slavery when he eavesdrop Hugh Auld give explanation to his spouse with reference to why she be supposed to not educate him to read. Auld gave clarification that, “if you teach that nigger how to read, there would be no maintenance for him” and he would “turn out to be uncontrollable, and have no worth to his master. ” According to Douglass: “I now understood what had been to me a most perplexing difficulty — to wit, the white man’s power to enslave the black man…. From that moment, I understood the pathway from slavery to freedom.
” Douglass realized that there was power in learning to read. The Constitution of the United States leaves a lot of questions to human kind. What is it? Who made it? For whom and for what was it made? Is it from heaven or from men? How, and in what light are we to understand it? If it be divine, divine light must be our means of understanding it; if human, humanity, with all its vice and crimes, as well as its virtues, must help us to a proper understanding of it. All endeavors to put in plain words it in the light of paradise are obliged to be unsuccessful.
It is human, as well as ought to be put in plain words in the luminosity of those aphorism as well as philosophy which individuals have placed down as guides to the appreciative of all printed mechanism, agreement, indenture and agreement, originating from individual creatures, over and above to which are festivities, in cooperation on the primary and the subsequent part. It is in such a light that we propose to examine the Constitution; and in this light we hold it to be a most cunningly devised and wicked compact, demanding the most constant and earnest efforts of the friends of righteous freedom for its complete overthrow.
Slavery lived prior to the Constitution, in the extremely States by whom it was ready and implemented. Slaveholders captured an outsized share in assembling it. It was prepared in inspection of the reality of slavery, as well as in a mode well considered to support and reinforced that heaven-daring felony.
1. “A Child in Danger is a Child that Cannot Wait – Columbia and Child Prostitution in Today’s World” WNN – Women News Network Sept 16, 2007 2. Frederick Douglass’ Autobiography | <urn:uuid:98cea46d-9ce6-4f31-bb60-b19a82539dc9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://custom-essays-writings.com/chattel-slavery | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00538.warc.gz | en | 0.985719 | 1,619 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.34173434972... | 5 | Slavery is a community -financial scheme under which assured people recognized, as slaves are destitute of personal self-determination as well as constrained to carry out industry or services. The word also refers to the category or situation of those personnel who are taken care of as the belongings of a different individual or family. This is termed to as “chattel slavery”. Slaves are apprehended in opposition to their willpower from the occasion of their imprison, acquisition, or nativity, as well as are underprivileged of the precise to disappear, to turn down to labor, or to take delivery of reimbursement in response for their labor.
As such, slavery is one structure of unfree employment Even though forbidden in practically the entire countries these days slavery is still clandestinely experienced in numerous elements of the humankind. There are a projected 27 million fatalities of slavery international. Traditionally, a good number slaves family were in the beginning incarcerate in wars or abducted in out-of-the-way forced entries however a number of were put up for sale into slavery as a result of their parents as a way of current excessive circumstances. The majority of the slaves were put up with into that condition.
Prehistoric warfare over and over again consequence in slavery for criminals in addition to their relatives who were either murdered, liberated or advertised as slaves. Enslaved people were over and over again measured the belongings of those who imprisoned them and were give the impression of being upon as a accolade of conflict. More often than not they were put up for sale, negotiate or liberated. It initially may have been more compassionate than basically carried out those who would come back to brawl if they were unchained, nevertheless the consequence showed the technique to prevalent addiction of meticulous assemblage of citizens.
Those incarcerated from time to time be at variance in civilization, population, faith, or race from their enslavers, but often were the same as the captors. The dominant group in an region might take imprisoned and revolved them into slaves with modest fright of distress the like providence, nevertheless the opportunity might be nearby from reversals of affluence, as when Seneca cautions, at the summit of the Roman Empire along with when an assortment of influential countries clash amongst themselves any person may come across himself incarcerated.
The authentic quantity of force required to abduct character citizens for slaves could show the way to dependence of those safe and sound from competition, as to the position uncommon break-in or kidnap is frequently be sufficient. St. Patrick recounts in his Confession having been kidnapped by pirates, and the Biblical figure his brothers sold Joseph into slavery. The kind of job slaves did rely on the occasion stage as well as place of their slavery.
In broad-spectrum, they did the identical work as all and sundry else in the inferior stratums of the civilization they exist in however were not remunerated for it further than scope as well as plank, outfits et cetera. The most widespread category of slave employment is domestic service, agriculture, mineral extraction, army make-up, industry, and commerce. Prior to about the 18th century, domestic services were acquired in some wealthier households and may include up to four female slaves and their children on its staff.
The wealth, as they are labeled in a few countries are probable to cook, clean, every now and then transmit water as of an outside pump into the house, and grind cereal. Most employed servants to perform the identical everyday jobs. Countless slaves were utilized in cultivation and farming from prehistoric times to a propos 1860. The physically powerful, youthful men and women were from time to time required to labor extended days in the grounds, with modest or no shatters for water or food.
In view of the fact that slaves were more often than not well thought-out expensive assets, they were more often than not well taken heed of in the sagacity that plainly sufficient food as well as protection were presented to continue first-class health, furthermore that the workload was not unwarranted to the position of cause danger to physical condition. On the other hand, this was not constantly the case in numerous countries where they labor on ground that was having possession of by truant possessors.
The administrators in many of these areas factually labored the slaves to demise. Frederick Douglass was born in February 1818 and raised on the Eastern Shore of Maryland. He was given a name Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey. His mother, Harriet Bailey, was a slave on a cultivated area in Tuckahoe, Maryland. Douglass as well as his mother fit in to Aaron Anthony who was the cultivated area administrator furthermore almost certainly his father. He did not have much way to get in touch all the way through his mother who was take into service out to a bordering cultivated area.
She was merely clever to stay on a hardly any occurrences for the reason that the twelve-mile expedition was too far-flung to pass through on a customary basis. As a youthful boy, Douglass survived in the company of his grandparents pending until he was six. He was then propelled to survive on the Lloyd Plantation, where he settled awaiting the time he was threw to Baltimore when he was eight years old. In Baltimore, he subsists in the company of Hugh and Sophia Auld. At his new-fangled residence, Sophia Auld commenced to educate him to comprehend. On the other hand, as soon as her spouse established out he inhibit it, and she stopped up.
Notwithstanding this delay, Douglass had a disclosure concerning slavery when he eavesdrop Hugh Auld give explanation to his spouse with reference to why she be supposed to not educate him to read. Auld gave clarification that, “if you teach that nigger how to read, there would be no maintenance for him” and he would “turn out to be uncontrollable, and have no worth to his master. ” According to Douglass: “I now understood what had been to me a most perplexing difficulty — to wit, the white man’s power to enslave the black man…. From that moment, I understood the pathway from slavery to freedom.
” Douglass realized that there was power in learning to read. The Constitution of the United States leaves a lot of questions to human kind. What is it? Who made it? For whom and for what was it made? Is it from heaven or from men? How, and in what light are we to understand it? If it be divine, divine light must be our means of understanding it; if human, humanity, with all its vice and crimes, as well as its virtues, must help us to a proper understanding of it. All endeavors to put in plain words it in the light of paradise are obliged to be unsuccessful.
It is human, as well as ought to be put in plain words in the luminosity of those aphorism as well as philosophy which individuals have placed down as guides to the appreciative of all printed mechanism, agreement, indenture and agreement, originating from individual creatures, over and above to which are festivities, in cooperation on the primary and the subsequent part. It is in such a light that we propose to examine the Constitution; and in this light we hold it to be a most cunningly devised and wicked compact, demanding the most constant and earnest efforts of the friends of righteous freedom for its complete overthrow.
Slavery lived prior to the Constitution, in the extremely States by whom it was ready and implemented. Slaveholders captured an outsized share in assembling it. It was prepared in inspection of the reality of slavery, as well as in a mode well considered to support and reinforced that heaven-daring felony.
1. “A Child in Danger is a Child that Cannot Wait – Columbia and Child Prostitution in Today’s World” WNN – Women News Network Sept 16, 2007 2. Frederick Douglass’ Autobiography | 1,605 | ENGLISH | 1 |
World War 1 History: Winston Churchill in the Trenches
Winston Before the War
Winston Churchill (1874 - 1965) wore many hats and held many posts during his long life. He was, among other things, a politician, a statesman, a soldier, an author, an artist, a pilot, Home Secretary, First Lord of the Admiralty, war leader and Prime Minister of Great Britain during World War II and again in the Fifties. He was a complex figure, a flawed political genius, a man of contradictions, though he declared that he would rather be right than consistent. Several times, it looked like he was politically finished.
One of those times came during the First World War. As First Lord of the Admiralty, Churchill pushed the idea of attacking Gallipoli in 1915, which was held by Germany's ally Turkey, in order to open up a supply route to Russia. It was hoped the Russians would then mount offensives in the east and relieve the stalemate of the Western Front. Though it may have been the only decent strategic idea of the war, its planning and execution was a disaster and Churchill, in some ways a scapegoat, was demoted to Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, a meaningless position. Rather than sit by while the world tore itself apart, he resigned his post (though he remained a member of Parliament) and decided to rejoin his regiment in November 1915 at the age of 41. The last time he'd been in combat was in South Africa during the Second Boer War, 16 years earlier. It would be the present-day equivalent of the Secretary of Defense joining the front-line troops in Afghanistan.
Churchill at the Front
Arrival in France
No one quite knew what to do with him. His official rank was Major, but Prime Minister Asquith and Sir John French, commander of British forces in France, thought he should have a brigade (more than 5,000 men). While waiting for his post, he spent December behind the lines. He made several forays to different sectors of the front to see the war first-hand and get the lay of the land. He even visited the French sector twice-- oddly enough, it was considered unusual for such interest-- and was presented with a French steel helmet which he would wear at the front, having judged it more practical than the British helmet. In any case, due to political pressures, he was given a battalion (less than a 1,000 men) and made a Lieutenant-Colonel instead of a Brigadier-General.
Churchill at the Front
With the 6th Royal Scots Battalion
On January 5, 1916, he took command of the 6th Royal Scots Fusiliers battalion of the Ninth Division, currently in reserve just behind the line. It had been involved in the battle of Loos in September and had suffered greatly. When Churchill took over, the battalion had been reduced from 1,000 men to less than 600, including many replacements who hadn't experienced battle. They weren't happy to hear that a fallen politician would be their new colonel.
With typical Churchillian energy, he arranged for their de-lousing and took advantage of their three weeks in reserve to enhance their training. During that time, the men appreciated his lax application of discipline, despite disapproval from his superiors. He arranged sports and concerts. On January 27, the battalion took over its 1,000 yards of front at Ploegsteert, Belgium, known as “Plug Street” to the Tommies. While no offenses were launched in this sector during Churchill's tenure, there was constant shell-fire and forays into no-man's-land. Churchill set up his headquarters in a shell-battered farm behind the trenches. The barn was sandbagged, providing refuge when shells came in.
When the battalion was in the line-- it rotated six days in the trenches and six in immediate reserve-- he and his officers would enter no-man's-land through the barbed wire and visit the forward positions in shell craters to keep an eye on the enemy, yards away. At least one time he came under direct machine gun fire. Also, the farm itself was shelled frequently and the buildings occasionally were hit. One time, a shell landed on the house and a piece of shrapnel hit a lamp's battery holder he was toying with. The shelling at the farm sometimes caused casualties. He constantly inspected the trenches, making sure they were as strong as possible.
Hitler at the Front
Hitler and Churchill... Neighbors
Lieutenant-Colonel Winston Churchill served at the front in Flanders from January to June 1916 mainly near Ploegsteert and later Armentieres. During that time, Corporal Adolf Hitler's 16th Bavarian Reserve Regiment served in the Aubers Ridge-Fromelles Salient sector. As little as five to ten miles may have separated the two future war leaders during the First World War.
Winston Learning to Fly
You don't turn off a lifetime of politics and power, however. While at the front, he saw the German planes controlling the skies and realized that Britain needed an effective air policy. Test trials of the tank, which he had initiated and pushed, became evidently more important when witnessing conditions first-hand. The tank trials had been very promising, but production was mired in politics. Conscription, needed to get the army up to strength, had been tabled. Harsh and unnecessary punishment demoralized the troops. He wondered why the navy, Britain's most powerful arm, was not taking the initiative. Churchill chaffed at his powerlessness.
In March, he had nearly two-weeks' leave and returned to England. He couldn't resist the urge to speak on the issues foremost in his mind and so gave a speech in Parliament. It was a disaster. Many of his ideas were received with interest, but then he proposed that former Sea Lord Fisher be recalled to run the navy and it caused an uproar. It was a classic Churchill blunder and almost inexplicable-- Fisher was not only involved with the Gallipoli disaster, he had stabbed Churchill in the back, leaving Winston to assume all the blame. Despite making things worse, Churchill was now determined to bring down his political opponents and made arrangements to be relieved of his command. His wife and allies begged him not to do so, since this would make him look opportunistic. He acquiesced and returned to the trenches, but he was determined to get back to where he felt he could do immeasurably more good than in the mud of France. Upon his return, he was rebuked for his “undue leniency” with the men, which he defended by showing that offenses had declined. When his Brigadier departed and Churchill was passed over for promotion, he decided that his place definitely was in Parliament.
Back to Blighty
By May, his battalion and others had been so weakened by constant shell-fire, it was decided to merge them into the 15th Division. Instead of seeking a new command, Churchill took this opportunity to be allowed “to attend to my Parliamentary & public duties which have become urgent”. This request was granted. Before he left, he put considerable effort to find postings for his officers to help those who had served under him. At his farewell lunch, one recorded, “I believe every man in the room felt Winston Churchill's leaving us a real personal loss”.
So ended Winston Churchill's six months at the Western Front during the First World War. He would go on to greater successes and, in the 1930s an even longer, seemingly final, political exile. He would be waiting in the wings, having taken the politically unpopular stance of standing up to the Nazi menace, when his country needed him.
First Use Of "OMG"
The first recorded use of “OMG”, the popular acronym for “Oh My God!” used in emails, the Internet and everywhere, was in a letter from Lord Admiral Fisher (see first image above) to Winston Churchill in 1917, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. Here is the sentence:
"I hear that a new order of Knighthood is on the tapis--O.M.G.(Oh! My God!)--Shower it on the Admiralty!" (“tapis” may be slang for “table”).
Questions & Answers
Who was king if England during World War I?
The king of "England," whose official title was "King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India," was King George V (George Frederick Ernest Albert). He was king from 1910 to 1936.Helpful 5
© 2011 David Hunt | <urn:uuid:378f570e-3ad2-41ac-b2ae-e54e3c186f6e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://owlcation.com/humanities/Winston-Churchill-in-the-Trenches | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00536.warc.gz | en | 0.988967 | 1,804 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.77676320075988... | 1 | World War 1 History: Winston Churchill in the Trenches
Winston Before the War
Winston Churchill (1874 - 1965) wore many hats and held many posts during his long life. He was, among other things, a politician, a statesman, a soldier, an author, an artist, a pilot, Home Secretary, First Lord of the Admiralty, war leader and Prime Minister of Great Britain during World War II and again in the Fifties. He was a complex figure, a flawed political genius, a man of contradictions, though he declared that he would rather be right than consistent. Several times, it looked like he was politically finished.
One of those times came during the First World War. As First Lord of the Admiralty, Churchill pushed the idea of attacking Gallipoli in 1915, which was held by Germany's ally Turkey, in order to open up a supply route to Russia. It was hoped the Russians would then mount offensives in the east and relieve the stalemate of the Western Front. Though it may have been the only decent strategic idea of the war, its planning and execution was a disaster and Churchill, in some ways a scapegoat, was demoted to Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, a meaningless position. Rather than sit by while the world tore itself apart, he resigned his post (though he remained a member of Parliament) and decided to rejoin his regiment in November 1915 at the age of 41. The last time he'd been in combat was in South Africa during the Second Boer War, 16 years earlier. It would be the present-day equivalent of the Secretary of Defense joining the front-line troops in Afghanistan.
Churchill at the Front
Arrival in France
No one quite knew what to do with him. His official rank was Major, but Prime Minister Asquith and Sir John French, commander of British forces in France, thought he should have a brigade (more than 5,000 men). While waiting for his post, he spent December behind the lines. He made several forays to different sectors of the front to see the war first-hand and get the lay of the land. He even visited the French sector twice-- oddly enough, it was considered unusual for such interest-- and was presented with a French steel helmet which he would wear at the front, having judged it more practical than the British helmet. In any case, due to political pressures, he was given a battalion (less than a 1,000 men) and made a Lieutenant-Colonel instead of a Brigadier-General.
Churchill at the Front
With the 6th Royal Scots Battalion
On January 5, 1916, he took command of the 6th Royal Scots Fusiliers battalion of the Ninth Division, currently in reserve just behind the line. It had been involved in the battle of Loos in September and had suffered greatly. When Churchill took over, the battalion had been reduced from 1,000 men to less than 600, including many replacements who hadn't experienced battle. They weren't happy to hear that a fallen politician would be their new colonel.
With typical Churchillian energy, he arranged for their de-lousing and took advantage of their three weeks in reserve to enhance their training. During that time, the men appreciated his lax application of discipline, despite disapproval from his superiors. He arranged sports and concerts. On January 27, the battalion took over its 1,000 yards of front at Ploegsteert, Belgium, known as “Plug Street” to the Tommies. While no offenses were launched in this sector during Churchill's tenure, there was constant shell-fire and forays into no-man's-land. Churchill set up his headquarters in a shell-battered farm behind the trenches. The barn was sandbagged, providing refuge when shells came in.
When the battalion was in the line-- it rotated six days in the trenches and six in immediate reserve-- he and his officers would enter no-man's-land through the barbed wire and visit the forward positions in shell craters to keep an eye on the enemy, yards away. At least one time he came under direct machine gun fire. Also, the farm itself was shelled frequently and the buildings occasionally were hit. One time, a shell landed on the house and a piece of shrapnel hit a lamp's battery holder he was toying with. The shelling at the farm sometimes caused casualties. He constantly inspected the trenches, making sure they were as strong as possible.
Hitler at the Front
Hitler and Churchill... Neighbors
Lieutenant-Colonel Winston Churchill served at the front in Flanders from January to June 1916 mainly near Ploegsteert and later Armentieres. During that time, Corporal Adolf Hitler's 16th Bavarian Reserve Regiment served in the Aubers Ridge-Fromelles Salient sector. As little as five to ten miles may have separated the two future war leaders during the First World War.
Winston Learning to Fly
You don't turn off a lifetime of politics and power, however. While at the front, he saw the German planes controlling the skies and realized that Britain needed an effective air policy. Test trials of the tank, which he had initiated and pushed, became evidently more important when witnessing conditions first-hand. The tank trials had been very promising, but production was mired in politics. Conscription, needed to get the army up to strength, had been tabled. Harsh and unnecessary punishment demoralized the troops. He wondered why the navy, Britain's most powerful arm, was not taking the initiative. Churchill chaffed at his powerlessness.
In March, he had nearly two-weeks' leave and returned to England. He couldn't resist the urge to speak on the issues foremost in his mind and so gave a speech in Parliament. It was a disaster. Many of his ideas were received with interest, but then he proposed that former Sea Lord Fisher be recalled to run the navy and it caused an uproar. It was a classic Churchill blunder and almost inexplicable-- Fisher was not only involved with the Gallipoli disaster, he had stabbed Churchill in the back, leaving Winston to assume all the blame. Despite making things worse, Churchill was now determined to bring down his political opponents and made arrangements to be relieved of his command. His wife and allies begged him not to do so, since this would make him look opportunistic. He acquiesced and returned to the trenches, but he was determined to get back to where he felt he could do immeasurably more good than in the mud of France. Upon his return, he was rebuked for his “undue leniency” with the men, which he defended by showing that offenses had declined. When his Brigadier departed and Churchill was passed over for promotion, he decided that his place definitely was in Parliament.
Back to Blighty
By May, his battalion and others had been so weakened by constant shell-fire, it was decided to merge them into the 15th Division. Instead of seeking a new command, Churchill took this opportunity to be allowed “to attend to my Parliamentary & public duties which have become urgent”. This request was granted. Before he left, he put considerable effort to find postings for his officers to help those who had served under him. At his farewell lunch, one recorded, “I believe every man in the room felt Winston Churchill's leaving us a real personal loss”.
So ended Winston Churchill's six months at the Western Front during the First World War. He would go on to greater successes and, in the 1930s an even longer, seemingly final, political exile. He would be waiting in the wings, having taken the politically unpopular stance of standing up to the Nazi menace, when his country needed him.
First Use Of "OMG"
The first recorded use of “OMG”, the popular acronym for “Oh My God!” used in emails, the Internet and everywhere, was in a letter from Lord Admiral Fisher (see first image above) to Winston Churchill in 1917, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. Here is the sentence:
"I hear that a new order of Knighthood is on the tapis--O.M.G.(Oh! My God!)--Shower it on the Admiralty!" (“tapis” may be slang for “table”).
Questions & Answers
Who was king if England during World War I?
The king of "England," whose official title was "King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India," was King George V (George Frederick Ernest Albert). He was king from 1910 to 1936.Helpful 5
© 2011 David Hunt | 1,835 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In its operation, the Nation’s first steamboat resembled an Indian War Canoe. Built during the early-1780s by John Fitch, a native of Windsor, Connecticut, the skiff was equipped with two pairs of 3 paddles, on both sides of the vessel. Mounted on a shaft that alternately moved the forward pairs followed by the aft paddles, they were powered by a 3-inch cylinder steam engine. On July 26, 1786, Fitch successfully demonstrated his invention on the Delaware River.In 1793, Samuel Morey began operating his sternwheel steamboat on the Connecticut River. Morey also developed a concept for using sidewheels on a steamer and he later produced one of the first internal combustion engines that he patented under the name of “Gas or Vapor Engine” (April 1, 1826). However, like his predecessors, he was not able to enlist the necessary funds to further pursue development of his inventions.
By 1788, Fitch had built his first passenger boat. Operated on the Delaware River, the 60-feet long and eight-feet beam vessel was propelled by oars that pushed outward from the stern. Its steam engine had a twelve-inch cylinder. Financial difficulties however, never allowed Fitch to profit from his inventions. Though he is said to have died in poverty, he predicted that “time will come when all of our great lakes, rivers and ocean will be navigated by vessels propelled by steam.”
At about the same time, Maryland resident James Rumsey took a different approach for propelling his 50-foot vessel. He installed steam engine operated water pump that had a 4-inch square pipe running out to the stern, just below the rudder. The force of the exiting water managed to move the vessel forward at a speed of about 4 miles per hour. Others, including Benjamin Franklin, had suggested waterjet propulsion for a vessel, but no-one else of that era was able to develop the approach.
In December of 1787, Rumsey demonstrated his “jet-propelled steamer” on the Potomac River, above Shepherdstown, West Virginia. The following year, he traveled to England to obtain backing for his ideas. But four years later, on the evening before the scheduled demonstration of his new steamboat, the Columbia Bay, he died unexpectedly. He was buried in London at Saint Margaret’s Church. Back at home, his wife and three children were reportedly left penniless.
During his early teens, Robert Fulton began to paint landscapes and portraits on commission. As still a teenager, he traveled to England to improve his skills. Once there however, he developed a new interest, the possibility of propelling a ship using a steam engine.
Unlike those before him, Fulton managed to obtain considerable funding for his ideas. His main financier, Robert Livingston was at the time, the U. S. Minister to France. With Livingston’s interest and support, they were able to obtain a monopoly franchise for steamboats navigating the Hudson.
While in Paris in 1804, Fulton had run trials of his steam engine boat, the Nautilus, on the Seine. Everything went well. However, when he tried to interest Napoleon in his endeavors, the French emperor showed no interest.
Fulton returned to New York and during the spring of 1807, his new steamer, the Clermont, was launched from an East River boat yard. The 130 feet long, 18 feet beam vessel was driven by a single engine built in England. During the late summer of that year, the Clermont was made ready for a run on the Hudson River. Expecting the trial to fail, some river-bank spectators jeered as final preparations were made. But jaws dropped as the vessel quickly pulled away pulled away from shore. Amazed with what had just been witnessed, the crowds then began to cheer and applaud.
On its maiden voyage from New York City to Albany, a distance of 150 miles, the Clermont arrived at its destination in 32 hours. It easily passed schooners and sloops that were sailing up river. On the following day, the Albany Gazette published an article about the new steamer. “Provisions, good berths and accommodations are provided,” they reported. The fee for travelers from New York City to Newberg was set at 3 dollars, Poughkeepsie 4 dollars, Esopsus 5 dollars and 5.50 dollars to Hudson and Albany.
By 1816, eight steamers, all of which were owned by Fulton and Livingston, traveled the Hudson River route. Fulton also looked forward to running steamers on Long Island Sound, but the War of 1812 (fought between the United States and the United Kingdom) postponed any attempt. The inventor’s first steamer on Long Island Sound set out in March of 1815, a month after he died. The ship called Fulton ran from New York City to New Haven, Connecticut.
In the shadow of Fulton, the names of earlier steam-engine vessel pioneers (some not mentioned) have all but disappeared. But as John Fitch had accurately predicted, the steamships became vital in carrying goods and passengers on all of the major waterways.
John Fitch is remembered via the John Fitch Steamboat Museum, Warminster, PA
James Rumsey Steamboat Museum, Shepherdstown, WVA
Samuel Morey, Vermont road marker, Fairlee, VT
Robert Fulton, Hudson River Maritime Museum, Kingston, NY | <urn:uuid:2c4dc8d8-525b-4079-9226-f7b033bf8ec1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.liboatingworld.com/single-post/2017/08/12/The-Birth-of-Steamboats | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00207.warc.gz | en | 0.980873 | 1,139 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.28425550460... | 6 | In its operation, the Nation’s first steamboat resembled an Indian War Canoe. Built during the early-1780s by John Fitch, a native of Windsor, Connecticut, the skiff was equipped with two pairs of 3 paddles, on both sides of the vessel. Mounted on a shaft that alternately moved the forward pairs followed by the aft paddles, they were powered by a 3-inch cylinder steam engine. On July 26, 1786, Fitch successfully demonstrated his invention on the Delaware River.In 1793, Samuel Morey began operating his sternwheel steamboat on the Connecticut River. Morey also developed a concept for using sidewheels on a steamer and he later produced one of the first internal combustion engines that he patented under the name of “Gas or Vapor Engine” (April 1, 1826). However, like his predecessors, he was not able to enlist the necessary funds to further pursue development of his inventions.
By 1788, Fitch had built his first passenger boat. Operated on the Delaware River, the 60-feet long and eight-feet beam vessel was propelled by oars that pushed outward from the stern. Its steam engine had a twelve-inch cylinder. Financial difficulties however, never allowed Fitch to profit from his inventions. Though he is said to have died in poverty, he predicted that “time will come when all of our great lakes, rivers and ocean will be navigated by vessels propelled by steam.”
At about the same time, Maryland resident James Rumsey took a different approach for propelling his 50-foot vessel. He installed steam engine operated water pump that had a 4-inch square pipe running out to the stern, just below the rudder. The force of the exiting water managed to move the vessel forward at a speed of about 4 miles per hour. Others, including Benjamin Franklin, had suggested waterjet propulsion for a vessel, but no-one else of that era was able to develop the approach.
In December of 1787, Rumsey demonstrated his “jet-propelled steamer” on the Potomac River, above Shepherdstown, West Virginia. The following year, he traveled to England to obtain backing for his ideas. But four years later, on the evening before the scheduled demonstration of his new steamboat, the Columbia Bay, he died unexpectedly. He was buried in London at Saint Margaret’s Church. Back at home, his wife and three children were reportedly left penniless.
During his early teens, Robert Fulton began to paint landscapes and portraits on commission. As still a teenager, he traveled to England to improve his skills. Once there however, he developed a new interest, the possibility of propelling a ship using a steam engine.
Unlike those before him, Fulton managed to obtain considerable funding for his ideas. His main financier, Robert Livingston was at the time, the U. S. Minister to France. With Livingston’s interest and support, they were able to obtain a monopoly franchise for steamboats navigating the Hudson.
While in Paris in 1804, Fulton had run trials of his steam engine boat, the Nautilus, on the Seine. Everything went well. However, when he tried to interest Napoleon in his endeavors, the French emperor showed no interest.
Fulton returned to New York and during the spring of 1807, his new steamer, the Clermont, was launched from an East River boat yard. The 130 feet long, 18 feet beam vessel was driven by a single engine built in England. During the late summer of that year, the Clermont was made ready for a run on the Hudson River. Expecting the trial to fail, some river-bank spectators jeered as final preparations were made. But jaws dropped as the vessel quickly pulled away pulled away from shore. Amazed with what had just been witnessed, the crowds then began to cheer and applaud.
On its maiden voyage from New York City to Albany, a distance of 150 miles, the Clermont arrived at its destination in 32 hours. It easily passed schooners and sloops that were sailing up river. On the following day, the Albany Gazette published an article about the new steamer. “Provisions, good berths and accommodations are provided,” they reported. The fee for travelers from New York City to Newberg was set at 3 dollars, Poughkeepsie 4 dollars, Esopsus 5 dollars and 5.50 dollars to Hudson and Albany.
By 1816, eight steamers, all of which were owned by Fulton and Livingston, traveled the Hudson River route. Fulton also looked forward to running steamers on Long Island Sound, but the War of 1812 (fought between the United States and the United Kingdom) postponed any attempt. The inventor’s first steamer on Long Island Sound set out in March of 1815, a month after he died. The ship called Fulton ran from New York City to New Haven, Connecticut.
In the shadow of Fulton, the names of earlier steam-engine vessel pioneers (some not mentioned) have all but disappeared. But as John Fitch had accurately predicted, the steamships became vital in carrying goods and passengers on all of the major waterways.
John Fitch is remembered via the John Fitch Steamboat Museum, Warminster, PA
James Rumsey Steamboat Museum, Shepherdstown, WVA
Samuel Morey, Vermont road marker, Fairlee, VT
Robert Fulton, Hudson River Maritime Museum, Kingston, NY | 1,153 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Music of the Civil War Essay examples
Music was important to the Union and also to the Confederacy. The troops sang on battlefields, around campfires and while marching. They sang to …show more content…
The most popular marching song of the Union troops was "John Brown's Body Lies a Mould' ring in the Grave." written by Thomas Bishop. Abolitionist, Julia Ward Howe, who wrote words to the tune and made it into "The Battle Hymn of The Republic", heard this song. The song has become one of the most well known of patriotic songs.
Another popular song was "Dixie's Land". It was a northern minstrel song, which caught on in the south. The writer of the piece, Daniel Emmett, was upset when it was used during the inauguration of the southern president Jefferson Davis. You can infer from this that everyone liked the same type of music and the two sides were not very different deep down.
For the recordings that I made to accompany this paper I chose "John Brown's Body" and "Dixie's Land". We used instruments that would have been used during the Civil War to play the songs- banjo, guitar and mandolin. At the Gettysburg museum I saw the guitars that soldiers carried to the war. They were small, parlor | <urn:uuid:98a7c2e0-5ecb-4bd0-8cb3-aecd52c13adf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/Music-Of-The-Civil-War/F32M4V35J | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00351.warc.gz | en | 0.984021 | 271 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.38720449805259... | 1 | Music of the Civil War Essay examples
Music was important to the Union and also to the Confederacy. The troops sang on battlefields, around campfires and while marching. They sang to …show more content…
The most popular marching song of the Union troops was "John Brown's Body Lies a Mould' ring in the Grave." written by Thomas Bishop. Abolitionist, Julia Ward Howe, who wrote words to the tune and made it into "The Battle Hymn of The Republic", heard this song. The song has become one of the most well known of patriotic songs.
Another popular song was "Dixie's Land". It was a northern minstrel song, which caught on in the south. The writer of the piece, Daniel Emmett, was upset when it was used during the inauguration of the southern president Jefferson Davis. You can infer from this that everyone liked the same type of music and the two sides were not very different deep down.
For the recordings that I made to accompany this paper I chose "John Brown's Body" and "Dixie's Land". We used instruments that would have been used during the Civil War to play the songs- banjo, guitar and mandolin. At the Gettysburg museum I saw the guitars that soldiers carried to the war. They were small, parlor | 272 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pioneers learned how to survive, and thrive, in America's "last frontier"
As years pass, we forget the sacrifices made by the pioneering settlers who came to a daunting wilderness beside the Gulf of Mexico and paved the way for future generations.
Their names are attached to local streets, such as Browning and Stickney, parks, including Locklear and Gillespie, and historic markers, like Burns and Ringling. But few of today’s residents know anything of their history — their aspirations, the sacrifices they made transforming the rough wilderness into a desirable destination.
Life here during the settlement period was a daily battle for survival. Everything we take for granted — food, shelter, safety, schooling, worshipping and just getting from place A to B — was a chore.
Forest fires were a concern, as were the heavy rains that brought clouds of mosquitoes, mucked up the trails and damaged crops. As settler Anton Kleinoscheg wrote, “We are at the peak of the rainy season; rain, rain, and rain. Under such circumstances I can’t work and the enormous quantities of water … destroy or damage the small achievements that have been completed so far.”
As for the mosquitoes, he called them “terrible beasts” and “a plague.” He added, “I fall victim to their bloodthirstiness.”
Add to the mix, snakes, alligators, all manner of insects and wild cats and it is easy to understand why Florida was considered America’s “last frontier.”
Many early settlers labored from sunup to sundown, with families working side-by-side on their farms, ranches, citrus groves or fishing boats. Dad hunted for wild game to eat, or fished, or clammed. Mom cooked on a wood burning stove, cared for the children, handled the clothing and salted meat and put up fruit and vegetables for future use.
As the city’s first mayor, A. B. Edwards remembered settler life: “No canning or processing in those early days; everything was fresh off the hoof, off the tree, cut out of the soil or out of the water or wrapped in hide or feathers.”
Little time remained for recreation, but there was always time for services on Sunday, and for church socials, which gave a welcome respite from their toils and tribulations. Community picnics were common. Ben Stickney was beloved for his gatherings on Siesta Key.
Among the earliest settlers were Jesse and Rebecca Varn Knight and their children, who came to Florida around 1853, first settling in Hillsborough County. They had married when Rebecca was just 16, and he was 22. Their large family consisted of seven boys and eight girls.
Jesse raised cattle in Georgia but could not afford to buy more land there to expand his herd and decided to move farther south.
Herding the cattle for the long, arduous journey — it took over a year to reach Hillsborough — they homesteaded in an area that became known as Knight’s Station, near Tampa.
When the Civil War erupted in 1861, Knight moved his livestock south, near the Upper Myakka Lake, to prevent Union troops from requisitioning them.
After the war ended in 1865, the Knight herd numbered approximately 300. According to historian Karl Grismer, Knight wanted to move them to an area where they would have more room to freely graze. “The Knights, along with three other families, eight covered wagons drawn by oxen, three buggies drawn by mules, seven mounted horses and 300 head of cattle began the trip.”
They headed for Horse and Chaise, so named because of the way the silhouette of land looked from the water — a horse and a chaise. Today this is Venice-Nokomis. The 60-mile journey took nearly a month.
The story goes that when they got to a creek that Knight’s buggy mule refused to cross, Jesse told one of his sons to take a shakit, a dried piece of buckskin, and slap the mule with it. The sound of the shakit startled the mule, giving it enough motivation to cross. The creek became known as Shakit Creek — today's Shakett Creek.
Knight was a deeply religious man, a Methodist minister who founded the Venice-Nokomis Church. According to Grismer, he alternated conducting services with another settler, Issac A. Redd, a Missionary Baptist and founder of the Bee Ridge community.
Initially, services were held in settler homes but as the need for a larger facility became apparent, Knight and his family and neighbors constructed a plank church in Nokomis used by Methodists with Knight as pastor. The church also served as a school. Although never ordained, he was known throughout the area as the Reverend Jesse Knight.
As Grismer wrote, “Many members of the congregation came to the services by boat, down the creeks and bays to a boathouse at Venice inlet, where they would change into their Sunday clothes and walk the rest of the way to the church.”
Knight proved a successful rancher. According to Grismer, “Jesse Knight established a veritable kingdom of his own, dominating the entire region southeast of Horse and Chaise.”
Area cattlemen were selling much of their stock to Cuba. And during the Spanish American War, many head were sold to the U.S. Army, stationed in Tampa. Grismer noted that cattlemen made a killing as prices rose to new heights. Jesse’s herd multiplied to 20,000 head.
After years of toil and success, Rebecca, who was born in 1825, died in 1901. She was remembered by those who knew her as “a worthy woman as evidenced in the lives of her noble and saintly daughters as well as the sons who were blessed by her faithful training.” She is buried in the Jesse Knight Memorial Cemetery in Nokomis.
Jesse was 94 when he passed away in 1901, and rests next to his beloved wife, a short distance from their original homestead.
Being such a large family, the Knight descendants still contribute to Sarasota’s success. One member of the family, Jon Thaxton, was a highly regarded Sarasota County commissioner and is still active in the community. | <urn:uuid:73d69659-b88b-4aca-b9bf-e6391dee97ba> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.heraldtribune.com/news/20171029/early-sarasota-settlers-overcame-hardships-to-build-community | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00221.warc.gz | en | 0.98293 | 1,350 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.340489864... | 2 | Pioneers learned how to survive, and thrive, in America's "last frontier"
As years pass, we forget the sacrifices made by the pioneering settlers who came to a daunting wilderness beside the Gulf of Mexico and paved the way for future generations.
Their names are attached to local streets, such as Browning and Stickney, parks, including Locklear and Gillespie, and historic markers, like Burns and Ringling. But few of today’s residents know anything of their history — their aspirations, the sacrifices they made transforming the rough wilderness into a desirable destination.
Life here during the settlement period was a daily battle for survival. Everything we take for granted — food, shelter, safety, schooling, worshipping and just getting from place A to B — was a chore.
Forest fires were a concern, as were the heavy rains that brought clouds of mosquitoes, mucked up the trails and damaged crops. As settler Anton Kleinoscheg wrote, “We are at the peak of the rainy season; rain, rain, and rain. Under such circumstances I can’t work and the enormous quantities of water … destroy or damage the small achievements that have been completed so far.”
As for the mosquitoes, he called them “terrible beasts” and “a plague.” He added, “I fall victim to their bloodthirstiness.”
Add to the mix, snakes, alligators, all manner of insects and wild cats and it is easy to understand why Florida was considered America’s “last frontier.”
Many early settlers labored from sunup to sundown, with families working side-by-side on their farms, ranches, citrus groves or fishing boats. Dad hunted for wild game to eat, or fished, or clammed. Mom cooked on a wood burning stove, cared for the children, handled the clothing and salted meat and put up fruit and vegetables for future use.
As the city’s first mayor, A. B. Edwards remembered settler life: “No canning or processing in those early days; everything was fresh off the hoof, off the tree, cut out of the soil or out of the water or wrapped in hide or feathers.”
Little time remained for recreation, but there was always time for services on Sunday, and for church socials, which gave a welcome respite from their toils and tribulations. Community picnics were common. Ben Stickney was beloved for his gatherings on Siesta Key.
Among the earliest settlers were Jesse and Rebecca Varn Knight and their children, who came to Florida around 1853, first settling in Hillsborough County. They had married when Rebecca was just 16, and he was 22. Their large family consisted of seven boys and eight girls.
Jesse raised cattle in Georgia but could not afford to buy more land there to expand his herd and decided to move farther south.
Herding the cattle for the long, arduous journey — it took over a year to reach Hillsborough — they homesteaded in an area that became known as Knight’s Station, near Tampa.
When the Civil War erupted in 1861, Knight moved his livestock south, near the Upper Myakka Lake, to prevent Union troops from requisitioning them.
After the war ended in 1865, the Knight herd numbered approximately 300. According to historian Karl Grismer, Knight wanted to move them to an area where they would have more room to freely graze. “The Knights, along with three other families, eight covered wagons drawn by oxen, three buggies drawn by mules, seven mounted horses and 300 head of cattle began the trip.”
They headed for Horse and Chaise, so named because of the way the silhouette of land looked from the water — a horse and a chaise. Today this is Venice-Nokomis. The 60-mile journey took nearly a month.
The story goes that when they got to a creek that Knight’s buggy mule refused to cross, Jesse told one of his sons to take a shakit, a dried piece of buckskin, and slap the mule with it. The sound of the shakit startled the mule, giving it enough motivation to cross. The creek became known as Shakit Creek — today's Shakett Creek.
Knight was a deeply religious man, a Methodist minister who founded the Venice-Nokomis Church. According to Grismer, he alternated conducting services with another settler, Issac A. Redd, a Missionary Baptist and founder of the Bee Ridge community.
Initially, services were held in settler homes but as the need for a larger facility became apparent, Knight and his family and neighbors constructed a plank church in Nokomis used by Methodists with Knight as pastor. The church also served as a school. Although never ordained, he was known throughout the area as the Reverend Jesse Knight.
As Grismer wrote, “Many members of the congregation came to the services by boat, down the creeks and bays to a boathouse at Venice inlet, where they would change into their Sunday clothes and walk the rest of the way to the church.”
Knight proved a successful rancher. According to Grismer, “Jesse Knight established a veritable kingdom of his own, dominating the entire region southeast of Horse and Chaise.”
Area cattlemen were selling much of their stock to Cuba. And during the Spanish American War, many head were sold to the U.S. Army, stationed in Tampa. Grismer noted that cattlemen made a killing as prices rose to new heights. Jesse’s herd multiplied to 20,000 head.
After years of toil and success, Rebecca, who was born in 1825, died in 1901. She was remembered by those who knew her as “a worthy woman as evidenced in the lives of her noble and saintly daughters as well as the sons who were blessed by her faithful training.” She is buried in the Jesse Knight Memorial Cemetery in Nokomis.
Jesse was 94 when he passed away in 1901, and rests next to his beloved wife, a short distance from their original homestead.
Being such a large family, the Knight descendants still contribute to Sarasota’s success. One member of the family, Jon Thaxton, was a highly regarded Sarasota County commissioner and is still active in the community. | 1,318 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The tour passes a section of prairie dotted with small mounds of earth covered with prairie grass. The origin of these bumps, scattered over the surface of a half-dozen prairies just south of Puget Sound, has been the subject of speculation for nearly a century. Symmetrical in form, the mounds round out from slightly flattened tops to circular bases; a few of them are surmounted by young trees. They are composed chiefly of gravel with a layer of black soil and rise as high as eight feet. Captain Wilkes, during his expedition of 1841, dug into a number of them, thinking they might be burial mounds, but no traces of human remains were found. Two renowned naturalists, Louis Agassiz and Joseph LeConte, made a study of them and arrived at different conclusions. One believed they had been built by fish for spawning nests during an early inundation; the other was sure they had been caused by erosion following the recession of the ice sheets. Many other explanations have been advanced, ranging from one that they were Native American-built buffalo decoys to another which held that they had been forced up by gas and oil pressure. The most generally accepted is that of J. Harlan Bretz; in his Glaciation of the Puget Sound Regions he concludes that the silt blowing across the surface of the ice sheet covering the Puget Sound area had collected in depressions, and that, as the ice melted, this accumulation fell through to the gravel beneath, forming the mounds. | <urn:uuid:f0dab3cb-42ee-48a4-bc75-3dcd949e5677> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://revisitwa.org/waypoint/mima-mounds-state-park/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00396.warc.gz | en | 0.989215 | 310 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.3206585049629211... | 2 | The tour passes a section of prairie dotted with small mounds of earth covered with prairie grass. The origin of these bumps, scattered over the surface of a half-dozen prairies just south of Puget Sound, has been the subject of speculation for nearly a century. Symmetrical in form, the mounds round out from slightly flattened tops to circular bases; a few of them are surmounted by young trees. They are composed chiefly of gravel with a layer of black soil and rise as high as eight feet. Captain Wilkes, during his expedition of 1841, dug into a number of them, thinking they might be burial mounds, but no traces of human remains were found. Two renowned naturalists, Louis Agassiz and Joseph LeConte, made a study of them and arrived at different conclusions. One believed they had been built by fish for spawning nests during an early inundation; the other was sure they had been caused by erosion following the recession of the ice sheets. Many other explanations have been advanced, ranging from one that they were Native American-built buffalo decoys to another which held that they had been forced up by gas and oil pressure. The most generally accepted is that of J. Harlan Bretz; in his Glaciation of the Puget Sound Regions he concludes that the silt blowing across the surface of the ice sheet covering the Puget Sound area had collected in depressions, and that, as the ice melted, this accumulation fell through to the gravel beneath, forming the mounds. | 313 | ENGLISH | 1 |
To birders, “looking through the glass” refers to binoculars. Wildlife photographer Glen Apseloff, however, thinks of the phrase as referring to the windows of his house. Using a handheld camera without a flash or special filters, he has photographed enough birds from inside his house, through closed windows, to create two books. Some of the photographs and text in this slideshow can be found in his more recent book, Backyard Birds and More—Looking Through the Glass. All of the birds in this slideshow, like all of those in his books, were taken through closed windows from inside his home in a suburb of Columbus, Ohio.
He wrote each of the captions in the following slideshow.
Ruby-throated Hummingbirds are the only hummingbirds in Ohio. They are roughly three to three-and-a-half inches in length with a wingspan that can reach about four to four-and-a-half inches. They weigh only about an eighth of an ounce (about 3.5 grams). They beat their wings an average of more than 50 times per second (and up to 200 times per second for males during courtship dives), and they can dive as fast as 60 miles per hour, although their normal speed in straight-line flight is about 25 miles per hour.
During part of their migration, they cross the Gulf of Mexico (up to 525 miles), flying nonstop for approximately 20 hours. In flight, their heart rate is approximately 1220 beats per minute; at rest it is approximately 250. More interesting facts can be found at rubythroat.org.
The oldest Ruby-throated Hummingbird was a female that lived at least 9 years and 2 months. It was banded in West Virginia and recaptured and released there in 2014. Four Ruby-throated Hummingbirds have lived at least nine years in the wild; all were captured alive and released, and all were females. Females live longer than males, possibly because males expend too much energy and lose weight defending their territory during the breeding season, causing more of them to perish when they subsequently migrate long distances. The oldest male in the wild lived to be at least 5 years old. | <urn:uuid:864bea2d-2192-45d6-8357-ba0934b038d7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.birdwatchingdaily.com/photography/featured-galleries/backyard-birds-photographed-through-windows/nggallery/image/2_male-ruby-throated-hummingbird_1882_72dpi/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00167.warc.gz | en | 0.984083 | 450 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.0661367252... | 3 | To birders, “looking through the glass” refers to binoculars. Wildlife photographer Glen Apseloff, however, thinks of the phrase as referring to the windows of his house. Using a handheld camera without a flash or special filters, he has photographed enough birds from inside his house, through closed windows, to create two books. Some of the photographs and text in this slideshow can be found in his more recent book, Backyard Birds and More—Looking Through the Glass. All of the birds in this slideshow, like all of those in his books, were taken through closed windows from inside his home in a suburb of Columbus, Ohio.
He wrote each of the captions in the following slideshow.
Ruby-throated Hummingbirds are the only hummingbirds in Ohio. They are roughly three to three-and-a-half inches in length with a wingspan that can reach about four to four-and-a-half inches. They weigh only about an eighth of an ounce (about 3.5 grams). They beat their wings an average of more than 50 times per second (and up to 200 times per second for males during courtship dives), and they can dive as fast as 60 miles per hour, although their normal speed in straight-line flight is about 25 miles per hour.
During part of their migration, they cross the Gulf of Mexico (up to 525 miles), flying nonstop for approximately 20 hours. In flight, their heart rate is approximately 1220 beats per minute; at rest it is approximately 250. More interesting facts can be found at rubythroat.org.
The oldest Ruby-throated Hummingbird was a female that lived at least 9 years and 2 months. It was banded in West Virginia and recaptured and released there in 2014. Four Ruby-throated Hummingbirds have lived at least nine years in the wild; all were captured alive and released, and all were females. Females live longer than males, possibly because males expend too much energy and lose weight defending their territory during the breeding season, causing more of them to perish when they subsequently migrate long distances. The oldest male in the wild lived to be at least 5 years old. | 463 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Scouting in the camp
Shortly after Lord Baden-Powell founded the Scouting movement for boys, it was wholeheartedly embraced by the Polish people. No distinction was made and both sexes were called Scouts. That happened in 1911.
Poland at this time was partitioned (until 1918) and the new Scouting movement encouraged patriotism, allowing the Poles to express themselves, as well as being a youth organisation that was fun and character building. Therefore, it is not surprising that as soon as the Polish children arrived in Iran after fleeing the forced-labour camps in the USSR, Scout companies were formed even before schools were established. When they arrived in the Polish Children's Camp in Pahiatua, three-quarters of the children were in established Girl Guide and Boy Scout troops, Brownies and Cubs under the great leadership of Scout troop leader Stefania Kozera, and the older girls and boys who helped her.
In the camp, Scouting was a big part of the children's lives. At first, it filled a void because of the lack of extracurricular facilities and equipment (there were no musical instruments in the camp's early days and only one radio). But even after the sports teams were organised and the camp became more established, Scouting was a mainstay. It was a great leveller and a main form of entertainment.
At school, it was often only the extra bright children that were particularly noticed. But in Scouting, almost all could excel at something. Whether an individual had a particular talent for fire lighting, an especially beautiful singing voice, leadership qualities or the ability to teach others a skill, all of them had the opportunity to shine and develop very close bonds with the other children.
There were many Scout campfires. The first one was dedicated to all Scouts and people who had lost their lives in the unsuccessful Warsaw uprising, so it was a very moving occasion. Those gatherings around the campfire mirrored the children's emotions. To ease their terrible bouts of homesickness, they organised "excursions around Poland", with lots of singing, poetry and regional dancing, and celebrated Polish national days, religious days of importance and various anniversaries. For example, the anniversary of the Polish army's victory at Monte Cassino was a joyous evening which filled us with great pride.
It didn't take the Polish children long to befriend New Zealand Scouts and Girl Guides. Many New Zealand children had lined the tracks and greeted page 323them as they travelled by train from Wellington to Pahiatua, while others had welcomed them at Palmerston North Railway Station. Girl Guides from Pahiatua had also helped prepare the camp for their arrival.
The friendships, ignited on the first day in New Zealand, continued to grow. Troops met on many occasions to participate in various "drives" and activities, the most important being the blessing of the Polish Scout flag. Guides and Scouts came from Pahiatua to the camp for the day. Kiwis and Poles took part in activities, shared meals, joined ranks to march in parade past New Zealand and Polish Scout and Guide officials, and bowed their heads together for the blessing of the flag. On another occasion, a group of older Polish Girl Guides went to a Girl Guide leadership training camp in Waipawa.
The New Zealand Girl Guide Commissioner was not only present at that camp but led several of the more challenging events. The New Zealand Girl Guides and Boy Scouts accepted the Polish children as fellow Scouts, and helped them to find their feet in this new land through friendship and shared experiences. It is because of this that they are remembered with such warmth and one of the reasons why the Polish children recall their Scouting days with such joy.
As the children grew older and moved to different parts of New Zealand to continue their education or take up jobs, the Scouting movement in the camp grew smaller and eventually ceased to exist. The camp was closed and the children dispersed. In 1965, Stefania Kozera died and the records of the Polish Scouting days in Pahiatua, such as the minutes of meetings, were lost.
But various photographs remain, including a photo of Lady Baden-Powell's visit to the camp, the original of which is in the archives in the Polish Cultural Institute in London, along with many other photos of Polish Scouting activities in New Zealand. There is also an account of the Polish Scouting movement in New Zealand in the book Harcerki w Związku Harcerstwa Polskiego (A History of Girl Guides in Poland and Throughout the World) by Władysława Seweryn Spławska.
Official documentation may have been lost but, more importantly for the Polish children, the warm memories of challenges, adventures, badges earned, songs sung around campfires and the friendships formed remain. The Scouting experiences helped to mould them into a large "family" and also into the adults they later became – patriotic Poles and hardworking New Zealanders with a great love of God and country.
"Czuwaj!" "Be Prepared!" | <urn:uuid:2ea8fa7a-0d13-4062-abf1-9941ebf940b1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-PolFirs-t1-g1-g5-t1-g1-t8.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00138.warc.gz | en | 0.981573 | 1,029 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.40580484... | 5 | Scouting in the camp
Shortly after Lord Baden-Powell founded the Scouting movement for boys, it was wholeheartedly embraced by the Polish people. No distinction was made and both sexes were called Scouts. That happened in 1911.
Poland at this time was partitioned (until 1918) and the new Scouting movement encouraged patriotism, allowing the Poles to express themselves, as well as being a youth organisation that was fun and character building. Therefore, it is not surprising that as soon as the Polish children arrived in Iran after fleeing the forced-labour camps in the USSR, Scout companies were formed even before schools were established. When they arrived in the Polish Children's Camp in Pahiatua, three-quarters of the children were in established Girl Guide and Boy Scout troops, Brownies and Cubs under the great leadership of Scout troop leader Stefania Kozera, and the older girls and boys who helped her.
In the camp, Scouting was a big part of the children's lives. At first, it filled a void because of the lack of extracurricular facilities and equipment (there were no musical instruments in the camp's early days and only one radio). But even after the sports teams were organised and the camp became more established, Scouting was a mainstay. It was a great leveller and a main form of entertainment.
At school, it was often only the extra bright children that were particularly noticed. But in Scouting, almost all could excel at something. Whether an individual had a particular talent for fire lighting, an especially beautiful singing voice, leadership qualities or the ability to teach others a skill, all of them had the opportunity to shine and develop very close bonds with the other children.
There were many Scout campfires. The first one was dedicated to all Scouts and people who had lost their lives in the unsuccessful Warsaw uprising, so it was a very moving occasion. Those gatherings around the campfire mirrored the children's emotions. To ease their terrible bouts of homesickness, they organised "excursions around Poland", with lots of singing, poetry and regional dancing, and celebrated Polish national days, religious days of importance and various anniversaries. For example, the anniversary of the Polish army's victory at Monte Cassino was a joyous evening which filled us with great pride.
It didn't take the Polish children long to befriend New Zealand Scouts and Girl Guides. Many New Zealand children had lined the tracks and greeted page 323them as they travelled by train from Wellington to Pahiatua, while others had welcomed them at Palmerston North Railway Station. Girl Guides from Pahiatua had also helped prepare the camp for their arrival.
The friendships, ignited on the first day in New Zealand, continued to grow. Troops met on many occasions to participate in various "drives" and activities, the most important being the blessing of the Polish Scout flag. Guides and Scouts came from Pahiatua to the camp for the day. Kiwis and Poles took part in activities, shared meals, joined ranks to march in parade past New Zealand and Polish Scout and Guide officials, and bowed their heads together for the blessing of the flag. On another occasion, a group of older Polish Girl Guides went to a Girl Guide leadership training camp in Waipawa.
The New Zealand Girl Guide Commissioner was not only present at that camp but led several of the more challenging events. The New Zealand Girl Guides and Boy Scouts accepted the Polish children as fellow Scouts, and helped them to find their feet in this new land through friendship and shared experiences. It is because of this that they are remembered with such warmth and one of the reasons why the Polish children recall their Scouting days with such joy.
As the children grew older and moved to different parts of New Zealand to continue their education or take up jobs, the Scouting movement in the camp grew smaller and eventually ceased to exist. The camp was closed and the children dispersed. In 1965, Stefania Kozera died and the records of the Polish Scouting days in Pahiatua, such as the minutes of meetings, were lost.
But various photographs remain, including a photo of Lady Baden-Powell's visit to the camp, the original of which is in the archives in the Polish Cultural Institute in London, along with many other photos of Polish Scouting activities in New Zealand. There is also an account of the Polish Scouting movement in New Zealand in the book Harcerki w Związku Harcerstwa Polskiego (A History of Girl Guides in Poland and Throughout the World) by Władysława Seweryn Spławska.
Official documentation may have been lost but, more importantly for the Polish children, the warm memories of challenges, adventures, badges earned, songs sung around campfires and the friendships formed remain. The Scouting experiences helped to mould them into a large "family" and also into the adults they later became – patriotic Poles and hardworking New Zealanders with a great love of God and country.
"Czuwaj!" "Be Prepared!" | 1,039 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Epic of Gilgamesh by Stephen Mitchell
Enkidu in warning his friend about the Humbaba also reminds him in a roundabout way of the god’s status. He does this by reminding his friend that it was the work of the gods that put the terrible beast in the forest. His friend Gilgamesh answers him in a manner that shows that he is very aware of the possibility of death at the hands of the Humbaba. The two friends are in a situation that makes them both acutely and keenly aware of death. Gilgamesh also seems to be enthralled with the god’s immortality and it seems like death in valor at matters more to him than staying alive or the immortality of the gods. Both ideas seem to matter very little in his quest of killing the Humbaba. To Gilgamesh calls Enkidu “dear friend” then goes on to chastise him for speaking like a coward. He hastily follows this chastisement with indirect praise by affirming that Enkidu, speech was not worthy of his character. He also points out that he was aggrieved at heart at his friend’s words. This leaves us with the conclusion that this is a dear friend rebuking another. He uses the word “no for emphasis and to reaffirm that indeed they were not gods but mere mortals. Gilgamesh is reminded by Enkidu that the Humbaba has been placed in the forest by the gods in order to instill fear but he will not agree to give in to fear. Gilgamesh had obviously considered the possibility of their death at the hands of the Humbaba and come to terms with it. This can be deduced by his mention of mortality and his contrast of the immortality of the gods.
Gilgamesh’s praise of Enkidu shows that he was not a coward and in fact was a worthy person. The Humbaba was reportedly feared by gods and men alike as revealed by the warning and reminder by Enkidu. Women were not mentioned in the text and so we can assume that such exploits were not part of their interests. Alternatively, that they were not considered as important enough to be among those who would dare fight the Humbaba. The Humbaba is a creation of the gods and yet Gilgamesh wants to it kill so much that he pushes all the arguments against it from his friend aside. He also declares to his friend that they are mere mortals but is still determined to forge ahead with a task that is feared by gods and man alike and filled with danger. Why is not asked of explicitly but indirectly through Enkidu attempt at preventing his friend form risking both their lives in a quest which was deemed as dangerous by gods and man. Gods are mentioned in the both excerpts. The first excerpt is here Enkidu makes reference to the gods as the ones who placed the Humbaba in the forest and as also in awe of it as men are. The second as comparison by Gilgamesh in reference their immortality versus men’s mortality. Forever is implied by the immortality of the gods who live forever. Mountains, trees and wind would be the natural occurrences of the forest in which he Humbaba lived. Gilgamesh was there with the intension of killing the Humbaba and his friend Enkidu was only trying to dissuade him so they may not die but live.
Gilgamesh showed courage in his stance but also reveals that his friend was a man worthy of the same courage but only needed a little chiding to get his courage together. The temporary show of cowardice of Enkidu is in contrast with the braveness of Gilgamesh even at the face of a terrible beast. Gilgamesh is aware of their mortality and the possibility of death, which he contrasts with the immortality of the gods. Yet he is ready to risk his safety and life in order to fight the beast. The danger of the beast seems to be legendary and well known to both friends. The beast is portrayed as fierce with fire rising out of its being. One can imagine that they were describing a dragon due to the mention of fire. The fact that the beast was feared by both man and gods suggest that it had faced them both in battle and, prevailed so that there was so much fear about its person. The Humbaba also comes out as a gigantic creature that had immense powers that rivaled both man and gods alike. | <urn:uuid:49961b7b-d05b-4cda-994d-dfd9b6745868> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://summarystory.com/the-epic-of-gilgamesh/the-epic-of-gilgamesh-by-stephen-mitchell/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00500.warc.gz | en | 0.992025 | 913 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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Enkidu in warning his friend about the Humbaba also reminds him in a roundabout way of the god’s status. He does this by reminding his friend that it was the work of the gods that put the terrible beast in the forest. His friend Gilgamesh answers him in a manner that shows that he is very aware of the possibility of death at the hands of the Humbaba. The two friends are in a situation that makes them both acutely and keenly aware of death. Gilgamesh also seems to be enthralled with the god’s immortality and it seems like death in valor at matters more to him than staying alive or the immortality of the gods. Both ideas seem to matter very little in his quest of killing the Humbaba. To Gilgamesh calls Enkidu “dear friend” then goes on to chastise him for speaking like a coward. He hastily follows this chastisement with indirect praise by affirming that Enkidu, speech was not worthy of his character. He also points out that he was aggrieved at heart at his friend’s words. This leaves us with the conclusion that this is a dear friend rebuking another. He uses the word “no for emphasis and to reaffirm that indeed they were not gods but mere mortals. Gilgamesh is reminded by Enkidu that the Humbaba has been placed in the forest by the gods in order to instill fear but he will not agree to give in to fear. Gilgamesh had obviously considered the possibility of their death at the hands of the Humbaba and come to terms with it. This can be deduced by his mention of mortality and his contrast of the immortality of the gods.
Gilgamesh’s praise of Enkidu shows that he was not a coward and in fact was a worthy person. The Humbaba was reportedly feared by gods and men alike as revealed by the warning and reminder by Enkidu. Women were not mentioned in the text and so we can assume that such exploits were not part of their interests. Alternatively, that they were not considered as important enough to be among those who would dare fight the Humbaba. The Humbaba is a creation of the gods and yet Gilgamesh wants to it kill so much that he pushes all the arguments against it from his friend aside. He also declares to his friend that they are mere mortals but is still determined to forge ahead with a task that is feared by gods and man alike and filled with danger. Why is not asked of explicitly but indirectly through Enkidu attempt at preventing his friend form risking both their lives in a quest which was deemed as dangerous by gods and man. Gods are mentioned in the both excerpts. The first excerpt is here Enkidu makes reference to the gods as the ones who placed the Humbaba in the forest and as also in awe of it as men are. The second as comparison by Gilgamesh in reference their immortality versus men’s mortality. Forever is implied by the immortality of the gods who live forever. Mountains, trees and wind would be the natural occurrences of the forest in which he Humbaba lived. Gilgamesh was there with the intension of killing the Humbaba and his friend Enkidu was only trying to dissuade him so they may not die but live.
Gilgamesh showed courage in his stance but also reveals that his friend was a man worthy of the same courage but only needed a little chiding to get his courage together. The temporary show of cowardice of Enkidu is in contrast with the braveness of Gilgamesh even at the face of a terrible beast. Gilgamesh is aware of their mortality and the possibility of death, which he contrasts with the immortality of the gods. Yet he is ready to risk his safety and life in order to fight the beast. The danger of the beast seems to be legendary and well known to both friends. The beast is portrayed as fierce with fire rising out of its being. One can imagine that they were describing a dragon due to the mention of fire. The fact that the beast was feared by both man and gods suggest that it had faced them both in battle and, prevailed so that there was so much fear about its person. The Humbaba also comes out as a gigantic creature that had immense powers that rivaled both man and gods alike. | 895 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The mission seemed to be doomed from the beginning. It may have been a sign of events to come when, shortly after the Reverend Epaphras Chapman and his companion Job Vinall arrived at Fort Smith that Vinall died. The two men representing the Presbyterian Church arrived in the mid-summer of 1819 to establish a mission among the Osage Tribe, to be located either in Indian or Kansas Territory. Vinall became ill and as subsequent events occurred over the next decade, it was clear that his death would be only the first of a sequence of unfortunate occurrences that eventually lead to the mission’s closing.
With the assistance of Nathan Pryor, in April, 1820 Reverend Chapman chose a tract of land, a meadow adjacent to the Grand River that was bordered on the west by the Osage trace, soon to be called the Texas Road. Initially, it would seem that the reverend had chosen well. Returning to Connecticut, he recruited teachers and farmers to join several ministers in establishing what became known as Union Mission. In addition to promoting the Presbyterian religion, their objectives were to educate the children and teach Osage adults methods of farming, providing a means of subsistence in the changing culture.
But there were several issues related to his choice of the site that Chapman either wasn’t aware of or just ignored. In 1816 several tribes, led by the Cherokee retaliating for long time grievances perpetrated by the Osage, decimated the Osage village of Chief Clermont, killing over 100 and kidnapping an equal number. The next year a peace treaty negotiated by Assistant Indian Agent William Lovely provided for the purchase of seven million acres belonging to the Osage to be awarded to the Cherokee that included the mission site.
After the arrival of the 21 member Presbyterian contingent in February of 1821, their early progress developing the Mission was impressive. That summer five log cabins, a blacksmith shop, smoke house, corn cribs, a warehouse and school building were built. That proved to be an easier task than persuading the Osage hunters to become farmers. Some members of the Mission family meeting with warriors explained how becoming laborers in the field would ensure having food regularly for their existence. Their skeptical audience was comprised of men whose tribe had been hunters and warriors for generations while women planted and cultivated the crops. Upon completion of one presentation, an old Indian summing up their reaction responded that “plowing fields and building fences was not his idea of happiness.” The missionaries’ presentation regarding learning to read and write also didn’t gain traction. Parents were indifferent as the results indicated. The Mission school opened in September of 1821 and, until it closed in February of 1833, there were never more than 17 children in attendance in any one year. Collectively, only 79 attended, some for only a few weeks.
In a final effort to demonstrate farming techniques to the reluctant Osage, in 1823 another missionary, William Montgomery, proposed establishing a farming project that became known as Hopefield Mission. It was moderately successful, eventually attracting 11 families although other tribesmen often derided them, calling them “field makers.” But most families refused to participate and occasional taunting would escalate into conflict and the Hopefield residents would flee to Union Mission for protection.
Two more years passed without any perceptible progress in converting the Osage to Christianity, improve attendance at school or recruit additional farmers. In fact, there were frequent depredations by the very tribe the Mission had been established to serve. Livestock was killed and in one instance 40 pigs were stolen. In the meantime, correspondence by the leadership with the sponsoring agency in Connecticut also reflected mutual frustration, the agency with the progress of the Mission and the missionaries with the lack of financial support from back East. There also was growing concern about the Mission’s unhealthy location and the growing number of deaths. This was highlighted when in 1825 the founder, Reverend Epaphras Chapman, died bringing the total now buried in “the silent city,” to 11.
There had been worries about the site of Union Mission, the dampness coupled with the heat and insects that resulted in sickness and death, but it was further underscored in September of 1826. During an unprecedented wet fall the Grand River flooded completely inundating Mission buildings. Washing through the compound it filled the houses with muddy water, destroying furniture, clothing, and supplies. Although the inhabitants persevered, rebuilt and attempted to continue, the final blow fell in 1828. The federal government determined the Osage tribe would be relocated to Kansas. Further, the land the Mission occupied now belonged to the Cherokee and offers by the missionaries to serve them were refused.
Union Mission survived until 1836, both as a religious institution and way station for travelers on the Texas Road, but the buildings were burned during the Civil War. Perhaps it is coincidental that one mission is established and thrives, while another fails. However, founders of Union Mission seemed to ignore signs of reality and, in the final analysis that made their mission impossible.
Bruce Howell is an author and retired educator. His work includes 1806, an exploration of the Cherokee Nation in Indian Territory. He resides on Grand Lake with his wife, Kay. | <urn:uuid:2dcce7e9-0713-407a-84b9-69592f644976> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.grandlakenews.com/news/20191111/union-mission-impossible | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00262.warc.gz | en | 0.982598 | 1,072 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.0170447994023... | 2 | The mission seemed to be doomed from the beginning. It may have been a sign of events to come when, shortly after the Reverend Epaphras Chapman and his companion Job Vinall arrived at Fort Smith that Vinall died. The two men representing the Presbyterian Church arrived in the mid-summer of 1819 to establish a mission among the Osage Tribe, to be located either in Indian or Kansas Territory. Vinall became ill and as subsequent events occurred over the next decade, it was clear that his death would be only the first of a sequence of unfortunate occurrences that eventually lead to the mission’s closing.
With the assistance of Nathan Pryor, in April, 1820 Reverend Chapman chose a tract of land, a meadow adjacent to the Grand River that was bordered on the west by the Osage trace, soon to be called the Texas Road. Initially, it would seem that the reverend had chosen well. Returning to Connecticut, he recruited teachers and farmers to join several ministers in establishing what became known as Union Mission. In addition to promoting the Presbyterian religion, their objectives were to educate the children and teach Osage adults methods of farming, providing a means of subsistence in the changing culture.
But there were several issues related to his choice of the site that Chapman either wasn’t aware of or just ignored. In 1816 several tribes, led by the Cherokee retaliating for long time grievances perpetrated by the Osage, decimated the Osage village of Chief Clermont, killing over 100 and kidnapping an equal number. The next year a peace treaty negotiated by Assistant Indian Agent William Lovely provided for the purchase of seven million acres belonging to the Osage to be awarded to the Cherokee that included the mission site.
After the arrival of the 21 member Presbyterian contingent in February of 1821, their early progress developing the Mission was impressive. That summer five log cabins, a blacksmith shop, smoke house, corn cribs, a warehouse and school building were built. That proved to be an easier task than persuading the Osage hunters to become farmers. Some members of the Mission family meeting with warriors explained how becoming laborers in the field would ensure having food regularly for their existence. Their skeptical audience was comprised of men whose tribe had been hunters and warriors for generations while women planted and cultivated the crops. Upon completion of one presentation, an old Indian summing up their reaction responded that “plowing fields and building fences was not his idea of happiness.” The missionaries’ presentation regarding learning to read and write also didn’t gain traction. Parents were indifferent as the results indicated. The Mission school opened in September of 1821 and, until it closed in February of 1833, there were never more than 17 children in attendance in any one year. Collectively, only 79 attended, some for only a few weeks.
In a final effort to demonstrate farming techniques to the reluctant Osage, in 1823 another missionary, William Montgomery, proposed establishing a farming project that became known as Hopefield Mission. It was moderately successful, eventually attracting 11 families although other tribesmen often derided them, calling them “field makers.” But most families refused to participate and occasional taunting would escalate into conflict and the Hopefield residents would flee to Union Mission for protection.
Two more years passed without any perceptible progress in converting the Osage to Christianity, improve attendance at school or recruit additional farmers. In fact, there were frequent depredations by the very tribe the Mission had been established to serve. Livestock was killed and in one instance 40 pigs were stolen. In the meantime, correspondence by the leadership with the sponsoring agency in Connecticut also reflected mutual frustration, the agency with the progress of the Mission and the missionaries with the lack of financial support from back East. There also was growing concern about the Mission’s unhealthy location and the growing number of deaths. This was highlighted when in 1825 the founder, Reverend Epaphras Chapman, died bringing the total now buried in “the silent city,” to 11.
There had been worries about the site of Union Mission, the dampness coupled with the heat and insects that resulted in sickness and death, but it was further underscored in September of 1826. During an unprecedented wet fall the Grand River flooded completely inundating Mission buildings. Washing through the compound it filled the houses with muddy water, destroying furniture, clothing, and supplies. Although the inhabitants persevered, rebuilt and attempted to continue, the final blow fell in 1828. The federal government determined the Osage tribe would be relocated to Kansas. Further, the land the Mission occupied now belonged to the Cherokee and offers by the missionaries to serve them were refused.
Union Mission survived until 1836, both as a religious institution and way station for travelers on the Texas Road, but the buildings were burned during the Civil War. Perhaps it is coincidental that one mission is established and thrives, while another fails. However, founders of Union Mission seemed to ignore signs of reality and, in the final analysis that made their mission impossible.
Bruce Howell is an author and retired educator. His work includes 1806, an exploration of the Cherokee Nation in Indian Territory. He resides on Grand Lake with his wife, Kay. | 1,095 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A joint biography of Galileo and his daughter, and a good history of early modern Italy and the Scientific Revolution. Galileo had three children, all illegitimate. He was in a loving lifelong relationship, but social conventions of the time said that academics could not marry. As a result, Galileo’s children grew up under an unjust stigma and were denied opportunities they might otherwise have had. Both of his daughters ended up in convents. One of them, the well-named Maria Celeste (think celestial, and remember that Galileo was an astronomer), inherited her father’s intellect. Though she was not allowed to put her gifts to much use, she was about as accomplished as a woman in her time was allowed to be—though almost entirely uncredited, naturally.
She also left behind a long trail of correspondence with her father, from which Sobel quotes extensively. From this, Sobel tells Maria Celeste’s life story, and Galileo’s, goes into the science of his discoveries, and, for good measure, gives a cultural history of the time. Sobel gives a good flavor of what daily life was like in convents, in universities, in the town and in the country, and how repressive medieval religion was for men and women alike. Women got the short end of an already short stick. | <urn:uuid:3c2d1888-6cab-4830-9b7d-06e69df4cf2c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://inertiawins.com/2019/08/20/dava-sobel-galileos-daughter-a-historical-memoir-of-science-faith-and-love/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00537.warc.gz | en | 0.98401 | 268 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.12214273214340... | 9 | A joint biography of Galileo and his daughter, and a good history of early modern Italy and the Scientific Revolution. Galileo had three children, all illegitimate. He was in a loving lifelong relationship, but social conventions of the time said that academics could not marry. As a result, Galileo’s children grew up under an unjust stigma and were denied opportunities they might otherwise have had. Both of his daughters ended up in convents. One of them, the well-named Maria Celeste (think celestial, and remember that Galileo was an astronomer), inherited her father’s intellect. Though she was not allowed to put her gifts to much use, she was about as accomplished as a woman in her time was allowed to be—though almost entirely uncredited, naturally.
She also left behind a long trail of correspondence with her father, from which Sobel quotes extensively. From this, Sobel tells Maria Celeste’s life story, and Galileo’s, goes into the science of his discoveries, and, for good measure, gives a cultural history of the time. Sobel gives a good flavor of what daily life was like in convents, in universities, in the town and in the country, and how repressive medieval religion was for men and women alike. Women got the short end of an already short stick. | 267 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ever wondered where all the inspiration for the Weaponized Animal or Beast of Battle came from? Like everything else, it came from Real Life. Animals have been used in war for the entirety of human history, for mundane jobs like field work, cargo hauling, and pest control, to more specialized roles such as communications, not to mention the prospect of them being mounts or an Attack Animal. The United Kingdom even has a special commemoration for particularly brave or exceptional military animals, known as the Dickin Medal.
Horses have enjoyed a long and illustrious history alongside humans in war. In the entire history of the world, horses have been utilized in militaries much more than any other animal. From a tactical standpoint, horses are extremely mobile and require relatively little rest. They can trek long distances hauling cargo or carrying riders, and their speed allows armies to outmaneuver or outrun foes. From a battle standpoint, a pissed horse is chaos on a battlefield, and horses were trained to kick, bite, and stomp either on command or reflexively. A single rider armed with a long-reaching weapon such as a lance or bow could run circles around unmounted enemies and kill them one by one.
- In the Bronze Age, in places such as Ancient Egypt and Greece, horse drawn chariots carrying one or two soldiers were extremely powerful on the primitive battlefield. A single rider could use the chariot to rapidly move through the battle, mounting onto the chariot, moving where he was needed, and dismounting to engage the enemy. Alternatively, a chariot could carry two, one to drive the chariot, and a passenger that was either being transported, or was armed with a bow to take enemy soldiers out from a distance. Chariots, ultimately, fell off pretty quickly due to their high-cost and extreme difficulty to repair if damaged. Riding the horse itself was ultimately deemed more effective.
- In Asia, horses, next to the invention of the recurve bow, are often cited as the main reason that Genghis Khan and his Mongols conquered as much land as he did. Mongolian archers were trained to fire their arrows when all four of the horse's feet were off the ground, thus granting them greater accuracy. Soldiers had very close bonds with their horses and held them in the utmost respect. In particularly desperate times, such as during food shortages or when a soldier was separated from his army, Mongolians would cut into a minor vein in the horses neck and drink the blood when water was not available. Traditionally, the saying goes that a Mongolian without a horse is like a bird without wings.
- During medieval times, warhorses were at perhaps their most prevalent in European history. The entire concept of Chivalry (Which comes from the French word chevalerie, which literally means 'horse soldiery.') is predicated on the sheer power a horse granted him, and is an attempt to prevent Knights from abusing that powernote . Horses were perhaps trained at their strongest and largest, and were often decked in elaborate armored barding to protect them. Trained to thrive in the shock and noise of close combat, horses remained the primary avenue through which Europeans waged their wars.
- Although the advent of firearms made cavalry less effective, horses were still used as war mounts well into the American Civil War. Although it has been claimed that bows remained more effective on horseback, riders wielding muskets and pistols alongside sabers were very common, particularly for commanding officers. Cavalry charges remained relatively common since horses could close distance faster than an enemy force could reload. These horses were trained to grow used to the cracking sound of gunfire.
- The last place horses saw extensive military use was World War II. A few cavalry charges were attempted, but most did not end well with the advent of automatic weapons and explosives. Horses can be trained to ignore the clang of swords and bang of guns, but most lose their nerve when faced with a large explosion that shakes the ground. Despite falling out of favor as battle mounts, horses still saw use hauling goods and supplies, or for short-range transportation, particularly in places where horseback riding policemen were already common.
- In the modern day, horses still see extensive use by armies without much financial backing, and by many militaries who need fast transportation over difficult terrain. Modern vehicles can have difficulty getting through wooded or rocky areas, and while new technologies are being developed in those fields and horses are well past their heyday, they still see some tours of duty.
Five horses have been recognized by the United Kingdom for their service, and were granted the Dickin Medal.
- Olga, a bay mare, was initially spooked by an explosion during an air bombing in Tooting. Her rider, J. E. Thwaites, successfully calmed her, and the pair went on to escort civilians to safety.
- Regal, a bey gelding, bravely survived an incendiary bombing near his stable and was led out without injury, despite fires spreading next to his stall. Three years later, a different bomb wrecked the same stable and injured Regal, but he still survived.
- Upstart, a chestnut gelding, was patrolling a street in Bethnal Green with his rider, DI J. Morley. A bomb went off 75 feet in front of him, showering the pair in shrapnel and broken glass. The horse remained unfazed through the ordeal, and the pair went on to lead survivors to safety.
- Warrior, the warhorse of General Jack Seely in World War I, was posthumously granted the Dickin Medal. The horse served four years, from 1914 to 1918, on the Western Front.
- Sergeant Reckless was an ammunition carrier horse serving the US Marines during the Korean War. She was honored the Dickin Medal after being twice wounded in battle, and notably, during the Battle for Outpost Vegas, successfully made 53 transports in a single day hauling ammunition to the battlefield and hauling wounded soldiers to safety on her way back.
It's only natural that man's best friend follow into conflict. Being the first animal ever domesticated by humans, dogs have undoubtedly been involved in far more battles and conquests than we have recorded history for. Throughout history, dogs have primarily been used for their superpowered tracking abilities and ability to sense danger, whether it's enemy warriors sneaking into your encampment or sniffing out explosives buried in the sand, or chasing fleeing enemies in the field. In battle, dogs are obviously terrifying combatants and many soldiers feel a primal fear at the sound of barking and snarling. Dogs have been weaponized by, more or less, every culture that had access to them. A less appreciated aspect, however, is the morale boost a dog brings. War Is Hell after all, and canine friendship has often been cited as one of the primary reasons some soldiers can stay in good spirits during war.
- In ancient times, Greeks trained dogs to fight enemy soldiers. The details on this are unclear, but it is the earliest record of dogs being used in war. There are visual depictions of Cimmerian war dogs clashing with Greek hoplites.
- In Rome, Emperor Marcus Aurelius began the tradition of training dogs for war. The now extinct Molossus breed was primarily used, and were armed with spiked collars and dressed in chainmail for protection. Supposedly, they could even be arranged to attack in formation.
- Emperor Lê Lợi of the Vietnam Empire raised a pack of 100 war hounds.
- In Medieval Europe, Mastiffs and Great Danes were trained to use their massive size and strength to disable enemy knights. Either their barking would spook enemy warhorses, or, more dramatically, they could pounce on riders and knock them off their horses. Wardog breeding stock was often seen as a valuable trading commodity between nobility.
- Spanish conquistadors bred Alaunts, a breed that still exists today, to assist in invading Mexico, Peru, and the Caribbean.
- During World War I, dogs were primarily used for communication, running messages between different internal parties. Approximately a million dogs were slain in action. One of note, Sergeant Stubby, has been called the most decorated dog of World War I and is the first and only canine to be nominated for rank and ascend that rank through combat. One story claims that Sergeant Stubby even successfully apprehended a German spy.
- In less than heroic fashion, the Soviet Union deployed dogs strapped with explosives to destroy enemy tanks. It did not work.
- During World War II, 549 dogs served the United States Marine Corps in the Pacific theater, called "the war dogs of the Pacific." Most of these dogs were donated by civilian owners.
- Approximately 5,000 dogs served the US during the Vietnam War, where they and their handlers are said to have saved over 10,000 human lives.
- Dogs still see extensive military use today, more extensive than any other animal. In addition to the morale bonus they grant troops, they are trained to defend their handlers, but are most often used in non-combat roles, sniffing out explosives, sighting tripwires and snipers, and protecting outposts.
Many, many dogs have been granted military awards. In addition to the Dickin Medal, many US dogs have been given Purple Hearts or Silver Stars, however these weren't officially issued and were instead given to the dogs by their handlers with donated medals. See more below.
- 18 dogs were granted the Dickin Medal between 1943 and 1949 for service during World War II.
- Chips was a German Shepherd-Collie mix who is reportedly the most decorated US military dog of World War II. He first served as a sentry, but was later dispatched with the 3rd Infantry Division where he saw Italy, France, North Africa, Sicily, and Germany. During the Sicily invasion, Chips and his handler were pinned down by a machine-gun nest. Chips broke away from his handler and charged the nest. Despite taking a wound on his scalp and powder burns, he managed to run out all four soldiers manning the nest, and those soldiers surrendered to US troops. Later that same day, he helped capture Italian soldiers. He was awarded a Distinguished Service Cross, Purple Heart, and Silver Star even though the War Department had regulations banning the awarding of medals to animals; this ban was waived by General Truscott who personally pinned the Distinguished Service Cross to Chips' collar. However, a Purple Heart nationalist complained to the President that awarding a dog a Purple Heart was an insult to the human soldiers who earned it, and Congress later had Chips' awards revoked. While the awards were reinstated after large public outcry, the Army persisted that from that point on, no awards could be granted to war animals. Chips was posthumously awarded the Dickin Medal in 2018.
- In 2011, a Belgian Malinois named Cairo serving under the US Navy Seals participated in Operation Neptune Spear, the operation that killed Osama Bin Ladin. He served with his handler outside, charged to track escapees and deter any ground response.
You aren't dreaming. Pigeons are likely the most utilized military animal of the contemporary age. The utility of the homing pigeon has been known for centuries, but pigeons had a massive boom in use during the two World Wars. Their homing instinct allows them to return to their nests over extremely long distances; the vector of this is unknown, but is believed to be a form of magnetoreception. They also fly swiftly, and fly at high altitudes, making them very effective for communication. During wartime, marksmen would be given good marks for shooting an enemy carrier pigeon from the sky, while shooting an allied one would be considered an action worth a criminal fine. Message delivery was the primary usage for homing pigeons, but, as seen above, other experiments were attempted, including strapping cameras to pigeons, or using them as bomb-guidance systems. Pigeons saw open official use until 1966, although there are some reports that a few modern military groups use them today.
- The usage of pigeons to communicate dates back to the 6th century. Both Cyrus, King of Persia, and Julius Caesar are documented to have used pigeons to send and receive messages.
- During the Franco-Prussion War, Parisians used pigeons to send messages out from the city. In response, the Prussian Army used hawks to try and combat them.
- During World War I, the use of pigeons exploded. The US Army used 600 pigeons in France alone. They were so important for naval communication, that the USS Langley, the first US Aircraft Carrier, was built with a pigeon house. When released from the coast, the pigeons were actually able to find their way back to the ship, although releasing multiple introduced problems when they roosted in a small group on the coast, making a new nest instead of flying back home.
- During World War II, the UK employed 250,000 pigeons. Out of respect, the Dickin Medal, introduced following World War II, has been granted to 32 pigeons; pigeons have earned more medals than any other military animal combined.
- In 2010, Indian police were concerned that a recently captured pigeon from Pakistan might have been used for communication. In 2016, a Jordanian border official stated that Islamic militant groups had been using homing pigeons for message delivery. Neither of these claims have hard evidence (No one's captured/killed a pigeon with a message nor has a pigeon message been discovered), but they are not outside the realm of possibility.
While a lot of pigeons have received medals for their service, a few stand out.
- Cher Ami was a Blue Chek hen serving the United States Signal Corp in France during World War I. On October 3rd, 1918, over 550 men were pinned down in a on the side of a hill without food or ammunition. In addition to enemy troops, they were receiving friendly fire from allies who didn't know who they were. After 2 pigeons from this group were already shot down, Cher Ami was dispatched with a message reading, "We are along the road paralell[sic] to 276.4. Our own artillery is dropping a barrage directly on us. For heavens sake stop it." Cher Ami was fired upon by German soldiers. She was shot down, but despite injury, she took flight again and made it home. The bullet had flown through her breast, her left eye had been blinded, and her leg was hanging by a tendon, but her message saved over 194 lives. The Army medics worked tirelessly to save her life, and she was given a new wooden leg and was returned home. She was awarded the Croix de guerre, a French medal made for those who performed valorous actions in World War I. She died a year after the war ended, and her body was stuffed and is currently at the Smithsonian Institution alongside Sergeant Stubby.
- G.I. Joe (Not that one) was a US pigeon who served through both World Wars. At the village of Calvi Vecchia in Italy, British soldiers had successfully taken the village from enemy German soldiers. They did this ahead of the predicted schedule, and an American air raid had been planned to bomb the village. The soldiers tried to reach the Americans, but were unable to send a radio message. G.I. Joe was sent as a last resort. He flew 20 miles in 20 minutes, an extremely fast speed, and arrived in his home box just in time to have the air raid cancelled (Pilots were literally preparing to take off). Over 1000 lives were saved, and after the war. G.I. Joe was awarded the Dickin Medal, and he is credited with "the most outstanding flight made by a United States Army homing pigeon in World War II." G.I. Joe died of old age at 18, and his body was stuffed and currently sits on display at the U.S. Army Communications Electronics Museum at Fort Monmouth.
Besides horses, many animals have been used to bear payloads or passengers. Such animals were often stocky, strong, and less-than mild mannered. Horses are renowned for their steady tempers and calmness. Other animals, not so much, which is why they either saw less extensive use, or were rapidly abandoned when it was obvious they could be a danger to their handlers.
War Elephants - massive, hulking beasts all grey skin and ivory. The largest land animal has actually had a pretty extensive history serving in wars. The reason why should be obvious - they're large, strong, intelligent, and intimidating; their exotic appearance was an absolute horror to cultures who had never seen them before. They were often used to carry commanders, who could survey the battlefield from the high vantage point on the elephant's back, or held mounted archers, who could use the same vantage point to accurately shoot. Otherwise, a charging elephant will kill just about anybody. Training these beasts, however, was no easy task, and while their intelligence actually makes them highly trainable, it often involved methods involving animal cruelty. The disadvantages are great, as well; elephants are easily spooked, and a terrified elephant is more of a danger to it's own army than it's enemy, since it'll turn around and trample it's own backup. The practice of training war elephants is called Elephantry, and the elephants used are vastly Asian Elephants, as opposed to African Elephant, which is more well-known in the modern world.
- Prior to being used for war, elephants were being tamed for agricultural uses, which made the transition easier. However, elephants never made the leap from wild to domesticated, and all elephants used for these tasks were captured in the wild.
- Sanskrit songs dating back to 1,100 BC depict elephants being tamed and trained for war.
- Hannibal Barca famously deployed war elephants to great effect in multiple battles. Particularly, the Carthaginian commander was able to cross the Alps while riding his elephant.
- In India, tusk-swords were weapons designed to be mounted on elephants. Their tusks would be cut off to a point, and replaced with a long, metal blade.
- Surprisingly to most people, elephants have been used in war as recently as World War II, although mostly for labor and logistics in places that armored vehicles could not reach. They would perform tasks such as pulling aircraft on airfields and hauling other heavy equipment. This practice has, of course, been largely discontinued, although elephants are still tamed today for ceremonial purposes.
While the horse and elephant were the most well known and notable mounts of war, others have been recorded.
- Camels are important animals to people living in deserts and other places with no water. Camels served in both World Wars, and Camel Cavalry are still fielded today by the Indian Army to patrol the deserts at their border.
- Mules have often been used to haul cargo. Extremely hardy, they were fielded by the US, British, and Indian Armies during World War II, in places where they could easily and stoically haul cargo that jeeps and pack horses could not.
- Oxen have been used in a similar manner to mules, but less often due to their temperament.
- In a humorous attempt, both Sweden and the Soviet Union have attempted to train moose for use in war. While moose cavalry was actually shown to be very effective in regions with deep snow and could be trained to ignore gunfire, they faltered due to non-combat reasons, being very susceptible to livestock disease and were difficult to keep fed.
While dogs have always been the primary method of using an animal as an actual weapon, they are not the only animals that have been trained for such purposes. Many have been trained to thrive in the shock of combat, while in more modern times, tragically, before animal cruelty and other awareness campaigns, animals were often used as living bombs. Thankfully, those cases were either quickly shut-down experiments, or otherwise were proven ineffective.
Cats actually have a larger military history than once thought. Big cats were trained primarily in ancient times, while in the modern day, cats are used by Navies for pest control, hunting rats that stow away on board. Some of these cats are remembered specifically, and others are known by general knowledge.
- Ancient Egyptians were known to tame Cheetahs for hunting and war purposes. They were often handled, in appropriate fashion, by archers or chariot riders.
- Ramses II, third Pharaoh of Egypt, had a pet war lion. Yeah, seriously. It fought with him at the Battle of Kadesh. It's name can be translated as "slayer of his foes" or "he who repels the enemy." The lion is even credited as being one of the few in Ramses' army who did not flee in fear when Hittites ambushed their camp. Ramses later had the fleeing generals decapitated, and probably fed to his kitty. Besides this, Egyptians often kept caged lions who were starved and released in the direction of enemy forces.
- The CIA attempted to surgically modify cats to be effective spies on Soviet and Kremlin embassies. After 10 million dollars spent, the experiment was scrapped.
- Simon is the only cat to have received the Dickins Medal. Simon served aboard the HMS Amethyst, and was granted the medal for not only raising morale, but for surviving a cannon shell and fighting off a rat infestation afterwards.
This section is dedicated to all the attempts to turn animals into self-guiding explosives. While the moral implications here are obvious, it still happened. Besides the dogs listed above:
- Monkeys were actually trained by the Southern Song Dynasty of China. The animals would be wrapped in straw, dipped in oil, set on fire, and tossed into enemy compounds where they spread fire and chaos.
- Similarly, in ancient times, pigs and boars were also set on fire and released into enemy ranks. This actually proved an effective deterrent against war elephants, who would be spooked by the fire and sound of screaming pigs.
- Project Pigeon was a US based operation to use pigeons to guide bombs. While the pigeons themselves weren't strapped with bombs, the plan was to affix them with trackers and deploy them to areas to help in aiming the bombs. The plan was scrapped after $25,000 was put into it, mostly because no one would take it seriously, Thankfully, pigeons were very useful elsewhere during the war.
- A different US project proposed using Mexican free-tailed bats with bombs strapped to them. It did not get off the ground. During testing, the bats were revealed to be an extreme danger to keep when some got loose and started a massive fire at Carlsbad Army Airfield Auxiliary Air Base in New Mexico. | <urn:uuid:cca349e0-2582-447b-a2d2-42623ff15467> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/UsefulNotes/MilitaryAnimals | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00054.warc.gz | en | 0.983044 | 4,727 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.251624971628189... | 1 | Ever wondered where all the inspiration for the Weaponized Animal or Beast of Battle came from? Like everything else, it came from Real Life. Animals have been used in war for the entirety of human history, for mundane jobs like field work, cargo hauling, and pest control, to more specialized roles such as communications, not to mention the prospect of them being mounts or an Attack Animal. The United Kingdom even has a special commemoration for particularly brave or exceptional military animals, known as the Dickin Medal.
Horses have enjoyed a long and illustrious history alongside humans in war. In the entire history of the world, horses have been utilized in militaries much more than any other animal. From a tactical standpoint, horses are extremely mobile and require relatively little rest. They can trek long distances hauling cargo or carrying riders, and their speed allows armies to outmaneuver or outrun foes. From a battle standpoint, a pissed horse is chaos on a battlefield, and horses were trained to kick, bite, and stomp either on command or reflexively. A single rider armed with a long-reaching weapon such as a lance or bow could run circles around unmounted enemies and kill them one by one.
- In the Bronze Age, in places such as Ancient Egypt and Greece, horse drawn chariots carrying one or two soldiers were extremely powerful on the primitive battlefield. A single rider could use the chariot to rapidly move through the battle, mounting onto the chariot, moving where he was needed, and dismounting to engage the enemy. Alternatively, a chariot could carry two, one to drive the chariot, and a passenger that was either being transported, or was armed with a bow to take enemy soldiers out from a distance. Chariots, ultimately, fell off pretty quickly due to their high-cost and extreme difficulty to repair if damaged. Riding the horse itself was ultimately deemed more effective.
- In Asia, horses, next to the invention of the recurve bow, are often cited as the main reason that Genghis Khan and his Mongols conquered as much land as he did. Mongolian archers were trained to fire their arrows when all four of the horse's feet were off the ground, thus granting them greater accuracy. Soldiers had very close bonds with their horses and held them in the utmost respect. In particularly desperate times, such as during food shortages or when a soldier was separated from his army, Mongolians would cut into a minor vein in the horses neck and drink the blood when water was not available. Traditionally, the saying goes that a Mongolian without a horse is like a bird without wings.
- During medieval times, warhorses were at perhaps their most prevalent in European history. The entire concept of Chivalry (Which comes from the French word chevalerie, which literally means 'horse soldiery.') is predicated on the sheer power a horse granted him, and is an attempt to prevent Knights from abusing that powernote . Horses were perhaps trained at their strongest and largest, and were often decked in elaborate armored barding to protect them. Trained to thrive in the shock and noise of close combat, horses remained the primary avenue through which Europeans waged their wars.
- Although the advent of firearms made cavalry less effective, horses were still used as war mounts well into the American Civil War. Although it has been claimed that bows remained more effective on horseback, riders wielding muskets and pistols alongside sabers were very common, particularly for commanding officers. Cavalry charges remained relatively common since horses could close distance faster than an enemy force could reload. These horses were trained to grow used to the cracking sound of gunfire.
- The last place horses saw extensive military use was World War II. A few cavalry charges were attempted, but most did not end well with the advent of automatic weapons and explosives. Horses can be trained to ignore the clang of swords and bang of guns, but most lose their nerve when faced with a large explosion that shakes the ground. Despite falling out of favor as battle mounts, horses still saw use hauling goods and supplies, or for short-range transportation, particularly in places where horseback riding policemen were already common.
- In the modern day, horses still see extensive use by armies without much financial backing, and by many militaries who need fast transportation over difficult terrain. Modern vehicles can have difficulty getting through wooded or rocky areas, and while new technologies are being developed in those fields and horses are well past their heyday, they still see some tours of duty.
Five horses have been recognized by the United Kingdom for their service, and were granted the Dickin Medal.
- Olga, a bay mare, was initially spooked by an explosion during an air bombing in Tooting. Her rider, J. E. Thwaites, successfully calmed her, and the pair went on to escort civilians to safety.
- Regal, a bey gelding, bravely survived an incendiary bombing near his stable and was led out without injury, despite fires spreading next to his stall. Three years later, a different bomb wrecked the same stable and injured Regal, but he still survived.
- Upstart, a chestnut gelding, was patrolling a street in Bethnal Green with his rider, DI J. Morley. A bomb went off 75 feet in front of him, showering the pair in shrapnel and broken glass. The horse remained unfazed through the ordeal, and the pair went on to lead survivors to safety.
- Warrior, the warhorse of General Jack Seely in World War I, was posthumously granted the Dickin Medal. The horse served four years, from 1914 to 1918, on the Western Front.
- Sergeant Reckless was an ammunition carrier horse serving the US Marines during the Korean War. She was honored the Dickin Medal after being twice wounded in battle, and notably, during the Battle for Outpost Vegas, successfully made 53 transports in a single day hauling ammunition to the battlefield and hauling wounded soldiers to safety on her way back.
It's only natural that man's best friend follow into conflict. Being the first animal ever domesticated by humans, dogs have undoubtedly been involved in far more battles and conquests than we have recorded history for. Throughout history, dogs have primarily been used for their superpowered tracking abilities and ability to sense danger, whether it's enemy warriors sneaking into your encampment or sniffing out explosives buried in the sand, or chasing fleeing enemies in the field. In battle, dogs are obviously terrifying combatants and many soldiers feel a primal fear at the sound of barking and snarling. Dogs have been weaponized by, more or less, every culture that had access to them. A less appreciated aspect, however, is the morale boost a dog brings. War Is Hell after all, and canine friendship has often been cited as one of the primary reasons some soldiers can stay in good spirits during war.
- In ancient times, Greeks trained dogs to fight enemy soldiers. The details on this are unclear, but it is the earliest record of dogs being used in war. There are visual depictions of Cimmerian war dogs clashing with Greek hoplites.
- In Rome, Emperor Marcus Aurelius began the tradition of training dogs for war. The now extinct Molossus breed was primarily used, and were armed with spiked collars and dressed in chainmail for protection. Supposedly, they could even be arranged to attack in formation.
- Emperor Lê Lợi of the Vietnam Empire raised a pack of 100 war hounds.
- In Medieval Europe, Mastiffs and Great Danes were trained to use their massive size and strength to disable enemy knights. Either their barking would spook enemy warhorses, or, more dramatically, they could pounce on riders and knock them off their horses. Wardog breeding stock was often seen as a valuable trading commodity between nobility.
- Spanish conquistadors bred Alaunts, a breed that still exists today, to assist in invading Mexico, Peru, and the Caribbean.
- During World War I, dogs were primarily used for communication, running messages between different internal parties. Approximately a million dogs were slain in action. One of note, Sergeant Stubby, has been called the most decorated dog of World War I and is the first and only canine to be nominated for rank and ascend that rank through combat. One story claims that Sergeant Stubby even successfully apprehended a German spy.
- In less than heroic fashion, the Soviet Union deployed dogs strapped with explosives to destroy enemy tanks. It did not work.
- During World War II, 549 dogs served the United States Marine Corps in the Pacific theater, called "the war dogs of the Pacific." Most of these dogs were donated by civilian owners.
- Approximately 5,000 dogs served the US during the Vietnam War, where they and their handlers are said to have saved over 10,000 human lives.
- Dogs still see extensive military use today, more extensive than any other animal. In addition to the morale bonus they grant troops, they are trained to defend their handlers, but are most often used in non-combat roles, sniffing out explosives, sighting tripwires and snipers, and protecting outposts.
Many, many dogs have been granted military awards. In addition to the Dickin Medal, many US dogs have been given Purple Hearts or Silver Stars, however these weren't officially issued and were instead given to the dogs by their handlers with donated medals. See more below.
- 18 dogs were granted the Dickin Medal between 1943 and 1949 for service during World War II.
- Chips was a German Shepherd-Collie mix who is reportedly the most decorated US military dog of World War II. He first served as a sentry, but was later dispatched with the 3rd Infantry Division where he saw Italy, France, North Africa, Sicily, and Germany. During the Sicily invasion, Chips and his handler were pinned down by a machine-gun nest. Chips broke away from his handler and charged the nest. Despite taking a wound on his scalp and powder burns, he managed to run out all four soldiers manning the nest, and those soldiers surrendered to US troops. Later that same day, he helped capture Italian soldiers. He was awarded a Distinguished Service Cross, Purple Heart, and Silver Star even though the War Department had regulations banning the awarding of medals to animals; this ban was waived by General Truscott who personally pinned the Distinguished Service Cross to Chips' collar. However, a Purple Heart nationalist complained to the President that awarding a dog a Purple Heart was an insult to the human soldiers who earned it, and Congress later had Chips' awards revoked. While the awards were reinstated after large public outcry, the Army persisted that from that point on, no awards could be granted to war animals. Chips was posthumously awarded the Dickin Medal in 2018.
- In 2011, a Belgian Malinois named Cairo serving under the US Navy Seals participated in Operation Neptune Spear, the operation that killed Osama Bin Ladin. He served with his handler outside, charged to track escapees and deter any ground response.
You aren't dreaming. Pigeons are likely the most utilized military animal of the contemporary age. The utility of the homing pigeon has been known for centuries, but pigeons had a massive boom in use during the two World Wars. Their homing instinct allows them to return to their nests over extremely long distances; the vector of this is unknown, but is believed to be a form of magnetoreception. They also fly swiftly, and fly at high altitudes, making them very effective for communication. During wartime, marksmen would be given good marks for shooting an enemy carrier pigeon from the sky, while shooting an allied one would be considered an action worth a criminal fine. Message delivery was the primary usage for homing pigeons, but, as seen above, other experiments were attempted, including strapping cameras to pigeons, or using them as bomb-guidance systems. Pigeons saw open official use until 1966, although there are some reports that a few modern military groups use them today.
- The usage of pigeons to communicate dates back to the 6th century. Both Cyrus, King of Persia, and Julius Caesar are documented to have used pigeons to send and receive messages.
- During the Franco-Prussion War, Parisians used pigeons to send messages out from the city. In response, the Prussian Army used hawks to try and combat them.
- During World War I, the use of pigeons exploded. The US Army used 600 pigeons in France alone. They were so important for naval communication, that the USS Langley, the first US Aircraft Carrier, was built with a pigeon house. When released from the coast, the pigeons were actually able to find their way back to the ship, although releasing multiple introduced problems when they roosted in a small group on the coast, making a new nest instead of flying back home.
- During World War II, the UK employed 250,000 pigeons. Out of respect, the Dickin Medal, introduced following World War II, has been granted to 32 pigeons; pigeons have earned more medals than any other military animal combined.
- In 2010, Indian police were concerned that a recently captured pigeon from Pakistan might have been used for communication. In 2016, a Jordanian border official stated that Islamic militant groups had been using homing pigeons for message delivery. Neither of these claims have hard evidence (No one's captured/killed a pigeon with a message nor has a pigeon message been discovered), but they are not outside the realm of possibility.
While a lot of pigeons have received medals for their service, a few stand out.
- Cher Ami was a Blue Chek hen serving the United States Signal Corp in France during World War I. On October 3rd, 1918, over 550 men were pinned down in a on the side of a hill without food or ammunition. In addition to enemy troops, they were receiving friendly fire from allies who didn't know who they were. After 2 pigeons from this group were already shot down, Cher Ami was dispatched with a message reading, "We are along the road paralell[sic] to 276.4. Our own artillery is dropping a barrage directly on us. For heavens sake stop it." Cher Ami was fired upon by German soldiers. She was shot down, but despite injury, she took flight again and made it home. The bullet had flown through her breast, her left eye had been blinded, and her leg was hanging by a tendon, but her message saved over 194 lives. The Army medics worked tirelessly to save her life, and she was given a new wooden leg and was returned home. She was awarded the Croix de guerre, a French medal made for those who performed valorous actions in World War I. She died a year after the war ended, and her body was stuffed and is currently at the Smithsonian Institution alongside Sergeant Stubby.
- G.I. Joe (Not that one) was a US pigeon who served through both World Wars. At the village of Calvi Vecchia in Italy, British soldiers had successfully taken the village from enemy German soldiers. They did this ahead of the predicted schedule, and an American air raid had been planned to bomb the village. The soldiers tried to reach the Americans, but were unable to send a radio message. G.I. Joe was sent as a last resort. He flew 20 miles in 20 minutes, an extremely fast speed, and arrived in his home box just in time to have the air raid cancelled (Pilots were literally preparing to take off). Over 1000 lives were saved, and after the war. G.I. Joe was awarded the Dickin Medal, and he is credited with "the most outstanding flight made by a United States Army homing pigeon in World War II." G.I. Joe died of old age at 18, and his body was stuffed and currently sits on display at the U.S. Army Communications Electronics Museum at Fort Monmouth.
Besides horses, many animals have been used to bear payloads or passengers. Such animals were often stocky, strong, and less-than mild mannered. Horses are renowned for their steady tempers and calmness. Other animals, not so much, which is why they either saw less extensive use, or were rapidly abandoned when it was obvious they could be a danger to their handlers.
War Elephants - massive, hulking beasts all grey skin and ivory. The largest land animal has actually had a pretty extensive history serving in wars. The reason why should be obvious - they're large, strong, intelligent, and intimidating; their exotic appearance was an absolute horror to cultures who had never seen them before. They were often used to carry commanders, who could survey the battlefield from the high vantage point on the elephant's back, or held mounted archers, who could use the same vantage point to accurately shoot. Otherwise, a charging elephant will kill just about anybody. Training these beasts, however, was no easy task, and while their intelligence actually makes them highly trainable, it often involved methods involving animal cruelty. The disadvantages are great, as well; elephants are easily spooked, and a terrified elephant is more of a danger to it's own army than it's enemy, since it'll turn around and trample it's own backup. The practice of training war elephants is called Elephantry, and the elephants used are vastly Asian Elephants, as opposed to African Elephant, which is more well-known in the modern world.
- Prior to being used for war, elephants were being tamed for agricultural uses, which made the transition easier. However, elephants never made the leap from wild to domesticated, and all elephants used for these tasks were captured in the wild.
- Sanskrit songs dating back to 1,100 BC depict elephants being tamed and trained for war.
- Hannibal Barca famously deployed war elephants to great effect in multiple battles. Particularly, the Carthaginian commander was able to cross the Alps while riding his elephant.
- In India, tusk-swords were weapons designed to be mounted on elephants. Their tusks would be cut off to a point, and replaced with a long, metal blade.
- Surprisingly to most people, elephants have been used in war as recently as World War II, although mostly for labor and logistics in places that armored vehicles could not reach. They would perform tasks such as pulling aircraft on airfields and hauling other heavy equipment. This practice has, of course, been largely discontinued, although elephants are still tamed today for ceremonial purposes.
While the horse and elephant were the most well known and notable mounts of war, others have been recorded.
- Camels are important animals to people living in deserts and other places with no water. Camels served in both World Wars, and Camel Cavalry are still fielded today by the Indian Army to patrol the deserts at their border.
- Mules have often been used to haul cargo. Extremely hardy, they were fielded by the US, British, and Indian Armies during World War II, in places where they could easily and stoically haul cargo that jeeps and pack horses could not.
- Oxen have been used in a similar manner to mules, but less often due to their temperament.
- In a humorous attempt, both Sweden and the Soviet Union have attempted to train moose for use in war. While moose cavalry was actually shown to be very effective in regions with deep snow and could be trained to ignore gunfire, they faltered due to non-combat reasons, being very susceptible to livestock disease and were difficult to keep fed.
While dogs have always been the primary method of using an animal as an actual weapon, they are not the only animals that have been trained for such purposes. Many have been trained to thrive in the shock of combat, while in more modern times, tragically, before animal cruelty and other awareness campaigns, animals were often used as living bombs. Thankfully, those cases were either quickly shut-down experiments, or otherwise were proven ineffective.
Cats actually have a larger military history than once thought. Big cats were trained primarily in ancient times, while in the modern day, cats are used by Navies for pest control, hunting rats that stow away on board. Some of these cats are remembered specifically, and others are known by general knowledge.
- Ancient Egyptians were known to tame Cheetahs for hunting and war purposes. They were often handled, in appropriate fashion, by archers or chariot riders.
- Ramses II, third Pharaoh of Egypt, had a pet war lion. Yeah, seriously. It fought with him at the Battle of Kadesh. It's name can be translated as "slayer of his foes" or "he who repels the enemy." The lion is even credited as being one of the few in Ramses' army who did not flee in fear when Hittites ambushed their camp. Ramses later had the fleeing generals decapitated, and probably fed to his kitty. Besides this, Egyptians often kept caged lions who were starved and released in the direction of enemy forces.
- The CIA attempted to surgically modify cats to be effective spies on Soviet and Kremlin embassies. After 10 million dollars spent, the experiment was scrapped.
- Simon is the only cat to have received the Dickins Medal. Simon served aboard the HMS Amethyst, and was granted the medal for not only raising morale, but for surviving a cannon shell and fighting off a rat infestation afterwards.
This section is dedicated to all the attempts to turn animals into self-guiding explosives. While the moral implications here are obvious, it still happened. Besides the dogs listed above:
- Monkeys were actually trained by the Southern Song Dynasty of China. The animals would be wrapped in straw, dipped in oil, set on fire, and tossed into enemy compounds where they spread fire and chaos.
- Similarly, in ancient times, pigs and boars were also set on fire and released into enemy ranks. This actually proved an effective deterrent against war elephants, who would be spooked by the fire and sound of screaming pigs.
- Project Pigeon was a US based operation to use pigeons to guide bombs. While the pigeons themselves weren't strapped with bombs, the plan was to affix them with trackers and deploy them to areas to help in aiming the bombs. The plan was scrapped after $25,000 was put into it, mostly because no one would take it seriously, Thankfully, pigeons were very useful elsewhere during the war.
- A different US project proposed using Mexican free-tailed bats with bombs strapped to them. It did not get off the ground. During testing, the bats were revealed to be an extreme danger to keep when some got loose and started a massive fire at Carlsbad Army Airfield Auxiliary Air Base in New Mexico. | 4,772 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It is taught throughout history books that women were not in the early stages of Greek theatre. As theatre developed in Greece, the role of women in the theatre was greatly diminished. Scholars believe they were banned from the stages, and even from attending the performances. Is this true, or did women play a bigger role than once thought? Women were once the leaders of multiple religious rituals and ceremonies. What provoked the removal of them? Were they really not allowed to attend or perform in these festivals? Women in ancient Greece had a wide variety of religious duties. Most were tied to the women’s role in the home. They performed in and supervised rituals pertaining to a new birth, marriage, and death. Considered the most important of these was birth. Before giving birth, a pregnant bride had to travel to the Bride-room in the temple of Artemis to perform a sacrifice. This was to ensure a safe and non-problematic pregnancy and delivery. The birthing process had a high ritual element, many deities were considered to be over childbirth, and the act of giving birth required the participation of many women. They performed a ritual cry called the ololuge, this was cried by all attending women. The involvement of the women in these rituals added to their sociability and gained them more access in the community and the temples. The second important ritualistic activity was marriage. In Greek culture, marriage has a major symbolic weight.
While men were also involved in the ritual of marriage, the bulk of ritual obligations fell on the bride. Like in the birthing rituals, a bride to be must go to the temple of Artemis and perform a sacrifice. This could be done at any time before the wedding, but if not completed before the marriage, she must then perform the sacrifice of a full-grown victim at the Festival of Artemis. In addition to the bride’s sacrifice, the mother of the bride also makes a sacrifice to Aphrodite at the wedding ceremony. While weddings took place in other places, it is known that in Athens, the wedding is followed by a procession of many women, including the bride, her mother, and mother-in-law, walking from the bride’s natal house to her marital house carrying torches. The wedding celebrations also included choruses of young women performing song and dance. Lastly, but still a very important ritual headed by women, was funerals. The women were in charge of washing and tending to the body. They were also responsible for the ritual lamentation of the corpse. Women took a large physical presence at the funerals themselves. Women were often seen as better at emotional expression than men, so they took over the role of articulating both grief and joy, on behalf of themselves and the men.
In Plato’s Laws, he forbids the hiring of women to perform as professional mourners in private funerals. This leads to the belief that hiring women for funerals was a practice done frequently in Greece. Aspects of the funeral ritual occur so frequently in tragedy that some scholars believe the earliest drama sprang from these performances. In fact, the funerals and weddings of Greece were often perceived as performances where private and public practices intertwined and both men and women alternated between becoming actors and spectators. In a way, everything done by the people of Greece was a performance, a performance for the Gods and Goddesses they tried to appease in all aspects of life. Continuing with this notion, were festivals. Women even had their own festival. The festival of the Thesmophoria. This was a religious festival to honor the goddess, Demeter. It was held to promote fertility of crops and was reserved for women only. During the festival, the women would move into huts outside the city, fast, and abstain from sex for three days. They Sacrificed piglets and threw them in an underground pit. From this pit the women retrieved the remains of the piglets sacrificed the year before.
They mixed these remains with seeds and each woman buried a portion of the mixture in the fields. While women had roles in other rituals and festivals, the festival that paved the road for theatre we know today is still considered by many to be a male-only event. The festival of Dionysus, where theatre was born. However, according to Greek Tragic Theatre written by Rush Rehm, Most civic festivals were open to everyone men, women, slaves, children, resident aliens, visiting foreigners. There were exceptions men were excluded from the all-women festivals associated with Demeter, for example but generally speaking, the city gathered in all its variety, providing both performers and audience for the various events The earliest pre-dramatic celebrations in honor of Dionysus were known as revels. Revels were performed by a selected person singing an improvised dithyramb which was answered by a conventional reply from a group of revelers. This is paralleled to the funeral lamentations where appointed women leaders would sing a dirge that was joined by the ritual wailing of the other women. The dithyramb later became the theatrical presentation of a choral hymn sung and danced by fifty men. These theatrical dithyrambs became the first to be judged in contest. The poet Thespis is credited with the introduction of an individual character becoming a part of the choruses. Over the span of the next hundred years western theatre was introduced, polished, and perfected. Playwrights such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides appeared and began writing tragedies to be performed as apart of the Dionysian festival and thus changing the festival forever. The new Dionysian festival added three days for the tragic performances, and one day for comedies.
Almost everything else about the festival remained the same. It began with a torchlight procession of the statue of Dionysus from outside the city, after this the citizens prepared for the bigger procession to come. At the same time, the playwrights would introduce the plays that would be performed later in the festival. The following day, the great procession of the statue of Dionysus to the temple near the theatre took place. Men and women bore various ritual vessels and offerings during this procession. Before the competitions began the theatre was purified by the sacrificing of a piglet and carrying the corpse around the performance space, almost like the Thesophoria festival. On the next day, the dithyramb competitions began, this consisted of ten choruses of boys and ten choruses of men, each chorus consisted of fifty members. The athletic competitions were also held on this day. The following three days were devoted to the tragic competitions. Each of these days consisted of a tetralogy, which is three tragedies followed by a satyr. On the seventh day of the festival, five comedic plays were performed. There were no exclusions on who could attend the festival or the performances, but it is still believed women were not allowed on stage in ancient Greek theatre. This was most likely due to several factors, including, politics, education, and the overall perception of women. Women had absolutely no voice in politics. Married women could have some influence over their husbands regarding political opinions, depending on their individual relationships.
Without rights, they couldn’t vote or hold a political office, and considering most theatre is derived from religion and politics, its possible it was a factor keeping them from the stage. Education or lack thereof is another possible deterrent for women in theatre. Women were educated at home if they were educated at all, and with very limited teachings. Men were allowed to attend formal schools. Without access to proper knowledge of reading and writing, and probably eloquent speaking, it is hard to imagine them being able to participate in a play. Aside from political standing, and education, Greece had a very poor view of women in general. They were perceived as strange, emotionally unstable, and mad in most cases. This is shown through the art, stories, and teachings from the era. An example of this is the maenads in Greek mythology. The maenads were female followers of Dionysus who sacrificed and performed ecstatic dances in his honor. At the climax of their mad dances the maenads, with their bare hands would tear apart an animal after nourishing them from their own breast. They would then eat the raw flesh. On some occasions, it was said, they tore apart a tender child as if it were a fawn. It is possible that the perception of women played a part in not being included in the plays. It’s almost certain that the by the time Aeschylus introduced the second character and Greek drama was fully established that women were removed completely.
The question is, why wouldn’t women be allowed to perform? We know that women indeed danced and sung in the dithyrambic and cyclic choruses that preceded the tragic chorus. They were apart of the dramatic mysteries of Eleusis and led the Bacchic orgies in the mountains of Boeotia and Thrace. Greek philosopher Plutarch talks of the women of Elis who summoned Dionysus with their hymns. Mimetic dances were a well-known part of Greek expression, as well as monodies where a woman would sing and dance alone accompanied by cymbals. Songs were written for two voices that actually became miniature dramas. There were also larger choruses of girls and boys who sang and danced together in honor of the Gods. These are the expressions that gave way to the development of classic Greek theatre. This leads some to believe that women were at the birth of tragedy, even though they were eventually pushed out. Some scholars suggest that women could have formed part of tragic choruses. That means the ocean nymphs, the mourning women, the furies, and the maidens in classic choruses would have been played by women and not actually men in disguise. There is still no definitive proof of this, but it’s a logical assumption to make considering the roles of women preceding tragedies. In reality, the stones recovered from this time with actor’s names etched on them, no woman’s name accompanies them. In the same way, the vases, and art pieces depict men in women’s costume portraying the female characters. Perhaps there is just still not enough historical research on the notion that women performed. There is only one valid instance of women performing in ancient Greece during the time of these tragedies, and that was as courtesans.
They were called Hetaera and were a special class of Greek women, who were trained to serve as a companion to upper-class men. They were, in a way, freer than the married women of Greece. Hetaera women were influential and served as advisors, entertainers, and courtesans. While some hetaerae were slaves, most were freeborn citizens who took to the trade as a means of support. Some women played an instrument such as a harp or flute, and some were gymnasts and dancers. These women were also recorded as educated, literate, and even witty. While their occupation closely resembles what we know of today as prostitution, sex was not always the end result of their performances. In a society were “respectable” women had to depend on their fathers or husbands entirely, a talented hetaera was able to live on her own terms and make enough money to live in style and comfort. It’s believed that these women were the best dressed in the society and wore lots of expensive jewelry and the latest fashions. This was also a way for women who were slaves to pay for their freedom. The event where they performed was called a symposium and contained song and dance much like those in their festivals.
They had drinking competitions, meals, and revels to honor Dionysus, the God of wine. Could this have been the response of women being excluded from theatre practices? Even if women were not allowed to perform in ancient Greek tragedies, it is inadmissible that women still had quite a presence on the stage, through the characters written by the renowned playwrights of the time. Characters such as Electra, Clytemnestra, Antigone, and Iphigenia. Characters that are incomparably noble, and passionate, and probably each based on a real woman to some degree. This proves that even if women weren’t permitted to perform in some aspects of society, that they were still able to be portrayed as strong figures in Greece. It is hard to believe that Greek women who had such an active part in religious ceremonies would tolerate being excluded from the theatre. These women who took part in Eleusinian mysteries and who returned to the temple barefoot with offerings, songs, and dances to honor Demeter. It’s hard to believe that women who were intimately connected to the worship of Dionysus, would not partake in greatest of all celebrations in his honor. The fact is there is just not significant evidence to prove that they had a part on stage. However, we can take solace in the fact that women had a strong presence in other religious ceremonies, were allowed to attend these festivals and have their own, and be a presence on stage, while if not by a woman, at least by a well-written portrayal of one. Perhaps one day the women of ancient Greece will get the acknowledgment they very much deserve. | <urn:uuid:6d2809f2-2e65-40b0-b8ee-f602ffa76418> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tooly.io/women-in-ancient-greece-theatre-practices/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00395.warc.gz | en | 0.989637 | 2,753 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.351675480604171... | 1 | It is taught throughout history books that women were not in the early stages of Greek theatre. As theatre developed in Greece, the role of women in the theatre was greatly diminished. Scholars believe they were banned from the stages, and even from attending the performances. Is this true, or did women play a bigger role than once thought? Women were once the leaders of multiple religious rituals and ceremonies. What provoked the removal of them? Were they really not allowed to attend or perform in these festivals? Women in ancient Greece had a wide variety of religious duties. Most were tied to the women’s role in the home. They performed in and supervised rituals pertaining to a new birth, marriage, and death. Considered the most important of these was birth. Before giving birth, a pregnant bride had to travel to the Bride-room in the temple of Artemis to perform a sacrifice. This was to ensure a safe and non-problematic pregnancy and delivery. The birthing process had a high ritual element, many deities were considered to be over childbirth, and the act of giving birth required the participation of many women. They performed a ritual cry called the ololuge, this was cried by all attending women. The involvement of the women in these rituals added to their sociability and gained them more access in the community and the temples. The second important ritualistic activity was marriage. In Greek culture, marriage has a major symbolic weight.
While men were also involved in the ritual of marriage, the bulk of ritual obligations fell on the bride. Like in the birthing rituals, a bride to be must go to the temple of Artemis and perform a sacrifice. This could be done at any time before the wedding, but if not completed before the marriage, she must then perform the sacrifice of a full-grown victim at the Festival of Artemis. In addition to the bride’s sacrifice, the mother of the bride also makes a sacrifice to Aphrodite at the wedding ceremony. While weddings took place in other places, it is known that in Athens, the wedding is followed by a procession of many women, including the bride, her mother, and mother-in-law, walking from the bride’s natal house to her marital house carrying torches. The wedding celebrations also included choruses of young women performing song and dance. Lastly, but still a very important ritual headed by women, was funerals. The women were in charge of washing and tending to the body. They were also responsible for the ritual lamentation of the corpse. Women took a large physical presence at the funerals themselves. Women were often seen as better at emotional expression than men, so they took over the role of articulating both grief and joy, on behalf of themselves and the men.
In Plato’s Laws, he forbids the hiring of women to perform as professional mourners in private funerals. This leads to the belief that hiring women for funerals was a practice done frequently in Greece. Aspects of the funeral ritual occur so frequently in tragedy that some scholars believe the earliest drama sprang from these performances. In fact, the funerals and weddings of Greece were often perceived as performances where private and public practices intertwined and both men and women alternated between becoming actors and spectators. In a way, everything done by the people of Greece was a performance, a performance for the Gods and Goddesses they tried to appease in all aspects of life. Continuing with this notion, were festivals. Women even had their own festival. The festival of the Thesmophoria. This was a religious festival to honor the goddess, Demeter. It was held to promote fertility of crops and was reserved for women only. During the festival, the women would move into huts outside the city, fast, and abstain from sex for three days. They Sacrificed piglets and threw them in an underground pit. From this pit the women retrieved the remains of the piglets sacrificed the year before.
They mixed these remains with seeds and each woman buried a portion of the mixture in the fields. While women had roles in other rituals and festivals, the festival that paved the road for theatre we know today is still considered by many to be a male-only event. The festival of Dionysus, where theatre was born. However, according to Greek Tragic Theatre written by Rush Rehm, Most civic festivals were open to everyone men, women, slaves, children, resident aliens, visiting foreigners. There were exceptions men were excluded from the all-women festivals associated with Demeter, for example but generally speaking, the city gathered in all its variety, providing both performers and audience for the various events The earliest pre-dramatic celebrations in honor of Dionysus were known as revels. Revels were performed by a selected person singing an improvised dithyramb which was answered by a conventional reply from a group of revelers. This is paralleled to the funeral lamentations where appointed women leaders would sing a dirge that was joined by the ritual wailing of the other women. The dithyramb later became the theatrical presentation of a choral hymn sung and danced by fifty men. These theatrical dithyrambs became the first to be judged in contest. The poet Thespis is credited with the introduction of an individual character becoming a part of the choruses. Over the span of the next hundred years western theatre was introduced, polished, and perfected. Playwrights such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides appeared and began writing tragedies to be performed as apart of the Dionysian festival and thus changing the festival forever. The new Dionysian festival added three days for the tragic performances, and one day for comedies.
Almost everything else about the festival remained the same. It began with a torchlight procession of the statue of Dionysus from outside the city, after this the citizens prepared for the bigger procession to come. At the same time, the playwrights would introduce the plays that would be performed later in the festival. The following day, the great procession of the statue of Dionysus to the temple near the theatre took place. Men and women bore various ritual vessels and offerings during this procession. Before the competitions began the theatre was purified by the sacrificing of a piglet and carrying the corpse around the performance space, almost like the Thesophoria festival. On the next day, the dithyramb competitions began, this consisted of ten choruses of boys and ten choruses of men, each chorus consisted of fifty members. The athletic competitions were also held on this day. The following three days were devoted to the tragic competitions. Each of these days consisted of a tetralogy, which is three tragedies followed by a satyr. On the seventh day of the festival, five comedic plays were performed. There were no exclusions on who could attend the festival or the performances, but it is still believed women were not allowed on stage in ancient Greek theatre. This was most likely due to several factors, including, politics, education, and the overall perception of women. Women had absolutely no voice in politics. Married women could have some influence over their husbands regarding political opinions, depending on their individual relationships.
Without rights, they couldn’t vote or hold a political office, and considering most theatre is derived from religion and politics, its possible it was a factor keeping them from the stage. Education or lack thereof is another possible deterrent for women in theatre. Women were educated at home if they were educated at all, and with very limited teachings. Men were allowed to attend formal schools. Without access to proper knowledge of reading and writing, and probably eloquent speaking, it is hard to imagine them being able to participate in a play. Aside from political standing, and education, Greece had a very poor view of women in general. They were perceived as strange, emotionally unstable, and mad in most cases. This is shown through the art, stories, and teachings from the era. An example of this is the maenads in Greek mythology. The maenads were female followers of Dionysus who sacrificed and performed ecstatic dances in his honor. At the climax of their mad dances the maenads, with their bare hands would tear apart an animal after nourishing them from their own breast. They would then eat the raw flesh. On some occasions, it was said, they tore apart a tender child as if it were a fawn. It is possible that the perception of women played a part in not being included in the plays. It’s almost certain that the by the time Aeschylus introduced the second character and Greek drama was fully established that women were removed completely.
The question is, why wouldn’t women be allowed to perform? We know that women indeed danced and sung in the dithyrambic and cyclic choruses that preceded the tragic chorus. They were apart of the dramatic mysteries of Eleusis and led the Bacchic orgies in the mountains of Boeotia and Thrace. Greek philosopher Plutarch talks of the women of Elis who summoned Dionysus with their hymns. Mimetic dances were a well-known part of Greek expression, as well as monodies where a woman would sing and dance alone accompanied by cymbals. Songs were written for two voices that actually became miniature dramas. There were also larger choruses of girls and boys who sang and danced together in honor of the Gods. These are the expressions that gave way to the development of classic Greek theatre. This leads some to believe that women were at the birth of tragedy, even though they were eventually pushed out. Some scholars suggest that women could have formed part of tragic choruses. That means the ocean nymphs, the mourning women, the furies, and the maidens in classic choruses would have been played by women and not actually men in disguise. There is still no definitive proof of this, but it’s a logical assumption to make considering the roles of women preceding tragedies. In reality, the stones recovered from this time with actor’s names etched on them, no woman’s name accompanies them. In the same way, the vases, and art pieces depict men in women’s costume portraying the female characters. Perhaps there is just still not enough historical research on the notion that women performed. There is only one valid instance of women performing in ancient Greece during the time of these tragedies, and that was as courtesans.
They were called Hetaera and were a special class of Greek women, who were trained to serve as a companion to upper-class men. They were, in a way, freer than the married women of Greece. Hetaera women were influential and served as advisors, entertainers, and courtesans. While some hetaerae were slaves, most were freeborn citizens who took to the trade as a means of support. Some women played an instrument such as a harp or flute, and some were gymnasts and dancers. These women were also recorded as educated, literate, and even witty. While their occupation closely resembles what we know of today as prostitution, sex was not always the end result of their performances. In a society were “respectable” women had to depend on their fathers or husbands entirely, a talented hetaera was able to live on her own terms and make enough money to live in style and comfort. It’s believed that these women were the best dressed in the society and wore lots of expensive jewelry and the latest fashions. This was also a way for women who were slaves to pay for their freedom. The event where they performed was called a symposium and contained song and dance much like those in their festivals.
They had drinking competitions, meals, and revels to honor Dionysus, the God of wine. Could this have been the response of women being excluded from theatre practices? Even if women were not allowed to perform in ancient Greek tragedies, it is inadmissible that women still had quite a presence on the stage, through the characters written by the renowned playwrights of the time. Characters such as Electra, Clytemnestra, Antigone, and Iphigenia. Characters that are incomparably noble, and passionate, and probably each based on a real woman to some degree. This proves that even if women weren’t permitted to perform in some aspects of society, that they were still able to be portrayed as strong figures in Greece. It is hard to believe that Greek women who had such an active part in religious ceremonies would tolerate being excluded from the theatre. These women who took part in Eleusinian mysteries and who returned to the temple barefoot with offerings, songs, and dances to honor Demeter. It’s hard to believe that women who were intimately connected to the worship of Dionysus, would not partake in greatest of all celebrations in his honor. The fact is there is just not significant evidence to prove that they had a part on stage. However, we can take solace in the fact that women had a strong presence in other religious ceremonies, were allowed to attend these festivals and have their own, and be a presence on stage, while if not by a woman, at least by a well-written portrayal of one. Perhaps one day the women of ancient Greece will get the acknowledgment they very much deserve. | 2,701 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On today’s date in 1770, the third expedition led by Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) fur trader Samuel Hearne departed from Prince of Wales Fort, near present-day Churchill, Man., in an attempt to find a passage across the “Barren Grounds” by river or sea.
Also known as the Barren Lands, the area includes the vast sub-Arctic tundra in northern Canada (mostly within the territory of Nunavut but also including parts of the Northwest Territories).
Hearne’s success as an explorer is owed to his adaptation to the local Indigenous culture, which was closely related to the seasonal movements of buffalo and caribou—among their only food source.
With the help of Chipewyan chief Matonabbee, Hearne travelled to Alcantara Lake, located in the south-eastern portion of the Northwest Territories. On July 14, they reached the Coppermine River after heading further north; however, Hearne soon realized the river’s shoals and falls would make it useless for navigation.
Three days later, on July 17, Hearne became the first European to reach the partially frozen Arctic Ocean over land in North America.
On June 30, 1772, Hearne’s expedition arrived back at Prince of Wales’s Fort.
Hearne departed on his first expedition from Prince of Wales Fort on Nov. 6, 1769, but was forced to return in early December. He had not only exhausted his supplies but was deserted by his Indigenous guide and quickly suffered from the extreme cold. He departed on a second expedition on Feb. 23, 1770, but was again forced to return. He reached the fort at the end of November. On Dec. 7, 1770, he departed on his third expedition. Hearne eventually died of edema in November 1792. He was 47 years old.
In 1969, Canada’s Sherritt Mint honoured Hearne on its annual commemorative medallion, which was first struck in 1966.
It was available in nickel, silver and gold versions. | <urn:uuid:2e953172-3f10-440b-880f-5b61b2b424d0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://canadiancoinnews.com/otd-third-hearne-expedition-leaves-prince-wales-fort/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00407.warc.gz | en | 0.980703 | 436 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.20982769131... | 5 | On today’s date in 1770, the third expedition led by Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) fur trader Samuel Hearne departed from Prince of Wales Fort, near present-day Churchill, Man., in an attempt to find a passage across the “Barren Grounds” by river or sea.
Also known as the Barren Lands, the area includes the vast sub-Arctic tundra in northern Canada (mostly within the territory of Nunavut but also including parts of the Northwest Territories).
Hearne’s success as an explorer is owed to his adaptation to the local Indigenous culture, which was closely related to the seasonal movements of buffalo and caribou—among their only food source.
With the help of Chipewyan chief Matonabbee, Hearne travelled to Alcantara Lake, located in the south-eastern portion of the Northwest Territories. On July 14, they reached the Coppermine River after heading further north; however, Hearne soon realized the river’s shoals and falls would make it useless for navigation.
Three days later, on July 17, Hearne became the first European to reach the partially frozen Arctic Ocean over land in North America.
On June 30, 1772, Hearne’s expedition arrived back at Prince of Wales’s Fort.
Hearne departed on his first expedition from Prince of Wales Fort on Nov. 6, 1769, but was forced to return in early December. He had not only exhausted his supplies but was deserted by his Indigenous guide and quickly suffered from the extreme cold. He departed on a second expedition on Feb. 23, 1770, but was again forced to return. He reached the fort at the end of November. On Dec. 7, 1770, he departed on his third expedition. Hearne eventually died of edema in November 1792. He was 47 years old.
In 1969, Canada’s Sherritt Mint honoured Hearne on its annual commemorative medallion, which was first struck in 1966.
It was available in nickel, silver and gold versions. | 449 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hunger in the United States
Hunger in the United States is an issue that affects millions of Americans, including some who are middle class, or who are in households where all adults are in work. Research from the Food Safety and Inspection Service found that 14.9% of American households were food insecure during 2011, with 5.7% suffering from very low food security. Journalists and charity workers have reported further increased demand for emergency food aid during 2012 and 2013.The United States produces far more food than it needs for domestic consumption - hunger within the U.S. is caused by some Americans having insufficient money to buy food for themselves or their families. Hunger is addressed by a mix of public and private food aid provision. Both types of aid have been expanding in the 21st century, with hunger relief efforts by the government growing faster than aid provided by civil society.Historically, the U.S. has been a world leader in reducing hunger. While precise comparative figures are not available, studies suggest that in the 18th century there was far less hunger in the United States than in the rest of the world. In the 19th and early 20th century western Europe began to catch up. After the outbreak of World War I however, the U.S. was able to send tens of millions of tons of food to relieve severe hunger in Europe. This act was unprecedented in the world's history, and was the first of many substantial actions by the United States to relieve international hunger and poverty.In the later half the of twentieth century, other advanced economies in Europe and Asia began to overtake the U.S. in terms of reducing hunger among their own populations. In 2011, a report presented in the New York Times found that among 20 economies recognized as advanced by the International Monetary Fund and for which comparative rankings for food security were available, the U.S. was joint worst. Nonetheless, in March 2013, the Global Food Security Index commissioned by DuPont, ranked the U.S. number one for food affordability and overall food security. | <urn:uuid:8fe56f7f-38b5-40ae-afc4-7d8de528a890> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studyres.com/concepts/4823/hunger-in-the-united-states | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00023.warc.gz | en | 0.980573 | 412 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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Hunger in the United States is an issue that affects millions of Americans, including some who are middle class, or who are in households where all adults are in work. Research from the Food Safety and Inspection Service found that 14.9% of American households were food insecure during 2011, with 5.7% suffering from very low food security. Journalists and charity workers have reported further increased demand for emergency food aid during 2012 and 2013.The United States produces far more food than it needs for domestic consumption - hunger within the U.S. is caused by some Americans having insufficient money to buy food for themselves or their families. Hunger is addressed by a mix of public and private food aid provision. Both types of aid have been expanding in the 21st century, with hunger relief efforts by the government growing faster than aid provided by civil society.Historically, the U.S. has been a world leader in reducing hunger. While precise comparative figures are not available, studies suggest that in the 18th century there was far less hunger in the United States than in the rest of the world. In the 19th and early 20th century western Europe began to catch up. After the outbreak of World War I however, the U.S. was able to send tens of millions of tons of food to relieve severe hunger in Europe. This act was unprecedented in the world's history, and was the first of many substantial actions by the United States to relieve international hunger and poverty.In the later half the of twentieth century, other advanced economies in Europe and Asia began to overtake the U.S. in terms of reducing hunger among their own populations. In 2011, a report presented in the New York Times found that among 20 economies recognized as advanced by the International Monetary Fund and for which comparative rankings for food security were available, the U.S. was joint worst. Nonetheless, in March 2013, the Global Food Security Index commissioned by DuPont, ranked the U.S. number one for food affordability and overall food security. | 439 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The honeybees pendant was discovered in the Necropolis of the Minoan Palace of Malia on the island of Crete, and is thought to date to c.1800 BC. The site of the ancient cemetery is named Chryssolakkos, or “pit of gold”, because of the many precious objects that were found there. The scale of the palace and the plethora of treasures found in this adjoining burial ground, certainly suggest that those buried here were significantly wealthy and of high standing in the local community.
The Palace of Malia, which is located about 3km east of the town, is the third largest of the Minoan Palaces, covering an area of around 7,500 square metres and, according to myth was ruled by Sarpedon, son of Zeus and Europa and brother of the famous King Minos. The Palace was originally constructed in c. 1900 BC but was destroyed by an earthquake c 1700. It was rebuilt soon after and most of what we can see at the archaeological site today dates to this second phase of construction, termed the Neopalatial complex. However, the Necropolis, where the pendant was found, dates to the first phase of construction.
The pendant itself is made from gold and comprises two bees, their bodies curved towards each other and their wings outstretched, clasping a honeycomb into which they are placing a small drop of honey. The piece is striking not only because of its unusual composition and intricate rendering, but also because of the significance of its subject-matter.
In the cultures of the Ancient Near East and Aegean, the bee was believed to be a sacred insect, especially associated with connecting the natural world to the underworld, which helps to explain why a pendant with such a design was placed in the tomb with the deceased. Often, the bee appears in tomb decoration and, in Mycenae, so-called tholos tombs were sometimes even shaped as beehives.
The bee also played a central role in Minoan and Mycenaean daily life; beekeping was a Minoan craft, which produced the fermented honey drink mead, older even than wine. The bee was also the symbol of the Minoan-Mycenaean goddess Potnia, meaning “mistress”, who was also referred to as “The Pure Mother Bee”. Her priestesses, too, were given the name Melissa, meaning “bee”, and some of our extant literary sources, such as Pindar, indicate that this practice carried on long after, with worshippers of Demeter and Artemis also being referred to as bees, as well as the Pythia at Apollo’s oracle in Delphi.
The pendant provides us with evidence for the advanced standard of workmanship in metal that was obviously being practised in this area at the time, since the artist has expertly wrought the honeycomb and certain details on the bees’ bodies using the difficult process of granulation. During this process, tiny beads of gold were applied to the surface of the jewellery using a compound of glue and copper salt, which, when heated, fused together the required components. As well as indicating the sophisticated technological knowledge of the Minoans, such obvious care and attention to detail perhaps also reflects the significance of the bee and confirms its important role within this ancient civilisation.
Author: Alexandra Hamburger | <urn:uuid:69505791-676d-4f65-820d-3c240e20e97a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://itsallgreeklondon.wordpress.com/2014/10/22/the-minoan-honeybees/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00399.warc.gz | en | 0.983376 | 702 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.40039163827... | 1 | The honeybees pendant was discovered in the Necropolis of the Minoan Palace of Malia on the island of Crete, and is thought to date to c.1800 BC. The site of the ancient cemetery is named Chryssolakkos, or “pit of gold”, because of the many precious objects that were found there. The scale of the palace and the plethora of treasures found in this adjoining burial ground, certainly suggest that those buried here were significantly wealthy and of high standing in the local community.
The Palace of Malia, which is located about 3km east of the town, is the third largest of the Minoan Palaces, covering an area of around 7,500 square metres and, according to myth was ruled by Sarpedon, son of Zeus and Europa and brother of the famous King Minos. The Palace was originally constructed in c. 1900 BC but was destroyed by an earthquake c 1700. It was rebuilt soon after and most of what we can see at the archaeological site today dates to this second phase of construction, termed the Neopalatial complex. However, the Necropolis, where the pendant was found, dates to the first phase of construction.
The pendant itself is made from gold and comprises two bees, their bodies curved towards each other and their wings outstretched, clasping a honeycomb into which they are placing a small drop of honey. The piece is striking not only because of its unusual composition and intricate rendering, but also because of the significance of its subject-matter.
In the cultures of the Ancient Near East and Aegean, the bee was believed to be a sacred insect, especially associated with connecting the natural world to the underworld, which helps to explain why a pendant with such a design was placed in the tomb with the deceased. Often, the bee appears in tomb decoration and, in Mycenae, so-called tholos tombs were sometimes even shaped as beehives.
The bee also played a central role in Minoan and Mycenaean daily life; beekeping was a Minoan craft, which produced the fermented honey drink mead, older even than wine. The bee was also the symbol of the Minoan-Mycenaean goddess Potnia, meaning “mistress”, who was also referred to as “The Pure Mother Bee”. Her priestesses, too, were given the name Melissa, meaning “bee”, and some of our extant literary sources, such as Pindar, indicate that this practice carried on long after, with worshippers of Demeter and Artemis also being referred to as bees, as well as the Pythia at Apollo’s oracle in Delphi.
The pendant provides us with evidence for the advanced standard of workmanship in metal that was obviously being practised in this area at the time, since the artist has expertly wrought the honeycomb and certain details on the bees’ bodies using the difficult process of granulation. During this process, tiny beads of gold were applied to the surface of the jewellery using a compound of glue and copper salt, which, when heated, fused together the required components. As well as indicating the sophisticated technological knowledge of the Minoans, such obvious care and attention to detail perhaps also reflects the significance of the bee and confirms its important role within this ancient civilisation.
Author: Alexandra Hamburger | 694 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Collection Storage Facility
On loan from the Carleton-West Russell Historical Society
The history of this object is unknown. A paper tag on the artifact reads 1857, but design and construction details, including its cast iron concave, cylinder, and pulleys suggest that it was constructed in the 1870s.
Threshing machines separate grain from the harvested plant, which is reduced to straw and chaff. The first threshing machines were stationary: powered by hand or treadmill, they increased the amount of grain a farmer could separate in a day. Wheeled threshing machines began to replace stationary threshers in the 1860s and further mechanized grain harvesting. Threshers were initially built of wood and powered by horse-powered windlasses; they were later built of steel and powered by steam traction engines and gas tractors. Threshers were in turn replaced through the twentieth century by combine harvesters, which merged harvesting and threshing operations in one machine.
This stationary thresher was hand-fed and belt-driven, likely from horse treadmill, and was small enough to be hauled by wagon. Its sifting and shaking mechanism would have been driven by a secondary belt connected to a pulley on the shaft, which drove an eccentric to create a shaking action that helped separate the grain from the straw. Operators had to manually remove the straw, as the thresher lacked a fanning mill and conveyor. | <urn:uuid:1e2fb1cd-6279-4ace-9956-b7e53e7280f7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ingeniumcanada.org/artifact/stationary-thresher | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00410.warc.gz | en | 0.983157 | 293 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.28042286... | 5 | Collection Storage Facility
On loan from the Carleton-West Russell Historical Society
The history of this object is unknown. A paper tag on the artifact reads 1857, but design and construction details, including its cast iron concave, cylinder, and pulleys suggest that it was constructed in the 1870s.
Threshing machines separate grain from the harvested plant, which is reduced to straw and chaff. The first threshing machines were stationary: powered by hand or treadmill, they increased the amount of grain a farmer could separate in a day. Wheeled threshing machines began to replace stationary threshers in the 1860s and further mechanized grain harvesting. Threshers were initially built of wood and powered by horse-powered windlasses; they were later built of steel and powered by steam traction engines and gas tractors. Threshers were in turn replaced through the twentieth century by combine harvesters, which merged harvesting and threshing operations in one machine.
This stationary thresher was hand-fed and belt-driven, likely from horse treadmill, and was small enough to be hauled by wagon. Its sifting and shaking mechanism would have been driven by a secondary belt connected to a pulley on the shaft, which drove an eccentric to create a shaking action that helped separate the grain from the straw. Operators had to manually remove the straw, as the thresher lacked a fanning mill and conveyor. | 290 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Race relations in the United States have never been great. From the country's inception, it has suffered with its treatment of minorities. It wasn't until the late 1800s that slavery was completely abolished. It would be another long hundred years before blacks in the United States were protected by the Civil Rights Act. Even then, equal treatment wasn't well established. What does this mean? That it has been less than 50 years since it became the norm to treat African American citizens like the true members of society that they were.
However, it would be naive to assume that race relations in the United States are equalizing or normal. While it is certainly clear that racism in today's society is unacceptable, we have a long way to go before people of color are given the respect they deserve. To some, that statement may be absurd. If you're questioning its accuracy, I urge you to look no further than race relations in the U.S. today.
The fact of the matter is that most Americans today believe race relations to be a problem. According to the Pew Research Center, it goes even deeper than that. Most Americans believe that the election of Donald Trump has led to worse race relations. The nature of race relations is ultimately social. And while the general populace typically has little bearing over the reality of issues, they're as credible as one can get on this issue. Granted, they are the assumed participants of poor race relations.
While the aforementioned preferences and opinions are likely referring to Hispanic relations, that is only a fraction of society's thoughts on the issue. Think back to the spark of the Black Lives Matter movement in 2013. It was primarily inspired by the acquittal of George Zimmerman for the shooting of Trayvon Martin. In the following years, it was BLM that planned protests organized around the concept of police brutality and minorities. According to Gallup, the share of national adults who cited race relations as good was approximately 68 percent. By 2015, that number dropped to only 47 percent.
Those who suggest race relations are not on at least a short-term decline are factually incorrect. Regardless of what drives the decline of these relations, it's certainly a problem. The United States must make an effort to foster connections between races. To suggest that nothing should be done would be both apathetic and inappropriate. Relationships between people and groups alike rarely decline for no reason; finding the root of the problem is key.
Only then can the U.S. take initiative to solving these problems and ultimately increase the utility of happiness across the country. | <urn:uuid:8cb5d562-1b4c-4b61-b6fe-9bf14adf7003> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theodysseyonline.com/us-race-relations-better-worse | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00413.warc.gz | en | 0.980534 | 513 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.318390607833862... | 3 | Race relations in the United States have never been great. From the country's inception, it has suffered with its treatment of minorities. It wasn't until the late 1800s that slavery was completely abolished. It would be another long hundred years before blacks in the United States were protected by the Civil Rights Act. Even then, equal treatment wasn't well established. What does this mean? That it has been less than 50 years since it became the norm to treat African American citizens like the true members of society that they were.
However, it would be naive to assume that race relations in the United States are equalizing or normal. While it is certainly clear that racism in today's society is unacceptable, we have a long way to go before people of color are given the respect they deserve. To some, that statement may be absurd. If you're questioning its accuracy, I urge you to look no further than race relations in the U.S. today.
The fact of the matter is that most Americans today believe race relations to be a problem. According to the Pew Research Center, it goes even deeper than that. Most Americans believe that the election of Donald Trump has led to worse race relations. The nature of race relations is ultimately social. And while the general populace typically has little bearing over the reality of issues, they're as credible as one can get on this issue. Granted, they are the assumed participants of poor race relations.
While the aforementioned preferences and opinions are likely referring to Hispanic relations, that is only a fraction of society's thoughts on the issue. Think back to the spark of the Black Lives Matter movement in 2013. It was primarily inspired by the acquittal of George Zimmerman for the shooting of Trayvon Martin. In the following years, it was BLM that planned protests organized around the concept of police brutality and minorities. According to Gallup, the share of national adults who cited race relations as good was approximately 68 percent. By 2015, that number dropped to only 47 percent.
Those who suggest race relations are not on at least a short-term decline are factually incorrect. Regardless of what drives the decline of these relations, it's certainly a problem. The United States must make an effort to foster connections between races. To suggest that nothing should be done would be both apathetic and inappropriate. Relationships between people and groups alike rarely decline for no reason; finding the root of the problem is key.
Only then can the U.S. take initiative to solving these problems and ultimately increase the utility of happiness across the country. | 525 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Prime Minister Naredra Modi will unveil a statue of Vallabhbhai Patel – the tallest statue in the world – on October 31. This is happening at a time when the Patels, Jats, Gujjars, Marathas – the top layer of the north Indian Shudras, to which Patel belonged – are fighting to be categorised as Other Backward Classes to gain access to government reservations. If they succeed, the Shudras of India will unite in a single socio-political bracket, which can lead to a massive re-organisation of the country’s social relations. On this occasion, it is important to assess the status of Patel and the Shudras in the Hindu religion and the Indian socio-political system.
An assessment of Patel is best done via comparison with Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, the two main leaders he worked with during the freedom movement and, for some time, in independent India. The stories of Patel, Gandhi and Nehru are parables of the status of Shudras, Banias and Brahmins in India.
Patel was a Shudra from Gujarat, Gandhi a Bania from the same state, and Nehru a Brahmin with Kashmiri origins from what was then the United Provinces and is now Uttar Pradesh. Their status in the Hindu religion differed quite significantly. Patel had slave origins in the Vedic period, Gandhi had early trading (middle varna) origins and Nehru had priestly origins. Gandhi and Nehru had the right to wear the sacred thread, the janeu. Patel had no such right, just as the Shudras still don’t have that right today, even though they are considered to be Hindu.
- Patel’s ancestors had no right to education, no accessibility to the Vedic gods and this was enshrined in the sacred texts of the Hindu religion. Gandhi and Nehru’s ancestors had that access from the beginnings of the Hindu religion in Vedic times, and the right to education – in Sanskrit, but also in other languages as time went on.
Patel’s ancestors were tillers of the land, cattle grazers, harvesters of crops. They were also soldiers in the service of different rulers through various periods of history – the monarchical period, the Mughal period and the colonial period, because the Shudras had a duty to defend the village and nation. The work of defence and production fell to the Dalits too, even when they were treated as being untouchable.
Gandhi and Nehru’s ancestors never produced any goods – agriculture and physical labour were considered demeaning, Shudra domains. There are few examples of Banias or Brahmins being soldiers at any stage in history. Their vegetarianism and the notion of non-violence prohibited them from entering the army. But they depended on the Shudras’ work throughout their existence and the Shudras always served them.
Patel served Gandhi and Nehru in the same spirit. It was in this tradition that he became the “Iron Man” of the freedom struggle, whereas Gandhi became the “Mahatma” and Nehru the “Pandit.” Patel’s moniker, was meant to be derogatory, a declaration, in the eyes of those who coined the term, of Shudra intellectual and spiritual inferiority.
Patel’s ancestors had no right to education till the British arrived in India. They never wrote about themselves and others did not write about them. Patel and his elder brother, Vithalbhai, were the first in his family to go to school. The tradition of Shudra illiteracy was broken in the region only during the 18th century. That was why Patel’s parents never recorded his real date of birth – his official date of birth, October 31, was invented for his school records. This is why Modi is inaugurating Patel’s statue on that day – because of the Brahminical oppression of Patel’s ancestors.
By the time of Patel’s birth, the Brahmins and Banias had already acquired advanced education in English. Gandhi and Nehru had their dates of birth properly recorded, and had well-documented family histories. They were not self-made men – they inherited status and privilege.
Patel was a self-made, “hard” man – his rise relied on his brute political strength. But he never had the luxury of evolving the “soft” power of intellect. He served a role similar to that of his ancestors and never broke beyond the position assigned to him in the Brahminical system of Hinduism. Blindly, he defended this system that oppressed him. This is the unfortunate legacy he left to the Shudras.
Today, Brahmins and Banias continue to dominate India’s politics, government and economy, and control the country. A big reason for their grip over all the structures of power is that they control the system of Hinduism that they impose upon the Shudras. The Shudras have no say in this religion that is supposed to be theirs. They have no right to be priests or to take the lead in interpreting scripture.
The Patels, Jats, Gujjars, Marathas and so on are fighting for reservations hoping that it will give them some space in the structures that they have been shut out of. They have thrown their support behind the Bharatiya Janata Party and it continues to pay lip service to Patel – Advani described Patel as “Abhinava” during his rath yatra before the demolition of the Babri Masjid. But under the BJP, the Shudras have become even more marginalised. The hegemony of Bania and Brahmin forces is visible everywhere in India even now.
The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, always headed by Brahmins, admires Patel because he did not disturb the varna order. He did not ask for priesthood for the Shudras; he did not ask to wear the sacred thread himself; he did not ask that Shudras get the same rights as Banias and Brahmins in all spheres. When Gandhi decided that the first prime minister of India should be a Brahmin (Nehru), Patel obediently resigned from his post as the president of the Congress and handed it over to Nehru.
Gandhi and Nehru wrote their own histories, leaving behind careful autobiographies. But Patel did not do this. He must have thought that his family history and his own history were not worth writing. Gandhi and Nehra archived all their writing and correspondence. Patel, as one of his biographers notes, wrote all of his letters by hand and never preserved copies, and never kept copies of the letters he received either.
Today, Gandhi and Nehru are known as great thinkers and their works are studied in schools, colleges and universities. Patel is known as an “Iron Man”, without any books of his own about his life, his ideas, his family, his caste. We can only learn of him from the writings of others, and even those others rarely happen to be Shudras. It is easy now for the RSS and BJP to write whatever history they want for him.
- Gandhi and Nehru wrote their own histories, leaving behind careful autobiographies. But Patel did not do this. He must have thought that his family history and his own history were not worth writing.
Patel’s self-erasure was an unfortunately typical Shudra characteristic. They have a rich tradition of oral history and story-telling, but due to the Brahminical prohibition on Shudra literacy, they never developed a culture of writing any of this down. In fact, no Shudra leader of the freedom movement wrote an autobiography. The Hindu religion, historically, wanted Shudras to be known as people of actions but not of ideas. Patel’s life operated in that Brahminical domain. None of his descendants, unlike Gandhi and Nehru’s, became writers or politicians. His Iron Man-ship ended with him. That is how it was meant to be.
Patel was claimed by the RSS early on, as he was seen as a close ally of the Hindu Mahasabha. As a Shudra, he did not feel the compulsion to seek any social and religious reform and so he became their man. The irony is that the RSS has championed this man but has never allowed a Shudra to become its sarsanghchalak. Except one Kshatriya – Rajendra Singh – all sarsanghchalaks have been Brahmins.
Had Patel written down his philosophy, his views on his family and community, their work ethic and spiritual culture, perhaps the whole Shudra community would have entered the national philosophical and political discourse. Gandhi and Nehru performed that service for the Banias and Brahmins, though they only needed to add to existing traditions, not establish completely new ones for their communities.
What Patel failed to do for the Shudras, another man did for the Dalits against even greater odds. B.R. Ambedkar educated himself in political thought, philosophy, scripture and rhetoric, and took up the cause of socio-spiritual reform. Unlike Patel, he refused to accept his community’s unequal status under Hinduism, and challenged the foundations of their spiritual and social oppression.
Patel studied law, but did not show any interest in philosophical questions. Without that, he never gathered the tools to understand his given position in society. While in Britain as a student, Patel did not realise that racial and caste oppression have commonalities. Ambedkar, by comparison, grasped that point when he studied in the US and learnt important lessons from the struggles of black people. Ambedkar developed an anti-caste consciousness, Patel never saw beyond an anti-British one. He never understood Ambedkar’s point that independence without caste emancipation would only mean a change from British to Brahmin and Bania masters.
Patel accepted Gandhi as his guru and never came to think for himself. His mind never stretched beyond the Gandhian framework of feudal democracy, of gramraj and Ramraj. Maybe Patel thought that the Shudras might become rulers in that gramraj, but he was fooled. He did not see the other side of Gandhi – his reliance on Bania industrialists such as the Birlas and Goenkas even while he spoke of a return to village economy. The Bania industrialists were the real power Gandhi was working for, and their power over the country today is part of Gandhi’s legacy.
Patel’s apathy reflected the Shudra predicament: denied equal rights yet still positioned somewhere in the middle of the caste order. The Dalits, at the very bottom, are ready to take on the dominant castes that oppress them. The Shudras have been resigned to their limited privileges, even if these come with limited lives. They have never been angry at the Brahmins and Banias above them. Instead, they have let the Brahmins and Banias convince them that the threat comes from the Dalits, and so direct anger at them. Shudras have never realised their own unequal status in the Hindu religion and all the socio-political consequences of it.
Patel’s lack of intellectual production has become the bottleneck for his history and power, just as it has always been the bottleneck for Shudra history and power. Patel had no socioeconomic theory of his own. He represented the Shudras without a representative ideology. He did not give the Shudras any theory or ideology to show them the way to their empowerment. Shudras are still facing that same ideological hole today. Just a statue of Patel, no matter how big, will never be able to fill it.
So now Modi, who as I said in my recent essay for The Caravan, is a Bania, taking orders from his guru Mohan Bhagwat, the Brahmin sarsanghchalak of the RSS, will unveil a statue of the Shudra Patel. Even here, the BJP and RSS have excluded Shudras from the most important roles. Let us wait and see what this Bania-Brahmin rule brings to the nation and the Shudras, apart from a giant statue.
Kancha Ilaiah Shepherd is a political theorist and chairman of T-MASS. | <urn:uuid:7bd5045e-51b7-4808-b391-07346601fb0f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thewire.in/caste/sardar-patel-statue-of-unity-shudra-brahmin-bania | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00132.warc.gz | en | 0.982222 | 2,619 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.774109423160553,... | 6 | Prime Minister Naredra Modi will unveil a statue of Vallabhbhai Patel – the tallest statue in the world – on October 31. This is happening at a time when the Patels, Jats, Gujjars, Marathas – the top layer of the north Indian Shudras, to which Patel belonged – are fighting to be categorised as Other Backward Classes to gain access to government reservations. If they succeed, the Shudras of India will unite in a single socio-political bracket, which can lead to a massive re-organisation of the country’s social relations. On this occasion, it is important to assess the status of Patel and the Shudras in the Hindu religion and the Indian socio-political system.
An assessment of Patel is best done via comparison with Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, the two main leaders he worked with during the freedom movement and, for some time, in independent India. The stories of Patel, Gandhi and Nehru are parables of the status of Shudras, Banias and Brahmins in India.
Patel was a Shudra from Gujarat, Gandhi a Bania from the same state, and Nehru a Brahmin with Kashmiri origins from what was then the United Provinces and is now Uttar Pradesh. Their status in the Hindu religion differed quite significantly. Patel had slave origins in the Vedic period, Gandhi had early trading (middle varna) origins and Nehru had priestly origins. Gandhi and Nehru had the right to wear the sacred thread, the janeu. Patel had no such right, just as the Shudras still don’t have that right today, even though they are considered to be Hindu.
- Patel’s ancestors had no right to education, no accessibility to the Vedic gods and this was enshrined in the sacred texts of the Hindu religion. Gandhi and Nehru’s ancestors had that access from the beginnings of the Hindu religion in Vedic times, and the right to education – in Sanskrit, but also in other languages as time went on.
Patel’s ancestors were tillers of the land, cattle grazers, harvesters of crops. They were also soldiers in the service of different rulers through various periods of history – the monarchical period, the Mughal period and the colonial period, because the Shudras had a duty to defend the village and nation. The work of defence and production fell to the Dalits too, even when they were treated as being untouchable.
Gandhi and Nehru’s ancestors never produced any goods – agriculture and physical labour were considered demeaning, Shudra domains. There are few examples of Banias or Brahmins being soldiers at any stage in history. Their vegetarianism and the notion of non-violence prohibited them from entering the army. But they depended on the Shudras’ work throughout their existence and the Shudras always served them.
Patel served Gandhi and Nehru in the same spirit. It was in this tradition that he became the “Iron Man” of the freedom struggle, whereas Gandhi became the “Mahatma” and Nehru the “Pandit.” Patel’s moniker, was meant to be derogatory, a declaration, in the eyes of those who coined the term, of Shudra intellectual and spiritual inferiority.
Patel’s ancestors had no right to education till the British arrived in India. They never wrote about themselves and others did not write about them. Patel and his elder brother, Vithalbhai, were the first in his family to go to school. The tradition of Shudra illiteracy was broken in the region only during the 18th century. That was why Patel’s parents never recorded his real date of birth – his official date of birth, October 31, was invented for his school records. This is why Modi is inaugurating Patel’s statue on that day – because of the Brahminical oppression of Patel’s ancestors.
By the time of Patel’s birth, the Brahmins and Banias had already acquired advanced education in English. Gandhi and Nehru had their dates of birth properly recorded, and had well-documented family histories. They were not self-made men – they inherited status and privilege.
Patel was a self-made, “hard” man – his rise relied on his brute political strength. But he never had the luxury of evolving the “soft” power of intellect. He served a role similar to that of his ancestors and never broke beyond the position assigned to him in the Brahminical system of Hinduism. Blindly, he defended this system that oppressed him. This is the unfortunate legacy he left to the Shudras.
Today, Brahmins and Banias continue to dominate India’s politics, government and economy, and control the country. A big reason for their grip over all the structures of power is that they control the system of Hinduism that they impose upon the Shudras. The Shudras have no say in this religion that is supposed to be theirs. They have no right to be priests or to take the lead in interpreting scripture.
The Patels, Jats, Gujjars, Marathas and so on are fighting for reservations hoping that it will give them some space in the structures that they have been shut out of. They have thrown their support behind the Bharatiya Janata Party and it continues to pay lip service to Patel – Advani described Patel as “Abhinava” during his rath yatra before the demolition of the Babri Masjid. But under the BJP, the Shudras have become even more marginalised. The hegemony of Bania and Brahmin forces is visible everywhere in India even now.
The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, always headed by Brahmins, admires Patel because he did not disturb the varna order. He did not ask for priesthood for the Shudras; he did not ask to wear the sacred thread himself; he did not ask that Shudras get the same rights as Banias and Brahmins in all spheres. When Gandhi decided that the first prime minister of India should be a Brahmin (Nehru), Patel obediently resigned from his post as the president of the Congress and handed it over to Nehru.
Gandhi and Nehru wrote their own histories, leaving behind careful autobiographies. But Patel did not do this. He must have thought that his family history and his own history were not worth writing. Gandhi and Nehra archived all their writing and correspondence. Patel, as one of his biographers notes, wrote all of his letters by hand and never preserved copies, and never kept copies of the letters he received either.
Today, Gandhi and Nehru are known as great thinkers and their works are studied in schools, colleges and universities. Patel is known as an “Iron Man”, without any books of his own about his life, his ideas, his family, his caste. We can only learn of him from the writings of others, and even those others rarely happen to be Shudras. It is easy now for the RSS and BJP to write whatever history they want for him.
- Gandhi and Nehru wrote their own histories, leaving behind careful autobiographies. But Patel did not do this. He must have thought that his family history and his own history were not worth writing.
Patel’s self-erasure was an unfortunately typical Shudra characteristic. They have a rich tradition of oral history and story-telling, but due to the Brahminical prohibition on Shudra literacy, they never developed a culture of writing any of this down. In fact, no Shudra leader of the freedom movement wrote an autobiography. The Hindu religion, historically, wanted Shudras to be known as people of actions but not of ideas. Patel’s life operated in that Brahminical domain. None of his descendants, unlike Gandhi and Nehru’s, became writers or politicians. His Iron Man-ship ended with him. That is how it was meant to be.
Patel was claimed by the RSS early on, as he was seen as a close ally of the Hindu Mahasabha. As a Shudra, he did not feel the compulsion to seek any social and religious reform and so he became their man. The irony is that the RSS has championed this man but has never allowed a Shudra to become its sarsanghchalak. Except one Kshatriya – Rajendra Singh – all sarsanghchalaks have been Brahmins.
Had Patel written down his philosophy, his views on his family and community, their work ethic and spiritual culture, perhaps the whole Shudra community would have entered the national philosophical and political discourse. Gandhi and Nehru performed that service for the Banias and Brahmins, though they only needed to add to existing traditions, not establish completely new ones for their communities.
What Patel failed to do for the Shudras, another man did for the Dalits against even greater odds. B.R. Ambedkar educated himself in political thought, philosophy, scripture and rhetoric, and took up the cause of socio-spiritual reform. Unlike Patel, he refused to accept his community’s unequal status under Hinduism, and challenged the foundations of their spiritual and social oppression.
Patel studied law, but did not show any interest in philosophical questions. Without that, he never gathered the tools to understand his given position in society. While in Britain as a student, Patel did not realise that racial and caste oppression have commonalities. Ambedkar, by comparison, grasped that point when he studied in the US and learnt important lessons from the struggles of black people. Ambedkar developed an anti-caste consciousness, Patel never saw beyond an anti-British one. He never understood Ambedkar’s point that independence without caste emancipation would only mean a change from British to Brahmin and Bania masters.
Patel accepted Gandhi as his guru and never came to think for himself. His mind never stretched beyond the Gandhian framework of feudal democracy, of gramraj and Ramraj. Maybe Patel thought that the Shudras might become rulers in that gramraj, but he was fooled. He did not see the other side of Gandhi – his reliance on Bania industrialists such as the Birlas and Goenkas even while he spoke of a return to village economy. The Bania industrialists were the real power Gandhi was working for, and their power over the country today is part of Gandhi’s legacy.
Patel’s apathy reflected the Shudra predicament: denied equal rights yet still positioned somewhere in the middle of the caste order. The Dalits, at the very bottom, are ready to take on the dominant castes that oppress them. The Shudras have been resigned to their limited privileges, even if these come with limited lives. They have never been angry at the Brahmins and Banias above them. Instead, they have let the Brahmins and Banias convince them that the threat comes from the Dalits, and so direct anger at them. Shudras have never realised their own unequal status in the Hindu religion and all the socio-political consequences of it.
Patel’s lack of intellectual production has become the bottleneck for his history and power, just as it has always been the bottleneck for Shudra history and power. Patel had no socioeconomic theory of his own. He represented the Shudras without a representative ideology. He did not give the Shudras any theory or ideology to show them the way to their empowerment. Shudras are still facing that same ideological hole today. Just a statue of Patel, no matter how big, will never be able to fill it.
So now Modi, who as I said in my recent essay for The Caravan, is a Bania, taking orders from his guru Mohan Bhagwat, the Brahmin sarsanghchalak of the RSS, will unveil a statue of the Shudra Patel. Even here, the BJP and RSS have excluded Shudras from the most important roles. Let us wait and see what this Bania-Brahmin rule brings to the nation and the Shudras, apart from a giant statue.
Kancha Ilaiah Shepherd is a political theorist and chairman of T-MASS. | 2,518 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mattea ScheuermanAmerican LiteratureMrs. Lewis17 January 2018 California has an extended history of importing laborers from foreign countries, of course, with those foreign laborers it caused many issues. Those foreigners include Mexicans, Chinese, Japanese, and Filipinos. This essay will show how foreign migrants’ circumstances are divergent from that of the Dust Bowl migrants. It will also show the unique position of the Dust Bowl migrants and why Steinbeck believes they will demand different treatment. Lastly, it will state as to what I think of his incorrect prediction about the new farm laborers in California being mostly white Americans. The migrants that were imported for labor had many different circumstances compared to the Dust Bowl migrants. One major contrast between the foreign migrant workers and the Dust Bowl migrant workers had is that foreigners typically came from the peon class. The foreigners were also easily deported as seen with the many of the foreign workers. When causing strikes against the farmers they were often times brought back to the Philippines, Mexico and their countries of origin. Even the slightest suspicion of organization could cause workers to be deported. Onto the Dust Bowl migrants, they used to own land and farms of their own which makes them accustomed to working independently before banks began to close and the Dust Bowl hit. The Dust Bowl ruined their lands and caused them to seek out employment in California rather than being imported. The migrant workers are American citizens who were forced from their home because of the Dust Bowl as well as many of the banks closing down. Many of the migrants came from the Central Plains which includes Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and Missouri. Unlike the foreigners who moved from place to place, the Dust Bowl migrants were there to stay whether California wanted them or not. Their traditional ways of farming greatly differed from that of California’s more industrial approach. The homes the workers once had were palaces compared to their living conditions then. The squatter camps or Hoovervilles became the main residential areas for the workers located near the river banks, side roads, irrigation ditches and water springs. However, at times the migrants were forced pay rent to live in a shanty house with no extra benefits on places such as large farms. Over time the conditions of the migrant workers improved when the Federal government created camps to house migrants. With this, the migrants organized themselves to maintain security and sanity of the camps to house migrants. Steinbeck believed that the workers would organize against the residents of California because of the unfair treatment they had received considering they could not seek out services due to the residents; however, this did not happen. Californians and the foreign migrants did not mix well, making it reasonable that Steinbeck thought that white Americans would be the main laborers. Looking at California’s history with foreign workers many of them have been deported thus making it justifiable. Steinbeck saw this too and with that analysis he came to that conclusion. Of course, looking at the workforce as it is today, it is clear that his prediction was incorrect. Almost seventeen percent of the United States’ labor comes from immigrants. Foreign-born workers make up millions of people that are within our labor force. I think that Steinbeck was well founded in his prediction, even so, it is clear for anyone to see why he is wrong. In conclusion, the migrant farming communities in the farming communities after the Great Depression suffered terrible working and living conditions. Nonetheless, the immigration status of Dust Bowl migrants differed greatly from foreign migrants. That is because foreigners would easily be deported from California for organizing against their employers. This essay helped to show the rough circumstances the migrants had to put up with and why Steinbeck thought they would organize against the farmers like the foreigners. Finally, it stated my opinion on Steinbeck’s incorrect prognosis about the future farm laborers of California being mostly white Americans. | <urn:uuid:2ad69815-5d75-4eb8-a594-7287d1b6b8d6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://chrisstory.net/mattea-hit-the-dust-bowl-ruined-their-lands-and/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00373.warc.gz | en | 0.980823 | 776 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.06661281734... | 2 | Mattea ScheuermanAmerican LiteratureMrs. Lewis17 January 2018 California has an extended history of importing laborers from foreign countries, of course, with those foreign laborers it caused many issues. Those foreigners include Mexicans, Chinese, Japanese, and Filipinos. This essay will show how foreign migrants’ circumstances are divergent from that of the Dust Bowl migrants. It will also show the unique position of the Dust Bowl migrants and why Steinbeck believes they will demand different treatment. Lastly, it will state as to what I think of his incorrect prediction about the new farm laborers in California being mostly white Americans. The migrants that were imported for labor had many different circumstances compared to the Dust Bowl migrants. One major contrast between the foreign migrant workers and the Dust Bowl migrant workers had is that foreigners typically came from the peon class. The foreigners were also easily deported as seen with the many of the foreign workers. When causing strikes against the farmers they were often times brought back to the Philippines, Mexico and their countries of origin. Even the slightest suspicion of organization could cause workers to be deported. Onto the Dust Bowl migrants, they used to own land and farms of their own which makes them accustomed to working independently before banks began to close and the Dust Bowl hit. The Dust Bowl ruined their lands and caused them to seek out employment in California rather than being imported. The migrant workers are American citizens who were forced from their home because of the Dust Bowl as well as many of the banks closing down. Many of the migrants came from the Central Plains which includes Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and Missouri. Unlike the foreigners who moved from place to place, the Dust Bowl migrants were there to stay whether California wanted them or not. Their traditional ways of farming greatly differed from that of California’s more industrial approach. The homes the workers once had were palaces compared to their living conditions then. The squatter camps or Hoovervilles became the main residential areas for the workers located near the river banks, side roads, irrigation ditches and water springs. However, at times the migrants were forced pay rent to live in a shanty house with no extra benefits on places such as large farms. Over time the conditions of the migrant workers improved when the Federal government created camps to house migrants. With this, the migrants organized themselves to maintain security and sanity of the camps to house migrants. Steinbeck believed that the workers would organize against the residents of California because of the unfair treatment they had received considering they could not seek out services due to the residents; however, this did not happen. Californians and the foreign migrants did not mix well, making it reasonable that Steinbeck thought that white Americans would be the main laborers. Looking at California’s history with foreign workers many of them have been deported thus making it justifiable. Steinbeck saw this too and with that analysis he came to that conclusion. Of course, looking at the workforce as it is today, it is clear that his prediction was incorrect. Almost seventeen percent of the United States’ labor comes from immigrants. Foreign-born workers make up millions of people that are within our labor force. I think that Steinbeck was well founded in his prediction, even so, it is clear for anyone to see why he is wrong. In conclusion, the migrant farming communities in the farming communities after the Great Depression suffered terrible working and living conditions. Nonetheless, the immigration status of Dust Bowl migrants differed greatly from foreign migrants. That is because foreigners would easily be deported from California for organizing against their employers. This essay helped to show the rough circumstances the migrants had to put up with and why Steinbeck thought they would organize against the farmers like the foreigners. Finally, it stated my opinion on Steinbeck’s incorrect prognosis about the future farm laborers of California being mostly white Americans. | 776 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Film & TV
Lesson time 15:15 min
Your characters don't have to be like you—or even likeable. Drawing on examples from A Few Good Men and Steve Jobs, Aaron explains why he always empathizes with his characters even if he disagrees with them.
Topics include: Writing characters unlike yourself • Writing anti-heroes
I think that if you are writing long biographies of your characters, of fictional characters, and this character when they were five years old they did this and when they were six years old they did that, things that have nothing to do with the story you're telling, I think that you're getting involved with magical thinking and that it's not going to work. I think that especially when you're beginning to script, anything that isn't in tension an obstacle is going to mess you up. I don't say here's what this character would have eaten for breakfast when they were five years old. OK because it's not the character was never five years old. The character was born at the age that they are when the lights come up. The character was only gets to be five years old if the character says when I was five years old, I saw my father kill himself. It's then and only then that the character was five years old. I wouldn't take out a yellow legal pad and a pen and start writing down character traits. Let's see. He likes baseball and he likes creamy peanut butter, but not chunky peanut butter, and he likes this and he doesn't like that many parts his hair on the left side and that kind of thing. I don't think that any of that is going to come in handy. I don't think there is a use for any of that. I think that what it's doing I think you're doing it because you feel like you're supposed to do it. I think you're doing it because you feel like the more human character traits you write down on this legal pad, the more human the character is going to be. What's going to happen is you're going to have a scene where a guy or a girl needs to convince their parents to loan them money for something, and you've got the yellow legal pad next you and you're figuring out how to work in creamy peanut butter into the scene because these are the things that are going to make your character more human. Forget that, OK? Forget that stuff. Get this guy to get money from his parents. Obviously, if the parents if the first line of the scene is Mom, Dad, I need money, and the second line of the scene is no problem, how much? You've kind of overcome the obstacle a little quickly. But make him or her have to play their intention and things are going to come up. You might stumble across a joke about creamy peanut butter and that's when your character likes creamy peanut butter. Oh, it was because there's this joke about it. Put the yellow legal pad aside. Believe it or not, the properties of characters and the properties of people have very little to do with each other. I know it seems like the goal should be to have a character be as human as possible. And that's not the goal, or at least not my goal. That's something for critics to talk about. That's something for audiences to talk about. It was such a human moment when they did this. It was so human when they did that...
Aaron Sorkin wrote his first movie on cocktail napkins. Those napkins turned into A Few Good Men, starring Jack Nicholson. Now, the Academy Award-winning writer of The West Wing and The Social Network is teaching screenwriting. In this class, you’ll learn his rules of storytelling, dialogue, character development, and what makes a script actually sell. By the end, you’ll write screenplays that capture your audience’s attention.
This class was extremely informative. It was definitely worth my time!
I am not a pro writer - I am a musician - but I do have a musical theater piece I've written that I continue to polish. Always liked Aaron's work and I'm pretty sure I played his bar mitzvah.
Amazing and insightful information from a veteran in the field. You can always tell if a teacher is just teaching to earn a check, throwing out random information without working to make sure it is received. Compare this to Mr. Sorkin, an artist, who is carefully crafting the delivery of his wisdom so that a new generation will be inspired. I believe his stated intention. Thank you.
This class is great. I don't like when they spent too much time with the students. The brainstorm should have been faster. To have more of Sorkin. | <urn:uuid:e19e20db-a0ae-4028-9fdf-5ce47e3c9c9b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.masterclass.com/classes/aaron-sorkin-teaches-screenwriting/chapters/ch5 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00161.warc.gz | en | 0.990845 | 972 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.230197772383689... | 1 | Film & TV
Lesson time 15:15 min
Your characters don't have to be like you—or even likeable. Drawing on examples from A Few Good Men and Steve Jobs, Aaron explains why he always empathizes with his characters even if he disagrees with them.
Topics include: Writing characters unlike yourself • Writing anti-heroes
I think that if you are writing long biographies of your characters, of fictional characters, and this character when they were five years old they did this and when they were six years old they did that, things that have nothing to do with the story you're telling, I think that you're getting involved with magical thinking and that it's not going to work. I think that especially when you're beginning to script, anything that isn't in tension an obstacle is going to mess you up. I don't say here's what this character would have eaten for breakfast when they were five years old. OK because it's not the character was never five years old. The character was born at the age that they are when the lights come up. The character was only gets to be five years old if the character says when I was five years old, I saw my father kill himself. It's then and only then that the character was five years old. I wouldn't take out a yellow legal pad and a pen and start writing down character traits. Let's see. He likes baseball and he likes creamy peanut butter, but not chunky peanut butter, and he likes this and he doesn't like that many parts his hair on the left side and that kind of thing. I don't think that any of that is going to come in handy. I don't think there is a use for any of that. I think that what it's doing I think you're doing it because you feel like you're supposed to do it. I think you're doing it because you feel like the more human character traits you write down on this legal pad, the more human the character is going to be. What's going to happen is you're going to have a scene where a guy or a girl needs to convince their parents to loan them money for something, and you've got the yellow legal pad next you and you're figuring out how to work in creamy peanut butter into the scene because these are the things that are going to make your character more human. Forget that, OK? Forget that stuff. Get this guy to get money from his parents. Obviously, if the parents if the first line of the scene is Mom, Dad, I need money, and the second line of the scene is no problem, how much? You've kind of overcome the obstacle a little quickly. But make him or her have to play their intention and things are going to come up. You might stumble across a joke about creamy peanut butter and that's when your character likes creamy peanut butter. Oh, it was because there's this joke about it. Put the yellow legal pad aside. Believe it or not, the properties of characters and the properties of people have very little to do with each other. I know it seems like the goal should be to have a character be as human as possible. And that's not the goal, or at least not my goal. That's something for critics to talk about. That's something for audiences to talk about. It was such a human moment when they did this. It was so human when they did that...
Aaron Sorkin wrote his first movie on cocktail napkins. Those napkins turned into A Few Good Men, starring Jack Nicholson. Now, the Academy Award-winning writer of The West Wing and The Social Network is teaching screenwriting. In this class, you’ll learn his rules of storytelling, dialogue, character development, and what makes a script actually sell. By the end, you’ll write screenplays that capture your audience’s attention.
This class was extremely informative. It was definitely worth my time!
I am not a pro writer - I am a musician - but I do have a musical theater piece I've written that I continue to polish. Always liked Aaron's work and I'm pretty sure I played his bar mitzvah.
Amazing and insightful information from a veteran in the field. You can always tell if a teacher is just teaching to earn a check, throwing out random information without working to make sure it is received. Compare this to Mr. Sorkin, an artist, who is carefully crafting the delivery of his wisdom so that a new generation will be inspired. I believe his stated intention. Thank you.
This class is great. I don't like when they spent too much time with the students. The brainstorm should have been faster. To have more of Sorkin. | 959 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Did You Know?
The microwave was invented after a researcher walked by a radar tube and a chocolate bar melted in his pocket.
In 1945, the heating effect of a high-power microwave beam was accidentally discovered by Percy Spencer, an American self-taught engineer from Howland, Maine. Employed by Raytheon at the time, he noticed that microwaves from an active radar set he was working on started to melt a chocolate bar he had in his pocket.
The first food deliberately cooked with Spencer's microwave was popcorn, and the second was an egg, which exploded in the face of one of the experimenters. To verify his finding, Spencer created a high density electromagnetic field by feeding microwave power from a magnetron into a metal box from which it had no way to escape. When food was placed in the box with the microwave energy, the temperature of the food rose rapidly. On 8 October 1945, Raytheon filed a United States patent application for Spencer's microwave cooking process, and an oven that heated food using microwave energy from a magnetron was soon placed in a Boston restaurant for testing. | <urn:uuid:9406aad1-94c4-446a-b4f7-f5cc489683e7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://didyouknowstuff.com/the-microwave-was-invented-after-a-researcher-walked-by-a-radar-tube-and-a-chocolate-bar-melted-in-his-pocket | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00149.warc.gz | en | 0.984589 | 225 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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-0.08169766515493393,
-0.28381767868995667,
0.07587315142154694,
-0.009049541316... | 9 | Did You Know?
The microwave was invented after a researcher walked by a radar tube and a chocolate bar melted in his pocket.
In 1945, the heating effect of a high-power microwave beam was accidentally discovered by Percy Spencer, an American self-taught engineer from Howland, Maine. Employed by Raytheon at the time, he noticed that microwaves from an active radar set he was working on started to melt a chocolate bar he had in his pocket.
The first food deliberately cooked with Spencer's microwave was popcorn, and the second was an egg, which exploded in the face of one of the experimenters. To verify his finding, Spencer created a high density electromagnetic field by feeding microwave power from a magnetron into a metal box from which it had no way to escape. When food was placed in the box with the microwave energy, the temperature of the food rose rapidly. On 8 October 1945, Raytheon filed a United States patent application for Spencer's microwave cooking process, and an oven that heated food using microwave energy from a magnetron was soon placed in a Boston restaurant for testing. | 229 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|T.E. Lawrence and the Arab Cause at the Paris Peace Conference||
The Peace Conference
In November 1918, when Prince Feisal boarded His Majesty's Ship Gloucester in Beirut to attend the upcoming peace conference in Paris, he did so in the knowledge that as early as 1915 the British had promised independence to the Arabs in return for a revolt against the Turks. (47) Feisal was aware of, and had accepted, certain limits to Arab claims; a line drawn from Aleppo in the north to Damascus in the south meant exclusion of the Mediterranean coastline as far south as Damascus. The British also had claimed the old Turkish provinces of Basra in the south and Baghdad in the north. (48) Feisal was prepared to accept these provisions, but the details had yet to be worked out. Lawrence was to accompany Feisal to Paris. Officially he was a delegate of the British Government assigned to Feisal as his interpreter.
When Feisal arrived in France, his presence was not appreciated by the French. (49) The Arab claims to Syria did not accord with French designs on the region. Despite past joint Anglo-French communiqués indicating support for Arab independence, the French now insisted on carrying out the details of the Sykes-Picot Agreement and making claim to all the territories that the agreement gave them. (50) When Feisal landed at Marseilles, the French did everything possible to make life difficult for him. They delayed him from reaching Paris, and, instead sent him on a tour of battlefields. Feisal left France temporarily, on 10 December 1918, and traveled to England. There the welcome was warmer, but there he also learned that he might have to accept France as overlord in Syria. He was also reminded that the British were not prepared to consider Palestine a part of any Arab state. (51)
When the Peace Conference opened in January, the French continued to hinder Feisal. They claimed that he was not on the list of official delegates and only after official complaints from the British, did the French grudgingly agree to add him to the list, but only as a representative of the Hejaz. (52)
At the Peace Conference, Feisal enjoyed the support of Lloyd George who wanted France to be excluded from the Middle East as much as possible, Sykes-Picot agreement or no Sykes-Picot agreement. Lloyd George felt that the situation had changed since 1916. (53) With the Russian Revolution underway, the British now wondered, "Was it still desirable to let the French have Mosul?" and "Why do we still need a French buffer zone?" Back in London, Lord George Curzon, Leader of the House of Lords and member of the War Cabinet, described the Sykes-Picot agreement as, "That unfortunate agreement which has been hanging like a millstone round our necks ever since." (54)
Despite the desire to minimize the French presence in the Near East, the British were divided in their own ranks regarding the exact settlement of the region. On the one hand, the Anglo-Indian Office was desperate that Mesopotamia should become a British colony. Those in favor of such a strategy were all for making peace with France regarding the French claim to Syria and for educating Feisal to realize the need for him to accommodate the French. (55) On the other hand, there were those amongst the British Foreign Office delegation who felt strongly that the promises made to the Arabs should be honored, even at the expense of a falling out with France over Syria. (56)
Meanwhile, at the conference, the Americans were impressed by the Emir and his aide. Robert Lansing, the American Secretary of State, wrote, "The vivid picture of this distinguished Arabian that arose in my mind as I thought of him caused me to realize that an unerasable impression had been made upon me by his physical characteristics, his bearing and his dress. … The movements of the Emir Feisal were always unhurried and stately. He moved and spoke with deliberation and dignity." James T. Shotwell, a Canadian-American historian who was part of the U.S. delegation at the conference wrote of Feisal and Lawrence, "I have seldom seen such mutual affection between grown men as in this instance. Lawrence would catch the drift of Feisal's humor and pass the joke along to us while Feisal was exploding his idea." (57) Lawrence was at Feisal's side constantly, resplendent in his own Arab dress. (58)
In his efforts to represent Feisal, Lawrence frequently ignored protocol and went above the heads of his immediate bosses to consult directly with Lloyd George, Clemenceau and Wilson in order to press the Arab cause. His actions were interpreted by many as disrespectful of rank as well as arrogant. Yet driven as he was by a sense of guilt for his self-perceived betrayal of the Arab cause (he felt guilty that he had urged the Arabs to continue fighting against the Turks under false pretenses), (59) Lawrence now sought to make amends and to assuage his own conscience by doing everything in his power to put things right.
In the early days of the conference Lawrence and Feisal sought to present their case for Arab independence anywhere anytime, to anyone who would listen, delegates and pressmen alike, in private rooms and tea salons. They found willing audiences as people were curious about the mysterious yet regal Arab and his English paladin. (60) When not courting their audiences, Feisal and Lawrence busied themselves preparing the statement that would be delivered at the conference. (See Appendix A)
Just as the conference was getting under way, on 20 January 20 1919, The Times newspaper of London quoted Feisal as saying, "The Arabs of this most ancient race…desire to become the youngest independent state in Asia, and they appeal to America as the most powerful protector of the freedom of man." The direct appeal to the Americans and the tone of the language were interpreted as arrogant and assertive by certain of the English delegation and by the French. (61)
Even before the appointed time for the formal presentation of the Arab claims, Lawrence was being urged to tone down the perceived belligerency of the Emir's message. An American delegate to the conference, Stephen Bonsal, (62) at the urging of the Big Four, offered Lawrence the example of Professor Paul Mantoux, the internationally respected economist, political scientist and official interpreter at the plenary sessions. (63) "I see the point and I have the greatest respect for this gentleman," answered Lawrence. "Perhaps he is right; but I cannot follow his suggestion. You see, I am an interpreter, I merely translate. The Emir is speaking for the horsemen who carried the Arab flag across the desert from the Holy city of Mecca to the Holy city of Jerusalem and to Damascus beyond. He is speaking for the thousands who died in that long struggle. He is the bearer of their last words. He cannot alter them. I cannot soften them." (64)
The French had already demonstrated their displeasure that Feisal was even at the conference. They recognized him only as a representative of the Hejaz. From their perspective, he had no claim to Syria. Lawrence's stubbornness in refusing to moderate the tone of Feisal's claims to Syria did nothing to ingratiate him, or Feisal, to those already opposed to the claim.
The Presentation to the Council of Ten
On 6 February, the Hejaz delegation, the members of which were, the Emir Feisal, Colonel Lawrence, Rustum Haider, Emir Abdul Hadi and Nuri Said, (65) was finally invited to present its case to the Peace Conference. As Feisal spoke in Arabic, Lawrence simultaneously translated. This time the words of Feisal and the translation were genuine. Feisal argued that the Arabs wanted, and had earned, the right to self-determination (see Appendix A). The only concession he was prepared to make was on Lebanon and Palestine falling under French and British control respectively. Feisal called upon France and Britain to honor their promises of Arab independence.
President Wilson questioned Feisal about the form that any future mandatory should take. (66) In the exchange that occurred between the two men, Feisal told Wilson that he preferred a single mandatory but that the Arab peoples should be offered the opportunity to decide for themselves whether there should be a single mandatory over them or several. The meeting did not go as the Arab delegation had hoped. Having expected a lengthy exchange of views, the men instead departed the proceedings having merely presented their case and been asked questions that sought to reinforce the colonial aspirations of France and Britain. Despite his exchange with Feisal, President Wilson, according to Lawrence, was reserved and non-committal. In Lawrence's opinion the long delayed interview was simply a formality. Lawrence summed up his feelings thus, "We merely established a ceremonial contact, and that to the Arabs is a great sorrow." (67)
After having listened to the Arab delegation, Clemenceau believed the demands to be extravagant. Added to this opinion, Clemenceau was mindful of the political reality that French politicians (led by Picot) and French public opinion were demanding that the mandatory for Syria be given to the French. He also was mindful of his nation's alleged responsibility to the minority Maronite population in Lebanon. (68)
The French also were indignant at the favorable light in which the Americans appeared to receive Feisal. (69) They decided to bring before the council their own hand-picked Syrians. (70) These French-sponsored Syrians claimed that the Emir was an adventurer who counted for nothing in the Arab world, but was simply in the pay of the English. When this tactic appeared to fail, the French resorted to articles in the local press attacking the notion of Arab independence. Even Lawrence was not immune. One paper wrote that Lawrence "was serving his country, but he would hardly hesitate before doing it a disservice whenever his sacred mission demanded. In fact, he encouraged hopes and passions for independence among the Arabs that cannot fail to become a source of embarrassment for Britain." (71)
Politics Gets in the Way of a Settlement
While the French were sure of what they wanted in the Middle East, the British, as noted earlier, were undecided. One faction (the Anglo-Indian Office) wanted to go back to the provisions of Sykes-Picot and give everything to the French that they wanted. Clemenceau had already agreed with Lloyd George that the British could have Mosul, thereby removing the one stumbling block to the British ambition of establishing Mesopotamia as a new colony. (72) Another British faction felt an obligation to the Arabs. Lloyd George was one of those in the pro-Arab camp. He had delayed the withdrawal of British troops from Syria, on the grounds that it would be unwise to pre-judge the decisions of the Peace Conference, (73) thereby persuading the French that their "ally" was untrustworthy. When Britain suggested that France should take charge of Lebanon, leaving Syria independent under Feisal, it merely exasperated Clemenceau even further.
Another aspect of British diplomacy in the Middle East that affected the Arab cause was the Balfour Declaration and the promises made to Zionists regarding the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Sir Gilbert Clayton, who remained stationed in Cairo throughout the Conference, was chief political adviser to General Sir Edmund Allenby, commander of the Egypt Expeditionary Force. Clayton summed up the British diplomatic dilemma;
We are committed to three distinct policies in Syria and Palestine:-
1. We are bound by the principles of the Anglo-French Agreement of 1916, wherein we renounced any claim to predominant influence in Syria.
2. Our agreements with King Hussein … have pledged us to support the establishment of an Arab state, or confederation of states, from which we cannot exclude the purely Arab portions of Syria and Palestine.
3. We have definitely given our support to the principle of a Jewish home in Palestine and, although the initial outlines of the Zionist programme have been greatly exceeded by the proposals now laid before the Peace Congress, we are still committed to a large measure of support to Zionism.
The experience of the last few months has made it clear that these three policies are incompatible … and that no compromise is possible which will be satisfactory to all three parties:-
1. French domination in Syria is repudiated by the Arabs of Syria, except by the Maronite Christians and a small minority amongst other sections of the population.
2. The formation of a homogeneous Arab State is impracticable under the dual control of two Powers whose system and methods of administration are so widely different as those of France and England.
3. Zionism is increasingly unpopular both in Syria and Palestine where the somewhat exaggerated programme put forward recently by the Zionist leaders has seriously alarmed all sections of the non-Jewish majority. The difficulty of carrying out a Zionist policy in Palestine will be enhanced if Syria is handed over to France and Arab confidence in Great Britain undermined thereby.
It is impossible to discharge our liabilities, and we are forced, therefore, to break, or modify, at least one of our agreements. (74)
For their part, the Americans understood that the Arabs did not want the French in Syria, even though that was where the French insisted they needed to be. (75) From the U.S. perspective, the question was, relatively simple: Should the mandate for Syria be given to Britain or should the United States take on the responsibility? (See Appendix D, Article 22 of the Treat of Versailles for a description of mandates). Wilson already knew, though, that the isolationist policies of the U.S. Senate would not permit American involvement in Syria. (76)
These on-going deliberations between the French, British and Americans had ensured that the meeting on 6 February would produce no resolution. An adjournment was called until 9 February, at which time, Balfour assured all those present, that Sykes would make everything clear. "You see, gentlemen, he knows those Arab lands just as I know Aberdeenshire or, say, Kent." (77) Unfortunately, the meeting on 9 February was postponed because Sykes was unable to attend due to influenza. Yet again, an adjournment was called for, this time until 11 February. On 11 February, Sykes still was not present at the proceedings when the assembled dignitaries were stunned to learn that he had died that very morning; his influenza had turned into septic pneumonia. Yet again, Balfour was forced to call for an adjournment in any discussion of the Arab issue. In so doing, he rebuked Sir Maurice Hankey, the Secretary to His Majesty's War Cabinet, for not preparing to his liking, the documents for the various meetings. (78)
The issue of the settlement of the Middle East fell into an abyss as other items dealing with Germany crowded the Arabs off the agenda of the Conference; it was not going to surface again until 20 March. As the Peace Conference carried on around him (with the coming and going of others with their own causes to advance and other settlements to agree) Lawrence busied himself with writing some 160,000 words describing his exploits in the Arabian Desert. These writings were later published as his book, The Seven Pillars of Wisdom.
The Inter-Allied Commission
On 20 March the French presented their case for the French position regarding Syria. The French Foreign Minister, Stephen Jean Marie Pichon re-stated the terms of the Sykes-Picot agreement as the basis for French claims. Lloyd George and Pichon became embroiled in a discussion regarding the history surrounding the agreement. (79) The dithering of the British and the obduracy of the French caused President Wilson to intervene. He suggested the setting up of an inter-allied commission, comprising American, British, French and Italians, to visit Syria to inquire directly of the people how they visualized the workings of self-determination. (80)
Feisal and Lawrence were delighted at this turn of events. Since January they had been advocating a role for the Americans in the Middle East. Some of the British also were pleased for they saw it as a way of distancing themselves from the situation. The British could remain neutral, confident that the commission would report back that the French were not wanted in Syria, thereby giving Feisal what he wanted. (81)
The French were determined that there would be no commission and continued to be obstinate. They were determined to gain Syria at all costs. Clemenceau suggested that the commission should extend its charge and seek out opinion in Palestine and Mesopotamia as well as Syria. This in turn roused the Zionists in opposition to Palestinian Arabs being consulted on their wishes. The Anglo-Indian Office was also opposed to a commission being sent to Mesopotamia. Within days, an unlikely alliance had formed in vehement opposition to the idea of a commission.
The question of how to administer Syria was inexorably linked to the question of how to administer the whole of what had once been the Ottoman Empire. When Wilson had announced the setting up of a commission, Clemenceau had immediately insisted that any commission should look at Palestine, Mesopotamia and Armenia. (82) Each would require a mandate and each was part of an empire that was, according to Lloyd George, "as much in solution as though it were made of quicksilver." (83) "To annoy the British, Clemenceau slyly suggested that the commission look at Mesopotamia and Palestine as well." (84) And it worked!
The Anglo-India Office met with the French to discuss the issue. (85) Meanwhile the French were refusing to participate in any commission unless the British withdrew their troops from Syria. (86) Mindful of the suspicions that the French already harbored against its closest ally, Lloyd George, "felt that [the French] regarded our officers as the stimulators of the anti-French feeling. It might provoke further unpleasantness if we were to send out our representatives." (87)
Wilson still believed in the need for a commission, despite the obstacles being thrown in the way. He appointed Dr. Henry Churchill King and Charles R. Crane to be the Allied commissioners. (88) The Commission arrived in Damascus on 25 June 1919 for a visit that lasted ten days. (89) The Commission did not report back to the Conference until the end of July, after the peace treaty with Germany had already been signed (on June 28, 1919).
The eventual findings of the commission were that the French were not wanted in Syria. (90) By the time the commission reported in July 1919, however, it was clear that the findings were not going to have any influence on the settlement of the Middle East. The French press had conducted a campaign against the commission, accusing it of being Anti-French and pro-British. The French had also found an ally in the British Anglo-India Office. In the United States a recalcitrant Congress was withdrawing back into the isolationism that had existed before the war and was rejecting the peace treaty and membership in the League of Nations. (91)
A Death in the Family and a Parting of the Ways
During the time taken to establish the Commission, Lawrence had remained in Paris and had even taken the view that a Commission could accomplish more if it stayed in Paris. (92) However, Lawrence was about to receive bad news from home. A telegram arrived on 7 April, stating that his father had pneumonia. Lawrence made two short trips to Oxford as a result of this news. (93) In mid-April, after he had returned from Oxford the second time, Lawrence accompanied Feisal to one last meeting with Clemenceau, prior to returning to Damascus. In it Clemenceau laid out again a proposal for French control over Syria, which Feisal rejected. (94) There was to be no meetings of the minds between the Frenchman and the Arab.
Feisal returned to Syria soon afterwards and, with British troops still in the region, declared himself ruler in Damascus. He set about persuading his fellow Arabs that they should assert their right to independence. In September 1919, however, Britain ordered its garrison out of Syria. Although the results of the King-Crane Commission were not communicated officially to the British Government, Lloyd George had knowledge of the details. (95) When Britain ordered its garrison out of Syria, thereby allowing the French to move in, Feisal, remarked, "Inshallah! (If God wills it!) I shall remain in Damascus." (96)
Feisal had protested the settlement between France and Britain. When he complained to the British that he would not submit to the French, he was curtly referred by the British to the French for any redress.
Economics were now driving the agenda for the British. All pretense of honor and integrity on the part of the British towards the Arabs had evaporated. When Feisal returned to Paris he discovered that French views, which had never favored Arab nationalism, were hardening. A new government was elected in France in November 1919 that was even more unsympathetic to Feisal and his cause than even Clemenceau had been.
After Feisal left Paris in April 1919, Lawrence stayed on a while to concentrate on writing his account of the Arab revolt. Realizing that he needed to return to Cairo to collect papers necessary for his account, he traveled, on 18 May 1919, with a squadron of Handley-Page bombers that had been routed through Paris en-route to Cairo. Unfortunately for Lawrence, the aircraft he was traveling in crash-landed at Rome. He escaped with just a broken collarbone, but two other members of the crew were killed. Lawrence was considered fit enough to resume his journey on 29 May 1919. He traveled on to Athens, where he spent a week and then moved on to Crete, where he decided to visit the ruins of Knossos. It was not until late June 1919 that Lawrence arrived in Cairo.
Meanwhile, his absence from Paris allowed those in the Anglo-India Office to "attack Arab nationalism in general and Lawrence in particular … On June 19, Sir Arthur Hirtzel, of the Anglo-India Office, had written a private note to Lord Curzon, ostensibly on the subject of Arab nationalism: 'The propaganda originates with Feisal and Lawrence, and I am convinced that there will be no peace in the Middle East until Lawrence's malign influence is withdrawn. He is advocating and actively supporting a policy which is contrary to the policy of H. M. Government both in Syria and Mesopotamia'." (97)
Lawrence, having returned to Oxford from Cairo was overcome with dismay when he learned of the attacks against him and Feisal. Even though Lloyd George traveled to Paris in September 1919 to try and settle the Syrian question, and even though Feisal was requested to attend from Damascus, Lawrence was not part of the British delegation. His opponents in the Anglo-India Office had won their argument.
Lawrence was reduced to attacking British foreign policy in the Middle East in the press. In a letter to The Times published on 11 September 1919, he referred to documents that had hitherto remained confidential. (See Appendix B). The letter prompted an editorial in response from the paper. (See Appendix C.) In his letter Lawrence argued that no incompatibility existed between the promises made to Hussein in 1915, the Sykes-Picot agreement of 1916 and other declarations. He wrote, "I can see no inconsistencies or incompatibilities in these four documents, and I know nobody who does." (98)
Before Feisal had arrived in Paris in September 1919, Lloyd George had concluded the deal to withdraw British troops from Damascus. (99) The only reason for him being there was to be told of the decisions of the British and French Governments. He was presented with a fait accompli. However, it was one that Lawrence was pleased with.
In his elation, Lawrence drafted a letter to Lloyd George which read: 'I must confess to you that in my heart I always believed that in the end you would let the Arabs down:- so that now I find it quite difficult to know how to thank you. It concerns me personally, because I assured them during the campaigns that our promises held their face value, and backed them with my word, for what it was worth. Now in your agreement over Syria you have kept all our promises to them, and given them more than perhaps they ever deserved, and my relief at getting out of the affair with clean hands is very great. If ever there is anything I can do for you in return please let me know. My first sign of grace is that I will obey the F.O. and the W. O. and not see Feisal again. (100)
The Arabs though, as detailed in the King-Crane report, were not happy at having a French presence in Syria. When Feisal returned home from Paris in November 1919, he was of a mind to declare full independence for Syria, which he finally did on 7 March 1920. The Syrian Congress (101) declared Feisal, King of Syria, a Syria that included Lebanon and Palestine in the west and that stretched all the way to the Euphrates in the east. France reacted, as expected, with force, their troops having been on the ground in Syria since the previous November, and demanded unconditional acceptance of their mandate. By 24 July 1920, the reign of King Feisal was over. He was allowed to move into exile in Italy, and the French had their mandate in Syria.Read the postscript.
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Evans and A. Clubb
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... | 2 | |T.E. Lawrence and the Arab Cause at the Paris Peace Conference||
The Peace Conference
In November 1918, when Prince Feisal boarded His Majesty's Ship Gloucester in Beirut to attend the upcoming peace conference in Paris, he did so in the knowledge that as early as 1915 the British had promised independence to the Arabs in return for a revolt against the Turks. (47) Feisal was aware of, and had accepted, certain limits to Arab claims; a line drawn from Aleppo in the north to Damascus in the south meant exclusion of the Mediterranean coastline as far south as Damascus. The British also had claimed the old Turkish provinces of Basra in the south and Baghdad in the north. (48) Feisal was prepared to accept these provisions, but the details had yet to be worked out. Lawrence was to accompany Feisal to Paris. Officially he was a delegate of the British Government assigned to Feisal as his interpreter.
When Feisal arrived in France, his presence was not appreciated by the French. (49) The Arab claims to Syria did not accord with French designs on the region. Despite past joint Anglo-French communiqués indicating support for Arab independence, the French now insisted on carrying out the details of the Sykes-Picot Agreement and making claim to all the territories that the agreement gave them. (50) When Feisal landed at Marseilles, the French did everything possible to make life difficult for him. They delayed him from reaching Paris, and, instead sent him on a tour of battlefields. Feisal left France temporarily, on 10 December 1918, and traveled to England. There the welcome was warmer, but there he also learned that he might have to accept France as overlord in Syria. He was also reminded that the British were not prepared to consider Palestine a part of any Arab state. (51)
When the Peace Conference opened in January, the French continued to hinder Feisal. They claimed that he was not on the list of official delegates and only after official complaints from the British, did the French grudgingly agree to add him to the list, but only as a representative of the Hejaz. (52)
At the Peace Conference, Feisal enjoyed the support of Lloyd George who wanted France to be excluded from the Middle East as much as possible, Sykes-Picot agreement or no Sykes-Picot agreement. Lloyd George felt that the situation had changed since 1916. (53) With the Russian Revolution underway, the British now wondered, "Was it still desirable to let the French have Mosul?" and "Why do we still need a French buffer zone?" Back in London, Lord George Curzon, Leader of the House of Lords and member of the War Cabinet, described the Sykes-Picot agreement as, "That unfortunate agreement which has been hanging like a millstone round our necks ever since." (54)
Despite the desire to minimize the French presence in the Near East, the British were divided in their own ranks regarding the exact settlement of the region. On the one hand, the Anglo-Indian Office was desperate that Mesopotamia should become a British colony. Those in favor of such a strategy were all for making peace with France regarding the French claim to Syria and for educating Feisal to realize the need for him to accommodate the French. (55) On the other hand, there were those amongst the British Foreign Office delegation who felt strongly that the promises made to the Arabs should be honored, even at the expense of a falling out with France over Syria. (56)
Meanwhile, at the conference, the Americans were impressed by the Emir and his aide. Robert Lansing, the American Secretary of State, wrote, "The vivid picture of this distinguished Arabian that arose in my mind as I thought of him caused me to realize that an unerasable impression had been made upon me by his physical characteristics, his bearing and his dress. … The movements of the Emir Feisal were always unhurried and stately. He moved and spoke with deliberation and dignity." James T. Shotwell, a Canadian-American historian who was part of the U.S. delegation at the conference wrote of Feisal and Lawrence, "I have seldom seen such mutual affection between grown men as in this instance. Lawrence would catch the drift of Feisal's humor and pass the joke along to us while Feisal was exploding his idea." (57) Lawrence was at Feisal's side constantly, resplendent in his own Arab dress. (58)
In his efforts to represent Feisal, Lawrence frequently ignored protocol and went above the heads of his immediate bosses to consult directly with Lloyd George, Clemenceau and Wilson in order to press the Arab cause. His actions were interpreted by many as disrespectful of rank as well as arrogant. Yet driven as he was by a sense of guilt for his self-perceived betrayal of the Arab cause (he felt guilty that he had urged the Arabs to continue fighting against the Turks under false pretenses), (59) Lawrence now sought to make amends and to assuage his own conscience by doing everything in his power to put things right.
In the early days of the conference Lawrence and Feisal sought to present their case for Arab independence anywhere anytime, to anyone who would listen, delegates and pressmen alike, in private rooms and tea salons. They found willing audiences as people were curious about the mysterious yet regal Arab and his English paladin. (60) When not courting their audiences, Feisal and Lawrence busied themselves preparing the statement that would be delivered at the conference. (See Appendix A)
Just as the conference was getting under way, on 20 January 20 1919, The Times newspaper of London quoted Feisal as saying, "The Arabs of this most ancient race…desire to become the youngest independent state in Asia, and they appeal to America as the most powerful protector of the freedom of man." The direct appeal to the Americans and the tone of the language were interpreted as arrogant and assertive by certain of the English delegation and by the French. (61)
Even before the appointed time for the formal presentation of the Arab claims, Lawrence was being urged to tone down the perceived belligerency of the Emir's message. An American delegate to the conference, Stephen Bonsal, (62) at the urging of the Big Four, offered Lawrence the example of Professor Paul Mantoux, the internationally respected economist, political scientist and official interpreter at the plenary sessions. (63) "I see the point and I have the greatest respect for this gentleman," answered Lawrence. "Perhaps he is right; but I cannot follow his suggestion. You see, I am an interpreter, I merely translate. The Emir is speaking for the horsemen who carried the Arab flag across the desert from the Holy city of Mecca to the Holy city of Jerusalem and to Damascus beyond. He is speaking for the thousands who died in that long struggle. He is the bearer of their last words. He cannot alter them. I cannot soften them." (64)
The French had already demonstrated their displeasure that Feisal was even at the conference. They recognized him only as a representative of the Hejaz. From their perspective, he had no claim to Syria. Lawrence's stubbornness in refusing to moderate the tone of Feisal's claims to Syria did nothing to ingratiate him, or Feisal, to those already opposed to the claim.
The Presentation to the Council of Ten
On 6 February, the Hejaz delegation, the members of which were, the Emir Feisal, Colonel Lawrence, Rustum Haider, Emir Abdul Hadi and Nuri Said, (65) was finally invited to present its case to the Peace Conference. As Feisal spoke in Arabic, Lawrence simultaneously translated. This time the words of Feisal and the translation were genuine. Feisal argued that the Arabs wanted, and had earned, the right to self-determination (see Appendix A). The only concession he was prepared to make was on Lebanon and Palestine falling under French and British control respectively. Feisal called upon France and Britain to honor their promises of Arab independence.
President Wilson questioned Feisal about the form that any future mandatory should take. (66) In the exchange that occurred between the two men, Feisal told Wilson that he preferred a single mandatory but that the Arab peoples should be offered the opportunity to decide for themselves whether there should be a single mandatory over them or several. The meeting did not go as the Arab delegation had hoped. Having expected a lengthy exchange of views, the men instead departed the proceedings having merely presented their case and been asked questions that sought to reinforce the colonial aspirations of France and Britain. Despite his exchange with Feisal, President Wilson, according to Lawrence, was reserved and non-committal. In Lawrence's opinion the long delayed interview was simply a formality. Lawrence summed up his feelings thus, "We merely established a ceremonial contact, and that to the Arabs is a great sorrow." (67)
After having listened to the Arab delegation, Clemenceau believed the demands to be extravagant. Added to this opinion, Clemenceau was mindful of the political reality that French politicians (led by Picot) and French public opinion were demanding that the mandatory for Syria be given to the French. He also was mindful of his nation's alleged responsibility to the minority Maronite population in Lebanon. (68)
The French also were indignant at the favorable light in which the Americans appeared to receive Feisal. (69) They decided to bring before the council their own hand-picked Syrians. (70) These French-sponsored Syrians claimed that the Emir was an adventurer who counted for nothing in the Arab world, but was simply in the pay of the English. When this tactic appeared to fail, the French resorted to articles in the local press attacking the notion of Arab independence. Even Lawrence was not immune. One paper wrote that Lawrence "was serving his country, but he would hardly hesitate before doing it a disservice whenever his sacred mission demanded. In fact, he encouraged hopes and passions for independence among the Arabs that cannot fail to become a source of embarrassment for Britain." (71)
Politics Gets in the Way of a Settlement
While the French were sure of what they wanted in the Middle East, the British, as noted earlier, were undecided. One faction (the Anglo-Indian Office) wanted to go back to the provisions of Sykes-Picot and give everything to the French that they wanted. Clemenceau had already agreed with Lloyd George that the British could have Mosul, thereby removing the one stumbling block to the British ambition of establishing Mesopotamia as a new colony. (72) Another British faction felt an obligation to the Arabs. Lloyd George was one of those in the pro-Arab camp. He had delayed the withdrawal of British troops from Syria, on the grounds that it would be unwise to pre-judge the decisions of the Peace Conference, (73) thereby persuading the French that their "ally" was untrustworthy. When Britain suggested that France should take charge of Lebanon, leaving Syria independent under Feisal, it merely exasperated Clemenceau even further.
Another aspect of British diplomacy in the Middle East that affected the Arab cause was the Balfour Declaration and the promises made to Zionists regarding the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Sir Gilbert Clayton, who remained stationed in Cairo throughout the Conference, was chief political adviser to General Sir Edmund Allenby, commander of the Egypt Expeditionary Force. Clayton summed up the British diplomatic dilemma;
We are committed to three distinct policies in Syria and Palestine:-
1. We are bound by the principles of the Anglo-French Agreement of 1916, wherein we renounced any claim to predominant influence in Syria.
2. Our agreements with King Hussein … have pledged us to support the establishment of an Arab state, or confederation of states, from which we cannot exclude the purely Arab portions of Syria and Palestine.
3. We have definitely given our support to the principle of a Jewish home in Palestine and, although the initial outlines of the Zionist programme have been greatly exceeded by the proposals now laid before the Peace Congress, we are still committed to a large measure of support to Zionism.
The experience of the last few months has made it clear that these three policies are incompatible … and that no compromise is possible which will be satisfactory to all three parties:-
1. French domination in Syria is repudiated by the Arabs of Syria, except by the Maronite Christians and a small minority amongst other sections of the population.
2. The formation of a homogeneous Arab State is impracticable under the dual control of two Powers whose system and methods of administration are so widely different as those of France and England.
3. Zionism is increasingly unpopular both in Syria and Palestine where the somewhat exaggerated programme put forward recently by the Zionist leaders has seriously alarmed all sections of the non-Jewish majority. The difficulty of carrying out a Zionist policy in Palestine will be enhanced if Syria is handed over to France and Arab confidence in Great Britain undermined thereby.
It is impossible to discharge our liabilities, and we are forced, therefore, to break, or modify, at least one of our agreements. (74)
For their part, the Americans understood that the Arabs did not want the French in Syria, even though that was where the French insisted they needed to be. (75) From the U.S. perspective, the question was, relatively simple: Should the mandate for Syria be given to Britain or should the United States take on the responsibility? (See Appendix D, Article 22 of the Treat of Versailles for a description of mandates). Wilson already knew, though, that the isolationist policies of the U.S. Senate would not permit American involvement in Syria. (76)
These on-going deliberations between the French, British and Americans had ensured that the meeting on 6 February would produce no resolution. An adjournment was called until 9 February, at which time, Balfour assured all those present, that Sykes would make everything clear. "You see, gentlemen, he knows those Arab lands just as I know Aberdeenshire or, say, Kent." (77) Unfortunately, the meeting on 9 February was postponed because Sykes was unable to attend due to influenza. Yet again, an adjournment was called for, this time until 11 February. On 11 February, Sykes still was not present at the proceedings when the assembled dignitaries were stunned to learn that he had died that very morning; his influenza had turned into septic pneumonia. Yet again, Balfour was forced to call for an adjournment in any discussion of the Arab issue. In so doing, he rebuked Sir Maurice Hankey, the Secretary to His Majesty's War Cabinet, for not preparing to his liking, the documents for the various meetings. (78)
The issue of the settlement of the Middle East fell into an abyss as other items dealing with Germany crowded the Arabs off the agenda of the Conference; it was not going to surface again until 20 March. As the Peace Conference carried on around him (with the coming and going of others with their own causes to advance and other settlements to agree) Lawrence busied himself with writing some 160,000 words describing his exploits in the Arabian Desert. These writings were later published as his book, The Seven Pillars of Wisdom.
The Inter-Allied Commission
On 20 March the French presented their case for the French position regarding Syria. The French Foreign Minister, Stephen Jean Marie Pichon re-stated the terms of the Sykes-Picot agreement as the basis for French claims. Lloyd George and Pichon became embroiled in a discussion regarding the history surrounding the agreement. (79) The dithering of the British and the obduracy of the French caused President Wilson to intervene. He suggested the setting up of an inter-allied commission, comprising American, British, French and Italians, to visit Syria to inquire directly of the people how they visualized the workings of self-determination. (80)
Feisal and Lawrence were delighted at this turn of events. Since January they had been advocating a role for the Americans in the Middle East. Some of the British also were pleased for they saw it as a way of distancing themselves from the situation. The British could remain neutral, confident that the commission would report back that the French were not wanted in Syria, thereby giving Feisal what he wanted. (81)
The French were determined that there would be no commission and continued to be obstinate. They were determined to gain Syria at all costs. Clemenceau suggested that the commission should extend its charge and seek out opinion in Palestine and Mesopotamia as well as Syria. This in turn roused the Zionists in opposition to Palestinian Arabs being consulted on their wishes. The Anglo-Indian Office was also opposed to a commission being sent to Mesopotamia. Within days, an unlikely alliance had formed in vehement opposition to the idea of a commission.
The question of how to administer Syria was inexorably linked to the question of how to administer the whole of what had once been the Ottoman Empire. When Wilson had announced the setting up of a commission, Clemenceau had immediately insisted that any commission should look at Palestine, Mesopotamia and Armenia. (82) Each would require a mandate and each was part of an empire that was, according to Lloyd George, "as much in solution as though it were made of quicksilver." (83) "To annoy the British, Clemenceau slyly suggested that the commission look at Mesopotamia and Palestine as well." (84) And it worked!
The Anglo-India Office met with the French to discuss the issue. (85) Meanwhile the French were refusing to participate in any commission unless the British withdrew their troops from Syria. (86) Mindful of the suspicions that the French already harbored against its closest ally, Lloyd George, "felt that [the French] regarded our officers as the stimulators of the anti-French feeling. It might provoke further unpleasantness if we were to send out our representatives." (87)
Wilson still believed in the need for a commission, despite the obstacles being thrown in the way. He appointed Dr. Henry Churchill King and Charles R. Crane to be the Allied commissioners. (88) The Commission arrived in Damascus on 25 June 1919 for a visit that lasted ten days. (89) The Commission did not report back to the Conference until the end of July, after the peace treaty with Germany had already been signed (on June 28, 1919).
The eventual findings of the commission were that the French were not wanted in Syria. (90) By the time the commission reported in July 1919, however, it was clear that the findings were not going to have any influence on the settlement of the Middle East. The French press had conducted a campaign against the commission, accusing it of being Anti-French and pro-British. The French had also found an ally in the British Anglo-India Office. In the United States a recalcitrant Congress was withdrawing back into the isolationism that had existed before the war and was rejecting the peace treaty and membership in the League of Nations. (91)
A Death in the Family and a Parting of the Ways
During the time taken to establish the Commission, Lawrence had remained in Paris and had even taken the view that a Commission could accomplish more if it stayed in Paris. (92) However, Lawrence was about to receive bad news from home. A telegram arrived on 7 April, stating that his father had pneumonia. Lawrence made two short trips to Oxford as a result of this news. (93) In mid-April, after he had returned from Oxford the second time, Lawrence accompanied Feisal to one last meeting with Clemenceau, prior to returning to Damascus. In it Clemenceau laid out again a proposal for French control over Syria, which Feisal rejected. (94) There was to be no meetings of the minds between the Frenchman and the Arab.
Feisal returned to Syria soon afterwards and, with British troops still in the region, declared himself ruler in Damascus. He set about persuading his fellow Arabs that they should assert their right to independence. In September 1919, however, Britain ordered its garrison out of Syria. Although the results of the King-Crane Commission were not communicated officially to the British Government, Lloyd George had knowledge of the details. (95) When Britain ordered its garrison out of Syria, thereby allowing the French to move in, Feisal, remarked, "Inshallah! (If God wills it!) I shall remain in Damascus." (96)
Feisal had protested the settlement between France and Britain. When he complained to the British that he would not submit to the French, he was curtly referred by the British to the French for any redress.
Economics were now driving the agenda for the British. All pretense of honor and integrity on the part of the British towards the Arabs had evaporated. When Feisal returned to Paris he discovered that French views, which had never favored Arab nationalism, were hardening. A new government was elected in France in November 1919 that was even more unsympathetic to Feisal and his cause than even Clemenceau had been.
After Feisal left Paris in April 1919, Lawrence stayed on a while to concentrate on writing his account of the Arab revolt. Realizing that he needed to return to Cairo to collect papers necessary for his account, he traveled, on 18 May 1919, with a squadron of Handley-Page bombers that had been routed through Paris en-route to Cairo. Unfortunately for Lawrence, the aircraft he was traveling in crash-landed at Rome. He escaped with just a broken collarbone, but two other members of the crew were killed. Lawrence was considered fit enough to resume his journey on 29 May 1919. He traveled on to Athens, where he spent a week and then moved on to Crete, where he decided to visit the ruins of Knossos. It was not until late June 1919 that Lawrence arrived in Cairo.
Meanwhile, his absence from Paris allowed those in the Anglo-India Office to "attack Arab nationalism in general and Lawrence in particular … On June 19, Sir Arthur Hirtzel, of the Anglo-India Office, had written a private note to Lord Curzon, ostensibly on the subject of Arab nationalism: 'The propaganda originates with Feisal and Lawrence, and I am convinced that there will be no peace in the Middle East until Lawrence's malign influence is withdrawn. He is advocating and actively supporting a policy which is contrary to the policy of H. M. Government both in Syria and Mesopotamia'." (97)
Lawrence, having returned to Oxford from Cairo was overcome with dismay when he learned of the attacks against him and Feisal. Even though Lloyd George traveled to Paris in September 1919 to try and settle the Syrian question, and even though Feisal was requested to attend from Damascus, Lawrence was not part of the British delegation. His opponents in the Anglo-India Office had won their argument.
Lawrence was reduced to attacking British foreign policy in the Middle East in the press. In a letter to The Times published on 11 September 1919, he referred to documents that had hitherto remained confidential. (See Appendix B). The letter prompted an editorial in response from the paper. (See Appendix C.) In his letter Lawrence argued that no incompatibility existed between the promises made to Hussein in 1915, the Sykes-Picot agreement of 1916 and other declarations. He wrote, "I can see no inconsistencies or incompatibilities in these four documents, and I know nobody who does." (98)
Before Feisal had arrived in Paris in September 1919, Lloyd George had concluded the deal to withdraw British troops from Damascus. (99) The only reason for him being there was to be told of the decisions of the British and French Governments. He was presented with a fait accompli. However, it was one that Lawrence was pleased with.
In his elation, Lawrence drafted a letter to Lloyd George which read: 'I must confess to you that in my heart I always believed that in the end you would let the Arabs down:- so that now I find it quite difficult to know how to thank you. It concerns me personally, because I assured them during the campaigns that our promises held their face value, and backed them with my word, for what it was worth. Now in your agreement over Syria you have kept all our promises to them, and given them more than perhaps they ever deserved, and my relief at getting out of the affair with clean hands is very great. If ever there is anything I can do for you in return please let me know. My first sign of grace is that I will obey the F.O. and the W. O. and not see Feisal again. (100)
The Arabs though, as detailed in the King-Crane report, were not happy at having a French presence in Syria. When Feisal returned home from Paris in November 1919, he was of a mind to declare full independence for Syria, which he finally did on 7 March 1920. The Syrian Congress (101) declared Feisal, King of Syria, a Syria that included Lebanon and Palestine in the west and that stretched all the way to the Euphrates in the east. France reacted, as expected, with force, their troops having been on the ground in Syria since the previous November, and demanded unconditional acceptance of their mandate. By 24 July 1920, the reign of King Feisal was over. He was allowed to move into exile in Italy, and the French had their mandate in Syria.Read the postscript.
This page is copyright © 2005, C.T.
Evans and A. Clubb
For information contact email@example.com | 5,498 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Boer War, 1899-1902
European colonialism was at the heart of this conflict. From early in the nineteenth century the southern tip of Africa had been shared between the British and Dutch settlers and the relationship was an uneasy one. The Afrikaners or Boers, were descendants of the original seventeenth and eighteenth century Dutch settlers. The discovery of gold and diamonds in the Boer republics in the 1880’s further intensified the rivalry, as British subjects traveled into Boer territories in search of wealth. The unease spilt over into the first Boer War that was fought between the British and the Boers from 16 December 1880 until 23 March 1881.
The second Boer War broke the uneasy truce since the end of first war hostilities. As loyal subjects of the British Empire, around 16000 Australians volunteered to fight for “the mother country” against the Boers. The onset of the war was pre-Federation, when Australia was still made up of six colonies and each of the colonies sent contingents to support Britain. Partially as a consequence of this, enlistment detail is notoriously inaccurate. In many cases, formal enlistment did not occur until arrival in Africa.
Post-Federation in 1901, an additional three contingents were raised by the new Commonwealth of Australia but most arrived too late or were still at sea when the war ended on 31 May 1902, with a British victory. All Boers became British subjects upon the signing of the Treaty of Vereeniging. Ironically, within nine years South Africa became a self-governing dominion led by former Boer generals.
Approximately 600 Australian soldiers died in the Boer War; about half from military action and half from disease.
The Boer War spawned the first military folk-heroes in Australia, including the legend of Private Harry (“Breaker”) Morant which became the subject of books, a stage play and a 1980 film adaptation by Australian Director Bruce Beresford.
Horses played a vital role in the Boer war. Reputedly over 360 000 horses were shipped into South Africa, as well as vast numbers of mules and donkeys.
In the field of battle, horses had many roles including the carriage of infantry, cavalry conflict where the soldier stays on his horse and as gun-horses which dragged large guns to the front. Different breeds of horses were better-equipped naturally for these various tasks. The breeds and varieties of horses actively engaged in the Boer War included Argentinian and Burmese ponies, English chargers and Cape horses.
The uniquely Australian colonial horse, “The Waler” was the preferred mount for Australian troops. Approximately 16 000 were shipped to the Boer War; in approximate alignment to the number of Australian troops. The Waler arose from cross-breeding of a number of breeds brought to the new colonies in the late 18th and early 19th centuries and was considered a versatile work-horse, with good weight-carrying capabilities, speed and endurance.
Walers were bred not just for domestic needs but to supply a lucrative export trade, initially to the British army in India. The term “Waler” was coined by the British in India for those horses that were bred in the colony of New South Wales, but breeding of the Waler was not limited to north of the Murray river. In fact, Walers were reputedly bred and supplied to the British and then Australian army from Gidney’s Farm, which formed part of the contemporary Aintree site.
The Boer War conditions took great toll on horses. Many were ill-equipped for the tasks they were required to undertake. Approximately 60% died in combat or as a result of mistreatment or disease. Many were slaughtered for their meat.
This was the initial engagement of the Waler horse in combat. From this bloody beginning the breed later became legendary for its feats of endurance and courage with the Australian Light Horse regiments during World War 1, when approximately 121 000 Walers were engaged in the North African desert campaigns and later France.
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Were you or was someone you know involved in this conflict?
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- Stories must be submitted as MS Word documents saved in .doc or .docx format only.
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- A maximum of 5 files can be loaded. | <urn:uuid:1980510f-cfa2-41c9-9dfc-185e2ad264ef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aintreewalkofhonour.com.au/conflicts/boer-war/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00067.warc.gz | en | 0.980104 | 940 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.4150867462... | 10 | Boer War, 1899-1902
European colonialism was at the heart of this conflict. From early in the nineteenth century the southern tip of Africa had been shared between the British and Dutch settlers and the relationship was an uneasy one. The Afrikaners or Boers, were descendants of the original seventeenth and eighteenth century Dutch settlers. The discovery of gold and diamonds in the Boer republics in the 1880’s further intensified the rivalry, as British subjects traveled into Boer territories in search of wealth. The unease spilt over into the first Boer War that was fought between the British and the Boers from 16 December 1880 until 23 March 1881.
The second Boer War broke the uneasy truce since the end of first war hostilities. As loyal subjects of the British Empire, around 16000 Australians volunteered to fight for “the mother country” against the Boers. The onset of the war was pre-Federation, when Australia was still made up of six colonies and each of the colonies sent contingents to support Britain. Partially as a consequence of this, enlistment detail is notoriously inaccurate. In many cases, formal enlistment did not occur until arrival in Africa.
Post-Federation in 1901, an additional three contingents were raised by the new Commonwealth of Australia but most arrived too late or were still at sea when the war ended on 31 May 1902, with a British victory. All Boers became British subjects upon the signing of the Treaty of Vereeniging. Ironically, within nine years South Africa became a self-governing dominion led by former Boer generals.
Approximately 600 Australian soldiers died in the Boer War; about half from military action and half from disease.
The Boer War spawned the first military folk-heroes in Australia, including the legend of Private Harry (“Breaker”) Morant which became the subject of books, a stage play and a 1980 film adaptation by Australian Director Bruce Beresford.
Horses played a vital role in the Boer war. Reputedly over 360 000 horses were shipped into South Africa, as well as vast numbers of mules and donkeys.
In the field of battle, horses had many roles including the carriage of infantry, cavalry conflict where the soldier stays on his horse and as gun-horses which dragged large guns to the front. Different breeds of horses were better-equipped naturally for these various tasks. The breeds and varieties of horses actively engaged in the Boer War included Argentinian and Burmese ponies, English chargers and Cape horses.
The uniquely Australian colonial horse, “The Waler” was the preferred mount for Australian troops. Approximately 16 000 were shipped to the Boer War; in approximate alignment to the number of Australian troops. The Waler arose from cross-breeding of a number of breeds brought to the new colonies in the late 18th and early 19th centuries and was considered a versatile work-horse, with good weight-carrying capabilities, speed and endurance.
Walers were bred not just for domestic needs but to supply a lucrative export trade, initially to the British army in India. The term “Waler” was coined by the British in India for those horses that were bred in the colony of New South Wales, but breeding of the Waler was not limited to north of the Murray river. In fact, Walers were reputedly bred and supplied to the British and then Australian army from Gidney’s Farm, which formed part of the contemporary Aintree site.
The Boer War conditions took great toll on horses. Many were ill-equipped for the tasks they were required to undertake. Approximately 60% died in combat or as a result of mistreatment or disease. Many were slaughtered for their meat.
This was the initial engagement of the Waler horse in combat. From this bloody beginning the breed later became legendary for its feats of endurance and courage with the Australian Light Horse regiments during World War 1, when approximately 121 000 Walers were engaged in the North African desert campaigns and later France.
Read More >
Were you or was someone you know involved in this conflict?
If you have a story you would like to share. Please submit your details and content and we will be in touch.
- Stories must be submitted as MS Word documents saved in .doc or .docx format only.
- Images must be submitted in .jpg or .png format only.
- Each file must be less than 4mb.
- A maximum of 5 files can be loaded. | 975 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Despite of his indispensable role in the ancient Egyptian mythology, Thuth has never occupied the position of one of the members of the divine family or as a Chief god in any myth. There are many sources and myths that present him one of the major gods who were accompanying the sun god in the solar boat and responsible for setting the daily course of the chief god. He attained more power in the declining years of Ra, when he occupied the position of Ra's assistant who was responsible for the moon and keeping the stability of the sun god. In the Pyramids Texts, Thuth is described as one of the prominent gods in the underworld who serve in many posts including carrying the recently dead souls on his wing to cross the "winding waterway" and on the other shore serving as the protector and messenger of the Chief god who uses his cutting knife to attack his enemies. There are also many depictions presenting Thuth as a member in the court standing next to the scale that was used for weighing the heart of the dead and writing down the judgment of the dead in a papyrus scroll. Some of the spells of the pyramid Texts and the Coffin Texts present Thuth as a "Peacemaker" who reconciles between the conflicting gods like Horus and Seth. In other resources, he was in charge of monitoring the eye of Horus in its journey to wards the kind in order to give him eternity. Thuth was considered as the god of science due to his great knowledge of the celestial mathematics that made him responsible for maintaining the balance of earth. He is credited to naming the things that exist on the surface of earth and establishing the sciences of medicine, astronomy, music and others. It is registered in the Book of the Dead that he was responsible for writing letters on behalf of the gods of Annu.
The Forms of God Thuth
The usual depiction of Thuth was as a baboon or an Ibis and the reason for involving the ibis in the depiction of Thuth, as mentioned in one of the old myths, is that Ra commanded Thuth, the Ibis to be his messenger who helps him in the weary burdens of mankind and the daily tiring journey. Moreover, the ancient Egyptians prohibited sacrificing the Ibises and regarded it as a sacred bird. The Ibises were presented as sacrifice for Thuth and there is a large necropolis that was dedicated to these mummified ibises nearby Menia or the ancient Hermopolis. On the wall paintings in the Temple of Ramsses II, Thuth is depicted as baboon worshipping the sun god. Other times, Thuth appears a dog-faced ape, since the apes are known for their wisdom. The gates of the shrine of Thuth in El-Ashuein nearby Menia were usually preceded by statues of giant apes. The Egyptian Museum displays many statues for Thuth as an ape in addition to his statue as an Ibis standing next to a scribe that is regarded as one of the rarest and most admired statues for him. The Book of the Dead highlights that in the underworld Thuth was usually standing next to the scale writing the judgment on the dead, and he is presented in this scene in two different shapes: the first as an Ibis, while the second as an Ibis-headed man. These two different shapes were sometimes supplied with the lunar disk over the head which is used as a symbol for Thuth as the deputy of Ra in his declining years and was responsible for the lunar eye. The statues of Thuth as an Ibis-headed man can be found in several places and temples throughout Egypt including the tomb Seti I and king Tutankhamun. There are some wall paintings in the temples of Luxor presenting Thuth while pouring libations over the heads of the king. | <urn:uuid:83d92fb7-a24e-4059-ab22-13281d649e30> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://egyptopia.com/en/articles/Egypt/The-God-Thuth.s.29.13687/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00249.warc.gz | en | 0.985383 | 766 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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-0.00051275291... | 16 | Despite of his indispensable role in the ancient Egyptian mythology, Thuth has never occupied the position of one of the members of the divine family or as a Chief god in any myth. There are many sources and myths that present him one of the major gods who were accompanying the sun god in the solar boat and responsible for setting the daily course of the chief god. He attained more power in the declining years of Ra, when he occupied the position of Ra's assistant who was responsible for the moon and keeping the stability of the sun god. In the Pyramids Texts, Thuth is described as one of the prominent gods in the underworld who serve in many posts including carrying the recently dead souls on his wing to cross the "winding waterway" and on the other shore serving as the protector and messenger of the Chief god who uses his cutting knife to attack his enemies. There are also many depictions presenting Thuth as a member in the court standing next to the scale that was used for weighing the heart of the dead and writing down the judgment of the dead in a papyrus scroll. Some of the spells of the pyramid Texts and the Coffin Texts present Thuth as a "Peacemaker" who reconciles between the conflicting gods like Horus and Seth. In other resources, he was in charge of monitoring the eye of Horus in its journey to wards the kind in order to give him eternity. Thuth was considered as the god of science due to his great knowledge of the celestial mathematics that made him responsible for maintaining the balance of earth. He is credited to naming the things that exist on the surface of earth and establishing the sciences of medicine, astronomy, music and others. It is registered in the Book of the Dead that he was responsible for writing letters on behalf of the gods of Annu.
The Forms of God Thuth
The usual depiction of Thuth was as a baboon or an Ibis and the reason for involving the ibis in the depiction of Thuth, as mentioned in one of the old myths, is that Ra commanded Thuth, the Ibis to be his messenger who helps him in the weary burdens of mankind and the daily tiring journey. Moreover, the ancient Egyptians prohibited sacrificing the Ibises and regarded it as a sacred bird. The Ibises were presented as sacrifice for Thuth and there is a large necropolis that was dedicated to these mummified ibises nearby Menia or the ancient Hermopolis. On the wall paintings in the Temple of Ramsses II, Thuth is depicted as baboon worshipping the sun god. Other times, Thuth appears a dog-faced ape, since the apes are known for their wisdom. The gates of the shrine of Thuth in El-Ashuein nearby Menia were usually preceded by statues of giant apes. The Egyptian Museum displays many statues for Thuth as an ape in addition to his statue as an Ibis standing next to a scribe that is regarded as one of the rarest and most admired statues for him. The Book of the Dead highlights that in the underworld Thuth was usually standing next to the scale writing the judgment on the dead, and he is presented in this scene in two different shapes: the first as an Ibis, while the second as an Ibis-headed man. These two different shapes were sometimes supplied with the lunar disk over the head which is used as a symbol for Thuth as the deputy of Ra in his declining years and was responsible for the lunar eye. The statues of Thuth as an Ibis-headed man can be found in several places and temples throughout Egypt including the tomb Seti I and king Tutankhamun. There are some wall paintings in the temples of Luxor presenting Thuth while pouring libations over the heads of the king. | 769 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As we come up to Christmas Day, let’s have a look at the history of several popular Christmas desserts.
Dating from the Middle Ages this English dessert, like the name suggests, originally contained meat based mince. While meat disappeared from the pie in the 19th century (barring suet), the combination of ingredients in it today dates back from its origins which were inspired by Middle Eastern food that English soldiers experienced during the Crusades. It is not known exactly when they became associated with Christmas, but prior to the restoration of Charles II, their shape was oval and was thought to represent the manager; they also sometimes included a baby Jesus on top. During Oliver Cromwell’s rule mince pies were considered Catholic idolatry and were frowned upon. During the 19th century recipes for both meat based mincemeat and fruit based mincemeat existed but by the end of the century the sweet version, that is made today, dominated.
This popular cake is named and designed after the European Christmas tradition of the Yule Log – a log chosen specially to be burnt on a hearth on Christmas Eve through to Twelfth Night. This tradition happened throughout Europe. The cake itself dates back to at least 1615 with a recipe of the cake featured in The English Huswife. In the 19th century, Parisian bakers popularised the cake, known as bûche de Noël in French, creating the more elaborate designs like you see today. Today the cake itself is more well-known than the origins it is based on.
As we know it today, Christmas Pudding did not appear until the 19th century although it had its origins in the 14th century as pottage – a broth using many of the ingredients that are still in it now, alongside meat. It was served as a starter rather than a dessert. Its association with Christmas did not come until the 18th century. The Victorians were originators of the Stir Up Sunday tradition – the making the pudding on the fifth Sunday before Christmas where each family member took a turn to stir the mixture from east to west. This was meant to represent the journey of the Magi and bring the family good luck for the year. Like Twelfth Night Cake, it was also customary to hide small items within the mixture to symbolise what the future would hold for the person who found that item. A coin could signify future wealth, while a thimble would signify spinsterhood.
Like the Christmas Pudding, the Christmas Cake originated from pottage but also from the traditional Twelfth Night Cake. During the 19th century Christmas cake mostly supplanted the Twelfth Night cake and began to use elements such as marzipan for decoration. The expanding British Empire and migration to the colonies – hence the popularity of Christmas Cake outside of Britain – and within Britain itself, also meant that many people began to boil their Christmas Cake with alcohol to preserve the cake during travel. Like mince pies and Christmas Pudding, the spices of a Christmas Cake are meant to represent the Magi.
This German fruit bread has its own festival in Dresden and like those above has developed over its history. Originally it was much less sweet due to restrictions by the Catholic Church during Advent on the use of butter. Eventually Pope Innocent VIII 1491 allowed the Prince Elector of Saxony, his family and household to use butter for Stollen while bakers were allowed to as well as long as they paid a fine that was used to fund churches. This stopped several decades later when Saxony became Protestant. The festival around Stollen dates back to when the rulers of Saxony were presented with a Stollen by the bakers of Dresden. This stopped with the fall of the monarchy in 1918 but was resumed in 1994. The shape of the Stollen is meant to represent the swaddled baby Jesus. | <urn:uuid:be43d83a-9ef4-4962-ac2a-7a84891db6ff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wuhstry.wordpress.com/2018/12/22/christmas-desserts/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00043.warc.gz | en | 0.983827 | 780 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.1661... | 5 | As we come up to Christmas Day, let’s have a look at the history of several popular Christmas desserts.
Dating from the Middle Ages this English dessert, like the name suggests, originally contained meat based mince. While meat disappeared from the pie in the 19th century (barring suet), the combination of ingredients in it today dates back from its origins which were inspired by Middle Eastern food that English soldiers experienced during the Crusades. It is not known exactly when they became associated with Christmas, but prior to the restoration of Charles II, their shape was oval and was thought to represent the manager; they also sometimes included a baby Jesus on top. During Oliver Cromwell’s rule mince pies were considered Catholic idolatry and were frowned upon. During the 19th century recipes for both meat based mincemeat and fruit based mincemeat existed but by the end of the century the sweet version, that is made today, dominated.
This popular cake is named and designed after the European Christmas tradition of the Yule Log – a log chosen specially to be burnt on a hearth on Christmas Eve through to Twelfth Night. This tradition happened throughout Europe. The cake itself dates back to at least 1615 with a recipe of the cake featured in The English Huswife. In the 19th century, Parisian bakers popularised the cake, known as bûche de Noël in French, creating the more elaborate designs like you see today. Today the cake itself is more well-known than the origins it is based on.
As we know it today, Christmas Pudding did not appear until the 19th century although it had its origins in the 14th century as pottage – a broth using many of the ingredients that are still in it now, alongside meat. It was served as a starter rather than a dessert. Its association with Christmas did not come until the 18th century. The Victorians were originators of the Stir Up Sunday tradition – the making the pudding on the fifth Sunday before Christmas where each family member took a turn to stir the mixture from east to west. This was meant to represent the journey of the Magi and bring the family good luck for the year. Like Twelfth Night Cake, it was also customary to hide small items within the mixture to symbolise what the future would hold for the person who found that item. A coin could signify future wealth, while a thimble would signify spinsterhood.
Like the Christmas Pudding, the Christmas Cake originated from pottage but also from the traditional Twelfth Night Cake. During the 19th century Christmas cake mostly supplanted the Twelfth Night cake and began to use elements such as marzipan for decoration. The expanding British Empire and migration to the colonies – hence the popularity of Christmas Cake outside of Britain – and within Britain itself, also meant that many people began to boil their Christmas Cake with alcohol to preserve the cake during travel. Like mince pies and Christmas Pudding, the spices of a Christmas Cake are meant to represent the Magi.
This German fruit bread has its own festival in Dresden and like those above has developed over its history. Originally it was much less sweet due to restrictions by the Catholic Church during Advent on the use of butter. Eventually Pope Innocent VIII 1491 allowed the Prince Elector of Saxony, his family and household to use butter for Stollen while bakers were allowed to as well as long as they paid a fine that was used to fund churches. This stopped several decades later when Saxony became Protestant. The festival around Stollen dates back to when the rulers of Saxony were presented with a Stollen by the bakers of Dresden. This stopped with the fall of the monarchy in 1918 but was resumed in 1994. The shape of the Stollen is meant to represent the swaddled baby Jesus. | 803 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bracteates were short-lived coins. In many places they were regularly demonetized after some months in circulation, and replaced by new bracteates.
Because of this short lifespan, bracteates were often produced rather carelessly. They were struck on one side only on thin silver plates, sometimes several coins at once. Some plates were then placed on top of each other, and struck in one single blow. This resulted in sharp coin images on the coins on top of the pile, while the ones further down became more and more blurry. In some places square plates were used because they were easier to produce than round ones.
This square bracteates originates from the tenure of Bishop Johann Senn of Münsingen (1335-1365) in Basel. Rare is that the coin bears an inscription. The letters B and A for Basel are placed on both sides of the bishop's image. | <urn:uuid:42510960-7ba1-43a9-a73c-dabaa3344666> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://moneymuseum.com/en/coins?id=215 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00445.warc.gz | en | 0.983006 | 191 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.41092857... | 11 | Bracteates were short-lived coins. In many places they were regularly demonetized after some months in circulation, and replaced by new bracteates.
Because of this short lifespan, bracteates were often produced rather carelessly. They were struck on one side only on thin silver plates, sometimes several coins at once. Some plates were then placed on top of each other, and struck in one single blow. This resulted in sharp coin images on the coins on top of the pile, while the ones further down became more and more blurry. In some places square plates were used because they were easier to produce than round ones.
This square bracteates originates from the tenure of Bishop Johann Senn of Münsingen (1335-1365) in Basel. Rare is that the coin bears an inscription. The letters B and A for Basel are placed on both sides of the bishop's image. | 189 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Riel Jr.’s political adventures did not begin until he was 25. On November 23, 1869, Riel proposed the formation of a provincial government to replace the Council of Assiniboia because he did not believe that they were not doing their jobs well enough to improve the dull life in Red River. On December 10th his flag flew on the pole at Fort Gary. Riel held a convention of twenty French and twenty English Canadians to draw up a new list of rights. The convention sat a week and finished on February 10th. Riel soon formed another provincial government that was more represented than the last. Three delegates were chosen from the provincial government to present the list of formed rights to the Canadian government: Father Noël Ritchot, Judge Black and Alfred Scott . On March 24th, the three delegates left for Ottawa to negotiate entry into Confederation and discuss the list of rights. Finally on May 12th, 1870, the list of rights, now known as the “Manitoba Act” , was passed by Canadian parliament. One section protected Métis lands, guaranteed the right to their religion, and the use of their language in the legislature and courts, but it seemed not enough. December 16th 1884, Riel dispatched a petition to Ottawa demanding that settlers be given title to the lands they occupied, that the districts of Saskatchewan, Alberta and Assiniboia be granted provincial status, that laws be passed to encourage nomadic Indians and Métis to settle on the lands and that they be better treated. On February 11th, 1885, the government answered the petition by promising to appoint a commissioner to investigate the Métis claims and titles. First, a lengthy census would be taken of the Métis. Riel, since little had been accomplished, questioned his own leadership qualities. The Métis reaffirmed their vision of Riel as a leader and asked him to continue as their leader.
Not long after these issues were tabled, a ...
... middle of paper ...
...nment feared him? Whatever the reason, it was wrong. No man can be exiled without a clear, good reason , says the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. This Charter was established in 1872. Long before the trial. Riel’s exile is one of the main reason Riel was viewed as a traitor: not good enough for Canada. It appears that Riel’s treacherous deeds were merely a myth, brought upon by the government to stir fear in the heart of Riel followers.
So to answer the question of “truth or treason?” I say truth. Riel began his own provincial government, improving it as time went on; even in a weak moment of question, his people supported him. When battle and political issues drove him from his home, he did it with grace; yet, when he returned he spoke eloquently on the subject. Even during his trial, he spoke with all the dignity and honor of a gentleman and a hero. His death was for his people.
If that does not prove his honor, I do not know what does. Riel’s life and troubles have taught us much. In the future, we must not allow the government to control whom we believe in. We cannot allow another honorable person to die because he or she are seen as a threat.
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- Was Louis Riel a hero or a traitor. Well, some individuals say that he was a hero, and others say that he was a traitor. Individually I believe that Louis Riel was a hero because he was the forefather of Manitoba, which is a province of Canada. The fact that he was a persuasive politician and spiritual leader made him a hero as well. Lastly, he stood up for Native rights. Others like the British had thought of him mostly as a traitor, because they were not able to understand that Louis Riel had just needed the Canadian government to treat his people fairly, and that he was willing to do everything for his people.... [tags: Canada, Manitoba, Native]
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- Louis Riel was one of the most controversial figures in Canadian history, and even to this day – more than a century after his execution – he continues to be remembered. Many believed him to be a villain; others saw him as a hero. So who was he really. Born in St. Boniface at the Red River Settlement of Canada (present-day Winnipeg, Manitoba) on October 22, 1844, Louis Riel hoped one day to follow his father’s footsteps and become a great Métis leader just like him. Eventually, Riel was seen as a hero to the French-speaking Métis.... [tags: Canadian History]
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- “I know that through the grace of God, I am the founder of Manitoba,” (Riel, 1885). This quote, by Louis Riel whilst he was on trial in Regina still stands true in today where Manitobans we are constantly feeling the presence of Riel’s legacy and accomplishments. He was the one who originally set the rights that Manitobans and Métis should have. Yet another way he affected Manitoba was in the Manitoba Act of 1870. Furthermore, he gave not only Manitobans, but French-Canadians and Métis alike an icon to venerate.... [tags: Leadership ]
1141 words (3.3 pages)
- Louis Riel as a Hero or Villian The story of Louis Riel began on October 28th 1844. He was born in a log cabin beside Seine Lake. The same priest who married his parents one year earlier baptized Louis on his day of birth. Many people view Louis Riel as the biggest pioneer of Metis in Canadian history. They base their decision on the fortresses he took and his position in Metis organizations. Others call him a joke and despise him. They base this on him being taken to trial for treason and eventually convicted and sentenced to death.... [tags: Papers]
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- "We must cherish our inheritance. We must preserve our nationality for the youth of our future. The story should be written down to pass on." (Louis Riel, 1884). Louis Riel, a man of great nature and abiding love for his western Métis heritage, is proven to be one of the most revolutionary men looked upon in the chronicles of the Dominion of Canada. In spite of this, he remains as one of the most controversial and cryptic figures throughout the course of Canadian history, leading to the question, is he recognized as the Father of Confederation or a treasonous rebel.... [tags: Terrorist or Freedom Fighter]
1114 words (3.2 pages)
- Louis Riel should not have been hung because he represented those who couldn't represent themselves. Louis Riel was disappointed with the way the Métis were, so he took it upon himself to represent the Métis and their rights. Even though the actions that followed, such as keeping the new governor out the colony, was illegal and very wrong. Riel risked it for the rights of the Métis. As for Thomas Scott, Riel has absolutely no legal right to have him shot, but Riel himself never touched a gun for that purpose.... [tags: essays research papers]
584 words (1.7 pages)
- Louis Riel Louis Riel was the first child of Louis Riel Pere and Julie Lagimodière. He was born October 22, 1844 in St. Boniface. His mother was the seventh child of Jean-Baptiste Lagimodière and Marie-Anne Gaboury. Louis Riel Pere had been born at Ile-à-la-Crosse in 1817. He was the son of Jean-Baptiste Riel dit l'Irlande and Marguerite Boucher. Both of Louis Riel's parents were Catholics. Louis Riel spent his childhood on the east bank of the Red River, on the property of his Lagimodière grandparents.... [tags: Papers]
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- There were many occasions in history wherein the French and English Canadians have clashed but the first major historical event to tear the relationship into pieces was the Northwest Rebellion. The French Canadians regarded the Northwest Rebellion a noble cause and Louis Riel a hero who stood up to protect the rights of the French-speaking Métis. The English saw the rebellion as a threat to Canada's sovereignty and Riel as a traitor. Louis Riel had taken up residence in the United States after the Red River Rebellion.... [tags: World History]
798 words (2.3 pages)
- Patriote or Traitor. Louis Riel was born in 1844. He was captured and executed by Canadian authorities in November 16, 1885. He was a leader who gave up his life and time to fight for the right of the Metis, Indians and the western settlers. He was an well-educated young man fluent in both French and English. He was also selected as the Metis’s spokesman to negotiate with the Canadian government. During the 1869-70, he led the rebel when Canada purchases Manitoba from the Hudson’s bay company. Also, he organized and led a similar rebellion in 1885.... [tags: essays research papers]
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- On October 23, 1844, in Red River Manitoba, Louis Riel Sr and Julie Lagimodiere, devout Christians, brought a young Métis boy into the world. Little did they know, Louis Riel Jr. would grow up to become known to many as “the founder of Manitoba.” His life was filled with excitement, both political and personal. The question is, were his actions against the government acts of honor and truth, or deception and lies. Riel Jr.’s political adventures did not begin until he was 25. On November 23, 1869, Riel proposed the formation of a provincial government to replace the Council of Assiniboia because he did not believe that they were not doing their jobs well enough to improve the dull life in R... [tags: essays research papers]
1189 words (3.4 pages) | <urn:uuid:174e0a10-c30d-4335-998f-44b763665b15> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.123helpme.com/preview.asp?id=75199 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00080.warc.gz | en | 0.982464 | 2,164 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.05250786989927... | 1 | Riel Jr.’s political adventures did not begin until he was 25. On November 23, 1869, Riel proposed the formation of a provincial government to replace the Council of Assiniboia because he did not believe that they were not doing their jobs well enough to improve the dull life in Red River. On December 10th his flag flew on the pole at Fort Gary. Riel held a convention of twenty French and twenty English Canadians to draw up a new list of rights. The convention sat a week and finished on February 10th. Riel soon formed another provincial government that was more represented than the last. Three delegates were chosen from the provincial government to present the list of formed rights to the Canadian government: Father Noël Ritchot, Judge Black and Alfred Scott . On March 24th, the three delegates left for Ottawa to negotiate entry into Confederation and discuss the list of rights. Finally on May 12th, 1870, the list of rights, now known as the “Manitoba Act” , was passed by Canadian parliament. One section protected Métis lands, guaranteed the right to their religion, and the use of their language in the legislature and courts, but it seemed not enough. December 16th 1884, Riel dispatched a petition to Ottawa demanding that settlers be given title to the lands they occupied, that the districts of Saskatchewan, Alberta and Assiniboia be granted provincial status, that laws be passed to encourage nomadic Indians and Métis to settle on the lands and that they be better treated. On February 11th, 1885, the government answered the petition by promising to appoint a commissioner to investigate the Métis claims and titles. First, a lengthy census would be taken of the Métis. Riel, since little had been accomplished, questioned his own leadership qualities. The Métis reaffirmed their vision of Riel as a leader and asked him to continue as their leader.
Not long after these issues were tabled, a ...
... middle of paper ...
...nment feared him? Whatever the reason, it was wrong. No man can be exiled without a clear, good reason , says the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. This Charter was established in 1872. Long before the trial. Riel’s exile is one of the main reason Riel was viewed as a traitor: not good enough for Canada. It appears that Riel’s treacherous deeds were merely a myth, brought upon by the government to stir fear in the heart of Riel followers.
So to answer the question of “truth or treason?” I say truth. Riel began his own provincial government, improving it as time went on; even in a weak moment of question, his people supported him. When battle and political issues drove him from his home, he did it with grace; yet, when he returned he spoke eloquently on the subject. Even during his trial, he spoke with all the dignity and honor of a gentleman and a hero. His death was for his people.
If that does not prove his honor, I do not know what does. Riel’s life and troubles have taught us much. In the future, we must not allow the government to control whom we believe in. We cannot allow another honorable person to die because he or she are seen as a threat.
Need Writing Help?
Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper »
- Was Louis Riel a hero or a traitor. Well, some individuals say that he was a hero, and others say that he was a traitor. Individually I believe that Louis Riel was a hero because he was the forefather of Manitoba, which is a province of Canada. The fact that he was a persuasive politician and spiritual leader made him a hero as well. Lastly, he stood up for Native rights. Others like the British had thought of him mostly as a traitor, because they were not able to understand that Louis Riel had just needed the Canadian government to treat his people fairly, and that he was willing to do everything for his people.... [tags: Canada, Manitoba, Native]
524 words (1.5 pages)
- Louis Riel was one of the most controversial figures in Canadian history, and even to this day – more than a century after his execution – he continues to be remembered. Many believed him to be a villain; others saw him as a hero. So who was he really. Born in St. Boniface at the Red River Settlement of Canada (present-day Winnipeg, Manitoba) on October 22, 1844, Louis Riel hoped one day to follow his father’s footsteps and become a great Métis leader just like him. Eventually, Riel was seen as a hero to the French-speaking Métis.... [tags: Canadian History]
1723 words (4.9 pages)
- “I know that through the grace of God, I am the founder of Manitoba,” (Riel, 1885). This quote, by Louis Riel whilst he was on trial in Regina still stands true in today where Manitobans we are constantly feeling the presence of Riel’s legacy and accomplishments. He was the one who originally set the rights that Manitobans and Métis should have. Yet another way he affected Manitoba was in the Manitoba Act of 1870. Furthermore, he gave not only Manitobans, but French-Canadians and Métis alike an icon to venerate.... [tags: Leadership ]
1141 words (3.3 pages)
- Louis Riel as a Hero or Villian The story of Louis Riel began on October 28th 1844. He was born in a log cabin beside Seine Lake. The same priest who married his parents one year earlier baptized Louis on his day of birth. Many people view Louis Riel as the biggest pioneer of Metis in Canadian history. They base their decision on the fortresses he took and his position in Metis organizations. Others call him a joke and despise him. They base this on him being taken to trial for treason and eventually convicted and sentenced to death.... [tags: Papers]
566 words (1.6 pages)
- "We must cherish our inheritance. We must preserve our nationality for the youth of our future. The story should be written down to pass on." (Louis Riel, 1884). Louis Riel, a man of great nature and abiding love for his western Métis heritage, is proven to be one of the most revolutionary men looked upon in the chronicles of the Dominion of Canada. In spite of this, he remains as one of the most controversial and cryptic figures throughout the course of Canadian history, leading to the question, is he recognized as the Father of Confederation or a treasonous rebel.... [tags: Terrorist or Freedom Fighter]
1114 words (3.2 pages)
- Louis Riel should not have been hung because he represented those who couldn't represent themselves. Louis Riel was disappointed with the way the Métis were, so he took it upon himself to represent the Métis and their rights. Even though the actions that followed, such as keeping the new governor out the colony, was illegal and very wrong. Riel risked it for the rights of the Métis. As for Thomas Scott, Riel has absolutely no legal right to have him shot, but Riel himself never touched a gun for that purpose.... [tags: essays research papers]
584 words (1.7 pages)
- Louis Riel Louis Riel was the first child of Louis Riel Pere and Julie Lagimodière. He was born October 22, 1844 in St. Boniface. His mother was the seventh child of Jean-Baptiste Lagimodière and Marie-Anne Gaboury. Louis Riel Pere had been born at Ile-à-la-Crosse in 1817. He was the son of Jean-Baptiste Riel dit l'Irlande and Marguerite Boucher. Both of Louis Riel's parents were Catholics. Louis Riel spent his childhood on the east bank of the Red River, on the property of his Lagimodière grandparents.... [tags: Papers]
2030 words (5.8 pages)
- There were many occasions in history wherein the French and English Canadians have clashed but the first major historical event to tear the relationship into pieces was the Northwest Rebellion. The French Canadians regarded the Northwest Rebellion a noble cause and Louis Riel a hero who stood up to protect the rights of the French-speaking Métis. The English saw the rebellion as a threat to Canada's sovereignty and Riel as a traitor. Louis Riel had taken up residence in the United States after the Red River Rebellion.... [tags: World History]
798 words (2.3 pages)
- Patriote or Traitor. Louis Riel was born in 1844. He was captured and executed by Canadian authorities in November 16, 1885. He was a leader who gave up his life and time to fight for the right of the Metis, Indians and the western settlers. He was an well-educated young man fluent in both French and English. He was also selected as the Metis’s spokesman to negotiate with the Canadian government. During the 1869-70, he led the rebel when Canada purchases Manitoba from the Hudson’s bay company. Also, he organized and led a similar rebellion in 1885.... [tags: essays research papers]
998 words (2.9 pages)
- On October 23, 1844, in Red River Manitoba, Louis Riel Sr and Julie Lagimodiere, devout Christians, brought a young Métis boy into the world. Little did they know, Louis Riel Jr. would grow up to become known to many as “the founder of Manitoba.” His life was filled with excitement, both political and personal. The question is, were his actions against the government acts of honor and truth, or deception and lies. Riel Jr.’s political adventures did not begin until he was 25. On November 23, 1869, Riel proposed the formation of a provincial government to replace the Council of Assiniboia because he did not believe that they were not doing their jobs well enough to improve the dull life in R... [tags: essays research papers]
1189 words (3.4 pages) | 2,201 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Minos was housed in the great palace of Knossos. According to Greek Mythology, he received laws from Zeus, himself and used to remain with Zeus, with/for nine years. King Minos, was recognized as a ruler of peace, until his son, Androgeos, got killed by a bull. King Minos avenged his son, by conquering Athens. On the demand of King Minos, Zeus struck Athens the torment of plague, hunger and thirst. A certain Oracle, proclaimed to the Athenians to meet the demands of King Minos to escape their deadly fate. King Minos, asked for six boys or sevel girls to Crete every nine years as a sacrifice to the Minotaur. King Minos failed to sacrifice a certain bull for the God of Seas, who as a punishment, made Minos's wife fall in love with the bull, whom with she gave birth the Minotaur. King Minos, had a certain liking for the beast and held it in supreme praise. Minos was later killed in Silcily, by the daughters of Daedalus, the architect of Minotaur's Labyrinth. After his death, he is believed to have become the judge of the Underworld. | <urn:uuid:a23fcbab-d1b0-4edf-a834-554b60542a7f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mummy.fandom.com/wiki/King_Minos | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00253.warc.gz | en | 0.984639 | 245 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.34880778193473816... | 1 | Minos was housed in the great palace of Knossos. According to Greek Mythology, he received laws from Zeus, himself and used to remain with Zeus, with/for nine years. King Minos, was recognized as a ruler of peace, until his son, Androgeos, got killed by a bull. King Minos avenged his son, by conquering Athens. On the demand of King Minos, Zeus struck Athens the torment of plague, hunger and thirst. A certain Oracle, proclaimed to the Athenians to meet the demands of King Minos to escape their deadly fate. King Minos, asked for six boys or sevel girls to Crete every nine years as a sacrifice to the Minotaur. King Minos failed to sacrifice a certain bull for the God of Seas, who as a punishment, made Minos's wife fall in love with the bull, whom with she gave birth the Minotaur. King Minos, had a certain liking for the beast and held it in supreme praise. Minos was later killed in Silcily, by the daughters of Daedalus, the architect of Minotaur's Labyrinth. After his death, he is believed to have become the judge of the Underworld. | 255 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Buy Act I G.O.A.T. essay paper online
People pass through different or similar experiences. However, the ways we react to these experiences and the ways how they affect us vary from one individual to another. Hamlet, Fortinbras, and Laertes are three characters in Shakespeare play “Hamlet” who acted differently in similar circumstances. Some experiences we pass through are very traumatic. A good example in the play occurs when Hamlet loses his father and, after barely two months, her mother gets married to his uncle. Nevertheless, life must move on. We must always learn that what we take from the experiences and how we apply them in our lives is the most important thing. Instead of accepting and learning from his experiences, Hamlet allows these painful experiences to ruin his entire life. Hamlet’s harrowing experiences monopolize his thoughts, capture his conscience and eventually take control of him.
Act I of “Hamlet” by William Shakespeare
It is true that Hamlet has passed through very tragic experiences. One of them is when his father has died; death is a painful thing for every one of us. What is worse is that her mother has not even waited to mourn her husband for two months; she is already married to his uncle. These are very ugly events in an individual’s life within such a short span of time. However, this does not warrant Hamlet’s behavior. It is now two months since the lad’s father died. Hamlet remains the only person who is still mourning the death of his father. Two months mourning? (Shakespeare, 2008) This is too much! No wonder Claudius asked him why clouds still hang on him. Instead of taking action, Hamlet seeks for too much evidence which is already available. He feigns madness by running all over delivering philosophical speeches. This manner of behavior showed the childishness or immaturity of Hamlet. Maturity demands that we accept death with level-headedness or self-control. It is this immaturity that made Hamlet lose at the end of the play.
The other experience that significantly affected Hamlet was the quick marriage of his mother to the uncle (Shakespeare, 2008). Hamlet goes to shamelessly scorn his mother. He says “….did coldly furnish the marriage tables.” This is a bitter joke aimed at attacking his mother. Hamlet meant that since the mother’s marriage to his uncle came so fast, she would benefit so much from the funeral’s left over refreshments. This shows how bitter Hamlet is with his mother’s remarriage. Nonetheless, he chooses to harbor the bitter feelings within him and pretends that everything is fine only to explode later.
This extreme kind of behavior affected Hamlet’s latter life since he could not sustain a relationship with a woman. For example, Hamlet had a preconceived opinion that all women are morally weak just like his mother. His opinion is that all women are generally lustful. Throughout the play, we find his actions towards women being negative based on his negative opinion about women. As a result, his relationship with his girlfriend Ophelia grows worse due to his continual burst of anger against her. Hamlet goes on to stab his father’s girlfriend in the gut and verbally abuses her. He also terrorizes his mother (Shakespeare, 2008). Hamlet’s negative reaction to his girlfriend and other women is extreme and cannot be excused.
In this paper, we have seen Hamlet’s reaction to his father’s death and his mother’s quick marriage to his uncle. We have endeavored to prove that despite the fact that people are emotionally responding to tragic events, Hamlet’s actions were extreme and childish.
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Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:94bdf094-ad35-401a-aab4-056ca4394124> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://exclusivepapers.com/essays/analytical/act-i-g-o-a-t.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00410.warc.gz | en | 0.9815 | 875 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.03574924916... | 1 | Buy Act I G.O.A.T. essay paper online
People pass through different or similar experiences. However, the ways we react to these experiences and the ways how they affect us vary from one individual to another. Hamlet, Fortinbras, and Laertes are three characters in Shakespeare play “Hamlet” who acted differently in similar circumstances. Some experiences we pass through are very traumatic. A good example in the play occurs when Hamlet loses his father and, after barely two months, her mother gets married to his uncle. Nevertheless, life must move on. We must always learn that what we take from the experiences and how we apply them in our lives is the most important thing. Instead of accepting and learning from his experiences, Hamlet allows these painful experiences to ruin his entire life. Hamlet’s harrowing experiences monopolize his thoughts, capture his conscience and eventually take control of him.
Act I of “Hamlet” by William Shakespeare
It is true that Hamlet has passed through very tragic experiences. One of them is when his father has died; death is a painful thing for every one of us. What is worse is that her mother has not even waited to mourn her husband for two months; she is already married to his uncle. These are very ugly events in an individual’s life within such a short span of time. However, this does not warrant Hamlet’s behavior. It is now two months since the lad’s father died. Hamlet remains the only person who is still mourning the death of his father. Two months mourning? (Shakespeare, 2008) This is too much! No wonder Claudius asked him why clouds still hang on him. Instead of taking action, Hamlet seeks for too much evidence which is already available. He feigns madness by running all over delivering philosophical speeches. This manner of behavior showed the childishness or immaturity of Hamlet. Maturity demands that we accept death with level-headedness or self-control. It is this immaturity that made Hamlet lose at the end of the play.
The other experience that significantly affected Hamlet was the quick marriage of his mother to the uncle (Shakespeare, 2008). Hamlet goes to shamelessly scorn his mother. He says “….did coldly furnish the marriage tables.” This is a bitter joke aimed at attacking his mother. Hamlet meant that since the mother’s marriage to his uncle came so fast, she would benefit so much from the funeral’s left over refreshments. This shows how bitter Hamlet is with his mother’s remarriage. Nonetheless, he chooses to harbor the bitter feelings within him and pretends that everything is fine only to explode later.
This extreme kind of behavior affected Hamlet’s latter life since he could not sustain a relationship with a woman. For example, Hamlet had a preconceived opinion that all women are morally weak just like his mother. His opinion is that all women are generally lustful. Throughout the play, we find his actions towards women being negative based on his negative opinion about women. As a result, his relationship with his girlfriend Ophelia grows worse due to his continual burst of anger against her. Hamlet goes on to stab his father’s girlfriend in the gut and verbally abuses her. He also terrorizes his mother (Shakespeare, 2008). Hamlet’s negative reaction to his girlfriend and other women is extreme and cannot be excused.
In this paper, we have seen Hamlet’s reaction to his father’s death and his mother’s quick marriage to his uncle. We have endeavored to prove that despite the fact that people are emotionally responding to tragic events, Hamlet’s actions were extreme and childish.
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Most popular orders | 836 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|Nehalaennia, an 8 million-year-old rorqual|
from the Netherlands, first described this year
Sunday, 15 December 2019
Sunday, 8 December 2019
As the name implies, European moles are essentially unique to Europe. They are found throughout much of the continent, from northern Spain, Italy, and the central Balkans in the south to southern Sweden and Finland in the north. They are not found in southern Russia, but do reach just beyond the boundary with Asia in the northeast. While they are not native to Ireland, they are found on a number of smaller islands off the coasts of England, Scotland, and Denmark.
Sunday, 1 December 2019
There were two particularly significant changes among the North American mammalian carnivores that took place around this time. One was the extinction of the bear-dogs, a group with a long history on the continent that was, by this time, typified by relatively large animals that would have looked more like bears than dogs (although they were neither). Over in Europe and Asia, the bear-dogs survived for rather longer, although even there they struggled... but in North America, the changes were too extreme for them to cope with, and they died out as the Late Miocene dawned. | <urn:uuid:fe4bedb0-e291-4bcd-9ee3-c1a03c07f1d1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://synapsida.blogspot.com/2019/12/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00121.warc.gz | en | 0.986362 | 257 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.291131347... | 9 | |Nehalaennia, an 8 million-year-old rorqual|
from the Netherlands, first described this year
Sunday, 15 December 2019
Sunday, 8 December 2019
As the name implies, European moles are essentially unique to Europe. They are found throughout much of the continent, from northern Spain, Italy, and the central Balkans in the south to southern Sweden and Finland in the north. They are not found in southern Russia, but do reach just beyond the boundary with Asia in the northeast. While they are not native to Ireland, they are found on a number of smaller islands off the coasts of England, Scotland, and Denmark.
Sunday, 1 December 2019
There were two particularly significant changes among the North American mammalian carnivores that took place around this time. One was the extinction of the bear-dogs, a group with a long history on the continent that was, by this time, typified by relatively large animals that would have looked more like bears than dogs (although they were neither). Over in Europe and Asia, the bear-dogs survived for rather longer, although even there they struggled... but in North America, the changes were too extreme for them to cope with, and they died out as the Late Miocene dawned. | 273 | ENGLISH | 1 |
New role of women in the 1920s
The role of woman changed greatly in the society in 1920s. There were many changes were observed in 1920s as women were able to take part in both politics, the home the work place and in the education sector. It took a lot of effort to change how the society viewed women they were seen as inferiors and were not allowed taking part in many of activities in the society. By year 1920s women were not acknowledge in the society and were not allowed to take part in most of the decision making, men were viewed to be superior in all fields there was widespread theory that women’s and men’s roles did not overlap . With changing laws the role of women had taken another turn, which made them to be recognized in the society. Technology development influenced change of women’s role in the society also change in attitude had great influence of women role in the society. The role of women involvement in the so politics changed, they were allowed to take part in voting process. They were able to recognize that political decisions affected their day to day life. They had to overcome the idea that women were supposed to concern themselves with home, children, and religion, while men took care of business and politics, before 1920s women were viewed as housewives and were not allowed to search job if their husbands were working. The down of new era in the world made it possible for women to be accepted in the society, this brought positive change in their role in the society.
Women involvement in education sector was evident as they were allowed to attended schools, before 1920 the number of women joining school was low but by 1920s the number increased; there was increase in women in different fields as they noticed that they had potential to change their life in education sector. Education brought change in the employment sector as percent of women raised compared to later days before 1920. By 1920s women were able to gain their democratic rights which influenced their life positively this ensured that they were able to take part in most areas which they were not allowed to take participate. There was increase in education and employment opportunities as western countries became more urban and industrialized. As women were allowed to take part in education they gained knowledge able to take part in the job market. There was increase in number of women who were joining colleges and universities. This changed women life in the society as they were able to take part in all matters con concerning development and innovation. The number of women joining high institutions of learning increased, many women become lawyers, doctors and professors. The percent of women raised this had positive influence in the society. Women were allowed to search jobs as before 1920s no woman was allowed to work this was left to men only, women were left to do house chores. The involvement of women in the education sector and rise of employment opportunities to women changed their role as they become independent. Their legal right to own property meant that they had stepped into new position of freedom and choice, their life was not again controlled by men has they had equal share of rights and property in the family. Women become more dependent of their husbands and make relatives and this had positive change. They were able to have right in choosing partner. Involvement in job market and increased access to education ensured that women were able to be accepted and respected in the society. Women were given equal responsibilities with men as they were able to handle all life matters.
Women involvement in education sector ensured that women had gained more knowledge and were able to carry out different chores in the society. Increase in number of learned women in the society changed the perception that women were not able to control the society. Men were the family leaders but by the 1920 there was change in families were women had equal rights with men in the marriage. Many women were involved in world war one, this changed that the perception of the society that women were inferior and they could take part in any activity in the society. The number of women joining paid labor increased during this time, it was assumed that women married to working men were not supposed to search job. This ensured that women had right to own property in the family. During this time women realized they had role to play in the family thus it wasn’t the role of man only to take care of the family. By the 1920 many women were housewives and were not as free as men, at this time women realized that their role wasn’t be only housewives but they role to play in the family. With increased technology many women joined paid labor in the market, and were able to compete with men. In the art industry where women were considered inferior they become professional enterprises. By doing so this helped them to overcome stereotype and became more vocal and confident in promoting their work. Education was key factor in ensuring women overcome all odds in the society. During this time most women became successful, they were able present good art skills compared to their male counterparts. There was increase in n8umber of women entering labor force. In the 1920s, women took up varieties of professions than they did before then. Teaching remained one of dominant career path for women had a significant contribution to education. By the end of 1920s there was more women in the job market. | <urn:uuid:48bb6352-f444-4570-a4af-62d7e2e5df55> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://youmademydayphotography.com/new-role-of-women-in-the-1920s-name/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00246.warc.gz | en | 0.996671 | 1,058 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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-0.0587140992283... | 1 | New role of women in the 1920s
The role of woman changed greatly in the society in 1920s. There were many changes were observed in 1920s as women were able to take part in both politics, the home the work place and in the education sector. It took a lot of effort to change how the society viewed women they were seen as inferiors and were not allowed taking part in many of activities in the society. By year 1920s women were not acknowledge in the society and were not allowed to take part in most of the decision making, men were viewed to be superior in all fields there was widespread theory that women’s and men’s roles did not overlap . With changing laws the role of women had taken another turn, which made them to be recognized in the society. Technology development influenced change of women’s role in the society also change in attitude had great influence of women role in the society. The role of women involvement in the so politics changed, they were allowed to take part in voting process. They were able to recognize that political decisions affected their day to day life. They had to overcome the idea that women were supposed to concern themselves with home, children, and religion, while men took care of business and politics, before 1920s women were viewed as housewives and were not allowed to search job if their husbands were working. The down of new era in the world made it possible for women to be accepted in the society, this brought positive change in their role in the society.
Women involvement in education sector was evident as they were allowed to attended schools, before 1920 the number of women joining school was low but by 1920s the number increased; there was increase in women in different fields as they noticed that they had potential to change their life in education sector. Education brought change in the employment sector as percent of women raised compared to later days before 1920. By 1920s women were able to gain their democratic rights which influenced their life positively this ensured that they were able to take part in most areas which they were not allowed to take participate. There was increase in education and employment opportunities as western countries became more urban and industrialized. As women were allowed to take part in education they gained knowledge able to take part in the job market. There was increase in number of women who were joining colleges and universities. This changed women life in the society as they were able to take part in all matters con concerning development and innovation. The number of women joining high institutions of learning increased, many women become lawyers, doctors and professors. The percent of women raised this had positive influence in the society. Women were allowed to search jobs as before 1920s no woman was allowed to work this was left to men only, women were left to do house chores. The involvement of women in the education sector and rise of employment opportunities to women changed their role as they become independent. Their legal right to own property meant that they had stepped into new position of freedom and choice, their life was not again controlled by men has they had equal share of rights and property in the family. Women become more dependent of their husbands and make relatives and this had positive change. They were able to have right in choosing partner. Involvement in job market and increased access to education ensured that women were able to be accepted and respected in the society. Women were given equal responsibilities with men as they were able to handle all life matters.
Women involvement in education sector ensured that women had gained more knowledge and were able to carry out different chores in the society. Increase in number of learned women in the society changed the perception that women were not able to control the society. Men were the family leaders but by the 1920 there was change in families were women had equal rights with men in the marriage. Many women were involved in world war one, this changed that the perception of the society that women were inferior and they could take part in any activity in the society. The number of women joining paid labor increased during this time, it was assumed that women married to working men were not supposed to search job. This ensured that women had right to own property in the family. During this time women realized they had role to play in the family thus it wasn’t the role of man only to take care of the family. By the 1920 many women were housewives and were not as free as men, at this time women realized that their role wasn’t be only housewives but they role to play in the family. With increased technology many women joined paid labor in the market, and were able to compete with men. In the art industry where women were considered inferior they become professional enterprises. By doing so this helped them to overcome stereotype and became more vocal and confident in promoting their work. Education was key factor in ensuring women overcome all odds in the society. During this time most women became successful, they were able present good art skills compared to their male counterparts. There was increase in n8umber of women entering labor force. In the 1920s, women took up varieties of professions than they did before then. Teaching remained one of dominant career path for women had a significant contribution to education. By the end of 1920s there was more women in the job market. | 1,103 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Warm-up / 1 mi / 10:30
- Marathon pace / 5.05 mi / 9:40
During our Social and Emotional lessons in my first grade class, I attempted to teach my learners about resilience. We watched an inspirational video about runner Derek Redmond. We learned that he was favored to win the gold medal at the Barcelona Olympics. While competing for the medal, his hamstring tore. He could not continue running. He received a standing ovation because he walked to the finish line instead of giving up. All day long my learners were saying, "I am not going to give up. If I just keep going, I won't have to say that I failed!" I really nailed that lesson!
At the end of the day our phys. ed teacher came to my classroom. She commented on how fireed up my kids were about everything that they did in P.E. class. As she inquired more about their enthusiasm, she heard all about our resilience lesson.
This is what she learned: She learned that a runner ran a race. During the race, he pulled a hamster out of his leg. The hamster was like a rubberband and it just snapped. The runner cried a lot, but he finished the race pulling a hamster.
Teaching first grade is A LOT of fun! | <urn:uuid:f909dab4-7c5a-4f8e-9cf3-3b051a570fa4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://norajo.fastrunningblog.com/blog-12-12-2019.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00535.warc.gz | en | 0.985306 | 271 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.2911390960... | 1 | - Warm-up / 1 mi / 10:30
- Marathon pace / 5.05 mi / 9:40
During our Social and Emotional lessons in my first grade class, I attempted to teach my learners about resilience. We watched an inspirational video about runner Derek Redmond. We learned that he was favored to win the gold medal at the Barcelona Olympics. While competing for the medal, his hamstring tore. He could not continue running. He received a standing ovation because he walked to the finish line instead of giving up. All day long my learners were saying, "I am not going to give up. If I just keep going, I won't have to say that I failed!" I really nailed that lesson!
At the end of the day our phys. ed teacher came to my classroom. She commented on how fireed up my kids were about everything that they did in P.E. class. As she inquired more about their enthusiasm, she heard all about our resilience lesson.
This is what she learned: She learned that a runner ran a race. During the race, he pulled a hamster out of his leg. The hamster was like a rubberband and it just snapped. The runner cried a lot, but he finished the race pulling a hamster.
Teaching first grade is A LOT of fun! | 275 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How Teachers Learn 8th English Solutions
Category : LESSONS
SUMMARY OF HOW TEACHERS LEARN CLASS 8TH
There is no denying of the fact that children learn from teachers but sometimes while talking or dealing with children teachers too learn some useful things from children. This intriguing lesson ‘How Teachers Learn’ talks about the same fact.
In this lesson, the narrator explains how he learned some good things from a five-year-old child named Nora. The narrator who is a teacher says he learned from Nora more about the things children do while they teach themselves to read, the problems they face, and the ways they solve or try to tackle them.
The teacher visited Nora’s house over a weekend. Nora came up to him with a book in her hand and asked him for help. They soon became friends.
Most of the time the teacher sat still. He just observed Nora how she was reading words. However, on rare occasions when Nora was badly stuck he would say anything to help her. Even at that time, he didn’t tell her the word but suggested her how she might figure it out. If she still could not get the word, the teacher would tell her to skip the word and proceed on.
On the day the teacher observed an odd thing happened with Nora. Nora misread a word that she had read rightly previously. Nora performed the mistake a number of times. The teacher was puzzled and upset. The teacher was puzzled because Nora was very smart. She was reading the book with full concentration. Therefore the teacher wondered how could she know one word on one page and forget on the next. It was a puzzle.
The teacher then realized that it is not easy but hard for a child to remember the shape of a word if he has just seen the word for the first time. For a child, it is very difficult to recognise which words on a page are the same or which words are different. We have the expert’s eye for significant detail and can figure out words easily; the child does not have. To explain this the narrator shares one of his wonderful experiences. He says that once he took a sheet of printed paper in some Indian language and tried to find the words that were repeated on the page. It was surprisingly difficult. At first, the page looked nothing but a haphazard jumble of shapes. The narrator found it extremely hard even to concentrate on one short common word. It took him a long time before he could figure out that a word at sight and picked it out of the other. In the same way, it takes some time for a child to get used to the shapes of letters and words, to the point where he can recognise at a glance that this word is like that word.
It is, therefore, necessary that we must try to see things as if through the eyes of the children.
One of the reasons why children from illiterate homes are at a disadvantage. Children of unlettered homes lack familiarity with the shapes of words and letters from the beginning of their learning. They have is no one to watch and observe who could guide them. So they are at a disadvantage.
NCERT SOLUTIONS OF HOW TEACHERS LEARN CLASS 8TH
Q. 1. Who was Nora? How did she become a friend of the teacher?
Ans: Nora was a small girl child. She was five-year-old. The teacher was visiting her family over a weekend. Nora would come to him with a book in her hand and the teacher guided her to read it. This regular practice soon makes them friends.
Nora was a five-year-old girl who was learning how to read. When the teacher arrived at her home, she asked him for his help. As she was a sociable girl, she made friendship with him.
Q. 2. How did the teacher observe Nora while learning?
Ans: The teacher just sat still and silent most of the time. He would open his mouth only when he found Nora badly stuck on anything. Even then he didn’t tell her the word, only suggested her how she might figure it out. If she still not understand the word, he told her to skip it and proceed on.
At first, the teacher didn’t help Nora reading the text. He just observed her struggling with the words. When she was stuck, the teacher would give a clue. But if that didn’t work, he would read the word for her.
Q. 3. What odd thing happened with Nora? Why was the teacher puzzled?
Ans. While she was reading a strange thing that happened to Nora. She misreads a word that she had read correctly before. This did not happen once but a number of times. This made the teacher feel upset and puzzled because she had read the same word earlier correctly.
The odd thing was that Nora misread a word that previously she had read correctly. It puzzled the teacher as he could not understand the problem with Nora and with his own classroom children.
Q. 4. Was Nora a careless child? How do you know?
Ans. No, Nora was not a careless child. She was very motivated to learn as she came voluntarily to the teacher to help her with learning. The teacher himself said that she was reading the book with complete concentration and interest. She was not pretending or guessing or trying his teacher to do her work.
No, she was not a careless child. The teacher himself admitted that she was reading with full concentration and was not guessing or bluffing.
Q. 5. How should a teacher understand the problems of the children?
Ans. To understand the learning problem of the children, a teacher must strive to see things through their eyes. In other words, he must be able to put his feet in the shoes of the child which is very difficult. For a child who has just only seen the word for the first time, it is not easy but difficult for him to remember the word. However, for a teacher, it is a very easy task. So a teacher should give the children enough time to learn and not be puzzled or annoyed by what looks like slowness or odd things.
A teacher should look at the problems of a child from the child‘s point of view and try to solve them accordingly. He should give them plenty of time to recognize the word and not be upset by their slowness and stupidity.
Q. 6 What experience popped into the teacher’s mind after Nora’s learning problem?
Ans. The teacher has once taken a sheet of printed paper which was written in some Indian language. He had tried to find the words that were repeated on the page. It was surprisingly difficult. At first, the page looked nothing but a haphazard jumble of shapes. The narrator found it extremely hard even to concentrate on one short common word. It took him a long time before he could figure out that a word at sight and picked it out of the other. In the same way, it takes some time for a child to get used to the shapes of letters and words, to the point where he can recognise at a glance that this word is like that word.
The experience was that the teacher had once taken a sheet of printing in some Indian language and tried to mark the words that recurred. It was amazingly difficult.
Q. 7 Why are children of unlettered homes at a disadvantage?
Ans. Children of unlettered homes are at a disadvantage. They lack familiarity with the shapes of words and letters from the beginning of their learning. They have is no one to watch and observe who could guide them. So they are at a disadvantage.
The children of unlettered homes are at a disadvantage because they are not familiar with the shapes of words and letters. Therefore it takes them more time to comprehend and read a word.
Q.No.8. How did the teacher learn from Nora?
Ans. The teacher learned about the children’s problems by watching Nora while she was reading and learning, and from that very experience, he learned what problems the children usually face and the ways with which they solve or try to solve them. In this way, he learned how to deal with issues and problems while teaching the children.
The teacher learnt a great deal from Nora. While teaching Nora, the teacher came to understand a child‘s problems, the reasons behind the problems and more importantly the problem as seen from the child’s perspective. The teacher learnt that one can devise a way out if he understands the nature of the problem.
Figure out = Understand, comprehend, appreciate, grasp, apprehend
Badly stuck = Finding it very difficult to go on
Skip = To leave, omit
Bluff = To pretend in order to deceive, deception, fake, feint, hoax, fraud, charade
Ad. = Advertisement
Oriental = of the eastern part of the world, e.g., countries such as India and China
Trivial = Unimportant, insignificant, minor, paltry, frivolous
Unlettered = Illiterate, ignorant, unschooled, untutored
Formal instruction = Regular teaching in the class
II. Language work
1. ―to figure out means
a) to guess b) to recognize c) to reason out d) to decide
Ans: b) to recognize
2. Write the following expressions from a different perspective.
a) He loaned me some clothes.
I borrowed some clothes.
b) He sold me an old piano.
I bought an old piano.
c) He chased me.
I ran away from him/ I overtook him.
d) I gave him a glass of water.
He took a glass of water from me.
e) We conquered the enemy.
They lost the battle/ They were defeated .
III. Form adjectives from the nouns.
Alphabet = Alphabetical
Angel = Angelic
Shape = Shapely/shapeless
Book = Bookish
Man = Manly
Government = Governmental
Minister = Ministerial
Elephant = Elephantine
Tiger = Tigerish
Day = Daily
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0.6046614... | 1 | How Teachers Learn 8th English Solutions
Category : LESSONS
SUMMARY OF HOW TEACHERS LEARN CLASS 8TH
There is no denying of the fact that children learn from teachers but sometimes while talking or dealing with children teachers too learn some useful things from children. This intriguing lesson ‘How Teachers Learn’ talks about the same fact.
In this lesson, the narrator explains how he learned some good things from a five-year-old child named Nora. The narrator who is a teacher says he learned from Nora more about the things children do while they teach themselves to read, the problems they face, and the ways they solve or try to tackle them.
The teacher visited Nora’s house over a weekend. Nora came up to him with a book in her hand and asked him for help. They soon became friends.
Most of the time the teacher sat still. He just observed Nora how she was reading words. However, on rare occasions when Nora was badly stuck he would say anything to help her. Even at that time, he didn’t tell her the word but suggested her how she might figure it out. If she still could not get the word, the teacher would tell her to skip the word and proceed on.
On the day the teacher observed an odd thing happened with Nora. Nora misread a word that she had read rightly previously. Nora performed the mistake a number of times. The teacher was puzzled and upset. The teacher was puzzled because Nora was very smart. She was reading the book with full concentration. Therefore the teacher wondered how could she know one word on one page and forget on the next. It was a puzzle.
The teacher then realized that it is not easy but hard for a child to remember the shape of a word if he has just seen the word for the first time. For a child, it is very difficult to recognise which words on a page are the same or which words are different. We have the expert’s eye for significant detail and can figure out words easily; the child does not have. To explain this the narrator shares one of his wonderful experiences. He says that once he took a sheet of printed paper in some Indian language and tried to find the words that were repeated on the page. It was surprisingly difficult. At first, the page looked nothing but a haphazard jumble of shapes. The narrator found it extremely hard even to concentrate on one short common word. It took him a long time before he could figure out that a word at sight and picked it out of the other. In the same way, it takes some time for a child to get used to the shapes of letters and words, to the point where he can recognise at a glance that this word is like that word.
It is, therefore, necessary that we must try to see things as if through the eyes of the children.
One of the reasons why children from illiterate homes are at a disadvantage. Children of unlettered homes lack familiarity with the shapes of words and letters from the beginning of their learning. They have is no one to watch and observe who could guide them. So they are at a disadvantage.
NCERT SOLUTIONS OF HOW TEACHERS LEARN CLASS 8TH
Q. 1. Who was Nora? How did she become a friend of the teacher?
Ans: Nora was a small girl child. She was five-year-old. The teacher was visiting her family over a weekend. Nora would come to him with a book in her hand and the teacher guided her to read it. This regular practice soon makes them friends.
Nora was a five-year-old girl who was learning how to read. When the teacher arrived at her home, she asked him for his help. As she was a sociable girl, she made friendship with him.
Q. 2. How did the teacher observe Nora while learning?
Ans: The teacher just sat still and silent most of the time. He would open his mouth only when he found Nora badly stuck on anything. Even then he didn’t tell her the word, only suggested her how she might figure it out. If she still not understand the word, he told her to skip it and proceed on.
At first, the teacher didn’t help Nora reading the text. He just observed her struggling with the words. When she was stuck, the teacher would give a clue. But if that didn’t work, he would read the word for her.
Q. 3. What odd thing happened with Nora? Why was the teacher puzzled?
Ans. While she was reading a strange thing that happened to Nora. She misreads a word that she had read correctly before. This did not happen once but a number of times. This made the teacher feel upset and puzzled because she had read the same word earlier correctly.
The odd thing was that Nora misread a word that previously she had read correctly. It puzzled the teacher as he could not understand the problem with Nora and with his own classroom children.
Q. 4. Was Nora a careless child? How do you know?
Ans. No, Nora was not a careless child. She was very motivated to learn as she came voluntarily to the teacher to help her with learning. The teacher himself said that she was reading the book with complete concentration and interest. She was not pretending or guessing or trying his teacher to do her work.
No, she was not a careless child. The teacher himself admitted that she was reading with full concentration and was not guessing or bluffing.
Q. 5. How should a teacher understand the problems of the children?
Ans. To understand the learning problem of the children, a teacher must strive to see things through their eyes. In other words, he must be able to put his feet in the shoes of the child which is very difficult. For a child who has just only seen the word for the first time, it is not easy but difficult for him to remember the word. However, for a teacher, it is a very easy task. So a teacher should give the children enough time to learn and not be puzzled or annoyed by what looks like slowness or odd things.
A teacher should look at the problems of a child from the child‘s point of view and try to solve them accordingly. He should give them plenty of time to recognize the word and not be upset by their slowness and stupidity.
Q. 6 What experience popped into the teacher’s mind after Nora’s learning problem?
Ans. The teacher has once taken a sheet of printed paper which was written in some Indian language. He had tried to find the words that were repeated on the page. It was surprisingly difficult. At first, the page looked nothing but a haphazard jumble of shapes. The narrator found it extremely hard even to concentrate on one short common word. It took him a long time before he could figure out that a word at sight and picked it out of the other. In the same way, it takes some time for a child to get used to the shapes of letters and words, to the point where he can recognise at a glance that this word is like that word.
The experience was that the teacher had once taken a sheet of printing in some Indian language and tried to mark the words that recurred. It was amazingly difficult.
Q. 7 Why are children of unlettered homes at a disadvantage?
Ans. Children of unlettered homes are at a disadvantage. They lack familiarity with the shapes of words and letters from the beginning of their learning. They have is no one to watch and observe who could guide them. So they are at a disadvantage.
The children of unlettered homes are at a disadvantage because they are not familiar with the shapes of words and letters. Therefore it takes them more time to comprehend and read a word.
Q.No.8. How did the teacher learn from Nora?
Ans. The teacher learned about the children’s problems by watching Nora while she was reading and learning, and from that very experience, he learned what problems the children usually face and the ways with which they solve or try to solve them. In this way, he learned how to deal with issues and problems while teaching the children.
The teacher learnt a great deal from Nora. While teaching Nora, the teacher came to understand a child‘s problems, the reasons behind the problems and more importantly the problem as seen from the child’s perspective. The teacher learnt that one can devise a way out if he understands the nature of the problem.
Figure out = Understand, comprehend, appreciate, grasp, apprehend
Badly stuck = Finding it very difficult to go on
Skip = To leave, omit
Bluff = To pretend in order to deceive, deception, fake, feint, hoax, fraud, charade
Ad. = Advertisement
Oriental = of the eastern part of the world, e.g., countries such as India and China
Trivial = Unimportant, insignificant, minor, paltry, frivolous
Unlettered = Illiterate, ignorant, unschooled, untutored
Formal instruction = Regular teaching in the class
II. Language work
1. ―to figure out means
a) to guess b) to recognize c) to reason out d) to decide
Ans: b) to recognize
2. Write the following expressions from a different perspective.
a) He loaned me some clothes.
I borrowed some clothes.
b) He sold me an old piano.
I bought an old piano.
c) He chased me.
I ran away from him/ I overtook him.
d) I gave him a glass of water.
He took a glass of water from me.
e) We conquered the enemy.
They lost the battle/ They were defeated .
III. Form adjectives from the nouns.
Alphabet = Alphabetical
Angel = Angelic
Shape = Shapely/shapeless
Book = Bookish
Man = Manly
Government = Governmental
Minister = Ministerial
Elephant = Elephantine
Tiger = Tigerish
Day = Daily
College = Collegial/ Collegiate | 2,043 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The facility is made from blocks of Quincy granite, quarried across the bay from here. The interior has the block levels staggered to form large steps. Signs on the end nearest the Constitution Museum describe the dry dock and its significance. The web site for the Historic Naval Ships Association has a decription as well. The need for a dry dock facility was recognized as early as 1798. However, it would take many years before the Navy would actually allocate enough money to built one. In 1824, Loammi Baldwin, Jr. a local man who is today considered, "The Father of Civil Engineering," was asked to study and estimate the costs to build a facility in Charlestown. Baldwin's report in November 1824, outlined the design to make the largest ship of the time, the Ship-of-the-Line, U.S.S. Pennsylvania, and the cost to build would be $280,000. The open end would have turning instead of floating gates. The dock would be emptied by a pump with an engine that could power a sawmill when not used by the dry dock. In 1826, Baldwin was also employed to look at other spots, including Gosport Navy Yard. In 1827, Congress authorized money to build two facilities, one at Boston and the other at GNorfolk, VA. At first Baldwin and his brothers supervised the work, but Loammi Baldwin was called to help with building railroads. Baldwin had Alexander Parris, an architect who eventually designed many of the buildings in Washington, DC, take his place. Construction took six years. The dry dock was finished in 1833. On June 24, 1833, thedock took the first customer, the U.S.S. Constitution. According to the web site, "The dock had an overall dimension of 341 x 100 ft. At the dock floor, this dimension was 228 x 30 ft., rising in tiers to 253 x 86 ft. at the top. The chamber between the turning gates and the floating gate was 53 ft. in length, and could be utilized should a vessel's length require it. The floor of the dock was 32 ft. below mean high water, with the top coping 4 ft. above. | <urn:uuid:6eee40d0-331b-4df7-b52d-5af8fc5a9c2f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-historic-dry-dock-at-charlestown-navy-yard-boston-59209470.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00451.warc.gz | en | 0.98673 | 452 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.23736435174... | 1 | The facility is made from blocks of Quincy granite, quarried across the bay from here. The interior has the block levels staggered to form large steps. Signs on the end nearest the Constitution Museum describe the dry dock and its significance. The web site for the Historic Naval Ships Association has a decription as well. The need for a dry dock facility was recognized as early as 1798. However, it would take many years before the Navy would actually allocate enough money to built one. In 1824, Loammi Baldwin, Jr. a local man who is today considered, "The Father of Civil Engineering," was asked to study and estimate the costs to build a facility in Charlestown. Baldwin's report in November 1824, outlined the design to make the largest ship of the time, the Ship-of-the-Line, U.S.S. Pennsylvania, and the cost to build would be $280,000. The open end would have turning instead of floating gates. The dock would be emptied by a pump with an engine that could power a sawmill when not used by the dry dock. In 1826, Baldwin was also employed to look at other spots, including Gosport Navy Yard. In 1827, Congress authorized money to build two facilities, one at Boston and the other at GNorfolk, VA. At first Baldwin and his brothers supervised the work, but Loammi Baldwin was called to help with building railroads. Baldwin had Alexander Parris, an architect who eventually designed many of the buildings in Washington, DC, take his place. Construction took six years. The dry dock was finished in 1833. On June 24, 1833, thedock took the first customer, the U.S.S. Constitution. According to the web site, "The dock had an overall dimension of 341 x 100 ft. At the dock floor, this dimension was 228 x 30 ft., rising in tiers to 253 x 86 ft. at the top. The chamber between the turning gates and the floating gate was 53 ft. in length, and could be utilized should a vessel's length require it. The floor of the dock was 32 ft. below mean high water, with the top coping 4 ft. above. | 493 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Eighteenth century is very significant in England history as it marked the evolution of various issues. Particularly, it marked the evolution of children clothing. Initially, children were not taken as such but as inferior beings compared to grown up men and women.
People maintained that they acted without reasoning and since they also lacked experience, they ended up misbehaving in various ways. Before the eighteenth century, children were being dressed the same way as their parents such that there was only a little distinction between their clothes and the clothes of the adults.
However, towards the end of the eighteenth century, clothes of both boys and girls changed greatly. With that background in mind, this paper shall discus the characteristics of girls’ and boys’ dresses in the eighteenth century as well as the similarities between the dresses of both sexes.
At the beginning of the eighteenth century, a new born child irrespective of sex wore a shirt and was wrapped with a piece of cloth which was referred to as a bed. All parts of the infant were wound with a piece of white cloth and the head was covered with cap consisting three layers.
People by then believed that such clothing allowed the baby to develop a straight posture while growing up. After removing the swaddling at the age of about four months, girls were clothed with frocks which were generally simple dresses that had fastenings at the back.
The bodice of the dress was fitting and was similar to the women’s dresses. In addition, the shoulders and the bodice were attached with strings which were used by the parents especially while the child was learning how to walk. Petticoats were also worn beneath the frock.
Children learning how to walk also wore caps which were referred to as pundings and they were meant to protect their head from damage. Girls wore the flock until the age of twelve after which they were allowed to put on other clothes such as caps, shoes and the bibbed aprons. The shoes were usually colored to match the cap as well as the ribbons
Surprisingly, boys were dressed with frocks as girls since there was no difference in their clothing in the early eighteenth century (Baumgarten 2011). They were also clothed with petticoat or trousers under the frock to act as underwear. After attaining the age of four years, boys were clothed with masculine clothes for the very first time in their lives.
At the beginning of the century, boys of around four to five years of age were clothed with breeches which represented knee length tight trousers. As time went by, not only did the length of the breeches increase but also the size as they became looser.
Generally, boys between the age of four and eight wore attires which were known as a ‘skeleton suit’ which represented a long and a loose trouser. In addition, they also wore a jacket or tunic which was tacked inside. In most cases, boys continued to wear the slash which was initially worn with the frock before the age of four years.
There were a lot of similarities between the type of clothes which were worn by girls and boys. To begin with, the under wares of both boys and girls were similar up to the age of four years.
Before the same age, both sexes wore frocks which were made in the same way as they contained fastenings at the back. In most cases, stays were worn by both boys and girls with the normal clothing since they supported the back and hence helped to maintain straight body posture.
The greatest similarity between the clothes of boys and girls in the early eighteenth century was the fact that both were putting on similar frocks which were mostly white in color. It is only in the mid and towards the end of the eighteenth century that boys started to wear breeches.
The study has illustrated that the eighteenth century was characterized by great changes especially in children fashion. Initially, their clothes were not only restricted but they were designed to look as those of the adults. The era did not only mark the beginning of the clothes specifically made for children but there were other changes as well.
For instance, instead of boys wearing short and tight trousers, they started to be clothed with long and loose trousers. the similarities between the clothes for both boys and girls continued to diminish as time went by.
Although changes continued to occur in the subsequent centuries, the most significant changes occurred in the eighteenth century and laid the foundation for the changes that occurred latter.
Baumgarten, Linda. Children’s Clothing. 2011. http://www.history.org/history/clothing/children/child01.cfm (accessed January 25, 2011).
Baumgarten, Linda. Eighteenth-century clothing at Williamsburg. Williamsburg : The Collonial Williamsburg Foundation , 1986.
Brooke, Iris. English Children’s Costume 1775-1920. London: Dover Publications, 2003.
Buck, Anne. Dress in eighteenth-century England. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1979.
Humphreys, Colleen, and Sue Felshin. Children’s Clothing. http://www.18cnewenglandlife.org/children.htm (accessed January 25, 2011).
Rose, Clare. Children’s Clothes Since 1750 . New York : Drama Book Publishers, 1989.
Iris Brooke. English Children’s Costume 1775-1920 (London: Dover Publications, 2003), 10.
Anne Buck. Dress in eighteenth-century England (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1979), 12.
, Colleen Humphreys and Felshin Sue. Children’s Clothing. http://www.18cnewenglandlife.org/children.htm (accessed January 25, 2011).
Linda Baumgarten. Children’s Clothing. 2011. http://www.history.org/history/clothing/children/child01.cfm (accessed January 25, 2011).
Linda Baumgarten.Eighteenth-century clothing at Williamsburg ( Williamsburg : The Collonial Williamsburg Foundation , 1986), 30.
Clare Rose,. Children’s Clothes Since 1750 ( New York : Drama Book Publishers, 1989), 24. | <urn:uuid:cac4f959-fde5-4447-8b16-95092d3d163a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://virginiaangerclass.com/the-evolution-of-childrens-fashion-in-the-18th-century-in-england/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00519.warc.gz | en | 0.983225 | 1,289 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.12207801640033... | 2 | Eighteenth century is very significant in England history as it marked the evolution of various issues. Particularly, it marked the evolution of children clothing. Initially, children were not taken as such but as inferior beings compared to grown up men and women.
People maintained that they acted without reasoning and since they also lacked experience, they ended up misbehaving in various ways. Before the eighteenth century, children were being dressed the same way as their parents such that there was only a little distinction between their clothes and the clothes of the adults.
However, towards the end of the eighteenth century, clothes of both boys and girls changed greatly. With that background in mind, this paper shall discus the characteristics of girls’ and boys’ dresses in the eighteenth century as well as the similarities between the dresses of both sexes.
At the beginning of the eighteenth century, a new born child irrespective of sex wore a shirt and was wrapped with a piece of cloth which was referred to as a bed. All parts of the infant were wound with a piece of white cloth and the head was covered with cap consisting three layers.
People by then believed that such clothing allowed the baby to develop a straight posture while growing up. After removing the swaddling at the age of about four months, girls were clothed with frocks which were generally simple dresses that had fastenings at the back.
The bodice of the dress was fitting and was similar to the women’s dresses. In addition, the shoulders and the bodice were attached with strings which were used by the parents especially while the child was learning how to walk. Petticoats were also worn beneath the frock.
Children learning how to walk also wore caps which were referred to as pundings and they were meant to protect their head from damage. Girls wore the flock until the age of twelve after which they were allowed to put on other clothes such as caps, shoes and the bibbed aprons. The shoes were usually colored to match the cap as well as the ribbons
Surprisingly, boys were dressed with frocks as girls since there was no difference in their clothing in the early eighteenth century (Baumgarten 2011). They were also clothed with petticoat or trousers under the frock to act as underwear. After attaining the age of four years, boys were clothed with masculine clothes for the very first time in their lives.
At the beginning of the century, boys of around four to five years of age were clothed with breeches which represented knee length tight trousers. As time went by, not only did the length of the breeches increase but also the size as they became looser.
Generally, boys between the age of four and eight wore attires which were known as a ‘skeleton suit’ which represented a long and a loose trouser. In addition, they also wore a jacket or tunic which was tacked inside. In most cases, boys continued to wear the slash which was initially worn with the frock before the age of four years.
There were a lot of similarities between the type of clothes which were worn by girls and boys. To begin with, the under wares of both boys and girls were similar up to the age of four years.
Before the same age, both sexes wore frocks which were made in the same way as they contained fastenings at the back. In most cases, stays were worn by both boys and girls with the normal clothing since they supported the back and hence helped to maintain straight body posture.
The greatest similarity between the clothes of boys and girls in the early eighteenth century was the fact that both were putting on similar frocks which were mostly white in color. It is only in the mid and towards the end of the eighteenth century that boys started to wear breeches.
The study has illustrated that the eighteenth century was characterized by great changes especially in children fashion. Initially, their clothes were not only restricted but they were designed to look as those of the adults. The era did not only mark the beginning of the clothes specifically made for children but there were other changes as well.
For instance, instead of boys wearing short and tight trousers, they started to be clothed with long and loose trousers. the similarities between the clothes for both boys and girls continued to diminish as time went by.
Although changes continued to occur in the subsequent centuries, the most significant changes occurred in the eighteenth century and laid the foundation for the changes that occurred latter.
Baumgarten, Linda. Children’s Clothing. 2011. http://www.history.org/history/clothing/children/child01.cfm (accessed January 25, 2011).
Baumgarten, Linda. Eighteenth-century clothing at Williamsburg. Williamsburg : The Collonial Williamsburg Foundation , 1986.
Brooke, Iris. English Children’s Costume 1775-1920. London: Dover Publications, 2003.
Buck, Anne. Dress in eighteenth-century England. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1979.
Humphreys, Colleen, and Sue Felshin. Children’s Clothing. http://www.18cnewenglandlife.org/children.htm (accessed January 25, 2011).
Rose, Clare. Children’s Clothes Since 1750 . New York : Drama Book Publishers, 1989.
Iris Brooke. English Children’s Costume 1775-1920 (London: Dover Publications, 2003), 10.
Anne Buck. Dress in eighteenth-century England (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1979), 12.
, Colleen Humphreys and Felshin Sue. Children’s Clothing. http://www.18cnewenglandlife.org/children.htm (accessed January 25, 2011).
Linda Baumgarten. Children’s Clothing. 2011. http://www.history.org/history/clothing/children/child01.cfm (accessed January 25, 2011).
Linda Baumgarten.Eighteenth-century clothing at Williamsburg ( Williamsburg : The Collonial Williamsburg Foundation , 1986), 30.
Clare Rose,. Children’s Clothes Since 1750 ( New York : Drama Book Publishers, 1989), 24. | 1,339 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Eltopia, Washington facts for kids
After the Yakima War of the late 1850s, settlers began to arrive in the region. The first settlers were the cattle ranchers who wanted the vast rangelands available, and those panning for gold in the nearby Columbia river at Ringold (variously Ringgold and Ringgold Bar).
In the late 1870s settlement began in earnest in Ainsworth at the site of present-day Pasco. The railroad soon followed, and Northern Pacific established a station at Eltopia in 1881. The Peach orchards were common in the area, and wheat was a major crop as well.
By 1902, there were enough settlers in the area that a town site was platted, but Eltopia has never been officially incorporated as a city. The story is told that the name comes from an incident among the railroad workers building the town. When a storm washed away some work that had been done, a Cockney worker commented that, "There will be hell to pay".
Eltopia, Washington Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | <urn:uuid:93d3ebab-b587-4312-b0c7-09300dd39f2f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kids.kiddle.co/Eltopia,_Washington | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00092.warc.gz | en | 0.981421 | 224 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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After the Yakima War of the late 1850s, settlers began to arrive in the region. The first settlers were the cattle ranchers who wanted the vast rangelands available, and those panning for gold in the nearby Columbia river at Ringold (variously Ringgold and Ringgold Bar).
In the late 1870s settlement began in earnest in Ainsworth at the site of present-day Pasco. The railroad soon followed, and Northern Pacific established a station at Eltopia in 1881. The Peach orchards were common in the area, and wheat was a major crop as well.
By 1902, there were enough settlers in the area that a town site was platted, but Eltopia has never been officially incorporated as a city. The story is told that the name comes from an incident among the railroad workers building the town. When a storm washed away some work that had been done, a Cockney worker commented that, "There will be hell to pay".
Eltopia, Washington Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | 234 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 22/10/2013)
Rama Deva Raya
was also referred to as Vira Rama Raya and reigned over the region of Vijayanagara
from 1617to 1632 CE. During the year 1614, one of his relatives named Jagga Raya had brutally assassinated the father Sriranga II
, along with his entire family. Rama Raya was able to escape from imprisonment with the assistance of Yachamanedu who was a loyal commander and viceroy of Venkata II.
Jagga Raya had demanded that a son belonging to one of the queens of Venkata II must ascent the throne. However, Yachamanedu protested against this claim and instead declared that Rama Deva Raya would be the rightful heir to the throne of the Vijayanagar Empire
. A fierce battle then occurred between Yachamendu and Jagga Raya. Finally, Jagga Raya was slain and Yachamanedu occupied the Gobburi estates which were located in the western part of Nellore
and belonged to Jagga Raya.
Battles Fought by Rama Deva Raya
Jagga Raya who suffered defeat against Yachamanedu, again attacked Rama Deva Raya and Yachamanedu, after he was being aided by the Nayaks
and Ginjee. The Nayaks of Tanjore then countered the blow of Jagga Raya, and cooperated with the combine of Rama Raya and Yachamanedu in their defence against Jagga Raya.
, Jagga Raya, along with his allies namely the chieftains of Madurai, Portuguese belonging to the coastal regions, Chera
king, and the Nayaks of Ginjee and Madurai arranged a gigantic army. Yachamanedu ordered his troops to march from Vellore
and he was joined by the armies of the Nayak
s of Tanjore which were led by Raghunatha Nayaka
, the Tanjore ruler on his way to the battlefield. The combined armies were yet again joined by several nobles from the state of Karnataka
, as well as some Jaffna and Dutch armies. During the year 1616, the soldiers of Jagga Raya and Yachamanedu met at Toppur, which was situated on the banks of Kaveri River
, between Grand Anicut
and Tiruchirapalli. This particular battle is believed to be one of the greatest wars which had occurred in southern India and due its vast quantity of armies, which amounted to over one million.
Jagga Raya was defeated since his armies were unable to bear the collective forces of all the royal armies on the side of Yachamanedu. In the battle, the armies headed by King Raghunatha and Yachamanedu were quite disciplined and it concluded by the slaying of Jagga Raya by Yachamanedu. Jagga Raya's brother Yethiraja retreated in order to save his own life. It is said that Nayaka chieftain of Madurai made an attempt to flee the battlefield, however was captured close to Tiruchirapalli by Rao Dama
Nayani, who was the general of Yachama. The Nayak of the region of Ginjee lost almost all his forts, while Ginjee Fort
was the only exception. The son of Venkata II, who was the pivotal reason for all the political turmoil, was captured. Finally, Rama Deva Raya was crowned as the new king of Vijayanagara in the earlier part of the year 1617. He was hardly 15 years of age when he succeeded the throne.
After being defeated at the Toppur Battle, Yethiraja, Jagga Raya's brother attacked Tanjore, being supported by the Nayak of Ginjee. However, they lost the war and the Ginjee Nayak was taken prisoner by the army of Tanjore. Yethiraja continued his evil actions of waging wars, till he finally entered into reconciliation with Rama Deva Raya when his daughter's hand was offered in marriage, to the Rama Raya. After the death of the putative son of Venkata II in the year 1619, Rama Deva Raya's rule was peaceful.
During 1620, the Bijapur
Sultan attacked Kurnool
and by 1624, he was capable of capturing Kurnool completely. Yachamanedu protested his marriage of Rama Deva Raya with the daughter of Yethiraja. He had advised the king not to enter into a matrimonial alliance with Yethiraja's daughter but he ignored the suggestion. Humiliated, Yachamanedu tried to resign from the service to Rama Deva Raya on the pretext of old age. Thereafter, Yethiraja, who was now the father-in-law of Rama Deva Raya entered into open warfare with Yachamanedu, particularly after he had demanded the territories of Gobburi. By the year 1629, Yachamanedu's armies were attacked by the army of Yethiraja, who as assisted by the forces of Ginjee and Tanjore. Though the armies of Yachamanedu was insufficient, they put up a bold resistance.
Finally, the Gobburi lands were submitted back to Yethiraja. The areas of Mathurantagam, Chengulpet and Pulicat
were captured by Vellore. Yachamanedu was permitted to reign over Venkatagiri but he decided to spent the remaining part of his life under the protection of a chieftain known as Udaiyarpalaiyam. Since Rama Raya possessed no sons or brothers, he nominated Peda Venkata Raya or Venkata III, who was Aliya Rama Raya's grandson to the throne. Rama Raya died in 1632, at the age of 30. | <urn:uuid:357e7427-929b-4283-970a-f4861487984b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/69/rama_deva_raya.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00410.warc.gz | en | 0.984258 | 1,252 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.1625742167... | 3 | (Last Updated on : 22/10/2013)
Rama Deva Raya
was also referred to as Vira Rama Raya and reigned over the region of Vijayanagara
from 1617to 1632 CE. During the year 1614, one of his relatives named Jagga Raya had brutally assassinated the father Sriranga II
, along with his entire family. Rama Raya was able to escape from imprisonment with the assistance of Yachamanedu who was a loyal commander and viceroy of Venkata II.
Jagga Raya had demanded that a son belonging to one of the queens of Venkata II must ascent the throne. However, Yachamanedu protested against this claim and instead declared that Rama Deva Raya would be the rightful heir to the throne of the Vijayanagar Empire
. A fierce battle then occurred between Yachamendu and Jagga Raya. Finally, Jagga Raya was slain and Yachamanedu occupied the Gobburi estates which were located in the western part of Nellore
and belonged to Jagga Raya.
Battles Fought by Rama Deva Raya
Jagga Raya who suffered defeat against Yachamanedu, again attacked Rama Deva Raya and Yachamanedu, after he was being aided by the Nayaks
and Ginjee. The Nayaks of Tanjore then countered the blow of Jagga Raya, and cooperated with the combine of Rama Raya and Yachamanedu in their defence against Jagga Raya.
, Jagga Raya, along with his allies namely the chieftains of Madurai, Portuguese belonging to the coastal regions, Chera
king, and the Nayaks of Ginjee and Madurai arranged a gigantic army. Yachamanedu ordered his troops to march from Vellore
and he was joined by the armies of the Nayak
s of Tanjore which were led by Raghunatha Nayaka
, the Tanjore ruler on his way to the battlefield. The combined armies were yet again joined by several nobles from the state of Karnataka
, as well as some Jaffna and Dutch armies. During the year 1616, the soldiers of Jagga Raya and Yachamanedu met at Toppur, which was situated on the banks of Kaveri River
, between Grand Anicut
and Tiruchirapalli. This particular battle is believed to be one of the greatest wars which had occurred in southern India and due its vast quantity of armies, which amounted to over one million.
Jagga Raya was defeated since his armies were unable to bear the collective forces of all the royal armies on the side of Yachamanedu. In the battle, the armies headed by King Raghunatha and Yachamanedu were quite disciplined and it concluded by the slaying of Jagga Raya by Yachamanedu. Jagga Raya's brother Yethiraja retreated in order to save his own life. It is said that Nayaka chieftain of Madurai made an attempt to flee the battlefield, however was captured close to Tiruchirapalli by Rao Dama
Nayani, who was the general of Yachama. The Nayak of the region of Ginjee lost almost all his forts, while Ginjee Fort
was the only exception. The son of Venkata II, who was the pivotal reason for all the political turmoil, was captured. Finally, Rama Deva Raya was crowned as the new king of Vijayanagara in the earlier part of the year 1617. He was hardly 15 years of age when he succeeded the throne.
After being defeated at the Toppur Battle, Yethiraja, Jagga Raya's brother attacked Tanjore, being supported by the Nayak of Ginjee. However, they lost the war and the Ginjee Nayak was taken prisoner by the army of Tanjore. Yethiraja continued his evil actions of waging wars, till he finally entered into reconciliation with Rama Deva Raya when his daughter's hand was offered in marriage, to the Rama Raya. After the death of the putative son of Venkata II in the year 1619, Rama Deva Raya's rule was peaceful.
During 1620, the Bijapur
Sultan attacked Kurnool
and by 1624, he was capable of capturing Kurnool completely. Yachamanedu protested his marriage of Rama Deva Raya with the daughter of Yethiraja. He had advised the king not to enter into a matrimonial alliance with Yethiraja's daughter but he ignored the suggestion. Humiliated, Yachamanedu tried to resign from the service to Rama Deva Raya on the pretext of old age. Thereafter, Yethiraja, who was now the father-in-law of Rama Deva Raya entered into open warfare with Yachamanedu, particularly after he had demanded the territories of Gobburi. By the year 1629, Yachamanedu's armies were attacked by the army of Yethiraja, who as assisted by the forces of Ginjee and Tanjore. Though the armies of Yachamanedu was insufficient, they put up a bold resistance.
Finally, the Gobburi lands were submitted back to Yethiraja. The areas of Mathurantagam, Chengulpet and Pulicat
were captured by Vellore. Yachamanedu was permitted to reign over Venkatagiri but he decided to spent the remaining part of his life under the protection of a chieftain known as Udaiyarpalaiyam. Since Rama Raya possessed no sons or brothers, he nominated Peda Venkata Raya or Venkata III, who was Aliya Rama Raya's grandson to the throne. Rama Raya died in 1632, at the age of 30. | 1,283 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Karl Hofer, The contemplative woman, 1936
Even though it was created in 1936, from today's perspective "Die Sinnende" [The contemplative woman] appears as if the huge dislocations of the following decade were already being depicted in the portrait of this young woman: not only through the turban-like head covering and the background resembling a dilapidated house wall, both of which are reminiscent of the women who helped clear the rubble after the war, but also, above all, through the inward-looking, hopeless contemplative gaze, which seems to reflect the breakdown of society, the catastrophe of war and the trauma of Auschwitz.
This notion of humanity was not in keeping with 1936, the year in which the Olympic Games were staged in Berlin amid jingoistic propaganda campaigns throughout Nazi Germany. Karl Hofer had already been dismissed from his position as professor at the University of Fine Arts in Berlin in 1934; more than 300 of his works were later removed from public collections for being 'degenerate'.
Hofer's artistic focus was on the development of universal, timeless forms. He therefore erased all traces of individuality from his portraits, preferring instead clear compositions and tectonic structures. Hofer remained true to his classic-idealistic notion of the figure into the 1950s, continuing, as an artistic loner, to focus on his image of humankind. | <urn:uuid:2f717c26-6789-41f4-9dcd-9b1f2b32a903> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bundesbank.de/en/bundesbank/numismatics-and-art/art-collection/paintings-and-works-on-paper/paintings-and-works-on-paper/paintings-and-works-on-paper-642940?index=0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00310.warc.gz | en | 0.980117 | 280 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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... | 13 | Karl Hofer, The contemplative woman, 1936
Even though it was created in 1936, from today's perspective "Die Sinnende" [The contemplative woman] appears as if the huge dislocations of the following decade were already being depicted in the portrait of this young woman: not only through the turban-like head covering and the background resembling a dilapidated house wall, both of which are reminiscent of the women who helped clear the rubble after the war, but also, above all, through the inward-looking, hopeless contemplative gaze, which seems to reflect the breakdown of society, the catastrophe of war and the trauma of Auschwitz.
This notion of humanity was not in keeping with 1936, the year in which the Olympic Games were staged in Berlin amid jingoistic propaganda campaigns throughout Nazi Germany. Karl Hofer had already been dismissed from his position as professor at the University of Fine Arts in Berlin in 1934; more than 300 of his works were later removed from public collections for being 'degenerate'.
Hofer's artistic focus was on the development of universal, timeless forms. He therefore erased all traces of individuality from his portraits, preferring instead clear compositions and tectonic structures. Hofer remained true to his classic-idealistic notion of the figure into the 1950s, continuing, as an artistic loner, to focus on his image of humankind. | 299 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Maya Angelou as a Caged Bird
The graduation scene from I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings illustrates how, living in the midst of racism and unequal access to opportunity, Maya Angelou was able to surmount the obstacles that stood in her way of intellectual develop and find "higher ground." One of the largest factors responsible for Angelou's academic success was her dedication to and capacity for hard work, "My work alone has awarded me a top place...No absences, no tardinesses, and my academic work was among the best of the year" (Angelou 13-14). Angelou worked hard and read a great deal in order to be able to perform on such a level, in spite of the fact that she had much less access (or none) to the quality of teachers, school environment and other resources available to whites because of her color.
Another way Angelou surmounted the disadvantages of being black in a racist white controlled school district was to view her brother as a role model. She is proud that she can recite the preamble to the Constitution faster than Bailey, she is proud he will see her graduate at the top of her class, and he provides her with literature which fuels her desire to read. Maya also used other students in her class who were intelligent as role models and a measure stick of her own performance. She admires the class valedictorian, Henry Reed, because he has been her most challenging academic competition among her peers. However, another reason Angelou is able to overcome obstacles and reach higher ground is that she is not jealous or mean-spirited about academically competing with others. Instead, she is happy that others are developing towards higher ground. As she says about Henry, "I had admired him for years because each term he and I vied for the best grades in our class. Most often he bested me, but instead of being disappointed I was pleased that we shared top places between us" (Angelou 14).
Angelou also overcame the isolation, muffling of her voice and low self-esteem that can develop in a segregated environment by looking to those who had achieved higher ground before her, in books, in music, and in art. She completely memorized The Rape of Lucrece, was well versed in Shakespeare, knew the life and times of Booker T. Washington, and was aware of the enduring power of black music. Like Washington would advocate, through hard work, education, love of others and making herself indispensable by way of her accomplished development, Angelou was able to rise above the disadvantages of her environment repeatedly. This is not to say that feelings of low self-esteem, anger, hostility, bitterness and rage were not all feelings and emotions engendered in her by the abusive environment that she would have to let go of before she could truly find herself-on higher ground. She describes how awful it was to be black and be accused of things one could not even find opportunity to defend against. She wishes all blacks were dead, she... | <urn:uuid:e4e6923a-ba10-4040-b5cf-e9b5388ab7f8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/maya-angelou-as-a-caged-bird | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00043.warc.gz | en | 0.987207 | 618 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.03203953057... | 1 | Maya Angelou as a Caged Bird
The graduation scene from I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings illustrates how, living in the midst of racism and unequal access to opportunity, Maya Angelou was able to surmount the obstacles that stood in her way of intellectual develop and find "higher ground." One of the largest factors responsible for Angelou's academic success was her dedication to and capacity for hard work, "My work alone has awarded me a top place...No absences, no tardinesses, and my academic work was among the best of the year" (Angelou 13-14). Angelou worked hard and read a great deal in order to be able to perform on such a level, in spite of the fact that she had much less access (or none) to the quality of teachers, school environment and other resources available to whites because of her color.
Another way Angelou surmounted the disadvantages of being black in a racist white controlled school district was to view her brother as a role model. She is proud that she can recite the preamble to the Constitution faster than Bailey, she is proud he will see her graduate at the top of her class, and he provides her with literature which fuels her desire to read. Maya also used other students in her class who were intelligent as role models and a measure stick of her own performance. She admires the class valedictorian, Henry Reed, because he has been her most challenging academic competition among her peers. However, another reason Angelou is able to overcome obstacles and reach higher ground is that she is not jealous or mean-spirited about academically competing with others. Instead, she is happy that others are developing towards higher ground. As she says about Henry, "I had admired him for years because each term he and I vied for the best grades in our class. Most often he bested me, but instead of being disappointed I was pleased that we shared top places between us" (Angelou 14).
Angelou also overcame the isolation, muffling of her voice and low self-esteem that can develop in a segregated environment by looking to those who had achieved higher ground before her, in books, in music, and in art. She completely memorized The Rape of Lucrece, was well versed in Shakespeare, knew the life and times of Booker T. Washington, and was aware of the enduring power of black music. Like Washington would advocate, through hard work, education, love of others and making herself indispensable by way of her accomplished development, Angelou was able to rise above the disadvantages of her environment repeatedly. This is not to say that feelings of low self-esteem, anger, hostility, bitterness and rage were not all feelings and emotions engendered in her by the abusive environment that she would have to let go of before she could truly find herself-on higher ground. She describes how awful it was to be black and be accused of things one could not even find opportunity to defend against. She wishes all blacks were dead, she... | 619 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Cherokee are a tribe of Native Americans that were originally concentrated in the Southeastern United States. There are currently three Cherokee tribes recognized by the United States government: the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, and the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians. The Cherokee Nation has the most members of the three, with 300,000 tribal members. It is the largest of the federally recognized tribes in the U.S. All in all, just over 800,000 Americans claimed to have Cherokee ancestry on the 2010 U.S. census.
In “Robin Red Breast”, Miller includes many aspects of Cherokee culture, especially their relationship with nature. Cherokees placed a high value on the natural environment in which they lived. This is evident by the fact that when harvesting plants to use for medicine or food, they only took the every fourth plant, and left the others for future use. The Cherokee people viewed themselves as part of their environment rather than separate from it. If this balance was upset, people would face sickness, bad harvest, or poor hunting. They did not try to rule over nature, but rather keep their place within it.
While being tied to the stake in the story, the warrior comes across two animals that have different reactions to his situation, a deer and a robin. In Cherokee culture, the Deer Clan is one of the seven Cherokee Clans, which makes the white-tailed deer a sacred animal. It was a staple food source for the Cherokee, and they used every part of the animal for tools, weapons, or to trade with other tribes. If a hunter killed a deer needlessly and without asking the Deer Spirit’s pardon, the protector of the deer –Little Dear- would make it so that the hunter could not hunt anymore by giving him rheumatism. While robins do not have a specific role in Cherokee culture, birds in general do. The Bird Clan is another of the Cherokee Clans, and its members were historically known as messengers. This is because birds are believed to be the messengers between Earth and Heaven, which made the clan members responsible for caring for the birds. Another key part of Cherokee culture that relates to nature and appears in Robin Red Breast is water. Cherokee’s believed that water cleaned the spirit and body, and rivers and similar bodies of water were treated as sacred. In the story, the robin brings water from the nearby creek to the warrior to nurse him back to life.
Apart from nature, Miller includs other significant parts of Cherokee culture in her story that have important meanings. War itself, an important part of the legend, was not viewed favorably by the Cherokee, as stated by John Howard Payne in his papers on the Cherokee. After battles, warriors were required to purify their bodies before returning to live a normal life as part of the tribe. This tradition changed after the religious class of Cherokee society lost influence, and the Cherokee people became involved in more conflicts. Another aspect of Cherokee culture that comes up in the story is the color red. Red is a symbol of success, long life, and triumph for the Cherokee’s, which could be why the warrior painted the robin’s breast with his blood. Everything down to the number of days that the warrior was kept in the cave and subsequently moved to the stake have meaning to the Cherokee’s. It may appear on the surface that by having the warrior be kept in the cave for six days and moved on the seventh could have a biblical meaning, and that is a valid hypothesis. However, the number seven has a dual meaning to the Cherokee people. It does not only represent the seven clans of the Cherokee, but also the height of purity and sacredness- a level that is hard to attain. Mixed in among all the parts of Cherokee culture represented in “Robin Red Breast” is one small part of white culture that comes up. When referring to the Native Americans in the story, Miller uses the term “red man”. Native Americans would not call themselves this, as they viewed themselves simply as men. Also, the term has a negative connotation, and it is unlikely Miller would intentionally degrade her people. There are a couple reasons as to why this term was included in the story. It could be that the education that the Carlisle Indian School was trying to instill in its students worked, and the author subliminally included the term in the story. On the other side, and probably more likely, it could be that it was edited by the school. While Pratt had left his position as superintendent of the school many years earlier, his practice of editing the works produced by the students to appeal to its readers was not necessarily stopped. In this case, it is plausible that “red man” was included by “the man-on-the-band-stand”, who kept an overseeing eye on the student’s works, in order to prove that the school was serving its purpose. | <urn:uuid:6521d869-6de7-4598-ba0c-8381e06b7cc2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blogs.dickinson.edu/carlisleindianindustrialschoolwritinganthology/2017/05/09/historical-and-cultural-context-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00032.warc.gz | en | 0.984202 | 1,022 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
-0.24295741319656372,
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-0.06587654352... | 2 | The Cherokee are a tribe of Native Americans that were originally concentrated in the Southeastern United States. There are currently three Cherokee tribes recognized by the United States government: the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, and the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians. The Cherokee Nation has the most members of the three, with 300,000 tribal members. It is the largest of the federally recognized tribes in the U.S. All in all, just over 800,000 Americans claimed to have Cherokee ancestry on the 2010 U.S. census.
In “Robin Red Breast”, Miller includes many aspects of Cherokee culture, especially their relationship with nature. Cherokees placed a high value on the natural environment in which they lived. This is evident by the fact that when harvesting plants to use for medicine or food, they only took the every fourth plant, and left the others for future use. The Cherokee people viewed themselves as part of their environment rather than separate from it. If this balance was upset, people would face sickness, bad harvest, or poor hunting. They did not try to rule over nature, but rather keep their place within it.
While being tied to the stake in the story, the warrior comes across two animals that have different reactions to his situation, a deer and a robin. In Cherokee culture, the Deer Clan is one of the seven Cherokee Clans, which makes the white-tailed deer a sacred animal. It was a staple food source for the Cherokee, and they used every part of the animal for tools, weapons, or to trade with other tribes. If a hunter killed a deer needlessly and without asking the Deer Spirit’s pardon, the protector of the deer –Little Dear- would make it so that the hunter could not hunt anymore by giving him rheumatism. While robins do not have a specific role in Cherokee culture, birds in general do. The Bird Clan is another of the Cherokee Clans, and its members were historically known as messengers. This is because birds are believed to be the messengers between Earth and Heaven, which made the clan members responsible for caring for the birds. Another key part of Cherokee culture that relates to nature and appears in Robin Red Breast is water. Cherokee’s believed that water cleaned the spirit and body, and rivers and similar bodies of water were treated as sacred. In the story, the robin brings water from the nearby creek to the warrior to nurse him back to life.
Apart from nature, Miller includs other significant parts of Cherokee culture in her story that have important meanings. War itself, an important part of the legend, was not viewed favorably by the Cherokee, as stated by John Howard Payne in his papers on the Cherokee. After battles, warriors were required to purify their bodies before returning to live a normal life as part of the tribe. This tradition changed after the religious class of Cherokee society lost influence, and the Cherokee people became involved in more conflicts. Another aspect of Cherokee culture that comes up in the story is the color red. Red is a symbol of success, long life, and triumph for the Cherokee’s, which could be why the warrior painted the robin’s breast with his blood. Everything down to the number of days that the warrior was kept in the cave and subsequently moved to the stake have meaning to the Cherokee’s. It may appear on the surface that by having the warrior be kept in the cave for six days and moved on the seventh could have a biblical meaning, and that is a valid hypothesis. However, the number seven has a dual meaning to the Cherokee people. It does not only represent the seven clans of the Cherokee, but also the height of purity and sacredness- a level that is hard to attain. Mixed in among all the parts of Cherokee culture represented in “Robin Red Breast” is one small part of white culture that comes up. When referring to the Native Americans in the story, Miller uses the term “red man”. Native Americans would not call themselves this, as they viewed themselves simply as men. Also, the term has a negative connotation, and it is unlikely Miller would intentionally degrade her people. There are a couple reasons as to why this term was included in the story. It could be that the education that the Carlisle Indian School was trying to instill in its students worked, and the author subliminally included the term in the story. On the other side, and probably more likely, it could be that it was edited by the school. While Pratt had left his position as superintendent of the school many years earlier, his practice of editing the works produced by the students to appeal to its readers was not necessarily stopped. In this case, it is plausible that “red man” was included by “the man-on-the-band-stand”, who kept an overseeing eye on the student’s works, in order to prove that the school was serving its purpose. | 1,001 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A group of children have been creating their own puppets. They have also been using props to retell or create their own stories.
We watched these stories to learn more about the process of creating stories.
Then, we also watched a puppet show called the very Hungry Caterpillar’.
We had a new app on the iPad that can help us create our own stories. We watched a few examples to learn more about it.
Felix decided to create his own animation by using the iPad app ‘I Can Animate’. During the process, Felix chose 4 settings for the different characters, he thought about the sequence of the story beforehand, he explored how to use the tool and figured out how to slow down the animation.
When he finished, he reflected on what he did and made a poster. This could be helpful when he teaches his friends how to make their own animation.
Over the last few weeks, the children have been gathering around the writing table, creating puppets as they talk about their stories and characters.
They were planning their ‘shows’ and wondered who to partner up with to share their stories. They drew their characters, cut them out and pasted them on to popsicle sticks independently.
Through these activities the children develop their self-management skills as they persevere through this process.
Working together in this way helps the children get to know each other. This results in increased social awareness and an ability to work within a community.
When they were done, a few children partnered up and recorded their puppet shows.
‘Rainbow Puppets and Sunflower Show’ By @N and @F
‘Rainbow Puppets and Sunflower Show’ by Charlotte and Michelle
These puppet shows were presented in English and Mandarin. Through these projects, the children have explored different ways to create, communicate and express their ideas and stories.
Through these experiences, the children had opportunities to:
- engage with, and enjoy a variety of visual arts experiences
- select tools, materials and processes for specific purposes
- use their imagination and experiences to inform their art making | <urn:uuid:1a8de9ac-5071-47a4-9b2e-1704cdc67398> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.teacherlingo.com/puppets-and-animation/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00301.warc.gz | en | 0.98 | 436 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.284188836812973,... | 8 | A group of children have been creating their own puppets. They have also been using props to retell or create their own stories.
We watched these stories to learn more about the process of creating stories.
Then, we also watched a puppet show called the very Hungry Caterpillar’.
We had a new app on the iPad that can help us create our own stories. We watched a few examples to learn more about it.
Felix decided to create his own animation by using the iPad app ‘I Can Animate’. During the process, Felix chose 4 settings for the different characters, he thought about the sequence of the story beforehand, he explored how to use the tool and figured out how to slow down the animation.
When he finished, he reflected on what he did and made a poster. This could be helpful when he teaches his friends how to make their own animation.
Over the last few weeks, the children have been gathering around the writing table, creating puppets as they talk about their stories and characters.
They were planning their ‘shows’ and wondered who to partner up with to share their stories. They drew their characters, cut them out and pasted them on to popsicle sticks independently.
Through these activities the children develop their self-management skills as they persevere through this process.
Working together in this way helps the children get to know each other. This results in increased social awareness and an ability to work within a community.
When they were done, a few children partnered up and recorded their puppet shows.
‘Rainbow Puppets and Sunflower Show’ By @N and @F
‘Rainbow Puppets and Sunflower Show’ by Charlotte and Michelle
These puppet shows were presented in English and Mandarin. Through these projects, the children have explored different ways to create, communicate and express their ideas and stories.
Through these experiences, the children had opportunities to:
- engage with, and enjoy a variety of visual arts experiences
- select tools, materials and processes for specific purposes
- use their imagination and experiences to inform their art making | 416 | ENGLISH | 1 |
L ONG before the beginning of the period known as the Middle Ages a tribe of barbarians called the Goths lived north of the River Danube in the country which is now known as Roumania. It was then a part of the great Roman Empire, which at that time had two capitals, Constantinople—the new city of Constantine—and Rome. The Goths had come from the shores of the Baltic Sea and settled on this Roman territory, and the Romans had not driven them back.
During the reign of the Roman Emperor Valens some of the Goths joined a conspiracy against him. Valens punished them for this by crossing the Danube and laying waste their country. At last the Goths had to beg for mercy. The Gothic chief was afraid to set foot on Roman soil, so he and Valens met on their boats in the middle of the Danube and made a treaty of peace.
The meeting between Valens and the Gothic chief on the Danube
For a long time the Goths were at war with another tribe of barbarians called Huns. Sometimes the Huns defeated the Goths and drove them to their camps in the mountains. Sometimes the Goths came down to the plains again and defeated the Huns.
At last the Goths grew tired of such constant fighting and thought they would look for new settlements. They sent some of their leading men to the emperor Valens to ask permission to settle in some country belonging to Rome. The messengers said to the emperor:
"If you will allow us to make homes in the country south of the Danube we will be friends of Rome and fight for her when she needs our help."
The emperor at once granted this request. He said to the Gothic chiefs:
"Rome always needs good soldiers. Your people may cross the Danube and settle on our land. As long as you remain true to Rome we will protect you against your enemies."
These Goths were known as Visigoths, or Western Goths. Other tribes of Goths who had settled in southern Russia, were called Ostrogoths, or Eastern Goths.
After getting permission from the Emperor Valens a large number of the Visigoths crossed the Danube with their families and their cattle and settled in the country now called Bulgaria.
In course of time they became a very powerful nation, and in the year 394 they chose as their king one of the chiefs named Alaric. He was a brave man and a great soldier. Even when a child he took delight in war, and at the age of sixteen he fought as bravely as the older soldiers.
One night, not long after he became king, Alaric had a very strange dream. He thought he was driving in a golden chariot through the streets of Rome amid the shouts of the people, who hailed him as emperor. This dream made a deep impression on his mind. He was always thinking of it, and at last he began to have the idea that he could make the dream come true.
"To be master of the Roman Empire," he said to himself, "that is indeed worth trying for; and why should I not try? With my brave soldiers I can conquer Rome, and I shall make the attempt."
So Alaric called his chiefs together and told them what he had made up his mind to do.
The chiefs gave a cry of delight for they approved of the king's proposal. In those days fighting was almost the only business of chiefs, and they were always glad to be at war, especially when there was hope of getting rich spoils. And so the Visigoth chiefs rejoiced at the idea of war against Rome, for they knew that if they were victorious they would have the wealth of the richest city of the world to divide among themselves.
Soon they got ready a great army. With Alaric in command, they marched through Thrace and Macedonia and before long reached Athens. There were now no great warriors in Athens, and the city surrendered to Alaric. The Goths plundered the homes and temples of the Athenians and then marched to the state of Elis, in the southwestern part of Greece. Here a famous Roman general named Stilicho besieged them in their camp. Alaric managed to force his way through the lines of the Romans and escaped. He marched to Epirus. This was a province of Greece that lay on the east side of the Ionian Sea. Arcadius, the Emperor of the East, now made Alaric governor of this district and a large region lying near it. The whole territory was called Eastern Illyricum and formed part of the Eastern Empire.
Alaric at Athens
A LARIC now set out to make an attack on Rome, the capital of the Western Empire. As soon as Honorius, Emperor of the West, learned that Alaric was approaching, he fled to a strong fortress among the mountains of North Italy. His great general Stilicho came to his rescue and defeated Alaric near Verona. But even after this Honorius was so afraid of Alaric that he made him governor of a part of his empire called Western Illyricum and gave him a large yearly income.
Honorius, however, did not keep certain of his promises to Alaric, who consequently, in the year 408, marched to Rome and besieged it. The cowardly emperor fled to Ravenna, leaving his general to make terms with Alaric. It was agreed that Alaric should withdraw from Rome upon the payment of 5,000 pounds of gold and 30,000 pounds of silver.
When Honorius read the treaty he refused to sign it. Alaric then demanded that the city be surrendered to him, and the people, terrified, opened their gates and even agreed that Alaric should appoint another emperor in place of Honorius.
This new emperor, however, ruled so badly that Alaric thought it best to restore Honorius. Then Honorius, when just about to be treated so honorably, allowed a barbarian chief who was an ally of his to make an attack upon Alaric. The attack was unsuccessful, and Alaric immediately laid siege to Rome for the third time. The city was taken and Alaric's dream came true. In a grand procession he rode at the head of his army through the streets of the great capital.
Then began the work of destruction. The Goths ran in crowds through the city, wrecked private houses and public buildings and seized everything of value they could find. Alaric gave orders that no injury should be done to the Christian churches, but other splendid buildings of the great city were stripped of the beautiful and costly articles that they contained, and all the gold and silver was carried away from the public treasury.
In the midst of the pillage Alaric dressed himself in splendid robes and sat upon the throne of the emperor, with a golden crown upon his head.
While Alaric was sitting on the throne thousands of Romans were compelled to kneel down on the ground before him and shout out his name as conqueror and emperor. Then the theaters and circuses were opened, and Roman athletes and gladiators had to give performances for the amusement of the conquerors. After six days of pillage and pleasure Alaric and his army marched through the gates, carrying with them the riches of Rome.
Alaric died on his way to Sicily, which he had thought to conquer also. He felt his death coming and ordered his men to bury him in the bed of the river Busento and to put into his grave the richest treasures that he had taken from Rome.
The burial of Alaric in the bed of the river busento at midnight
This order was carried out. A large number of Roman slaves were set to work to dig a channel and turn the water of the Busento into it. They made the grave in the bed of the river, put Alaric's body into and closed it up. Then the river was turned back into its old channel. As soon as the grave was covered up, and the water flowed over it, the slaves who had done the work were put to death by the Visigoth chiefs. | <urn:uuid:000751db-106b-4d4d-9d10-b07ddf01e9c4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/displayitem.php?item=books/haaren/middle/alaric | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00015.warc.gz | en | 0.989963 | 1,694 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.606241822242... | 4 | L ONG before the beginning of the period known as the Middle Ages a tribe of barbarians called the Goths lived north of the River Danube in the country which is now known as Roumania. It was then a part of the great Roman Empire, which at that time had two capitals, Constantinople—the new city of Constantine—and Rome. The Goths had come from the shores of the Baltic Sea and settled on this Roman territory, and the Romans had not driven them back.
During the reign of the Roman Emperor Valens some of the Goths joined a conspiracy against him. Valens punished them for this by crossing the Danube and laying waste their country. At last the Goths had to beg for mercy. The Gothic chief was afraid to set foot on Roman soil, so he and Valens met on their boats in the middle of the Danube and made a treaty of peace.
The meeting between Valens and the Gothic chief on the Danube
For a long time the Goths were at war with another tribe of barbarians called Huns. Sometimes the Huns defeated the Goths and drove them to their camps in the mountains. Sometimes the Goths came down to the plains again and defeated the Huns.
At last the Goths grew tired of such constant fighting and thought they would look for new settlements. They sent some of their leading men to the emperor Valens to ask permission to settle in some country belonging to Rome. The messengers said to the emperor:
"If you will allow us to make homes in the country south of the Danube we will be friends of Rome and fight for her when she needs our help."
The emperor at once granted this request. He said to the Gothic chiefs:
"Rome always needs good soldiers. Your people may cross the Danube and settle on our land. As long as you remain true to Rome we will protect you against your enemies."
These Goths were known as Visigoths, or Western Goths. Other tribes of Goths who had settled in southern Russia, were called Ostrogoths, or Eastern Goths.
After getting permission from the Emperor Valens a large number of the Visigoths crossed the Danube with their families and their cattle and settled in the country now called Bulgaria.
In course of time they became a very powerful nation, and in the year 394 they chose as their king one of the chiefs named Alaric. He was a brave man and a great soldier. Even when a child he took delight in war, and at the age of sixteen he fought as bravely as the older soldiers.
One night, not long after he became king, Alaric had a very strange dream. He thought he was driving in a golden chariot through the streets of Rome amid the shouts of the people, who hailed him as emperor. This dream made a deep impression on his mind. He was always thinking of it, and at last he began to have the idea that he could make the dream come true.
"To be master of the Roman Empire," he said to himself, "that is indeed worth trying for; and why should I not try? With my brave soldiers I can conquer Rome, and I shall make the attempt."
So Alaric called his chiefs together and told them what he had made up his mind to do.
The chiefs gave a cry of delight for they approved of the king's proposal. In those days fighting was almost the only business of chiefs, and they were always glad to be at war, especially when there was hope of getting rich spoils. And so the Visigoth chiefs rejoiced at the idea of war against Rome, for they knew that if they were victorious they would have the wealth of the richest city of the world to divide among themselves.
Soon they got ready a great army. With Alaric in command, they marched through Thrace and Macedonia and before long reached Athens. There were now no great warriors in Athens, and the city surrendered to Alaric. The Goths plundered the homes and temples of the Athenians and then marched to the state of Elis, in the southwestern part of Greece. Here a famous Roman general named Stilicho besieged them in their camp. Alaric managed to force his way through the lines of the Romans and escaped. He marched to Epirus. This was a province of Greece that lay on the east side of the Ionian Sea. Arcadius, the Emperor of the East, now made Alaric governor of this district and a large region lying near it. The whole territory was called Eastern Illyricum and formed part of the Eastern Empire.
Alaric at Athens
A LARIC now set out to make an attack on Rome, the capital of the Western Empire. As soon as Honorius, Emperor of the West, learned that Alaric was approaching, he fled to a strong fortress among the mountains of North Italy. His great general Stilicho came to his rescue and defeated Alaric near Verona. But even after this Honorius was so afraid of Alaric that he made him governor of a part of his empire called Western Illyricum and gave him a large yearly income.
Honorius, however, did not keep certain of his promises to Alaric, who consequently, in the year 408, marched to Rome and besieged it. The cowardly emperor fled to Ravenna, leaving his general to make terms with Alaric. It was agreed that Alaric should withdraw from Rome upon the payment of 5,000 pounds of gold and 30,000 pounds of silver.
When Honorius read the treaty he refused to sign it. Alaric then demanded that the city be surrendered to him, and the people, terrified, opened their gates and even agreed that Alaric should appoint another emperor in place of Honorius.
This new emperor, however, ruled so badly that Alaric thought it best to restore Honorius. Then Honorius, when just about to be treated so honorably, allowed a barbarian chief who was an ally of his to make an attack upon Alaric. The attack was unsuccessful, and Alaric immediately laid siege to Rome for the third time. The city was taken and Alaric's dream came true. In a grand procession he rode at the head of his army through the streets of the great capital.
Then began the work of destruction. The Goths ran in crowds through the city, wrecked private houses and public buildings and seized everything of value they could find. Alaric gave orders that no injury should be done to the Christian churches, but other splendid buildings of the great city were stripped of the beautiful and costly articles that they contained, and all the gold and silver was carried away from the public treasury.
In the midst of the pillage Alaric dressed himself in splendid robes and sat upon the throne of the emperor, with a golden crown upon his head.
While Alaric was sitting on the throne thousands of Romans were compelled to kneel down on the ground before him and shout out his name as conqueror and emperor. Then the theaters and circuses were opened, and Roman athletes and gladiators had to give performances for the amusement of the conquerors. After six days of pillage and pleasure Alaric and his army marched through the gates, carrying with them the riches of Rome.
Alaric died on his way to Sicily, which he had thought to conquer also. He felt his death coming and ordered his men to bury him in the bed of the river Busento and to put into his grave the richest treasures that he had taken from Rome.
The burial of Alaric in the bed of the river busento at midnight
This order was carried out. A large number of Roman slaves were set to work to dig a channel and turn the water of the Busento into it. They made the grave in the bed of the river, put Alaric's body into and closed it up. Then the river was turned back into its old channel. As soon as the grave was covered up, and the water flowed over it, the slaves who had done the work were put to death by the Visigoth chiefs. | 1,686 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Ides of March is a day that was on the Roman calendar and is most prominently known for being the day that Julius Caesar was assassinated – an event which many see as a turning point for the Roman Empire. However, it is also a day that has gained notoriety for being a day in which bad things happen. On the Gregorian calendar, this day falls on March 15th.
History of The Ides of March
The Ides Of March refers to how the Romans kept track of the days in a month, which is quite different from how we do it. While we count the days sequentially from the first day all the way to the last day, the Romans used a different system. They counted backward from three fixed points of the month. For instance, the Nones usually fell on the 7th, the Ides on the 15th and the Kalends was the beginning of the month.
This day was also considered a day that was sacred to the deity Jupiter and the Romans would sacrifice a sheep to Jupiter. The Ides of March also marked the beginning of several religious festivals – most notably the festivals of Cybele and Attis. However, after Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, this day would forever be remembered for that and not those religious holidays.
Led by Brutus and Cassius, about 60 conspirators confronted Julius Caesar and then proceeded to stab him to death at the meeting of the senate. According to legend, Caesar had been previously warned by a seer that harm would come to him around the Ides of March. Caesar took the prophecy very lightly. In fact, as he passed the seer on his way to the Theater of Pompey he commented to him that “The Ides of March have come.” To that, the seer is reported to have replied, “Aye, Caesar; but they have not gone.”
The assassination of Julius Caesar resulted in the civil war that led to Caesar’s adopted heir, Augustus, to rise to power. Four years after Caesar’s death, Augustus would execute 300 senators. This would be seen as a religious sacrifice to the newly deified Caesar by later historians.
Over the years, bad things seem to have occurred on the Ides of March. This includes a Samoan Cyclone in 1889, A French raid on Southern England in 1360, Abdication of his throne by Czar Nicholas II in 1917 and the German Occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1939.
The Ides of March Customs & Celebrations
While the Ides of March isn’t really an official holiday, which means that public and private institutions will remain open, there are some people who do like to celebrate it. That’s because the assassination was not only what many historians view as the turning point of Western civilization but also because it was seen as the first day of spring on the Roman calendar.
One way to celebrate the Ides of March is to read William Shakespeare’s classic Julius Caesar. While the book can be a difficult read, it is full of intrigue and is very entertaining. However, if you don’t fancy yourself the literary type, then you can always see the play.
Another thing that can be done on this day is to have a toga party. While modern television makes the toga seem more important to Roman society than it was, it was still an item of clothing that was worn by many Romans during celebrations. And since it is easy to make, it’s a no-brainer to have a party in which everyone dresses up in one.
Have a Roman-themed dinner. Throw a party with wine, cheese, grapes, olives and crusty bread. You can also serve french toast – a dessert that was prepared with honey by Romans. Just don’t serve any pasta. That’s because pasta wasn’t introduced to Italy until the 13th century. It was introduced to Italy by Marco Polo who brought it from China. Therefore, the ancient Romans would not have eaten pasta.
While you are giving your Roman-themed dinner party, you can also pedantically tell your guests why a speech given at the dinner table is called a toast. Which by the way, is because the Romans would put a piece of burnt toast in their wine goblets to temper their wine and while they were doing so would often give some form of speech.
For parties that are a little on the morbid side, you can try to stage some kind of assassination game. There are many different versions of this game and all you have to do is stage one for your family and friends. As you can see, there are a variety of different ways to celebrate this holiday.
When is Ides of March?
|This year (2020)||March 15 (Sunday)||Multiple dates - more|
|Next year (2021)||March 15 (Monday)||Multiple dates - more|
|Last year (2019)||March 15 (Friday)||Multiple dates - more| | <urn:uuid:a2d01d1a-f2df-4174-8093-cc4f060230ae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.holidayscalendar.com/event/ides-of-march/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00270.warc.gz | en | 0.98253 | 1,033 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.36586230993270... | 4 | The Ides of March is a day that was on the Roman calendar and is most prominently known for being the day that Julius Caesar was assassinated – an event which many see as a turning point for the Roman Empire. However, it is also a day that has gained notoriety for being a day in which bad things happen. On the Gregorian calendar, this day falls on March 15th.
History of The Ides of March
The Ides Of March refers to how the Romans kept track of the days in a month, which is quite different from how we do it. While we count the days sequentially from the first day all the way to the last day, the Romans used a different system. They counted backward from three fixed points of the month. For instance, the Nones usually fell on the 7th, the Ides on the 15th and the Kalends was the beginning of the month.
This day was also considered a day that was sacred to the deity Jupiter and the Romans would sacrifice a sheep to Jupiter. The Ides of March also marked the beginning of several religious festivals – most notably the festivals of Cybele and Attis. However, after Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, this day would forever be remembered for that and not those religious holidays.
Led by Brutus and Cassius, about 60 conspirators confronted Julius Caesar and then proceeded to stab him to death at the meeting of the senate. According to legend, Caesar had been previously warned by a seer that harm would come to him around the Ides of March. Caesar took the prophecy very lightly. In fact, as he passed the seer on his way to the Theater of Pompey he commented to him that “The Ides of March have come.” To that, the seer is reported to have replied, “Aye, Caesar; but they have not gone.”
The assassination of Julius Caesar resulted in the civil war that led to Caesar’s adopted heir, Augustus, to rise to power. Four years after Caesar’s death, Augustus would execute 300 senators. This would be seen as a religious sacrifice to the newly deified Caesar by later historians.
Over the years, bad things seem to have occurred on the Ides of March. This includes a Samoan Cyclone in 1889, A French raid on Southern England in 1360, Abdication of his throne by Czar Nicholas II in 1917 and the German Occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1939.
The Ides of March Customs & Celebrations
While the Ides of March isn’t really an official holiday, which means that public and private institutions will remain open, there are some people who do like to celebrate it. That’s because the assassination was not only what many historians view as the turning point of Western civilization but also because it was seen as the first day of spring on the Roman calendar.
One way to celebrate the Ides of March is to read William Shakespeare’s classic Julius Caesar. While the book can be a difficult read, it is full of intrigue and is very entertaining. However, if you don’t fancy yourself the literary type, then you can always see the play.
Another thing that can be done on this day is to have a toga party. While modern television makes the toga seem more important to Roman society than it was, it was still an item of clothing that was worn by many Romans during celebrations. And since it is easy to make, it’s a no-brainer to have a party in which everyone dresses up in one.
Have a Roman-themed dinner. Throw a party with wine, cheese, grapes, olives and crusty bread. You can also serve french toast – a dessert that was prepared with honey by Romans. Just don’t serve any pasta. That’s because pasta wasn’t introduced to Italy until the 13th century. It was introduced to Italy by Marco Polo who brought it from China. Therefore, the ancient Romans would not have eaten pasta.
While you are giving your Roman-themed dinner party, you can also pedantically tell your guests why a speech given at the dinner table is called a toast. Which by the way, is because the Romans would put a piece of burnt toast in their wine goblets to temper their wine and while they were doing so would often give some form of speech.
For parties that are a little on the morbid side, you can try to stage some kind of assassination game. There are many different versions of this game and all you have to do is stage one for your family and friends. As you can see, there are a variety of different ways to celebrate this holiday.
When is Ides of March?
|This year (2020)||March 15 (Sunday)||Multiple dates - more|
|Next year (2021)||March 15 (Monday)||Multiple dates - more|
|Last year (2019)||March 15 (Friday)||Multiple dates - more| | 1,033 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The history of Homer and his works is lost in doubtful obscurity, as is the history of many of the first minds who have done honor to humanity because they rose amidst darkness. The majestic stream of his song, blessing and fertilizing, flows like a river through many lands and nations. The creations of genius always seem like miracles, because they are, for the most part, created far out of the reach of observation. If we were in possession of all the historical testimonies, we never could wholly explain the origin of the Iliad and the Odyssey. But it must be noted that Homer's great epic poems hold a singular place in literature. Within the knowledge of all of history that has been passed down to us, there is no known predecessor that could lay claim to be the progenitor or equal to these great works. It was Homer who formed the character of the Greek nation. No poet has ever, as a poet, exercised a similar influence over his countrymen. Prophets, lawgivers, and sages have formed the character of other nations; it was reserved to a poet to form that of the Greeks. When lawgivers and sages appeared in Greece, the work of the poet had already been accomplished; and they paid homage to his superior genius. He held up before his nation the mirror, in which they were to behold the world of gods and heroes no less than of feeble mortals, and to behold them reflected with purity and truth. His poems are founded on the first feeling of human nature; on the love of children, wife, and country; on that passion which outweighs all others, the love of glory. His songs were poured forth from a breast which sympathized with all the feelings of man; and therefore they enter, and will continue to enter, every breast which cherishes the same sympathies. | <urn:uuid:3a58ab8d-93ab-470b-84b3-5d2ba910e7cc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://browse.addall.com/detail/9780977340002.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00200.warc.gz | en | 0.985375 | 371 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.5419163107... | 2 | The history of Homer and his works is lost in doubtful obscurity, as is the history of many of the first minds who have done honor to humanity because they rose amidst darkness. The majestic stream of his song, blessing and fertilizing, flows like a river through many lands and nations. The creations of genius always seem like miracles, because they are, for the most part, created far out of the reach of observation. If we were in possession of all the historical testimonies, we never could wholly explain the origin of the Iliad and the Odyssey. But it must be noted that Homer's great epic poems hold a singular place in literature. Within the knowledge of all of history that has been passed down to us, there is no known predecessor that could lay claim to be the progenitor or equal to these great works. It was Homer who formed the character of the Greek nation. No poet has ever, as a poet, exercised a similar influence over his countrymen. Prophets, lawgivers, and sages have formed the character of other nations; it was reserved to a poet to form that of the Greeks. When lawgivers and sages appeared in Greece, the work of the poet had already been accomplished; and they paid homage to his superior genius. He held up before his nation the mirror, in which they were to behold the world of gods and heroes no less than of feeble mortals, and to behold them reflected with purity and truth. His poems are founded on the first feeling of human nature; on the love of children, wife, and country; on that passion which outweighs all others, the love of glory. His songs were poured forth from a breast which sympathized with all the feelings of man; and therefore they enter, and will continue to enter, every breast which cherishes the same sympathies. | 375 | ENGLISH | 1 |
by Jessica Brain
One of England’s most beloved poets and a pioneer of Romanticism, William Wordsworth was made Poet Laureate in 1843.
William was born in Cockermouth in Cumbria on 7th April 1770 to John Wordsworth, a legal agent and his wife Anne, and was the second of five children. He would remain close to his sister Dorothy throughout his life; like William she also became a poet.
He grew up in an impressive mansion house in the Lake District. However his childhood was not a happy one: the children’s relationship with their father was not close and would remain so until his death.
Nevertheless, despite their strained relationship, John Wordsworth did leave an important impression on young William, instilling in him the importance of literature. Wordsworth’s wealth afforded William the opportunity to use his father’s library to learn and be inspired by some of the literary greats.
Whilst his exposure to literature was critical, it was his childhood in the Lake District and his time spent at his grandparents’ house at Penrith which would have a notable impact on Wordsworth’s subject matter in his poetry. It was in this setting that Wordsworth, for long periods of time, would find himself out in the countryside, an escapism both figuratively and literal.
Tragically William’s mother died when William was seven years old and his father passed away just six years later. William was taken in by his mother’s family, sadly separating him from his sister Dorothy with whom he had developed a close bond, as she was sent away to live in Halifax with their mother’s cousin. He remained at Penrith where his initial education was based on tradition and religion.
To complete his schooling he was sent to Hawkshead Grammar School which had a much stronger emphasis on scholarly pursuits and was a stepping stone to higher education. William’s time at Hawkshead was productive, as his new curriculum embraced mathematics and literature as well as Latin which became a particular favourite for Wordsworth. With the assistance of his schoolmaster he was also encouraged to write poetry, an important influence for this talented young boy.
Whilst at Hawkshead he boarded with Hugh and Ann Tyson at a local hamlet. It was whilst staying in this community with its strong Quaker tradition that he began to formulate his own opinions on matters pertaining to religion, society and nature.
He had already become strongly influenced by his natural surroundings whilst staying at Penrith, choosing to wander away from his sad and stifling family life and embracing the natural world instead. This became a critical influence on Wordsworth’s work, his focus on nature forming the backbone of the Romantic Movement and its spiritual journey through literature and art.
After Hawkshead School, in October 1787 Wordsworth moved on to St John’s College Cambridge where, as he himself would later note, he did not achieve any particular brilliance. However it had an important effect on challenging his ideas and evolving attitudes to life.
In his final summer as a Cambridge student, he decided to tour the Alps with his friend Robert Jones. Departing from Dover in July 1790, the two young men set off on a walking tour of Europe, an experience which would influence his literary work as well as his political and social conscience.
Whilst living in France, Wordsworth became increasingly aware of social issues affecting everyday men and women. The context of the French Revolution and the rise of democratic values based around equality were concepts which would influence him. His travels also had an impact on his personal life, conceiving a daughter called Caroline in France. Leaving before her birth, he would later return to France in 1802 with his sister to meet her.
It was in France that some of Wordsworth’s earliest poetry, “An Evening Walk and Descriptive Sketches”, was published in 1793. He would continue to travel, finding further inspiration for his poetry.
Back in Britain, he would go on to marry his childhood sweetheart Mary Hutchinson with whom he would have five children, sadly only three of whom would reach adulthood. His family eventually settled down in Grasmere in the Lake District.
William Wordsworth, 1798
Wordsworth’s literary career really took off when in 1795 he met fellow poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Together, they composed “Lyrical Ballads”, first published in 1798, a collection of poems that instigated an entire literary, artistic and cultural movement: Romanticism.
The two poets had intended to embrace poetry using the vernacular which would make it more accessible to the everyday man. Wordsworth himself explained that the whole process was experimental, embracing new ideas on style, form and structure to create an entirely new kind of poetry.
The natural world would take on a didactic quality in many of his works, as in the poem “The Tables Turned” written in 1798 and included in his collection of “Lyrical Ballads”.
“Come forth into the light of things, Let nature be your teacher”.
This characterises Romantic poetry as a genre as well as Wordsworth’s focus on nature as a guide for human knowledge, themes echoed in other works completed in the same era.
Hand-written manuscript of Wordsworth’s ‘I wandered lonely as a cloud’, also known as ‘Daffodils'(1802).
One of his most famous poems, “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud”, was inspired by a bed of daffodils witnessed by William and his sister on a visit to Ullswater. Nature proved to be a pervasive theme throughout his literary career.
One of Wordsworth’s most prolonged projects, which he failed to see published, was his famous work “The Prelude”. This esteemed work is an autobiographical poem which he initially began working on in 1798 and continued to refine throughout his life.
The content of the poem reflects the different stages of his life; his youth, childhood, education and later years are divided into fourteen sections, using style, structure and form to enhance the impact. His stages of life are conveyed symbiotically with the personification of nature, reflecting his spiritual and personal growth.
Wordsworth’s contribution to poetry was eventually recognised in 1843 when he became Poet Laureate. Only seven years later he passed away from pleurisy on 23rd April 1850.
“The Prelude” was published three months later by his wife Mary, a fitting tribute to a great poet with a striking literary career and incredible legacy in British literature | <urn:uuid:fc9c2c94-b5ec-4b56-81a1-8b2b55ba1be5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/William-Wordsworth/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00422.warc.gz | en | 0.990665 | 1,389 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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One of England’s most beloved poets and a pioneer of Romanticism, William Wordsworth was made Poet Laureate in 1843.
William was born in Cockermouth in Cumbria on 7th April 1770 to John Wordsworth, a legal agent and his wife Anne, and was the second of five children. He would remain close to his sister Dorothy throughout his life; like William she also became a poet.
He grew up in an impressive mansion house in the Lake District. However his childhood was not a happy one: the children’s relationship with their father was not close and would remain so until his death.
Nevertheless, despite their strained relationship, John Wordsworth did leave an important impression on young William, instilling in him the importance of literature. Wordsworth’s wealth afforded William the opportunity to use his father’s library to learn and be inspired by some of the literary greats.
Whilst his exposure to literature was critical, it was his childhood in the Lake District and his time spent at his grandparents’ house at Penrith which would have a notable impact on Wordsworth’s subject matter in his poetry. It was in this setting that Wordsworth, for long periods of time, would find himself out in the countryside, an escapism both figuratively and literal.
Tragically William’s mother died when William was seven years old and his father passed away just six years later. William was taken in by his mother’s family, sadly separating him from his sister Dorothy with whom he had developed a close bond, as she was sent away to live in Halifax with their mother’s cousin. He remained at Penrith where his initial education was based on tradition and religion.
To complete his schooling he was sent to Hawkshead Grammar School which had a much stronger emphasis on scholarly pursuits and was a stepping stone to higher education. William’s time at Hawkshead was productive, as his new curriculum embraced mathematics and literature as well as Latin which became a particular favourite for Wordsworth. With the assistance of his schoolmaster he was also encouraged to write poetry, an important influence for this talented young boy.
Whilst at Hawkshead he boarded with Hugh and Ann Tyson at a local hamlet. It was whilst staying in this community with its strong Quaker tradition that he began to formulate his own opinions on matters pertaining to religion, society and nature.
He had already become strongly influenced by his natural surroundings whilst staying at Penrith, choosing to wander away from his sad and stifling family life and embracing the natural world instead. This became a critical influence on Wordsworth’s work, his focus on nature forming the backbone of the Romantic Movement and its spiritual journey through literature and art.
After Hawkshead School, in October 1787 Wordsworth moved on to St John’s College Cambridge where, as he himself would later note, he did not achieve any particular brilliance. However it had an important effect on challenging his ideas and evolving attitudes to life.
In his final summer as a Cambridge student, he decided to tour the Alps with his friend Robert Jones. Departing from Dover in July 1790, the two young men set off on a walking tour of Europe, an experience which would influence his literary work as well as his political and social conscience.
Whilst living in France, Wordsworth became increasingly aware of social issues affecting everyday men and women. The context of the French Revolution and the rise of democratic values based around equality were concepts which would influence him. His travels also had an impact on his personal life, conceiving a daughter called Caroline in France. Leaving before her birth, he would later return to France in 1802 with his sister to meet her.
It was in France that some of Wordsworth’s earliest poetry, “An Evening Walk and Descriptive Sketches”, was published in 1793. He would continue to travel, finding further inspiration for his poetry.
Back in Britain, he would go on to marry his childhood sweetheart Mary Hutchinson with whom he would have five children, sadly only three of whom would reach adulthood. His family eventually settled down in Grasmere in the Lake District.
William Wordsworth, 1798
Wordsworth’s literary career really took off when in 1795 he met fellow poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Together, they composed “Lyrical Ballads”, first published in 1798, a collection of poems that instigated an entire literary, artistic and cultural movement: Romanticism.
The two poets had intended to embrace poetry using the vernacular which would make it more accessible to the everyday man. Wordsworth himself explained that the whole process was experimental, embracing new ideas on style, form and structure to create an entirely new kind of poetry.
The natural world would take on a didactic quality in many of his works, as in the poem “The Tables Turned” written in 1798 and included in his collection of “Lyrical Ballads”.
“Come forth into the light of things, Let nature be your teacher”.
This characterises Romantic poetry as a genre as well as Wordsworth’s focus on nature as a guide for human knowledge, themes echoed in other works completed in the same era.
Hand-written manuscript of Wordsworth’s ‘I wandered lonely as a cloud’, also known as ‘Daffodils'(1802).
One of his most famous poems, “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud”, was inspired by a bed of daffodils witnessed by William and his sister on a visit to Ullswater. Nature proved to be a pervasive theme throughout his literary career.
One of Wordsworth’s most prolonged projects, which he failed to see published, was his famous work “The Prelude”. This esteemed work is an autobiographical poem which he initially began working on in 1798 and continued to refine throughout his life.
The content of the poem reflects the different stages of his life; his youth, childhood, education and later years are divided into fourteen sections, using style, structure and form to enhance the impact. His stages of life are conveyed symbiotically with the personification of nature, reflecting his spiritual and personal growth.
Wordsworth’s contribution to poetry was eventually recognised in 1843 when he became Poet Laureate. Only seven years later he passed away from pleurisy on 23rd April 1850.
“The Prelude” was published three months later by his wife Mary, a fitting tribute to a great poet with a striking literary career and incredible legacy in British literature | 1,339 | ENGLISH | 1 |
7 By faith, Noah built a ship in the middle of dry land. He was warned about something he couldn’t see, and acted on what he was told. The result? His family was saved. His act of faith drew a sharp line between the evil of the unbelieving world and the rightness of the believing world. As a result, Noah became intimate with God.
8-10 By an act of faith, Abraham said yes to God’s call to travel to an unknown place that would become his home. When he left he had no idea where he was going. By an act of faith he lived in the country promised him, lived as a stranger camping in tents. Isaac and Jacob did the same, living under the same promise. Abraham did it by keeping his eye on an unseen city with real, eternal foundations—the City designed and built by God.Read full chapter | <urn:uuid:1e6b594e-2526-4081-9848-bb6390ac2715> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://beta.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Hebrews%2011:7-9&version=MSG | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00147.warc.gz | en | 0.987828 | 183 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.2371935546398... | 2 | 7 By faith, Noah built a ship in the middle of dry land. He was warned about something he couldn’t see, and acted on what he was told. The result? His family was saved. His act of faith drew a sharp line between the evil of the unbelieving world and the rightness of the believing world. As a result, Noah became intimate with God.
8-10 By an act of faith, Abraham said yes to God’s call to travel to an unknown place that would become his home. When he left he had no idea where he was going. By an act of faith he lived in the country promised him, lived as a stranger camping in tents. Isaac and Jacob did the same, living under the same promise. Abraham did it by keeping his eye on an unseen city with real, eternal foundations—the City designed and built by God.Read full chapter | 177 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Saints included eight white upper middle class boys who participated in school activities and were considered good students. The Roughnecks included six boys, between 16 and 19years of age, belonging to lower middle class families. Both groups participated in truancy, drinking, theft and other deviant activities however the Roughnecks had a much more negative reputation compared to the Saints.
The Saints used positive excuses in order to be truant and made sure that their request seemed legitimate to the professor. The Saints were more organized and strategic in the way they avoided their classes therefore leaving little possibility of being caught. Since the Saints had access to a car they would drive far away from school so that there would be less chance of being recognized by a family member or anybody from the school.
Quantitatively the Saints were involved in a greater number of delinquent practices compared to the Roughnecks. Since the local police had a positive view of the Saints, they would often easily avoid trouble. The Saints would also avoid police trouble by being well manned and polite in order to escape trouble and made sure their apology appeared sincere. Since the Saints had a good reputation some teachers would grade them leniently because they believed that the Saints were capable of performing better.
The Roughnecks on the other hand did not have a positive image in their society, they were not as presentable and strategic as the Saints. The Roughnecks were constantly in trouble with the police because they are not as organized nor as polite compared to the Saints. The Saints were more apologetic when they were confronted by the police while the Roughnecks had a more hostile approach. The Roughnecks were more visible to society since they did not usually have access to a car and could not escape far away.
Discussion and Conclusions
Since the local community and society in general is more biased against people who openly display their deviant activities this led to the Roughnecks having a more negative image in society compared to the Saints. Since the Roughnecks were labeled as deviants by their local community their delinquent actions led to their labels being reinforced. Most people in the community such as teachers had positive predictions for the Saints future and this led to them fulfilling their prophecy. The Roughnecks also did the same by fulfilling their prophecies by getting in trouble with law enforcement and two of them facing serious life sentences after being charged with first degree murder. | <urn:uuid:013669be-b03a-4c07-9055-fc3515d6bccb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essayhub.net/essays/the-role-played-by-social-class-and-income-inequality-in-labeling-the-roughnecks-as-more-deviant-compared-to-the-saints | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00457.warc.gz | en | 0.990603 | 483 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.07588393241167... | 2 | The Saints included eight white upper middle class boys who participated in school activities and were considered good students. The Roughnecks included six boys, between 16 and 19years of age, belonging to lower middle class families. Both groups participated in truancy, drinking, theft and other deviant activities however the Roughnecks had a much more negative reputation compared to the Saints.
The Saints used positive excuses in order to be truant and made sure that their request seemed legitimate to the professor. The Saints were more organized and strategic in the way they avoided their classes therefore leaving little possibility of being caught. Since the Saints had access to a car they would drive far away from school so that there would be less chance of being recognized by a family member or anybody from the school.
Quantitatively the Saints were involved in a greater number of delinquent practices compared to the Roughnecks. Since the local police had a positive view of the Saints, they would often easily avoid trouble. The Saints would also avoid police trouble by being well manned and polite in order to escape trouble and made sure their apology appeared sincere. Since the Saints had a good reputation some teachers would grade them leniently because they believed that the Saints were capable of performing better.
The Roughnecks on the other hand did not have a positive image in their society, they were not as presentable and strategic as the Saints. The Roughnecks were constantly in trouble with the police because they are not as organized nor as polite compared to the Saints. The Saints were more apologetic when they were confronted by the police while the Roughnecks had a more hostile approach. The Roughnecks were more visible to society since they did not usually have access to a car and could not escape far away.
Discussion and Conclusions
Since the local community and society in general is more biased against people who openly display their deviant activities this led to the Roughnecks having a more negative image in society compared to the Saints. Since the Roughnecks were labeled as deviants by their local community their delinquent actions led to their labels being reinforced. Most people in the community such as teachers had positive predictions for the Saints future and this led to them fulfilling their prophecy. The Roughnecks also did the same by fulfilling their prophecies by getting in trouble with law enforcement and two of them facing serious life sentences after being charged with first degree murder. | 491 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Short History of Sri Lanka
The resplendent island known to be Sri Lanka in its native language Sinhala continues to live up to its definition to be gleaming and brilliant. Perhaps the earliest inhabitants in this splendid country were the forefathers of the aboriginal group of people called Veddas who came as early as prior to 6th century B.C. before they were besieged by the next inhabitants. In between the 6th and 5th century B.C. came a large group of indo-Aryan ethnic people from the north of India called to be the Sinhalese which now comprise about three-fourths of the population. Sri Lanka is a neighbouring country of India therefore emigrations most likely came from different ethnic groups of different parts of India. Another ethnic group of people now emerged, emigrating from the Tamil region at the south of India forming the second largest group of inhabitants in the island, known as the Tamils. From these two major ethnicities bloomed the official language of the island – Sinhala and Tamil. From accounts, it was believed that they arrived sometime between the 3rd century B.C. and A.D. 1200.
In the 16th century, presumably 1505, the Portuguese settled in the land until the Dutch took over by trading spice in the 1658 to 1796. The English took over in 1796, translated the formerly Portuguese-named Celião into the English word Ceylon and claimed the country as their colony, where they developed the land from its produce, its government to its educational system. The native people arose during the World War I to claim their freedom, and its primary success was through the constitution of 1931. On February 4, 1946 Ceylon was recognized as a self- governing country in the Commonwealth of Nations. The name Ceylon was later changed into Sri Lanka on May 22, 1972 and at present it is now officially known as the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka. | <urn:uuid:4f06bbb1-ad37-45fb-ad1e-72f579d8ba5c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studycountry.com/guide/LK-history.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00196.warc.gz | en | 0.984575 | 401 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.44532871246... | 3 | A Short History of Sri Lanka
The resplendent island known to be Sri Lanka in its native language Sinhala continues to live up to its definition to be gleaming and brilliant. Perhaps the earliest inhabitants in this splendid country were the forefathers of the aboriginal group of people called Veddas who came as early as prior to 6th century B.C. before they were besieged by the next inhabitants. In between the 6th and 5th century B.C. came a large group of indo-Aryan ethnic people from the north of India called to be the Sinhalese which now comprise about three-fourths of the population. Sri Lanka is a neighbouring country of India therefore emigrations most likely came from different ethnic groups of different parts of India. Another ethnic group of people now emerged, emigrating from the Tamil region at the south of India forming the second largest group of inhabitants in the island, known as the Tamils. From these two major ethnicities bloomed the official language of the island – Sinhala and Tamil. From accounts, it was believed that they arrived sometime between the 3rd century B.C. and A.D. 1200.
In the 16th century, presumably 1505, the Portuguese settled in the land until the Dutch took over by trading spice in the 1658 to 1796. The English took over in 1796, translated the formerly Portuguese-named Celião into the English word Ceylon and claimed the country as their colony, where they developed the land from its produce, its government to its educational system. The native people arose during the World War I to claim their freedom, and its primary success was through the constitution of 1931. On February 4, 1946 Ceylon was recognized as a self- governing country in the Commonwealth of Nations. The name Ceylon was later changed into Sri Lanka on May 22, 1972 and at present it is now officially known as the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka. | 433 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the most complex of the many fiords on this coast, it is also one of the largest, 40 kilometres in length and eight kilometres wide at its widest point. To the north of its mouth is the large Resolution Island, whose Five Fingers Peninsula shelters the mouth of the sound from the northwest; along the east coast of the island, Acheron passage connects Dusky Sound with Breaksea Sound, to the north.
Several large islands lie in the sound, notably Anchor Island, Long Island, and Cooper Island. The upper reaches of the sound are steep-sided, and the high precipitation of the region leads to hundreds of waterfalls cascading into the sound during the rainy season. Seals and dolphins are often sighted in the sound's waters and occasionally visited by whales where the area especially nearby Preservation Inlet was one of earliest shore-based whaling ground for southern right whales, while humpback whales show sudden increases. The Seaforth River is the largest of many small rivers and creeks which flow into the sound.
The sound has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because it is a breeding site for Fiordland penguins.
It is believed that Māori occasionally camped by the sound's waters while hunting moa in pre-European times.
The inlet was first sighted by Europeans and Captain Cook noted its entrance during his first voyage to New Zealand in 1770. He named it Dusky Bay. On his second expedition he spent two months exploring the sound, and used it as a harbour, establishing workshops and an observatory. It is believed his crew brewed the first beer in New Zealand during his stay. He encountered some Maori with whom he had friendly relations. Later they seemed to have disappeared and it was speculated their countrymen had killed them, perhaps for the presents Cook gave them.
Cook saw the place as a good harbour for ships entering the Pacific from Europe by the shortest route, highlighting its maritime significance and overlooking its land-locked character. This gave it an unusual prominence in earliest European visits which disappeared as Europeans became more familiar with New Zealand's geography.
Dusky was consequently used as a harbour by other European navigators and merchant ships in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. From 1792 it became a favoured site for seal hunters. Men landed by Captain William Raven from the Britannia in that year built the first European house in New Zealand and the first ship in Australasia, and the first European woman known to have been in New Zealand was recorded as a visitor in 1793. A group of 244 Europeans was stranded in Dusky Sound in 1795, which included two women, Elizabeth Bason and Ann Carey, the first known to have lived ashore. The last of this group left in 1797. The attention of the sealers moved to Bass Strait from 1798 but returned to New Zealand, at Dusky Sound, from 1802. In that year Captain Charles Bishop and George Bass in the Venus spent 14 days in Dusky Sound stripping iron from the hulk of Captain Brampton's old ship the Endeavour. The blacksmith converted the iron into axes which they then used in Tahiti to trade for pork before returning to Sydney by November 1802. Following this, in January 1803, George Bass asked Governor King of New South Wales for a fishing monopoly, from a line bisecting New Zealand from Dusky Sound to Otago Harbour extending south to include the subantarctic Islands. It was not granted, but it indicates the sealers' area of interest and Dusky Sound's place in it. The Matilda under Captain Fowler was on this part of the coast in 1814 when six of his lascar (Indian) seamen absconded in an open boat. It seems it was at Dusky Sound they were set upon by Maori when three were killed and eaten and the others enslaved. One or more of them later lived in what is now the Dunedin district. Sealers continued to visit until the late 1820s when the second sealing boom faded.
An attempt was made in 1903 to construct a road from Dusky Sound to Lake Manapouri, but it was never completed, terminating abruptly on the western side of Loch Maree.
Access to the sound is by sea or air only, with no roads reaching the coast at this point. However, the Dusky Track stretches to the upper reaches of the sound from lakes Manapouri and Hauroko. | <urn:uuid:921c7b2f-937a-4d62-97e9-81db46bece15> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Dusky-Sound | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00008.warc.gz | en | 0.981778 | 916 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.4991696... | 3 | One of the most complex of the many fiords on this coast, it is also one of the largest, 40 kilometres in length and eight kilometres wide at its widest point. To the north of its mouth is the large Resolution Island, whose Five Fingers Peninsula shelters the mouth of the sound from the northwest; along the east coast of the island, Acheron passage connects Dusky Sound with Breaksea Sound, to the north.
Several large islands lie in the sound, notably Anchor Island, Long Island, and Cooper Island. The upper reaches of the sound are steep-sided, and the high precipitation of the region leads to hundreds of waterfalls cascading into the sound during the rainy season. Seals and dolphins are often sighted in the sound's waters and occasionally visited by whales where the area especially nearby Preservation Inlet was one of earliest shore-based whaling ground for southern right whales, while humpback whales show sudden increases. The Seaforth River is the largest of many small rivers and creeks which flow into the sound.
The sound has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because it is a breeding site for Fiordland penguins.
It is believed that Māori occasionally camped by the sound's waters while hunting moa in pre-European times.
The inlet was first sighted by Europeans and Captain Cook noted its entrance during his first voyage to New Zealand in 1770. He named it Dusky Bay. On his second expedition he spent two months exploring the sound, and used it as a harbour, establishing workshops and an observatory. It is believed his crew brewed the first beer in New Zealand during his stay. He encountered some Maori with whom he had friendly relations. Later they seemed to have disappeared and it was speculated their countrymen had killed them, perhaps for the presents Cook gave them.
Cook saw the place as a good harbour for ships entering the Pacific from Europe by the shortest route, highlighting its maritime significance and overlooking its land-locked character. This gave it an unusual prominence in earliest European visits which disappeared as Europeans became more familiar with New Zealand's geography.
Dusky was consequently used as a harbour by other European navigators and merchant ships in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. From 1792 it became a favoured site for seal hunters. Men landed by Captain William Raven from the Britannia in that year built the first European house in New Zealand and the first ship in Australasia, and the first European woman known to have been in New Zealand was recorded as a visitor in 1793. A group of 244 Europeans was stranded in Dusky Sound in 1795, which included two women, Elizabeth Bason and Ann Carey, the first known to have lived ashore. The last of this group left in 1797. The attention of the sealers moved to Bass Strait from 1798 but returned to New Zealand, at Dusky Sound, from 1802. In that year Captain Charles Bishop and George Bass in the Venus spent 14 days in Dusky Sound stripping iron from the hulk of Captain Brampton's old ship the Endeavour. The blacksmith converted the iron into axes which they then used in Tahiti to trade for pork before returning to Sydney by November 1802. Following this, in January 1803, George Bass asked Governor King of New South Wales for a fishing monopoly, from a line bisecting New Zealand from Dusky Sound to Otago Harbour extending south to include the subantarctic Islands. It was not granted, but it indicates the sealers' area of interest and Dusky Sound's place in it. The Matilda under Captain Fowler was on this part of the coast in 1814 when six of his lascar (Indian) seamen absconded in an open boat. It seems it was at Dusky Sound they were set upon by Maori when three were killed and eaten and the others enslaved. One or more of them later lived in what is now the Dunedin district. Sealers continued to visit until the late 1820s when the second sealing boom faded.
An attempt was made in 1903 to construct a road from Dusky Sound to Lake Manapouri, but it was never completed, terminating abruptly on the western side of Loch Maree.
Access to the sound is by sea or air only, with no roads reaching the coast at this point. However, the Dusky Track stretches to the upper reaches of the sound from lakes Manapouri and Hauroko. | 961 | ENGLISH | 1 |
ndia has a long history of being in contact with and being invaded by foreigners. In the early years of the indigenous civilisation the Aryans invaded India and as a result the indigenous people were marginalised. Then some centuries later came the time when India would be invaded by Muslim rulers from the neighbourhood. Then after some time the British came to India as traders. They soon realised that India could serve as a good market for their finished goods and also as a source for cheap raw material and labour. They saw that the Mughal control over India was in decline, smaller provinces were struggling for independence from the Mughal rule and that they could capture India to serve their needs if they wished. The various provinces were being administered in many different ways by their rulers. Due to this there was a plethora of laws and systems of administration in various areas. Adding to this confusion were the many different religions and their religious laws which differed from each other in varying degrees. They set about reforming the law in the area of criminal law and punishment. They tried to reform the personal laws of the various religions. For example, they abolished the practice of sati and made it unlawful. They tried to prevent child marriages. But after a period of time, their way of functioning started to alarm the Indians who felt that the British were out to destroy their culture and their way of life. This gave rise to the ideal of Indian nationalism. This proved a major uniting factor and the emergence of leaders like Gandhi and Nehru and of organisations like the Home Rule League and the Indian National Congress helped this ideal gain currency. Due to this the British had to make a show of caring for these people. This translated into steps like the Government of India Act of 1919 which provided for a bicameral legislature at the centre, the council of state and the legislative assembly. But the people were dissatisfied. Demands for further reforms were raised. This led to the appointment of the Simon Commission which came to India in 1929. And this culminated in an all- party conference which led to the preparation of the Motilal Nehru Report in 1928. This report demanded Dominion status for India and was meant to be a challenge to the British Government in the framing of a constitution and determining its basic principles. After this the Government of India Act was enacted in 1935. This was to be the working Constitution of India under the British rule. This Act contained features which were supposed to provide for increased participation of Indians in decision- making but in reality did nothing to take India towards the goal of eventually becoming an independent nation. And this state of affairs continued till 1950, when the new Constitution of India was adopted. This Constitution brought changes which in some cases were a sharp departure from the Government of India Act, such as there being no provision for separate electorates etc. It is in this context that the paper analyses whether the Constitution of free India was a counterpoint to the Government of India Act of 1935.
SITUATION BEFORE THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935 CAME INTO BEING
After the First War of Independence the political control of India passed from the hands of the East India Company to the British Crown. And from now on the British Parliament started making legislations directly for the administration of India. One of the more important legislations enacted by the British before now was the Indian Councils Act of 1861 . This Act restored the power of the governments of Madras and of Bombay to make legislations. It also brought changes in the composition of the Governor- General’s Council for executive and legislative purposes. Now the council got a fifth ordinary member for executive purposes. For legislative purposes, additional members (between six and twelve) were to be nominated by the Governor- General and they were to hold office for a period of two years. This council’s functions were limited to enacting legislative measures. And the Governor- General was given the power to issue ordinances in an emergency without referring to the council which could remain in force for a period of six months. And the Indian Councils Act of 1869 extended the legislative powers of the Governor- General- in- Council by authorising it make laws for all native Indian subjects of Her Majesty in any part of the world . And by the Government of India Act of 1870 power was provided to the Governor- General to legislate in a summary way for the less developed and unimportant parts of the country. These and various other legislations were enacted in this period. But these legislations were not adequate to provide for the needs of the country. Rather they contrived to keep power in the hands of the British and fleece the Indians. This led to a growing feeling of discontent amongst the Indians which was reflected in the opinions of the Indian newspapers of the day. Then in 1985 came the development which was to have a profound influence on the history of our nation; the formation of the Indian National Congress. Initially the Indian National Congress had as its objective co-operating with the British government to bring about reforms in the Indian scenario by constitutional means. And the then Viceroy of India also took the formation of the Congress as a welcome step. And the passage of the Indian Councils Act of 1892 was a response to the dissatisfaction shown by the Congress. This Act increased the number of additional members of the Council of Governor- General to between ten and sixteen. For the nomination of the members, people chosen by election could also be appointed if election were possible in any area. Also the councils were enabled to discuss the financial statement. And members were also given the right to ask questions on matters of public interest . Then in 1905 came the proposal of division of Bengal which helped unite people against the British. And now the Congress adopted the tools of boycott of foreign goods and adoption of indigenously made goods to put its point across. This period also marked the formation of extremist and revolutionary groups. To counter the feelings of popular discontent the Indian Councils Act of 1909 was brought in, popularly known as the Morley- Minto Reforms. The Act brought changes in the composition of the India Council of the Secretary of State for India, the Viceroy’s Executive Council and the various Legislative Councils in India. Two Indians were made members of the India Council. One Indian was made the Law member of the Viceroy’s Executive Council. The Imperial Council now had a substantial number of official members but it was not equal to the number of non- official members. And the electorates created under this Act came under three classes: general electorates (consisting of non- official members of the Provincial Councils or of Municipal and District Boards); class electorates (landholders’ constituencies and Mohammedan electorates); and special electorates (consisting of universities, chambers of commerce etc.). And the Central and provincial governments were empowered to make rules for extending the business of the Legislative Councils .
In an attempt to remove the defects of the Morley- Minto scheme, the Government of India Act was brought about in 1919, popularly called the Montagu- Chelmsford Reforms . This Act was supposed to make the Indians acquainted with responsible governance. Under this Act the matters on which the provincial and the central governments could legislate and act were divided into two categories of central and provincial subjects. And the provincial heads of governance were divided into the “transferred” and the “reserved” subjects. But even the provincial governments were not free to legislate on certain matters for which their legislations were made subject to the legislation and they had to take the prior permission of the Governor- General to legislate on such subjects. The principle of adult suffrage was not applied completely but was applied with some qualifications for voters. This Act was supposed to provide some autonomy to the Indians in local self- governance but in the end this proved to be a farce. Even in the matter of provincial subjects indirect control of the Governor- General and Secretary of State was there since finance was a reserved subject and this could be used to pressurise the legislatures. The Council of State (the Upper House of the Central Legislature) was empowered to revise all Indian legislation. But it had no authority to amend or repeal any parliamentary statute relating to British India. And if the Governor- General felt that any Bill or any part of it could affect the tranquillity or safety of British India he could prevent its consideration. Thus it was self- governance only in name. And the people were not satisfied with this. To address this concern of the Indian people the Simon Commission was appointed which did not have a single Indian member as was expected in India. As a result, the Commission was boycotted in its arrival. Instead, an all- party conference by the Indian leaders resulted in the preparation of the Motilal Nehru Report which proposed an alternative scheme from that proposed by the Simon Commission for the constitution of India.
Then after some time came the Government of India Act in 1935 which brought some further changes to the working of the Government of India.
THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935
After the failing of the Simon Commission. Then Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience Movement which ended with the Gandhi- Irwin Pact of 1931. After this there were three sessions of Round Table Conferences to decide the issue of independence. But these were unsuccessful. Then in 1935 was introduced the Government of India Act which was meant to replace the Government of India Act of 1919. This Act was meant to apply to both the provinces and the princely states.
The Act of 1935 differed in certain aspects from the Government of India Act of 1919. One of the differences was that the Government of India Act of 1935 did not contain a preamble as opposed to the Government of India Act of 1919. The Joint Select Committee of the British Parliament stated in this regard that the preamble to the Government of India Act of 1919 had set out finally and definitely the ultimate aims of British rule in India. Hence there was no need to provide a fresh preamble or policy statement to the Act of 1935 .
This Act also ended the system of dyarchy which had been brought in by the Government of India Act of 1919. Under the system of dyarchy, the provincial governments had been divided into two parts, one part being responsible to the Secretary of State for India and the other part being responsible to the voters in the provinces. The subjects of administration were divided into Central and provincial, which contained subjects of national and local importance respectively. But this was found to be highly inefficient and inconvenient. And the Government of India Act of 1935 ended this system of one part of the government being responsible to the Secretary of State and the other part being responsible to the voters. Now what happened was that the Government of India Act, 1935 created a Federation, and this Federation was to derive its powers from the Crown and the British Parliament. This federation was proposed to be constituted of both the provinces and the princely states. But this federation was to come into being only if more than half of the total number of the princely states formally signed the Instrument of Accession and acceded to join the federation. But this federation never came into existence as the required number of princely states did not sign the Instrument of Accession and accede to the federation. It was only in the provinces that the constitution was enabled and the first set of elections was performed in 1937.
Apart from these there were some other characteristics in the Government of India Act of 1935 that were worth noting. This Act made provision for separate electorates on the basis of religion, profession etc. which was meant to promote the feelings of division on communal lines and to check the feelings of nationalism. Another feature was that while the Upper Chamber of the Federal Legislature was to be directly elected the Lower Chamber of the Federal Legislature was meant to be indirectly elected by the Provincial Legislatures . Also, while the powers of administration of various subjects were divided clearly between the Federal Government and the Provinces, in the matter of residuary subjects it was left to the mercy of the Governor- General to decide who should exercise power in such subjects . Also, there was the provision of safeguards, certain powers and special responsibilities being given to the Governor- General and the Provincial Governors. And the power of amending the constitution was not given to the Federal Legislature but it was kept with the British Parliament.
This Act provided for the setting up of a Federal Legislature, which was to consist of members from the Provinces and the princely states, the ones from the provinces being elected by the people and the ones from the princely states being nominated by the princes. With regard to administration, it provided for three lists called the Federal, Concurrent and the Provincial Lists on which the Federal Legislature and the Provinces could legislate. In the matter of conflict of laws of the Federal Legislature and the Provinces on a Concurrent subject the law of the Federal Legislature was to prevail normally. A Bill in order to become an Act required the assent of the Governor- General. If a Bill had been passed by one of the chambers but rejected by the other chamber then the Governor- General could summon a joint meeting of both chambers to break the deadlock between the two chambers and the Bill if passed by a majority of members present and voting, was deemed to have been passed by both chambers. The Governor- General was to choose a Council of Ministers from the Federal Legislature. If any person was not a member of the Federal Legislature he had to become one before the expiry of six months. They were to aid and advise him in the exercise of powers conferred on him under this Act. In case of the failure of the constitutional machinery he could issue a promulgation regarding carrying on the work of administration. Under this Act he was empowered to declare in his discretion a state of emergency and then the Federal Legislature would become entitled to legislate on any matter in the Provincial List. And he was not bound by the advice of his ministers. For the subjects which had been put in the category of ‘Reserved Subjects” he was to be assisted by Counsellors which would be chosen by him and it was not necessary for them to be members of the Legislature. This Act also provided for the creation of a Federal Court which was to be the highest court in the country, supervising the work of even the various High Courts operating till then but inferior to the Privy Council . In the Provinces the Provincial Legislatures consisted of the Legislative Assembly and in some cases the Legislative Council also. The Legislative Assemblies were to consist of members who were elected by way of separate electorates which were divided on communal and professional lines .
Thus we see that there were some provisions which were supposed to be a change from the defects of the Morley- Minto Reforms, such as the removal of dyarchy, but in reality this Act still did not address the real demands of the Indians. It satisfied neither the people of the provinces nor the princes.
THE NEW CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
We have seen that the British were in no mood to grant even Dominion status to the people of India, and this was made clear by the Government of India Act of 1935. This was evidenced from the fact that there was no preamble to the Government of India Act of 1935. About the absence of the preamble it was stated that he preamble of its predecessor i.e. the Government of India Act, 1919 had set out the ultimate aims of the British rule definitely and finally. Hence the British Parliament did not feel the need to provide a fresh preamble. And the ultimate goal of the Government of India Act of 1935 was not even the grant of Dominion status, as was demanded by the Motilal Nehru Report. And nobody was satisfied with the Act. Even the princes were not satisfied with what had been laid out in the Act. Then in 1940 was made the August Offer. This offer recognised that the Indians had a conditional right to frame their own constitution. It stated that the constitution- making body would be set up after the end of the World War. Then, in 1942, the British Government made a declaration commonly known as the Cripps Proposals. This declaration provided for the setting up of a body for framing a new constitution after the end of the World War. This body was also to include the princely states’ representatives. If any state were not to accept the new constitution, it would have the right to retain its present constitutional status and could accede later if it wanted. This constitution- making body was to be elected by the Lower Houses of the Provincial Legislatures together, by the method of proportional representation. And during the time the new constitution was framed the British would retain the control of India. But this was rejected outright by the Indian leaders. And in 1946, came the Cabinet Mission Plan. This Plan suggested that the Union of India consist of both the provinces and the princely states. The provinces were to retain all subjects other than those in the Union and the residuary subjects. And the princely states would retain all subjects and powers except those ceded to the Union. And the provinces would be free to form Groups with Executives and Legislatures and each Group could determine the common provincial subjects. The constitutions of the Union and the Groups should contain a provision enabling re- consideration of the constitution after 10 years. And the constitution- making body would be divided into 3 sections which would settle the provincial constitutions for provinces under each section. After the new constitution had become functional any province had the right to opt out of the group it was in. And they had the right to secede from the Union after a period of 10 years. And then the Constituent Assembly was formed and an Interim Government took office. And in 1950 was adopted the new Constitution of India.
The Constitution of India differed from the Government of India Act of 1935 in certain aspects. For example, this Constitution was for a free India whereas the Government of India Act of 1935 did not talk about the grant of even Dominion status. Also, the concept of separate electorates and proportional representation, which had been introduced under the Government of India Act of 1935 and had divisive tendencies and aims, was not to be found in the new Constitution of India. Instead the new Constitution of India followed the principle of election by a universal franchise, where all could vote to elect their common leader irrespective of their religion, profession, caste etc. And this Constitution was for an India where there were no princely states. So we see here that the new Constitution of India has made a sharp departure from the Government of India Act in these cases.
But there were a number of things which the new Constitution of India had in common with the Government of India Act of 1935. Firstly, if we look at the legislative set- up provided by the new Constitution we will find that it resembles very closely the model followed by the British. The Government of India Act of 1935 provided for a bicameral Federal Legislature. And now also we have a bicameral Parliament. And the provincial legislatures could be either bicameral or unicameral. And now also, we have the same system in our states. In the matter of governmental control in various aspects of administration the Government of India Act of 1935 had provided for three Lists which set out the various subjects where the Federal and the Provincial Legislatures would have control. And in the case of conflict between the laws of the Federal Legislature and the Provincial Legislatures the laws of the Federal Legislature would normally prevail. And now we have the same system where we have the three Lists called the Union, State and the Concurrent Lists which provide the areas of administration of the respective legislatures. And in case of conflict of laws between the two legislatures the law made by the Union Government prevails. A Bill in order to become an Act under the Government of India Act of 1935 required the assent of the Governor- General or the Provincial Governors, as the case was. And now also a Bill in order to become an Act requires the assent of the President or the Governor, as the case may be. And in the case of the failure of the constitutional machinery in any part of the country the Governor- General was authorised to declare emergency and take over the administration. And in such cases the provincial legislative machinery would be superseded. And even now, in case of a failure of constitutional machinery in any state or in the country the President is to issue a proclamation declaring emergency. And the legislative machinery of the states is superseded. And even the administrative set- up and divisions have been left substantially the same as was the case earlier.
The Constitution of India has made a sharp departure from the Government of India Act in certain situations. But if we scrutinise closely we find that the legislative and administrative set- up have been left largely untouched. What we have in effect is a Constitution that follows the British model of administration to fulfil and attain the goal of prosperity for the nation. Therefore we can say that though the Constitution is meant for the welfare of the Indian nation it is not really a counterpoint to the Government of India Act of 1935. | <urn:uuid:77639732-fbbd-4b4d-bd2c-be4a1d62f7c8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://getfreeessays.com/the-government-of-india-act/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00030.warc.gz | en | 0.980248 | 4,327 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.2609443... | 5 | ndia has a long history of being in contact with and being invaded by foreigners. In the early years of the indigenous civilisation the Aryans invaded India and as a result the indigenous people were marginalised. Then some centuries later came the time when India would be invaded by Muslim rulers from the neighbourhood. Then after some time the British came to India as traders. They soon realised that India could serve as a good market for their finished goods and also as a source for cheap raw material and labour. They saw that the Mughal control over India was in decline, smaller provinces were struggling for independence from the Mughal rule and that they could capture India to serve their needs if they wished. The various provinces were being administered in many different ways by their rulers. Due to this there was a plethora of laws and systems of administration in various areas. Adding to this confusion were the many different religions and their religious laws which differed from each other in varying degrees. They set about reforming the law in the area of criminal law and punishment. They tried to reform the personal laws of the various religions. For example, they abolished the practice of sati and made it unlawful. They tried to prevent child marriages. But after a period of time, their way of functioning started to alarm the Indians who felt that the British were out to destroy their culture and their way of life. This gave rise to the ideal of Indian nationalism. This proved a major uniting factor and the emergence of leaders like Gandhi and Nehru and of organisations like the Home Rule League and the Indian National Congress helped this ideal gain currency. Due to this the British had to make a show of caring for these people. This translated into steps like the Government of India Act of 1919 which provided for a bicameral legislature at the centre, the council of state and the legislative assembly. But the people were dissatisfied. Demands for further reforms were raised. This led to the appointment of the Simon Commission which came to India in 1929. And this culminated in an all- party conference which led to the preparation of the Motilal Nehru Report in 1928. This report demanded Dominion status for India and was meant to be a challenge to the British Government in the framing of a constitution and determining its basic principles. After this the Government of India Act was enacted in 1935. This was to be the working Constitution of India under the British rule. This Act contained features which were supposed to provide for increased participation of Indians in decision- making but in reality did nothing to take India towards the goal of eventually becoming an independent nation. And this state of affairs continued till 1950, when the new Constitution of India was adopted. This Constitution brought changes which in some cases were a sharp departure from the Government of India Act, such as there being no provision for separate electorates etc. It is in this context that the paper analyses whether the Constitution of free India was a counterpoint to the Government of India Act of 1935.
SITUATION BEFORE THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935 CAME INTO BEING
After the First War of Independence the political control of India passed from the hands of the East India Company to the British Crown. And from now on the British Parliament started making legislations directly for the administration of India. One of the more important legislations enacted by the British before now was the Indian Councils Act of 1861 . This Act restored the power of the governments of Madras and of Bombay to make legislations. It also brought changes in the composition of the Governor- General’s Council for executive and legislative purposes. Now the council got a fifth ordinary member for executive purposes. For legislative purposes, additional members (between six and twelve) were to be nominated by the Governor- General and they were to hold office for a period of two years. This council’s functions were limited to enacting legislative measures. And the Governor- General was given the power to issue ordinances in an emergency without referring to the council which could remain in force for a period of six months. And the Indian Councils Act of 1869 extended the legislative powers of the Governor- General- in- Council by authorising it make laws for all native Indian subjects of Her Majesty in any part of the world . And by the Government of India Act of 1870 power was provided to the Governor- General to legislate in a summary way for the less developed and unimportant parts of the country. These and various other legislations were enacted in this period. But these legislations were not adequate to provide for the needs of the country. Rather they contrived to keep power in the hands of the British and fleece the Indians. This led to a growing feeling of discontent amongst the Indians which was reflected in the opinions of the Indian newspapers of the day. Then in 1985 came the development which was to have a profound influence on the history of our nation; the formation of the Indian National Congress. Initially the Indian National Congress had as its objective co-operating with the British government to bring about reforms in the Indian scenario by constitutional means. And the then Viceroy of India also took the formation of the Congress as a welcome step. And the passage of the Indian Councils Act of 1892 was a response to the dissatisfaction shown by the Congress. This Act increased the number of additional members of the Council of Governor- General to between ten and sixteen. For the nomination of the members, people chosen by election could also be appointed if election were possible in any area. Also the councils were enabled to discuss the financial statement. And members were also given the right to ask questions on matters of public interest . Then in 1905 came the proposal of division of Bengal which helped unite people against the British. And now the Congress adopted the tools of boycott of foreign goods and adoption of indigenously made goods to put its point across. This period also marked the formation of extremist and revolutionary groups. To counter the feelings of popular discontent the Indian Councils Act of 1909 was brought in, popularly known as the Morley- Minto Reforms. The Act brought changes in the composition of the India Council of the Secretary of State for India, the Viceroy’s Executive Council and the various Legislative Councils in India. Two Indians were made members of the India Council. One Indian was made the Law member of the Viceroy’s Executive Council. The Imperial Council now had a substantial number of official members but it was not equal to the number of non- official members. And the electorates created under this Act came under three classes: general electorates (consisting of non- official members of the Provincial Councils or of Municipal and District Boards); class electorates (landholders’ constituencies and Mohammedan electorates); and special electorates (consisting of universities, chambers of commerce etc.). And the Central and provincial governments were empowered to make rules for extending the business of the Legislative Councils .
In an attempt to remove the defects of the Morley- Minto scheme, the Government of India Act was brought about in 1919, popularly called the Montagu- Chelmsford Reforms . This Act was supposed to make the Indians acquainted with responsible governance. Under this Act the matters on which the provincial and the central governments could legislate and act were divided into two categories of central and provincial subjects. And the provincial heads of governance were divided into the “transferred” and the “reserved” subjects. But even the provincial governments were not free to legislate on certain matters for which their legislations were made subject to the legislation and they had to take the prior permission of the Governor- General to legislate on such subjects. The principle of adult suffrage was not applied completely but was applied with some qualifications for voters. This Act was supposed to provide some autonomy to the Indians in local self- governance but in the end this proved to be a farce. Even in the matter of provincial subjects indirect control of the Governor- General and Secretary of State was there since finance was a reserved subject and this could be used to pressurise the legislatures. The Council of State (the Upper House of the Central Legislature) was empowered to revise all Indian legislation. But it had no authority to amend or repeal any parliamentary statute relating to British India. And if the Governor- General felt that any Bill or any part of it could affect the tranquillity or safety of British India he could prevent its consideration. Thus it was self- governance only in name. And the people were not satisfied with this. To address this concern of the Indian people the Simon Commission was appointed which did not have a single Indian member as was expected in India. As a result, the Commission was boycotted in its arrival. Instead, an all- party conference by the Indian leaders resulted in the preparation of the Motilal Nehru Report which proposed an alternative scheme from that proposed by the Simon Commission for the constitution of India.
Then after some time came the Government of India Act in 1935 which brought some further changes to the working of the Government of India.
THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935
After the failing of the Simon Commission. Then Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience Movement which ended with the Gandhi- Irwin Pact of 1931. After this there were three sessions of Round Table Conferences to decide the issue of independence. But these were unsuccessful. Then in 1935 was introduced the Government of India Act which was meant to replace the Government of India Act of 1919. This Act was meant to apply to both the provinces and the princely states.
The Act of 1935 differed in certain aspects from the Government of India Act of 1919. One of the differences was that the Government of India Act of 1935 did not contain a preamble as opposed to the Government of India Act of 1919. The Joint Select Committee of the British Parliament stated in this regard that the preamble to the Government of India Act of 1919 had set out finally and definitely the ultimate aims of British rule in India. Hence there was no need to provide a fresh preamble or policy statement to the Act of 1935 .
This Act also ended the system of dyarchy which had been brought in by the Government of India Act of 1919. Under the system of dyarchy, the provincial governments had been divided into two parts, one part being responsible to the Secretary of State for India and the other part being responsible to the voters in the provinces. The subjects of administration were divided into Central and provincial, which contained subjects of national and local importance respectively. But this was found to be highly inefficient and inconvenient. And the Government of India Act of 1935 ended this system of one part of the government being responsible to the Secretary of State and the other part being responsible to the voters. Now what happened was that the Government of India Act, 1935 created a Federation, and this Federation was to derive its powers from the Crown and the British Parliament. This federation was proposed to be constituted of both the provinces and the princely states. But this federation was to come into being only if more than half of the total number of the princely states formally signed the Instrument of Accession and acceded to join the federation. But this federation never came into existence as the required number of princely states did not sign the Instrument of Accession and accede to the federation. It was only in the provinces that the constitution was enabled and the first set of elections was performed in 1937.
Apart from these there were some other characteristics in the Government of India Act of 1935 that were worth noting. This Act made provision for separate electorates on the basis of religion, profession etc. which was meant to promote the feelings of division on communal lines and to check the feelings of nationalism. Another feature was that while the Upper Chamber of the Federal Legislature was to be directly elected the Lower Chamber of the Federal Legislature was meant to be indirectly elected by the Provincial Legislatures . Also, while the powers of administration of various subjects were divided clearly between the Federal Government and the Provinces, in the matter of residuary subjects it was left to the mercy of the Governor- General to decide who should exercise power in such subjects . Also, there was the provision of safeguards, certain powers and special responsibilities being given to the Governor- General and the Provincial Governors. And the power of amending the constitution was not given to the Federal Legislature but it was kept with the British Parliament.
This Act provided for the setting up of a Federal Legislature, which was to consist of members from the Provinces and the princely states, the ones from the provinces being elected by the people and the ones from the princely states being nominated by the princes. With regard to administration, it provided for three lists called the Federal, Concurrent and the Provincial Lists on which the Federal Legislature and the Provinces could legislate. In the matter of conflict of laws of the Federal Legislature and the Provinces on a Concurrent subject the law of the Federal Legislature was to prevail normally. A Bill in order to become an Act required the assent of the Governor- General. If a Bill had been passed by one of the chambers but rejected by the other chamber then the Governor- General could summon a joint meeting of both chambers to break the deadlock between the two chambers and the Bill if passed by a majority of members present and voting, was deemed to have been passed by both chambers. The Governor- General was to choose a Council of Ministers from the Federal Legislature. If any person was not a member of the Federal Legislature he had to become one before the expiry of six months. They were to aid and advise him in the exercise of powers conferred on him under this Act. In case of the failure of the constitutional machinery he could issue a promulgation regarding carrying on the work of administration. Under this Act he was empowered to declare in his discretion a state of emergency and then the Federal Legislature would become entitled to legislate on any matter in the Provincial List. And he was not bound by the advice of his ministers. For the subjects which had been put in the category of ‘Reserved Subjects” he was to be assisted by Counsellors which would be chosen by him and it was not necessary for them to be members of the Legislature. This Act also provided for the creation of a Federal Court which was to be the highest court in the country, supervising the work of even the various High Courts operating till then but inferior to the Privy Council . In the Provinces the Provincial Legislatures consisted of the Legislative Assembly and in some cases the Legislative Council also. The Legislative Assemblies were to consist of members who were elected by way of separate electorates which were divided on communal and professional lines .
Thus we see that there were some provisions which were supposed to be a change from the defects of the Morley- Minto Reforms, such as the removal of dyarchy, but in reality this Act still did not address the real demands of the Indians. It satisfied neither the people of the provinces nor the princes.
THE NEW CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
We have seen that the British were in no mood to grant even Dominion status to the people of India, and this was made clear by the Government of India Act of 1935. This was evidenced from the fact that there was no preamble to the Government of India Act of 1935. About the absence of the preamble it was stated that he preamble of its predecessor i.e. the Government of India Act, 1919 had set out the ultimate aims of the British rule definitely and finally. Hence the British Parliament did not feel the need to provide a fresh preamble. And the ultimate goal of the Government of India Act of 1935 was not even the grant of Dominion status, as was demanded by the Motilal Nehru Report. And nobody was satisfied with the Act. Even the princes were not satisfied with what had been laid out in the Act. Then in 1940 was made the August Offer. This offer recognised that the Indians had a conditional right to frame their own constitution. It stated that the constitution- making body would be set up after the end of the World War. Then, in 1942, the British Government made a declaration commonly known as the Cripps Proposals. This declaration provided for the setting up of a body for framing a new constitution after the end of the World War. This body was also to include the princely states’ representatives. If any state were not to accept the new constitution, it would have the right to retain its present constitutional status and could accede later if it wanted. This constitution- making body was to be elected by the Lower Houses of the Provincial Legislatures together, by the method of proportional representation. And during the time the new constitution was framed the British would retain the control of India. But this was rejected outright by the Indian leaders. And in 1946, came the Cabinet Mission Plan. This Plan suggested that the Union of India consist of both the provinces and the princely states. The provinces were to retain all subjects other than those in the Union and the residuary subjects. And the princely states would retain all subjects and powers except those ceded to the Union. And the provinces would be free to form Groups with Executives and Legislatures and each Group could determine the common provincial subjects. The constitutions of the Union and the Groups should contain a provision enabling re- consideration of the constitution after 10 years. And the constitution- making body would be divided into 3 sections which would settle the provincial constitutions for provinces under each section. After the new constitution had become functional any province had the right to opt out of the group it was in. And they had the right to secede from the Union after a period of 10 years. And then the Constituent Assembly was formed and an Interim Government took office. And in 1950 was adopted the new Constitution of India.
The Constitution of India differed from the Government of India Act of 1935 in certain aspects. For example, this Constitution was for a free India whereas the Government of India Act of 1935 did not talk about the grant of even Dominion status. Also, the concept of separate electorates and proportional representation, which had been introduced under the Government of India Act of 1935 and had divisive tendencies and aims, was not to be found in the new Constitution of India. Instead the new Constitution of India followed the principle of election by a universal franchise, where all could vote to elect their common leader irrespective of their religion, profession, caste etc. And this Constitution was for an India where there were no princely states. So we see here that the new Constitution of India has made a sharp departure from the Government of India Act in these cases.
But there were a number of things which the new Constitution of India had in common with the Government of India Act of 1935. Firstly, if we look at the legislative set- up provided by the new Constitution we will find that it resembles very closely the model followed by the British. The Government of India Act of 1935 provided for a bicameral Federal Legislature. And now also we have a bicameral Parliament. And the provincial legislatures could be either bicameral or unicameral. And now also, we have the same system in our states. In the matter of governmental control in various aspects of administration the Government of India Act of 1935 had provided for three Lists which set out the various subjects where the Federal and the Provincial Legislatures would have control. And in the case of conflict between the laws of the Federal Legislature and the Provincial Legislatures the laws of the Federal Legislature would normally prevail. And now we have the same system where we have the three Lists called the Union, State and the Concurrent Lists which provide the areas of administration of the respective legislatures. And in case of conflict of laws between the two legislatures the law made by the Union Government prevails. A Bill in order to become an Act under the Government of India Act of 1935 required the assent of the Governor- General or the Provincial Governors, as the case was. And now also a Bill in order to become an Act requires the assent of the President or the Governor, as the case may be. And in the case of the failure of the constitutional machinery in any part of the country the Governor- General was authorised to declare emergency and take over the administration. And in such cases the provincial legislative machinery would be superseded. And even now, in case of a failure of constitutional machinery in any state or in the country the President is to issue a proclamation declaring emergency. And the legislative machinery of the states is superseded. And even the administrative set- up and divisions have been left substantially the same as was the case earlier.
The Constitution of India has made a sharp departure from the Government of India Act in certain situations. But if we scrutinise closely we find that the legislative and administrative set- up have been left largely untouched. What we have in effect is a Constitution that follows the British model of administration to fulfil and attain the goal of prosperity for the nation. Therefore we can say that though the Constitution is meant for the welfare of the Indian nation it is not really a counterpoint to the Government of India Act of 1935. | 4,469 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are a few theories floating around Kay Love’s classroom at Northside High School.
For the last week, 130 of Love’s students have been involved in a project in which they have been growing two kinds of tomatoes: one set of seeds that have been kept on Earth and another set that have been through the International Space Station.
Are the differences between the two seeds?
"A lot of the kids have different ideas," said Love, who teaches different science courses at Northside.
Phoenix Lucio, a freshman in Love’s pre-AP biology class, thinks the seeds from space may grow faster.
"I don't know how the tomatoes would work, but maybe that would be different," Phoenix said.
Troy Odom, a senior, thinks the Earth seeds might grow faster, but is curious to see how the space seeds will fare.
"I think it would be pretty cool if that would be successful and could lead to some interesting things," Troy said.
The seeds only just sprouted in the last couple of days, but the students will be spending the rest of the semester gauging their growth and the differences between the two set of seeds in each group. In a few more weeks, the sprouts will grow more and bear fruit.
Love said the idea for the project came from a presentation she had heard about called Tomatosphere, a program that uses student observation of tomato seeds from Earth and in space to gauge which kinds of foods would last longer or grow better in space during exploration missions. At the end of the school year, Love’s classes will turn their results in to Tomatosphere.
"This is a little bit of different approach for us," Love said.
Troy, who wants to be an engineer when he gets older, said he looks at the project differently than other classroom assignments because other people would be looking at the work he and his fellow students were doing.
"It definitely gives you a different perspective," Troy said.
Phoenix said her younger sister, Dakota, is interested in space and wants to be an astronaut one day.
"It’s something she would be interested in," she said.
Love said that while she realizes not every student has aspirations to be a scientist or astronaut, what the tomato project does is teach them how to work with one another and how to apply the scientific method to their daily lives.
"Science is a process," she said.
Reach Drew Taylor at email@example.com or 205-722-0204. | <urn:uuid:bb731d07-c860-4438-b226-3434f4b106c4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.tuscaloosanews.com/news/20190409/northside-students-learn-about-space-through-tomatoes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00348.warc.gz | en | 0.982645 | 533 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.1107146590948... | 3 | There are a few theories floating around Kay Love’s classroom at Northside High School.
For the last week, 130 of Love’s students have been involved in a project in which they have been growing two kinds of tomatoes: one set of seeds that have been kept on Earth and another set that have been through the International Space Station.
Are the differences between the two seeds?
"A lot of the kids have different ideas," said Love, who teaches different science courses at Northside.
Phoenix Lucio, a freshman in Love’s pre-AP biology class, thinks the seeds from space may grow faster.
"I don't know how the tomatoes would work, but maybe that would be different," Phoenix said.
Troy Odom, a senior, thinks the Earth seeds might grow faster, but is curious to see how the space seeds will fare.
"I think it would be pretty cool if that would be successful and could lead to some interesting things," Troy said.
The seeds only just sprouted in the last couple of days, but the students will be spending the rest of the semester gauging their growth and the differences between the two set of seeds in each group. In a few more weeks, the sprouts will grow more and bear fruit.
Love said the idea for the project came from a presentation she had heard about called Tomatosphere, a program that uses student observation of tomato seeds from Earth and in space to gauge which kinds of foods would last longer or grow better in space during exploration missions. At the end of the school year, Love’s classes will turn their results in to Tomatosphere.
"This is a little bit of different approach for us," Love said.
Troy, who wants to be an engineer when he gets older, said he looks at the project differently than other classroom assignments because other people would be looking at the work he and his fellow students were doing.
"It definitely gives you a different perspective," Troy said.
Phoenix said her younger sister, Dakota, is interested in space and wants to be an astronaut one day.
"It’s something she would be interested in," she said.
Love said that while she realizes not every student has aspirations to be a scientist or astronaut, what the tomato project does is teach them how to work with one another and how to apply the scientific method to their daily lives.
"Science is a process," she said.
Reach Drew Taylor at email@example.com or 205-722-0204. | 499 | ENGLISH | 1 |
If books are executed for their dangerous ideas, then the Stuarts must have felt threatened by the ideas of the Second Reformation in Scotland. Most of the key books and documents of the time were condemned by these kings to be burnt publicly by the hangman. It was an exercise in the power of the sword over the power of the pen. Perhaps it is not surprising that the first recorded book burning in history was by a king seeking to destroy the words of Scripture (Jeremiah 36:27).
Many books and documents were ‘executed’ at this time. It was a sinister threat to the author and all who would promote the ideas of the book. It was not a long journey for the Restoration regime to make from executing the Covenants to executing the Covenanters. Perhaps it was a desperate attempt to destroy ideas but of course it only attracted more readers for a book. As one writer has observed poetically: “books have souls as well as men, which survive their martyrdom, and are not burnt but crowned by the flames that encircle them”.
1. Defending the Liberty of the Church
One of the early books to be burnt was George Gillespie’s argument against the Anglican ceremonies being imposed on the Scottish Church. George Gillespie was young and exceptionally gifted. He explained the reasons in a forthright book. He said that these ceremonies in worship had their origin in Roman Catholic worship not Scripture. He argued they were not necessary, useful or lawful. And neither was their imposition merely unimportant.
The book he published was called A Dispute Against the English Popish Ceremonies obtruded upon the Church of Scotland. It was published anonymously in Holland due to the persecution of dissent. It appeared at exactly the right time – the summer of 1637 -in the midst of protest and uproar due to the introduction of the Book of Common Prayer.
We could think of this as a war between two books. Which would succeed – Gillespie or the Bishops? Although the Book of Common Prayer had the repressive force of government behind it, Gillespie’s book had the power and authority of God’s Word. In October 1637 the Privy Council ordered that all copies of Gillespie’s book to be collected and burnt by the public hangman. It was a last desperate attempt but too late. Gillespie’s book was never answered.
2. Defending the Liberty of the People
Our ideas of political power and its limitations were significantly shaped by Reformed writers. Such principles helped the Covenanters to resist autocratic rule. They remain relevant today. Samuel Rutherford published a key statement of these principles in Lex, Rex (The Law and the King). This book is a hammer blow against state claims for absolute power.
When it was published Charles I said that it would scarcely get an answer. It contained such a powerful argument that Charles II ordered it to be burnt by the hangman. Rutherford was charged with treason, dismissed from his post and placed under house arrest. He only escaped execution through being seriously ill. Rutherford said that “he would willingly die on the scaffold for that book with a good conscience.” Why would he risk so much for a complex book about political government? Experience under the Stuart regime showed that absolute power was an intoxicating notion that did not value either liberties or mens’ lives. More than this, the king was set himself up with a divine authority in place of the authority of Scripture, and this had to be resisted.
3. Defending the Liberty of Both
The National Covenant (1638) and the Solemn League and Covenant (1643) were solemn oaths that obliged those who swore to defend such liberties. It is not surprising that these Covenants were publicly burnt, even though they pledged loyalty to the king. Futhermore, Charles II himself had sworn to them together with his government. One pamphlet responded to the covenant breaking and burning. It was called The Phoenix, or the Solemn League and Covenant (1661). The idea was that the covenant like the phoenix would rise from its ashes.
When dying men left a public written testimony behind them, it could be burned publicly. This was the case with the minister James Wood in 1664. It was only an attempt to clear himself from slanderous rumours that he had forsaken presbyterian principles.
James Guthrie’s pamphlet The Causes of the Lord’s Wrath against Scotland (1653) was a frank acknowledgement of the nation’s departure from its former principles. Its reflections on the king were considered treasonable, however. Anyone found possessing it could be charged with treason. The book was of course burnt publicly by the hangman. It would be used as evidence in the trial which condemned Guthrie for execution. This was a clear instance of a book’s execution leading to capital punishment for the author.
The Covenanters sought to defend themselves in print. There were books such as John Brown of Wamphray’s Apologetic Relation (1679) or James Stewart’s Naphtali, or, The wrestlings of the Church of Scotland (1667). These protests against repression and government brutality were burned publicly. The Lanark, Rutherglen and Sanquhar Declarations were all burnt also, together with the Queensferry Paper.
Clearly, these were powerful books. They remain powerful. While they speak to their own time in various ways, there are important principles with biblical authority that we may draw from them. If these principles are lost then we are in danger of losing true civil and religious liberty. After all the attempts to destroy such ideas, our generation must not condemn them through mere apathy. We have a duty to the present and past to grasp and maintain principles for which others risked or gave their lives.
Subscribe to our weekly newsletter and receive an updated article every week. | <urn:uuid:70c39eff-ca53-4c9b-a262-3a09ebdd1cd1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.reformationscotland.org/2016/11/24/when-books-were-executed-in-scotland/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00039.warc.gz | en | 0.980171 | 1,217 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.023483417928... | 12 | If books are executed for their dangerous ideas, then the Stuarts must have felt threatened by the ideas of the Second Reformation in Scotland. Most of the key books and documents of the time were condemned by these kings to be burnt publicly by the hangman. It was an exercise in the power of the sword over the power of the pen. Perhaps it is not surprising that the first recorded book burning in history was by a king seeking to destroy the words of Scripture (Jeremiah 36:27).
Many books and documents were ‘executed’ at this time. It was a sinister threat to the author and all who would promote the ideas of the book. It was not a long journey for the Restoration regime to make from executing the Covenants to executing the Covenanters. Perhaps it was a desperate attempt to destroy ideas but of course it only attracted more readers for a book. As one writer has observed poetically: “books have souls as well as men, which survive their martyrdom, and are not burnt but crowned by the flames that encircle them”.
1. Defending the Liberty of the Church
One of the early books to be burnt was George Gillespie’s argument against the Anglican ceremonies being imposed on the Scottish Church. George Gillespie was young and exceptionally gifted. He explained the reasons in a forthright book. He said that these ceremonies in worship had their origin in Roman Catholic worship not Scripture. He argued they were not necessary, useful or lawful. And neither was their imposition merely unimportant.
The book he published was called A Dispute Against the English Popish Ceremonies obtruded upon the Church of Scotland. It was published anonymously in Holland due to the persecution of dissent. It appeared at exactly the right time – the summer of 1637 -in the midst of protest and uproar due to the introduction of the Book of Common Prayer.
We could think of this as a war between two books. Which would succeed – Gillespie or the Bishops? Although the Book of Common Prayer had the repressive force of government behind it, Gillespie’s book had the power and authority of God’s Word. In October 1637 the Privy Council ordered that all copies of Gillespie’s book to be collected and burnt by the public hangman. It was a last desperate attempt but too late. Gillespie’s book was never answered.
2. Defending the Liberty of the People
Our ideas of political power and its limitations were significantly shaped by Reformed writers. Such principles helped the Covenanters to resist autocratic rule. They remain relevant today. Samuel Rutherford published a key statement of these principles in Lex, Rex (The Law and the King). This book is a hammer blow against state claims for absolute power.
When it was published Charles I said that it would scarcely get an answer. It contained such a powerful argument that Charles II ordered it to be burnt by the hangman. Rutherford was charged with treason, dismissed from his post and placed under house arrest. He only escaped execution through being seriously ill. Rutherford said that “he would willingly die on the scaffold for that book with a good conscience.” Why would he risk so much for a complex book about political government? Experience under the Stuart regime showed that absolute power was an intoxicating notion that did not value either liberties or mens’ lives. More than this, the king was set himself up with a divine authority in place of the authority of Scripture, and this had to be resisted.
3. Defending the Liberty of Both
The National Covenant (1638) and the Solemn League and Covenant (1643) were solemn oaths that obliged those who swore to defend such liberties. It is not surprising that these Covenants were publicly burnt, even though they pledged loyalty to the king. Futhermore, Charles II himself had sworn to them together with his government. One pamphlet responded to the covenant breaking and burning. It was called The Phoenix, or the Solemn League and Covenant (1661). The idea was that the covenant like the phoenix would rise from its ashes.
When dying men left a public written testimony behind them, it could be burned publicly. This was the case with the minister James Wood in 1664. It was only an attempt to clear himself from slanderous rumours that he had forsaken presbyterian principles.
James Guthrie’s pamphlet The Causes of the Lord’s Wrath against Scotland (1653) was a frank acknowledgement of the nation’s departure from its former principles. Its reflections on the king were considered treasonable, however. Anyone found possessing it could be charged with treason. The book was of course burnt publicly by the hangman. It would be used as evidence in the trial which condemned Guthrie for execution. This was a clear instance of a book’s execution leading to capital punishment for the author.
The Covenanters sought to defend themselves in print. There were books such as John Brown of Wamphray’s Apologetic Relation (1679) or James Stewart’s Naphtali, or, The wrestlings of the Church of Scotland (1667). These protests against repression and government brutality were burned publicly. The Lanark, Rutherglen and Sanquhar Declarations were all burnt also, together with the Queensferry Paper.
Clearly, these were powerful books. They remain powerful. While they speak to their own time in various ways, there are important principles with biblical authority that we may draw from them. If these principles are lost then we are in danger of losing true civil and religious liberty. After all the attempts to destroy such ideas, our generation must not condemn them through mere apathy. We have a duty to the present and past to grasp and maintain principles for which others risked or gave their lives.
Subscribe to our weekly newsletter and receive an updated article every week. | 1,203 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Students in Intro to Engineering designed and built bridges using only uncooked pasta and hot glue. They began by finding a location anywhere in the world that would either benefit from a bridge or was in need of a replacement bridge. From there, they determined which type of bridge would best suit their location. They were responsible for determining the scope of work, completing a cost estimate, and drafting in AutoCAD before building their bridges and presenting them to the class.
Part of their presentations involved putting their bridges to the test. They first had to run an electronic car across their bridge. Next came the ultimate test. Students placed weights on their bridges to find the maximum capacity they could hold. The strongest bridge, a cable-stay bridge, held 6060 grams or about 13.3 lbs. Coming in at second place was a cantilever bridge, which held 4800 grams or about 10.6 lbs. | <urn:uuid:65362d06-7e41-4cf5-80ee-b7ad3dd9917f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mcacubs.com/about/school-news/news-post-general/~board/school-news/post/building-bridges-in-engineering | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00030.warc.gz | en | 0.983958 | 182 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.370682686567306... | 2 | Students in Intro to Engineering designed and built bridges using only uncooked pasta and hot glue. They began by finding a location anywhere in the world that would either benefit from a bridge or was in need of a replacement bridge. From there, they determined which type of bridge would best suit their location. They were responsible for determining the scope of work, completing a cost estimate, and drafting in AutoCAD before building their bridges and presenting them to the class.
Part of their presentations involved putting their bridges to the test. They first had to run an electronic car across their bridge. Next came the ultimate test. Students placed weights on their bridges to find the maximum capacity they could hold. The strongest bridge, a cable-stay bridge, held 6060 grams or about 13.3 lbs. Coming in at second place was a cantilever bridge, which held 4800 grams or about 10.6 lbs. | 190 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Author: Dr. Rafat Amari/Monday, November 13, 2017/Categories: Islam, History of Islam, Archaeology and Islam, Backgrounds of Islam, Islam in Light of History Book, Article
The Romans Explore Western and Southern Arabia
By Dr. Rafat Amari
The Roman Expedition into western and southern Arabia accurately described the villages which were built in the area of central western Arabia, but a city called Mecca was never mentioned.
In the year 30 B.C., Egypt became a Roman province. The Romans then wanted to control the Arabian regions along the Red Sea, especially south of the city called Leuce Kome on the shore of the Arabian Red Sea. From there, through the central western shore, were places where savage tribes were acting as pirates and threatening sea navigation. The Romans also wanted to control Yemen and, subsequently, the spice trade coming from India through Yemen.
Rome trusted the military campaign to Gallus, the governor of Egypt. He was unsuccessful, but his campaign provides more historical accuracy for us. Gallus departed from the Egyptian shore of the Red Sea with 10,000 Roman soldiers, 1,000 Nabataean soldiers, and some other Roman allies in the region. The Nabataeans were ruled by the Roman Empire at that time, so they promised to help the Romans in this expedition as soldiers and guides. The Nabataeans were ideal as guides because part of northern Arabia along the Red Sea was under the Nabataean domain. Strabo, the famous geographer and historian, took part in the expedition and wrote about it in his 16th book. This gives to the expedition a special value in terms of geography; it is a highly-documented expedition, and not a narration of any kind.
The expedition had special importance for a geographer, because it was not the journey of a traveler who might have missed cities deeper inland. It was a military expedition, intended to control all the villages and cities which might threaten Roman trade within this strip of land. The Romans were very thorough and would not have missed a city. The Roman Expedition went through the strip of land which geographers used to explore along the Red Sea, which I defined previously as extending from the shore to at least 100 miles inland. The Romans wanted to subdue every village because of the continuing piracy which originated from central western Arabia. Therefore, no city or village was left alone in this military expedition.
The expedition arrived at Leuce Come, which means the “white village.” This village was part of the Nabataean territory at the time of the expedition. Strabo attested to the flourishing of the land route through this village to Petra, and from there to Egypt and Syria. This village is placed in the today map of Arabia at El Haura, 25 7 N., 37 13 E. Leuce Come is about 280 miles from the place where Mecca was later built. To the south of this village lay the central western part of Arabia along the Red Sea, which was uninhabited in 103 B.C. But now, because the land route along the Red Sea had started to flourish, there had been a few villages built since 103 B.C., which Gallus occupied. These villages are mentioned in the narration of Strabo, who was an eyewitness to this important expedition.
After Leuce Come, Gallus marched to the south, through Nabataean-controlled lands. Strabo describes the nature of the region with these words:
Gallus moved his army from Leuce Come and marched through regions where water had to be carried by camels.
Gallus marched until he reached the desert assigned to Aretas, his kinsman, by King Obodas of Nabataean. We assume that Gallus was marching toward the village of Egra about 1,100 Greek stadia from Leuce Come (about 137 miles). Strabo described this part under Aretas, as follows:
It afforded only zea, a kind of coarse grain, a few palm trees and butter instead of oil.
It is a description of a deserted tract of land with few stations on the caravan route coming from the south. These stations are mainly Nabataean stations to protect and control the trade passing through this area.
Then Strabo described the next segment of the central-western Arabian campaign with these words:
The next country which Gallus traversed belongs to nomads and most of it was truly desert; and it was called Ararene, and he spent fifty days arriving at the city of Negrani.
That was a city of Najran on the border of Yemen about 385 miles south of Mecca, and about 125 miles from the shore of the Red Sea. We understand from the description of Strabo that the central western tract of Arabia along the Red Sea during the time of the expedition had few changes since the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. This region was described by previous geographers as uninhabited in its northern part, and inhabited by Bedouins in its southern part, until reaching the more-civilized people near Yemen. At least three of the stations which the Nabataeans had built on the caravan road became small villages, which were mentioned in this expedition. The situation was likely similar to that of the 2nd and 3rd centuries B.C.
Gallus wanted to subdue the region to protect the trade from the piracy coming from this area. His plan was to occupy all the cities found in this dangerous tract, but he did not find any city until he reached Najran. This demonstrates that Mecca was not yet built in those times – that is, around 23 B.C. Gallus occupied Najran, then Asca (within Yemeni territory). Going south, he occupied a city called Athrula, then advanced toward Marsiaba (probably Ma'rib, the capital of Saba). He assaulted and besieged the city for six days, but desisted for want of water. He lost only seven soldiers in war against the Arabians of Najran and in the battles south of it. Most of the losses in his army came from lack of water and supplies, and disease.
If Mecca had existed at the time of the Roman Expedition, it would have been impossible to be missed by a weary army which needed a city in which to rest and replenish supplies.
The hardships of Gallus’ army were because of the huge distances, which existed between the small few villages in this tract of central Arabia where Mecca was built in later times. This caused many soldiers to die from a lack of water and supplies. The Romans accused Syllaeus of not helping them as a guide because he chose paths between the villages and cities that were longer than they should have been. This did not affect the plan of passing through all the villages which existed in the area, since the villages and cities were known by all contemporaries to the expedition, and confirmed by the inhabitants. In other words, each village or city knew the name of the next city or village which Gallus needed to visit on the way to Najran and the other cities of Yemen.
Since subduing all of central western Arabia was an important goal for the expedition, Gallus would not have missed a city like Mecca, if it had existed then.
Another thing to consider is that after Gallus failed to occupy the Yemeni city of Marsiaba, he replaced Syllaeus as a guide, and instead depended on native experts to return to Negrana and then to the Nabataean village of Leuce Come. Consequently, he made the return trip more quickly, passing through the few villages which were built on the caravan road where Mecca was eventually built. Strabo mentioned them by name, but never mentioned Mecca. Ultimately, Gallus withdrew from the war. The huge distances between the villages, which were built on this central Arabian tract, created a logistical travel problem for an army of more than 11,000. Gallus lost thousands of his soldiers because of lack of water and supplies.
The Roman historian, Dio Cassius, described the failure of the expedition in his book, The History of Rome. Here’s what he wrote:
At first Aelius Gallus encountered no one, yet he did not proceed without difficulty; for the desert, the sun, and the water (which had some peculiar nature) all caused his men great distress, so that the larger part of the army perished.
This advances our argument. If Mecca had existed as a city, it would have been Gallus’ main goal to control it. No cities are described by any of the historians, except for the few villages I mentioned previously which were built on the caravan road. If Mecca had existed, it would have been an important place to rest, to replenish supplies and to prepare a person to traverse the rest of this terrible tract toward Najran and the other Yemeni cities. No one who planned to occupy a desert would abandon its main city. But that desert had no city in existence like Mecca; that is why the expedition had its hardships and problems with supplies.
What this ultimately shows us is that the claims of Islam that state that Mecca was a city that flourished during the time of Abraham are unsubstantiated and false. All the records of the historians of the time show that Mecca was not in existence until the 4th century A.D., certainly not in the time of Abraham. If Islam is wrong on this key assertion, how can we trust it in other assertions?
Wilfred Schoff on his comment on The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Munshiram Manoharial Publishers Pvt Ltd. ( New Delhi, 1995), page 101
The Geography of Strabo, Book XVI. 4 . 24
Regarding the expedition of Gallus; He returned to Negrana in nine days after he failed to occupy Marsiaba in Saba. Negrana is Najran, about 650 kilometers south of Mecca. On the 11th day he reached a village called Hepta phreata, then he went to another village named Chaalla, then on to another village named Malotha which, most probiblay, was Malothan located close to the actual city of Jadda, which is about 30 miles from Mecca. But between Malotha or Malothan and Egra (north of where Mecca was later built) there were no villages mentioned by Strabo who accompagned the expedition. Gallus badly needed urgent supplies of water and food, but he could not find villages which could give him rest, and re-supply his troops in the area where Mecca was eventually built.
See The Geography of Strabo, Book XVI. 4 . 24
Dio Cassius: History of Rome, Book LIII. xxix.3-8.
For more on the subject of History and Mecca, we refer the reader to Dr. Amari's book: Islam in light of History
Copyright 2004 by Dr. Rafat Amari. All rights reserved.
Number of views (6818)/Comments (0)
Scholar in comparative religions and Author of over 30 books | <urn:uuid:14c68296-5c4b-42a8-be02-c9ce1282bd1e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://rrimedia.org/Resources/Articles/the-romans-explore-western-and-southern-arabia | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00008.warc.gz | en | 0.983075 | 2,285 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.20525139570... | 1 | Author: Dr. Rafat Amari/Monday, November 13, 2017/Categories: Islam, History of Islam, Archaeology and Islam, Backgrounds of Islam, Islam in Light of History Book, Article
The Romans Explore Western and Southern Arabia
By Dr. Rafat Amari
The Roman Expedition into western and southern Arabia accurately described the villages which were built in the area of central western Arabia, but a city called Mecca was never mentioned.
In the year 30 B.C., Egypt became a Roman province. The Romans then wanted to control the Arabian regions along the Red Sea, especially south of the city called Leuce Kome on the shore of the Arabian Red Sea. From there, through the central western shore, were places where savage tribes were acting as pirates and threatening sea navigation. The Romans also wanted to control Yemen and, subsequently, the spice trade coming from India through Yemen.
Rome trusted the military campaign to Gallus, the governor of Egypt. He was unsuccessful, but his campaign provides more historical accuracy for us. Gallus departed from the Egyptian shore of the Red Sea with 10,000 Roman soldiers, 1,000 Nabataean soldiers, and some other Roman allies in the region. The Nabataeans were ruled by the Roman Empire at that time, so they promised to help the Romans in this expedition as soldiers and guides. The Nabataeans were ideal as guides because part of northern Arabia along the Red Sea was under the Nabataean domain. Strabo, the famous geographer and historian, took part in the expedition and wrote about it in his 16th book. This gives to the expedition a special value in terms of geography; it is a highly-documented expedition, and not a narration of any kind.
The expedition had special importance for a geographer, because it was not the journey of a traveler who might have missed cities deeper inland. It was a military expedition, intended to control all the villages and cities which might threaten Roman trade within this strip of land. The Romans were very thorough and would not have missed a city. The Roman Expedition went through the strip of land which geographers used to explore along the Red Sea, which I defined previously as extending from the shore to at least 100 miles inland. The Romans wanted to subdue every village because of the continuing piracy which originated from central western Arabia. Therefore, no city or village was left alone in this military expedition.
The expedition arrived at Leuce Come, which means the “white village.” This village was part of the Nabataean territory at the time of the expedition. Strabo attested to the flourishing of the land route through this village to Petra, and from there to Egypt and Syria. This village is placed in the today map of Arabia at El Haura, 25 7 N., 37 13 E. Leuce Come is about 280 miles from the place where Mecca was later built. To the south of this village lay the central western part of Arabia along the Red Sea, which was uninhabited in 103 B.C. But now, because the land route along the Red Sea had started to flourish, there had been a few villages built since 103 B.C., which Gallus occupied. These villages are mentioned in the narration of Strabo, who was an eyewitness to this important expedition.
After Leuce Come, Gallus marched to the south, through Nabataean-controlled lands. Strabo describes the nature of the region with these words:
Gallus moved his army from Leuce Come and marched through regions where water had to be carried by camels.
Gallus marched until he reached the desert assigned to Aretas, his kinsman, by King Obodas of Nabataean. We assume that Gallus was marching toward the village of Egra about 1,100 Greek stadia from Leuce Come (about 137 miles). Strabo described this part under Aretas, as follows:
It afforded only zea, a kind of coarse grain, a few palm trees and butter instead of oil.
It is a description of a deserted tract of land with few stations on the caravan route coming from the south. These stations are mainly Nabataean stations to protect and control the trade passing through this area.
Then Strabo described the next segment of the central-western Arabian campaign with these words:
The next country which Gallus traversed belongs to nomads and most of it was truly desert; and it was called Ararene, and he spent fifty days arriving at the city of Negrani.
That was a city of Najran on the border of Yemen about 385 miles south of Mecca, and about 125 miles from the shore of the Red Sea. We understand from the description of Strabo that the central western tract of Arabia along the Red Sea during the time of the expedition had few changes since the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. This region was described by previous geographers as uninhabited in its northern part, and inhabited by Bedouins in its southern part, until reaching the more-civilized people near Yemen. At least three of the stations which the Nabataeans had built on the caravan road became small villages, which were mentioned in this expedition. The situation was likely similar to that of the 2nd and 3rd centuries B.C.
Gallus wanted to subdue the region to protect the trade from the piracy coming from this area. His plan was to occupy all the cities found in this dangerous tract, but he did not find any city until he reached Najran. This demonstrates that Mecca was not yet built in those times – that is, around 23 B.C. Gallus occupied Najran, then Asca (within Yemeni territory). Going south, he occupied a city called Athrula, then advanced toward Marsiaba (probably Ma'rib, the capital of Saba). He assaulted and besieged the city for six days, but desisted for want of water. He lost only seven soldiers in war against the Arabians of Najran and in the battles south of it. Most of the losses in his army came from lack of water and supplies, and disease.
If Mecca had existed at the time of the Roman Expedition, it would have been impossible to be missed by a weary army which needed a city in which to rest and replenish supplies.
The hardships of Gallus’ army were because of the huge distances, which existed between the small few villages in this tract of central Arabia where Mecca was built in later times. This caused many soldiers to die from a lack of water and supplies. The Romans accused Syllaeus of not helping them as a guide because he chose paths between the villages and cities that were longer than they should have been. This did not affect the plan of passing through all the villages which existed in the area, since the villages and cities were known by all contemporaries to the expedition, and confirmed by the inhabitants. In other words, each village or city knew the name of the next city or village which Gallus needed to visit on the way to Najran and the other cities of Yemen.
Since subduing all of central western Arabia was an important goal for the expedition, Gallus would not have missed a city like Mecca, if it had existed then.
Another thing to consider is that after Gallus failed to occupy the Yemeni city of Marsiaba, he replaced Syllaeus as a guide, and instead depended on native experts to return to Negrana and then to the Nabataean village of Leuce Come. Consequently, he made the return trip more quickly, passing through the few villages which were built on the caravan road where Mecca was eventually built. Strabo mentioned them by name, but never mentioned Mecca. Ultimately, Gallus withdrew from the war. The huge distances between the villages, which were built on this central Arabian tract, created a logistical travel problem for an army of more than 11,000. Gallus lost thousands of his soldiers because of lack of water and supplies.
The Roman historian, Dio Cassius, described the failure of the expedition in his book, The History of Rome. Here’s what he wrote:
At first Aelius Gallus encountered no one, yet he did not proceed without difficulty; for the desert, the sun, and the water (which had some peculiar nature) all caused his men great distress, so that the larger part of the army perished.
This advances our argument. If Mecca had existed as a city, it would have been Gallus’ main goal to control it. No cities are described by any of the historians, except for the few villages I mentioned previously which were built on the caravan road. If Mecca had existed, it would have been an important place to rest, to replenish supplies and to prepare a person to traverse the rest of this terrible tract toward Najran and the other Yemeni cities. No one who planned to occupy a desert would abandon its main city. But that desert had no city in existence like Mecca; that is why the expedition had its hardships and problems with supplies.
What this ultimately shows us is that the claims of Islam that state that Mecca was a city that flourished during the time of Abraham are unsubstantiated and false. All the records of the historians of the time show that Mecca was not in existence until the 4th century A.D., certainly not in the time of Abraham. If Islam is wrong on this key assertion, how can we trust it in other assertions?
Wilfred Schoff on his comment on The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Munshiram Manoharial Publishers Pvt Ltd. ( New Delhi, 1995), page 101
The Geography of Strabo, Book XVI. 4 . 24
Regarding the expedition of Gallus; He returned to Negrana in nine days after he failed to occupy Marsiaba in Saba. Negrana is Najran, about 650 kilometers south of Mecca. On the 11th day he reached a village called Hepta phreata, then he went to another village named Chaalla, then on to another village named Malotha which, most probiblay, was Malothan located close to the actual city of Jadda, which is about 30 miles from Mecca. But between Malotha or Malothan and Egra (north of where Mecca was later built) there were no villages mentioned by Strabo who accompagned the expedition. Gallus badly needed urgent supplies of water and food, but he could not find villages which could give him rest, and re-supply his troops in the area where Mecca was eventually built.
See The Geography of Strabo, Book XVI. 4 . 24
Dio Cassius: History of Rome, Book LIII. xxix.3-8.
For more on the subject of History and Mecca, we refer the reader to Dr. Amari's book: Islam in light of History
Copyright 2004 by Dr. Rafat Amari. All rights reserved.
Number of views (6818)/Comments (0)
Scholar in comparative religions and Author of over 30 books | 2,357 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Numerous archaeological findsprove that not only men but also strong women participated in the bloody wars of antiquity. For example, in early November 2019, we talked about how scientists managed to recreate the appearance of a woman who fought alongside the Vikings. But did you know that brave women warriors once lived long ago even in the territory of modern Armenia? The skeleton of one of them in 2017 was found on the territory of the so-called Lori region in the north of the state. Initially, archaeologists were sure that they had unearthed the remains of a girl from a wealthy family, but further examination of the bones showed that she had good musculature. Perhaps she was one of the Amazons described in ancient Greek myths.
The discovery of Armenian archaeologists toldForbes Edition. Analysis of the bones showed that the warrior died about 2600 years ago. Initially, it was believed that the 20-year-old girl belonged to a wealthy family. At least, the jewels discovered at the place of her death testified to this. However, with a further study of her skeleton, scientists found traces of numerous wounds and signs of strong muscles. In particular, we are talking about the developed muscles of the chest, shoulders and hips, which in those days stood out especially from the experienced archery and horsemen. Therefore, archaeologists have suggested that in addition to wealth, the girl could have extensive experience participating in bloody battles on horseback.
Have women participated in wars?
Thousands of years ago in modernThe state of Urartu was located in Armenia. According to the Armenian researchers, led by archaeologist Anahit Khudaverdyan, the warrior could well have been a representative of the people living in this state. There is evidence that Scythians and other opponents often attacked Urartu, so the girl could well have died in one of the fights that arose. This is evidenced by a trace from the arrowhead on her left knee. However, this shot was not fatal and was wounded long before her death.
Most likely, the girl died from two wounds inhips and a strong ax hit on the left leg. Since she was injured with various weapons, scientists suggested that several people attacked her at once. It is noteworthy that not far from the place where the girl died, the remains of at least five men were found earlier. This means that in the culture of the state of Urartu, both men and women had the right to participate in battles.
According to researchers, suchwomen-drivers as a discovered girl could well become the basis for many ancient Greek myths about the Amazons. Judging by these stories, these women did not tolerate husbands with them and went on military campaigns led by their queen. To reproduce offspring, they used men from other nations. In the case of the birth of sons, they left them to their fathers, and of the girls brought up new Amazons. Was the girl found a representative of this unusual people, it’s unlikely that she will ever be able to find out for sure.
If you are interested in the news of science and technology, subscribe to our channel in Yandex. Dzen. There you will find materials that have not been published on the site!
By the way, on this subject this weekendI advise you to watch the documentary Women Warriors. Amazons. " It consists of three episodes, which details the life of women who participated in bloody battles. | <urn:uuid:53912c68-50fd-4686-9708-9821e676e89c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vpchothuegoldenking.com/the-remains-of-the-ancient-amazon-were-found-in-armenia/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00287.warc.gz | en | 0.984093 | 698 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.4885939061641... | 4 | Numerous archaeological findsprove that not only men but also strong women participated in the bloody wars of antiquity. For example, in early November 2019, we talked about how scientists managed to recreate the appearance of a woman who fought alongside the Vikings. But did you know that brave women warriors once lived long ago even in the territory of modern Armenia? The skeleton of one of them in 2017 was found on the territory of the so-called Lori region in the north of the state. Initially, archaeologists were sure that they had unearthed the remains of a girl from a wealthy family, but further examination of the bones showed that she had good musculature. Perhaps she was one of the Amazons described in ancient Greek myths.
The discovery of Armenian archaeologists toldForbes Edition. Analysis of the bones showed that the warrior died about 2600 years ago. Initially, it was believed that the 20-year-old girl belonged to a wealthy family. At least, the jewels discovered at the place of her death testified to this. However, with a further study of her skeleton, scientists found traces of numerous wounds and signs of strong muscles. In particular, we are talking about the developed muscles of the chest, shoulders and hips, which in those days stood out especially from the experienced archery and horsemen. Therefore, archaeologists have suggested that in addition to wealth, the girl could have extensive experience participating in bloody battles on horseback.
Have women participated in wars?
Thousands of years ago in modernThe state of Urartu was located in Armenia. According to the Armenian researchers, led by archaeologist Anahit Khudaverdyan, the warrior could well have been a representative of the people living in this state. There is evidence that Scythians and other opponents often attacked Urartu, so the girl could well have died in one of the fights that arose. This is evidenced by a trace from the arrowhead on her left knee. However, this shot was not fatal and was wounded long before her death.
Most likely, the girl died from two wounds inhips and a strong ax hit on the left leg. Since she was injured with various weapons, scientists suggested that several people attacked her at once. It is noteworthy that not far from the place where the girl died, the remains of at least five men were found earlier. This means that in the culture of the state of Urartu, both men and women had the right to participate in battles.
According to researchers, suchwomen-drivers as a discovered girl could well become the basis for many ancient Greek myths about the Amazons. Judging by these stories, these women did not tolerate husbands with them and went on military campaigns led by their queen. To reproduce offspring, they used men from other nations. In the case of the birth of sons, they left them to their fathers, and of the girls brought up new Amazons. Was the girl found a representative of this unusual people, it’s unlikely that she will ever be able to find out for sure.
If you are interested in the news of science and technology, subscribe to our channel in Yandex. Dzen. There you will find materials that have not been published on the site!
By the way, on this subject this weekendI advise you to watch the documentary Women Warriors. Amazons. " It consists of three episodes, which details the life of women who participated in bloody battles. | 704 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Although feminism as a concept only emerged in the first half of the 19th century when the Frenchman Charles Fourier first used the term “feminisme,” many women (referred to as proto-feminists) were expressing feminist concerns long before then. In the early 1700s, women from different countries were examining their unequal status within society and begun asking whether it was natural and inevitable.
These concerns were expressed within writings and discussions, which all hinged on a desire for greater rights and equality with men. During the 1700s women felt that they were largely regarded as inferior to men and that this reflected in the intellectual, social, and cultural domains. Women’s inferiority appeared to be reinforced by the Christian Church which identified them as the “weaker vessel,” and they were often subject to their father’s and, if married, to their husband’s control. Technological changes also exerted influences on the lives of women. The growth of trade and industry resulted in a growing middle class in which social roles were sharply defined by gender. As such, the public sphere of work and politics was seen as uniquely male, while women were expected to remain in the private sphere of the home.
Feminist ideas and concerns experienced a new life given the rise of the printing industry. This led to a cascade of journals, pamphlets, novels, and poetry which all helped new ideas and information to be circulated and accessed by readers. Writing was a medium used by particularly privileged and educated women, some of whom, despite social restrictions, expressed feminist concerns. Some of the earliest feminist writing came out of Sweden during the mid-18th century as the publisher and journalist Margareta Momma (1702–1772) and the poet Hedvig Nordenflycht (1718-1763) were able to develop feminist themes and ideas in print. Britain also had its feminist authors writing about related concerns, as evident in the work of Mary Astell (1666-1731) who argued that God had made women just as rational as men and stated that women’s socially inferior role was neither God-given nor inevitable. To treat women as inferior was therefore an offense to God.
The salon too had its place within early feminism. By the mid-18th century, multiple European countries had women coming together as groups in literary salons. Within these groups women would discuss literature and share ideas, and this instilled a space for female expression through which writers and thinkers were inspired and nurtured.
Further, the cultural, political, and intellectual movements within the U.S. and Europe went far in assisting the development of feminism during the 18th century. Within the Enlightenment and the revolutions in France and the U.S., women begun demanding their own rights. Several enlightenment philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Denis Diderot challenged the tyranny of societies that were based on inherited privileges and argued for liberty and equality which for some of them excluded women. Despite this, women were actively involved in the American and French revolutions. The French playwright and activist Olympe de Gouges (1748-1793), for example, published The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791) in which she called for equal legal rights for women and men. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797), inspired by the French Revolution, penned A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792). Wollstonecraft identified domestic norms and tyranny as the major obstacle preventing women from living independent lives and she also called for women to have access to education and work.
Most of the feminist writers of this early period came from the privileged class. This did change, however, when in the early 1800s working-class women in the U.S. and the U.K. started to become politically active. | <urn:uuid:a450fb19-addc-48fb-a9a8-a5feb39b3e62> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jamesbishopblog.com/2019/12/18/the-origins-of-feminism-in-the-18th-century-proto-feminism/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00150.warc.gz | en | 0.980949 | 795 | 4.25 | 4 | [
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... | 5 | Although feminism as a concept only emerged in the first half of the 19th century when the Frenchman Charles Fourier first used the term “feminisme,” many women (referred to as proto-feminists) were expressing feminist concerns long before then. In the early 1700s, women from different countries were examining their unequal status within society and begun asking whether it was natural and inevitable.
These concerns were expressed within writings and discussions, which all hinged on a desire for greater rights and equality with men. During the 1700s women felt that they were largely regarded as inferior to men and that this reflected in the intellectual, social, and cultural domains. Women’s inferiority appeared to be reinforced by the Christian Church which identified them as the “weaker vessel,” and they were often subject to their father’s and, if married, to their husband’s control. Technological changes also exerted influences on the lives of women. The growth of trade and industry resulted in a growing middle class in which social roles were sharply defined by gender. As such, the public sphere of work and politics was seen as uniquely male, while women were expected to remain in the private sphere of the home.
Feminist ideas and concerns experienced a new life given the rise of the printing industry. This led to a cascade of journals, pamphlets, novels, and poetry which all helped new ideas and information to be circulated and accessed by readers. Writing was a medium used by particularly privileged and educated women, some of whom, despite social restrictions, expressed feminist concerns. Some of the earliest feminist writing came out of Sweden during the mid-18th century as the publisher and journalist Margareta Momma (1702–1772) and the poet Hedvig Nordenflycht (1718-1763) were able to develop feminist themes and ideas in print. Britain also had its feminist authors writing about related concerns, as evident in the work of Mary Astell (1666-1731) who argued that God had made women just as rational as men and stated that women’s socially inferior role was neither God-given nor inevitable. To treat women as inferior was therefore an offense to God.
The salon too had its place within early feminism. By the mid-18th century, multiple European countries had women coming together as groups in literary salons. Within these groups women would discuss literature and share ideas, and this instilled a space for female expression through which writers and thinkers were inspired and nurtured.
Further, the cultural, political, and intellectual movements within the U.S. and Europe went far in assisting the development of feminism during the 18th century. Within the Enlightenment and the revolutions in France and the U.S., women begun demanding their own rights. Several enlightenment philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Denis Diderot challenged the tyranny of societies that were based on inherited privileges and argued for liberty and equality which for some of them excluded women. Despite this, women were actively involved in the American and French revolutions. The French playwright and activist Olympe de Gouges (1748-1793), for example, published The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791) in which she called for equal legal rights for women and men. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797), inspired by the French Revolution, penned A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792). Wollstonecraft identified domestic norms and tyranny as the major obstacle preventing women from living independent lives and she also called for women to have access to education and work.
Most of the feminist writers of this early period came from the privileged class. This did change, however, when in the early 1800s working-class women in the U.S. and the U.K. started to become politically active. | 812 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Once upon a time, there was a small group of settlers who locate in the northwestern portion of what later became Greene County.
When the Northwest Territory opened to residents, many settlers came from Kentucky and Virginia, eager for more land and perhaps new adventure some came as early as 1799.
In 1816 a new village was laid out and platted by Joseph Tatman, a native of Kentucky and Samuel Cosad who had come from Virginia. Soon more folks moved into the village.
Dill’s History of 1881 describes the land in this manner: “It is from two to three miles in width, and about five miles long. Viewed from either of the hills which trend away from its northern, eastern, and southern boundaries furnished to the lover of the beautiful in nature a panoramic view of fertile fields and woodlands, villages, hamlets and sparkling streams, while its western boundary is marked by the impetuous stream which enters if from the northeast, and was appropriately named by the aboriginal owners of the soil, Mad River.”
Since Tatman was the principal owner, the village was usually known unofficially by his name.
This story which I was told may or may not be factual, but it is often told folk legends.
It seems that some of the Indians were still living in the proximity and from time to time would capture some of the settler’s children. The children were adopted into the tribe and treated as the native children.
Of course, the settlers were not happy and so retaliation seemed to be the best course, and so the settlers began to capture the Indian children when possible.
Finally, the two sides decided enough was enough and agreed to meet to exchange the children back to their original parents.
The old chief had grown very fond of the children he had adopted and wanted to know where they would live when they were returned to their natural parents.
Tatman and the chief agreed to meet on what later became known as Reed’s Hill. Tatman was proud of the village and was pleased when the chief agreed that this looked like a nice place for the children to be living.
He looked out and waved his hand over the area and is to have said “Yonder lays a fair field.”
Legend says this is the way that the village of Fairfield received its name. Whether this is true or not, the village was indeed called Fairfield.
The village of Osborn had quite a different beginning.
When it was announced that the railroad would build tracks throughout Greene County, most towns welcomed the idea. This was considered a benefit to everyone who had goods to ship or wanted transportation to other parts of the United States. What joy that would bring to any community!
However, Fairfield was nicely laid out and was considered a very progressive town.
The city fathers decided that there was no way the village wanted to have a big smoke belching, noisy train dispel their comfortable town. They simply turned down the offer and basically told the railroad surveyors to find some other location for the tracks.
Another location was planned about tw0 and one-half miles from Fairfield.
As the rail transportation became readily available, settlers began to move to the area adjacent to the track and soon another village sprung up.
This too, was a nice little town, well arranged and in time very prosperous as well. The name given to the town was Osborn in honor of the Railroad Superintendent George Osborn.
The two towns prospered for some years until the 1913 flood in Dayton changed the lives of the people in both towns forever.
The Miami Conservancy District determined that a massive dam should be built which would prevent any future flooding. The problem was that the village of Osborn would be flooded and so the residents were told the government would purchase their property and they would have to find new places to live.
The folks in Osborn had invested a great deal of time and money on their properties and were reluctant to leave it all behind to be covered by the water. It was then that Osborn Removal Company was established and one by one, the houses and other structures were moved to a new location adjacent to the city of Fairfield.
For many years, the two cities existed side by side. Fairfield had its own mayor, city council, fire department, etc. while Osborn also had its own city management.
After a few years, it seemed appropriate to share some of the emergency equipment. One water company served the entire region and more and more Osborn residents were shopping in the Fairfield stores and vice versa.
In time, the two cities realized that they could function better as one and so January 1, 1950 a new city was established. Several years of planning and discussions had gone by before the city of Fairborn became a reality but now the two were united as one.
The first recognition of the new name was posted even before the January 1 date. The movie theater erected a new marque with the name “Fairborn.”
Joan Baxter is a Greene County resident and historian. | <urn:uuid:c8549454-13a7-4fb9-abba-5f1cef23f32f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.xeniagazette.com/opinion/45669/advertising | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00114.warc.gz | en | 0.992909 | 1,047 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.294324755... | 8 | Once upon a time, there was a small group of settlers who locate in the northwestern portion of what later became Greene County.
When the Northwest Territory opened to residents, many settlers came from Kentucky and Virginia, eager for more land and perhaps new adventure some came as early as 1799.
In 1816 a new village was laid out and platted by Joseph Tatman, a native of Kentucky and Samuel Cosad who had come from Virginia. Soon more folks moved into the village.
Dill’s History of 1881 describes the land in this manner: “It is from two to three miles in width, and about five miles long. Viewed from either of the hills which trend away from its northern, eastern, and southern boundaries furnished to the lover of the beautiful in nature a panoramic view of fertile fields and woodlands, villages, hamlets and sparkling streams, while its western boundary is marked by the impetuous stream which enters if from the northeast, and was appropriately named by the aboriginal owners of the soil, Mad River.”
Since Tatman was the principal owner, the village was usually known unofficially by his name.
This story which I was told may or may not be factual, but it is often told folk legends.
It seems that some of the Indians were still living in the proximity and from time to time would capture some of the settler’s children. The children were adopted into the tribe and treated as the native children.
Of course, the settlers were not happy and so retaliation seemed to be the best course, and so the settlers began to capture the Indian children when possible.
Finally, the two sides decided enough was enough and agreed to meet to exchange the children back to their original parents.
The old chief had grown very fond of the children he had adopted and wanted to know where they would live when they were returned to their natural parents.
Tatman and the chief agreed to meet on what later became known as Reed’s Hill. Tatman was proud of the village and was pleased when the chief agreed that this looked like a nice place for the children to be living.
He looked out and waved his hand over the area and is to have said “Yonder lays a fair field.”
Legend says this is the way that the village of Fairfield received its name. Whether this is true or not, the village was indeed called Fairfield.
The village of Osborn had quite a different beginning.
When it was announced that the railroad would build tracks throughout Greene County, most towns welcomed the idea. This was considered a benefit to everyone who had goods to ship or wanted transportation to other parts of the United States. What joy that would bring to any community!
However, Fairfield was nicely laid out and was considered a very progressive town.
The city fathers decided that there was no way the village wanted to have a big smoke belching, noisy train dispel their comfortable town. They simply turned down the offer and basically told the railroad surveyors to find some other location for the tracks.
Another location was planned about tw0 and one-half miles from Fairfield.
As the rail transportation became readily available, settlers began to move to the area adjacent to the track and soon another village sprung up.
This too, was a nice little town, well arranged and in time very prosperous as well. The name given to the town was Osborn in honor of the Railroad Superintendent George Osborn.
The two towns prospered for some years until the 1913 flood in Dayton changed the lives of the people in both towns forever.
The Miami Conservancy District determined that a massive dam should be built which would prevent any future flooding. The problem was that the village of Osborn would be flooded and so the residents were told the government would purchase their property and they would have to find new places to live.
The folks in Osborn had invested a great deal of time and money on their properties and were reluctant to leave it all behind to be covered by the water. It was then that Osborn Removal Company was established and one by one, the houses and other structures were moved to a new location adjacent to the city of Fairfield.
For many years, the two cities existed side by side. Fairfield had its own mayor, city council, fire department, etc. while Osborn also had its own city management.
After a few years, it seemed appropriate to share some of the emergency equipment. One water company served the entire region and more and more Osborn residents were shopping in the Fairfield stores and vice versa.
In time, the two cities realized that they could function better as one and so January 1, 1950 a new city was established. Several years of planning and discussions had gone by before the city of Fairborn became a reality but now the two were united as one.
The first recognition of the new name was posted even before the January 1 date. The movie theater erected a new marque with the name “Fairborn.”
Joan Baxter is a Greene County resident and historian. | 1,014 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Answer the following question in brief.
What kind of reaction was seen during the spread of news of arrest of main leaders of the Indian National Congress ?
The arrest of the main leaders of the Indian National Congress caused widespread anger and outrage rate among the Indian people. Many protest and strikes were organized for the same. Although the leaders were arrested the movements continued with the same zeal. One such example is the assembling of the people in the Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar, Punjab. The people were peacefully protesting against the arrest of two national leaders when Colonel Dyer entered with his troops of the British army. All the five entrances were blocked. He ordered the army to open fire on the people. Hundreds of people wounded and many of them died. | <urn:uuid:04a309f6-25b3-44e0-bf24-c7a8d3fdf281> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.shaalaa.com/question-bank-solutions/answer-following-question-brief-what-kind-reaction-was-seen-during-spread-news-arrest-main-leaders-indian-national-congress-last-phase-struggle-independence_80840 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00393.warc.gz | en | 0.986468 | 155 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.2066797614097... | 2 | Answer the following question in brief.
What kind of reaction was seen during the spread of news of arrest of main leaders of the Indian National Congress ?
The arrest of the main leaders of the Indian National Congress caused widespread anger and outrage rate among the Indian people. Many protest and strikes were organized for the same. Although the leaders were arrested the movements continued with the same zeal. One such example is the assembling of the people in the Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar, Punjab. The people were peacefully protesting against the arrest of two national leaders when Colonel Dyer entered with his troops of the British army. All the five entrances were blocked. He ordered the army to open fire on the people. Hundreds of people wounded and many of them died. | 152 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1848 he co-authored The Communist Manifesto with Karl Marx, though he also authored and co-authored (primarily with Marx) many other works, and later he supported Marx financially to do research and write Das Kapital. After Marx's death, Engels edited the second and third volumes. Additionally, Engels organised Marx's notes on the "Theories of Surplus Value," which he later published as the "fourth volume" of Capital. He has also made contributions to family economics.
Friedrich Engels was born on 28 November 1820 in Barmen, Prussia (now Wuppertal, Germany). Barmen was an expanding industrial metropolis, and Friedrich was the eldest son of a wealthy German cotton textile manufacturer. His father, Friedrich, Sr., was a Pietistic Protestant, and Engels was raised accordingly. As he grew up, however, he developed atheistic beliefs and his relationship with his parents became strained. His mother wrote to him of her concerns: She said that he had "really gone too far" and "begged" him "to proceed no further." She continued: | <urn:uuid:a6f99312-d71b-408b-9876-1ebeeca4f276> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wn.com/Frederick_Engels | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00345.warc.gz | en | 0.989781 | 227 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.09794849157... | 1 | In 1848 he co-authored The Communist Manifesto with Karl Marx, though he also authored and co-authored (primarily with Marx) many other works, and later he supported Marx financially to do research and write Das Kapital. After Marx's death, Engels edited the second and third volumes. Additionally, Engels organised Marx's notes on the "Theories of Surplus Value," which he later published as the "fourth volume" of Capital. He has also made contributions to family economics.
Friedrich Engels was born on 28 November 1820 in Barmen, Prussia (now Wuppertal, Germany). Barmen was an expanding industrial metropolis, and Friedrich was the eldest son of a wealthy German cotton textile manufacturer. His father, Friedrich, Sr., was a Pietistic Protestant, and Engels was raised accordingly. As he grew up, however, he developed atheistic beliefs and his relationship with his parents became strained. His mother wrote to him of her concerns: She said that he had "really gone too far" and "begged" him "to proceed no further." She continued: | 237 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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