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text string	id string	dump string	url string	file_path string	language string	language_score float64	token_count int64	score float64	int_score int64	embedding list	count int64	Content string	Tokens int64	Top_Lang string	Top_Conf float64
I N 1825 Monroe's term of office came to an end and John Quincy Adams became President. He was the son of John Adams who had been second President, and he had been Secretary of State to Monroe. It was said, indeed, that it was really he who originated the famous Doctrine which came to be called by Monroe's name. He was an honest man and a statesman. He refused to give offices to his friends just because they were his friends, and he refused to turn men out of office simply because they did not agree with him in politics. He wanted to do what was right and just. But he did it from a cold sense of duty. So no one liked him very much. Both House and Senate were against him, and he was not able to do all he would have done for his country. Adams wanted to do a great deal towards improving the country. He wanted canals to be cut. And as the steam engine had just been discovered, he was eager to have railroads and bridges. But Congress would not help him. Still, much was done in this direction. Several canals were cut; railroads began to be built, and the rivers were covered with steamboats. Manufacturers also began to flourish. For during the 1812 war it had been very difficult to get manufactured goods from foreign countries. So Americans had begun to make these things for themselves. And after the war was over, they went on manufacturing them. At length people began to be proud of using only American made things. And when Adams was inaugurated everything he wore had been manufactured in the States. The factories were for the most part in the North, and soon the Northerners began to clamour for duties on imported goods. They wanted to keep out foreign goods, or at least make them so dear that it would pay people to buy American made goods. But the people in the South who did not manufacture things themselves wanted the duties to be kept low. However the manufacturers won the day, and twice during Adams' presidency bills were passed, by which the tariff was made higher. The second bill made the duties so high that many people were very angry and called it the "tariff of abominations." In the South, indeed many people were so angry that they swore never to buy anything from the North until the tariff was made lower. Thus once again North and South were pulling different ways. Adams would willingly have been President for a second term. But in spite of his honesty and his upright dealings no one liked him. So he was not re-elected. When he ceased to be President, however, he did not cease to take an interest in politics, and for many years after he was a member of Congress, where he did good service to his country.	<urn:uuid:5b508bf9-d56c-4ec7-8a63-814f9f6ff915>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/displayitem.php?item=books/marshall/country/tariff	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00307.warc.gz	en	0.99772	571	3.75	4	[ -0.32363057136535645, 0.051664799451828, 0.36818844079971313, -0.13091225922107697, -0.0983608216047287, 0.1363968551158905, 0.5006549954414368, 0.051800716668367386, -0.2937304377555847, -0.06653223931789398, -0.023117516189813614, 0.4983294606208801, 0.4795656204223633, 0.389586329460144...	5	I N 1825 Monroe's term of office came to an end and John Quincy Adams became President. He was the son of John Adams who had been second President, and he had been Secretary of State to Monroe. It was said, indeed, that it was really he who originated the famous Doctrine which came to be called by Monroe's name. He was an honest man and a statesman. He refused to give offices to his friends just because they were his friends, and he refused to turn men out of office simply because they did not agree with him in politics. He wanted to do what was right and just. But he did it from a cold sense of duty. So no one liked him very much. Both House and Senate were against him, and he was not able to do all he would have done for his country. Adams wanted to do a great deal towards improving the country. He wanted canals to be cut. And as the steam engine had just been discovered, he was eager to have railroads and bridges. But Congress would not help him. Still, much was done in this direction. Several canals were cut; railroads began to be built, and the rivers were covered with steamboats. Manufacturers also began to flourish. For during the 1812 war it had been very difficult to get manufactured goods from foreign countries. So Americans had begun to make these things for themselves. And after the war was over, they went on manufacturing them. At length people began to be proud of using only American made things. And when Adams was inaugurated everything he wore had been manufactured in the States. The factories were for the most part in the North, and soon the Northerners began to clamour for duties on imported goods. They wanted to keep out foreign goods, or at least make them so dear that it would pay people to buy American made goods. But the people in the South who did not manufacture things themselves wanted the duties to be kept low. However the manufacturers won the day, and twice during Adams' presidency bills were passed, by which the tariff was made higher. The second bill made the duties so high that many people were very angry and called it the "tariff of abominations." In the South, indeed many people were so angry that they swore never to buy anything from the North until the tariff was made lower. Thus once again North and South were pulling different ways. Adams would willingly have been President for a second term. But in spite of his honesty and his upright dealings no one liked him. So he was not re-elected. When he ceased to be President, however, he did not cease to take an interest in politics, and for many years after he was a member of Congress, where he did good service to his country.	569	ENGLISH	1
Adolf Hitler takes to his underground bunker, where he remains for 105 days until he died suicide. Hitler retired to his bunker after deciding to remain in Berlin for the last great siege of the war. Fifty-five feet under the chancellery (Hitler’s headquarters as chancellor), the shelter contained 18 small rooms and was fully self-sufficient, with its own water and electrical supply. He left only rarely (once to decorate a squadron of Hitler Youth) and spent most of his time micromanaging what was left of German defenses and entertaining Nazi colleagues like Hermann Goering, Heinrich Himmler, and Joachim von Ribbentrop. Constantly at his side during this time were his companion, Eva Braun, and his Alsatian, Blondi. On April 29, Hitler married Eva in their bunker hideaway. Eva Braun met Hitler while working as an assistant to Hitler’s official photographer. Braun spent her time with Hitler out of public view, entertaining herself by skiing and swimming. She had no discernible influence on Hitler’s political career but provided a certain domesticity to the life of the dictator. Loyal to the end, she refused to leave the bunker even as the Russians closed in. Only hours after they were united in marriage, both Hitler and Eva died by suicide. Warned by officers that the Russians were only about a day from overtaking the chancellery and urged to escape to Berchtesgaden, a small town in the Bavarian Alps where Hitler owned a home, the dictator instead chose to take his life. Both he and his wife swallowed cyanide capsules (which had been tested for their efficacy on his “beloved” dog and her pups). For good measure, he shot himself with his pistol.	<urn:uuid:94e0433a-5cd1-4751-86ed-48f0cbf6521e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/hitler-descends-into-his-bunker	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00102.warc.gz	en	0.989127	368	3.265625	3	[ -0.3145661950111389, 0.6193121671676636, 0.11462100595235825, 0.37051206827163696, 0.30720922350883484, 0.2335294485092163, 0.2885933816432953, -0.05987211689352989, -0.056547973304986954, -0.21192894876003265, 0.28367289900779724, -0.26335394382476807, 0.3470548987388611, 0.33700948953628...	2	Adolf Hitler takes to his underground bunker, where he remains for 105 days until he died suicide. Hitler retired to his bunker after deciding to remain in Berlin for the last great siege of the war. Fifty-five feet under the chancellery (Hitler’s headquarters as chancellor), the shelter contained 18 small rooms and was fully self-sufficient, with its own water and electrical supply. He left only rarely (once to decorate a squadron of Hitler Youth) and spent most of his time micromanaging what was left of German defenses and entertaining Nazi colleagues like Hermann Goering, Heinrich Himmler, and Joachim von Ribbentrop. Constantly at his side during this time were his companion, Eva Braun, and his Alsatian, Blondi. On April 29, Hitler married Eva in their bunker hideaway. Eva Braun met Hitler while working as an assistant to Hitler’s official photographer. Braun spent her time with Hitler out of public view, entertaining herself by skiing and swimming. She had no discernible influence on Hitler’s political career but provided a certain domesticity to the life of the dictator. Loyal to the end, she refused to leave the bunker even as the Russians closed in. Only hours after they were united in marriage, both Hitler and Eva died by suicide. Warned by officers that the Russians were only about a day from overtaking the chancellery and urged to escape to Berchtesgaden, a small town in the Bavarian Alps where Hitler owned a home, the dictator instead chose to take his life. Both he and his wife swallowed cyanide capsules (which had been tested for their efficacy on his “beloved” dog and her pups). For good measure, he shot himself with his pistol.	362	ENGLISH	1
Egyptian Mummification Egyptian Mummification Egyptian embalmers were so skilled that people mummified four thousand years ago still have skin, hair and recognizable features such as scars and tattoos. Guanche mummies The mummies of the Canary Islands belong to the indigenous Guanche people and date to the time before 14th Century Spanish explorers settled in the area. All deceased people within the Guanche culture were mummified during this time, though the level of care taken with embalming and burial varied depending on individual social status. Embalming was carried out by specialized groups, organized according to gender, who were considered unclean by the rest of the community. The techniques for embalming were similar to those of the ancient Egyptians; involving evisceration, preservation, and stuffing of the evacuated bodily cavities, then wrapping of the body in animal skins. Despite the successful techniques utilized by the Guanche, very few mummies remain due to looting and desecration. While there is some evidence of deliberate mummification, most sources state that desiccation occurred naturally due to unique conditions within the crypts. The unique air quality and topsoil within the crypt naturally preserved the bodies over time. In the early s, the mummies were accidentally damaged during repairs, resulting in the loss of bodies. The newly updated airing system preserves the thirty-eight bodies that are currently on display. She was found with several artifacts made of bronze, consisting of buttons, a belt plate, and rings, showing she was of higher class. All of the hair had been removed from the skull later when farmers had dug through the casket. Her original hairstyle is unknown. All three mummies were dated to — BC. Carbon dating showed that she had died around BC; examination also revealed that she was around 18—19 years old at the time of death, and that she had been buried in the summertime. Her hair had been drawn up in an elaborate hairstyle, which was then covered by a horse hair hairnet made by the sprang technique. She was wearing a blouse and a necklace as well as two golden earrings, showing she was of higher class. She was wearing a bodice and a skirt, including a belt and bronze bracelets. Found with the girl, at her feet, were the cremated remains of a child and, by her head, a box containing some bronze pins, a hairnet, and an awl. The discovery proved to be scientifically important, and by an exhibition was established in the Museum of Natural History in Budapest. Unique to the Hungarian mummies are their elaborately decorated coffins, with no two being exactly alike. The varied geography and climatology of Italy has led to many cases of spontaneous mummification. Originally intended to hold the deliberately mummified remains of dead friars, interment in the catacombs became a status symbol for the local population in the following centuries. Burials continued until the s, with one of the most famous final burials being that of Rosalia Lombardo. In all, the catacombs host nearly mummies. Catacombe dei Cappuccini The most recent discovery of mummies in Italy came inwhen sixty mummified human remains were found in the crypt of the Conversion of St Paul church in Roccapelago di PievepelagoItaly. Built in the 15th century as a cannon hold and later converted in the 16th century, the crypt had been sealed once it had reached capacity, leaving the bodies to be protected and preserved. The crypt was reopened during restoration work on the church, revealing the diverse array of mummies inside. The bodies were quickly moved to a museum for further study. While the mummies provide a wealth of historically-significant data, native cultures and tradition often demands the remains be returned to their original resting places. This has led to many legal actions by Native American councils, leading to most museums keeping mummified remains out of the public eye. The "Greenland Mummies" consisted of a six-month-old baby, a four-year-old boy, and six women of various ages, who died around years ago. Their bodies were naturally mummified by the sub-zero temperatures and dry winds in the cave in which they were found. These bodies are collectively known as Aztec mummies. Genuine Aztec mummies were "bundled" in a woven wrap and often had their faces covered by a ceremonial mask. Aztec mummy Natural mummification has been known to occur in several places in Mexico, though the most famous are the mummies of Guanajuato. The museum claims to have the smallest mummy in the world on display a mummified fetus. United States[ edit ] Spirit Cave Man was discovered in during salvage work prior to guano mining activity that was scheduled to begin in the area. The mummy is a middle-aged male, found completely dressed and lying on a blanket made of animal skin. Radiocarbon tests in the s dated the mummy to being nearly 9, years old.May 26, · Mummification is the process by which a body is preserved. Bodies can become mummified when submerged in a bog, exposed to certain chemicals, stored in extreme cold or in a place with low humidity. The mummification process took seventy days. Special priests worked as embalmers, treating and wrapping the body. Beyond knowing the correct rituals and prayers to be performed at various stages, the priests also needed a detailed knowledge of human anatomy. Egyptian Mummification. Egyptian embalmers were so skilled that people mummified four thousand years ago still have skin, hair and recognizable features such as scars and tattoos. It was mined from dry lake beds and used in the mummification process to soak up water from the body. Mummification was mainly done to wealthy people as poorer people could not afford the process. The chief embalmer was a priest wearing a mask of Anubis. Anubis was the jackal headed god of the dead. The mummification process took seventy days. Special priests worked as embalmers, treating and wrapping the body. Beyond knowing the correct rituals and prayers to be performed at various stages, the priests also needed a detailed knowledge of human anatomy. The process of mummification has two stages. First, the embalming of the body. Then, the wrapping and burial of the body.	<urn:uuid:54093924-4522-4f10-a166-d57188cda545>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://puzinye.metin2sell.com/the-process-of-mummification-16670pk.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00374.warc.gz	en	0.982759	1,333	3.625	4	[ -0.15193474292755127, 0.6049311757087708, 0.6948761343955994, -0.17320942878723145, -0.5428016185760498, -0.4771426320075989, 0.25246477127075195, -0.22395378351211548, -0.12076424062252045, 0.1956745982170105, -0.21385833621025085, -0.8032557964324951, 0.042567357420921326, 0.359278321266...	1	Egyptian Mummification Egyptian Mummification Egyptian embalmers were so skilled that people mummified four thousand years ago still have skin, hair and recognizable features such as scars and tattoos. Guanche mummies The mummies of the Canary Islands belong to the indigenous Guanche people and date to the time before 14th Century Spanish explorers settled in the area. All deceased people within the Guanche culture were mummified during this time, though the level of care taken with embalming and burial varied depending on individual social status. Embalming was carried out by specialized groups, organized according to gender, who were considered unclean by the rest of the community. The techniques for embalming were similar to those of the ancient Egyptians; involving evisceration, preservation, and stuffing of the evacuated bodily cavities, then wrapping of the body in animal skins. Despite the successful techniques utilized by the Guanche, very few mummies remain due to looting and desecration. While there is some evidence of deliberate mummification, most sources state that desiccation occurred naturally due to unique conditions within the crypts. The unique air quality and topsoil within the crypt naturally preserved the bodies over time. In the early s, the mummies were accidentally damaged during repairs, resulting in the loss of bodies. The newly updated airing system preserves the thirty-eight bodies that are currently on display. She was found with several artifacts made of bronze, consisting of buttons, a belt plate, and rings, showing she was of higher class. All of the hair had been removed from the skull later when farmers had dug through the casket. Her original hairstyle is unknown. All three mummies were dated to — BC. Carbon dating showed that she had died around BC; examination also revealed that she was around 18—19 years old at the time of death, and that she had been buried in the summertime. Her hair had been drawn up in an elaborate hairstyle, which was then covered by a horse hair hairnet made by the sprang technique. She was wearing a blouse and a necklace as well as two golden earrings, showing she was of higher class. She was wearing a bodice and a skirt, including a belt and bronze bracelets. Found with the girl, at her feet, were the cremated remains of a child and, by her head, a box containing some bronze pins, a hairnet, and an awl. The discovery proved to be scientifically important, and by an exhibition was established in the Museum of Natural History in Budapest. Unique to the Hungarian mummies are their elaborately decorated coffins, with no two being exactly alike. The varied geography and climatology of Italy has led to many cases of spontaneous mummification. Originally intended to hold the deliberately mummified remains of dead friars, interment in the catacombs became a status symbol for the local population in the following centuries. Burials continued until the s, with one of the most famous final burials being that of Rosalia Lombardo. In all, the catacombs host nearly mummies. Catacombe dei Cappuccini The most recent discovery of mummies in Italy came inwhen sixty mummified human remains were found in the crypt of the Conversion of St Paul church in Roccapelago di PievepelagoItaly. Built in the 15th century as a cannon hold and later converted in the 16th century, the crypt had been sealed once it had reached capacity, leaving the bodies to be protected and preserved. The crypt was reopened during restoration work on the church, revealing the diverse array of mummies inside. The bodies were quickly moved to a museum for further study. While the mummies provide a wealth of historically-significant data, native cultures and tradition often demands the remains be returned to their original resting places. This has led to many legal actions by Native American councils, leading to most museums keeping mummified remains out of the public eye. The "Greenland Mummies" consisted of a six-month-old baby, a four-year-old boy, and six women of various ages, who died around years ago. Their bodies were naturally mummified by the sub-zero temperatures and dry winds in the cave in which they were found. These bodies are collectively known as Aztec mummies. Genuine Aztec mummies were "bundled" in a woven wrap and often had their faces covered by a ceremonial mask. Aztec mummy Natural mummification has been known to occur in several places in Mexico, though the most famous are the mummies of Guanajuato. The museum claims to have the smallest mummy in the world on display a mummified fetus. United States[ edit ] Spirit Cave Man was discovered in during salvage work prior to guano mining activity that was scheduled to begin in the area. The mummy is a middle-aged male, found completely dressed and lying on a blanket made of animal skin. Radiocarbon tests in the s dated the mummy to being nearly 9, years old.May 26, · Mummification is the process by which a body is preserved. Bodies can become mummified when submerged in a bog, exposed to certain chemicals, stored in extreme cold or in a place with low humidity. The mummification process took seventy days. Special priests worked as embalmers, treating and wrapping the body. Beyond knowing the correct rituals and prayers to be performed at various stages, the priests also needed a detailed knowledge of human anatomy. Egyptian Mummification. Egyptian embalmers were so skilled that people mummified four thousand years ago still have skin, hair and recognizable features such as scars and tattoos. It was mined from dry lake beds and used in the mummification process to soak up water from the body. Mummification was mainly done to wealthy people as poorer people could not afford the process. The chief embalmer was a priest wearing a mask of Anubis. Anubis was the jackal headed god of the dead. The mummification process took seventy days. Special priests worked as embalmers, treating and wrapping the body. Beyond knowing the correct rituals and prayers to be performed at various stages, the priests also needed a detailed knowledge of human anatomy. The process of mummification has two stages. First, the embalming of the body. Then, the wrapping and burial of the body.	1,313	ENGLISH	1
While American women today serve in front-line duties in the armed forces, this wasn’t a common or accepted practice in the past. For example, during the American Revolution, most women stayed home. Some did serve as laundresses, cooks, or nurses in military encampments, but only by permission and only if they proved helpful. A few did wind up on the front lines, by choice or by chance. Over the centuries, American women have served in battle, either in female attire or dressed as men. Some also served as spies behind enemy lines. These pioneers paved the way for today’s total integration of women into combat. The first known American woman to become a combat veteran was Deborah Sampson who served in the Continental Army as Robert Shurtleff. Well known in her lifetime, today her name is less recognized. Born in 1760 in Plimpton, Massachusetts, she came from a poor, but well-known Pilgrim family. Her widowed mother, unable to care for Deborah and her seven siblings, placed Deborah as an indentured servant and farmworker. Self-educated, Deborah taught school at age 18 and later worked in a tavern as a waitress and seamstress. There, she came upon the idea of military service to earn a living wage. Tailoring a cast-off military uniform, Deborah enlisted in the 4th Massachusetts Regiment in the Spring of 1781 under the name Robert Shurtleff. In spite of her small stature, no one suspected her identity. Her light infantry unit marched to West Point in the waning days of the war where her story took a bizarre twist. The troops engaged a band of Tories. Deborah bayonetted one man to death, but was slashed on her forehead and shot in the thigh. Terrified at being discovered as a woman, she hid the bullet wound from a military doctor. She later pulled the musket ball from her own leg, sewing the wound closed using her seamstress skills. Promoted to corporal, she was sent to Philadelphia by General John Patterson. There, she became a victim of an epidemic sweeping the city and her true identity was discovered. A doctor, Benjamin Binney, although sympathetic, sent her back to General Patterson. Impressed by her bravery, Patterson saw that she was given an honorable discharge. She returned home to Sharon, Massachusetts. In 1785, she married a local farmer, Benjamin Gannet. They had three children and adopted a fourth. But Benjamin was a gambler and the family fell on hard times. Supporting her family by lecturing on her experiences, she also applied for a military pension. She was unsuccessful until a neighbor, none other than Paul Revere, interceded. In 1805, she was awarded a monthly pension of four dollars. After she died in 1827 at age 66, her husband managed to get a widow’s pension for himself, even though he wasn’t married to her at the time of her service. The government statement approving the pension concluded that Deborah, serving as Robert, “…furnished no other similar example of female heroism, fidelity and courage.” Both the Daughters and the Sons of the American Revolution uniquely honor Deborah’s grave in Sharon. In 1983, she was named the official Heroine of Massachusetts. There were a few recorded instances of women serving during the War of 1812 and on the battlefield in the Mexican-American War, although in the latter they did not take up arms which brings us to the American Civil War. Recently, our Museum VP and Curator Patrick Donovan came across a long forgotten book called, “Women of the War; Their Heroism and Self-Sacrifice”. Written by Frank Moore in 1867, it recounts the exploits of a number of women who contributed to the war effort including some who made it into the front lines, mostly wearing men’s attire. My lecture, “Women in Combat”, which I have done for the Varnum Continentals, includes stories from both sides of the war about women who participated in active combat as well as in support roles. For those who served on the front lines, concealing their identities was not as difficult as it might appear. Many soldiers were still teenagers yet to shave. Ill-fitting uniforms disguised their shape. Most soldiers rarely bathed and everyone slept clothed and ready to fight. Physical exams were initially cursory. Sometimes, young men paraded before a doctor and if they could use their trigger fingers, they were in. If women acted in a manly fashion, smoking, chewing tobacco, swearing, and playing cards, it was enough of a ruse, since such behavior was completely unexpected in the socially prim Victorian era. Many of their male counterparts figured out what was going on, but the women fought bravely and carried themselves in a soldierly fashion, so their ruse was accepted and even hidden from senior officers. A handful of women fought openly in women’s attire. One was Rhode Island’s own Kady McKenzie Brownell, about whom we have written and spoken. Kady proudly dressed in own version of a female uniform. Along with her husband, she fought in heavy combat in two major battles with two different Rhode Island regiments. It’s time to update her story a bit. Brownell was born in 1842 in a British Army tent in Kaffaria, in British controlled South Africa, the daughter of Scottish-born Colonel George Southwell. Kady’s frail mother died soon after and her soldier father couldn’t care for her. The infant wound up in the care of Duncan and Alice McKenzie, who eventually immigrated with her to Providence, Rhode Island. There is no record of them ever legally adopting Kady. This writer found Kady’s name in the 1860 Rhode Island census where she was listed as living with the Rodman family in Providence, RI, and working as a weaver in a textile mill in Central Falls, RI. There she met mill mechanic Robert Brownell, Junior, who was six years older. Kady was nineteen, five foot three with a dark complexion and blue eyes. The pair fell in love, but there was a slight complication. Robert was already married. His wife Agnes soon discovered the romance and divorced him. Until they left the military, Kady and Robert lived as common law husband and wife. There is only one known picture of them together. Based on the size and style of the photo, it was taken after the war, probably in the 1880’s after the couple had left Rhode Island. When the war broke out, President Lincoln called for volunteer troops. Rhode Island Governor William Sprague vowed his state would do all possible for the Union cause. He quickly signed up Ambrose Burnside to lead an initial regiment. Sprague himself led the men to Washington where they set up training outside the city in a camp named for the governor. Among the enlistees caught up patriotic fever was Robert Brownell, enrolled in Company H, First Regiment, Rhode Island Volunteer Infantry on April 17, 1861. Left behind, Kady was frantic and desperate to follow Robert. Eventually she managed to buttonhole Governor Sprague and convince him into taking her along with him when he travelled to Washington to visit the regiment. Kady was reunited with her husband at Camp Sprague. With the approval of Colonel, later Major General, Ambrose Burnside, Kady was at first named a vivandiere, a “daughter of the regiment”. The role had originated in Europe, where women to go to the front lines selling personal items or wine to the troops. Some adopted female attire that mimicked men’s uniforms. A few doubled as water carriers or even nurses. Despite their role and the impression of some, most were not women of “easy virtue”, but served honorably in the field or behind the lines. Determined not to be a water carrier, Kady immediately volunteered as a color-bearer for the 1st Rhode Island. Now, the role of a color bearer in those days was far from ceremonial. The regimental flag was a rallying point for troops and served as a guide in the midst of battle where the sound of a bugle or drum could be drowned out by gunfire. Kady was in the front of the line and as such, a target for the enemy who sought to mow down color bearers in order to throw confusion into the opposing ranks. Right from the start, Kady had proved a gutsy and determined young woman. While at Camp Sprague, Kady convinced her fellow soldiers to teach her how to shoot, and with daily practice she became proficient with a musket. Color bearers also carried arms to protect the colors. To conserve ammunition, men were allowed three shots each at daily target practice. Her fellow soldiers were so impressed with her determination, skill, and coolness that Kady was given the opportunity to fire as much as she wanted. She also practiced daily with her own infantry sword. At the First Battle of Bull Run, Kady carried the company colors and her weapons. The battle was a rout for Union forces and Kady became separated from her husband. Although slightly wounded herself, she managed to leave the field still carrying her flag. Kady had lost track of Robert and Colonel Burnside himself let Kady know her husband had survived unhurt. The couple was reunited in Washington. By then, their initial ninety-day enlistment had expired. They returned to Providence and were mustered out. Robert soon volunteered again, along with most of the men of the 1st Rhode Island, this time with Company A, of the Fifth Rhode Island Heavy Artillery. Guess who went along? Kady and Robert served under now General Ambrose Burnside. Their unit was sent to North Carolina, initially as an infantry unit. They were promised easy duty. Kady again carried the colors. At one point, she is said to have prevented a catastrophe during the Battle of New Bern, when she recognized a body of troops about to be mistaken for Confederate forces. According to an officer who witnessed the incident, she called a warning, crying out, “Don’t fire; they are our men!” The troops were from another Rhode Island unit and had made the mistake of wearing grey hats. Many likely would have died except for Kady’s action. Put into the heaviest fighting, they led the assault and fired the first shots at Matthew’s Hill. The unit lost eight men. Robert, by then a first sergeant, sustained a serious leg wound at New Bern. Kady, by then assisting at a military hospital, was reunited with Robert. She nursed him and other soldiers, including Rebel prisoners. In early 1863, the couple was sent back to Rhode Island. Both were mustered out and Kady received official discharge papers. Back in Providence, Rev. William McDonald, at the Methodist Episcopal Church, officially married her and Robert at last, on November 7, 1863. The Brownells moved to Connecticut and settled in Bridgeport where she was accepted in 1870 into the Grand Army of the Republic Elias Howe Post #4 on the basis of her discharge papers. She was the first woman known to have been admitted to the GAR. For a while, she gained some measure of fame and earned much needed money by lecturing on her experiences. She and Robert later moved to New York City where she and Robert worked for the city park department as custodians at the Morris-Jumel Mansion on Washington Heights. She became well known to tourists who visited the facility. Over the years, the depth of her service was often questioned but enough evidence existed to drown out the naysayers. She had kept her company colors, her discharge papers, and her saber with her name engraved on the scabbard. In 1884, by an Act of Congress, she was granted a government pension ($8.00 a month) based on her service as a Daughter of the Regiment and for her wound at the First Battle of Bull Run. In a sidebar story to flowery piece published in the July 22, 1899 Philadelphia Times, the 57-year-old Kady and her husband spoke of their wartime experiences. He was much more vocal, and complimented his wife’s bravery on the field. But Kady expressed a different view to the reporter. “The war, with all its legacy of bitterness and hatred is over,” she said quietly, “and in the hearts of these brave men who lost the day there is nothing but a tender love and trust in us who saved the Union. For myself, I did my duty, under discipline, and with that I am content until it shall please God to call me.” Kady and Robert lived out their later years at the New York State Women’s Relief Corps Home in Oxford, NY. The home had been set up for U.S. Civil War veterans and enabled married couples to remain together. Kady died there on January 5, 1915 at the age of 72. Her funeral was held under the auspices of the GAR in New York City. Her husband managed to scrape together the money to send her body back to Rhode Island by steamboat where was laid to rest in the North Burial Ground in Providence, RI. Now here’s the kicker to our story. Robert had her buried in the same plot as his first wife. Given their limited finances, it was probably just common sense. The date of his death is missing from the tombstone, because he isn’t there. Robert never made it back to Providence to join his two wives. He died eight months after Kady on September 29, 1915 at age 79 and wound up in an unmarked gravesite in East Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. By the way, the emblem of the Grand Army of the Republic is engraved on Kady’s tombstone. The Daughters of Union Veterans of the Civil War have named a unit in her honor: Tent #36 in Long Island City, New York. Color bearer, front line soldier, devoted wife: that was Rhode Island’s own Kady Brownell. In the later decades of the 20th century and in recent years, more and more opportunities have opened for women in all branches of the service. Today, thousands serve in active combat and in positions of high command. We’ve come a long way from the Deborah Sampsons of the American Revolution to the likes of Kady Brownell, and her sisters of the U.S. Civil War. Only a handful gained lasting recognition. Many were simply forgotten. But, their pioneering spirit evolved into the eventual acceptance of women in every facet of military service. Navy Lieutenant Andrea Goldstein, USNR, writing for the U.S. Naval Institute’s Proceedings, noted “these largely unsung women broke convention to prove that a nation is strongest when it draws on 100 percent of its talent.” Elizabeth Leonard, a historian at Colby College in Maine, in an article in the Washington Post, noted that the removal of the ban on women in active combat was nothing new, it was simply that we let disappear the stories of women combatants in past wars…women who often served in roles that defied existing conventions. Said Professor Leonard, “They fought. They bled. They died. We should know that, and unlike the past, we should remember.” Join the Varnum Continentals for $35! At only $35 per person annually, membership keeps you in the Varnum loop and supports our efforts to preserve U.S. history and educate the public. Members get a monthly newsletter and can also attend our monthly dinner programs that feature authoritative and engaging speakers on historic and military topics. CLICK HERE TO JOIN NOW!	<urn:uuid:a1c61298-7674-450a-9551-9f90153437c7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://varnumcontinentals.org/2019/09/feature-article-women-in-combat-and-rhode-islands-own-kady-brownell/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00189.warc.gz	en	0.983321	3,260	3.640625	4	[ -0.35734429955482483, 0.30584996938705444, 0.3686257600784302, 0.027965128421783447, -0.3447091281414032, 0.10959182679653168, 0.2698196768760681, 0.294617235660553, -0.01715860515832901, -0.41483214497566223, 0.16536292433738708, 0.04118049144744873, 0.10388714075088501, 0.092232145369052...	4	While American women today serve in front-line duties in the armed forces, this wasn’t a common or accepted practice in the past. For example, during the American Revolution, most women stayed home. Some did serve as laundresses, cooks, or nurses in military encampments, but only by permission and only if they proved helpful. A few did wind up on the front lines, by choice or by chance. Over the centuries, American women have served in battle, either in female attire or dressed as men. Some also served as spies behind enemy lines. These pioneers paved the way for today’s total integration of women into combat. The first known American woman to become a combat veteran was Deborah Sampson who served in the Continental Army as Robert Shurtleff. Well known in her lifetime, today her name is less recognized. Born in 1760 in Plimpton, Massachusetts, she came from a poor, but well-known Pilgrim family. Her widowed mother, unable to care for Deborah and her seven siblings, placed Deborah as an indentured servant and farmworker. Self-educated, Deborah taught school at age 18 and later worked in a tavern as a waitress and seamstress. There, she came upon the idea of military service to earn a living wage. Tailoring a cast-off military uniform, Deborah enlisted in the 4th Massachusetts Regiment in the Spring of 1781 under the name Robert Shurtleff. In spite of her small stature, no one suspected her identity. Her light infantry unit marched to West Point in the waning days of the war where her story took a bizarre twist. The troops engaged a band of Tories. Deborah bayonetted one man to death, but was slashed on her forehead and shot in the thigh. Terrified at being discovered as a woman, she hid the bullet wound from a military doctor. She later pulled the musket ball from her own leg, sewing the wound closed using her seamstress skills. Promoted to corporal, she was sent to Philadelphia by General John Patterson. There, she became a victim of an epidemic sweeping the city and her true identity was discovered. A doctor, Benjamin Binney, although sympathetic, sent her back to General Patterson. Impressed by her bravery, Patterson saw that she was given an honorable discharge. She returned home to Sharon, Massachusetts. In 1785, she married a local farmer, Benjamin Gannet. They had three children and adopted a fourth. But Benjamin was a gambler and the family fell on hard times. Supporting her family by lecturing on her experiences, she also applied for a military pension. She was unsuccessful until a neighbor, none other than Paul Revere, interceded. In 1805, she was awarded a monthly pension of four dollars. After she died in 1827 at age 66, her husband managed to get a widow’s pension for himself, even though he wasn’t married to her at the time of her service. The government statement approving the pension concluded that Deborah, serving as Robert, “…furnished no other similar example of female heroism, fidelity and courage.” Both the Daughters and the Sons of the American Revolution uniquely honor Deborah’s grave in Sharon. In 1983, she was named the official Heroine of Massachusetts. There were a few recorded instances of women serving during the War of 1812 and on the battlefield in the Mexican-American War, although in the latter they did not take up arms which brings us to the American Civil War. Recently, our Museum VP and Curator Patrick Donovan came across a long forgotten book called, “Women of the War; Their Heroism and Self-Sacrifice”. Written by Frank Moore in 1867, it recounts the exploits of a number of women who contributed to the war effort including some who made it into the front lines, mostly wearing men’s attire. My lecture, “Women in Combat”, which I have done for the Varnum Continentals, includes stories from both sides of the war about women who participated in active combat as well as in support roles. For those who served on the front lines, concealing their identities was not as difficult as it might appear. Many soldiers were still teenagers yet to shave. Ill-fitting uniforms disguised their shape. Most soldiers rarely bathed and everyone slept clothed and ready to fight. Physical exams were initially cursory. Sometimes, young men paraded before a doctor and if they could use their trigger fingers, they were in. If women acted in a manly fashion, smoking, chewing tobacco, swearing, and playing cards, it was enough of a ruse, since such behavior was completely unexpected in the socially prim Victorian era. Many of their male counterparts figured out what was going on, but the women fought bravely and carried themselves in a soldierly fashion, so their ruse was accepted and even hidden from senior officers. A handful of women fought openly in women’s attire. One was Rhode Island’s own Kady McKenzie Brownell, about whom we have written and spoken. Kady proudly dressed in own version of a female uniform. Along with her husband, she fought in heavy combat in two major battles with two different Rhode Island regiments. It’s time to update her story a bit. Brownell was born in 1842 in a British Army tent in Kaffaria, in British controlled South Africa, the daughter of Scottish-born Colonel George Southwell. Kady’s frail mother died soon after and her soldier father couldn’t care for her. The infant wound up in the care of Duncan and Alice McKenzie, who eventually immigrated with her to Providence, Rhode Island. There is no record of them ever legally adopting Kady. This writer found Kady’s name in the 1860 Rhode Island census where she was listed as living with the Rodman family in Providence, RI, and working as a weaver in a textile mill in Central Falls, RI. There she met mill mechanic Robert Brownell, Junior, who was six years older. Kady was nineteen, five foot three with a dark complexion and blue eyes. The pair fell in love, but there was a slight complication. Robert was already married. His wife Agnes soon discovered the romance and divorced him. Until they left the military, Kady and Robert lived as common law husband and wife. There is only one known picture of them together. Based on the size and style of the photo, it was taken after the war, probably in the 1880’s after the couple had left Rhode Island. When the war broke out, President Lincoln called for volunteer troops. Rhode Island Governor William Sprague vowed his state would do all possible for the Union cause. He quickly signed up Ambrose Burnside to lead an initial regiment. Sprague himself led the men to Washington where they set up training outside the city in a camp named for the governor. Among the enlistees caught up patriotic fever was Robert Brownell, enrolled in Company H, First Regiment, Rhode Island Volunteer Infantry on April 17, 1861. Left behind, Kady was frantic and desperate to follow Robert. Eventually she managed to buttonhole Governor Sprague and convince him into taking her along with him when he travelled to Washington to visit the regiment. Kady was reunited with her husband at Camp Sprague. With the approval of Colonel, later Major General, Ambrose Burnside, Kady was at first named a vivandiere, a “daughter of the regiment”. The role had originated in Europe, where women to go to the front lines selling personal items or wine to the troops. Some adopted female attire that mimicked men’s uniforms. A few doubled as water carriers or even nurses. Despite their role and the impression of some, most were not women of “easy virtue”, but served honorably in the field or behind the lines. Determined not to be a water carrier, Kady immediately volunteered as a color-bearer for the 1st Rhode Island. Now, the role of a color bearer in those days was far from ceremonial. The regimental flag was a rallying point for troops and served as a guide in the midst of battle where the sound of a bugle or drum could be drowned out by gunfire. Kady was in the front of the line and as such, a target for the enemy who sought to mow down color bearers in order to throw confusion into the opposing ranks. Right from the start, Kady had proved a gutsy and determined young woman. While at Camp Sprague, Kady convinced her fellow soldiers to teach her how to shoot, and with daily practice she became proficient with a musket. Color bearers also carried arms to protect the colors. To conserve ammunition, men were allowed three shots each at daily target practice. Her fellow soldiers were so impressed with her determination, skill, and coolness that Kady was given the opportunity to fire as much as she wanted. She also practiced daily with her own infantry sword. At the First Battle of Bull Run, Kady carried the company colors and her weapons. The battle was a rout for Union forces and Kady became separated from her husband. Although slightly wounded herself, she managed to leave the field still carrying her flag. Kady had lost track of Robert and Colonel Burnside himself let Kady know her husband had survived unhurt. The couple was reunited in Washington. By then, their initial ninety-day enlistment had expired. They returned to Providence and were mustered out. Robert soon volunteered again, along with most of the men of the 1st Rhode Island, this time with Company A, of the Fifth Rhode Island Heavy Artillery. Guess who went along? Kady and Robert served under now General Ambrose Burnside. Their unit was sent to North Carolina, initially as an infantry unit. They were promised easy duty. Kady again carried the colors. At one point, she is said to have prevented a catastrophe during the Battle of New Bern, when she recognized a body of troops about to be mistaken for Confederate forces. According to an officer who witnessed the incident, she called a warning, crying out, “Don’t fire; they are our men!” The troops were from another Rhode Island unit and had made the mistake of wearing grey hats. Many likely would have died except for Kady’s action. Put into the heaviest fighting, they led the assault and fired the first shots at Matthew’s Hill. The unit lost eight men. Robert, by then a first sergeant, sustained a serious leg wound at New Bern. Kady, by then assisting at a military hospital, was reunited with Robert. She nursed him and other soldiers, including Rebel prisoners. In early 1863, the couple was sent back to Rhode Island. Both were mustered out and Kady received official discharge papers. Back in Providence, Rev. William McDonald, at the Methodist Episcopal Church, officially married her and Robert at last, on November 7, 1863. The Brownells moved to Connecticut and settled in Bridgeport where she was accepted in 1870 into the Grand Army of the Republic Elias Howe Post #4 on the basis of her discharge papers. She was the first woman known to have been admitted to the GAR. For a while, she gained some measure of fame and earned much needed money by lecturing on her experiences. She and Robert later moved to New York City where she and Robert worked for the city park department as custodians at the Morris-Jumel Mansion on Washington Heights. She became well known to tourists who visited the facility. Over the years, the depth of her service was often questioned but enough evidence existed to drown out the naysayers. She had kept her company colors, her discharge papers, and her saber with her name engraved on the scabbard. In 1884, by an Act of Congress, she was granted a government pension ($8.00 a month) based on her service as a Daughter of the Regiment and for her wound at the First Battle of Bull Run. In a sidebar story to flowery piece published in the July 22, 1899 Philadelphia Times, the 57-year-old Kady and her husband spoke of their wartime experiences. He was much more vocal, and complimented his wife’s bravery on the field. But Kady expressed a different view to the reporter. “The war, with all its legacy of bitterness and hatred is over,” she said quietly, “and in the hearts of these brave men who lost the day there is nothing but a tender love and trust in us who saved the Union. For myself, I did my duty, under discipline, and with that I am content until it shall please God to call me.” Kady and Robert lived out their later years at the New York State Women’s Relief Corps Home in Oxford, NY. The home had been set up for U.S. Civil War veterans and enabled married couples to remain together. Kady died there on January 5, 1915 at the age of 72. Her funeral was held under the auspices of the GAR in New York City. Her husband managed to scrape together the money to send her body back to Rhode Island by steamboat where was laid to rest in the North Burial Ground in Providence, RI. Now here’s the kicker to our story. Robert had her buried in the same plot as his first wife. Given their limited finances, it was probably just common sense. The date of his death is missing from the tombstone, because he isn’t there. Robert never made it back to Providence to join his two wives. He died eight months after Kady on September 29, 1915 at age 79 and wound up in an unmarked gravesite in East Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. By the way, the emblem of the Grand Army of the Republic is engraved on Kady’s tombstone. The Daughters of Union Veterans of the Civil War have named a unit in her honor: Tent #36 in Long Island City, New York. Color bearer, front line soldier, devoted wife: that was Rhode Island’s own Kady Brownell. In the later decades of the 20th century and in recent years, more and more opportunities have opened for women in all branches of the service. Today, thousands serve in active combat and in positions of high command. We’ve come a long way from the Deborah Sampsons of the American Revolution to the likes of Kady Brownell, and her sisters of the U.S. Civil War. Only a handful gained lasting recognition. Many were simply forgotten. But, their pioneering spirit evolved into the eventual acceptance of women in every facet of military service. Navy Lieutenant Andrea Goldstein, USNR, writing for the U.S. Naval Institute’s Proceedings, noted “these largely unsung women broke convention to prove that a nation is strongest when it draws on 100 percent of its talent.” Elizabeth Leonard, a historian at Colby College in Maine, in an article in the Washington Post, noted that the removal of the ban on women in active combat was nothing new, it was simply that we let disappear the stories of women combatants in past wars…women who often served in roles that defied existing conventions. Said Professor Leonard, “They fought. They bled. They died. We should know that, and unlike the past, we should remember.” Join the Varnum Continentals for $35! At only $35 per person annually, membership keeps you in the Varnum loop and supports our efforts to preserve U.S. history and educate the public. Members get a monthly newsletter and can also attend our monthly dinner programs that feature authoritative and engaging speakers on historic and military topics. CLICK HERE TO JOIN NOW!	3,239	ENGLISH	1
It’s something as closely associated with Stephen Hawking as his dazzling intellect – but how does Prof Hawking’s distinctive high-tech wheelchair work, and how did technology allow him to keep communicating long after he was unable to speak himself? Prof Hawking, who died today (March 14), was first given a wheelchair in the 1960s following his 1963 diagnosis of motor neurone disease. In 1986, following an emergency tracheotomy, Prof Hawking was left unable to speak and had a new computer program called the "Equalizer" which allowed him to communicate. With the distinctive artificial voice, Prof Hawking’s high-tech wheelchair has allowed him to explain some of his more complex ideas, but how did it all work? Owen Dunn, a computer officer at the University of Cambridge, was charged with repairing and helping to maintain the wheelchair, and would often meet Prof Hawking, who he said was always known simply as “Stephen”, to help with equipment. Owen explained how repairing the chair could be very difficult as new equipment was constantly being added to the “nest” of wires and computers behind the seat. Owen said: “The way it works is there is a constantly moving cursor which scrolls across the words on his screen and he has to twitch his cheek when the cursor is over the right word. His glasses are connected to the computer, and can sense when he twitches. 'He had a disarming cheeky grin that was a delight to see' “If he misses it, he has to wait for the cursor to come back around again. He must have the patience of a saint.” Owen said that when Prof Hawking was first given a chair with an artificial voicebox, he was still able to select words on a computer with a hand-held computer device. As his condition worsened, however, more advanced technology had to be used. Still, despite his limited movement, Prof Hawking was able to be very expressive and charm people with his “disarming cheek”. “You have to learn to read his face because it takes such a long time for him to compose replies,” said Owen. “You learn to interpret the twitch of his cheek, or slight frown as yes or no. 'He was a real giant' “He had to think about how he wants to express things. He still had quite a lot of control of his face. He had a disarming cheeky grin which was a delight to see. So often, he couldn’t do the smaller gestures, so the big cheeky grin was important.” Owen recounts the last time he worked on Prof Hawking’s chair late last year. After hearing there was no sound from the chair, Owen found a loose connection was responsible. “I found it and asked him if he could speak now,” said Owen. "’No,’ he replied, with a cheeky grin. He'll be greatly missed.” Download the Cambridgeshire Live app Owen said Prof Hawking’s door was always open and that the whole staff around him was like “a large extended family”, and that there was a “stunned sadness” among those who knew him. “It is a big change,” said Owen. “I do hope we get some kind of permanent memorial here. He was a real giant.”	<urn:uuid:a5d21baf-b9eb-4034-b1b3-74c4ff757c66>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cambridge-news.co.uk/news/cambridge-news/how-stephen-hawking-speak-wheelchair-14410558	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00482.warc.gz	en	0.992559	725	3.28125	3	[ -0.5354495048522949, 0.3050374388694763, 0.018985530361533165, -0.2730482816696167, -0.5848491787910461, 0.16945664584636688, 0.8662322759628296, 0.48055610060691833, -0.04038388654589653, -0.3442426323890686, -0.07217501848936081, -0.17964497208595276, -0.1933998465538025, 0.3194143176078...	1	It’s something as closely associated with Stephen Hawking as his dazzling intellect – but how does Prof Hawking’s distinctive high-tech wheelchair work, and how did technology allow him to keep communicating long after he was unable to speak himself? Prof Hawking, who died today (March 14), was first given a wheelchair in the 1960s following his 1963 diagnosis of motor neurone disease. In 1986, following an emergency tracheotomy, Prof Hawking was left unable to speak and had a new computer program called the "Equalizer" which allowed him to communicate. With the distinctive artificial voice, Prof Hawking’s high-tech wheelchair has allowed him to explain some of his more complex ideas, but how did it all work? Owen Dunn, a computer officer at the University of Cambridge, was charged with repairing and helping to maintain the wheelchair, and would often meet Prof Hawking, who he said was always known simply as “Stephen”, to help with equipment. Owen explained how repairing the chair could be very difficult as new equipment was constantly being added to the “nest” of wires and computers behind the seat. Owen said: “The way it works is there is a constantly moving cursor which scrolls across the words on his screen and he has to twitch his cheek when the cursor is over the right word. His glasses are connected to the computer, and can sense when he twitches. 'He had a disarming cheeky grin that was a delight to see' “If he misses it, he has to wait for the cursor to come back around again. He must have the patience of a saint.” Owen said that when Prof Hawking was first given a chair with an artificial voicebox, he was still able to select words on a computer with a hand-held computer device. As his condition worsened, however, more advanced technology had to be used. Still, despite his limited movement, Prof Hawking was able to be very expressive and charm people with his “disarming cheek”. “You have to learn to read his face because it takes such a long time for him to compose replies,” said Owen. “You learn to interpret the twitch of his cheek, or slight frown as yes or no. 'He was a real giant' “He had to think about how he wants to express things. He still had quite a lot of control of his face. He had a disarming cheeky grin which was a delight to see. So often, he couldn’t do the smaller gestures, so the big cheeky grin was important.” Owen recounts the last time he worked on Prof Hawking’s chair late last year. After hearing there was no sound from the chair, Owen found a loose connection was responsible. “I found it and asked him if he could speak now,” said Owen. "’No,’ he replied, with a cheeky grin. He'll be greatly missed.” Download the Cambridgeshire Live app Owen said Prof Hawking’s door was always open and that the whole staff around him was like “a large extended family”, and that there was a “stunned sadness” among those who knew him. “It is a big change,” said Owen. “I do hope we get some kind of permanent memorial here. He was a real giant.”	674	ENGLISH	1
Presentation on theme: "Chapter 23. 23.1 Intro The civilization lasted from 2000 BC to 1500 AD. How far did the civilization stretch? Stretched from Mexico through Central America."— Presentation transcript: 23.1 Intro The civilization lasted from 2000 BC to 1500 AD. How far did the civilization stretch? Stretched from Mexico through Central America. 23.2 How Did the Mayan Civilization Develop? When was the height of the civilization? Mayan civilization peaked from 300 to 900 AD and stretched from S. Mexico to El Salvador. The Maya reached height of development in thick jungle of Guatamala. What Were the Origins of the Maya? From whom did the Maya build their civilization on? Built their civilization on the Olmecs who reached their peak from 1200 to 500 BC. Which development allows a civilization to develop permanent settlements? By 200 BC Olmecs had switched to agriculture (*corn) and formed permanent settlements. What are some of the requirements to be considered a civilization? Developed trade routes, palaces, temples, religious monuments, and a solar calendar. Pre-classic period from 2000 BC to 300 AD. B/g living in simple huts and farming and gradually grew larger. What was a development during this period built on the Olmecs? Developed a hieroglyphic writing system taken from the Olmecs. Classic-period from 300 to 900 AD. Improved on Olmec ideas. What were some of the developments that took place during this period? Improved building techniques, built large stone cities, pyramids, palaces, observatories, and used math and astronomy to develop accurate calendars. Consisted of many independent states. What Were the 3 Periods of the Maya? Post-classic period from 900 AD to 1200 AD. Mayan civilization collapsed and cities fell to ruin and no one knows why. Where had the civilization not collapsed? Mayan culture still flourished on the Yucatan Peninsula but with fewer achievements 23.3 What Was Their Class Structure? Each independent state had its own social pyramid. Who Was the Ruler? What kind of decision would the ruler make? Ruled w/ the help of advisors and decided when to go to war. What was the ruler viewed as? He was a god-king, and when he died a close male relative would succeed him. Who Were the Nobles and Priests? Under the ruler and were the only Mayans that knew how to read and write. What were some of the jobs of the priests? Oversaw the admin of the states and gathered taxes, supplies, and supplies, and would lead armies in battle. Priests led rituals, sacrifices, and foretold the future. Which other functions were served by priests? Priests were also mathematicians, astronomers, and healers. Who Were the Merchants and Artists? Traded by sea, river, and roads. Which items were traded? Traded for obsidian, jade, tree sap, and quetzals. What did the artists create? Artists painted books and murals depicting Mayan life, were weavers and potters, and sculpted for temples and palaces. Who Were the Peasants? What do you think was the main job of the peasants? The peasants performed all of the agricultural labor (men) while the women prepped food, weaved, and sewed. They also provided the labor for building projects and served as soldiers in war. Who Were the Slaves? Performed all of the manual labor. How did one become a slave? Some were born into slavery, some sold into it, some made slaves b/c of crimes, and some were captured in battle. How were they treated? They were not treated badly, but they were not free and were sacrificed after their master died. 23.4 What Was Family Life Like? What Were the Duties of Family Members? What did the women do? Women got up early to make tortillas, care for the animals, clean, gather, and weave. What did the men do? Men and boys got up early and went to work in the fields, and when not farming would hunt or trap animals. What Were the Special Occasions? Births were special occasions, as well as the 3 month celebration for baby girls where she was given the tools she would use in her life. Which types of tools would she be given? Boys had the 4 month celebration where the tools he would use in his life were pout into his hands. Which types of tools would he be given? Girls celebrated the coming-of-age ceremony at age 12 and boys at 14. What’s the ceremony like? What Were the Marriage Customs? Men usually married at 20 and girls at 14. Who arranged the marriage? Marriages were arranged by a matchmaker and then parents would have to negotiate the details. What were some of the details? A hut would be built for the couple and a celebration followed. 23.5 What Were the Religious Beliefs and Practices? What were the cities always built around? Cities were built around religious centers. What Were the Beliefs and Rituals? Were the Mayans monotheistic or polytheistic? Maya were polytheistic and gods usually represented some form of daily life. B/l that gods had created the world and could destroy it. How were the gods determined? How did the priest communicate with and interpret the gods? Priests conducted sacrifices, read books, interpreted omens, signs, and the future. Always sought advice from the gods. Why did they b/l that gods needed blood? B/l that blood gave gods strength so they sacrificed animals and humans. What happened to the losers of pok-a-tok? Mayans played game called pok-a-tok in which members of the losing team were sacrificed. What Was the Sacred Calendar? What were the two calendars and what were they used for? Mayans used 2 calendars; 1. For daily life, based on the sun, 18 months, 365 days. 2. The Sacred Round, 13 months, 260 days, only priests could interpret meaning of days. Sacred round revealed the best days to plant, hunt, cure, do battle, religious ceremonies. 23.6 What Were the Agricultural Techniques? What Were the Challenges? One challenge was trying to grow enough food to feed a growing population. Why was the land difficult to farm? Which agricultural techniques were employed? In the mountains the terrace farmed. In swamps they built raised platforms surrounded by canals. In the forest they used slash-and-burn agriculture. What is slash-and-burn agriculture? What Was the End of the Classic Period? By 900, w/I a space of 50-100 years, the Maya civilization collapsed. What are some of the theories to account for their collapse? Some b/l population outgrew agricultural techniques. Possibly drought, or dry weather. Could possibly have been the result of warfare among the states, or invaders from Central Mexico.	<urn:uuid:b78b661d-4e71-425c-baca-560cbebeabeb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://slideplayer.com/slide/4886868/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00096.warc.gz	en	0.982338	1,445	3.90625	4	[ -0.17590101063251495, 0.6036062836647034, 0.6590152978897095, 0.4697536826133728, -0.14722523093223572, 0.01798025518655777, -0.22273945808410645, 0.15150541067123413, -0.3094656467437744, 0.12803608179092407, 0.17606502771377563, -0.34471964836120605, 0.0768628716468811, 0.076750651001930...	2	Presentation on theme: "Chapter 23. 23.1 Intro The civilization lasted from 2000 BC to 1500 AD. How far did the civilization stretch? Stretched from Mexico through Central America."— Presentation transcript: 23.1 Intro The civilization lasted from 2000 BC to 1500 AD. How far did the civilization stretch? Stretched from Mexico through Central America. 23.2 How Did the Mayan Civilization Develop? When was the height of the civilization? Mayan civilization peaked from 300 to 900 AD and stretched from S. Mexico to El Salvador. The Maya reached height of development in thick jungle of Guatamala. What Were the Origins of the Maya? From whom did the Maya build their civilization on? Built their civilization on the Olmecs who reached their peak from 1200 to 500 BC. Which development allows a civilization to develop permanent settlements? By 200 BC Olmecs had switched to agriculture (*corn) and formed permanent settlements. What are some of the requirements to be considered a civilization? Developed trade routes, palaces, temples, religious monuments, and a solar calendar. Pre-classic period from 2000 BC to 300 AD. B/g living in simple huts and farming and gradually grew larger. What was a development during this period built on the Olmecs? Developed a hieroglyphic writing system taken from the Olmecs. Classic-period from 300 to 900 AD. Improved on Olmec ideas. What were some of the developments that took place during this period? Improved building techniques, built large stone cities, pyramids, palaces, observatories, and used math and astronomy to develop accurate calendars. Consisted of many independent states. What Were the 3 Periods of the Maya? Post-classic period from 900 AD to 1200 AD. Mayan civilization collapsed and cities fell to ruin and no one knows why. Where had the civilization not collapsed? Mayan culture still flourished on the Yucatan Peninsula but with fewer achievements 23.3 What Was Their Class Structure? Each independent state had its own social pyramid. Who Was the Ruler? What kind of decision would the ruler make? Ruled w/ the help of advisors and decided when to go to war. What was the ruler viewed as? He was a god-king, and when he died a close male relative would succeed him. Who Were the Nobles and Priests? Under the ruler and were the only Mayans that knew how to read and write. What were some of the jobs of the priests? Oversaw the admin of the states and gathered taxes, supplies, and supplies, and would lead armies in battle. Priests led rituals, sacrifices, and foretold the future. Which other functions were served by priests? Priests were also mathematicians, astronomers, and healers. Who Were the Merchants and Artists? Traded by sea, river, and roads. Which items were traded? Traded for obsidian, jade, tree sap, and quetzals. What did the artists create? Artists painted books and murals depicting Mayan life, were weavers and potters, and sculpted for temples and palaces. Who Were the Peasants? What do you think was the main job of the peasants? The peasants performed all of the agricultural labor (men) while the women prepped food, weaved, and sewed. They also provided the labor for building projects and served as soldiers in war. Who Were the Slaves? Performed all of the manual labor. How did one become a slave? Some were born into slavery, some sold into it, some made slaves b/c of crimes, and some were captured in battle. How were they treated? They were not treated badly, but they were not free and were sacrificed after their master died. 23.4 What Was Family Life Like? What Were the Duties of Family Members? What did the women do? Women got up early to make tortillas, care for the animals, clean, gather, and weave. What did the men do? Men and boys got up early and went to work in the fields, and when not farming would hunt or trap animals. What Were the Special Occasions? Births were special occasions, as well as the 3 month celebration for baby girls where she was given the tools she would use in her life. Which types of tools would she be given? Boys had the 4 month celebration where the tools he would use in his life were pout into his hands. Which types of tools would he be given? Girls celebrated the coming-of-age ceremony at age 12 and boys at 14. What’s the ceremony like? What Were the Marriage Customs? Men usually married at 20 and girls at 14. Who arranged the marriage? Marriages were arranged by a matchmaker and then parents would have to negotiate the details. What were some of the details? A hut would be built for the couple and a celebration followed. 23.5 What Were the Religious Beliefs and Practices? What were the cities always built around? Cities were built around religious centers. What Were the Beliefs and Rituals? Were the Mayans monotheistic or polytheistic? Maya were polytheistic and gods usually represented some form of daily life. B/l that gods had created the world and could destroy it. How were the gods determined? How did the priest communicate with and interpret the gods? Priests conducted sacrifices, read books, interpreted omens, signs, and the future. Always sought advice from the gods. Why did they b/l that gods needed blood? B/l that blood gave gods strength so they sacrificed animals and humans. What happened to the losers of pok-a-tok? Mayans played game called pok-a-tok in which members of the losing team were sacrificed. What Was the Sacred Calendar? What were the two calendars and what were they used for? Mayans used 2 calendars; 1. For daily life, based on the sun, 18 months, 365 days. 2. The Sacred Round, 13 months, 260 days, only priests could interpret meaning of days. Sacred round revealed the best days to plant, hunt, cure, do battle, religious ceremonies. 23.6 What Were the Agricultural Techniques? What Were the Challenges? One challenge was trying to grow enough food to feed a growing population. Why was the land difficult to farm? Which agricultural techniques were employed? In the mountains the terrace farmed. In swamps they built raised platforms surrounded by canals. In the forest they used slash-and-burn agriculture. What is slash-and-burn agriculture? What Was the End of the Classic Period? By 900, w/I a space of 50-100 years, the Maya civilization collapsed. What are some of the theories to account for their collapse? Some b/l population outgrew agricultural techniques. Possibly drought, or dry weather. Could possibly have been the result of warfare among the states, or invaders from Central Mexico.	1,496	ENGLISH	1
"How many bees are in a hive?" asked a first-grader. "A gazillion?" another speculated. There are about 40,000 bees in a hive during the peak of its activity. "And they're all one family," says beekeeper Phillip Kenline. "Imagine having that many brothers and sisters," he added to squeals from his audience. Kenline, also a member of the Akron Board of Education, fielded lots of queries from eager pupils this day during his annual presentation to first-graders at Akron Central Elementary School. The event brings to life "Honey Bees," a story by Jesus Cervantes, that the pupils have been reading as part of their lesson on how communities work together, said teacher Ardell Olin. Kenline told students that each bee, like species of any community, has a specific task to perform, from collecting nectar to making it into honey and wax. He also explained the jobs of the queen, worker and drone bees. His show-and-tell presentation had lots of props, including hives, honey, a smoker, a bee vacuum, hornets' nests and a beekeepers' suit complete with a net hat and long gloves, which a few pupils got to try on. He also distributed honey sticks and gave samples of delicate hornet nest "paper" to teachers to share with their pupils. "Have you ever been stung?" the students asked. Occasionally, he admitted, mostly while removing unwanted bees from the walls and eaves of barns, homes and even a cinder block warehouse. He demonstrated his homemade bee vacuum that carefully suctions bees from unwanted places for transfer to hives. And the smoker, which interferes with bees' sense of smell, making them easier to handle. And several other tools used to remove honey combs and beeswax from places bees are not welcome before those spaces are closed in to keep the bees out. "Imagine having thousands of bees in the walls or ceiling of your house. You have to get them out because ants, mice and other bugs like honey and what's in the beeswax, too," he said. Kenline assured the pupils that they can watch bees without getting stung, but cautioned them to never disturb nests. "If you leave them alone, they'll leave you alone," he said. Quite a few of the first-graders called out answers to questions based on what they learned in Kenline's presentations to them when they were kindergartners. He does his presentations to the two grade levels in the spring and early winter. "What do we feed the bees?" A chorus of "sugar water" was shouted out as Kenline nodded and demonstrated how the glass bottle feeder is used. Kenline and his wife, Emily, a student aide at the school, started doing the bee programs about five years ago when their son Marcus was in first grade. He is now in the middle school. Kenline's interest was sparked many years ago by the beekeeper spouse of a civilian employee at the Naval Air Station in Atlanta, where he was stationed. He is retired as a command master chief after 30 years of service. When it comes to bees, he describes himself as "a rinky-dink hobbyist" who maintains four hives on his Akron property. Beekeeping is enjoyed by the whole family, which also includes son Eric, a manager at Walmart, and daughter Kimberly, a student at Clarkson University. The family hopes to expand its number of hives to between eight and 10, reaping the rewards of the raw honey, some of which is available for sale. And they're considering marketing beeswax products.	<urn:uuid:fd2df641-9116-4ef0-bb41-24f5dd7cb238>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://buffalonews.com/2011/12/24/akron-students-buzzing-about-beekeepers-job/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00507.warc.gz	en	0.983713	767	3.265625	3	[ 0.07604421675205231, -0.41139107942581177, 0.15296882390975952, -0.6991466283798218, 0.16950049996376038, 0.1629597544670105, 0.3070387840270996, 0.2008587121963501, -0.07159918546676636, 0.06896539032459259, -0.2454187572002411, -0.21237483620643616, -0.13966450095176697, -0.1489150822162...	1	"How many bees are in a hive?" asked a first-grader. "A gazillion?" another speculated. There are about 40,000 bees in a hive during the peak of its activity. "And they're all one family," says beekeeper Phillip Kenline. "Imagine having that many brothers and sisters," he added to squeals from his audience. Kenline, also a member of the Akron Board of Education, fielded lots of queries from eager pupils this day during his annual presentation to first-graders at Akron Central Elementary School. The event brings to life "Honey Bees," a story by Jesus Cervantes, that the pupils have been reading as part of their lesson on how communities work together, said teacher Ardell Olin. Kenline told students that each bee, like species of any community, has a specific task to perform, from collecting nectar to making it into honey and wax. He also explained the jobs of the queen, worker and drone bees. His show-and-tell presentation had lots of props, including hives, honey, a smoker, a bee vacuum, hornets' nests and a beekeepers' suit complete with a net hat and long gloves, which a few pupils got to try on. He also distributed honey sticks and gave samples of delicate hornet nest "paper" to teachers to share with their pupils. "Have you ever been stung?" the students asked. Occasionally, he admitted, mostly while removing unwanted bees from the walls and eaves of barns, homes and even a cinder block warehouse. He demonstrated his homemade bee vacuum that carefully suctions bees from unwanted places for transfer to hives. And the smoker, which interferes with bees' sense of smell, making them easier to handle. And several other tools used to remove honey combs and beeswax from places bees are not welcome before those spaces are closed in to keep the bees out. "Imagine having thousands of bees in the walls or ceiling of your house. You have to get them out because ants, mice and other bugs like honey and what's in the beeswax, too," he said. Kenline assured the pupils that they can watch bees without getting stung, but cautioned them to never disturb nests. "If you leave them alone, they'll leave you alone," he said. Quite a few of the first-graders called out answers to questions based on what they learned in Kenline's presentations to them when they were kindergartners. He does his presentations to the two grade levels in the spring and early winter. "What do we feed the bees?" A chorus of "sugar water" was shouted out as Kenline nodded and demonstrated how the glass bottle feeder is used. Kenline and his wife, Emily, a student aide at the school, started doing the bee programs about five years ago when their son Marcus was in first grade. He is now in the middle school. Kenline's interest was sparked many years ago by the beekeeper spouse of a civilian employee at the Naval Air Station in Atlanta, where he was stationed. He is retired as a command master chief after 30 years of service. When it comes to bees, he describes himself as "a rinky-dink hobbyist" who maintains four hives on his Akron property. Beekeeping is enjoyed by the whole family, which also includes son Eric, a manager at Walmart, and daughter Kimberly, a student at Clarkson University. The family hopes to expand its number of hives to between eight and 10, reaping the rewards of the raw honey, some of which is available for sale. And they're considering marketing beeswax products.	747	ENGLISH	1
Mattos Masei Batmitzvah Mattot and Masei, today’s Sedrahs are usually read together . Mattot deals largely with the defeat of the Midianites ,whereas Masei records in detail the stages of the journey of the Jewish people between the exodus, when they left Egypt, and their arrival at the border of the land of Canaan. Mattot-Masei are always read during the three weeks preceding Tisha B’av when we mourn the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem and events that happened thousands of years ago. Are there not far more recent disasters to mourn? The truth is that the moment a nation forgets its past, it starts to disappear. There is a story about Napolean who passed through a village that looked as if it was deserted. He was told that the inhabitants had not fled, they were all in the Synagogue to Commemorate a day of mourning, Tisha B’av. “Has anything happened?” “Napoleon asked. Apparently their Temple has been destroyed and their people have been sent into exile. But the strange thing is that it all happened a very long time ago. Some Two thousand years and they are still mourning. Napolean answered, “If those people have such a long memory, I do not doubt that they will one day return to their land”. Av is the fifth month of the year and is the only month whose name is not found in the Bible. It is also known as Menachem Av,”The consoler of Av.” Throughout History, the months of Av have proved to be associated with mourning and destruction of the Jewish people. Therefore, it is interesting that it also hosts at least one day of joy Tu B’Av 15 Av. According to the Mishna, this was one of the days of the year, the other one being Yom Kippur on which young girls would dress in borrowed white dresses and go out to the vineyards in the hope of finding a spouse. In the second Sedrah of Masei the Torah describes the entire route travelled by the Jews during their 40 years in the desert. Why was it so important that these details be recorded? Rabbi Shimshon Rafael Hirsch, 19 century chief Rabbi of Moravia and communities in Germany, noted that these details would enable future generations to look back at their heritage. This would help to establish another link with the past. There is another factor .G-d wanted to show how dedicated this generation was. The mitzvah of Tevilat kelim, the immersion of certain utensils in a Mikva (not to be confused with the koshering of utensils) appears in today’s Torah reading. We are required to immerse utensils used for eating or for preparing food, which have been manufactured or owned by a non-Jew. Metal, glass and chinaware are immersed some with a blessing and some without a blessing. Wooden and unglazed earth ware utensils do not require immersion at all. Most authorities hold that plastic vessels need not to be immersed. When performing the immersion, it is important that all parts of the utensil will come into contact with the Mikva water. We therefore have to clean it thoroughly and remove all markings and labels before the immersion. The Sedrah discusses the cities of refuge. The sentence handed to a man slaughterer is that he be confined to one of the 48 cities of refuge scattered throughout the land of Israel is baffling. Perhaps the most intriguing question is, “Why the lengths of sentence are linked to the death of the high priest in office at the time”. The question is asked is which event is the cause of the other. Is it the death of The High Priest that enables the man slaughterer to go free or is it the need of the man slaughterer to obtain his freedom that requires the death of The High Priest? One commentator says that it is in fact the latter case. He points to the law that states that it is essential for The High Priest to die before the man slaughterer sentence was passed, but his successor was appointed only afterwards, and then he has to wait for the death of the new High priest even though it may be a long time before it occurred. G-d plans the destiny of each of every one of us and therefore in a very real sense it was the man slaughterer who appointed the High Priest. It was the length of his sentence that determined which High Priest would be appointed according to The Priests lifespan. My Hebrew name is Aliza which means joy. A great day of joy in the months of Av is Tu B’Av, the festival of love. If you were listening to my Dvar Torah so far you would have heard me speak about it earlier. My maternal grandpa Norman was an active member at Cricklewood Synagogue for many years. A role he took most seriously as a warden and the Financial Representative. He learnt early on how hard life was when he was set down the coal mines. He worked hard and proved himself to train as an accountant, then a chartered accountant, to partner. Grandma Pamela also gave up her time to volunteer at the Middlesex Hospital in Central London. For many years, she dedicated her time to help patients feel comfortable and provided a friendly ear to listen to. I never knew my grandparents on my dad’s side – Betty and Harvey. My dad often tells me how they would have been so proud of me and my brothers, Philip and Jeremy. They were very caring to their family and friends and would always make time to help others. They were a devoted couple and unfortunately are not with us anymore. My dad’s father Harvey was in the Merchant Navy during the 2nd world war, and ensured that food and supplies were available at home. I am sure he would have had some interesting stories to tell about the near misses he must have had from German U boats. Like everyone at the time, he was doing his duty to ensure our survival. I would also have liked to have known my dad’s late Brother Craig (Rafael), to listen to all his experiences of life. Unfortunately, none of my grandparents are alive to share this special day with me and my family, but I know they would have been proud of me, and are with me always in spirit. I attended Yavneh Nursery and Cheder at Woodside Park Synagogue. I currently attend Simcha Squad. It is a monthly discussion group which is aimed for girls under Bat mitzvah age. At school, I enjoy athletics and drama. Outside school, I play the piano, violin and the guitar. On the piano and violin, I have achieved Grade 3 and beyond. I would like to thank Mrs. Cohen for all her support and kind words towards me, enabling me to work towards this special day. Miss Sassi who has encouraged me in my Cheder Lessons and always so friendly and helpful to others. I would like to thank my dear parents for all the opportunities they have given me and all the caring and hard work they have put into raising me to be a proud Jewish Bat mitzvah girl.	<urn:uuid:a140c58e-0b2a-49a0-b96f-67655307ca43>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.woodsideparksynagogue.org.uk/mattos-masei-dvar-torah-alicia	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00089.warc.gz	en	0.98135	1,518	3.28125	3	[ 0.08361640572547913, 0.557900071144104, 0.009103960357606411, -0.17546212673187256, -0.28246718645095825, -0.015476247295737267, 0.10779470950365067, 0.14962199330329895, -0.00727158784866333, 0.11534687876701355, -0.13562940061092377, -0.15864348411560059, -0.046423815190792084, 0.4263938...	10	Mattos Masei Batmitzvah Mattot and Masei, today’s Sedrahs are usually read together . Mattot deals largely with the defeat of the Midianites ,whereas Masei records in detail the stages of the journey of the Jewish people between the exodus, when they left Egypt, and their arrival at the border of the land of Canaan. Mattot-Masei are always read during the three weeks preceding Tisha B’av when we mourn the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem and events that happened thousands of years ago. Are there not far more recent disasters to mourn? The truth is that the moment a nation forgets its past, it starts to disappear. There is a story about Napolean who passed through a village that looked as if it was deserted. He was told that the inhabitants had not fled, they were all in the Synagogue to Commemorate a day of mourning, Tisha B’av. “Has anything happened?” “Napoleon asked. Apparently their Temple has been destroyed and their people have been sent into exile. But the strange thing is that it all happened a very long time ago. Some Two thousand years and they are still mourning. Napolean answered, “If those people have such a long memory, I do not doubt that they will one day return to their land”. Av is the fifth month of the year and is the only month whose name is not found in the Bible. It is also known as Menachem Av,”The consoler of Av.” Throughout History, the months of Av have proved to be associated with mourning and destruction of the Jewish people. Therefore, it is interesting that it also hosts at least one day of joy Tu B’Av 15 Av. According to the Mishna, this was one of the days of the year, the other one being Yom Kippur on which young girls would dress in borrowed white dresses and go out to the vineyards in the hope of finding a spouse. In the second Sedrah of Masei the Torah describes the entire route travelled by the Jews during their 40 years in the desert. Why was it so important that these details be recorded? Rabbi Shimshon Rafael Hirsch, 19 century chief Rabbi of Moravia and communities in Germany, noted that these details would enable future generations to look back at their heritage. This would help to establish another link with the past. There is another factor .G-d wanted to show how dedicated this generation was. The mitzvah of Tevilat kelim, the immersion of certain utensils in a Mikva (not to be confused with the koshering of utensils) appears in today’s Torah reading. We are required to immerse utensils used for eating or for preparing food, which have been manufactured or owned by a non-Jew. Metal, glass and chinaware are immersed some with a blessing and some without a blessing. Wooden and unglazed earth ware utensils do not require immersion at all. Most authorities hold that plastic vessels need not to be immersed. When performing the immersion, it is important that all parts of the utensil will come into contact with the Mikva water. We therefore have to clean it thoroughly and remove all markings and labels before the immersion. The Sedrah discusses the cities of refuge. The sentence handed to a man slaughterer is that he be confined to one of the 48 cities of refuge scattered throughout the land of Israel is baffling. Perhaps the most intriguing question is, “Why the lengths of sentence are linked to the death of the high priest in office at the time”. The question is asked is which event is the cause of the other. Is it the death of The High Priest that enables the man slaughterer to go free or is it the need of the man slaughterer to obtain his freedom that requires the death of The High Priest? One commentator says that it is in fact the latter case. He points to the law that states that it is essential for The High Priest to die before the man slaughterer sentence was passed, but his successor was appointed only afterwards, and then he has to wait for the death of the new High priest even though it may be a long time before it occurred. G-d plans the destiny of each of every one of us and therefore in a very real sense it was the man slaughterer who appointed the High Priest. It was the length of his sentence that determined which High Priest would be appointed according to The Priests lifespan. My Hebrew name is Aliza which means joy. A great day of joy in the months of Av is Tu B’Av, the festival of love. If you were listening to my Dvar Torah so far you would have heard me speak about it earlier. My maternal grandpa Norman was an active member at Cricklewood Synagogue for many years. A role he took most seriously as a warden and the Financial Representative. He learnt early on how hard life was when he was set down the coal mines. He worked hard and proved himself to train as an accountant, then a chartered accountant, to partner. Grandma Pamela also gave up her time to volunteer at the Middlesex Hospital in Central London. For many years, she dedicated her time to help patients feel comfortable and provided a friendly ear to listen to. I never knew my grandparents on my dad’s side – Betty and Harvey. My dad often tells me how they would have been so proud of me and my brothers, Philip and Jeremy. They were very caring to their family and friends and would always make time to help others. They were a devoted couple and unfortunately are not with us anymore. My dad’s father Harvey was in the Merchant Navy during the 2nd world war, and ensured that food and supplies were available at home. I am sure he would have had some interesting stories to tell about the near misses he must have had from German U boats. Like everyone at the time, he was doing his duty to ensure our survival. I would also have liked to have known my dad’s late Brother Craig (Rafael), to listen to all his experiences of life. Unfortunately, none of my grandparents are alive to share this special day with me and my family, but I know they would have been proud of me, and are with me always in spirit. I attended Yavneh Nursery and Cheder at Woodside Park Synagogue. I currently attend Simcha Squad. It is a monthly discussion group which is aimed for girls under Bat mitzvah age. At school, I enjoy athletics and drama. Outside school, I play the piano, violin and the guitar. On the piano and violin, I have achieved Grade 3 and beyond. I would like to thank Mrs. Cohen for all her support and kind words towards me, enabling me to work towards this special day. Miss Sassi who has encouraged me in my Cheder Lessons and always so friendly and helpful to others. I would like to thank my dear parents for all the opportunities they have given me and all the caring and hard work they have put into raising me to be a proud Jewish Bat mitzvah girl.	1,457	ENGLISH	1
Easter Island also known as Rapa Nui is an island in Chile located in the southeastern Pacific Ocean. It is best known for its almost 1,000 extant monumental statues which are called moai. Easter Island was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1995 which helps keep a good amount of the island protected. Researchers believe that the first inhabitants came to Easter Island near 1200 AD. Land clearing and the introduction of the Polynesian Rat led to mass deforestation. Easter Island was annexed by Chile in 1888 and in 1966, the Rapa Nui were granted full Chilean citizenship. In a census taken in 2017, it is shown that close to 45% of the inhabitants on the island considered themselves Rapa Nui. This is one of the most remote inhabited islands with the next closest island is Pitcairn Island about 1,300 miles away and is home to about 50 people. Easter Island was first given its name by the first recorded European visitor, Dutch explorer Jacob Roggeveen, who named it that because he arrived on Easter Sunday. This island has an overall triangular shape and is about 163.6 square kilometers in area. It also has a max elevation of about 507 meters.	<urn:uuid:826e2eb2-974e-4a63-bff0-7880ab99818f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://seaslyfe.com/discover-easter-island/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00528.warc.gz	en	0.984375	244	3.71875	4	[ 0.3296031653881073, -0.08773922175168991, 0.09725884348154068, -0.23469801247119904, 0.4894309639930725, 0.2373984009027481, 0.32115694880485535, 0.021183928474783897, 0.06852108985185623, 0.46864739060401917, -0.04841448366641998, -0.7455549240112305, 0.01590079627931118, 0.80137366056442...	2	Easter Island also known as Rapa Nui is an island in Chile located in the southeastern Pacific Ocean. It is best known for its almost 1,000 extant monumental statues which are called moai. Easter Island was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1995 which helps keep a good amount of the island protected. Researchers believe that the first inhabitants came to Easter Island near 1200 AD. Land clearing and the introduction of the Polynesian Rat led to mass deforestation. Easter Island was annexed by Chile in 1888 and in 1966, the Rapa Nui were granted full Chilean citizenship. In a census taken in 2017, it is shown that close to 45% of the inhabitants on the island considered themselves Rapa Nui. This is one of the most remote inhabited islands with the next closest island is Pitcairn Island about 1,300 miles away and is home to about 50 people. Easter Island was first given its name by the first recorded European visitor, Dutch explorer Jacob Roggeveen, who named it that because he arrived on Easter Sunday. This island has an overall triangular shape and is about 163.6 square kilometers in area. It also has a max elevation of about 507 meters.	282	ENGLISH	1
Achilles is depicted as a hero in the conflict between the Greeks and the Trojans. As a warrior, he was also the foremost in Greek mythology. He figures highly in the Iliad, a story on the Trojan War. He had pride, honor, bravery, strength, in addition to numerous military skills. It is important to note that these skills are those that were highly prized and required in ancient Greeks as manly virtues. However, his conduct was also shaped by stubbornness and anger. As a mythological hero, Achilles was depicted as being partly human and part supernatural. His father was Peleus, a king, while the mother was Thetis, a sea nymph. Buy Achilles and Odysseus essay paper online On the other hand, Odysseus, also known as Ulysses, was a Greek legend, a king of Ithaca, as well as the hero in Odyssey. He was the husband of Penelope, and father to Telemachus. His parents were Laertes and Anticlea. He is renowned for his resourcefulness and guile. He is mostly remembered for the ten eventful years that he undertook for his return home, that is after the Trojan War. He is also famous for the Trojan horse trick (Tole, 50). These two heroes had different goals. However, they were on two different sides of the war, so each one was seen as a hero in their community. This means that, each society had a different opinion on their goals whether or not they were moral, noble or important. It is a fact that true heroes are always stereotyped as the ideal being, but not all are perfect. They are supposed to overcome their faults throughout their lives. Achilles was seen as being selfish and a conceited warrior. He helped a lot in to the Trojan War, but he was uncontrollable and a fickle. On the other hand, Odysseus was quick-witted, cunning and in respect of greater powers. Although Odysseus was seen as an ideal hero for his endurance, and reverence towards the gods, he had to overcome his flaws for him to become a hero. A hero should overcome his or her flaws and become an individual of virtue and respect. Odysseus had to do this until he became the magnificent hero on his side. However, he had become proud after some time, but, he realized this was his downfall, and so became humble. More often than not, Odysseus never boasted about who he was either. On the other hand, Achilles believed he was a god and would have shown disrespect. Heroes should battle the odds and overcome physical hardships with their different characters. Odysseus passed through numerous setbacks, which tested his strength, and intelligence. He used more of his mind than physical force to deal with obstacles. On the other hand, Achilles only had his force, while Odysseus used his cleverness and determination to be an ideal hero. Moreover, Odysseus had to be patient and bear numerous hardships so as to finally go back home. He also obeyed the gods. Achilles, on the other hand, leant that honor is through glory and victory in the battlefield. He was honored and respected by the Greeks by being less arrogant. However, between the two, Odysseus did learn from his fault, but Achilles did not. Achilles used his force and strength so as to gain his heroism. Moreover, he did not respect those greater than him; he was blind and egotistic. Odysseus did change in the end for the better and became a hero for this; he displayed respectable qualities and sentiments (Tole, 132). Odysseus and Achilles were two Greek warriors renowned for very various reasons. Odysseus was cunning and wise, responsible for the end of the Trojan War. Achilles was fierce, determined, and skillful, leading to a number of casualties on the Trojan side. On his side, Achilles is seen as being direct and straightforward. He does not plan much, he prefers to be headstrong and fight till the end. He does this since he cannot be virtually killed. Related Free Compare and Contrast Essays - Human Rights - Compare and Contrast Books Ideas - Gordon McGregor and Herbert Austin - Contrasting the Ostentatious and the Organic - The Ramayana of Valmiki and Sita Sings the Blue - Two Types of Political System - Marketing Distribution Channels - Compare and Contrast USA GAAP to IFRS - The USA GAAP and the IFRS - Windows Vista and Mac OSX Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:f883352d-88a1-4c72-80b6-3420698869a9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://exclusivepapers.com/essays/compare-and-contrast/achilles-and-odysseus.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00142.warc.gz	en	0.990536	965	3.796875	4	[ -0.11180606484413147, 0.1643678992986679, 0.4293699860572815, 0.010046913288533688, -0.553936243057251, -0.5304515361785889, 0.29964685440063477, 0.773687481880188, -0.11762993037700653, -0.2335248589515686, -0.26166832447052, -0.559754490852356, -0.13866212964057922, 0.6502052545547485, ...	1	Achilles is depicted as a hero in the conflict between the Greeks and the Trojans. As a warrior, he was also the foremost in Greek mythology. He figures highly in the Iliad, a story on the Trojan War. He had pride, honor, bravery, strength, in addition to numerous military skills. It is important to note that these skills are those that were highly prized and required in ancient Greeks as manly virtues. However, his conduct was also shaped by stubbornness and anger. As a mythological hero, Achilles was depicted as being partly human and part supernatural. His father was Peleus, a king, while the mother was Thetis, a sea nymph. Buy Achilles and Odysseus essay paper online On the other hand, Odysseus, also known as Ulysses, was a Greek legend, a king of Ithaca, as well as the hero in Odyssey. He was the husband of Penelope, and father to Telemachus. His parents were Laertes and Anticlea. He is renowned for his resourcefulness and guile. He is mostly remembered for the ten eventful years that he undertook for his return home, that is after the Trojan War. He is also famous for the Trojan horse trick (Tole, 50). These two heroes had different goals. However, they were on two different sides of the war, so each one was seen as a hero in their community. This means that, each society had a different opinion on their goals whether or not they were moral, noble or important. It is a fact that true heroes are always stereotyped as the ideal being, but not all are perfect. They are supposed to overcome their faults throughout their lives. Achilles was seen as being selfish and a conceited warrior. He helped a lot in to the Trojan War, but he was uncontrollable and a fickle. On the other hand, Odysseus was quick-witted, cunning and in respect of greater powers. Although Odysseus was seen as an ideal hero for his endurance, and reverence towards the gods, he had to overcome his flaws for him to become a hero. A hero should overcome his or her flaws and become an individual of virtue and respect. Odysseus had to do this until he became the magnificent hero on his side. However, he had become proud after some time, but, he realized this was his downfall, and so became humble. More often than not, Odysseus never boasted about who he was either. On the other hand, Achilles believed he was a god and would have shown disrespect. Heroes should battle the odds and overcome physical hardships with their different characters. Odysseus passed through numerous setbacks, which tested his strength, and intelligence. He used more of his mind than physical force to deal with obstacles. On the other hand, Achilles only had his force, while Odysseus used his cleverness and determination to be an ideal hero. Moreover, Odysseus had to be patient and bear numerous hardships so as to finally go back home. He also obeyed the gods. Achilles, on the other hand, leant that honor is through glory and victory in the battlefield. He was honored and respected by the Greeks by being less arrogant. However, between the two, Odysseus did learn from his fault, but Achilles did not. Achilles used his force and strength so as to gain his heroism. Moreover, he did not respect those greater than him; he was blind and egotistic. Odysseus did change in the end for the better and became a hero for this; he displayed respectable qualities and sentiments (Tole, 132). Odysseus and Achilles were two Greek warriors renowned for very various reasons. Odysseus was cunning and wise, responsible for the end of the Trojan War. Achilles was fierce, determined, and skillful, leading to a number of casualties on the Trojan side. On his side, Achilles is seen as being direct and straightforward. He does not plan much, he prefers to be headstrong and fight till the end. He does this since he cannot be virtually killed. Related Free Compare and Contrast Essays - Human Rights - Compare and Contrast Books Ideas - Gordon McGregor and Herbert Austin - Contrasting the Ostentatious and the Organic - The Ramayana of Valmiki and Sita Sings the Blue - Two Types of Political System - Marketing Distribution Channels - Compare and Contrast USA GAAP to IFRS - The USA GAAP and the IFRS - Windows Vista and Mac OSX Most popular orders	962	ENGLISH	1
Mary Pratt, the author of “Arts of the Contact Zone” begins the article by stating the definition of the term, or concept of what she refers to as the “contact zone”. In doing so, she engages her audience in the story of how her son learnt a lot through baseball; and was able to connect to the world through baseball. The first page of the article is an account of how Mary’s son learnt science, math, history, and even language, through baseball cards. She refers to her son’s relationship with baseball, as her son’s “point of contact” with the world and the basis with which he related to adults and knew a lot of things. From this example, along with the other one involving the Incas (they were colonized by the Spanish and oppressed by the colonizers. They chose to learn the things they thought were of benefit to them in the process), it is evident that culture and extracurricular activities plays a significant role in ensuring that people learn about the world and relate to one another. Max of Rushmore is like Sam. He learns things and various subjects through his interests; in his case, the extracurricular activities he engages in. In exploring the “Article of the Contact Zone”, and the movie Rushmore, in which a teenage boy goes through various life experiences and learns a lot about life and academics, I seek to bring out the relationship between culture, contact zones, and learning models in education. A “Contact Zone” is a term which was coined by Mary Pratt. It refers to the gap within which trans-culturation occurs; meaning that it is a place where cultures that are different in one way or another come into contact and in the process, either side learns or gets to know one thing or another from the other side(Pratt 34). In the process, boundaries that existed before the cultures came into contact are broken as more interaction happens between the cultures. While looking into the Incan and Spanish case, Pratt gives a story of the relationship of the natives and the Spanish colonial powers and how the Spanish authority over the Incas brought about a new culture in the community(Pratt). The concept of transculturation is brought about; in which the oppressed, in this case, the Incas, chose what to adopt from the Spanish culture, and ignored the rest. Pratt continued giving various descriptions and cases regarding the contact zone; in doing so, providing more contrasts and ideas surrounding it. She presents her son as somebody who has learnt a lot by involving himself in something that is part of the American culture. Baseball is a popular sport in the American culture. Had he not known about it, he could not have learnt math, history, or geography. This is a model of education which treats school as a cultural womb. This means that schools are places in which students are nurtured, and then set to think about various aspects of life. This is different from the system that is adopted in many schools to teach their students and treat education in schools as an industrial system which produces an end product. Mary then indulges her audience in the story of how her son wrote a paper about his teacher’s greater authority, and the authority that other people have over him, and turned in the essay. Under oppression, according to Pratt, her son reacted the same way the Incas did; trying so much to either work around authority or resist it. While teaching some students about the contact zone, Mary Pratt indicates that it brought about pain and joy as they learned. The lessons she gave brought them together in different cultures. In view of that fact, it is evident that the other model of education is that which views schools as a place of cultural birth. In this model, a generation is brought up on a set of values and doctrines which they are expected to replicate once they leave the schools they go to. This, as Mary explains, means that students should learn from one another, especially if they are from different cultural backgrounds. In the movie Rushmore, Max is a troubled teenager who goes through life as a different person from the people who are his age. His grades are not good but he is good at extracurricular activities. Through them, he has been able to learn so many things about life. Just like Sam, Mary’s son, he learns through his interest. His relationship with his teacher and alumnus friend teach him about life love, revenge, and so forth. While he lacks in the capacity to grasp various academic concepts; and even seems to lack interest in the beginning, he has impacted other people’s lives through his positive attitude to life and the activities he loves to engage in; he is an optimist. Max learns about the Vietnam War, about Latin America, and even Latin, through his interests in people and plays. He got interested in the Vietnam war through Mr. Blume and even wrote a play about it; he learns about Latin America through Ms. Cross, and about Latin from his friends at the library. Looking at Max and Pratt’s son, it is evident that people can learn about concepts and the lessons of life through culture and various points of contact with the world and school. People have different points of contact through which they can connect with the world; and learn(Pratt). While some people are good in academics and grasp concepts in class from the first moment they are taught about it, other people like Max or Pratt’s son must relate to a point of contact to learn such concepts in a better way. There are very many models of education as mentioned above that can be applied in schools to make students learn; both academics and various life’s lessons as shown in Rushmore and Pratt’s article. The more Max learnt about the people he met, the more he got interested in the subjects and topics they talked about with him. For instance, he discussed an aquarium with Ms. Cross and got interested in building ne for her. He then talked about the Vietnam War with Mr. Blume and read more about it and wrote a play about it. If only his teachers at Rushmore could engage him in things that could shift his focus to academics, he could have learnt more of Latin, or math, or the other subjects. Max is just like Sam because Sam learnt more history, geography and so on, through baseball. The more he knew about baseball, the more he got interested in the elements associated with it. In response to Mary Pratt’s article, a person could ask: If a class is structured in a manner that examines the different cultures of the world, would it not have an oppressive nature, and perhaps force students to create their own culture? This question can be answered in different ways; depending on the perspective that the person answering it takes. Such a model of education would not be student oriented but based on the views and ideologies of the instructor. So many factors have to be considered in such a case. For instance, the level of education the students have received, the languages they have learnt, the mode of instruction, and so forth. Understanding the concept of contact zones changes perceptions and the sensation filters that people have(Pratt). It enables people to see the world in a new light; and learn from the different backgrounds that the new cultures they come into contact with, present to them. From Pratt’s article, human compassion and understanding can be deepened; and the hate and prejudices that may exist in the world can be limited. Additionally, the feeling of superiority, or other feelings such as revenge, unfair competition, and so on can also be minimized. Such feelings are great mental barriers. Max is presented as a geek who fails in his class but is brilliant when it comes to extracurricular activities. The intrigues between him and the people around him are interesting as he even lies at one point that his father is a neurosurgeon. However, he comes of age and forgives for the wrongs that were done to him. He invites everyone for his last play and the movie ends when with everyone praising him for his talents. In education, people easily learn the things they are interested in; the ones that they can connect with. The closer a concept is to a person’s point of contact, the easier it is that the person will learn of the concept and have it stick in the person’s mind. Max loved plays and other outdoor activities in school. Through the activities, he learnt a lot. The same applies to Pratt’s son who connected very well with the world through baseball cards. Without such points of contact, it may be difficult for children or student’s to connect with other people around them and the world. As such, educationists should teach of contact zones and allow for the adoption of different models of education in schools. Brilliance should not just be measured on academics only. Pratt, Mary Louise. “Art of the Contact Zone.” Profession (1991): 33-40. Rushmore. Dir. Wes Anderson. Perf. Jason Schwartzman, et al. 1998.	<urn:uuid:78844800-0df0-4694-9ffa-43ad9cb588d0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tafe-qld.net/exploring-rushmore-and-arts-of-the-contact-zone/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00016.warc.gz	en	0.981198	1,880	3.78125	4	[ 0.15056516230106354, 0.3323894739151001, 0.44114962220191956, 0.04508332535624504, -0.6539754867553711, -0.1366320103406906, 0.4127398729324341, 0.17628049850463867, 0.3986653685569763, -0.320396363735199, -0.12661772966384888, -0.04183155298233032, 0.4546579122543335, 0.6387512683868408, ...	7	Mary Pratt, the author of “Arts of the Contact Zone” begins the article by stating the definition of the term, or concept of what she refers to as the “contact zone”. In doing so, she engages her audience in the story of how her son learnt a lot through baseball; and was able to connect to the world through baseball. The first page of the article is an account of how Mary’s son learnt science, math, history, and even language, through baseball cards. She refers to her son’s relationship with baseball, as her son’s “point of contact” with the world and the basis with which he related to adults and knew a lot of things. From this example, along with the other one involving the Incas (they were colonized by the Spanish and oppressed by the colonizers. They chose to learn the things they thought were of benefit to them in the process), it is evident that culture and extracurricular activities plays a significant role in ensuring that people learn about the world and relate to one another. Max of Rushmore is like Sam. He learns things and various subjects through his interests; in his case, the extracurricular activities he engages in. In exploring the “Article of the Contact Zone”, and the movie Rushmore, in which a teenage boy goes through various life experiences and learns a lot about life and academics, I seek to bring out the relationship between culture, contact zones, and learning models in education. A “Contact Zone” is a term which was coined by Mary Pratt. It refers to the gap within which trans-culturation occurs; meaning that it is a place where cultures that are different in one way or another come into contact and in the process, either side learns or gets to know one thing or another from the other side(Pratt 34). In the process, boundaries that existed before the cultures came into contact are broken as more interaction happens between the cultures. While looking into the Incan and Spanish case, Pratt gives a story of the relationship of the natives and the Spanish colonial powers and how the Spanish authority over the Incas brought about a new culture in the community(Pratt). The concept of transculturation is brought about; in which the oppressed, in this case, the Incas, chose what to adopt from the Spanish culture, and ignored the rest. Pratt continued giving various descriptions and cases regarding the contact zone; in doing so, providing more contrasts and ideas surrounding it. She presents her son as somebody who has learnt a lot by involving himself in something that is part of the American culture. Baseball is a popular sport in the American culture. Had he not known about it, he could not have learnt math, history, or geography. This is a model of education which treats school as a cultural womb. This means that schools are places in which students are nurtured, and then set to think about various aspects of life. This is different from the system that is adopted in many schools to teach their students and treat education in schools as an industrial system which produces an end product. Mary then indulges her audience in the story of how her son wrote a paper about his teacher’s greater authority, and the authority that other people have over him, and turned in the essay. Under oppression, according to Pratt, her son reacted the same way the Incas did; trying so much to either work around authority or resist it. While teaching some students about the contact zone, Mary Pratt indicates that it brought about pain and joy as they learned. The lessons she gave brought them together in different cultures. In view of that fact, it is evident that the other model of education is that which views schools as a place of cultural birth. In this model, a generation is brought up on a set of values and doctrines which they are expected to replicate once they leave the schools they go to. This, as Mary explains, means that students should learn from one another, especially if they are from different cultural backgrounds. In the movie Rushmore, Max is a troubled teenager who goes through life as a different person from the people who are his age. His grades are not good but he is good at extracurricular activities. Through them, he has been able to learn so many things about life. Just like Sam, Mary’s son, he learns through his interest. His relationship with his teacher and alumnus friend teach him about life love, revenge, and so forth. While he lacks in the capacity to grasp various academic concepts; and even seems to lack interest in the beginning, he has impacted other people’s lives through his positive attitude to life and the activities he loves to engage in; he is an optimist. Max learns about the Vietnam War, about Latin America, and even Latin, through his interests in people and plays. He got interested in the Vietnam war through Mr. Blume and even wrote a play about it; he learns about Latin America through Ms. Cross, and about Latin from his friends at the library. Looking at Max and Pratt’s son, it is evident that people can learn about concepts and the lessons of life through culture and various points of contact with the world and school. People have different points of contact through which they can connect with the world; and learn(Pratt). While some people are good in academics and grasp concepts in class from the first moment they are taught about it, other people like Max or Pratt’s son must relate to a point of contact to learn such concepts in a better way. There are very many models of education as mentioned above that can be applied in schools to make students learn; both academics and various life’s lessons as shown in Rushmore and Pratt’s article. The more Max learnt about the people he met, the more he got interested in the subjects and topics they talked about with him. For instance, he discussed an aquarium with Ms. Cross and got interested in building ne for her. He then talked about the Vietnam War with Mr. Blume and read more about it and wrote a play about it. If only his teachers at Rushmore could engage him in things that could shift his focus to academics, he could have learnt more of Latin, or math, or the other subjects. Max is just like Sam because Sam learnt more history, geography and so on, through baseball. The more he knew about baseball, the more he got interested in the elements associated with it. In response to Mary Pratt’s article, a person could ask: If a class is structured in a manner that examines the different cultures of the world, would it not have an oppressive nature, and perhaps force students to create their own culture? This question can be answered in different ways; depending on the perspective that the person answering it takes. Such a model of education would not be student oriented but based on the views and ideologies of the instructor. So many factors have to be considered in such a case. For instance, the level of education the students have received, the languages they have learnt, the mode of instruction, and so forth. Understanding the concept of contact zones changes perceptions and the sensation filters that people have(Pratt). It enables people to see the world in a new light; and learn from the different backgrounds that the new cultures they come into contact with, present to them. From Pratt’s article, human compassion and understanding can be deepened; and the hate and prejudices that may exist in the world can be limited. Additionally, the feeling of superiority, or other feelings such as revenge, unfair competition, and so on can also be minimized. Such feelings are great mental barriers. Max is presented as a geek who fails in his class but is brilliant when it comes to extracurricular activities. The intrigues between him and the people around him are interesting as he even lies at one point that his father is a neurosurgeon. However, he comes of age and forgives for the wrongs that were done to him. He invites everyone for his last play and the movie ends when with everyone praising him for his talents. In education, people easily learn the things they are interested in; the ones that they can connect with. The closer a concept is to a person’s point of contact, the easier it is that the person will learn of the concept and have it stick in the person’s mind. Max loved plays and other outdoor activities in school. Through the activities, he learnt a lot. The same applies to Pratt’s son who connected very well with the world through baseball cards. Without such points of contact, it may be difficult for children or student’s to connect with other people around them and the world. As such, educationists should teach of contact zones and allow for the adoption of different models of education in schools. Brilliance should not just be measured on academics only. Pratt, Mary Louise. “Art of the Contact Zone.” Profession (1991): 33-40. Rushmore. Dir. Wes Anderson. Perf. Jason Schwartzman, et al. 1998.	1,836	ENGLISH	1
Length: 16.5 cm. The female’s plumage is greenish. Voice: Sounds resembling ‘chip chip chip’. Song: Chattering, flute-like. Size of Egg: 19.4—25.5 x 141—17.5 mm. The crossbill, so named because of its distinctive bill, the tips of which are crossed, makes its home in coniferous, mostly spruce, forests in mountain areas, occasionally also in lowland country, in central Europe, Scotland, the Pyrenees, the Alps and Scandinavia. It is a resident bird but frequently appears in places it has not visited for years. Northern populations sometimes invade southern Europe, depending on the abundance of cones, especially spruce and pine, in any particular year. The mainstay of its diet are the seeds of cones, which the crossbill extracts with its beak and which it also feeds to the young. It occasionally eats insects, mostly beetles found on conifers. It breeds mainly from January to April. The nest is built by the female, without any help from the male, though he keeps her company during this period. The 4 eggs are usually incubated by the female for 14 to 15 days, during which time she is fed by the male with food from his crop. The nestlings are born with a straight bill, the tips becoming crossed only after they have reached the age of three weeks. During the first week, the family is fed by the male, so that the hen may shelter the young from the cold. After two weeks the young leave the nest and roam the countryside in the company of their parents as they seek food. It was once believed that if a caged brick-red male turned yellow in captivity, he would cure the fever of sick member of the family. The fact is that the male’s colouration often becomes dulled in captivity. Yoy may also know about:	<urn:uuid:58d97837-e3cf-4b12-9acc-851cff1dfeb5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.doyouknow.com.pk/common-crossbill-loxia-curvirostra/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00134.warc.gz	en	0.982724	404	3.453125	3	[ 0.23589587211608887, -0.5022322535514832, 0.14693935215473175, 0.18771952390670776, 0.022473709657788277, 0.1289493292570114, 0.39803430438041687, 0.35086789727211, 0.05335058271884918, -0.0074868048541247845, -0.11242992430925369, -0.7676874995231628, -0.12891052663326263, -0.218294307589...	1	Length: 16.5 cm. The female’s plumage is greenish. Voice: Sounds resembling ‘chip chip chip’. Song: Chattering, flute-like. Size of Egg: 19.4—25.5 x 141—17.5 mm. The crossbill, so named because of its distinctive bill, the tips of which are crossed, makes its home in coniferous, mostly spruce, forests in mountain areas, occasionally also in lowland country, in central Europe, Scotland, the Pyrenees, the Alps and Scandinavia. It is a resident bird but frequently appears in places it has not visited for years. Northern populations sometimes invade southern Europe, depending on the abundance of cones, especially spruce and pine, in any particular year. The mainstay of its diet are the seeds of cones, which the crossbill extracts with its beak and which it also feeds to the young. It occasionally eats insects, mostly beetles found on conifers. It breeds mainly from January to April. The nest is built by the female, without any help from the male, though he keeps her company during this period. The 4 eggs are usually incubated by the female for 14 to 15 days, during which time she is fed by the male with food from his crop. The nestlings are born with a straight bill, the tips becoming crossed only after they have reached the age of three weeks. During the first week, the family is fed by the male, so that the hen may shelter the young from the cold. After two weeks the young leave the nest and roam the countryside in the company of their parents as they seek food. It was once believed that if a caged brick-red male turned yellow in captivity, he would cure the fever of sick member of the family. The fact is that the male’s colouration often becomes dulled in captivity. Yoy may also know about:	400	ENGLISH	1
Published in March 1830 in the town of Palmyra, New York, The Book of Mormon is one of the most significant religious works to emanate from America in the 19th century. It’s said the original Book of Mormon text was translated by ‘divine inspiration’ by ancient prophets through revelations that appeared to them. A prophet-historian called Mormon quoted and relayed these words and wrote them on gold plates. Joseph Smith was born in Vermont in 1805. He claimed to have had a number of experiences that led him to believe he was a prophet, namely seeing a vision of the Father and Son in 1820. In 1823, he received a vision of an angel instructing him of these plates containing a Judeo-Christian history of an ancient American civilisation, which were buried in a drumlin in Manchester, New York. His translation of these plate and publication of them as The Book of Mormon led to his founding of the Church of Christ, later known as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Smith led the Church until his murder in 1844. The text is believed to be a record of the communications of God with those living in what we know today as the North American continent, long before the arrival of the puritans. It is the foundation of the belief of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, commonly known as Mormons and records the ministry of Christ, lays out the principles of his teachings, and affirms how one must live their life in order to obey his gospel and be eternally saved. Made up of around 6,000 verses of teachings as recorded by ancient prophets, The Book of Mormon is intended to confirm truths within the Holy Bible. While the Bible tells the stories of those living in the eastern hemisphere, The Book of Mormon is based on the experiences of those living in what is now considered the United States of America. Unlike the Bible, members of the Mormon faith believe that the text was created from episodes of divine intervention, as opposed to being written down by men from eyewitness accounts or to whom stories were told. Millions of Mormons from around the world continue to consult this book for their daily worship and it remains the grounding for The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.	<urn:uuid:39194c35-b496-4fa0-bbfc-95afc2e2ffdc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/book-of-mormon?shelfitemviewer=1&fromother=1&imgSelectedId=%7BEEB0F82A-662C-4E1C-88E1-0FF014C2CCCD%7D	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00172.warc.gz	en	0.984951	460	3.328125	3	[ 0.06039000675082207, 0.21856680512428284, -0.04683724045753479, 0.21863916516304016, -0.0844750702381134, 0.17113614082336426, -0.24346350133419037, 0.2638188302516937, 0.06959108263254166, 0.06383676826953888, -0.017875684425234795, 0.34028467535972595, 0.2722419500350952, -0.195958808064...	1	Published in March 1830 in the town of Palmyra, New York, The Book of Mormon is one of the most significant religious works to emanate from America in the 19th century. It’s said the original Book of Mormon text was translated by ‘divine inspiration’ by ancient prophets through revelations that appeared to them. A prophet-historian called Mormon quoted and relayed these words and wrote them on gold plates. Joseph Smith was born in Vermont in 1805. He claimed to have had a number of experiences that led him to believe he was a prophet, namely seeing a vision of the Father and Son in 1820. In 1823, he received a vision of an angel instructing him of these plates containing a Judeo-Christian history of an ancient American civilisation, which were buried in a drumlin in Manchester, New York. His translation of these plate and publication of them as The Book of Mormon led to his founding of the Church of Christ, later known as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Smith led the Church until his murder in 1844. The text is believed to be a record of the communications of God with those living in what we know today as the North American continent, long before the arrival of the puritans. It is the foundation of the belief of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, commonly known as Mormons and records the ministry of Christ, lays out the principles of his teachings, and affirms how one must live their life in order to obey his gospel and be eternally saved. Made up of around 6,000 verses of teachings as recorded by ancient prophets, The Book of Mormon is intended to confirm truths within the Holy Bible. While the Bible tells the stories of those living in the eastern hemisphere, The Book of Mormon is based on the experiences of those living in what is now considered the United States of America. Unlike the Bible, members of the Mormon faith believe that the text was created from episodes of divine intervention, as opposed to being written down by men from eyewitness accounts or to whom stories were told. Millions of Mormons from around the world continue to consult this book for their daily worship and it remains the grounding for The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.	474	ENGLISH	1
During the first years of the U.S. Civil War, Braxton County, now in central West Virginia, was notably troubled by marauding bands of guerillas, most of whom were loyal to the Confederacy, though they often acted in their own interests, raiding towns and farms with little justification. To counter their activities, the Union established a fort along the old Weston-and-Gauley Turnpike near Bulltown on the Little Kanawha River. Here, soldiers raised a blockhouse and dug trenches from which they could defend the road, which served as the chief passage through the wilderness between the valleys of the Kanawha and Monongahela rivers. In the summer of 1863, following the declaration of West Virginia statehood and a period of heightened rebel activity, the Union added more defenses and a barracks and ordered that 117 men and seven officers of the 6th and 11th West Virginia infantry occupy the fort. Not to be outdone, the Confederacy took action and in October ordered William "Mudwall" Jackson to lead 700 men from his headquarters in the Greenbrier Valley at Lewisburg north to capture the garrison and proceed to a raid along the Ohio River. A cousin of Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson, William Jackson reputedly shared his relative's red hair and blue eyes but not his strength of command. On the night of October 12, he ordered his troops to divide and attack the Union fort from two sides. Though he was known as a forceful, though not eloquent speaking, his lack of force may have led to what afterward happened. The attack was to begin at 4:30 a.m. at the sound of the first shot of a two-gun battery that accompanied the Confederates. However, Jackson's instructions were not followed. Lieutenant Colonel Thompson, whose wing was to approach from the southwest, was not in position. And Major J.M. Kessler, whose wing was to approach from the northeast, attacked at the right time though without waiting for the signal. About halfway up the hill toward the fort, one of Kessler's men shouted "Charge!"—awakening the garrison, which almost immediately opened heavy fire, driving Kessler's wing back down the hill. During Kessler's retreat, Thompson's wing reached its position on a hill across the river from the fort. Jackson, who accompanied Thompson's force, sent a message to the Union garrison demanding their surrender. Caption William Mattingly replied, "Come, and get us!" and the battle resumed. The Confederate artillery was ineffective. Their small arms were of short range, though Captain Mattingly was shot in the thigh early in the fight and gave his charge to Captain James Simpson. At about 3 p.m., Jackson sent a second demand of surrender, to which Simpson replied that he would surrender when hell froze over. And if he had to retreat, he would do so on the ice. At about 4:30 p.m., Jackson order his troops to retreat to Salt Lick Bridge, though the next morning he was attacked by a detachment of the 4th West Virginia Calvary and withdrew. The Confederates lost seven men and another six were seriously wounded. Their names were never recorded, though their bodies were buried near the battlefield and were later recovered and reinterred by Milton Butcher, who later owned and farmed the land on which the battlefield was located. The Union suffered no fatalities. Captain Mattingly recovered, though he was lame for life. Moses Cunningham, whose house still stands nearby in the Bulltown Historic District, ran out into the line of fire during the battle and yelled, "Hurrah for Jeff Davis!" and was slightly wounded. The site of the Battle of Bulltown is maintained by the Army Corps of Engineers and one of several historic resources in the Bulltown Historic Area at Burnsville Lake off U.S. 19 in Braxton County. The battlefield is a drive of about 15 minutes from Interstate 77 exit at Flatwoods, West Virginia.	<urn:uuid:7075132d-20c9-45c8-a6c3-84786004c704>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wvexplorer.com/2019/08/26/william-mudwall-jackson-led-failed-attack-on-fort-at-bulltown/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00549.warc.gz	en	0.983119	829	3.546875	4	[ -0.2639046907424927, 0.08582668006420135, 0.37216633558273315, 0.24761123955249786, 0.06262066960334778, 0.09549684822559357, -0.25749653577804565, -0.1494211107492447, -0.24000120162963867, -0.10411490499973297, 0.1201184093952179, -0.21040129661560059, -0.06471049785614014, 0.06541031599...	8	During the first years of the U.S. Civil War, Braxton County, now in central West Virginia, was notably troubled by marauding bands of guerillas, most of whom were loyal to the Confederacy, though they often acted in their own interests, raiding towns and farms with little justification. To counter their activities, the Union established a fort along the old Weston-and-Gauley Turnpike near Bulltown on the Little Kanawha River. Here, soldiers raised a blockhouse and dug trenches from which they could defend the road, which served as the chief passage through the wilderness between the valleys of the Kanawha and Monongahela rivers. In the summer of 1863, following the declaration of West Virginia statehood and a period of heightened rebel activity, the Union added more defenses and a barracks and ordered that 117 men and seven officers of the 6th and 11th West Virginia infantry occupy the fort. Not to be outdone, the Confederacy took action and in October ordered William "Mudwall" Jackson to lead 700 men from his headquarters in the Greenbrier Valley at Lewisburg north to capture the garrison and proceed to a raid along the Ohio River. A cousin of Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson, William Jackson reputedly shared his relative's red hair and blue eyes but not his strength of command. On the night of October 12, he ordered his troops to divide and attack the Union fort from two sides. Though he was known as a forceful, though not eloquent speaking, his lack of force may have led to what afterward happened. The attack was to begin at 4:30 a.m. at the sound of the first shot of a two-gun battery that accompanied the Confederates. However, Jackson's instructions were not followed. Lieutenant Colonel Thompson, whose wing was to approach from the southwest, was not in position. And Major J.M. Kessler, whose wing was to approach from the northeast, attacked at the right time though without waiting for the signal. About halfway up the hill toward the fort, one of Kessler's men shouted "Charge!"—awakening the garrison, which almost immediately opened heavy fire, driving Kessler's wing back down the hill. During Kessler's retreat, Thompson's wing reached its position on a hill across the river from the fort. Jackson, who accompanied Thompson's force, sent a message to the Union garrison demanding their surrender. Caption William Mattingly replied, "Come, and get us!" and the battle resumed. The Confederate artillery was ineffective. Their small arms were of short range, though Captain Mattingly was shot in the thigh early in the fight and gave his charge to Captain James Simpson. At about 3 p.m., Jackson sent a second demand of surrender, to which Simpson replied that he would surrender when hell froze over. And if he had to retreat, he would do so on the ice. At about 4:30 p.m., Jackson order his troops to retreat to Salt Lick Bridge, though the next morning he was attacked by a detachment of the 4th West Virginia Calvary and withdrew. The Confederates lost seven men and another six were seriously wounded. Their names were never recorded, though their bodies were buried near the battlefield and were later recovered and reinterred by Milton Butcher, who later owned and farmed the land on which the battlefield was located. The Union suffered no fatalities. Captain Mattingly recovered, though he was lame for life. Moses Cunningham, whose house still stands nearby in the Bulltown Historic District, ran out into the line of fire during the battle and yelled, "Hurrah for Jeff Davis!" and was slightly wounded. The site of the Battle of Bulltown is maintained by the Army Corps of Engineers and one of several historic resources in the Bulltown Historic Area at Burnsville Lake off U.S. 19 in Braxton County. The battlefield is a drive of about 15 minutes from Interstate 77 exit at Flatwoods, West Virginia.	841	ENGLISH	1
First, you need to understand that the answer will not be a number, but an expression in the variable x. Do you see that? Now suppose you had been given a specific number in place of x: A calculator and a pen were sold for 5 dollars. Jason bought 2 calculators and 4 pens for $16. How much did the 2 calculators cost altogether? Can you see any way to solve this problem (without using algebra)? One way is to think about what it would cost to buy 4 calculators and 4 pens. If you still have not idea what to do, it will be very helpful if you can tell us how much algebra you have learned. This is an odd problem, because x is not defined as a single quantity as we normally would; have you been given any examples similar to it? I'd like to see one (with its answer), to see what you are expected to do. It's possible that my idea may not be what they have in mind! sorry re guidelines! (mother posting on behalf of daughter here)... this is literally her first attempt at Algebra and I have no idea how to help her. The question did seem unusual to me. But here are her workings.. The answer, 2c = 4x-16, is correct, though I can't be sure of the thinking that arrived at it. I would not normally expect a beginner to be using three variables (c, p, x), but in fact that is perhaps the easiest way. What I would have done here is to multiply the first equation by 4: 4c + 4p = 4x, and subtract the second equation from that: (4c + 4p) - (2c + 4p) = 4x - 16, and the left-hand side reduces to 2c. I was expecting the same thing but without the variables: if one of each costs a total of x dollars, then 4 of each costs 4 x; 2 calculators and 4 pens is $16, and the difference is the cost of the extra two calculators. Using letters instead of words amounts to the same thing, but easier to say!	<urn:uuid:26e9ac64-4779-42ff-9e87-b280515ef144>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.freemathhelp.com/forum/threads/starting-algebra-but-this-question-has-me-so-confused.119902/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00113.warc.gz	en	0.982848	446	3.484375	3	[ -0.4993232190608978, -0.13666687905788422, 0.0023018585052341223, -0.31839555501937866, -0.2874228060245514, 0.06878915429115295, 0.07544957101345062, 0.4106338918209076, 0.40572911500930786, -0.28776779770851135, 0.13376852869987488, 0.05844990909099579, 0.22581100463867188, -0.3087168335...	3	First, you need to understand that the answer will not be a number, but an expression in the variable x. Do you see that? Now suppose you had been given a specific number in place of x: A calculator and a pen were sold for 5 dollars. Jason bought 2 calculators and 4 pens for $16. How much did the 2 calculators cost altogether? Can you see any way to solve this problem (without using algebra)? One way is to think about what it would cost to buy 4 calculators and 4 pens. If you still have not idea what to do, it will be very helpful if you can tell us how much algebra you have learned. This is an odd problem, because x is not defined as a single quantity as we normally would; have you been given any examples similar to it? I'd like to see one (with its answer), to see what you are expected to do. It's possible that my idea may not be what they have in mind! sorry re guidelines! (mother posting on behalf of daughter here)... this is literally her first attempt at Algebra and I have no idea how to help her. The question did seem unusual to me. But here are her workings.. The answer, 2c = 4x-16, is correct, though I can't be sure of the thinking that arrived at it. I would not normally expect a beginner to be using three variables (c, p, x), but in fact that is perhaps the easiest way. What I would have done here is to multiply the first equation by 4: 4c + 4p = 4x, and subtract the second equation from that: (4c + 4p) - (2c + 4p) = 4x - 16, and the left-hand side reduces to 2c. I was expecting the same thing but without the variables: if one of each costs a total of x dollars, then 4 of each costs 4 x; 2 calculators and 4 pens is $16, and the difference is the cost of the extra two calculators. Using letters instead of words amounts to the same thing, but easier to say!	459	ENGLISH	1
The ancient Egyptians built the historical pyramids as a way of preparation to the next life after death, this was done by the wealthy and pharaohs. The pyramid are square in shape, with triangular sides which perpendicularly points the compass and slopes vertically at about 50 degrees setting both vertically to the apex and horizontally to the ground angle. Among the first type of pyramids which resembled the later designs are the two slopes sided with rectangular base pyramid known as Mastabas (Edwards 32), built between 2680 to 2565 B.C sequentially, there was development of equilateral type of pyramid known as Sakkara, built in 2620 B.C. This development of the later design n occurred in the IV dynasty till the VI dynasty. Since the first design of pyramid was constructed and its evolutionary redesign, the pharaohs and the rich fraternity used them for preservation of their bodies after mummification during death hence deluding human disturbance to the dead. It took the effort of thousands of slaves and rudimentary machine such as rollers to move heavy tones of loads from one distance to another. The entrance was situated in the northern wall with light brick blocks laid at the entrance horizontally as the culture dictates and forming various chambers within the pyramid to create room for the rulers’ wealth and other materials which he might require in the next world. The rough big stones were elevated using cranes and moved using big rollers extracted from hardwoods exported from other friendly rulers. One of the Seven Wonders of the World is the largest pyramid of Khufu also known as Cheops built in the 2680 B.C and is amongst the pyramids of the IV dynasty at Giza situated in Cairo. Khufu’s pyramid entails 5.3 hectares coverage by big limestone blocks with 756 ft on its breath and width, and two large extra chambers excluding the upper chamber. There are some avenues to various chambers which have opening and ventilation into the chambers. The construction was made easy by the presence of crossroad hence making it easy to do quarry activity within the region. According to the scholars from the ancient system of education, it is claimed that the pyramids were built for twenty years by a team of 100,000 workmen. Moreover, they also claim that the machineries of the Egyptians were more advanced than the other machines that were being used in the other part of the world. The machines included the ones that were built to move the large stones that were laid on top of each other. They also used the rollers that were made from the trunks from the trees to move the large stones. It is believed that there was a team that was responsible for the moving of the stones and this team always replenished the rollers that were in front by adding the ones that were in the rear (Mendelssohn 44). The evidences and the explanation on how the building and constructing of the pyramids took place are evidently seen on the paintings that are found on the walls of the pyramids. These paintings implicate a lot, and one of the things that are shown by the paintings is the stages and the methods on how the pyramids were built. The first scenario that is depicted is quarrying. It is believed that wedges were used in quarrying the decent limestone that was extracted from the river beds. First the wedges were made to be wet and this made them to be swollen and in tern they made the stones to be fractured. In quarrying there are other minerals such as granites and copper that was used in removal of the rocks that were required by the workers. The second scenario was the transportations that were very essential for the movement of the materials. The workers used materials such as rollers and wheels but the most the most important means that they used was the sledge. The sledges were mostly used in construction of the pyramids more than in any other place that required transportation and this movement was facilitated by the lubricating the sledges using liquid. The wheels were used in transportation of water from Mesopotamia which was between river Tigris and Euphrates (Mendelssohn 54). In relation to the third scenario was leveling process which was achieved through the use of shallow ponds which made it easy to achieve their goal through use of bricks or mud to improve the texture. Brick or alternatively mud was used to enclose the walls and the filling of the well with water, hence drilling wide openings under the surface helped level the surface. This was achieved through removing of the water filling the surface to mark the drilled surface. This is reflected through the way pharaoh Memos and his adviser Taita were buried under river Nile as they escaped invasion in Egypt and died in Ethiopia ranges where river Nile passes. This type of burial for a respected family happened due to their situation in seeking refuge away from their attackers (Lehner 55). Consequently the third scenario was orienting which proved to be more difficult than the rest of the scenario which was to make sure that the base is in consisted both the north and south sides. This was also made more challenging by the fact that there pole star was absent to offer direction to the constructors as the earth rotates in its axis after 26000 years by 5000 years ago. The Egyptians would have used the star if they could have identified north or south as it is experienced in the rising and falling of stars in the seas or oceans hence creating circular bisector angle. This would have resulted in the development of semicircular walls with broad base and ground hence use the top as the joining axis horizon. Mathematical knowledge was therefore important in the development of orientation qualities in a certain qualified architect. In relation to the rest of developmental factors, squaring was viewed great importance as it created the bases for the development of the pyramid as it surpasses the knowledge of the north and south axis. This is proved by the exactness of the squire edge which is reflected in Egyptians’ building designs thus prompting the view that they used some tools which were more accurate than the tool called squire. As portrayed in their architect they had the knowledge that that any triangles drawn in the circle forms right angles hence the projection of the exactness of the building edges to 90 degree, with terrible exactness (Slackman 54). As we focus on the squaring factor in the Egyptians strengths, there is correlating factor such as the slanting of the edges as portrayed in their building prowess brings out the quality of exactness with the squire they developed as a base for the pyramid. These slants lines were used to locate the axis for the convergence of the slants hence enabling the mason to identify the center for erection of center pole in the pyramid (Lehner 25). The sharp slope of about 54 degrees to 43 degrees in the Bent Senefere Pyramid of Dajshur in 2650 B.C reflects lack of enough finance and workers within his territory. Most effective and equally hard task is the lifting of the materials to the right destinations with the use of constructed long ramps to facilitate the upward rolling of large rocks via the sledge. The loads were farther elevated using levers in combination with the wedges to elevate the load to the required destination. Although this process is viewed as the easier part, it required more work forces to enhance its efficiency in the required area hence enabling even the heaviest load to be elevated within any heights identified by masons. Much care was taken on developing the elevators so as not to lead to numerous lose of workers through accidents which leads to time wastage and unnecessary delays of the stipulated target. The final important phase was the lowering of the required well shaped outer blocks into the base of the floor through wooden stairs to avoid face damaging. The capability of shaping the stone and cutting the edges into smooth and even texture displayed their prowess in the field of masonry and architecture. Smooth and texture with the best design helped the pyramids to live longer as denudation process through wind erosion would not have great effect on the site (Lehner 75). The transformation of the great pyramids of ancient Egypt from 2620 B.C which lead to development of pyramids such as mastabas which reflected the rectangular and two side type of design which later was transformed into a Sakkara which had equilateral type o slanting sides. The pyramids were developed by different dynasties to enable the pharaohs or the well off families receives a decent burial through mummification at the time of death so as to prevent disturbance of the dead and other encroachment by unclean activities. Building of the pyramids gave the Egyptians a chance to exercise their prowess in masonry and architecture hence leading to development of instrument which made work easier such as sledge, wooden stairs and wedges. All this reveals the Egyptians prowess in constructing the ancient pyramids which reflect the seventh wonder of the modern world.	<urn:uuid:5f395cad-fdb3-4b3d-ba33-dc238c0d09c9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://exclusivethesis.com/essays/art/the-pyramids-of-egypt.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00441.warc.gz	en	0.980546	1,806	3.65625	4	[ -0.37619462609291077, 0.5699330568313599, 0.32998448610305786, 0.21485649049282074, -0.7604271173477173, 0.050755053758621216, -0.12766340374946594, -0.272999107837677, -0.14511582255363464, 0.1364082396030426, 0.03034331277012825, -0.5821176171302795, 0.08998116850852966, -0.0245954953134...	3	The ancient Egyptians built the historical pyramids as a way of preparation to the next life after death, this was done by the wealthy and pharaohs. The pyramid are square in shape, with triangular sides which perpendicularly points the compass and slopes vertically at about 50 degrees setting both vertically to the apex and horizontally to the ground angle. Among the first type of pyramids which resembled the later designs are the two slopes sided with rectangular base pyramid known as Mastabas (Edwards 32), built between 2680 to 2565 B.C sequentially, there was development of equilateral type of pyramid known as Sakkara, built in 2620 B.C. This development of the later design n occurred in the IV dynasty till the VI dynasty. Since the first design of pyramid was constructed and its evolutionary redesign, the pharaohs and the rich fraternity used them for preservation of their bodies after mummification during death hence deluding human disturbance to the dead. It took the effort of thousands of slaves and rudimentary machine such as rollers to move heavy tones of loads from one distance to another. The entrance was situated in the northern wall with light brick blocks laid at the entrance horizontally as the culture dictates and forming various chambers within the pyramid to create room for the rulers’ wealth and other materials which he might require in the next world. The rough big stones were elevated using cranes and moved using big rollers extracted from hardwoods exported from other friendly rulers. One of the Seven Wonders of the World is the largest pyramid of Khufu also known as Cheops built in the 2680 B.C and is amongst the pyramids of the IV dynasty at Giza situated in Cairo. Khufu’s pyramid entails 5.3 hectares coverage by big limestone blocks with 756 ft on its breath and width, and two large extra chambers excluding the upper chamber. There are some avenues to various chambers which have opening and ventilation into the chambers. The construction was made easy by the presence of crossroad hence making it easy to do quarry activity within the region. According to the scholars from the ancient system of education, it is claimed that the pyramids were built for twenty years by a team of 100,000 workmen. Moreover, they also claim that the machineries of the Egyptians were more advanced than the other machines that were being used in the other part of the world. The machines included the ones that were built to move the large stones that were laid on top of each other. They also used the rollers that were made from the trunks from the trees to move the large stones. It is believed that there was a team that was responsible for the moving of the stones and this team always replenished the rollers that were in front by adding the ones that were in the rear (Mendelssohn 44). The evidences and the explanation on how the building and constructing of the pyramids took place are evidently seen on the paintings that are found on the walls of the pyramids. These paintings implicate a lot, and one of the things that are shown by the paintings is the stages and the methods on how the pyramids were built. The first scenario that is depicted is quarrying. It is believed that wedges were used in quarrying the decent limestone that was extracted from the river beds. First the wedges were made to be wet and this made them to be swollen and in tern they made the stones to be fractured. In quarrying there are other minerals such as granites and copper that was used in removal of the rocks that were required by the workers. The second scenario was the transportations that were very essential for the movement of the materials. The workers used materials such as rollers and wheels but the most the most important means that they used was the sledge. The sledges were mostly used in construction of the pyramids more than in any other place that required transportation and this movement was facilitated by the lubricating the sledges using liquid. The wheels were used in transportation of water from Mesopotamia which was between river Tigris and Euphrates (Mendelssohn 54). In relation to the third scenario was leveling process which was achieved through the use of shallow ponds which made it easy to achieve their goal through use of bricks or mud to improve the texture. Brick or alternatively mud was used to enclose the walls and the filling of the well with water, hence drilling wide openings under the surface helped level the surface. This was achieved through removing of the water filling the surface to mark the drilled surface. This is reflected through the way pharaoh Memos and his adviser Taita were buried under river Nile as they escaped invasion in Egypt and died in Ethiopia ranges where river Nile passes. This type of burial for a respected family happened due to their situation in seeking refuge away from their attackers (Lehner 55). Consequently the third scenario was orienting which proved to be more difficult than the rest of the scenario which was to make sure that the base is in consisted both the north and south sides. This was also made more challenging by the fact that there pole star was absent to offer direction to the constructors as the earth rotates in its axis after 26000 years by 5000 years ago. The Egyptians would have used the star if they could have identified north or south as it is experienced in the rising and falling of stars in the seas or oceans hence creating circular bisector angle. This would have resulted in the development of semicircular walls with broad base and ground hence use the top as the joining axis horizon. Mathematical knowledge was therefore important in the development of orientation qualities in a certain qualified architect. In relation to the rest of developmental factors, squaring was viewed great importance as it created the bases for the development of the pyramid as it surpasses the knowledge of the north and south axis. This is proved by the exactness of the squire edge which is reflected in Egyptians’ building designs thus prompting the view that they used some tools which were more accurate than the tool called squire. As portrayed in their architect they had the knowledge that that any triangles drawn in the circle forms right angles hence the projection of the exactness of the building edges to 90 degree, with terrible exactness (Slackman 54). As we focus on the squaring factor in the Egyptians strengths, there is correlating factor such as the slanting of the edges as portrayed in their building prowess brings out the quality of exactness with the squire they developed as a base for the pyramid. These slants lines were used to locate the axis for the convergence of the slants hence enabling the mason to identify the center for erection of center pole in the pyramid (Lehner 25). The sharp slope of about 54 degrees to 43 degrees in the Bent Senefere Pyramid of Dajshur in 2650 B.C reflects lack of enough finance and workers within his territory. Most effective and equally hard task is the lifting of the materials to the right destinations with the use of constructed long ramps to facilitate the upward rolling of large rocks via the sledge. The loads were farther elevated using levers in combination with the wedges to elevate the load to the required destination. Although this process is viewed as the easier part, it required more work forces to enhance its efficiency in the required area hence enabling even the heaviest load to be elevated within any heights identified by masons. Much care was taken on developing the elevators so as not to lead to numerous lose of workers through accidents which leads to time wastage and unnecessary delays of the stipulated target. The final important phase was the lowering of the required well shaped outer blocks into the base of the floor through wooden stairs to avoid face damaging. The capability of shaping the stone and cutting the edges into smooth and even texture displayed their prowess in the field of masonry and architecture. Smooth and texture with the best design helped the pyramids to live longer as denudation process through wind erosion would not have great effect on the site (Lehner 75). The transformation of the great pyramids of ancient Egypt from 2620 B.C which lead to development of pyramids such as mastabas which reflected the rectangular and two side type of design which later was transformed into a Sakkara which had equilateral type o slanting sides. The pyramids were developed by different dynasties to enable the pharaohs or the well off families receives a decent burial through mummification at the time of death so as to prevent disturbance of the dead and other encroachment by unclean activities. Building of the pyramids gave the Egyptians a chance to exercise their prowess in masonry and architecture hence leading to development of instrument which made work easier such as sledge, wooden stairs and wedges. All this reveals the Egyptians prowess in constructing the ancient pyramids which reflect the seventh wonder of the modern world.	1,845	ENGLISH	1
A one-page printed form varying in size and style, 8″ x 6″ to 5″ x 11″, representing approximate common measurements. Usually began, “Shipped in Good Order And (Well Conditioned) Condition, by…” Small engravings of sailing vessels are often present. Revenue stamps frequently appear, and a handwritten receipt of goods by the consignee is sometimes found on the reverse side. The Bill of Lading was signed by the master, acknowledging receipt of the cargo described on the document. It also reaffirms his obligation to deliver the goods to the consignee or his order as detailed in the Charter Party. The amount of cargo taken in is indicated, and any identifying marks are included in the description. There were usually three or four copies of a Bill of Lading. One was delivered to the master, another kept by the shipper, and one was sent to the consignee. Bills of Lading were considered part of a private transaction between the owner of the goods and the master, and did not provide the same degree of authenticity as the Charter Party or the Manifest. Bills of Lading are common maritime documents which can provide valuable information about the transportation of various cargoes and the business of shipping.	<urn:uuid:b148b8f8-8c1b-4af7-9d83-568542a09ac8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://research.mysticseaport.org/item/l006405/l006405-c006/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00117.warc.gz	en	0.98216	254	3.4375	3	[ -0.3136746883392334, -0.25318166613578796, 0.29801809787750244, -0.37734854221343994, -0.005691742990165949, -0.2826993465423584, 0.2962026596069336, -0.025692367926239967, -0.20581179857254028, -0.1060747429728508, 0.01093331165611744, -0.24169565737247467, -0.04163411259651184, 0.1341463...	11	A one-page printed form varying in size and style, 8″ x 6″ to 5″ x 11″, representing approximate common measurements. Usually began, “Shipped in Good Order And (Well Conditioned) Condition, by…” Small engravings of sailing vessels are often present. Revenue stamps frequently appear, and a handwritten receipt of goods by the consignee is sometimes found on the reverse side. The Bill of Lading was signed by the master, acknowledging receipt of the cargo described on the document. It also reaffirms his obligation to deliver the goods to the consignee or his order as detailed in the Charter Party. The amount of cargo taken in is indicated, and any identifying marks are included in the description. There were usually three or four copies of a Bill of Lading. One was delivered to the master, another kept by the shipper, and one was sent to the consignee. Bills of Lading were considered part of a private transaction between the owner of the goods and the master, and did not provide the same degree of authenticity as the Charter Party or the Manifest. Bills of Lading are common maritime documents which can provide valuable information about the transportation of various cargoes and the business of shipping.	254	ENGLISH	1
“The purpose of art is washing the dust of daily life out of our souls” said Pablo Picasso (www.brainyquote.com). Last week, I went to Vancouver Art Gallery, and I saw art works that were special in different ways. Visiting the gallery made me think of art and artists much more thoroughly. At that time, Leonardo da Vinci’s paintings came to my mind. Leonardo da Vinci, one of the most famous artists of all time, had great achievements and had a great impact on art all over the world in his life time. Leonardo da Vinci had a normal and uninteresting life. He was born on April 15,1452 in Vinci, Republic of Florence, which now is known as Italy. He was the illegitimate son of Piero da Vinci and a woman named Caterina (Livingston 3). He had twelve younger siblings. He learned math, geometry, and Latin. He also lived in Milan for twenty years. he was taught by famous Italian artist called Adrea del Varrochio. The first biography of Leonardo da Vinci was published almost three decades after his death. There are few documents available about his uninteresting life. Leonardo da Vinci is well known because of the creativity shown in his art works. The fresco “The Last Supper” is one of the most famous paintings ever. He tried a new method of applying colours in the painting. He applied colours on a wet plaster. He tried to represent the scene of Jesus’s last eve with twelve of his closest followers. The story behind the last supper is when Jesus announced that one of his followers will betray him. There is evidence that Leonardo da Vinci tried hard to make the right expression he wanted for this painting. “He walked the streets for hours, sketching memorable faces on his portable pad” (Livingston 5). Leonardo da Vinci had a great impact on the world. He introduced the High Renaissance Style in art. Interestingly, beside his artistic knowledge, he presented theories in botany, anatomy, physiology, and medicine. In the last ten years of his life, he spent most his time doing research in different science majors; meanwhile, he painted less at that period. That’s how he had a great impact on world. Although Leonardo da Vinci didn’t have a special and interesting life, he had a great artistic career, and he had a great effect on art. There is no need to be from a royal and wealthy family, or having a very interesting childhood. What matters is who you are and your talents. Just let them flow and create your great masterpiece like Leonardo da Vinci. Words Number: 432	<urn:uuid:6d616db6-4d76-4fbf-be4f-4de31240f6d4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://nikisnm.wordpress.com/2018/11/20/the-life-of-a-genius/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00007.warc.gz	en	0.982817	560	3.265625	3	[ 0.09848066419363022, 0.46551191806793213, 0.3661288321018219, -0.12374503910541534, -0.4403432607650757, 0.17502661049365997, 0.400002121925354, 0.1648748219013214, 0.2877216041088104, -0.01420527882874012, 0.12021559476852417, -0.2753225564956665, 0.12248291075229645, 0.566935658454895, ...	8	“The purpose of art is washing the dust of daily life out of our souls” said Pablo Picasso (www.brainyquote.com). Last week, I went to Vancouver Art Gallery, and I saw art works that were special in different ways. Visiting the gallery made me think of art and artists much more thoroughly. At that time, Leonardo da Vinci’s paintings came to my mind. Leonardo da Vinci, one of the most famous artists of all time, had great achievements and had a great impact on art all over the world in his life time. Leonardo da Vinci had a normal and uninteresting life. He was born on April 15,1452 in Vinci, Republic of Florence, which now is known as Italy. He was the illegitimate son of Piero da Vinci and a woman named Caterina (Livingston 3). He had twelve younger siblings. He learned math, geometry, and Latin. He also lived in Milan for twenty years. he was taught by famous Italian artist called Adrea del Varrochio. The first biography of Leonardo da Vinci was published almost three decades after his death. There are few documents available about his uninteresting life. Leonardo da Vinci is well known because of the creativity shown in his art works. The fresco “The Last Supper” is one of the most famous paintings ever. He tried a new method of applying colours in the painting. He applied colours on a wet plaster. He tried to represent the scene of Jesus’s last eve with twelve of his closest followers. The story behind the last supper is when Jesus announced that one of his followers will betray him. There is evidence that Leonardo da Vinci tried hard to make the right expression he wanted for this painting. “He walked the streets for hours, sketching memorable faces on his portable pad” (Livingston 5). Leonardo da Vinci had a great impact on the world. He introduced the High Renaissance Style in art. Interestingly, beside his artistic knowledge, he presented theories in botany, anatomy, physiology, and medicine. In the last ten years of his life, he spent most his time doing research in different science majors; meanwhile, he painted less at that period. That’s how he had a great impact on world. Although Leonardo da Vinci didn’t have a special and interesting life, he had a great artistic career, and he had a great effect on art. There is no need to be from a royal and wealthy family, or having a very interesting childhood. What matters is who you are and your talents. Just let them flow and create your great masterpiece like Leonardo da Vinci. Words Number: 432	537	ENGLISH	1
The United States had a secret weapon in World War II: young women who hacked military messages. Now, these WWII codebreakers are getting the credit they deserve. While men were fighting overseas, a different kind of battle was being fought by American women in WWII. A group of approximately 10,000 women were secretly recruited and worked behind the scenes, breaking into German and Japanese communications systems. They decoded messages that had been encrypted on multiple levels, which was extremely complicated and crucial to military operations. In contrast to those who returned from the war with stories of battlefield glory, codebreakers couldn’t talk about what they were doing, so they didn’t become war heroes. In the years since, these women’s stories have begun to come out, thanks to efforts like “Code Girls” by Liza Mundy. The Stigma of Women in WWII In the World War II era, there was a stigma associated with codebreaking because it was considered secretarial. The prevailing stereotype was that women were better at “boring” tasks like crunching numbers, such as the “Hidden Figures” who computed rocket trajectories. Though codebreaking should have been a prestigious job, the women could be prosecuted for treason if they revealed what they were doing. Instead, people assumed the women were assisting the military men. If anyone asked, the codebreakers were told to say they emptied trash cans and sharpened pencils. Who Were the Codebreakers? During the war, Axis powers shared information in messages that were coded on multiple levels, which made them extremely difficult to break. It took a special mixture of patience, creativity and logic to break the codes and read the messages. School teachers and recent college graduates were the perfect candidates. Professors, college presidents and military officers recruited women from the Seven Sisters colleges in the Northeast and schoolteachers from the South. The women were tapped for the role because they were skilled in both math and language, and they also had to answer a couple of questions. According to CNN, if the women liked crosswords and weren’t engaged, they were considered suitable for the job. During this time period, it was assumed that married women would leave the workforce; in reality, married women such as Beatrice Schilling and Hedy Lamar were inventing new military technologies. At the height of the codebreaking program, there were approximately 4,000 women at a U.S. Navy code-breaking facility at what is now the Department of Homeland Security in Washington, D.C., and 7,000 women at Arlington Hall in Arlington, VA. Codebreakers and Cryptology These young women pioneered data encrypting and invented early cybersecurity techniques that are still used today. According to Smithsonian, the women had to work through endless code and cipher systems, which were often layered for maximum confusion. They would spend days staring at strings of letters, trying to make sense of the scrambled messages. They might, for example, be looking at a Japanese message that was spelled out in Roman letters and then mixed up. The work was tedious, and there was no rulebook, so the women learned as they went. They used certain tricks to find patterns in the nonsensical messages, such as finding frequently used letters or looking for the coded version of “begin message here,” which would give the codebreaker a place to start. These techniques helped form the basis for modern military communication, data security and encryption. They Helped End The War WWII codebreakers were an integral part of military operations, although they didn’t get credit for it. In fact, the first American to learn that WWII was over was a female codebreaker who was head of a U.S. Army language unit. Smithsonian reports that Virginia D. Aderholt deciphered and translated the message from Japan to Switzerland (who remained neutral during the war) declaring their unconditional surrender in 1945. She decoded the message, which was then rushed to President Harry S. Truman, effectively ending the war. Aderholt was one of many exceptional women who eavesdropped on Japan and Germany to get ahead. They provided intelligence that helped Allied forces sink enemy supply ships and gun down the plane of Isoroku Yamato, “the architect of Pearl Harbor,” according to Smithsonian. Female codebreakers figured out precisely where the Japanese army was located and where they were likely to be moving; discovered the origins and destinations of radio signals; and tracked the location and movement of troops. Mundy told CNN that without the WWII codebreakers, the attack on Pearl Harbor could have been even worse. Agnes Driscoll, for example, was working on Japanese fleet code for more than a decade. She diagnosed how their system worked, figured out how to read Japanese naval communications and shared her knowledge with the male naval officers who went to the Pacific (and got the credit). The WWII codebreakers were almost too good at their jobs. Toward the end of the war, they were supplying more information on Japanese supply ships that the military could keep up with, according to Smithsonian. Even after the war ended, the women kept the secret about what they were really doing to help with the war effort. Many of them went home, while others stayed in the intelligence community and ended up in high-ranking positions — some even outranking their military husbands. If you’re interested in a career opportunity that involves protecting the warfighter and our nation and allies, please see openings at NorthropGrumman.com/careers.	<urn:uuid:81f8dda8-9124-4db8-a2eb-438c678cb8cc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://now.northropgrumman.com/wwii-codebreakers-secretly-hacked-military-messages/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00087.warc.gz	en	0.984337	1,141	3.53125	4	[ -0.4340288043022156, 0.40531855821609497, -0.22755232453346252, -0.011670026928186417, 0.1384434700012207, 0.08831483870744705, -0.03957861661911011, 0.13798820972442627, -0.029904134571552277, -0.11619753390550613, 0.23632018268108368, 0.26533767580986023, 0.2849125862121582, 0.2337627261...	4	The United States had a secret weapon in World War II: young women who hacked military messages. Now, these WWII codebreakers are getting the credit they deserve. While men were fighting overseas, a different kind of battle was being fought by American women in WWII. A group of approximately 10,000 women were secretly recruited and worked behind the scenes, breaking into German and Japanese communications systems. They decoded messages that had been encrypted on multiple levels, which was extremely complicated and crucial to military operations. In contrast to those who returned from the war with stories of battlefield glory, codebreakers couldn’t talk about what they were doing, so they didn’t become war heroes. In the years since, these women’s stories have begun to come out, thanks to efforts like “Code Girls” by Liza Mundy. The Stigma of Women in WWII In the World War II era, there was a stigma associated with codebreaking because it was considered secretarial. The prevailing stereotype was that women were better at “boring” tasks like crunching numbers, such as the “Hidden Figures” who computed rocket trajectories. Though codebreaking should have been a prestigious job, the women could be prosecuted for treason if they revealed what they were doing. Instead, people assumed the women were assisting the military men. If anyone asked, the codebreakers were told to say they emptied trash cans and sharpened pencils. Who Were the Codebreakers? During the war, Axis powers shared information in messages that were coded on multiple levels, which made them extremely difficult to break. It took a special mixture of patience, creativity and logic to break the codes and read the messages. School teachers and recent college graduates were the perfect candidates. Professors, college presidents and military officers recruited women from the Seven Sisters colleges in the Northeast and schoolteachers from the South. The women were tapped for the role because they were skilled in both math and language, and they also had to answer a couple of questions. According to CNN, if the women liked crosswords and weren’t engaged, they were considered suitable for the job. During this time period, it was assumed that married women would leave the workforce; in reality, married women such as Beatrice Schilling and Hedy Lamar were inventing new military technologies. At the height of the codebreaking program, there were approximately 4,000 women at a U.S. Navy code-breaking facility at what is now the Department of Homeland Security in Washington, D.C., and 7,000 women at Arlington Hall in Arlington, VA. Codebreakers and Cryptology These young women pioneered data encrypting and invented early cybersecurity techniques that are still used today. According to Smithsonian, the women had to work through endless code and cipher systems, which were often layered for maximum confusion. They would spend days staring at strings of letters, trying to make sense of the scrambled messages. They might, for example, be looking at a Japanese message that was spelled out in Roman letters and then mixed up. The work was tedious, and there was no rulebook, so the women learned as they went. They used certain tricks to find patterns in the nonsensical messages, such as finding frequently used letters or looking for the coded version of “begin message here,” which would give the codebreaker a place to start. These techniques helped form the basis for modern military communication, data security and encryption. They Helped End The War WWII codebreakers were an integral part of military operations, although they didn’t get credit for it. In fact, the first American to learn that WWII was over was a female codebreaker who was head of a U.S. Army language unit. Smithsonian reports that Virginia D. Aderholt deciphered and translated the message from Japan to Switzerland (who remained neutral during the war) declaring their unconditional surrender in 1945. She decoded the message, which was then rushed to President Harry S. Truman, effectively ending the war. Aderholt was one of many exceptional women who eavesdropped on Japan and Germany to get ahead. They provided intelligence that helped Allied forces sink enemy supply ships and gun down the plane of Isoroku Yamato, “the architect of Pearl Harbor,” according to Smithsonian. Female codebreakers figured out precisely where the Japanese army was located and where they were likely to be moving; discovered the origins and destinations of radio signals; and tracked the location and movement of troops. Mundy told CNN that without the WWII codebreakers, the attack on Pearl Harbor could have been even worse. Agnes Driscoll, for example, was working on Japanese fleet code for more than a decade. She diagnosed how their system worked, figured out how to read Japanese naval communications and shared her knowledge with the male naval officers who went to the Pacific (and got the credit). The WWII codebreakers were almost too good at their jobs. Toward the end of the war, they were supplying more information on Japanese supply ships that the military could keep up with, according to Smithsonian. Even after the war ended, the women kept the secret about what they were really doing to help with the war effort. Many of them went home, while others stayed in the intelligence community and ended up in high-ranking positions — some even outranking their military husbands. If you’re interested in a career opportunity that involves protecting the warfighter and our nation and allies, please see openings at NorthropGrumman.com/careers.	1,117	ENGLISH	1
The work of French potter Bernard Palissy was so admired that in 1563 he was named King's Inventor of Rustic Ceramics, and in 1567 he was summoned by Catherine de Medici — who dubbed him "Worker of the Earth and Inventor of Rustic Ware" — to decorate her palace. He even did the lecture circuit, but the road to all this adulation wasn't easy. Born in southern France around 1510, Palissy worked as a painter and surveyor before he one day spotted "an Earthen cup, turned and enameled with such beauty that I was immediately transfixed." He may have seen the cup around 1540, and he spent the next several years trying to make perfect ceramics of his own. According to his account, at one point, he was so poor and desperate that he fed his kiln with the wooden tables and floors of his own house. Art historian Martin Kemp has stated that Palissy's account may be "less than reliable," and the simple fact that Palissy's wife didn't kill him for torching all their furniture supports Kemp's contention. Entirely accurate historian or not, Palissy eventually found fame, not to mention the ability to support his family effectively, for a type of pottery that contained no dainty white cups. He coated his plates with life-sized replicas of amphibians, reptiles, shells, bugs and plants. The plants and animals in Palissy's pots were so accurate because he cast them from life, and ingeniously avoided leaving any indications of harm to their soft tissues. Palissy wasn't the first to cast animals from life, but his work was particularly prized, and he jealously guarded his methods, glossing over the details in any written accounts. He swore his sons to secrecy and reneged on a promise to disclose the secret to his son-in-law. For over 40 years, he took the same basic approach to his work, making one pond scene after another. Some have criticized his seeming lack of creativity, but to Palissy, a pond was more than a pond. It was the site of putrefaction and, from putrefying matter, the generation of new life, especially frogs. (Spontaneous generation was a widespread belief in his day.) Palissy might have lacked a modern understanding of some aspects of biology, but in understanding the process of fossilization, he showed impressive insight. He observed a freshly dead sea urchin, noting the lumpy ornamentation on the animal's central body after its spines fell off, and applied this knowledge to identifying fossil urchins. He also accurately identified a fossil rudist as a bivalve and realized the species no longer lived, though he blamed its demise on overfishing. Maybe it was no coincidence that a man who cast models from life would think about how fossils form. He might have gained insights from the work of others, possibly from pirated copies of Leonardo da Vinci's writings, or he might have figured out fossils on his own. While many of his contemporaries collected a few "figured stones" along with all the other weird objects they could find for their curiosity cabinets, he focused his collection on fossils. His searches for ceramic materials acquainted him with many kinds of specimens, and he saw that they were formed in much the same way as pottery. Putrefaction and petrifaction were just different sides of the same coin to Palissy and, depending on the circumstances, an organism might rot into slime or leave its remains for posterity. Just as all kinds of metals and other fusible materials take on the shape of the hollows or molds in which they are placed or thrown, and even when thrown into the Earth take the shape of the place where the material is thrown or poured, so the materials of all kinds of rocks take the shape of the place where the material has congealed. Palissy was among the first to argue for the organic origin of fossils. And because there are also rocks filled with shells, even on the summits of high mountains, you must not think that these shells were formed, as some say, because Nature amuses itself with making something new. When I closely examined the shape of the rocks, I found that none of them can take the shape of a shell or other animal if the animal itself has not built its shape. Referring to salts and "congelative water," he discussed the petrifaction process, and even ventured that a human body could be petrified in the same way as other remains. I am quite sure that if the body of a man were interred in a place wherein there is some dormant water, among which place there is congelative water, which forms crystal and other metallic and stony matters, that the said body would petrify: because the congelative germ is of a salsitive nature, and the salt of the body of the man would attract to itself the congelative matter, which is also salsitive, because of the affinity that is between the kinds, they will come to congeal, harden, and petrify the human body. You could think of his understanding of petrifaction as a work in progress, but it was impressive for the time. Probably because he only partially understood the fossilization progress, he discussed the petrifaction of the whole body rather than the teeth and bones, and passed along an account of "the foot of a man petrified." Hand-in-hand with insights about fossilization came a keen understanding of the Earth's water cycle. Since the time of the ancient Greeks, naturalists had puzzled over why streams and rivers kept emptying into the ocean, which somehow never filled beyond its capacity to accept more water. Perhaps the world's ocean funneled water into springs via subterranean channels? No, Palissy argued. Springs were fed by rain, and often dried up during the dry season. Rivers and streams kept running because the water took time to infiltrate the waterways. Looking at the behavior of both fossils and water, Palissy rejected the idea that the biblical flood could have deposited all fossils throughout the world, even on the highest mountaintops. Logic told him that rainwater can't float seashells. But this stance put him in a shaky position because the fossil shells he found well above sea level resembled marine — not freshwater — species. Palissy got out of the difficulty by suggesting the fossils had come from inland lakes that had somehow been salty. He didn't escape every theological tight spot quite so easily; more than once, he was imprisoned for his Calvinist beliefs. Being an alchemist didn't help him avoid accusations of heresy, either. After two especially difficult years of imprisonment, he died in 1590. Palissy made the best he could of his time in prison, writing admirable dialogues on Earth science in 1563 and 1580, and taking pride in his status as a "man without Latin." (The claim was likely a bit disingenuous; he owned plenty of books and was well read, though his beliefs were largely shaped by his vernacular Bible.) The dialogues he wrote were debates between Theory and Practice. Practice won every single debate. Clearly even the worst situations didn't dampen his self-confidence. . . . I have found grace before God, who has revealed to me secrets which until now have remained unknown to men, even the most learned, as may be ascertained from my writings . . . His work as a naturalist went largely unappreciated until the 18th century, at which point, some historians have argued, it became over appreciated. Palissy did not, for example, accept that the world's oceans could have stretched inland from their current locations, partly due to his acceptance of scripture. And some of the "Palissy ware" plates sporting fossil shells that have burnished his reputation as a proto-paleontologist were actually made by others long after his death. Narrative text and graphic design © by Michon Scott - Updated January 1, 2020	<urn:uuid:edca1142-83a2-4504-8286-9b6440fa737c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://strangescience.net/palissy.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00422.warc.gz	en	0.988084	1,669	3.46875	3	[ -0.011258622631430626, 0.5000675320625305, 0.3533848524093628, -0.22344502806663513, -0.35306596755981445, -0.014058790169656277, 0.34382152557373047, 0.2647155821323395, -0.15490521490573883, 0.09482617676258087, -0.11299196630716324, -0.12288759648799896, 0.31664788722991943, 0.605456054...	6	The work of French potter Bernard Palissy was so admired that in 1563 he was named King's Inventor of Rustic Ceramics, and in 1567 he was summoned by Catherine de Medici — who dubbed him "Worker of the Earth and Inventor of Rustic Ware" — to decorate her palace. He even did the lecture circuit, but the road to all this adulation wasn't easy. Born in southern France around 1510, Palissy worked as a painter and surveyor before he one day spotted "an Earthen cup, turned and enameled with such beauty that I was immediately transfixed." He may have seen the cup around 1540, and he spent the next several years trying to make perfect ceramics of his own. According to his account, at one point, he was so poor and desperate that he fed his kiln with the wooden tables and floors of his own house. Art historian Martin Kemp has stated that Palissy's account may be "less than reliable," and the simple fact that Palissy's wife didn't kill him for torching all their furniture supports Kemp's contention. Entirely accurate historian or not, Palissy eventually found fame, not to mention the ability to support his family effectively, for a type of pottery that contained no dainty white cups. He coated his plates with life-sized replicas of amphibians, reptiles, shells, bugs and plants. The plants and animals in Palissy's pots were so accurate because he cast them from life, and ingeniously avoided leaving any indications of harm to their soft tissues. Palissy wasn't the first to cast animals from life, but his work was particularly prized, and he jealously guarded his methods, glossing over the details in any written accounts. He swore his sons to secrecy and reneged on a promise to disclose the secret to his son-in-law. For over 40 years, he took the same basic approach to his work, making one pond scene after another. Some have criticized his seeming lack of creativity, but to Palissy, a pond was more than a pond. It was the site of putrefaction and, from putrefying matter, the generation of new life, especially frogs. (Spontaneous generation was a widespread belief in his day.) Palissy might have lacked a modern understanding of some aspects of biology, but in understanding the process of fossilization, he showed impressive insight. He observed a freshly dead sea urchin, noting the lumpy ornamentation on the animal's central body after its spines fell off, and applied this knowledge to identifying fossil urchins. He also accurately identified a fossil rudist as a bivalve and realized the species no longer lived, though he blamed its demise on overfishing. Maybe it was no coincidence that a man who cast models from life would think about how fossils form. He might have gained insights from the work of others, possibly from pirated copies of Leonardo da Vinci's writings, or he might have figured out fossils on his own. While many of his contemporaries collected a few "figured stones" along with all the other weird objects they could find for their curiosity cabinets, he focused his collection on fossils. His searches for ceramic materials acquainted him with many kinds of specimens, and he saw that they were formed in much the same way as pottery. Putrefaction and petrifaction were just different sides of the same coin to Palissy and, depending on the circumstances, an organism might rot into slime or leave its remains for posterity. Just as all kinds of metals and other fusible materials take on the shape of the hollows or molds in which they are placed or thrown, and even when thrown into the Earth take the shape of the place where the material is thrown or poured, so the materials of all kinds of rocks take the shape of the place where the material has congealed. Palissy was among the first to argue for the organic origin of fossils. And because there are also rocks filled with shells, even on the summits of high mountains, you must not think that these shells were formed, as some say, because Nature amuses itself with making something new. When I closely examined the shape of the rocks, I found that none of them can take the shape of a shell or other animal if the animal itself has not built its shape. Referring to salts and "congelative water," he discussed the petrifaction process, and even ventured that a human body could be petrified in the same way as other remains. I am quite sure that if the body of a man were interred in a place wherein there is some dormant water, among which place there is congelative water, which forms crystal and other metallic and stony matters, that the said body would petrify: because the congelative germ is of a salsitive nature, and the salt of the body of the man would attract to itself the congelative matter, which is also salsitive, because of the affinity that is between the kinds, they will come to congeal, harden, and petrify the human body. You could think of his understanding of petrifaction as a work in progress, but it was impressive for the time. Probably because he only partially understood the fossilization progress, he discussed the petrifaction of the whole body rather than the teeth and bones, and passed along an account of "the foot of a man petrified." Hand-in-hand with insights about fossilization came a keen understanding of the Earth's water cycle. Since the time of the ancient Greeks, naturalists had puzzled over why streams and rivers kept emptying into the ocean, which somehow never filled beyond its capacity to accept more water. Perhaps the world's ocean funneled water into springs via subterranean channels? No, Palissy argued. Springs were fed by rain, and often dried up during the dry season. Rivers and streams kept running because the water took time to infiltrate the waterways. Looking at the behavior of both fossils and water, Palissy rejected the idea that the biblical flood could have deposited all fossils throughout the world, even on the highest mountaintops. Logic told him that rainwater can't float seashells. But this stance put him in a shaky position because the fossil shells he found well above sea level resembled marine — not freshwater — species. Palissy got out of the difficulty by suggesting the fossils had come from inland lakes that had somehow been salty. He didn't escape every theological tight spot quite so easily; more than once, he was imprisoned for his Calvinist beliefs. Being an alchemist didn't help him avoid accusations of heresy, either. After two especially difficult years of imprisonment, he died in 1590. Palissy made the best he could of his time in prison, writing admirable dialogues on Earth science in 1563 and 1580, and taking pride in his status as a "man without Latin." (The claim was likely a bit disingenuous; he owned plenty of books and was well read, though his beliefs were largely shaped by his vernacular Bible.) The dialogues he wrote were debates between Theory and Practice. Practice won every single debate. Clearly even the worst situations didn't dampen his self-confidence. . . . I have found grace before God, who has revealed to me secrets which until now have remained unknown to men, even the most learned, as may be ascertained from my writings . . . His work as a naturalist went largely unappreciated until the 18th century, at which point, some historians have argued, it became over appreciated. Palissy did not, for example, accept that the world's oceans could have stretched inland from their current locations, partly due to his acceptance of scripture. And some of the "Palissy ware" plates sporting fossil shells that have burnished his reputation as a proto-paleontologist were actually made by others long after his death. Narrative text and graphic design © by Michon Scott - Updated January 1, 2020	1,667	ENGLISH	1
Facts about U.S. Presidents The only president to be unanimously elected was George Washington (1732-1799). He also refused to accept his presidential salary, which was $25,000 a year Andrew Johnson is the only tailor ever to be president. As president, he would typically stop by a tailor shop to say hello. He would wear only the suits that he made himself George Washington never lived in the White House. The capital was actually located in Philadelphia and other cities when Washington was president. He is also the only president who didn’t represent a political party James Abram Garfield (1831-1881) is the first president to ever talk on the phone. When he spoke to Alexander Graham Bell, who was at the other end 13 miles away, he said: “Please speak a little more slowly.” Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) was the first president to be inaugurated in Washington, D.C President Grover Cleveland (1837-1908) is the only president to be elected to two nonconsecutive terms. He was the 22nd and 24th president Martin Van Buren was the first to be a United States citizen. All previous presidents were born British subjects Six presidents were named James: Madison, Monroe, Polk, Buchanan, Garfield, and Carter President Dwight David Eisenhower (1890-1969) was the only president to serve in both WWI and WWII Richard Milhous Nixon (1913-1994) was the first president to visit all 50 states and the first to visit China. He is the only president to resign James Earl “Jimmy” Carter (1924-) was the first president to be born in a hospital James Buchanan is the only bachelor president. John Tyler (1790-1862) had more children than any other president. He had eight by his first wife and seven by his second. He was 70 when his last child, Pearl, was born. James Madison (1751-1836) was the shortest president of the United States, standing at only 5’4”. George Washington made the shortest inauguration speech on record—133 words and less than two minutes long William Henry Harrison (1773-1841) holds the record for the longest inauguration speech in history at 8,578 words long and one hour and 40 minutes. The youngest president was Teddy Roosevelt who became president at age 42 when McKinley (1843-1901) was assassinated. JFK was the youngest president elected at the age of 43 Three presidents died on July 4th: Thomas Jefferson (1826), John Adams (1826), and James Monroe (1831). Calvin Coolidge is the only president to have been born on the Fourth (1872) George Herbert Walker Bush is the only President with four names Herbert Hoover was an orphan whose first job was picking bugs off potato plants, for which he was paid a dollar per hundred bugs. He also was a mine worker Gerald Ford worked as a model during college. He also worked as a forest ranger Abraham Lincoln was the first president to ever be photographed at his inauguration. Teddy Roosevelt’s last request before dying was “Please put out the light.” Thomas Jefferson’s last words were “This is the Fourth?” John Adam’s dying words were “Thomas Jefferson still survives,” unaware that Jefferson had passed away a few hours earlier George Washington didn’t have enough money to get to his own inauguration so he had to borrow $600 from his neighbor Washington, Jackson, Van Buren, Taylor, Fillmore, Lincoln, A. Johnson, Cleveland, and Truman did not attend college. Harry Truman is the only twentieth-century president without a college degree The capital of Liberia is called Monrovia after President James Monroe No president has ever been an only child The first president to be born outside the original 13 States was Lincoln Jimmy Carter was a wealthy peanut farmer in Plains, Georgia. A farming accident left one of his fingers permanently bent Abraham Lincoln is the only president to receive a patent (# 6469). Abraham Lincoln was the tallest president at 6′ 4.” The presidential faces on Mount Rushmore are as high as a five-story building, about 60′ from chin to top of the head. JFK was the first Roman Catholic to be president, the first Boy Scout to become president, and the first president to be born in the twentieth century Gerald Ford was the first person to be both vice president and president without being elected by the people. Andrew Johnson was the first president to be impeached. He was acquitted by one vote in the Senate. It would be another 131 years before another president, Bill Clinton, would be impeached Buy Best Books for CSS Current Affairs World Current Affairs by Aamer Shahzad Price: Rs. 775 BUY NOW! \|Current Affairs by Dr Shahid Wazir Khan Price: Rs. 795 BUY NOW!\| Click on Buy now to book your order or Whatsapp your order @ 03224661117	<urn:uuid:ba0d9bb4-30ba-4c5c-972c-128cc6244478>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.csstimes.pk/facts-u-s-presidents-world-general-knowledge-series/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00119.warc.gz	en	0.981284	1,072	3.265625	3	[ -0.002256595529615879, 0.47126704454421997, 0.6160489916801453, -0.23560599982738495, -0.1574331521987915, 0.5574387907981873, 0.16741986572742462, -0.06014758348464966, 0.5508773922920227, 0.2444964051246643, 0.5168235301971436, 0.5200623869895935, 0.2174861580133438, 0.5795542597770691, ...	1	Facts about U.S. Presidents The only president to be unanimously elected was George Washington (1732-1799). He also refused to accept his presidential salary, which was $25,000 a year Andrew Johnson is the only tailor ever to be president. As president, he would typically stop by a tailor shop to say hello. He would wear only the suits that he made himself George Washington never lived in the White House. The capital was actually located in Philadelphia and other cities when Washington was president. He is also the only president who didn’t represent a political party James Abram Garfield (1831-1881) is the first president to ever talk on the phone. When he spoke to Alexander Graham Bell, who was at the other end 13 miles away, he said: “Please speak a little more slowly.” Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) was the first president to be inaugurated in Washington, D.C President Grover Cleveland (1837-1908) is the only president to be elected to two nonconsecutive terms. He was the 22nd and 24th president Martin Van Buren was the first to be a United States citizen. All previous presidents were born British subjects Six presidents were named James: Madison, Monroe, Polk, Buchanan, Garfield, and Carter President Dwight David Eisenhower (1890-1969) was the only president to serve in both WWI and WWII Richard Milhous Nixon (1913-1994) was the first president to visit all 50 states and the first to visit China. He is the only president to resign James Earl “Jimmy” Carter (1924-) was the first president to be born in a hospital James Buchanan is the only bachelor president. John Tyler (1790-1862) had more children than any other president. He had eight by his first wife and seven by his second. He was 70 when his last child, Pearl, was born. James Madison (1751-1836) was the shortest president of the United States, standing at only 5’4”. George Washington made the shortest inauguration speech on record—133 words and less than two minutes long William Henry Harrison (1773-1841) holds the record for the longest inauguration speech in history at 8,578 words long and one hour and 40 minutes. The youngest president was Teddy Roosevelt who became president at age 42 when McKinley (1843-1901) was assassinated. JFK was the youngest president elected at the age of 43 Three presidents died on July 4th: Thomas Jefferson (1826), John Adams (1826), and James Monroe (1831). Calvin Coolidge is the only president to have been born on the Fourth (1872) George Herbert Walker Bush is the only President with four names Herbert Hoover was an orphan whose first job was picking bugs off potato plants, for which he was paid a dollar per hundred bugs. He also was a mine worker Gerald Ford worked as a model during college. He also worked as a forest ranger Abraham Lincoln was the first president to ever be photographed at his inauguration. Teddy Roosevelt’s last request before dying was “Please put out the light.” Thomas Jefferson’s last words were “This is the Fourth?” John Adam’s dying words were “Thomas Jefferson still survives,” unaware that Jefferson had passed away a few hours earlier George Washington didn’t have enough money to get to his own inauguration so he had to borrow $600 from his neighbor Washington, Jackson, Van Buren, Taylor, Fillmore, Lincoln, A. Johnson, Cleveland, and Truman did not attend college. Harry Truman is the only twentieth-century president without a college degree The capital of Liberia is called Monrovia after President James Monroe No president has ever been an only child The first president to be born outside the original 13 States was Lincoln Jimmy Carter was a wealthy peanut farmer in Plains, Georgia. A farming accident left one of his fingers permanently bent Abraham Lincoln is the only president to receive a patent (# 6469). Abraham Lincoln was the tallest president at 6′ 4.” The presidential faces on Mount Rushmore are as high as a five-story building, about 60′ from chin to top of the head. JFK was the first Roman Catholic to be president, the first Boy Scout to become president, and the first president to be born in the twentieth century Gerald Ford was the first person to be both vice president and president without being elected by the people. Andrew Johnson was the first president to be impeached. He was acquitted by one vote in the Senate. It would be another 131 years before another president, Bill Clinton, would be impeached Buy Best Books for CSS Current Affairs World Current Affairs by Aamer Shahzad Price: Rs. 775 BUY NOW! \|Current Affairs by Dr Shahid Wazir Khan Price: Rs. 795 BUY NOW!\| Click on Buy now to book your order or Whatsapp your order @ 03224661117	1,129	ENGLISH	1
The Stamp Act of 1712 imposed a stamp tax on United Kingdom publishers. The tax was levied on all publishing including newspapers, pamphlets, legal documents, commercial bills, advertisements, and other papers. The tax was initially assessed at one penny per whole newspaper sheet, a halfpenny for a half sheet, and one shilling per advertisement. The stamp tax doubled the cost of newspapers to two pennies and consequently halved the number of papers purchased. Apart from raising revenue, the tax was implemented with the objective of monitoring and controlling the press. Their aim was to restrict the publication of writings that were intended to excite hatred and contempt of the Government. This was achieved by making publishers exempt from the tax if they pledged their patronage to members of the Parliament of Great Britain. Over time the stamp tax increased 400% which crucified printers’ businesses as they made newspapers unaffordable to the majority of the population. To reduce the cost of the tax, printers began to produce newspapers that were two or three times as large but comprised of only one sheet of paper. Although the newspapers had to be folded multiple times to be sold they were popular as they had eight written columns but could be sold at the price that two had been taxed at. Although the Stamp Act was repealed in 1766, newspapers were moderately taxed until 1855. Due to this unofficial taxation of newspapers, printers maintained the broadsheet shape even into the modern era.	<urn:uuid:2fe5cb6e-138c-454a-9138-466dc3e2b2ef>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://taxfitness.com.au/Blog/1712-stamp-tax	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00155.warc.gz	en	0.98931	290	3.96875	4	[ -0.20978105068206787, 0.00035137287341058254, 0.1136845201253891, -0.16734327375888824, 0.3301367461681366, 0.15611618757247925, -0.38199079036712646, 0.2721441090106964, 0.037061646580696106, 0.5096445083618164, -0.11855816841125488, 0.07449197769165039, -0.10534774512052536, 0.0556357875...	2	The Stamp Act of 1712 imposed a stamp tax on United Kingdom publishers. The tax was levied on all publishing including newspapers, pamphlets, legal documents, commercial bills, advertisements, and other papers. The tax was initially assessed at one penny per whole newspaper sheet, a halfpenny for a half sheet, and one shilling per advertisement. The stamp tax doubled the cost of newspapers to two pennies and consequently halved the number of papers purchased. Apart from raising revenue, the tax was implemented with the objective of monitoring and controlling the press. Their aim was to restrict the publication of writings that were intended to excite hatred and contempt of the Government. This was achieved by making publishers exempt from the tax if they pledged their patronage to members of the Parliament of Great Britain. Over time the stamp tax increased 400% which crucified printers’ businesses as they made newspapers unaffordable to the majority of the population. To reduce the cost of the tax, printers began to produce newspapers that were two or three times as large but comprised of only one sheet of paper. Although the newspapers had to be folded multiple times to be sold they were popular as they had eight written columns but could be sold at the price that two had been taxed at. Although the Stamp Act was repealed in 1766, newspapers were moderately taxed until 1855. Due to this unofficial taxation of newspapers, printers maintained the broadsheet shape even into the modern era.	301	ENGLISH	1
October 6, 2013 Punishment Research Paper As we all know, in our American society there’s four types of punishments. They are; Retribution, Deterrence, Rehabilitation, and Social Protection. In our society we use these four punishments in attempt to help lower the crime rates within the society. When looking at the outcome of these punishments, one would consider some are harder than others. As written in the early bible years, there’s a phrase that say’s “An eye for an eye” There for set the first punishment in place, and it was call Retribution Punishment. Back in that time and period, a crime was only seen as against society, but it was against the will of GOD, if one would commit a crime. Society believes that if a person commits a crime that was harsh, and thinkable, then their punishment should be a reflection of that crime. For example; if someone stole something then their punishment would be the cutting of theirs fingers off or their entire hand. Since committing such a crime that’s against the law of the lord, and the society, then they had to stuffer such harsh punishment as this. Although you would think if word got around of such a punishment like this, then one would not commit a crime, but this type of punishment did not change the mindset of the people, Although this type of punishment is not used in today’s time, retribution was set in place to help the society to gain closure if such a harsh crime was committed Next would be Deterrence Punishment. This punishment was set into place, in attempt to discourage a crime by punishment. This punishment was set in place to teach a criminal not to do that crime again. For example; many people feel they can commit a crime and get away with it, for my oldest son is one. He’s in high school and trying to fit in, and with doing this he skips class, not one time but twice. So he finally got caught and to teach him not to do this he was place in detention, and was not allow to go the school dance. So as we can see this punishment is not just for adults, but is for children as well. Because just as this example detention is not the only punishment they can receive, they can receive a suspension, which would place them out of school for some days, but this type of punishment comes along if the action of the children harder and not just skipping class. But as for adults and children this type of punishment can either help them or not, and if not maybe one can seek rehabilitation,, which falls into our next punishment. Rehabilitation is an individual seeking higher help, in order to receive the proper help they need. So Rehabilitation was put into place, too help the offenders, such as drug addicts, or an alcoholic are just a few to name. If one was to keep coming before a judge that was a drug addict, the judge may order him or her to seek a rehabilitation center in order to gain help instead of spending time in jail. It’s now that if you change ones living environment, then you may be able to reach that person as well being able to help that person to overcome the addiction of drugs, alcoholic, etc. Rehabilitation is also known as the positive , and forgiving punishment there is, due to being able to give a someone a second chance to life, as well as being able to allow them to seek the help they need. Social Protection is the last of the punishments. This punishment is favored by our society, which would place the criminals temporarily or permanently behind bars, it also allow the criminal to being able to get a second chance in life, although this punishment is something like Rehabilitation, with gaining a second chance to life, the criminal is not allowed to be free, there time in prison may be a smaller sentences, than a long sentence, or there time may be permanently, either way it goes this could be made to help teach the person the consequences of breaking the law. As for the person that commits a…	<urn:uuid:e4b54a51-832e-4bd3-bdb7-1d9a959f99a1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Punishment-Crime-And-Society-544405.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00148.warc.gz	en	0.985534	839	3.3125	3	[ -0.18813756108283997, 0.08203843235969543, -0.16881603002548218, -0.17193904519081116, 0.09261110424995422, 0.001072571612894535, 0.43477141857147217, 0.0202657338231802, 0.4035606384277344, 0.07163569331169128, 0.20833352208137512, 0.3132019639015198, -0.13598857820034027, 0.2291496396064...	1	October 6, 2013 Punishment Research Paper As we all know, in our American society there’s four types of punishments. They are; Retribution, Deterrence, Rehabilitation, and Social Protection. In our society we use these four punishments in attempt to help lower the crime rates within the society. When looking at the outcome of these punishments, one would consider some are harder than others. As written in the early bible years, there’s a phrase that say’s “An eye for an eye” There for set the first punishment in place, and it was call Retribution Punishment. Back in that time and period, a crime was only seen as against society, but it was against the will of GOD, if one would commit a crime. Society believes that if a person commits a crime that was harsh, and thinkable, then their punishment should be a reflection of that crime. For example; if someone stole something then their punishment would be the cutting of theirs fingers off or their entire hand. Since committing such a crime that’s against the law of the lord, and the society, then they had to stuffer such harsh punishment as this. Although you would think if word got around of such a punishment like this, then one would not commit a crime, but this type of punishment did not change the mindset of the people, Although this type of punishment is not used in today’s time, retribution was set in place to help the society to gain closure if such a harsh crime was committed Next would be Deterrence Punishment. This punishment was set into place, in attempt to discourage a crime by punishment. This punishment was set in place to teach a criminal not to do that crime again. For example; many people feel they can commit a crime and get away with it, for my oldest son is one. He’s in high school and trying to fit in, and with doing this he skips class, not one time but twice. So he finally got caught and to teach him not to do this he was place in detention, and was not allow to go the school dance. So as we can see this punishment is not just for adults, but is for children as well. Because just as this example detention is not the only punishment they can receive, they can receive a suspension, which would place them out of school for some days, but this type of punishment comes along if the action of the children harder and not just skipping class. But as for adults and children this type of punishment can either help them or not, and if not maybe one can seek rehabilitation,, which falls into our next punishment. Rehabilitation is an individual seeking higher help, in order to receive the proper help they need. So Rehabilitation was put into place, too help the offenders, such as drug addicts, or an alcoholic are just a few to name. If one was to keep coming before a judge that was a drug addict, the judge may order him or her to seek a rehabilitation center in order to gain help instead of spending time in jail. It’s now that if you change ones living environment, then you may be able to reach that person as well being able to help that person to overcome the addiction of drugs, alcoholic, etc. Rehabilitation is also known as the positive , and forgiving punishment there is, due to being able to give a someone a second chance to life, as well as being able to allow them to seek the help they need. Social Protection is the last of the punishments. This punishment is favored by our society, which would place the criminals temporarily or permanently behind bars, it also allow the criminal to being able to get a second chance in life, although this punishment is something like Rehabilitation, with gaining a second chance to life, the criminal is not allowed to be free, there time in prison may be a smaller sentences, than a long sentence, or there time may be permanently, either way it goes this could be made to help teach the person the consequences of breaking the law. As for the person that commits a…	824	ENGLISH	1
Film & TV Lesson time 11:26 min Page numbers don't sound exciting, but they're a great tool for tracking the act-structure and pacing of your story. Topics include: The 3-act structure • Exposition • Inciting action • Page numbers We've been using the word "story" a lot. Story and drama are two slightly different things. Start with what a fact is, OK? The queen died. That's a fact. The story is the queen died, and then the king died of a broken heart, OK? But it's still not drama. There hasn't been conflict yet. What would make it drama, our queen and king story? Probably a million things. Off the top of my head, OK, the queen dies, and now the King is alone. And it turns out the queen was the brilliant one. She was the brains behind in the outfit. She was the brains behind the king, and now the King has to go it alone in the face of people who are trying to get him off the throne because everyone knows he's dumb, and the queen was smart. That kind of thing. [MUSIC PLAYING] Generally we think in three acts. A play is two, usually, and an episode of television is like six. But thinking of the three-act structure for a movie, act one, you chase your hero up a tree. Act two, you throw rocks at him. Act 3, you get him down. Or not. It's OK if they die in the tree, as long as they die trying. If they're going to get down from the tree in the third act, you have to have introduced the way down in the first act, OK? There's an old saw that you can't use a gun in the third act unless you've introduced it in the first. A gun can't appear from nowhere. You have to open a drawer and see that a gun is there, or somebody's got to mention, I'm packing, or something like that. Conversely, you don't introduce a gun in the first act unless you use it in the third. In other words, if we open a drawer and see a gun there, and then nothing ever comes of it, that was bad writing. So, whatever that escape out of the tree is going to be has to have been introduced to us in the first act. You can't all of a sudden in the third say, we forgot about our magic rope that gets us out of the tree. That magic rope needs to be introduced in the first act. [MUSIC PLAYING] You want the stakes to be high. I do think in those terms. Whether somebody wants the girl, or the money, or to build a computer that is better than they are, you want the stakes to be as high as possible so that we're sitting forward in our seats. Sometimes, the stakes are automatically as high as they can be. A Few Good Men, two guys are on trial for murder, OK? You don't really need to hype up the stakes there for everybody involved. Steve Jobs, you need to understand why it's so important to Steve that a product be perfect, that the rectangle have rounded edges, that the thing that everybody else is making fun of in terms of his perfectionism, you need to understand why that's so important to him so that we care if he fails or succeeds. [MUSIC PLAYING] Exposition is the first part of drama, and before you can do anything else, you have to tell the audience what they need to know in or... Aaron Sorkin wrote his first movie on cocktail napkins. Those napkins turned into A Few Good Men, starring Jack Nicholson. Now, the Academy Award-winning writer of The West Wing and The Social Network is teaching screenwriting. In this class, you’ll learn his rules of storytelling, dialogue, character development, and what makes a script actually sell. By the end, you’ll write screenplays that capture your audience’s attention. My purpose was to hear the point of view of a complex and accomplished creator. I'm not a dramatic writer but I write dramatically. I heard a great many interesting points that will help me write. And I'm a BIG FAN of "The West Wing." This masterclass was the reason I bought Masterclass. I love Aaron Sorkin and he's taught me a lot about creating character and good dialogue. He's fantastic The class made me a lot of productive, as trough to the process I had to write a lot for the assignments. I discovered new practices and new things for my future screenplays. Amazing class! I feel like I've gained a year of writing experience just by doing this class, a lot of helpful information which I know will be helpful down the road. Masterclass and Aaron, thank you!	<urn:uuid:764ab4c1-4706-40fc-90f9-9904072c9dc7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.masterclass.com/classes/aaron-sorkin-teaches-screenwriting/chapters/film-story-arc	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00336.warc.gz	en	0.981591	1,007	3.578125	4	[ -0.15926609933376312, -0.18262793123722076, 0.4054397940635681, -0.34112975001335144, 0.09443055093288422, 0.27802959084510803, 0.09364423155784607, -0.22248727083206177, 0.19043196737766266, 0.22675780951976776, 0.16092464327812195, 0.015289707109332085, 0.11695129424333572, 0.09476239234...	1	Film & TV Lesson time 11:26 min Page numbers don't sound exciting, but they're a great tool for tracking the act-structure and pacing of your story. Topics include: The 3-act structure • Exposition • Inciting action • Page numbers We've been using the word "story" a lot. Story and drama are two slightly different things. Start with what a fact is, OK? The queen died. That's a fact. The story is the queen died, and then the king died of a broken heart, OK? But it's still not drama. There hasn't been conflict yet. What would make it drama, our queen and king story? Probably a million things. Off the top of my head, OK, the queen dies, and now the King is alone. And it turns out the queen was the brilliant one. She was the brains behind in the outfit. She was the brains behind the king, and now the King has to go it alone in the face of people who are trying to get him off the throne because everyone knows he's dumb, and the queen was smart. That kind of thing. [MUSIC PLAYING] Generally we think in three acts. A play is two, usually, and an episode of television is like six. But thinking of the three-act structure for a movie, act one, you chase your hero up a tree. Act two, you throw rocks at him. Act 3, you get him down. Or not. It's OK if they die in the tree, as long as they die trying. If they're going to get down from the tree in the third act, you have to have introduced the way down in the first act, OK? There's an old saw that you can't use a gun in the third act unless you've introduced it in the first. A gun can't appear from nowhere. You have to open a drawer and see that a gun is there, or somebody's got to mention, I'm packing, or something like that. Conversely, you don't introduce a gun in the first act unless you use it in the third. In other words, if we open a drawer and see a gun there, and then nothing ever comes of it, that was bad writing. So, whatever that escape out of the tree is going to be has to have been introduced to us in the first act. You can't all of a sudden in the third say, we forgot about our magic rope that gets us out of the tree. That magic rope needs to be introduced in the first act. [MUSIC PLAYING] You want the stakes to be high. I do think in those terms. Whether somebody wants the girl, or the money, or to build a computer that is better than they are, you want the stakes to be as high as possible so that we're sitting forward in our seats. Sometimes, the stakes are automatically as high as they can be. A Few Good Men, two guys are on trial for murder, OK? You don't really need to hype up the stakes there for everybody involved. Steve Jobs, you need to understand why it's so important to Steve that a product be perfect, that the rectangle have rounded edges, that the thing that everybody else is making fun of in terms of his perfectionism, you need to understand why that's so important to him so that we care if he fails or succeeds. [MUSIC PLAYING] Exposition is the first part of drama, and before you can do anything else, you have to tell the audience what they need to know in or... Aaron Sorkin wrote his first movie on cocktail napkins. Those napkins turned into A Few Good Men, starring Jack Nicholson. Now, the Academy Award-winning writer of The West Wing and The Social Network is teaching screenwriting. In this class, you’ll learn his rules of storytelling, dialogue, character development, and what makes a script actually sell. By the end, you’ll write screenplays that capture your audience’s attention. My purpose was to hear the point of view of a complex and accomplished creator. I'm not a dramatic writer but I write dramatically. I heard a great many interesting points that will help me write. And I'm a BIG FAN of "The West Wing." This masterclass was the reason I bought Masterclass. I love Aaron Sorkin and he's taught me a lot about creating character and good dialogue. He's fantastic The class made me a lot of productive, as trough to the process I had to write a lot for the assignments. I discovered new practices and new things for my future screenplays. Amazing class! I feel like I've gained a year of writing experience just by doing this class, a lot of helpful information which I know will be helpful down the road. Masterclass and Aaron, thank you!	995	ENGLISH	1
Nearchus (c.360-c.300): admiral of Alexander the Great, famous for his exploration of the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf. Nearchus was born on Crete, but his father Androtimus moved to Amphipolis in Macedonia; here, Nearchus grew up. Androtimus must have been an important man, because his son was educated together with the crown prince, Alexander, the son of king Philip of Macedonia (356-336). At some point in around 337, probably as a result of the Pixodarus affair, Nearchus was banished by Philip. He shared his exile with Ptolemy, Harpalus, Erigyius and Laomedon. It is likely that they remained in exile until after Alexander's accession in 336. When Alexander invaded Asia in May 334, Nearchus was with him, and at the beginning of the next year, he was appointed as satrap of Lycia and Pamphylia. This meant that Nearchus was responsible for the ports in southern Turkey; as long he held them, the Persian navy was forced to sail from Cyprus to the Aegean Sea through open waters, which was very risky. He did his job well: during 333, the Persian commanders Memnon of Rhodes and Pharnabazus were active in the Aegean waters, but they received no reinforcements. A town that revolted, Telmessus in Lycia, was reduced without much violence. Meanwhile, the naval war ended when Alexander conquered Phoenicia, the Persian naval base. He went on to Egypt and Babylonia, took the Persian capitals of Susa, Persepolis, Pasargadae and Ecbatana, pursued the defeated Persian king Darius III Codomannus and went on to the northeastern provinces of the former Achaemenid empire, Bactria, and Sogdia. It was at this stage of the war, in the first months of 329, that Alexander recalled Nearchus, who was to come to the east bringing reinforcements of Greek mercenaries. The former satrap of Lycia and Pamphylia shared this command with Asander, who had been satrap of Lydia. It is likely that Nearchus was surprised to see how his youth friend had changed: he was now calling himself "Son of Zeus" and "King of Asia", and wore a diadem and the Persian royal tunic. We do not know what Nearchus did during the Sogdian campaign; during the invasion of India (327/326), however, he was one of the two commanders of the Shield bearers, a heavy infantry unit. He was almost immediately replaced by Seleucus, who commanded these men during the battle on the Hydaspes (May). Although they were victorious, the Macedonian and Greek soldiers refused to go any further and Alexander decided to return to Babylonia. He ordered the construction of a large fleet, which was to be commanded by Nearchus. The voyage down the Indus lasted from November 326 to July 325. It was not an easy cruise: several times, the Macedonians had to fight their way past resisting native towns. Finally, the reached Patala (Old Indian for "camp for ships"), modern Bahmanabad, 75 kilometers north-east of Hyderabad. Not all soldiers continued to the Ocean. The army was too big to remain united. In June, general Craterus had already left the main force and had gone to Carmania with a third of the soldiers. In August, Alexander and three quarters of what remained of the army set out for a long and difficult march through the Gedrosian desert. Nearchus was to ship the remaining quarter of the soldiers, 17,000 - 20,000 men, to Carmania and Babylonia. He was not the first westerner to make the expedition: one Scylax of Caryanda had made the same voyage in the late sixth century BCE. The Indian Ocean Later, Nearchus wrote a book about the naval expedition, which was also to be a voyage of discovery. The Indikê is now lost, but its contents are well-known from several sources, especially the Indikê by Arrian of Nicomedia and the Geography by Strabo of Amasia. It seems to have consisted of two parts: the first half contained a description of India's borders, size, rivers, population, castes, animals -especially elephants-, armies and customs; the second half described Nearchus' voyage home. On 15 September, Nearchus set out from Patala, having waited for the Southwest monsoon to subside. It is not easy to reconstruct the voyage in detail, because it was impossible for the ancients to measure distances at sea; all Nearchus' indications of distance are, therefore, merely guesswork and can hardly be relied upon to reconstruct his expedition. Nonetheless, the information in the Indikê is sufficient to have a general idea of the route and the troubles encountered.note[All places mentioned below can be found in The Times Atlas of the World.] Almost immediately after leaving Patala, it was clear that the Macedonian fleet had set out too soon. (Perhaps the native population had forced Nearchus to leave earlier than he wanted to.) The ships encountered adverse winds and it took them almost a week to reach Ocean. Then, they headed for the North, through the lagoon between the mouths of the rivers Indus and Hab. This was easier, but when they turned to the East, the renewed Southwest monsoon proved too strong to continue. The Macedonians had to wait and fortified their camp with a wall of stone, fearing enemy attacks. They soon discovered that their supplies were running out. They were forced to hunt for mussels, oysters, and razor-fish and had to drink briny water. They remained there for twenty-four days, but were eventually able to continue and after several days reached a place called Morontobara or Woman's Harbor (modern Karachi) and reached the mouth of the Hab. They continued along the coast through the Sonmiani Bay. One night, they camped on the battlefield where Leonnatus, one of Alexander's generals, had defeated the native population, the Oreitans ("Mountain people"). He had left a large food deposit for Nearchus' men - enough for ten days. With the wind behind them and sufficient supplies, they were able to speed up their journey and reached the Hingol river. At this point, the Indikê describes how a native village was destroyed and its inhabitants were killed (text). It is remarkable that the author (Arrian/Nearchus) makes no attempt to justify the attack. Continuing their voyage, Nearchus and his men arrived in the country of the Fish eaters. (It was a common practice among the Greeks to describe people not by their own name, but by one of their most remarkable customs.) These were very poor people living on the sandy strip of land between the Ocean and the Gedrosian desert, and the Macedonians had big difficulties finding supplies. Fortunately, they found an excellent harbor, called Bagisara (modern Ormara). The next stage of the voyage is well-understood: they put in at Colta, Calima (Kalat) and an island called Carnine (Astola), where, according to Nearchus, even the mutton had a fishy taste. They continued and passed Cysa (near Pasni) and Mosarna (near Ras Shahid). Here, a Gedrosian pilot joined them, who led them in two days to modern Gwadar, where they were delighted to see date-palms and gardens. Three days later, Nearchus' men surprised Cyisa, a town near modern Châh Bahâr and took away its supplies. Next, they anchored near a promontory dedicated to the Sun, called Bageia ("dwelling of the gods") by the natives; it is probably identical to Ra's Kûh Lab. From now on, the Macedonians were really hungry, and they must have been happy to see that they could cover large distances. The places that Nearchus mentions in his account of the voyage (Talmena, Canasis, Canate, Taa, Dagaseira) cannot be identified, although it is plausible that the last mentioned town is modern Jâsk. Now Nearchus had reached Carmania and was approaching the Straits of Hormuz. In the Indikê, he notes that the country produced corn, vines and many cultivated trees, except the olive tree that the Greeks loved so much. The sailors saw the Oman peninsula, and Nearchus describes how the helmsman of the flagship, Onesicritus, said that they should go over there, and that Nearchus replied that he did not want to expose the fleet to new dangers (text). Nearchus describes Onesicritus as a fool and also mentions that Onesicritus had (later) falsely claimed to have been the fleet-commander. Most scholars accept Nearchus words, but there may be more to it than meets they eyes. Alexander had started to give important commands to two people at the same time, who had to act as colleagues (e.g., Nearchus had shared the command of Alexander's Greek mercenaries with Asander and had been in charge of the Shield bearers with one Antiochus). It is possible that Onesicritus was not just the helmsman of the flagship, but Nearchus' equal, and it is also possible that Alexander had ordered his navy to conquer the Oman peninsula, which was a Persian satrapy, Maka. Perhaps we should not believe Nearchus' own words. The Persian Gulf Two days later, the Macedonian navy reached Harmozeia (modern Mînâb), one of the largest ports in the Persian Gulf. Here they had a rendez-vous with Alexander, who had marched through the Gedrosian desert (text). Nearchus had believed Alexander was lost and Alexander had believed that he had lost his navy, so it was a happy encounter. It was January 324 when the Macedonian fleet continued its voyage along the coasts of Carmania and Persis. But now, they were traveling along familiar shores and made progress. Among the identifiable places they visited are the island Qeshm, Cape Ra's-e Bostâneh, the island Qeys, Band-e Nakhîlû, the island Lâzeh (where they watched pearl divers), the Bandar-e Shîû promontory, Nây Band, Kangan, the river Mand, Bûsher, the river Dasht-e Palang, Jazireh-ye Shîf and the river Marun, which is the border of Persis and Susiana. Here, the ships could no longer continue along the coast because of the breakers. However, they finally reached the mouth of the Tigris safely. Alexander's final year When Nearchus heard that Alexander was approaching from the east, he decided to wait for his king at Susa, the capital of Susiana. Here, Alexander celebrated the homecoming of his army and navy. Nearchus, Onesicritus and several others received a golden diadem as a reward for their deeds. It was Alexander's wish that his friends, and then other Macedonians, should marry native women; therefore, Nearchus married to a daughter of Alexander's Persian mistress Barsine. It is not known whether they had children, but it is notable that during the conflicts after Alexander's death, Nearchus backed Heracles, the son of Alexander and Barsine, and stayed with his wife. He might not have discarded his wife, at least not immediately, as most of the other Macedonians appear to have done. In the last months of Alexander's life, Nearchus was usually with him, which may have something to do with the fact that Alexander was making plans for a naval expedition against the Arabs of modern Yemen. However, Alexander died on 11 June 323, in Babylon. This was the beginning of the era of Alexander's successors, the Diadochi. In the argument over the succession, Nearchus backed his wife's half-brother, Heracles, but the boy and Barsine were probably killed by Polyperchon, one of the generals fighting for a share of Alexander's inheritance (309). Nearchus spent some time with another general, Antigonus Monophthalmus, and educated his son Demetrius. When Demetrius had his first independent command in a war against Ptolemy, Nearchus assisted him. The two were defeated near Gaza (312). Nearchus' year of death is unknown.	<urn:uuid:54164566-58fe-4136-8b96-96ba3bd37376>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.livius.org/articles/person/nearchus/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00440.warc.gz	en	0.985582	2,678	3.359375	3	[ 0.13056109845638275, 0.275373250246048, 0.2733544707298279, -0.4276597797870636, -0.37113693356513977, -0.7697297930717468, 0.2120135873556137, 0.6368002891540527, -0.4979780912399292, -0.35062259435653687, -0.11690101027488708, -0.7605359554290771, 0.32355135679244995, 0.00144843733869493...	15	Nearchus (c.360-c.300): admiral of Alexander the Great, famous for his exploration of the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf. Nearchus was born on Crete, but his father Androtimus moved to Amphipolis in Macedonia; here, Nearchus grew up. Androtimus must have been an important man, because his son was educated together with the crown prince, Alexander, the son of king Philip of Macedonia (356-336). At some point in around 337, probably as a result of the Pixodarus affair, Nearchus was banished by Philip. He shared his exile with Ptolemy, Harpalus, Erigyius and Laomedon. It is likely that they remained in exile until after Alexander's accession in 336. When Alexander invaded Asia in May 334, Nearchus was with him, and at the beginning of the next year, he was appointed as satrap of Lycia and Pamphylia. This meant that Nearchus was responsible for the ports in southern Turkey; as long he held them, the Persian navy was forced to sail from Cyprus to the Aegean Sea through open waters, which was very risky. He did his job well: during 333, the Persian commanders Memnon of Rhodes and Pharnabazus were active in the Aegean waters, but they received no reinforcements. A town that revolted, Telmessus in Lycia, was reduced without much violence. Meanwhile, the naval war ended when Alexander conquered Phoenicia, the Persian naval base. He went on to Egypt and Babylonia, took the Persian capitals of Susa, Persepolis, Pasargadae and Ecbatana, pursued the defeated Persian king Darius III Codomannus and went on to the northeastern provinces of the former Achaemenid empire, Bactria, and Sogdia. It was at this stage of the war, in the first months of 329, that Alexander recalled Nearchus, who was to come to the east bringing reinforcements of Greek mercenaries. The former satrap of Lycia and Pamphylia shared this command with Asander, who had been satrap of Lydia. It is likely that Nearchus was surprised to see how his youth friend had changed: he was now calling himself "Son of Zeus" and "King of Asia", and wore a diadem and the Persian royal tunic. We do not know what Nearchus did during the Sogdian campaign; during the invasion of India (327/326), however, he was one of the two commanders of the Shield bearers, a heavy infantry unit. He was almost immediately replaced by Seleucus, who commanded these men during the battle on the Hydaspes (May). Although they were victorious, the Macedonian and Greek soldiers refused to go any further and Alexander decided to return to Babylonia. He ordered the construction of a large fleet, which was to be commanded by Nearchus. The voyage down the Indus lasted from November 326 to July 325. It was not an easy cruise: several times, the Macedonians had to fight their way past resisting native towns. Finally, the reached Patala (Old Indian for "camp for ships"), modern Bahmanabad, 75 kilometers north-east of Hyderabad. Not all soldiers continued to the Ocean. The army was too big to remain united. In June, general Craterus had already left the main force and had gone to Carmania with a third of the soldiers. In August, Alexander and three quarters of what remained of the army set out for a long and difficult march through the Gedrosian desert. Nearchus was to ship the remaining quarter of the soldiers, 17,000 - 20,000 men, to Carmania and Babylonia. He was not the first westerner to make the expedition: one Scylax of Caryanda had made the same voyage in the late sixth century BCE. The Indian Ocean Later, Nearchus wrote a book about the naval expedition, which was also to be a voyage of discovery. The Indikê is now lost, but its contents are well-known from several sources, especially the Indikê by Arrian of Nicomedia and the Geography by Strabo of Amasia. It seems to have consisted of two parts: the first half contained a description of India's borders, size, rivers, population, castes, animals -especially elephants-, armies and customs; the second half described Nearchus' voyage home. On 15 September, Nearchus set out from Patala, having waited for the Southwest monsoon to subside. It is not easy to reconstruct the voyage in detail, because it was impossible for the ancients to measure distances at sea; all Nearchus' indications of distance are, therefore, merely guesswork and can hardly be relied upon to reconstruct his expedition. Nonetheless, the information in the Indikê is sufficient to have a general idea of the route and the troubles encountered.note[All places mentioned below can be found in The Times Atlas of the World.] Almost immediately after leaving Patala, it was clear that the Macedonian fleet had set out too soon. (Perhaps the native population had forced Nearchus to leave earlier than he wanted to.) The ships encountered adverse winds and it took them almost a week to reach Ocean. Then, they headed for the North, through the lagoon between the mouths of the rivers Indus and Hab. This was easier, but when they turned to the East, the renewed Southwest monsoon proved too strong to continue. The Macedonians had to wait and fortified their camp with a wall of stone, fearing enemy attacks. They soon discovered that their supplies were running out. They were forced to hunt for mussels, oysters, and razor-fish and had to drink briny water. They remained there for twenty-four days, but were eventually able to continue and after several days reached a place called Morontobara or Woman's Harbor (modern Karachi) and reached the mouth of the Hab. They continued along the coast through the Sonmiani Bay. One night, they camped on the battlefield where Leonnatus, one of Alexander's generals, had defeated the native population, the Oreitans ("Mountain people"). He had left a large food deposit for Nearchus' men - enough for ten days. With the wind behind them and sufficient supplies, they were able to speed up their journey and reached the Hingol river. At this point, the Indikê describes how a native village was destroyed and its inhabitants were killed (text). It is remarkable that the author (Arrian/Nearchus) makes no attempt to justify the attack. Continuing their voyage, Nearchus and his men arrived in the country of the Fish eaters. (It was a common practice among the Greeks to describe people not by their own name, but by one of their most remarkable customs.) These were very poor people living on the sandy strip of land between the Ocean and the Gedrosian desert, and the Macedonians had big difficulties finding supplies. Fortunately, they found an excellent harbor, called Bagisara (modern Ormara). The next stage of the voyage is well-understood: they put in at Colta, Calima (Kalat) and an island called Carnine (Astola), where, according to Nearchus, even the mutton had a fishy taste. They continued and passed Cysa (near Pasni) and Mosarna (near Ras Shahid). Here, a Gedrosian pilot joined them, who led them in two days to modern Gwadar, where they were delighted to see date-palms and gardens. Three days later, Nearchus' men surprised Cyisa, a town near modern Châh Bahâr and took away its supplies. Next, they anchored near a promontory dedicated to the Sun, called Bageia ("dwelling of the gods") by the natives; it is probably identical to Ra's Kûh Lab. From now on, the Macedonians were really hungry, and they must have been happy to see that they could cover large distances. The places that Nearchus mentions in his account of the voyage (Talmena, Canasis, Canate, Taa, Dagaseira) cannot be identified, although it is plausible that the last mentioned town is modern Jâsk. Now Nearchus had reached Carmania and was approaching the Straits of Hormuz. In the Indikê, he notes that the country produced corn, vines and many cultivated trees, except the olive tree that the Greeks loved so much. The sailors saw the Oman peninsula, and Nearchus describes how the helmsman of the flagship, Onesicritus, said that they should go over there, and that Nearchus replied that he did not want to expose the fleet to new dangers (text). Nearchus describes Onesicritus as a fool and also mentions that Onesicritus had (later) falsely claimed to have been the fleet-commander. Most scholars accept Nearchus words, but there may be more to it than meets they eyes. Alexander had started to give important commands to two people at the same time, who had to act as colleagues (e.g., Nearchus had shared the command of Alexander's Greek mercenaries with Asander and had been in charge of the Shield bearers with one Antiochus). It is possible that Onesicritus was not just the helmsman of the flagship, but Nearchus' equal, and it is also possible that Alexander had ordered his navy to conquer the Oman peninsula, which was a Persian satrapy, Maka. Perhaps we should not believe Nearchus' own words. The Persian Gulf Two days later, the Macedonian navy reached Harmozeia (modern Mînâb), one of the largest ports in the Persian Gulf. Here they had a rendez-vous with Alexander, who had marched through the Gedrosian desert (text). Nearchus had believed Alexander was lost and Alexander had believed that he had lost his navy, so it was a happy encounter. It was January 324 when the Macedonian fleet continued its voyage along the coasts of Carmania and Persis. But now, they were traveling along familiar shores and made progress. Among the identifiable places they visited are the island Qeshm, Cape Ra's-e Bostâneh, the island Qeys, Band-e Nakhîlû, the island Lâzeh (where they watched pearl divers), the Bandar-e Shîû promontory, Nây Band, Kangan, the river Mand, Bûsher, the river Dasht-e Palang, Jazireh-ye Shîf and the river Marun, which is the border of Persis and Susiana. Here, the ships could no longer continue along the coast because of the breakers. However, they finally reached the mouth of the Tigris safely. Alexander's final year When Nearchus heard that Alexander was approaching from the east, he decided to wait for his king at Susa, the capital of Susiana. Here, Alexander celebrated the homecoming of his army and navy. Nearchus, Onesicritus and several others received a golden diadem as a reward for their deeds. It was Alexander's wish that his friends, and then other Macedonians, should marry native women; therefore, Nearchus married to a daughter of Alexander's Persian mistress Barsine. It is not known whether they had children, but it is notable that during the conflicts after Alexander's death, Nearchus backed Heracles, the son of Alexander and Barsine, and stayed with his wife. He might not have discarded his wife, at least not immediately, as most of the other Macedonians appear to have done. In the last months of Alexander's life, Nearchus was usually with him, which may have something to do with the fact that Alexander was making plans for a naval expedition against the Arabs of modern Yemen. However, Alexander died on 11 June 323, in Babylon. This was the beginning of the era of Alexander's successors, the Diadochi. In the argument over the succession, Nearchus backed his wife's half-brother, Heracles, but the boy and Barsine were probably killed by Polyperchon, one of the generals fighting for a share of Alexander's inheritance (309). Nearchus spent some time with another general, Antigonus Monophthalmus, and educated his son Demetrius. When Demetrius had his first independent command in a war against Ptolemy, Nearchus assisted him. The two were defeated near Gaza (312). Nearchus' year of death is unknown.	2,700	ENGLISH	1
Banastre Tarleton and his cavalrymen, 'Tarleton's Raiders' are referenced at the battles of Waxhaws, Guilford Courthouse, and Green Spring in my third Revolutionary War story. One of Tarleton's Raiders has a minor but critical role. So who was Banastre Tarleton? Tarleton was born in 1754 to a wealthy Liverpool merchant. His father purchased a Cornet’s commission for him in the King's Dragoon Guards after he graduated from Oxford University. Tarleton volunteered to serve in the colonies. In 1776, at twenty-two, he joined General Sir Henry Clinton’s Charleston Expedition. Ambitious and eager to make a name for himself, he was named Lieutenant Colonel of the newly formed, "British Legion" two years later. It was in 1780 when he was transferred to serve in the Southern Campaign, that his notorious reputation began. His ruthless conduct during several engagements coined the phrase "Bloody Tarleton" and "Tarleton’s Quarter". To give no quarter, a military idiom means to show no mercy or clemency. Tarleton was reported to have annihilated combatants trying to surrender. One such controversial incident was the Waxhaw massacre in May of 1780 in South Carolina, between Abraham Buford’s Continental force and a Loyalist force led by Banastre Tarleton. During the surrender of the American forces, Tarleton was shot at during the truce causing his horse to fall on him. Thinking the truce broken, Loyalists and British troops attacked the Patriot forces including men surrendering. Many were killed, badly injured, or taken prisoner. The Battle of Waxhaws became an American propaganda tool to bolster recruitment and increase hostilities toward the British. There were mixed feelings as to whether this was a massacre or a terrible miscalculation. Cornwallis ordered Tarleton to eradicate General Francis Marion, also known as The Swamp Fox, and his guerrilla fighters. Tarleton pursued Marion for many hours and miles but was unsuccessful in that venture. It’s been suggested by some historians, Tarleton’s ruthless tactics and treatment of the civilian population played a role in encouraging Americans with neutral attitudes toward the war to finally favor the Patriot cause. Cornwallis sent Tarleton across the York River to Gloucester Point seeking an escape route when the British army was trapped at Yorktown. At the time of Cornwallis' surrender, Banastre Tarleton still at Gloucester Point, surrendered the British forces there but he stayed behind and asked General Rochambeau to grant him protection. He feared being personally attacked because of his infamous reputation. Banastre Tarlton was disliked by the British as well as American forces. Many of his superiors believed he was too reckless and ruthless in battle. He was also censured by the Americans for his unmerciful treatment of Continental soldiers. After the surrender at Yorktown, when British leaders were invited to dine with Patriot leaders, Tarleton was not included. Tarleton returned to England, continued his military career, and entered politics. In 1790, on his second attempt, he became a Member of Parliament. His military promotions continued, first to Colonel in 1790, and then, to Major general in 1794. He served under the Duke of Wellington in the Napoleonic Wars. Tarleton was awarded a baronetcy in 1815, and a knighthood by the King in 1820. He died on January 23rd, 1833.	<urn:uuid:b85a82fb-5674-4778-a396-813ee755237b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://colonialquills.blogspot.com/2019/05/banastre-tarleton.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00443.warc.gz	en	0.982286	721	3.34375	3	[ 0.018894605338573456, 0.6137474179267883, 0.257712185382843, 0.15175208449363708, -0.13940055668354034, -0.21901902556419373, 0.5339693427085876, 0.0829627588391304, -0.2686336636543274, -0.28600621223449707, 0.05300673842430115, -0.5364957451820374, 0.1754365861415863, 0.33608099818229675...	2	Banastre Tarleton and his cavalrymen, 'Tarleton's Raiders' are referenced at the battles of Waxhaws, Guilford Courthouse, and Green Spring in my third Revolutionary War story. One of Tarleton's Raiders has a minor but critical role. So who was Banastre Tarleton? Tarleton was born in 1754 to a wealthy Liverpool merchant. His father purchased a Cornet’s commission for him in the King's Dragoon Guards after he graduated from Oxford University. Tarleton volunteered to serve in the colonies. In 1776, at twenty-two, he joined General Sir Henry Clinton’s Charleston Expedition. Ambitious and eager to make a name for himself, he was named Lieutenant Colonel of the newly formed, "British Legion" two years later. It was in 1780 when he was transferred to serve in the Southern Campaign, that his notorious reputation began. His ruthless conduct during several engagements coined the phrase "Bloody Tarleton" and "Tarleton’s Quarter". To give no quarter, a military idiom means to show no mercy or clemency. Tarleton was reported to have annihilated combatants trying to surrender. One such controversial incident was the Waxhaw massacre in May of 1780 in South Carolina, between Abraham Buford’s Continental force and a Loyalist force led by Banastre Tarleton. During the surrender of the American forces, Tarleton was shot at during the truce causing his horse to fall on him. Thinking the truce broken, Loyalists and British troops attacked the Patriot forces including men surrendering. Many were killed, badly injured, or taken prisoner. The Battle of Waxhaws became an American propaganda tool to bolster recruitment and increase hostilities toward the British. There were mixed feelings as to whether this was a massacre or a terrible miscalculation. Cornwallis ordered Tarleton to eradicate General Francis Marion, also known as The Swamp Fox, and his guerrilla fighters. Tarleton pursued Marion for many hours and miles but was unsuccessful in that venture. It’s been suggested by some historians, Tarleton’s ruthless tactics and treatment of the civilian population played a role in encouraging Americans with neutral attitudes toward the war to finally favor the Patriot cause. Cornwallis sent Tarleton across the York River to Gloucester Point seeking an escape route when the British army was trapped at Yorktown. At the time of Cornwallis' surrender, Banastre Tarleton still at Gloucester Point, surrendered the British forces there but he stayed behind and asked General Rochambeau to grant him protection. He feared being personally attacked because of his infamous reputation. Banastre Tarlton was disliked by the British as well as American forces. Many of his superiors believed he was too reckless and ruthless in battle. He was also censured by the Americans for his unmerciful treatment of Continental soldiers. After the surrender at Yorktown, when British leaders were invited to dine with Patriot leaders, Tarleton was not included. Tarleton returned to England, continued his military career, and entered politics. In 1790, on his second attempt, he became a Member of Parliament. His military promotions continued, first to Colonel in 1790, and then, to Major general in 1794. He served under the Duke of Wellington in the Napoleonic Wars. Tarleton was awarded a baronetcy in 1815, and a knighthood by the King in 1820. He died on January 23rd, 1833.	738	ENGLISH	1
Nazism comes from the phrase National Socialist German Workers' Party. During the first and the second world war a lot of events were carried out that left a lot of impact in today’s history . One of the countries which was hardly hit by such events is Germany .In Germany one of the event that happened during this time was the formation of the Nazism party. This in particular was the practice as well as the ideology of the Nazi Germany and the Nazi party. It involved anti-Semitism as well as biological racism. This party or rather ideology did present itself by use of strategies, policicies and philosophies meaning that it was ultra-right from politics. It is worth noting that this party as well as its ideology believed in the mightiness of one race as well as believing that Germany was meant for Aryan nation. It was also asserted by those who were associated with the Nazism that the race which posed greatest risk as far a Germany’s Aryan race was concerned were the Jews. They argued that Jews were overdependence race who attached themselves to the movements and ideologies so as to secure their preservation or to avoid being eliminated . It is worth noting also that, the worst economic hard times popularly known as the Great Depression was a period which started prior to the second world war and extended to 1940s. It is considered as the event which had a lot of impact to the entire world economy. It is therefore used as a lesson in the 21 century to show how , in case measures are not taken, economy of the world can turn down. It was in attempt of saving Germany from the impacts of the worlds economics hard time, that Germany saw it necessary to have an economy which was managed as well as being neither communist nor capitalist. The capitalist and the communist were accused by Nazis that they were involved with the Jews interests as well as their influences. The support for nationalist which is a kind of socialism was declared mainly to provide German economic security, considerable wages, taking care of the welfare of the workers as well as protection of exploitation from capitalist(Turner, p. 77). One of the greatest crimes done against humanity was done by the Nazis party .It was the worst crime recorded in history and involved millions of Jews being killed as well as other people who were not affiliate to the Aryans also losing their lives. What facilitated this action was a consolidation of the following aspects. - Passive consent or active cooperation of a major portion of the population of the Germany . - The fact that the Nazis had control over the machinery’s state. - Anti-Semitism which was deeply rooted and also being common to all the European countries affiliated to Christianity. It is important to note that this tragic event took place after the expanded economic as well as political crisis of the early 1920s. Germany became a democracy after the defeat of the World War I. The new government that was formed by the liberal parties as well as the social democrats .A lot of inflation as a result of the war followed and this had an enormous impact on the economy of Germany. Also the inflation was characterized by the high number of unemployed people at that time as well as people fearing that the 19th century poverty would hit the country again. At all this time, the Jews were being blamed as the root cause of all these problems. During this period Hitler was the chief leader of the Nazi party and it was gaining popularity since it was getting more votes than the other parties during the elections. This popularity was as a result of the promises which were being given to the citizens and such promises included the restoration of job opportunities, restoration of honor to the Germans as well as restoration of order in the political arena. When the Hitler’s party came to rule, democracy as well as all the human rights were suspended and thereafter Germany was ruled by use of dictatorship. Hitler, being a leader in Germany, he is believed to have joined the German Worker’s Party at an early age of 30 years. This was in 1919 and he was determined to do anything possible to ensure its success. First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! It is important for the writer to mention that the Worker’s party ad a total of seven members at the time who formed its committee. Hitler at the moment was one of them. Hitler had to come up with a brilliant idea which would see the members of his party increasing so as to form a larger party and eventually form a government which would be endorsed by the people. To do this he had to come up with means of ensuring that his party was popular and in this regard enjoy the largest portion of the votes during elections(Redles, p. 12). To achieve his objectives, he saw it necessary to ask the seven members committee, including him to look for more people to join the party. This was to be realized by ensuring that each member had to convince their friends to join the party. This saw only afew of more friends attending the public rallies that followed. They also tried to print invitation cards but all this effort was in vain. An advertisement was also planned to be placed in a newspaper and Hitler had to assist in achieving this. Also, with his assistance a public meeting which was attended by a significantly high number of people was conducted .The committee members were worried that there would be no enough people to fill the place but as a result it was attended by more audience than expected. This meeting was held on 16th October, 1919.During the meeting, it was scheduled that Hitler would be the second speaker. This was his first time to appear in such meeting and also the audience were in doubt that he was in a position to hold such high profile positions. To their surprise , Hitler was in a position to address them and astound them with high emotions and at time he was being hysterical when making speech. This emerged to be an important move as far as his political career was concerned. He was even quoted commenting on the manner in which he was pleased and satisfied to have addressed such a crowd for the very first time during his political career. The people who attended the public meeting were generous enough to donate some money which in return would be used to advance the popularity of Hitler’s party. The money got in use and this time round , the leaders, Hitler included saw it necessary to use it to buy more printing leaflets for advertising. Since Hitler identified himself as worth and also proved to be charismatic during the public meeting, he was made by the party of the German Workers’ to be the main figure during the meeting. It is during his meeting that he started paling against the Versailles Treaty as well as delivering lecture which were considered to be against Semitic. Jews started to be blamed as the ones causing problems in Germany .This eventually resulted to more people attending the public meetings as well as more and more people joining the party. In 1920, Hitler moved an extra mile by taking the control of the party. He also decided to make young people to join the party. Those people were from the army which he was previously serving before joining the party. A colleague by the name Captain Ernst assisted him to recruit the young men to the party. Captain Ernst also played a very crucial part in the rise of Hitler to power. In Munich, there were many estranged troops as well as ex-troops who were craving for exploration as well as a aversion for calm which was brought about by the Versailles Treaty and the consequential democratic republic. All of them ended up joining the party of German workers in large numbers making the party more popular as well as powerful. This was also regarded or rather considered as a very crucial part towards popularizing the German’s Workers Party. Again, this put Hitler in a better position as it was now becoming much easier for him to rise to power. At this juncture, there were other several groups affiliated to other political parties which were interested in having more members in their political groups. Marxists in this case were more successful and as a result, a lot of anxiety started to grow among the German people fearing that the situation might turn to be worse like in Russia-Emerging of Communist rebellion in Germany. Hitler resolved to detest it by associating Jews with Marxism (Goodrick-Clarke, p. 42). Hitler was also aware of the manner in which a political group which does not support possible Communist rebellion may possibly take part on the Germans people anxiety of and ultimately gain support. It was in February 1920 when Hitler became delighted due to the fact that he conducted a public meeting which was attended by many people than expected as well as a high number of Communists. This, according to Hitler was translated to be a success towards achievements of his stipulated goals and now he had no doubt that he was almost to achieve what he was after; power. The shouting between the German Worker’s and the Communists is what preceded the speech of Hitler during that meeting. During his speech, he delineated what the German Worker’s party was after and these are commonly known as the 25 points of the Germans Workers Party. He also stated the platform of the political party and included reforms in education, rejecting of the Versailles Treaty, Union of all the German Reich, claim for more additional territories, rejecting Jews citizenship or rather Jews were not considered to be Germans ,rejection of religions which were considered to endanger German race and lastly to establish a strong government which would over see implementation of the required legislation. The crowd was also asked to approve all the twenty five points and as they did, Hitler counted the meeting as a major achievement in his political career. He also saw it necessary to identify a symbol which would be associated with his movement and what he chose was the infamous swastika(Allen, p. 58). This symbol was not invented by Hitler but used to exist even when he attended Benedictine school. The name given to it was mainly because the monetary was beautified using the swastikas. This was an important symbol since upon being placed in the white circle bearing a red background, it eventually made the party more popular than it was before. According to Hitler, the red in the symbol was a representation of social idea while national idea was represented by the white color. Hitler identified the mission of the party as a struggle for victory as well as success in creative work. The idea of creative work was considered to be anti-Semitic ever and always. After meeting some of his achievements and eventually realizing that he was on his way to power, he decided to change the name of his party from German Workers’ Party to National Socialists German Workers’ Party. The short form of the name of this party is Nazi. The party that was now strong was composed of people who were against Christianity, racist as well as being anti-Christian. As seen in the discussion above, the leaders of the Nazi party were very aware that if they used people to gain popularity, they would definitely rise to power and eventually achieve their egos. During the upshot of the Great depression in the year 1929, the Nazi party had a very good chance of snatching power in Germany and eventually started to carry out genocide. This is because they had the right people in the office and this facilitated their rise to power. It is worth noting that although Hitler was so much involved with helping Germans rise to power, he was not a German himself. Hitler was an Australian. This was very ironical considering all the efforts that he put as well as sacrifice so as to see his party becoming the German government. In 1933, Hitler’s party rose to power in January (Read, p. 142). Hitler now had all the power of Germany. He had now to organize how to head Germany while in the position where he worked over the line of his life. This is when the Nazi-led German started to experience Hitler’s government which was dominated by his dictatorship. The massacre of Jews eventually started upon Hitler assuming the office. It is during this period when Hitler was in office that the Jewish community were denied all their rights and also executed by Hitler’s government. This period spanned for more than 12 years and during this time Jews’ properties were destroyed, many were killed and others lost their citizenship. Among the other things which they were denied included using of public telephones, using transport systems as well as being denied the right to use public infrastructure including public amenities such as schools and hospitals. This means they were not being treated as Germans, they were being looked at by Germans as inferior human beings. The rise of Nazism was mainly facilitated by the efforts of Hitler who was determined to do everything he could to ensure that he was in power. He played politics by promising people things which he could not deliver once in power. The workers were convinced to join and support his party upon hearing that Hitler’s party would ensure economic recovery and increase job opportunities. Although these were the positive promises, there were also negative promises such as those in favor of Germans and at the same time against Jews. Once in power, he became a dictator and facilitated exploitation of Jews. All these things were done using Nazi party. Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:bbfa792f-ac53-4f6f-9c83-4e8816d7e044>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essaysexperts.com/essays/history/the-rise-of-nazism.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00420.warc.gz	en	0.995435	2,729	3.4375	3	[ -0.2646864056587219, 0.40533778071403503, -0.3200915455818176, -0.09479890763759613, 0.2521929144859314, 0.3651791512966156, 0.1522817313671112, 0.2585184574127197, -0.2309015989303589, -0.20520804822444916, 0.4111024737358093, 0.1606261432170868, 0.05923990532755852, 0.1784893125295639, ...	1	Nazism comes from the phrase National Socialist German Workers' Party. During the first and the second world war a lot of events were carried out that left a lot of impact in today’s history . One of the countries which was hardly hit by such events is Germany .In Germany one of the event that happened during this time was the formation of the Nazism party. This in particular was the practice as well as the ideology of the Nazi Germany and the Nazi party. It involved anti-Semitism as well as biological racism. This party or rather ideology did present itself by use of strategies, policicies and philosophies meaning that it was ultra-right from politics. It is worth noting that this party as well as its ideology believed in the mightiness of one race as well as believing that Germany was meant for Aryan nation. It was also asserted by those who were associated with the Nazism that the race which posed greatest risk as far a Germany’s Aryan race was concerned were the Jews. They argued that Jews were overdependence race who attached themselves to the movements and ideologies so as to secure their preservation or to avoid being eliminated . It is worth noting also that, the worst economic hard times popularly known as the Great Depression was a period which started prior to the second world war and extended to 1940s. It is considered as the event which had a lot of impact to the entire world economy. It is therefore used as a lesson in the 21 century to show how , in case measures are not taken, economy of the world can turn down. It was in attempt of saving Germany from the impacts of the worlds economics hard time, that Germany saw it necessary to have an economy which was managed as well as being neither communist nor capitalist. The capitalist and the communist were accused by Nazis that they were involved with the Jews interests as well as their influences. The support for nationalist which is a kind of socialism was declared mainly to provide German economic security, considerable wages, taking care of the welfare of the workers as well as protection of exploitation from capitalist(Turner, p. 77). One of the greatest crimes done against humanity was done by the Nazis party .It was the worst crime recorded in history and involved millions of Jews being killed as well as other people who were not affiliate to the Aryans also losing their lives. What facilitated this action was a consolidation of the following aspects. - Passive consent or active cooperation of a major portion of the population of the Germany . - The fact that the Nazis had control over the machinery’s state. - Anti-Semitism which was deeply rooted and also being common to all the European countries affiliated to Christianity. It is important to note that this tragic event took place after the expanded economic as well as political crisis of the early 1920s. Germany became a democracy after the defeat of the World War I. The new government that was formed by the liberal parties as well as the social democrats .A lot of inflation as a result of the war followed and this had an enormous impact on the economy of Germany. Also the inflation was characterized by the high number of unemployed people at that time as well as people fearing that the 19th century poverty would hit the country again. At all this time, the Jews were being blamed as the root cause of all these problems. During this period Hitler was the chief leader of the Nazi party and it was gaining popularity since it was getting more votes than the other parties during the elections. This popularity was as a result of the promises which were being given to the citizens and such promises included the restoration of job opportunities, restoration of honor to the Germans as well as restoration of order in the political arena. When the Hitler’s party came to rule, democracy as well as all the human rights were suspended and thereafter Germany was ruled by use of dictatorship. Hitler, being a leader in Germany, he is believed to have joined the German Worker’s Party at an early age of 30 years. This was in 1919 and he was determined to do anything possible to ensure its success. First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! It is important for the writer to mention that the Worker’s party ad a total of seven members at the time who formed its committee. Hitler at the moment was one of them. Hitler had to come up with a brilliant idea which would see the members of his party increasing so as to form a larger party and eventually form a government which would be endorsed by the people. To do this he had to come up with means of ensuring that his party was popular and in this regard enjoy the largest portion of the votes during elections(Redles, p. 12). To achieve his objectives, he saw it necessary to ask the seven members committee, including him to look for more people to join the party. This was to be realized by ensuring that each member had to convince their friends to join the party. This saw only afew of more friends attending the public rallies that followed. They also tried to print invitation cards but all this effort was in vain. An advertisement was also planned to be placed in a newspaper and Hitler had to assist in achieving this. Also, with his assistance a public meeting which was attended by a significantly high number of people was conducted .The committee members were worried that there would be no enough people to fill the place but as a result it was attended by more audience than expected. This meeting was held on 16th October, 1919.During the meeting, it was scheduled that Hitler would be the second speaker. This was his first time to appear in such meeting and also the audience were in doubt that he was in a position to hold such high profile positions. To their surprise , Hitler was in a position to address them and astound them with high emotions and at time he was being hysterical when making speech. This emerged to be an important move as far as his political career was concerned. He was even quoted commenting on the manner in which he was pleased and satisfied to have addressed such a crowd for the very first time during his political career. The people who attended the public meeting were generous enough to donate some money which in return would be used to advance the popularity of Hitler’s party. The money got in use and this time round , the leaders, Hitler included saw it necessary to use it to buy more printing leaflets for advertising. Since Hitler identified himself as worth and also proved to be charismatic during the public meeting, he was made by the party of the German Workers’ to be the main figure during the meeting. It is during his meeting that he started paling against the Versailles Treaty as well as delivering lecture which were considered to be against Semitic. Jews started to be blamed as the ones causing problems in Germany .This eventually resulted to more people attending the public meetings as well as more and more people joining the party. In 1920, Hitler moved an extra mile by taking the control of the party. He also decided to make young people to join the party. Those people were from the army which he was previously serving before joining the party. A colleague by the name Captain Ernst assisted him to recruit the young men to the party. Captain Ernst also played a very crucial part in the rise of Hitler to power. In Munich, there were many estranged troops as well as ex-troops who were craving for exploration as well as a aversion for calm which was brought about by the Versailles Treaty and the consequential democratic republic. All of them ended up joining the party of German workers in large numbers making the party more popular as well as powerful. This was also regarded or rather considered as a very crucial part towards popularizing the German’s Workers Party. Again, this put Hitler in a better position as it was now becoming much easier for him to rise to power. At this juncture, there were other several groups affiliated to other political parties which were interested in having more members in their political groups. Marxists in this case were more successful and as a result, a lot of anxiety started to grow among the German people fearing that the situation might turn to be worse like in Russia-Emerging of Communist rebellion in Germany. Hitler resolved to detest it by associating Jews with Marxism (Goodrick-Clarke, p. 42). Hitler was also aware of the manner in which a political group which does not support possible Communist rebellion may possibly take part on the Germans people anxiety of and ultimately gain support. It was in February 1920 when Hitler became delighted due to the fact that he conducted a public meeting which was attended by many people than expected as well as a high number of Communists. This, according to Hitler was translated to be a success towards achievements of his stipulated goals and now he had no doubt that he was almost to achieve what he was after; power. The shouting between the German Worker’s and the Communists is what preceded the speech of Hitler during that meeting. During his speech, he delineated what the German Worker’s party was after and these are commonly known as the 25 points of the Germans Workers Party. He also stated the platform of the political party and included reforms in education, rejecting of the Versailles Treaty, Union of all the German Reich, claim for more additional territories, rejecting Jews citizenship or rather Jews were not considered to be Germans ,rejection of religions which were considered to endanger German race and lastly to establish a strong government which would over see implementation of the required legislation. The crowd was also asked to approve all the twenty five points and as they did, Hitler counted the meeting as a major achievement in his political career. He also saw it necessary to identify a symbol which would be associated with his movement and what he chose was the infamous swastika(Allen, p. 58). This symbol was not invented by Hitler but used to exist even when he attended Benedictine school. The name given to it was mainly because the monetary was beautified using the swastikas. This was an important symbol since upon being placed in the white circle bearing a red background, it eventually made the party more popular than it was before. According to Hitler, the red in the symbol was a representation of social idea while national idea was represented by the white color. Hitler identified the mission of the party as a struggle for victory as well as success in creative work. The idea of creative work was considered to be anti-Semitic ever and always. After meeting some of his achievements and eventually realizing that he was on his way to power, he decided to change the name of his party from German Workers’ Party to National Socialists German Workers’ Party. The short form of the name of this party is Nazi. The party that was now strong was composed of people who were against Christianity, racist as well as being anti-Christian. As seen in the discussion above, the leaders of the Nazi party were very aware that if they used people to gain popularity, they would definitely rise to power and eventually achieve their egos. During the upshot of the Great depression in the year 1929, the Nazi party had a very good chance of snatching power in Germany and eventually started to carry out genocide. This is because they had the right people in the office and this facilitated their rise to power. It is worth noting that although Hitler was so much involved with helping Germans rise to power, he was not a German himself. Hitler was an Australian. This was very ironical considering all the efforts that he put as well as sacrifice so as to see his party becoming the German government. In 1933, Hitler’s party rose to power in January (Read, p. 142). Hitler now had all the power of Germany. He had now to organize how to head Germany while in the position where he worked over the line of his life. This is when the Nazi-led German started to experience Hitler’s government which was dominated by his dictatorship. The massacre of Jews eventually started upon Hitler assuming the office. It is during this period when Hitler was in office that the Jewish community were denied all their rights and also executed by Hitler’s government. This period spanned for more than 12 years and during this time Jews’ properties were destroyed, many were killed and others lost their citizenship. Among the other things which they were denied included using of public telephones, using transport systems as well as being denied the right to use public infrastructure including public amenities such as schools and hospitals. This means they were not being treated as Germans, they were being looked at by Germans as inferior human beings. The rise of Nazism was mainly facilitated by the efforts of Hitler who was determined to do everything he could to ensure that he was in power. He played politics by promising people things which he could not deliver once in power. The workers were convinced to join and support his party upon hearing that Hitler’s party would ensure economic recovery and increase job opportunities. Although these were the positive promises, there were also negative promises such as those in favor of Germans and at the same time against Jews. Once in power, he became a dictator and facilitated exploitation of Jews. All these things were done using Nazi party. Most popular orders	2,726	ENGLISH	1
The first Thanksgiving was something of a miracle. We see pictures of tables lined with food and imagine an incredible feast. We often forget the journey and the hardships that the Pilgrims endured to celebrate the first Thanksgiving. Thanksgiving took place in 1621 after a year of incredible hardships experienced by the pilgrims. The Pilgrims left England in search of religious freedom and were willing to make many personal sacrifices to experience freedom. The freedom that they desired was going to come at an extremely high price. Before the Pilgrims left England, they were given published guides that gave basic traveling advice. The first instruction was to make a will because most people died during such a trip. The goal of the Pilgrims was to reach Virginia, where other English settlers had gone over a decade before. The Mayflower left England in 1620 and soon encountered strong storms, which blew the ship well off course. Instead of reaching Virginia and settling there, the Mayflower landed in Massachusetts. As they located an appropriate location to build, winter was swiftly approaching. The Pilgrims began building homes in the new settlement they named Plymouth. Winter set in upon them and there was little chance to build appropriate shelter. The storms were severe and with only rudimentary shelter, there was little protection from the elements. The food supplies that were sparse to begin with ran out. Not only did the Pilgrims have to endure harsh winter weather but also the prospect of starvation. After winter set in, so did the sickness. In just a few weeks, almost all of the Pilgrims were severely ill. Within three months of settling Plymouth half of their group had died. The fear of attack from Indians caused the Pilgrims to dig their graves at night. The Pilgrims dug seven times more graves than they were able to build homes that winter. As Spring arrived, so did assistance from the Indians. The Indians taught the settlers to plant corn but their first crops were less than spectacular. However, the Pilgrims made a choice that we might find unusual. After a year of disappointments, diseases and death, the choice was to be thankful. These hearty settlers chose to celebrate their blessings. Think about that for just a moment. Through all of the incredible hardships and sorrows, they gave thanks. Thanksgiving is about showing gratitude for the blessings we have. If the Pilgrims could be thankful following a year of misfortune, surely we can give thanks in our abundance. The origins of Thanksgiving were humble but the Pilgrim spirit lives on today. When you sit at your table this year, remember how far we have come and how much we should be willing to give thanks.	<urn:uuid:47c62e7b-b46e-43e3-8f15-8a02295e2f3f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://yuptab.com/the-origin-of-thanksgiving/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00002.warc.gz	en	0.982945	537	4	4	[ 0.14838747680187225, 0.19543176889419556, 0.6083506941795349, -0.25726786255836487, -0.03685971722006798, -0.030520234256982803, -0.027250250801444054, 0.3350376784801483, 0.14217416942119598, 0.15199428796768188, -0.15353159606456757, 0.17099367082118988, -0.2067669928073883, 0.3277157545...	2	The first Thanksgiving was something of a miracle. We see pictures of tables lined with food and imagine an incredible feast. We often forget the journey and the hardships that the Pilgrims endured to celebrate the first Thanksgiving. Thanksgiving took place in 1621 after a year of incredible hardships experienced by the pilgrims. The Pilgrims left England in search of religious freedom and were willing to make many personal sacrifices to experience freedom. The freedom that they desired was going to come at an extremely high price. Before the Pilgrims left England, they were given published guides that gave basic traveling advice. The first instruction was to make a will because most people died during such a trip. The goal of the Pilgrims was to reach Virginia, where other English settlers had gone over a decade before. The Mayflower left England in 1620 and soon encountered strong storms, which blew the ship well off course. Instead of reaching Virginia and settling there, the Mayflower landed in Massachusetts. As they located an appropriate location to build, winter was swiftly approaching. The Pilgrims began building homes in the new settlement they named Plymouth. Winter set in upon them and there was little chance to build appropriate shelter. The storms were severe and with only rudimentary shelter, there was little protection from the elements. The food supplies that were sparse to begin with ran out. Not only did the Pilgrims have to endure harsh winter weather but also the prospect of starvation. After winter set in, so did the sickness. In just a few weeks, almost all of the Pilgrims were severely ill. Within three months of settling Plymouth half of their group had died. The fear of attack from Indians caused the Pilgrims to dig their graves at night. The Pilgrims dug seven times more graves than they were able to build homes that winter. As Spring arrived, so did assistance from the Indians. The Indians taught the settlers to plant corn but their first crops were less than spectacular. However, the Pilgrims made a choice that we might find unusual. After a year of disappointments, diseases and death, the choice was to be thankful. These hearty settlers chose to celebrate their blessings. Think about that for just a moment. Through all of the incredible hardships and sorrows, they gave thanks. Thanksgiving is about showing gratitude for the blessings we have. If the Pilgrims could be thankful following a year of misfortune, surely we can give thanks in our abundance. The origins of Thanksgiving were humble but the Pilgrim spirit lives on today. When you sit at your table this year, remember how far we have come and how much we should be willing to give thanks.	542	ENGLISH	1
Weavers Iron Smelters and Factory Owners CBSE Class 8 History Chapter with detailed explanation of the chapter ‘Weavers Iron Smelters and Factory Owners‘ along with question answers. Given here is the complete explanation of the chapter and all the exercises, Question and Answers given at the back of the chapter. In this chapter we will discuss about the two very important industries during the time of the British rule i.e. textiles, iron and steel. Textile, iron and steel industries were important for the industrial progress in the modern world. Britain started to be known as the industrial nation due to the presence of mechanized cotton production. In 1850s, it came to be known as the workshop of the world because iron and steel industry started growing in Britain during this period. This industrialization in Britain was closely connected with the colonization of India. As we have already seen this in chapter No. 2 that how East India Company became master of our land because it wanted to trade in our country for the sake of profit. In the late 18th century, Britain was just procuring goods from India for selling them in Europe to earn profits out of the sale of these goods. As the industrial production increased in Britain, now India was seen as the market for its products and the British started flooding the Indian markets with their goods. How this inflow of goods affected our industries and market will be discussed in this chapter. First of all, we must know about the textile market and its demand in the world. Before the British conquest over Bengal, India was the world’s largest producer of cotton textiles. The Indian cotton textile was famous for both its finest quality and the exquisite craftsmanship. Indian textiles were traded in Southeast Asia and west and central Asia. In 16th century various European companies started purchasing Indian textiles for sale in Europe. For e.g. Patola weave was woven in Surat, Ahmedabad and Patan and this type of weave was famous in Indonesia so it was highly valued there. Even many words related to the Indian words which were used for various types of textiles are still prevalent in English and other languages. Such words tell us about our history. Let’s see. The fine cotton cloth which was first seen by the European traders was the one which was carried by the Arab traders in Mosul, a city in present day Iraq. So they started referring it as ‘muslin’ cloth. This word earned them a lot of money. When the Portuguese came to India for procuring spices, they landed at Calicut. The textile which they took back to Europe came to be known as “calico”, named after the place from where it was purchased. There were many words which show the popularity of Indian textile in the western world. In 1730, the East India Company used to send order details to its representatives in Calcutta for placing demand for textile pieces. ‘Piece’ here means a cloth which was 20 yards long and 1yard wide. The orders were generally placed 2 years in advance as it was the time required to send orders to India. So, if we take a look at the different varieties of clothes there was chintz, cossaes and bandanna. All these words are derived from Hindi words. Chintz is basically Chhint, a piece of cloth with flowery design. From 1680s the floral designs became so famous in England and Europe that the rich people, even the queen herself started wearing this Indian fabric. Just like this, Bandanna is derived from the word Bandanna which is a colored printed scarf for the neck or head. It is basically a coloured cloth produced through a method of tying and dying. Many other fabrics came to be known from their place of origin such as Kasimbazar, Patna, Calcutta, Orissa, Charpoore, etc. This shows the popularity of Indian textile in other parts of the world. During the early 18th century, as the demand for Indian textile grew in England, the wool and silk makers started protesting against the import of textiles from India. So, in 1720 an act known as The Calico Act was made in order to ban the use of printed cotton chintz textile. At this time the textile industry of England was at its budding stage and it was difficult to compete with the Indian textiles. English producers wanted to safeguard their market from the Indian textiles hence, a calico printing industry grew under the protection of the government. They used to copy the Indian printed designs on white muslin or plain Indian cloth. This competition led to introduction of technology in England. In 1764 the spinning jenny was invented by John Kaye. It was a spinning machine that could operate several spindles in single rotation. This increased the production of textile industry. With the invention of steam engine by Richard Arkwright in 1786, a revolution was experienced in cotton textile weaving. Now weaving cotton became speedy and cheaper also. However, Indian textile was still dominating the market till the end of the 18th century. Many European companies such as the English, the Dutch and the French earned a handsome profit out of this. These companies purchased cotton and silk by importing silver from their native countries. But soon after acquiring diwani over Bengal, the East India Company started collecting enough revenue to finance their trade purposes and stopped importing silver from England. So, now a question arises as to where were the major centres of weaving in the late 18th century? Some of them were at Lahore and Sirhind in Punjab, Ahmedabad and Surat in Gujarat, Benaras in U.P., Patna in Bihar, Madras and Pondicherry in Tamil Nadu, etc. Now that we know about the Indian textile and its huge demand in the world, we should also know who use to make this finest textile? Weavers generally belonged to the communities that had the quality of fine weaving. Their skills were carried on by the next generations. There were so many names for the weavers in different parts of India, like tanti in Bengal, Julahas or momin of north India, sale, kaikollar and devangs of south India. For weaving, first spinning was done by the women. In this task charkha and takli were used. The thread was spun on the charkhas and then rolled on the takli. In most of the communities weaving was a talk done by men. Rangrez used to dye the thread to make colored textiles and chhipigars were the block printer specialists to make print cloth. Let’s discuss how our textile industry came to a decline. The growth and development of British industries affected Indian textiles producers in several ways such as: The Indian weavers were badly hit by unemployment. English and European companies stopped buying Indian goods and their agents were not providing advance to secure supplies. Finally the weavers had to write petitions to the government to help them. The situation got worse when in 1830s British cotton overtook the Indian market as there was huge inflow of the cotton from Britain. Not only this, by 1880s 2/3rd cotton clothes which were worn by the Indians were made of cotton which was imported from Britain. This made many Indian weavers and spinners jobless. However, handloom weaving still existed for some reasons, like: Some clothes were not supplied by the machines. For example, Saris with intricate borders or cloth with traditional woven pattern were not manufactured by machines. Coarse cloth used by the poor was not produced by the British textiles. Sholapur in western India and Madura of South India became important centres of weaving in the late 19th century. Even Mahatma Gandhi during the national movement urged people to boycott English textile and use hand woven Khadi. This, later on became a symbol of nationalism due to which charkha was put on the flag of Indian National Congress in 1931. Weavers and spinners who became jobless, finally chose other job options for example, some became farmers or left for Africa and South America in search of work or many went to Bombay, Ahmedabad, Sholapur, Nagpur and Kanpur to work in cotton mills. The first cotton mill in India was set up at Bombay in 1854. Bombay, from the early 19th century grew as an important port for the export of raw cotton from India to England and China. It was also close to western India which had black soil fit for the growth of cotton. So it was easy for them to procure raw material from nearby places. By 1900, there were over 84 mills which were operating in Bombay and most of them were established by the Parsis or Gujratis. The cotton mills were present in other cities also for example, the first mill at Ahmedabad was started in 1861 and a mill in Kanpur was also established after that. Many poor peasants, artisans and agricultural labourers moved to the cities to work in these mills. In the initial years, Indian textile industries faced many problems as there was tough competition from the foreign textile industry. The support which Indian textile industries first received from the Britishers was during the first world war, when they received the order to produce cloth for military. The story of Indian steel should begin with the famous story of Tipu Sultan who was king of Mysore till 1799; he fought four wars against the British with his legendary sword. This sword is now displayed in a museum in England. The specialty of the sword was that it was made of high carbon steel known as Wootz that could easily rip the enemy’s armour. Wootz is produced in south India. Swords made up of this steel had a sharp edge with a flowing water pattern. The pattern was due to the very small carbon crystals embedded in the iron. Francis Buchanan gave an account on how this Wootz steel was produced in many hundreds of smelting furnaces in Mysore. According to him, iron was mixed with charcoal and put inside small clay pots. Keeping intricate control of temperatures, the smelters produced steel ingots that were used for sword making not just in India but in West and Central Asia too. Wootz is and anglicized version of the Kannada word ukku, Telegu hukku and Tamil word urukku which mean steel. Many European scientists were fascinated with the Indian steel wootz. Michael Faraday spent four years in studying the properties of Wootz. But soon the process of making Wootz steel declined because the sword and armour making industry died as India was taken over by the various European powers. The iron and steel from England displaced the iron and steel produced by the craftsmen of India. Although there were furnaces present in every village, especially in Bihar and central India because it was easy to procure the raw material from the nearby ores and generally, the work of smelting was done by both men and women but by the late 19th century the craft of iron smelting started declining. One of the reasons behind this was the new forest laws which prevented people from entering the reserved forests from where they could get their raw materials. Entry was allowed in some forests but the smelters were charged with heavy taxes. This increased their expenses and reduced their income. Moreover, with the availability of British steel in India, the industries started using the imported steel for making utensils and other things. In 1904, an American geologist Charles Weld and Dorabji Tata, the eldest son of Jamsetji Tata saw Agaria tribe people who were carrying basketloads of iron ore from a hill. They were the Rajhara hills. Though it was one of the finest ores, but it was difficult to setup a steel plant there because of the non availability of water. Finally, a place with the help of agarias was found and a plant known as Bhilai Steel Plant was set up there. After few years, a large forest area was cleared on the banks of river Subarnarekha and a factory was setup with an Industrial Township known as Jamshedpur. The Tata Iron and Steel Company started producing steel here in 1912. Though in the initial years of the Company, the Britishers were not purchasing steel from it as they preferred British steel and were not sure about the quality of Indian steel, but during the First World War, to meet the needs of Indian railways, steel of TISCO came into demand. Just like cotton, iron and steel also expanded when British imports declined in India and the market for industrial goods increased. This occurred during the first world war. This also happened due to the development of both nationalist movement and also the growing demand of government protection. British government had to concede many demands in order to retain its rule over India. Weavers Iron Smelters and Factory Owners Question and answers Q1. What kinds of cloth had a large market in Europe? A. Cotton and silk textiles had huge market in Europe. Indian textiles were famous for their fine quality and exquisite craftsmanship. Chintz, bandanna, etc. were some varieties of cloth which had a large market in Europe. Cotton textiles with printed floral designs were also like by the people of Europe. Q2. What is jamdani? A. Jamdani is the finest muslin cloth on which decorative motifs were woven on the loom particularly in grey and white color. They were woven with cotton and gold threads. Q3. What is bandanna? A. The word bandanna is derived from Hindi word Bandhhana which means to tie. So bandanna was colored scarf which was produced by tying and dying process. Q4. Who are the agaria? A. The agarias were the iron smelters in India. Q5. Fill in the blanks. (a) The word chintz comes from the word _________. (b) Tipu’s sword was made of_________ steel. (c) India’s textile exports declined in the _________ century. (a) The word chintz comes from the word chhint. (b) Tipu’s sword was made of Wootz steel. (c) India’s textile exports declined in the nineteenth century. Q6. How do the names of different textiles tell us about their histories? A. The names of the textiles tell us about their histories in the following way: Q7. Why did the wool and silk producers in England protest against the import of Indian textiles in the early eighteenth century? A. As the demand of the Indian textile increased in England for its fine quality and beautiful designs, the demand for the textile of England decreased. So, in order to safeguard their interests, the silk and wool producers of England start protesting against the import of Indian textile. Q8. How did the development of cotton industries in Britain affect textile producers in India? A. The development of cotton industries in Britain affected the textile producers in India in the following ways: Q9. Why did the Indian iron smelting industry decline in the nineteenth century? A. The decline of iron and smelting industry was due to the following reasons: (i) The new forest laws of the colonial government prevented people from entering the reserved forests. It became difficult for the iron smelters to find wood for charcoal. Getting iron ore was also a big problem. So, many gave up their craft and looked for other jobs. (ii) In some areas, the government did grant access to the forests but the iron smelters had to pay a very high tax to the forest department for every furnace they used. This reduced their income. (iii) By the late 19th century iron and steel was being imported from Britain. Ironsmiths in India began using the imported iron to manufacture utensils and implements. This inevitably lowered the demand for iron produced by local smelters. Q10. What problems did the Indian textile industry face in the early years of its development? A10. The textile industry face problems in the following ways: Q11. What helped TISCO expand steel production during the First World War? A. It was during the First World War in 1914 that the British steel produced by the industries was fulfilling the war needs of Europe. The import of British steel declined in India. TISCO was able to fill this gap. At the same thime, it was producing shells and cartridge wheels for fulfilling the War needs of Britain. This was also the time when railways were expanding in the country. The government turned to TISCO for the supply of rails. By 1919, the colonial government was purchasing about 90% of the steel that was manufactured by TISCO. Also See :	<urn:uuid:0df6467d-6826-48bc-b550-aaa5b1523d30>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.successcds.net/class-8/social-science/weavers-iron-smelters-and-factory-owners.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00556.warc.gz	en	0.982809	3,511	3.65625	4	[ -0.08716201782226562, 0.13620644807815552, 0.23964227735996246, -0.00893954373896122, 0.12271710485219955, -0.22173888981342316, 0.4997767210006714, 0.12409428507089615, -0.1732645332813263, -0.35613372921943665, 0.06813770532608032, -0.6272039413452148, 0.07588043063879013, 0.283965766429...	2	Weavers Iron Smelters and Factory Owners CBSE Class 8 History Chapter with detailed explanation of the chapter ‘Weavers Iron Smelters and Factory Owners‘ along with question answers. Given here is the complete explanation of the chapter and all the exercises, Question and Answers given at the back of the chapter. In this chapter we will discuss about the two very important industries during the time of the British rule i.e. textiles, iron and steel. Textile, iron and steel industries were important for the industrial progress in the modern world. Britain started to be known as the industrial nation due to the presence of mechanized cotton production. In 1850s, it came to be known as the workshop of the world because iron and steel industry started growing in Britain during this period. This industrialization in Britain was closely connected with the colonization of India. As we have already seen this in chapter No. 2 that how East India Company became master of our land because it wanted to trade in our country for the sake of profit. In the late 18th century, Britain was just procuring goods from India for selling them in Europe to earn profits out of the sale of these goods. As the industrial production increased in Britain, now India was seen as the market for its products and the British started flooding the Indian markets with their goods. How this inflow of goods affected our industries and market will be discussed in this chapter. First of all, we must know about the textile market and its demand in the world. Before the British conquest over Bengal, India was the world’s largest producer of cotton textiles. The Indian cotton textile was famous for both its finest quality and the exquisite craftsmanship. Indian textiles were traded in Southeast Asia and west and central Asia. In 16th century various European companies started purchasing Indian textiles for sale in Europe. For e.g. Patola weave was woven in Surat, Ahmedabad and Patan and this type of weave was famous in Indonesia so it was highly valued there. Even many words related to the Indian words which were used for various types of textiles are still prevalent in English and other languages. Such words tell us about our history. Let’s see. The fine cotton cloth which was first seen by the European traders was the one which was carried by the Arab traders in Mosul, a city in present day Iraq. So they started referring it as ‘muslin’ cloth. This word earned them a lot of money. When the Portuguese came to India for procuring spices, they landed at Calicut. The textile which they took back to Europe came to be known as “calico”, named after the place from where it was purchased. There were many words which show the popularity of Indian textile in the western world. In 1730, the East India Company used to send order details to its representatives in Calcutta for placing demand for textile pieces. ‘Piece’ here means a cloth which was 20 yards long and 1yard wide. The orders were generally placed 2 years in advance as it was the time required to send orders to India. So, if we take a look at the different varieties of clothes there was chintz, cossaes and bandanna. All these words are derived from Hindi words. Chintz is basically Chhint, a piece of cloth with flowery design. From 1680s the floral designs became so famous in England and Europe that the rich people, even the queen herself started wearing this Indian fabric. Just like this, Bandanna is derived from the word Bandanna which is a colored printed scarf for the neck or head. It is basically a coloured cloth produced through a method of tying and dying. Many other fabrics came to be known from their place of origin such as Kasimbazar, Patna, Calcutta, Orissa, Charpoore, etc. This shows the popularity of Indian textile in other parts of the world. During the early 18th century, as the demand for Indian textile grew in England, the wool and silk makers started protesting against the import of textiles from India. So, in 1720 an act known as The Calico Act was made in order to ban the use of printed cotton chintz textile. At this time the textile industry of England was at its budding stage and it was difficult to compete with the Indian textiles. English producers wanted to safeguard their market from the Indian textiles hence, a calico printing industry grew under the protection of the government. They used to copy the Indian printed designs on white muslin or plain Indian cloth. This competition led to introduction of technology in England. In 1764 the spinning jenny was invented by John Kaye. It was a spinning machine that could operate several spindles in single rotation. This increased the production of textile industry. With the invention of steam engine by Richard Arkwright in 1786, a revolution was experienced in cotton textile weaving. Now weaving cotton became speedy and cheaper also. However, Indian textile was still dominating the market till the end of the 18th century. Many European companies such as the English, the Dutch and the French earned a handsome profit out of this. These companies purchased cotton and silk by importing silver from their native countries. But soon after acquiring diwani over Bengal, the East India Company started collecting enough revenue to finance their trade purposes and stopped importing silver from England. So, now a question arises as to where were the major centres of weaving in the late 18th century? Some of them were at Lahore and Sirhind in Punjab, Ahmedabad and Surat in Gujarat, Benaras in U.P., Patna in Bihar, Madras and Pondicherry in Tamil Nadu, etc. Now that we know about the Indian textile and its huge demand in the world, we should also know who use to make this finest textile? Weavers generally belonged to the communities that had the quality of fine weaving. Their skills were carried on by the next generations. There were so many names for the weavers in different parts of India, like tanti in Bengal, Julahas or momin of north India, sale, kaikollar and devangs of south India. For weaving, first spinning was done by the women. In this task charkha and takli were used. The thread was spun on the charkhas and then rolled on the takli. In most of the communities weaving was a talk done by men. Rangrez used to dye the thread to make colored textiles and chhipigars were the block printer specialists to make print cloth. Let’s discuss how our textile industry came to a decline. The growth and development of British industries affected Indian textiles producers in several ways such as: The Indian weavers were badly hit by unemployment. English and European companies stopped buying Indian goods and their agents were not providing advance to secure supplies. Finally the weavers had to write petitions to the government to help them. The situation got worse when in 1830s British cotton overtook the Indian market as there was huge inflow of the cotton from Britain. Not only this, by 1880s 2/3rd cotton clothes which were worn by the Indians were made of cotton which was imported from Britain. This made many Indian weavers and spinners jobless. However, handloom weaving still existed for some reasons, like: Some clothes were not supplied by the machines. For example, Saris with intricate borders or cloth with traditional woven pattern were not manufactured by machines. Coarse cloth used by the poor was not produced by the British textiles. Sholapur in western India and Madura of South India became important centres of weaving in the late 19th century. Even Mahatma Gandhi during the national movement urged people to boycott English textile and use hand woven Khadi. This, later on became a symbol of nationalism due to which charkha was put on the flag of Indian National Congress in 1931. Weavers and spinners who became jobless, finally chose other job options for example, some became farmers or left for Africa and South America in search of work or many went to Bombay, Ahmedabad, Sholapur, Nagpur and Kanpur to work in cotton mills. The first cotton mill in India was set up at Bombay in 1854. Bombay, from the early 19th century grew as an important port for the export of raw cotton from India to England and China. It was also close to western India which had black soil fit for the growth of cotton. So it was easy for them to procure raw material from nearby places. By 1900, there were over 84 mills which were operating in Bombay and most of them were established by the Parsis or Gujratis. The cotton mills were present in other cities also for example, the first mill at Ahmedabad was started in 1861 and a mill in Kanpur was also established after that. Many poor peasants, artisans and agricultural labourers moved to the cities to work in these mills. In the initial years, Indian textile industries faced many problems as there was tough competition from the foreign textile industry. The support which Indian textile industries first received from the Britishers was during the first world war, when they received the order to produce cloth for military. The story of Indian steel should begin with the famous story of Tipu Sultan who was king of Mysore till 1799; he fought four wars against the British with his legendary sword. This sword is now displayed in a museum in England. The specialty of the sword was that it was made of high carbon steel known as Wootz that could easily rip the enemy’s armour. Wootz is produced in south India. Swords made up of this steel had a sharp edge with a flowing water pattern. The pattern was due to the very small carbon crystals embedded in the iron. Francis Buchanan gave an account on how this Wootz steel was produced in many hundreds of smelting furnaces in Mysore. According to him, iron was mixed with charcoal and put inside small clay pots. Keeping intricate control of temperatures, the smelters produced steel ingots that were used for sword making not just in India but in West and Central Asia too. Wootz is and anglicized version of the Kannada word ukku, Telegu hukku and Tamil word urukku which mean steel. Many European scientists were fascinated with the Indian steel wootz. Michael Faraday spent four years in studying the properties of Wootz. But soon the process of making Wootz steel declined because the sword and armour making industry died as India was taken over by the various European powers. The iron and steel from England displaced the iron and steel produced by the craftsmen of India. Although there were furnaces present in every village, especially in Bihar and central India because it was easy to procure the raw material from the nearby ores and generally, the work of smelting was done by both men and women but by the late 19th century the craft of iron smelting started declining. One of the reasons behind this was the new forest laws which prevented people from entering the reserved forests from where they could get their raw materials. Entry was allowed in some forests but the smelters were charged with heavy taxes. This increased their expenses and reduced their income. Moreover, with the availability of British steel in India, the industries started using the imported steel for making utensils and other things. In 1904, an American geologist Charles Weld and Dorabji Tata, the eldest son of Jamsetji Tata saw Agaria tribe people who were carrying basketloads of iron ore from a hill. They were the Rajhara hills. Though it was one of the finest ores, but it was difficult to setup a steel plant there because of the non availability of water. Finally, a place with the help of agarias was found and a plant known as Bhilai Steel Plant was set up there. After few years, a large forest area was cleared on the banks of river Subarnarekha and a factory was setup with an Industrial Township known as Jamshedpur. The Tata Iron and Steel Company started producing steel here in 1912. Though in the initial years of the Company, the Britishers were not purchasing steel from it as they preferred British steel and were not sure about the quality of Indian steel, but during the First World War, to meet the needs of Indian railways, steel of TISCO came into demand. Just like cotton, iron and steel also expanded when British imports declined in India and the market for industrial goods increased. This occurred during the first world war. This also happened due to the development of both nationalist movement and also the growing demand of government protection. British government had to concede many demands in order to retain its rule over India. Weavers Iron Smelters and Factory Owners Question and answers Q1. What kinds of cloth had a large market in Europe? A. Cotton and silk textiles had huge market in Europe. Indian textiles were famous for their fine quality and exquisite craftsmanship. Chintz, bandanna, etc. were some varieties of cloth which had a large market in Europe. Cotton textiles with printed floral designs were also like by the people of Europe. Q2. What is jamdani? A. Jamdani is the finest muslin cloth on which decorative motifs were woven on the loom particularly in grey and white color. They were woven with cotton and gold threads. Q3. What is bandanna? A. The word bandanna is derived from Hindi word Bandhhana which means to tie. So bandanna was colored scarf which was produced by tying and dying process. Q4. Who are the agaria? A. The agarias were the iron smelters in India. Q5. Fill in the blanks. (a) The word chintz comes from the word _________. (b) Tipu’s sword was made of_________ steel. (c) India’s textile exports declined in the _________ century. (a) The word chintz comes from the word chhint. (b) Tipu’s sword was made of Wootz steel. (c) India’s textile exports declined in the nineteenth century. Q6. How do the names of different textiles tell us about their histories? A. The names of the textiles tell us about their histories in the following way: Q7. Why did the wool and silk producers in England protest against the import of Indian textiles in the early eighteenth century? A. As the demand of the Indian textile increased in England for its fine quality and beautiful designs, the demand for the textile of England decreased. So, in order to safeguard their interests, the silk and wool producers of England start protesting against the import of Indian textile. Q8. How did the development of cotton industries in Britain affect textile producers in India? A. The development of cotton industries in Britain affected the textile producers in India in the following ways: Q9. Why did the Indian iron smelting industry decline in the nineteenth century? A. The decline of iron and smelting industry was due to the following reasons: (i) The new forest laws of the colonial government prevented people from entering the reserved forests. It became difficult for the iron smelters to find wood for charcoal. Getting iron ore was also a big problem. So, many gave up their craft and looked for other jobs. (ii) In some areas, the government did grant access to the forests but the iron smelters had to pay a very high tax to the forest department for every furnace they used. This reduced their income. (iii) By the late 19th century iron and steel was being imported from Britain. Ironsmiths in India began using the imported iron to manufacture utensils and implements. This inevitably lowered the demand for iron produced by local smelters. Q10. What problems did the Indian textile industry face in the early years of its development? A10. The textile industry face problems in the following ways: Q11. What helped TISCO expand steel production during the First World War? A. It was during the First World War in 1914 that the British steel produced by the industries was fulfilling the war needs of Europe. The import of British steel declined in India. TISCO was able to fill this gap. At the same thime, it was producing shells and cartridge wheels for fulfilling the War needs of Britain. This was also the time when railways were expanding in the country. The government turned to TISCO for the supply of rails. By 1919, the colonial government was purchasing about 90% of the steel that was manufactured by TISCO. Also See :	3,433	ENGLISH	1
The desire of the Founding Fathers to make America a successful republic played a significant part in changing the many roles that women found themselves in after the Revolution. The role of women as wives became more important as republican ideals established an emphasis on marriage. Society saw marriage as a miniature representation of a republic. Therefore, republican ideals like independence and the freedom from arbitrary power allowed women as wives more value and power within their families. The roles of women as mothers also became more important in the republic, as patriarchy loosened and the nation depended on mothers to educate American children in the republican way. And finally, the role of women in politics was theoretically reduced due to the increasing demands of their domestic roles, but they managed to develop methods to convey their opinions. All three of these roles had setbacks for women in the republic, but there were also significant positive effects. Women became more valued in their domestic roles as wives and partners to their husbands, and their roles as mothers and educators of their children. Also, though politics and state affairs were very exclusive to men, women of the republic managed to find ways to have their voices heard. In the ideal republic, all of its citizens were virtuous and aiming for the common good. This was the conclusion reached by the Founding Fathers after interpreting the failures of ancient Greek/Roman republics and modern European republics. If the citizens were not virtuous, internal strife, factionalism, and corruption would cause the republic to collapse. Of course, “citizens” only referred to men. That being said, with most virtuous men came a wife and a family. As written by many republican magazine articles of the early nineteenth century, it would be difficult for men to be virtuous if their wives were not. Their wives were to be as rational as nineteenth century men believed women could be, and they were to use their sexuality to tempt their husbands into desiring the greater good. While the Bible considered a woman’s most treacherous trait to be her power to seduce, the magazines urged the Republican wife to use her seductive influence to preserve her husband in a virtuous state. The Republic encouraged women and girls to search for a husband themselves instead of depending on their families -namely, their fathers- to find one. There was a set of general “guidelines” created by numerous republican magazines for these women when choosing a husband. Many of these magazines placed emphasis on the ideal man being virtuous, as an ideal republic considered virtue to be the most important trait for a citizen, along with having a good education without being a perfectionist, being religious without superstition, etc. In other words, a woman was to find a husband that had a happy medium in his traits. There were guidelines for men when choosing a wife, written by the same republican...	<urn:uuid:3fbf9a6e-12a6-4cd8-bdf9-68e4c0c80c02>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/women-after-the-united-states-revolution	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00067.warc.gz	en	0.987054	565	3.90625	4	[ 0.0408812090754509, 0.33823710680007935, 0.14514130353927612, -0.3842085301876068, -0.43963736295700073, 0.6444745063781738, 0.08258260786533356, 0.2760445475578308, -0.21777988970279694, 0.09057942032814026, -0.06983551383018494, 0.41229385137557983, 0.1904531866312027, 0.3891274929046631...	1	The desire of the Founding Fathers to make America a successful republic played a significant part in changing the many roles that women found themselves in after the Revolution. The role of women as wives became more important as republican ideals established an emphasis on marriage. Society saw marriage as a miniature representation of a republic. Therefore, republican ideals like independence and the freedom from arbitrary power allowed women as wives more value and power within their families. The roles of women as mothers also became more important in the republic, as patriarchy loosened and the nation depended on mothers to educate American children in the republican way. And finally, the role of women in politics was theoretically reduced due to the increasing demands of their domestic roles, but they managed to develop methods to convey their opinions. All three of these roles had setbacks for women in the republic, but there were also significant positive effects. Women became more valued in their domestic roles as wives and partners to their husbands, and their roles as mothers and educators of their children. Also, though politics and state affairs were very exclusive to men, women of the republic managed to find ways to have their voices heard. In the ideal republic, all of its citizens were virtuous and aiming for the common good. This was the conclusion reached by the Founding Fathers after interpreting the failures of ancient Greek/Roman republics and modern European republics. If the citizens were not virtuous, internal strife, factionalism, and corruption would cause the republic to collapse. Of course, “citizens” only referred to men. That being said, with most virtuous men came a wife and a family. As written by many republican magazine articles of the early nineteenth century, it would be difficult for men to be virtuous if their wives were not. Their wives were to be as rational as nineteenth century men believed women could be, and they were to use their sexuality to tempt their husbands into desiring the greater good. While the Bible considered a woman’s most treacherous trait to be her power to seduce, the magazines urged the Republican wife to use her seductive influence to preserve her husband in a virtuous state. The Republic encouraged women and girls to search for a husband themselves instead of depending on their families -namely, their fathers- to find one. There was a set of general “guidelines” created by numerous republican magazines for these women when choosing a husband. Many of these magazines placed emphasis on the ideal man being virtuous, as an ideal republic considered virtue to be the most important trait for a citizen, along with having a good education without being a perfectionist, being religious without superstition, etc. In other words, a woman was to find a husband that had a happy medium in his traits. There were guidelines for men when choosing a wife, written by the same republican...	567	ENGLISH	1
Violin Day is celebrated on December 13, 2020. The violin, also known as a fiddle, is a string instrument, usually with four strings tuned in perfect fifths. It is the smallest, highest-pitched member of the violin family of string instruments, which also includes the viola, and the cello. Many people think that the double bass is a member of the violin family, but it is really a member of the viol family. Someone who plays the violin is called a violinist or a fiddler. The violinist produces sound by drawing a bow across one or more strings, by plucking the strings, or by a variety of other techniques. The violin is played by musicians in a wide variety of musical genres, including Baroque music, classical, jazz, folk music, rock and roll, and Soft rock. The violin has come to be played in many non-Western music cultures all over the world. (With material from: Wikipedia)	<urn:uuid:dad8cba1-77da-4a8a-b458-60e677a6b93f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cute-calendar.com/event/violin-day/37535.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00241.warc.gz	en	0.987419	198	3.359375	3	[ 0.16525697708129883, -0.44111934304237366, 0.1460200995206833, -0.6592163443565369, -0.2665153443813324, -0.2573681175708771, -0.3523799479007721, 0.2072576880455017, 0.1749282330274582, -0.05719492956995964, 0.7107036709785461, 0.0720609799027443, -0.049866724759340286, 0.2096604853868484...	5	Violin Day is celebrated on December 13, 2020. The violin, also known as a fiddle, is a string instrument, usually with four strings tuned in perfect fifths. It is the smallest, highest-pitched member of the violin family of string instruments, which also includes the viola, and the cello. Many people think that the double bass is a member of the violin family, but it is really a member of the viol family. Someone who plays the violin is called a violinist or a fiddler. The violinist produces sound by drawing a bow across one or more strings, by plucking the strings, or by a variety of other techniques. The violin is played by musicians in a wide variety of musical genres, including Baroque music, classical, jazz, folk music, rock and roll, and Soft rock. The violin has come to be played in many non-Western music cultures all over the world. (With material from: Wikipedia)	202	ENGLISH	1
With the Allies suffering from their own inexperience and low morale, German General Erich von Falkanhayn believed that if dealt enough damage the French would be forced to surrender and the war would be over. He planned a siege on Verdun to take the several French forts in the area. On February 21, 1916, more than 1,220 guns around an eight-mile perimeter opened fire. It was the sort of drenching shellstorm that would distinguish the battle. Verdun did act as a “suction cup” as three fourths of the French Western Front divisions would eventually serve there. But even from the start, the German soldiers did not achieve the five-to-two kill ratio Falkenhayn had predicted, and suffered heavy casualties. Orders went out to take French positions “without regard to casualties.” At the end of the first week, the Germans had advanced six miles; a few men walked into an almost undefended Fort Douaumont and took possession. Fighting degenerated into isolated struggles for shellholes, forcing the French into an impromptu but successful defense-in-depth. At the beginning of June, the Germans took another key stronghold, Fort Vaux, after hideous subterranean melees. A few of their troops actually reached a point from which the twin towers of Verdun cathedral were visible, two miles away, but they would never make it there. On July 14, the Germans called off their offensive, and the French recaptured the territory by the end of the year.	<urn:uuid:6b6c48db-c11c-4acc-9ac7-b4a51371a446>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://valoroustv.com/video/the-war-to-end-all-wars-1914-1918-episode-6-citadel/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00484.warc.gz	en	0.98392	312	3.828125	4	[ -0.27617302536964417, 0.4924795925617218, 0.15948644280433655, -0.130807563662529, -0.03585663065314293, -0.09753944724798203, -0.10106008499860764, 0.21693207323551178, -0.06600812822580338, -0.5027351975440979, 0.0886257141828537, -0.5172074437141418, 0.36152833700180054, 0.3013738095760...	6	With the Allies suffering from their own inexperience and low morale, German General Erich von Falkanhayn believed that if dealt enough damage the French would be forced to surrender and the war would be over. He planned a siege on Verdun to take the several French forts in the area. On February 21, 1916, more than 1,220 guns around an eight-mile perimeter opened fire. It was the sort of drenching shellstorm that would distinguish the battle. Verdun did act as a “suction cup” as three fourths of the French Western Front divisions would eventually serve there. But even from the start, the German soldiers did not achieve the five-to-two kill ratio Falkenhayn had predicted, and suffered heavy casualties. Orders went out to take French positions “without regard to casualties.” At the end of the first week, the Germans had advanced six miles; a few men walked into an almost undefended Fort Douaumont and took possession. Fighting degenerated into isolated struggles for shellholes, forcing the French into an impromptu but successful defense-in-depth. At the beginning of June, the Germans took another key stronghold, Fort Vaux, after hideous subterranean melees. A few of their troops actually reached a point from which the twin towers of Verdun cathedral were visible, two miles away, but they would never make it there. On July 14, the Germans called off their offensive, and the French recaptured the territory by the end of the year.	316	ENGLISH	1
Samuel Langhorne Clemens, better known as Mark Twain, is perhaps the most distinguished author of American Literature. Next to William Shakespeare, Clemens is arguably the most prominent writer the world has ever seen. In 1818, Jane Lampton found interest in a serious young lawyer named John Clemens. With the Lampton family in heavy debt and Jane only 15 years of age, she soon arried John. The family moved to Gainesboro, Tennessee where Jane gave birth to Orion Clemens. In the summer of 1827 the Clemenses relocated to Virginia where John urchased thousands of acres of land and opened a legal advice store. The lack of success of the store led John to drink heavily. Scared by his addiction, John vowed never to drink again. Even though John now resisted alcohol, he faced other addictions. His concoction of aloe, rhubarb, and a narcotic cost him most of his savings and money soon became tight (Paine 34-35). The family soon grew with the birth of Pamela late in 1827. Their third child,Pleasant Hannibal, did not live past three months, due to illness. In 1830 Margaret was born and the family moved to Pall Mall, a rural county in Tennessee. After Henrys birth in 1832, the value of their farmland greatly depreciated and sent the Clemenses on the road again. Now they would stay with Janes sister in Florida, Missouri where she ran a successful business with her husband. Clemens was born on November 30, 1835, in the small remote town of Florida, Missouri. Samuels parents, John Marshall and Jane Lampton Clemens never gave up on their child, who was two months premature with little hope of survival. This was coincidentally the same night as the return of Halleys Comet. The Clemenses were a superstitious family and believed that Halleys Comet was a portent of good fortune. Writing as Mark Twain, Samuel L. Clemens would claim that Florida,Missouri contained 100 people and I increased the population by one percent. It is more than the best man in history ever did for any other town (Hoffman 15). 1847 proved to be a horrific year for John Clemens. He ventured to Palmyra in order to find work on the county seat. On his voyage home he found himself in a devastating snowstorm which left him ill with pneumonia. He stayed at his friend Dr. Grants house, ill and jaded, where he rested and grew weak. He died on March 24, 1847 at the age of 48 (Kaplan 112-125). Samuel was eleven years old when his father passed away. He was of ambiguous emotions. He had dreaded his father, yet at the same time respected him. The onus of taking care of the family was now on Samuel and Orions shoulders. He attended school and for additional cash delivered newspapers and aided storekeepers. His expertise was with Joseph Ament, editor of the Missouri Courier, where he was an apprentice. In the fall of 1850, Samuels brother Orion purchased a printing press and expected Samuel to work on his newspaper. They began work on the Hannibal Western Union where Orion printed all of Samuels essays and articles. Although the newspaper was unprofitable, and deemed a failure by most, Orion and Samuel saw themselves as a success. They soon changed the name to the Journal and now had the largest circulation of any newspaper in the region. It was filled with works both original and copied from other sources. This was acceptable in a society without copyrights. When the Journal gained success, Orion refused to print some of Samuels works. He, however took his writing elsewhere. He wrote for the Carpet-Bag and the Philadelphia American Courier, berating his old town and the Hannibal natives. He signed each work with the initials S. L. C. Orion left town for awhile and gave the duty of editor to Samuel. He quickly took advantage of Orions absence. He wrote articles of town news and prose poetry that revealed characteristics of the boy who would eventually transform into Mark Twain. In these articles he would use his first of many pseudonyms, W. Epaminondas Adrastus Blab. Orions return ended both Samuels developing humor and burning satire. Orion decided to publish the Journal daily and it gave Samuel an opportunity to write more material, but at the same time overworked him. When Orion deleted local news from the newspaper, interest was lost and the rival Messenger began outselling the Journal. This prompted Samuel to leave Orion and the Journal behind at the age of eighteen. He had bigger aspirations and vowed never to let a place trap him again. His journeys would take him to St. Louis, New York City, and then Philadelphia (Hoffman 32-36). The best position he found involved night work as a substitute typesetter at the Philadelphia Inquirer. Clemens wrote about the sights of Philadelphia which he copied from a guidebook, but altered the descriptions into a style much more mature than in previous writings. Clemens well-known writing style had a loose rhythm of speech and he wrote as if he were telling an unbelievable story which he expected his listeners and readers to believe. He was a master of the tall story of the frontier and delighted his audience with his storytelling abilities (Lyttle 65). One can see this unique style in his description of the nations capital: The public buildings of Washington are all fine specimens of architecture, and would add greatly to the embellishment of such a city as New York- but here they are sadly out of place looking like so many palaces in a Hottentot village. . . .The [other] buildings, almost invariably, are very poor–two and three story brick houses, and strewed about in clusters; you seldom see a compact square off Pennsylvania Avenue. They look as though they might have been emptied out of a sack by some Brobdignagian gentleman, and when falling, been scattered abroad by the winds (qtd. in Paine 27). In his time, most novels were a form of enriching entertainment. Light reading that would do no harm and might even do the reader some good. They were written with an intelligent, well-behaved audience in mind, an audience that expected to read about people like themselves. They were most comfortable reading the language they used in public. William Gibson belies that, Twain developed one of the great styles in the English language because he had a firm grasp of the American vernacular(qtd. in Long 205). His letters to the Keokuk Papers in St. Louis proved to be most successful for Clemens. He signed these letters with the pseudonym Thomas Jefferson Snodgrass. His narrations made the western readers feel more intelligent by laughing at the characters idiocy. Snodgrass would continue to write letters until the editor refused to pay him. He then decided to leave the city and travel along the Mississippi River in a steamboat. By the middle of 1857, Clemens had made five runs up and down the river, and this is where he first used the name, Mark Twain. On river boats, one member of the crew always stood near the forward railing measuring the depth of the water with a long cord which had flags spaced a fathom apart. When the crewman saw the flags disappear he would call out “Mark One! ” for one fathom and for two fathoms he called out “Mark Twain! ” Two fathoms meant safe clearance for river boats, so Clemens chose a name which not only recalled his life on the river but which also had a motivating meaning (Robinson). One horrific afternoon, while his brother Henry was traveling the Mississippi River on the Pennsylvania eight of this ships boilers exploded while Twain was on the nearby Memphis-bound A. T. Lacy. When the boilers exploded, Henry died from breathing in the scalding steam. Grief was overwhelming Twain and he seemed to be losing his mind. He returned to St. Louis where his mother tried to comfort him. Gradually his depression began to lift, and he returned to the river (Cox 44). Many writers of the time used pen names, especially authors of humor and satire. The first article signed with Mark Twain appeared in the Enterprise on February 3,1863, entitled The Unreliable. [W]ithin a period of weeks he was no longer Sam or Clemens or that bright chap on the Enterprise, but Mark- Mark Twain. No nom de plume was ever so quickly and generally accepted as that wrote friend and biographer,Albert Bigelow Paine (45-46). Twain moved to San Francisco, California, in 1864, where he met writers Artemus Ward and Bret Harte, who encouraged him in his work. In 1865, Twain reworked a tale he had heard in the California gold fields, and within months the author and the story, The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County, had become national sensations. While on a trip in Europe, one of the most important moments of Twains life occurred off the coast of Turkey. He set his gaze on Olivia Langdon, and he would never forget the moment. Almost forty years later, Twain called, … [s]he was slender and beautiful and girlish – and she was both girl and woman. He asked for her hand in marriage several times but to no avail. His persistence paid off in late November 1869, when she agreed to marry him if her parents approved. Twain needed money to support his new wife so he spent several weeks writing his second book, The Innocents Abroad. Young novelist and editor William Deam Howells said the book contained an abundance of pure human nature, such as rarely gets into literature… td. in Lyttle 110). Following the birth of their first child, Langdon Clemens in 1870, Twain set out to write Roughing It, a story recounting his early adventures as a miner and journalist; and The Gilded Age. The Gilded Age was an immediate hit with the public and sold out three printings in the first month. Twain soon wrote perhaps the two most famous and influential stories in American Literature: The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885). Howells would call Tom Sawyer the best story I ever read. It will be an immense success… (Lyttle 137). Though some people complained that Tom and Huck were bad examples for children, most readers were fascinated by the story of their adventures in the town of St. Petersburg. Barrett Wendel of Harvard labeled Adventures of Huckleberry Finn a book which in certain moods one is disposed for all its eccentricity to call the most admirable work of literacy as yet produced on this continent (Long 199). Twain would write many more essays, novels, plays, and poetry but none would reach the status that Adventures of Huckleberry Finn acclaimed. At the turn of the century, Olivia Clemens was stricken with what seemed to be a violent heart attack. Twain wrote, She could not breathe – was likely to stifle. Also she had severe palpitation. She believed she was dying. I also believed it (qtd. in Kaplan 220). They moved to Florence, Italy in October 1903. After recuperating from her heart attack, she was stricken with another. Twain never left Olivias side and was with her until her death. That night Twain stayed by her side caressing her hand. The next day he wrote, I am tired and old; I wish I were with Livy (qtd. in Kaplan 236). Twain went into a state of depression and it seemed nothing was going right. One of his daughters suffered a nervous breakdown and entered a sanitarium, and his other was nearly killed in a horse and trolley accident. As several years passed, he gradually began accepting invitations to banquets and parties, but still felt lonely without Olivia. Dont part with your illusions, he had written. When they are gone you may still exist but you have ceased to live. Now his illusions were gone and was deeply a lonely man (qtd. in Cox 208). In the spring of 1907, Twain learned that Oxford University in England wanted to give him an honorary degree and quickly took a ship to London. Four weeks of nonstop activity followed before returning to the United States. He suffered severe heart pains on the voyage back. Aware throughout his life that he was born when Halleys Comet was visible, Mark Twain predicted in 1909 that he would die when it returned. I came in with Halleys Comet in 1835. It is coming again next year and I expect to go out with it… The Almighty has saved me no doubt: Now here are these two unaccountable freaks; they came in together, they must go out together. Oh! I am looking forward to that(qtd. in Kaplan 355) He sailed to Bermuda in the spring of 1910, planning to stay all winter in the warmth and sunshine, but unhappiness would bring him back to hannibal. I dont want to die there. I am growing more and more particular about the place (qtd. in Long 421). Twains prediction came true. On the night of April 21 he set his gaze on Halleys Comet, sank into a coma and died (Cox 218). Essentially no one any longer ponders the place of Mark Twain in American literature, or in international literature. A pioneer in writing, William Dean Howells best sums Mark Twain up with, There was never anybody like him; there never will be (Hoffman 497).	<urn:uuid:a95f3452-4a9d-445c-b2a1-44227d3ac3d9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://monsterliterature.com/samuel-langhorne-clemens-better-known-as-mark-twain-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00135.warc.gz	en	0.980095	2,822	3.265625	3	[ -0.04615817219018936, -0.05646466463804245, 0.06181134283542633, 0.05511794239282608, -0.1712363362312317, -0.049201685935258865, 0.16029474139213562, 0.14927254617214203, -0.1610850691795349, -0.2682366669178009, 0.024176735430955887, 0.1892426460981369, 0.03944484144449234, 0.56921535730...	1	Samuel Langhorne Clemens, better known as Mark Twain, is perhaps the most distinguished author of American Literature. Next to William Shakespeare, Clemens is arguably the most prominent writer the world has ever seen. In 1818, Jane Lampton found interest in a serious young lawyer named John Clemens. With the Lampton family in heavy debt and Jane only 15 years of age, she soon arried John. The family moved to Gainesboro, Tennessee where Jane gave birth to Orion Clemens. In the summer of 1827 the Clemenses relocated to Virginia where John urchased thousands of acres of land and opened a legal advice store. The lack of success of the store led John to drink heavily. Scared by his addiction, John vowed never to drink again. Even though John now resisted alcohol, he faced other addictions. His concoction of aloe, rhubarb, and a narcotic cost him most of his savings and money soon became tight (Paine 34-35). The family soon grew with the birth of Pamela late in 1827. Their third child,Pleasant Hannibal, did not live past three months, due to illness. In 1830 Margaret was born and the family moved to Pall Mall, a rural county in Tennessee. After Henrys birth in 1832, the value of their farmland greatly depreciated and sent the Clemenses on the road again. Now they would stay with Janes sister in Florida, Missouri where she ran a successful business with her husband. Clemens was born on November 30, 1835, in the small remote town of Florida, Missouri. Samuels parents, John Marshall and Jane Lampton Clemens never gave up on their child, who was two months premature with little hope of survival. This was coincidentally the same night as the return of Halleys Comet. The Clemenses were a superstitious family and believed that Halleys Comet was a portent of good fortune. Writing as Mark Twain, Samuel L. Clemens would claim that Florida,Missouri contained 100 people and I increased the population by one percent. It is more than the best man in history ever did for any other town (Hoffman 15). 1847 proved to be a horrific year for John Clemens. He ventured to Palmyra in order to find work on the county seat. On his voyage home he found himself in a devastating snowstorm which left him ill with pneumonia. He stayed at his friend Dr. Grants house, ill and jaded, where he rested and grew weak. He died on March 24, 1847 at the age of 48 (Kaplan 112-125). Samuel was eleven years old when his father passed away. He was of ambiguous emotions. He had dreaded his father, yet at the same time respected him. The onus of taking care of the family was now on Samuel and Orions shoulders. He attended school and for additional cash delivered newspapers and aided storekeepers. His expertise was with Joseph Ament, editor of the Missouri Courier, where he was an apprentice. In the fall of 1850, Samuels brother Orion purchased a printing press and expected Samuel to work on his newspaper. They began work on the Hannibal Western Union where Orion printed all of Samuels essays and articles. Although the newspaper was unprofitable, and deemed a failure by most, Orion and Samuel saw themselves as a success. They soon changed the name to the Journal and now had the largest circulation of any newspaper in the region. It was filled with works both original and copied from other sources. This was acceptable in a society without copyrights. When the Journal gained success, Orion refused to print some of Samuels works. He, however took his writing elsewhere. He wrote for the Carpet-Bag and the Philadelphia American Courier, berating his old town and the Hannibal natives. He signed each work with the initials S. L. C. Orion left town for awhile and gave the duty of editor to Samuel. He quickly took advantage of Orions absence. He wrote articles of town news and prose poetry that revealed characteristics of the boy who would eventually transform into Mark Twain. In these articles he would use his first of many pseudonyms, W. Epaminondas Adrastus Blab. Orions return ended both Samuels developing humor and burning satire. Orion decided to publish the Journal daily and it gave Samuel an opportunity to write more material, but at the same time overworked him. When Orion deleted local news from the newspaper, interest was lost and the rival Messenger began outselling the Journal. This prompted Samuel to leave Orion and the Journal behind at the age of eighteen. He had bigger aspirations and vowed never to let a place trap him again. His journeys would take him to St. Louis, New York City, and then Philadelphia (Hoffman 32-36). The best position he found involved night work as a substitute typesetter at the Philadelphia Inquirer. Clemens wrote about the sights of Philadelphia which he copied from a guidebook, but altered the descriptions into a style much more mature than in previous writings. Clemens well-known writing style had a loose rhythm of speech and he wrote as if he were telling an unbelievable story which he expected his listeners and readers to believe. He was a master of the tall story of the frontier and delighted his audience with his storytelling abilities (Lyttle 65). One can see this unique style in his description of the nations capital: The public buildings of Washington are all fine specimens of architecture, and would add greatly to the embellishment of such a city as New York- but here they are sadly out of place looking like so many palaces in a Hottentot village. . . .The [other] buildings, almost invariably, are very poor–two and three story brick houses, and strewed about in clusters; you seldom see a compact square off Pennsylvania Avenue. They look as though they might have been emptied out of a sack by some Brobdignagian gentleman, and when falling, been scattered abroad by the winds (qtd. in Paine 27). In his time, most novels were a form of enriching entertainment. Light reading that would do no harm and might even do the reader some good. They were written with an intelligent, well-behaved audience in mind, an audience that expected to read about people like themselves. They were most comfortable reading the language they used in public. William Gibson belies that, Twain developed one of the great styles in the English language because he had a firm grasp of the American vernacular(qtd. in Long 205). His letters to the Keokuk Papers in St. Louis proved to be most successful for Clemens. He signed these letters with the pseudonym Thomas Jefferson Snodgrass. His narrations made the western readers feel more intelligent by laughing at the characters idiocy. Snodgrass would continue to write letters until the editor refused to pay him. He then decided to leave the city and travel along the Mississippi River in a steamboat. By the middle of 1857, Clemens had made five runs up and down the river, and this is where he first used the name, Mark Twain. On river boats, one member of the crew always stood near the forward railing measuring the depth of the water with a long cord which had flags spaced a fathom apart. When the crewman saw the flags disappear he would call out “Mark One! ” for one fathom and for two fathoms he called out “Mark Twain! ” Two fathoms meant safe clearance for river boats, so Clemens chose a name which not only recalled his life on the river but which also had a motivating meaning (Robinson). One horrific afternoon, while his brother Henry was traveling the Mississippi River on the Pennsylvania eight of this ships boilers exploded while Twain was on the nearby Memphis-bound A. T. Lacy. When the boilers exploded, Henry died from breathing in the scalding steam. Grief was overwhelming Twain and he seemed to be losing his mind. He returned to St. Louis where his mother tried to comfort him. Gradually his depression began to lift, and he returned to the river (Cox 44). Many writers of the time used pen names, especially authors of humor and satire. The first article signed with Mark Twain appeared in the Enterprise on February 3,1863, entitled The Unreliable. [W]ithin a period of weeks he was no longer Sam or Clemens or that bright chap on the Enterprise, but Mark- Mark Twain. No nom de plume was ever so quickly and generally accepted as that wrote friend and biographer,Albert Bigelow Paine (45-46). Twain moved to San Francisco, California, in 1864, where he met writers Artemus Ward and Bret Harte, who encouraged him in his work. In 1865, Twain reworked a tale he had heard in the California gold fields, and within months the author and the story, The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County, had become national sensations. While on a trip in Europe, one of the most important moments of Twains life occurred off the coast of Turkey. He set his gaze on Olivia Langdon, and he would never forget the moment. Almost forty years later, Twain called, … [s]he was slender and beautiful and girlish – and she was both girl and woman. He asked for her hand in marriage several times but to no avail. His persistence paid off in late November 1869, when she agreed to marry him if her parents approved. Twain needed money to support his new wife so he spent several weeks writing his second book, The Innocents Abroad. Young novelist and editor William Deam Howells said the book contained an abundance of pure human nature, such as rarely gets into literature… td. in Lyttle 110). Following the birth of their first child, Langdon Clemens in 1870, Twain set out to write Roughing It, a story recounting his early adventures as a miner and journalist; and The Gilded Age. The Gilded Age was an immediate hit with the public and sold out three printings in the first month. Twain soon wrote perhaps the two most famous and influential stories in American Literature: The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885). Howells would call Tom Sawyer the best story I ever read. It will be an immense success… (Lyttle 137). Though some people complained that Tom and Huck were bad examples for children, most readers were fascinated by the story of their adventures in the town of St. Petersburg. Barrett Wendel of Harvard labeled Adventures of Huckleberry Finn a book which in certain moods one is disposed for all its eccentricity to call the most admirable work of literacy as yet produced on this continent (Long 199). Twain would write many more essays, novels, plays, and poetry but none would reach the status that Adventures of Huckleberry Finn acclaimed. At the turn of the century, Olivia Clemens was stricken with what seemed to be a violent heart attack. Twain wrote, She could not breathe – was likely to stifle. Also she had severe palpitation. She believed she was dying. I also believed it (qtd. in Kaplan 220). They moved to Florence, Italy in October 1903. After recuperating from her heart attack, she was stricken with another. Twain never left Olivias side and was with her until her death. That night Twain stayed by her side caressing her hand. The next day he wrote, I am tired and old; I wish I were with Livy (qtd. in Kaplan 236). Twain went into a state of depression and it seemed nothing was going right. One of his daughters suffered a nervous breakdown and entered a sanitarium, and his other was nearly killed in a horse and trolley accident. As several years passed, he gradually began accepting invitations to banquets and parties, but still felt lonely without Olivia. Dont part with your illusions, he had written. When they are gone you may still exist but you have ceased to live. Now his illusions were gone and was deeply a lonely man (qtd. in Cox 208). In the spring of 1907, Twain learned that Oxford University in England wanted to give him an honorary degree and quickly took a ship to London. Four weeks of nonstop activity followed before returning to the United States. He suffered severe heart pains on the voyage back. Aware throughout his life that he was born when Halleys Comet was visible, Mark Twain predicted in 1909 that he would die when it returned. I came in with Halleys Comet in 1835. It is coming again next year and I expect to go out with it… The Almighty has saved me no doubt: Now here are these two unaccountable freaks; they came in together, they must go out together. Oh! I am looking forward to that(qtd. in Kaplan 355) He sailed to Bermuda in the spring of 1910, planning to stay all winter in the warmth and sunshine, but unhappiness would bring him back to hannibal. I dont want to die there. I am growing more and more particular about the place (qtd. in Long 421). Twains prediction came true. On the night of April 21 he set his gaze on Halleys Comet, sank into a coma and died (Cox 218). Essentially no one any longer ponders the place of Mark Twain in American literature, or in international literature. A pioneer in writing, William Dean Howells best sums Mark Twain up with, There was never anybody like him; there never will be (Hoffman 497).	2,945	ENGLISH	1
I think that the eight features; art and artitecture, social class, writing, advanced cities, specialized workers, religion, public works are the roots of civilized people. They helped people progress Over the centuries people settled in stable communities. Their tecnology, enviroment, agriculture, and way of life became more complex. This became known as an advanced civilization. Each feature of civilized people helped changes occor in the communities. Making the cities more elaborate and advanced. I think that social class was a very important root of civilized people. I think this because social class determined who and what their jobs were. In result adding specialized workers and making public works available I believe that every feature of civilized people was built on another feature of civilization. I believe this is true because without people we would not have advanced cities because people were the key thing to getting the ideas out into the open helping to a civilized cities we would not have specialized workers. For specialized workers helped improve the city with different things such as hunters and gathers, traders, government officials, and priests. I think that religion was a very important feature of civilized people because it helped the city stay stable and structured making them seem prepared and strong to outsiders. Religion had different gods depending on the area that helped cities with their problems such as floods, and other natural disasters because the people believed that the god’s did that for a certain reason and it would help them get more organized to please the gods and themselves. Writing was very important to the roots of civilized people because writing helped people express themselves and write down the history of their people. Without writing I think that people could not improve their civilization because it hel	<urn:uuid:ab482ecf-a0fc-4af5-9600-3b6e93346a31>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/civilized-features/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00271.warc.gz	en	0.983447	353	3.375	3	[ -0.1866122931241989, 0.2728671431541443, 0.2987590432167053, -0.18678271770477295, -0.02565695531666279, -0.0018906102050095797, 0.1824197918176651, 0.1302039474248886, -0.28870826959609985, 0.15664419531822205, -0.12623074650764465, 0.09961150586605072, 0.09921182692050934, -0.16740448772...	1	I think that the eight features; art and artitecture, social class, writing, advanced cities, specialized workers, religion, public works are the roots of civilized people. They helped people progress Over the centuries people settled in stable communities. Their tecnology, enviroment, agriculture, and way of life became more complex. This became known as an advanced civilization. Each feature of civilized people helped changes occor in the communities. Making the cities more elaborate and advanced. I think that social class was a very important root of civilized people. I think this because social class determined who and what their jobs were. In result adding specialized workers and making public works available I believe that every feature of civilized people was built on another feature of civilization. I believe this is true because without people we would not have advanced cities because people were the key thing to getting the ideas out into the open helping to a civilized cities we would not have specialized workers. For specialized workers helped improve the city with different things such as hunters and gathers, traders, government officials, and priests. I think that religion was a very important feature of civilized people because it helped the city stay stable and structured making them seem prepared and strong to outsiders. Religion had different gods depending on the area that helped cities with their problems such as floods, and other natural disasters because the people believed that the god’s did that for a certain reason and it would help them get more organized to please the gods and themselves. Writing was very important to the roots of civilized people because writing helped people express themselves and write down the history of their people. Without writing I think that people could not improve their civilization because it hel	345	ENGLISH	1
The Greeks had three to four meals a day. Breakfast, ακροτισμός (akrotismós), eaten at dawn, consisted of barley bread dipped in wine and sometimes accompanied by figs or olives. They also made pancakes τηγανίτης (tiganítis) where the word frypan is derived from. These pancakes were made from wheat flour, olive oil, honey, and curdled milk. A quick lunch άριστον (ariston) about midday and the main meal was in the evening δείπνον (dipnon), ‘dinner’ or sometimes a late afternoon meal would be served called Αριστόδειπνον (aristódipnon) – lunch-dinner instead of dinner. Men and women ate separately and if the house was small the men ate first and then the women. The slaves waited at dinner and Aristotle notes “the poor, having no slaves, must use their wives and children as servants”. They ate while seated on chairs; benches were used for banquets, the tables high for normal meals and low for banquets and were initially rectangular. By the fourth century BC the usual table was round, loaves of bread would be used as plates as well as terra cotta bowls. Cutlery was not used except spoons for soup and knives, people ate with their fingers and pieces of bread were used to scoop the food and wipe their hands. A while back I wrote an article on the fork – here is the link: www.neoskosmos.com/news/en/what-the-fork Like our modern dinner parties, they too had theirs. There were two types, the symposium and the syssítia. The symposium was more like a gathering of drinkers. It consisted of two parts: the first dedicated to food and the second to drinking. However, wine was consumed with the food, and beverages accompanied with τραγήματα (tragímata) such as chestnuts, beans, toasted wheat or honey cakes; all intended to soak up the alcohol and thus extend the drinking spree. The drinking part was in honour of Dionysus followed by conversation and table games. With the exception of courtesans the banquet was strictly for men and naturally only the rich could afford these banquets. Most Greek homes had much more modest festive dinners. The syssítia (τα συσσίτια) meals were religious and social gatherings of men and boys. They were an upper-class club of males and were also a military mess. Syssítia gatherings were marked for their simplicity unlike the symposium. There are some references of all-female syssitia. Bread was unleavened until later when Greeks discovered a leavening agent – a wine yeast – and were baked in clay pots and in clay ovens or on open fires – the brick oven came about with the Romans. By the end of the fifth century BC loaves were sold at the market. The common vegetables were cabbage, onions, lentils, sweet peas, broad beans, garden peas, and other such greens. They were mainly made into soup, boiled or mashed with olive oil and herbs. Acorns were eaten and raw or preserved olives. In the cities fresh vegetables were expensive and the poorer city dwellers ate mostly the dried version of these such as lentil soup, as it was typically a workman’s dish. I have in the past written on the athletes’ diet, as they were a pampered part of society being fed on honey cakes with cheese very similar to a mini-cheesecake today. Meat and fish consumption varied depending on the geography of Greece. In the country, birds and hares were trapped and there were also farmyards for the provision of chickens and wealthier landowners raised goats, pigs and sheep. Quails and hens were bred for their eggs as were geese, but their eggs were more expensive, and we also have information on the use of pheasants and their eggs in the diet. The islands had an abundance of seafood that was consumed locally and also sent to the mainland, often salted for preservation. The Greeks made cheese and yoghurt and butter, although the latter was mainly confined to the north-east of the country where the Thracians dwelled and were called ‘butter eaters’ by the south. Ewe and goat’s milk were the staple dairy products for the making of cheese and other milk products. Cheese was often eaten alone with honey. The most widely consumed drink was water. Wells were common but spring water was preferred and was recognised as having nutritional value, described the same way we describe wine today; robust, heavy, light, dry, acidic, pungent, etc. They cultivated grapes and made red, rosé and white wine. Different qualities were available, from common wine to vintage qualities, and at the time the opinion was that the best came from Thasos, Lesbos and Chios. Wine was often sweetened with honey and they made medical wines by adding different herbs. By the first century they were familiar with wine flavoured with pine resin, what we know as retsina today. Wine was as a rule diluted with water – ‘unmixed wine’ was drunk by the ‘Northern Barbarians’ and was thought to lead to madness and maybe death. Wine kept for personal consumption was stored in animal skins but wine destined for export was stored in terra cotta pithoi (large jugs). Sealed, the jars carried stamps from the producers and the city magistrates as a guarantee of origin. Greeks were the first to indicate geographical or qualitative provenance of a product, making it the basis of modern ‘appellations d’origine controlees’ certification. It was not approved for women to drink wine and they only drank water but the Spartan women routinely drank wine. Food played an important part in the Greek culture as it does today. In The Odyssey Homer tells us “good men are distinguished from bad men and Greeks from foreigners by what they ate”. The Greeks did not ignore the value of the pleasures of eating but valued simplicity. It is known though that chefs were awarded with high honours, including land if they invented a new dish. Today’s famous British chef and traveller Rick Stein was impressed when filming in Greece that so many dishes can be created with only a few ingredients.	<urn:uuid:4880d61f-dc5c-46b6-a92b-da90e1097b38>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://neoskosmos.com/en/28029/back-to-the-ancient/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00148.warc.gz	en	0.990335	1,397	3.265625	3	[ 0.1277363896369934, 0.2621983289718628, 0.11461526900529861, -0.2299359142780304, -0.3307090699672699, -0.40377509593963623, -0.03819423168897629, 0.432571142911911, -0.026953745633363724, -0.14544910192489624, -0.5450286865234375, -0.3991193175315857, -0.19098162651062012, 0.0679628998041...	3	The Greeks had three to four meals a day. Breakfast, ακροτισμός (akrotismós), eaten at dawn, consisted of barley bread dipped in wine and sometimes accompanied by figs or olives. They also made pancakes τηγανίτης (tiganítis) where the word frypan is derived from. These pancakes were made from wheat flour, olive oil, honey, and curdled milk. A quick lunch άριστον (ariston) about midday and the main meal was in the evening δείπνον (dipnon), ‘dinner’ or sometimes a late afternoon meal would be served called Αριστόδειπνον (aristódipnon) – lunch-dinner instead of dinner. Men and women ate separately and if the house was small the men ate first and then the women. The slaves waited at dinner and Aristotle notes “the poor, having no slaves, must use their wives and children as servants”. They ate while seated on chairs; benches were used for banquets, the tables high for normal meals and low for banquets and were initially rectangular. By the fourth century BC the usual table was round, loaves of bread would be used as plates as well as terra cotta bowls. Cutlery was not used except spoons for soup and knives, people ate with their fingers and pieces of bread were used to scoop the food and wipe their hands. A while back I wrote an article on the fork – here is the link: www.neoskosmos.com/news/en/what-the-fork Like our modern dinner parties, they too had theirs. There were two types, the symposium and the syssítia. The symposium was more like a gathering of drinkers. It consisted of two parts: the first dedicated to food and the second to drinking. However, wine was consumed with the food, and beverages accompanied with τραγήματα (tragímata) such as chestnuts, beans, toasted wheat or honey cakes; all intended to soak up the alcohol and thus extend the drinking spree. The drinking part was in honour of Dionysus followed by conversation and table games. With the exception of courtesans the banquet was strictly for men and naturally only the rich could afford these banquets. Most Greek homes had much more modest festive dinners. The syssítia (τα συσσίτια) meals were religious and social gatherings of men and boys. They were an upper-class club of males and were also a military mess. Syssítia gatherings were marked for their simplicity unlike the symposium. There are some references of all-female syssitia. Bread was unleavened until later when Greeks discovered a leavening agent – a wine yeast – and were baked in clay pots and in clay ovens or on open fires – the brick oven came about with the Romans. By the end of the fifth century BC loaves were sold at the market. The common vegetables were cabbage, onions, lentils, sweet peas, broad beans, garden peas, and other such greens. They were mainly made into soup, boiled or mashed with olive oil and herbs. Acorns were eaten and raw or preserved olives. In the cities fresh vegetables were expensive and the poorer city dwellers ate mostly the dried version of these such as lentil soup, as it was typically a workman’s dish. I have in the past written on the athletes’ diet, as they were a pampered part of society being fed on honey cakes with cheese very similar to a mini-cheesecake today. Meat and fish consumption varied depending on the geography of Greece. In the country, birds and hares were trapped and there were also farmyards for the provision of chickens and wealthier landowners raised goats, pigs and sheep. Quails and hens were bred for their eggs as were geese, but their eggs were more expensive, and we also have information on the use of pheasants and their eggs in the diet. The islands had an abundance of seafood that was consumed locally and also sent to the mainland, often salted for preservation. The Greeks made cheese and yoghurt and butter, although the latter was mainly confined to the north-east of the country where the Thracians dwelled and were called ‘butter eaters’ by the south. Ewe and goat’s milk were the staple dairy products for the making of cheese and other milk products. Cheese was often eaten alone with honey. The most widely consumed drink was water. Wells were common but spring water was preferred and was recognised as having nutritional value, described the same way we describe wine today; robust, heavy, light, dry, acidic, pungent, etc. They cultivated grapes and made red, rosé and white wine. Different qualities were available, from common wine to vintage qualities, and at the time the opinion was that the best came from Thasos, Lesbos and Chios. Wine was often sweetened with honey and they made medical wines by adding different herbs. By the first century they were familiar with wine flavoured with pine resin, what we know as retsina today. Wine was as a rule diluted with water – ‘unmixed wine’ was drunk by the ‘Northern Barbarians’ and was thought to lead to madness and maybe death. Wine kept for personal consumption was stored in animal skins but wine destined for export was stored in terra cotta pithoi (large jugs). Sealed, the jars carried stamps from the producers and the city magistrates as a guarantee of origin. Greeks were the first to indicate geographical or qualitative provenance of a product, making it the basis of modern ‘appellations d’origine controlees’ certification. It was not approved for women to drink wine and they only drank water but the Spartan women routinely drank wine. Food played an important part in the Greek culture as it does today. In The Odyssey Homer tells us “good men are distinguished from bad men and Greeks from foreigners by what they ate”. The Greeks did not ignore the value of the pleasures of eating but valued simplicity. It is known though that chefs were awarded with high honours, including land if they invented a new dish. Today’s famous British chef and traveller Rick Stein was impressed when filming in Greece that so many dishes can be created with only a few ingredients.	1,328	ENGLISH	1
Throughout the whole Colonial History of American, there were a total of 13 settlements, which the Europeans called colonies (Reich, 2011). Technically, people who live in different colonies have different lifestyles and one factor that contributed to this is each region’s geography and access to natural resources. One of the important functions of Colonies is to provide the raw materials and other things that are needed in waging war and improving the economic and financial stability of a mother country or state. In Britain’s case for example, their American colonies are supposed to supplement Britain in their other colonization programs and expeditions. A significant part of the Americas was once a part of a European colonizer. All thirteen colonies of Britain in the American Peninsula later ended because the Americans fought for their independence for a series of wars against their European Colonizer, England. All of those were thanks to their ally, the French forces. This paper is a compilation of facts about the difference in the lifestyle of two of the most important colonies among the thirteen British Colonies; Georgia and Massachusetts. Topics such as activities of daily living and ethnic indifferences will also be covered. Life in the Colony of Georgia This colony was established by a man named James Oglethorpe. He was a British, a member of the Parliament, during the 18th century. Now, there are two main reasons why the British, particularly James Oglethorpe, decided to plant a colony at this part of the peninsula (Georgia belonged to the Lower South Colonies of Britain together with Virginia, Delaware and South Carolina) (Nash, 2011). One reason is to find a place where debtors could live rather than be imprisoned. According to old British laws, anyone who would not be able to pay their taxes or other forms of debts needs to be imprisoned. So, instead of sending those people to a prison and be a liability, they thought it would be better for them to use up their energy for something more productive and beneficial for the country, for colonial expansion. The second reason was somewhat related with the first one. Oglethorpe planted a colony in this part of the peninsula to establish a sense of military security in the nearby region. Georgia and Florida—was under the control of the Spaniards, were proximally located. There was tension between the Spanish and the British forces back then and so the British were urged to plant a base at Georgia and populate it with debtors instead of pure and loyal citizens to establish a stronger military presence around the area. Fortunately for the Americans who lived in Georgia, slavery was forbidden. Strict moralistic principles were always imposed in Georgia at that time, even during a time when it wasn’t that developed yet unlike the other colonies. Georgian residents were not allowed to practice vices such as drinking alcoholic beverages, excessive smoking and any other actions that could be interpreted as immoral (Reich, 2011). What’s surprising about Georgia is the fact that it was not able to declare a religion during the time of British Colonization. This was the way how they valued morality before. However, these policies and restriction against acts of immorality and misconduct and towards morality and order was soon lifted due to several reasons. The head colonists argued that if they were to continue enforcing such strict rules and impose a puritanical lifestyle, Georgia, a colony that would have been much developed a long time ago, would not be able to compete against the other economically stable colonies of Britain. In fact, they feared that Georgia would even be a liability. So, people began to experience big changes economically, thanks to colonial Georgia’s liberation. Residents at school ages began going to school and the economy began to flourish just like the other colonies. In the end Georgia, which was also the last colony established among the 12, grew almost exactly similar with the other colonies. Supermarkets and town markets are not so common in Georgia since it was actually the last colony to be established among the 13, especially on its pioneering stage. People have to catch fish and whales from the sea so they could eat something. They have to plant crops on the soil and wait for them to grow until they could finally fill their granaries with fresh new crops ready to be consumed and sold. Some were indeed consumed and if there are surpluses, those will be traded with merchant ships or with other colonies. Life in the Colony of Massachusetts Massachusetts was one of the former British Charter Colonies located in their Northern Virginia Territory. However, after a few years, the charter was revoked due to several reasons. After seven years, Massachusetts was turned into a provincial charter. Geographically, Massachusetts was one of the New England Colonies together with Rhode Island, Connecticut and New Hampshire. Lifestyle in this 16th century English colony was not so easy at first although it became easier and easier as more developments were made and more infrastructures were put up. Majority of the inhabitants in this colony was the Pilgrims and they were considered the real inhabitants on that area in America. Later on, European explorers began to take lands and territories that made the indigenous tribes such as the Pilgrims upset, resulting in a frequently strained relationship between the colonists and the natives. Though there was indeed tension between the two groups, it never resulted into a widespread bloodshed (Reich, 2011). Colonists build houses of worship so that people could practice their religion in peace. There was no formal religion established in Massachusetts since each group of people practice different religions and such religions usually depend on where they are situated. Meeting houses were the equivalents of churches for the inhabitants of Massachusetts. This is where they meet for worship and church services and is located at the center of a town or city. Back then, church service could last for most of the day. Education in Massachusetts was another unique matter. Most of children’s parents in Massachusetts believe in Christianity and in fact, one primary reason why they send their sons and daughters to school is to learn more about Christianity. Children first learn to read on a bible. If they can already read the chapters of the bible nicely, then that’s the time they could read other sources of knowledge such as school books. Other subjects other than religion such as Latin and Math were also taught to students in Massachusetts. Farming is one the major sources of income of the inhabitants since 16th or even the 17th century was a time still quite far from industrialization (Nash, 2011). Parents involved themselves in the major industries of most of the 13 colonies which were fishing, planting corn, raising livestock, and carpentry. These jobs are these people’s major source of income. If adults will not work, they will surely starve since that was a time when food, no matter how abundant was not given free unless an individual becomes a slave and start serving the person who feeds him. Shipbuilding was also a flourishing industry during that time. Britain was known for its military and naval prowess which lasted up to the age of industrialization and even World War I. Well, it would be logical to think that their 13 colonies in the Americas contributed a lot for them to receive that title. Sources of food for inhabitants include fish, whales, and wheat, corn, barley and rice crops. Theses supplies were usually sold at a common marketplace situated near the center of a town for ease of access. Sometimes, residents also engage in barter trades with merchant hips and other colonies (Nash, 2011). Reich, J. (2011). Colonial America, Sixth Edition. Pearson Publishers. Print. Nash, G. (2011). Red, White, and Black: The People of Early North America. Pearson Publishers. Print.	<urn:uuid:3b877243-4d5c-4632-87a6-8c446d76b767>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/colonial-history-research-paper-example/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00016.warc.gz	en	0.983974	1,578	3.6875	4	[ -0.040795572102069855, 0.13895736634731293, 0.718510627746582, -0.3559347987174988, 0.22334572672843933, -0.2578338384628296, 0.07705342024564743, 0.06955702602863312, -0.2006780356168747, 0.034889884293079376, 0.0024874629452824593, -0.3115544319152832, -0.3450486660003662, 0.413436532020...	2	Throughout the whole Colonial History of American, there were a total of 13 settlements, which the Europeans called colonies (Reich, 2011). Technically, people who live in different colonies have different lifestyles and one factor that contributed to this is each region’s geography and access to natural resources. One of the important functions of Colonies is to provide the raw materials and other things that are needed in waging war and improving the economic and financial stability of a mother country or state. In Britain’s case for example, their American colonies are supposed to supplement Britain in their other colonization programs and expeditions. A significant part of the Americas was once a part of a European colonizer. All thirteen colonies of Britain in the American Peninsula later ended because the Americans fought for their independence for a series of wars against their European Colonizer, England. All of those were thanks to their ally, the French forces. This paper is a compilation of facts about the difference in the lifestyle of two of the most important colonies among the thirteen British Colonies; Georgia and Massachusetts. Topics such as activities of daily living and ethnic indifferences will also be covered. Life in the Colony of Georgia This colony was established by a man named James Oglethorpe. He was a British, a member of the Parliament, during the 18th century. Now, there are two main reasons why the British, particularly James Oglethorpe, decided to plant a colony at this part of the peninsula (Georgia belonged to the Lower South Colonies of Britain together with Virginia, Delaware and South Carolina) (Nash, 2011). One reason is to find a place where debtors could live rather than be imprisoned. According to old British laws, anyone who would not be able to pay their taxes or other forms of debts needs to be imprisoned. So, instead of sending those people to a prison and be a liability, they thought it would be better for them to use up their energy for something more productive and beneficial for the country, for colonial expansion. The second reason was somewhat related with the first one. Oglethorpe planted a colony in this part of the peninsula to establish a sense of military security in the nearby region. Georgia and Florida—was under the control of the Spaniards, were proximally located. There was tension between the Spanish and the British forces back then and so the British were urged to plant a base at Georgia and populate it with debtors instead of pure and loyal citizens to establish a stronger military presence around the area. Fortunately for the Americans who lived in Georgia, slavery was forbidden. Strict moralistic principles were always imposed in Georgia at that time, even during a time when it wasn’t that developed yet unlike the other colonies. Georgian residents were not allowed to practice vices such as drinking alcoholic beverages, excessive smoking and any other actions that could be interpreted as immoral (Reich, 2011). What’s surprising about Georgia is the fact that it was not able to declare a religion during the time of British Colonization. This was the way how they valued morality before. However, these policies and restriction against acts of immorality and misconduct and towards morality and order was soon lifted due to several reasons. The head colonists argued that if they were to continue enforcing such strict rules and impose a puritanical lifestyle, Georgia, a colony that would have been much developed a long time ago, would not be able to compete against the other economically stable colonies of Britain. In fact, they feared that Georgia would even be a liability. So, people began to experience big changes economically, thanks to colonial Georgia’s liberation. Residents at school ages began going to school and the economy began to flourish just like the other colonies. In the end Georgia, which was also the last colony established among the 12, grew almost exactly similar with the other colonies. Supermarkets and town markets are not so common in Georgia since it was actually the last colony to be established among the 13, especially on its pioneering stage. People have to catch fish and whales from the sea so they could eat something. They have to plant crops on the soil and wait for them to grow until they could finally fill their granaries with fresh new crops ready to be consumed and sold. Some were indeed consumed and if there are surpluses, those will be traded with merchant ships or with other colonies. Life in the Colony of Massachusetts Massachusetts was one of the former British Charter Colonies located in their Northern Virginia Territory. However, after a few years, the charter was revoked due to several reasons. After seven years, Massachusetts was turned into a provincial charter. Geographically, Massachusetts was one of the New England Colonies together with Rhode Island, Connecticut and New Hampshire. Lifestyle in this 16th century English colony was not so easy at first although it became easier and easier as more developments were made and more infrastructures were put up. Majority of the inhabitants in this colony was the Pilgrims and they were considered the real inhabitants on that area in America. Later on, European explorers began to take lands and territories that made the indigenous tribes such as the Pilgrims upset, resulting in a frequently strained relationship between the colonists and the natives. Though there was indeed tension between the two groups, it never resulted into a widespread bloodshed (Reich, 2011). Colonists build houses of worship so that people could practice their religion in peace. There was no formal religion established in Massachusetts since each group of people practice different religions and such religions usually depend on where they are situated. Meeting houses were the equivalents of churches for the inhabitants of Massachusetts. This is where they meet for worship and church services and is located at the center of a town or city. Back then, church service could last for most of the day. Education in Massachusetts was another unique matter. Most of children’s parents in Massachusetts believe in Christianity and in fact, one primary reason why they send their sons and daughters to school is to learn more about Christianity. Children first learn to read on a bible. If they can already read the chapters of the bible nicely, then that’s the time they could read other sources of knowledge such as school books. Other subjects other than religion such as Latin and Math were also taught to students in Massachusetts. Farming is one the major sources of income of the inhabitants since 16th or even the 17th century was a time still quite far from industrialization (Nash, 2011). Parents involved themselves in the major industries of most of the 13 colonies which were fishing, planting corn, raising livestock, and carpentry. These jobs are these people’s major source of income. If adults will not work, they will surely starve since that was a time when food, no matter how abundant was not given free unless an individual becomes a slave and start serving the person who feeds him. Shipbuilding was also a flourishing industry during that time. Britain was known for its military and naval prowess which lasted up to the age of industrialization and even World War I. Well, it would be logical to think that their 13 colonies in the Americas contributed a lot for them to receive that title. Sources of food for inhabitants include fish, whales, and wheat, corn, barley and rice crops. Theses supplies were usually sold at a common marketplace situated near the center of a town for ease of access. Sometimes, residents also engage in barter trades with merchant hips and other colonies (Nash, 2011). Reich, J. (2011). Colonial America, Sixth Edition. Pearson Publishers. Print. Nash, G. (2011). Red, White, and Black: The People of Early North America. Pearson Publishers. Print.	1,595	ENGLISH	1
Post on 03-Jan-2016 Embed Size (px) DESCRIPTIONReform Movements. To reform means to change something. So, a reform movement is when different people or groups try and change something about society. The Second Great Awakening. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation To reform means to change something. So, a reform movement is when different people or groups try and change something about society. The Second Great AwakeningThe Second Great Awakening, a renewal of religious faith, took place in the 1790s through the early 1800s. It consisted of a series of revival meetings to reawaken religious faith, just like the First Great Awakening! Revivalist preachers said that anyone could have Gods forgiveness, so it appealed to many Americans. Charles Grandison FinneyWas one of the most important leaders of the Second Great Awakeninggave up career as a lawyer and began preaching. preached that all sin consists in selfishness and that religious faith should lead people to help others.This message was a main reason there was a reform movement! The Temperance Movement Temperance = avoiding excessesThe Temperance Movement was a campaign to stop heavy drinking. The consumption of alcohol was seen as responsible for many personal and societal problems including unemployment, absenteeism in the workplace, and physical violence aimed at women and children.Business owners supported Temperance because they needed sober workers. Neal Dow, a New England businessman and Quaker, led the fight to get rid of alcohol.Although a Quaker, Dow served as a General for the North in the Civil War. He continued his temperance work after the war Dow became the mayor of Portland, Maine, and was successful in getting a law passed eliminating alcohol in his city, making him famous. The temperance movement ideally wanted people to give up drinking entirely, but eventually settled on getting people to reduce the amount of alcohol they consumed. The American Temperance Society was the largest organization of its kind in the 1830s with over 200,000 members. Temperance continued to be a big issue well into the 20th century."In the Monster's Clutches, by T.S. Arthur, shows alcohol as a monster. It was a form of propaganda in the Temperance movement. Caring for the Disabled and Disadvantaged of SocietyThe old, the young, the abandoned, the insane, the disabled; all were herded together in poorly constructed buildings called poorhouses.Common domestic animals were treated more humanely then the people in the poorhouses. Thomas H. Gallaudet 1787-1851He graduated from Yale when he was 17 and had big plans for his life. He eventually decided he wanted to be a preacher. He had many health problems which filled him with doubts about his ability to make a difference in the world.His life changed when he met Alice Cogswell, the 9 year old deaf daughter of his doctor. He knew he could make a difference by teaching the deaf.Since there were no school for the deaf in the U.S., Gallaudet traveled to Europe to study methods for teaching deaf students, including sign language. After returning to America and raising funds, he opened the first school for the deaf in the U.S., which later became known as the American School for the Deaf.In 1821 he married a deaf woman and raised several children. His son, Edward, founded the first college for the deaf in 1864, which later became known as Gallaudet University. Samuel G. Howe 1801-1876 He worked to improve public schools, the treatment of the mentally ill, prison reform, and also wanted to get rid of slavery.In 1833 he established the New England Institution for the Education of the Blind.He taught that instead of being pitied, the blind were capable of learning just like anyone else.He developed new and easier devices for teaching the blind including inexpensive ways of printing with raised letters.During the Civil War, he wrote the words for The Battle Hymn of the Republic."The strong should help the weak, so that the whole should advance as a band of brethren." What prisons were like Prisons were a place to store any undesirables that society did not want to deal with. Men, women, and children were all put in the same cell!The goal of prison was to punish people, not to reform them.Children were treated like adult criminals.The mentally ill were abused and often thrown in prison. Josiah QuincyMayor of Boston from 1823-28.Established the Department for the Correction and Reformation for Juvenile Offenders; one the first of its kind.Before, young offenders were put in prison with adults, no matter their age or crime. Quincy wanted juveniles to have a chance to reform and get an education rather than go to prison as adults.This started the idea of the juvenile justice system in America. Thomas EddyEddy believed that no two inmates were alike and that it would be a mistake to treat all prisoners the same.Believed the purpose of prison was to reform rather than punish people.Prisoners were treated humanely and given a good diet, allowed to see their families, made to work and learn new skills, and went to school while in prison.Eddy separated juvenile offenders from other prisoners, allowed them to go to school in prison, all with the goal of making them useful, productive citizens. Dorothea Dix 1802-1887She began her reforms after teaching Sunday school at a womens jail where she discovered that the mentally ill were poorly treated. The mentally ill were considered sub-human and unable to feel heat, cold, or pain.She traveled thousands of miles to study the conditions facing the mentally ill 1st hand. She traveled throughout the U.S., Great Britain, France, Canada, Russia, even Japan to plea for better treatment for the mentally ill.In all, her efforts had helped to establish more than 100 hospitals. In a world where there is so much to be done, I felt strongly impressed that there must be something for me to do. Who could go to school?Only the very rich could afford to send their children to school. Children were taught to read and write at home. There were no public schools. Girls were not allowed to go to school; either were free blacks in the north. Emma Hart Willard 1787-1870In the early 1800s, there were very few educational opportunities for women. 1821- Emma Willard opened Troy Female Seminary in Troy, New York, first school to teach women science, social studies, and mathematics, subjects denied to women before. Her vision of intellectual equality for men and women opened the doors of education to women. Despite the efforts, it was still uncommon for woman to attend college until the late 1800s.Genuine learning has ever been said to give polish to man; why then should it not bestow added charm on women? Mary Lyon 1797-1849In 1834 she left her job as an assistant principal at a school for girls to focus her efforts on opening an institution of higher learning for women.Despite the fact that the U.S. was in an economic depression, she raised money, persuaded men to back her plans, wrote curriculum, hired teachers, and supervised the building of her school.Mount Holyoke Female Seminary opened on November 9, 1837. Students were required to take seven science and mathematics classes to graduate. A typical school day lasted 16 hours!Although many thought education was wasted on women, Mary Lyon never doubted her belief that women deserved the same educational opportunities as a man.If anyone thinks he has no responsibilities, it is because he has not sought them out. Horace Mann 1796-1859He gave up a promising career in politics and became the first secretary of education in Massachusetts. What he accomplished in his state was copied by other states and becomes the Common School Movement. Common School =every child could receive a basic education funded by local taxes.Believed public schooling was central to good citizenship and participation in a republican society.Developed teacher training schools and fought for women to be allowed to be teachers. He is considered the father of public education.Be ashamed to die before you have won some battle for humanity.	<urn:uuid:15314a31-713e-4cab-aee6-2e1c9ce1d708>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://vdocuments.mx/reform-movements-5689ccd739cee.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00328.warc.gz	en	0.982798	1,705	3.34375	3	[ 0.15782319009304047, 0.014041767455637455, 0.2787415087223053, 0.009951160289347172, 0.07716277241706848, 0.17364835739135742, -0.38227173686027527, 0.05884663015604019, -0.37238824367523193, 0.11193634569644928, 0.16718876361846924, 0.20175516605377197, -0.07373423874378204, -0.4284903407...	1	Post on 03-Jan-2016 Embed Size (px) DESCRIPTIONReform Movements. To reform means to change something. So, a reform movement is when different people or groups try and change something about society. The Second Great Awakening. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation To reform means to change something. So, a reform movement is when different people or groups try and change something about society. The Second Great AwakeningThe Second Great Awakening, a renewal of religious faith, took place in the 1790s through the early 1800s. It consisted of a series of revival meetings to reawaken religious faith, just like the First Great Awakening! Revivalist preachers said that anyone could have Gods forgiveness, so it appealed to many Americans. Charles Grandison FinneyWas one of the most important leaders of the Second Great Awakeninggave up career as a lawyer and began preaching. preached that all sin consists in selfishness and that religious faith should lead people to help others.This message was a main reason there was a reform movement! The Temperance Movement Temperance = avoiding excessesThe Temperance Movement was a campaign to stop heavy drinking. The consumption of alcohol was seen as responsible for many personal and societal problems including unemployment, absenteeism in the workplace, and physical violence aimed at women and children.Business owners supported Temperance because they needed sober workers. Neal Dow, a New England businessman and Quaker, led the fight to get rid of alcohol.Although a Quaker, Dow served as a General for the North in the Civil War. He continued his temperance work after the war Dow became the mayor of Portland, Maine, and was successful in getting a law passed eliminating alcohol in his city, making him famous. The temperance movement ideally wanted people to give up drinking entirely, but eventually settled on getting people to reduce the amount of alcohol they consumed. The American Temperance Society was the largest organization of its kind in the 1830s with over 200,000 members. Temperance continued to be a big issue well into the 20th century."In the Monster's Clutches, by T.S. Arthur, shows alcohol as a monster. It was a form of propaganda in the Temperance movement. Caring for the Disabled and Disadvantaged of SocietyThe old, the young, the abandoned, the insane, the disabled; all were herded together in poorly constructed buildings called poorhouses.Common domestic animals were treated more humanely then the people in the poorhouses. Thomas H. Gallaudet 1787-1851He graduated from Yale when he was 17 and had big plans for his life. He eventually decided he wanted to be a preacher. He had many health problems which filled him with doubts about his ability to make a difference in the world.His life changed when he met Alice Cogswell, the 9 year old deaf daughter of his doctor. He knew he could make a difference by teaching the deaf.Since there were no school for the deaf in the U.S., Gallaudet traveled to Europe to study methods for teaching deaf students, including sign language. After returning to America and raising funds, he opened the first school for the deaf in the U.S., which later became known as the American School for the Deaf.In 1821 he married a deaf woman and raised several children. His son, Edward, founded the first college for the deaf in 1864, which later became known as Gallaudet University. Samuel G. Howe 1801-1876 He worked to improve public schools, the treatment of the mentally ill, prison reform, and also wanted to get rid of slavery.In 1833 he established the New England Institution for the Education of the Blind.He taught that instead of being pitied, the blind were capable of learning just like anyone else.He developed new and easier devices for teaching the blind including inexpensive ways of printing with raised letters.During the Civil War, he wrote the words for The Battle Hymn of the Republic."The strong should help the weak, so that the whole should advance as a band of brethren." What prisons were like Prisons were a place to store any undesirables that society did not want to deal with. Men, women, and children were all put in the same cell!The goal of prison was to punish people, not to reform them.Children were treated like adult criminals.The mentally ill were abused and often thrown in prison. Josiah QuincyMayor of Boston from 1823-28.Established the Department for the Correction and Reformation for Juvenile Offenders; one the first of its kind.Before, young offenders were put in prison with adults, no matter their age or crime. Quincy wanted juveniles to have a chance to reform and get an education rather than go to prison as adults.This started the idea of the juvenile justice system in America. Thomas EddyEddy believed that no two inmates were alike and that it would be a mistake to treat all prisoners the same.Believed the purpose of prison was to reform rather than punish people.Prisoners were treated humanely and given a good diet, allowed to see their families, made to work and learn new skills, and went to school while in prison.Eddy separated juvenile offenders from other prisoners, allowed them to go to school in prison, all with the goal of making them useful, productive citizens. Dorothea Dix 1802-1887She began her reforms after teaching Sunday school at a womens jail where she discovered that the mentally ill were poorly treated. The mentally ill were considered sub-human and unable to feel heat, cold, or pain.She traveled thousands of miles to study the conditions facing the mentally ill 1st hand. She traveled throughout the U.S., Great Britain, France, Canada, Russia, even Japan to plea for better treatment for the mentally ill.In all, her efforts had helped to establish more than 100 hospitals. In a world where there is so much to be done, I felt strongly impressed that there must be something for me to do. Who could go to school?Only the very rich could afford to send their children to school. Children were taught to read and write at home. There were no public schools. Girls were not allowed to go to school; either were free blacks in the north. Emma Hart Willard 1787-1870In the early 1800s, there were very few educational opportunities for women. 1821- Emma Willard opened Troy Female Seminary in Troy, New York, first school to teach women science, social studies, and mathematics, subjects denied to women before. Her vision of intellectual equality for men and women opened the doors of education to women. Despite the efforts, it was still uncommon for woman to attend college until the late 1800s.Genuine learning has ever been said to give polish to man; why then should it not bestow added charm on women? Mary Lyon 1797-1849In 1834 she left her job as an assistant principal at a school for girls to focus her efforts on opening an institution of higher learning for women.Despite the fact that the U.S. was in an economic depression, she raised money, persuaded men to back her plans, wrote curriculum, hired teachers, and supervised the building of her school.Mount Holyoke Female Seminary opened on November 9, 1837. Students were required to take seven science and mathematics classes to graduate. A typical school day lasted 16 hours!Although many thought education was wasted on women, Mary Lyon never doubted her belief that women deserved the same educational opportunities as a man.If anyone thinks he has no responsibilities, it is because he has not sought them out. Horace Mann 1796-1859He gave up a promising career in politics and became the first secretary of education in Massachusetts. What he accomplished in his state was copied by other states and becomes the Common School Movement. Common School =every child could receive a basic education funded by local taxes.Believed public schooling was central to good citizenship and participation in a republican society.Developed teacher training schools and fought for women to be allowed to be teachers. He is considered the father of public education.Be ashamed to die before you have won some battle for humanity.	1,738	ENGLISH	1
New research has found that the human eye may be able to see infrared light. A team of researchers, co-led by Scientists at Washington University School of Medicine in St Louis, found that by rapidly firing powerful lasers that emit pulses of infrared light the retina was able to pick up the infrared light that is usually out of the visual spectrum. The research began when the scientists on the research team reported seeing flashes of green light while working with an infrared laser. The laser was emitting light waves previously thought invisible to the human eye. A scientist at Washington University, Frans Vinberg, said: “They were able to see the laser light, which was outside of the normal visible range, and we really wanted to figure out how they were able to sense light that was supposed to be invisible. We experimented with laser pulses of different durations that delivered the same total number of photons, and we found that the shorter the pulse, the more likely it was a person could see it. Although the length of time between pulses was so short that it couldn’t be noticed by the naked eye, the existence of those pulses was very important in allowing people to see this invisible light.”	<urn:uuid:b5168649-8dbf-42a2-abea-9ce959f93183>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blog.lightbulbs-direct.com/we-can-see-more-light-than-we-originally-thought/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00547.warc.gz	en	0.982274	242	4.03125	4	[ -0.2847729027271271, 0.13093963265419006, 0.05341486632823944, 0.3880883753299713, 0.2940419018268585, 0.5504267811775208, 0.699549674987793, 0.1333048939704895, -0.06278261542320251, 0.04932369291782379, 0.27942055463790894, -0.16090478003025055, -0.24913658201694489, 0.37127792835235596,...	3	New research has found that the human eye may be able to see infrared light. A team of researchers, co-led by Scientists at Washington University School of Medicine in St Louis, found that by rapidly firing powerful lasers that emit pulses of infrared light the retina was able to pick up the infrared light that is usually out of the visual spectrum. The research began when the scientists on the research team reported seeing flashes of green light while working with an infrared laser. The laser was emitting light waves previously thought invisible to the human eye. A scientist at Washington University, Frans Vinberg, said: “They were able to see the laser light, which was outside of the normal visible range, and we really wanted to figure out how they were able to sense light that was supposed to be invisible. We experimented with laser pulses of different durations that delivered the same total number of photons, and we found that the shorter the pulse, the more likely it was a person could see it. Although the length of time between pulses was so short that it couldn’t be noticed by the naked eye, the existence of those pulses was very important in allowing people to see this invisible light.”	232	ENGLISH	1
Finally, literature can create a platform for those who typically are unable to influence society publicly or on a public platform. For example, women in the 17th and 18th centuries possessed very little societal influence and there for had to find a means to still leave their mark on the world and impact it for the better. Anne Bradstreet and Phillis Wheatley are two such women who sought out a way to impact the world. These two women, although from extremely different circumstances, both wrote about what life was like for women in these two centuries and both are considered courageous according to the standards of may despite being in the submissive female role that society had categorized and placed them in. For example, Anne Bradstreet…show more content… Wheatley wrote the first book of verses by an African American and paved the way for ethnic writers to follow and do the same. Despite her enslavement at the age of 7, she continued to be a powerful voice for her race and for women all throughout the 18th century. One of her most famous poems has been retitled, “And Still I Rise” by many, and its speaks of her courageous spirit and grateful heart as she was taken from the only home she had ever known to be shipped to America and serve those she did not know, and yet – she did so with courage,“'Twas mercy brought me from my Pagan land, Taught my benighted soul to understand That there's a God, that there's a Saviour too: Once I redemption neither sought nor knew. Some view our sable race with scornful eye, "Their colour is a diabolic die." Remember, Christians, Negros, black as Cain, May be refin'd, and join th' angelic train,” (Wheatley). Despite being taken from her home and horribly mistreated, Wheatley chose to be courageous. Although she was only a slave, she chose to use writing as a platform, she chose to be proud of her race as shown in line 5, when she states that some “view our sable race with a scornful eye,” and yet she chooses to look past all of that and seeks to see the very best in people. Wheatley chose courage. Wheatley	<urn:uuid:f6c8a6ac-2d49-4101-8d60-9541483ba421>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Summary-Of-Anne-Bradstreet-And-Phillis-Wheatley-F3SJCNR6PLF	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00386.warc.gz	en	0.980219	468	3.484375	3	[ -0.048887401819229126, 0.20070384442806244, -0.05107362940907478, 0.3314599096775055, -0.28726518154144287, 0.2436484694480896, -0.32973259687423706, 0.526547908782959, 0.05930601432919502, -0.05099646747112274, -0.15490084886550903, 0.31360331177711487, -0.17650216817855835, -0.2172625660...	1	Finally, literature can create a platform for those who typically are unable to influence society publicly or on a public platform. For example, women in the 17th and 18th centuries possessed very little societal influence and there for had to find a means to still leave their mark on the world and impact it for the better. Anne Bradstreet and Phillis Wheatley are two such women who sought out a way to impact the world. These two women, although from extremely different circumstances, both wrote about what life was like for women in these two centuries and both are considered courageous according to the standards of may despite being in the submissive female role that society had categorized and placed them in. For example, Anne Bradstreet…show more content… Wheatley wrote the first book of verses by an African American and paved the way for ethnic writers to follow and do the same. Despite her enslavement at the age of 7, she continued to be a powerful voice for her race and for women all throughout the 18th century. One of her most famous poems has been retitled, “And Still I Rise” by many, and its speaks of her courageous spirit and grateful heart as she was taken from the only home she had ever known to be shipped to America and serve those she did not know, and yet – she did so with courage,“'Twas mercy brought me from my Pagan land, Taught my benighted soul to understand That there's a God, that there's a Saviour too: Once I redemption neither sought nor knew. Some view our sable race with scornful eye, "Their colour is a diabolic die." Remember, Christians, Negros, black as Cain, May be refin'd, and join th' angelic train,” (Wheatley). Despite being taken from her home and horribly mistreated, Wheatley chose to be courageous. Although she was only a slave, she chose to use writing as a platform, she chose to be proud of her race as shown in line 5, when she states that some “view our sable race with a scornful eye,” and yet she chooses to look past all of that and seeks to see the very best in people. Wheatley chose courage. Wheatley	461	ENGLISH	1
the age of Chaucer, there were many famous writers. There were so many beautiful literatures in this age. One of popular writers was Geoffrey Chaucer. He was first writer in England. His name used in this age because he had many works that very beautiful in his period. Beside that, Geoffrey Chaucer had own characteristic different with other. So, his name used in this age. There were three cases which interesting to discuss, namely, the first is the Chaucer’s life, the second is Chaucer’s works, and the third is how the historical background of the age of Chaucer can influence his works. Chaucer was one of writer in middle century. He was a diploma and filsuf also. Chaucer was a son of a rich grape merchant in England. He was born in London, but for the date, nobody knew. Chaucer was a great writer. He worked in Castel of England. He had good relationship with King Richard II. So, when Richard II descended the throne, Chaucer stopped working in castle. When Chaucer died, he buried in a special place for great writer like him, namely in writer’s corner. According to Book’s Edward Albert M.A page 33, it explained that After Richard II ascended the throne in 1317, Chaucer always called to the castle and got many pension’s money early. Not only that, Chaucer also always got gift from King Richard II. Chaucer was sent to Italy by the King for mission journey of diploma. After several years, Richard II descended the throne and it became a depression period for Chaucer. He stop working and back to his village. Chaucer died and buried at Writer’s Corner in Westminster Abbey. So, that’s all about Chaucer’s life that very interesting. Chaucer’s works was very popular and liked by many readers in his period. One of his works which pupolar was The Centubury Tales. Not only that, Chaucer’s poetry were The Romaunt of The Rose, Anelida and Arcite, The Book and The Duchesse, and many more. The characteristic of his poetry were unique, the content was a result his observation directly, his poetry was firm but funny, his poetry taught many things but not as a teacher for the reader. Beside that, the other characteristic were Chaucer used 8-10 syllables in his poetry, he chose correct words and the rhythm formed a pair, two lines had rhythm. According to Book’s Edward Albert M.A. page 34, it said that the great narrative work of Chaucer was Troilus and Criseyde. Its rhythm was beautiful and the story in that work had deep impression. Edward Albert M.A. put some excerpt of Chaucer’s poetry, such as no love is, O god, what fele I so? If love is, what thing and which is he? love be good, from whennes com’th my wo? it wikke, a wonder thinketh me, that excerpt, seen that Chaucer used 8-10 syllables, the rhythm formed a pair, and two lines was rhythm. So, Chaucer’s works were very beautiful and had own The historical background in the age of Chaucer was very influence into the Chaucer’s works. Where ago, in period of King Edward III, church was very ruling. Who oppose the church, they definitely insult the Christen and the risk was killed or burned. There were war between Islam with Christen. They fought each other for showing who religion that very right in the world. That historical background was most about religion. So that’s why, Chaucer wrote his works with religion theme. One of his work used religion theme was The Canterbury Tales. That work told about people that visited the Santo’s burry in Canterbury. The story was about abuse of religion. According to Enotes.com (Dec.24th, 2017), even though the stories in The Canterbury reflected many topics of secular and religious, the placed of religion story was more plentiful and it was about honor of Chaucer with Christen doctrine. So, the works of Chaucer was more about religion theme because influenced by the historical background of the age of Chaucer. In Summary, the historical background of Chaucer that more about religion, influenced the works of Chaucer in his age. On of his works that used religion theme was The Canterbury Tales. The characteristic of Chaucer’s works were unique, he chose correct words, the content was beautiful, it used 8-10 syllables, and the rhythm formed a pair. The Chaucer’s life was interesting. He was born in a rich family and he loved in writing. Chaucer was liked by King Richard II and when he died, he was buried at Writer’s Conner in Westminster Abbey.	<urn:uuid:110e5cd5-5d96-441c-b029-e898f22cb5a9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essayprepper.com/in-this-age-one-of-popular-writers-was-geoffrey/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00180.warc.gz	en	0.985027	1,100	3.375	3	[ -0.20045989751815796, 0.4002886414527893, 0.3673134446144104, 0.25618690252304077, -0.4882345199584961, -0.38134002685546875, 0.18364053964614868, -0.09831338375806808, -0.018041614443063736, -0.33184900879859924, -0.48764365911483765, 0.156986802816391, 0.0636552944779396, 0.0594492778182...	2	the age of Chaucer, there were many famous writers. There were so many beautiful literatures in this age. One of popular writers was Geoffrey Chaucer. He was first writer in England. His name used in this age because he had many works that very beautiful in his period. Beside that, Geoffrey Chaucer had own characteristic different with other. So, his name used in this age. There were three cases which interesting to discuss, namely, the first is the Chaucer’s life, the second is Chaucer’s works, and the third is how the historical background of the age of Chaucer can influence his works. Chaucer was one of writer in middle century. He was a diploma and filsuf also. Chaucer was a son of a rich grape merchant in England. He was born in London, but for the date, nobody knew. Chaucer was a great writer. He worked in Castel of England. He had good relationship with King Richard II. So, when Richard II descended the throne, Chaucer stopped working in castle. When Chaucer died, he buried in a special place for great writer like him, namely in writer’s corner. According to Book’s Edward Albert M.A page 33, it explained that After Richard II ascended the throne in 1317, Chaucer always called to the castle and got many pension’s money early. Not only that, Chaucer also always got gift from King Richard II. Chaucer was sent to Italy by the King for mission journey of diploma. After several years, Richard II descended the throne and it became a depression period for Chaucer. He stop working and back to his village. Chaucer died and buried at Writer’s Corner in Westminster Abbey. So, that’s all about Chaucer’s life that very interesting. Chaucer’s works was very popular and liked by many readers in his period. One of his works which pupolar was The Centubury Tales. Not only that, Chaucer’s poetry were The Romaunt of The Rose, Anelida and Arcite, The Book and The Duchesse, and many more. The characteristic of his poetry were unique, the content was a result his observation directly, his poetry was firm but funny, his poetry taught many things but not as a teacher for the reader. Beside that, the other characteristic were Chaucer used 8-10 syllables in his poetry, he chose correct words and the rhythm formed a pair, two lines had rhythm. According to Book’s Edward Albert M.A. page 34, it said that the great narrative work of Chaucer was Troilus and Criseyde. Its rhythm was beautiful and the story in that work had deep impression. Edward Albert M.A. put some excerpt of Chaucer’s poetry, such as no love is, O god, what fele I so? If love is, what thing and which is he? love be good, from whennes com’th my wo? it wikke, a wonder thinketh me, that excerpt, seen that Chaucer used 8-10 syllables, the rhythm formed a pair, and two lines was rhythm. So, Chaucer’s works were very beautiful and had own The historical background in the age of Chaucer was very influence into the Chaucer’s works. Where ago, in period of King Edward III, church was very ruling. Who oppose the church, they definitely insult the Christen and the risk was killed or burned. There were war between Islam with Christen. They fought each other for showing who religion that very right in the world. That historical background was most about religion. So that’s why, Chaucer wrote his works with religion theme. One of his work used religion theme was The Canterbury Tales. That work told about people that visited the Santo’s burry in Canterbury. The story was about abuse of religion. According to Enotes.com (Dec.24th, 2017), even though the stories in The Canterbury reflected many topics of secular and religious, the placed of religion story was more plentiful and it was about honor of Chaucer with Christen doctrine. So, the works of Chaucer was more about religion theme because influenced by the historical background of the age of Chaucer. In Summary, the historical background of Chaucer that more about religion, influenced the works of Chaucer in his age. On of his works that used religion theme was The Canterbury Tales. The characteristic of Chaucer’s works were unique, he chose correct words, the content was beautiful, it used 8-10 syllables, and the rhythm formed a pair. The Chaucer’s life was interesting. He was born in a rich family and he loved in writing. Chaucer was liked by King Richard II and when he died, he was buried at Writer’s Conner in Westminster Abbey.	1,084	ENGLISH	1
He appointed the priests to fulfill their duties and encouraged them to carry out their service in the Lord’s temple. The priests stood in their assigned spots, along with the Levites who had the musical instruments used for praising the Lord. 1 (These were the ones King David made for giving thanks to the Lord and which were used by David when he offered praise, saying, “Certainly his loyal love endures.”) 2 Opposite the Levites, 3 the priests were blowing the trumpets, while all Israel stood there. As his father David had decreed, Solomon 1 appointed the divisions of the priests to do their assigned tasks, the Levitical orders to lead worship and help the priests with their daily tasks, 2 and the divisions of the gatekeepers to serve at their assigned gates. 3 This was what David the man of God had ordered. 4	<urn:uuid:023cf930-07e2-46a7-998f-81e7281355bd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://classic.net.bible.org/search.php?search=hebrew_strict_index:Mtwrmsm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00076.warc.gz	en	0.984615	179	3.375	3	[ -0.30621856451034546, 0.5996999740600586, 0.13075579702854156, -0.5748465061187744, -0.3577384054660797, -0.37801480293273926, 0.4361218810081482, -0.009519848972558975, 0.2526043653488159, -0.3860566020011902, -0.19139385223388672, -0.022185830399394035, 0.2949676215648651, -0.06688819825...	2	He appointed the priests to fulfill their duties and encouraged them to carry out their service in the Lord’s temple. The priests stood in their assigned spots, along with the Levites who had the musical instruments used for praising the Lord. 1 (These were the ones King David made for giving thanks to the Lord and which were used by David when he offered praise, saying, “Certainly his loyal love endures.”) 2 Opposite the Levites, 3 the priests were blowing the trumpets, while all Israel stood there. As his father David had decreed, Solomon 1 appointed the divisions of the priests to do their assigned tasks, the Levitical orders to lead worship and help the priests with their daily tasks, 2 and the divisions of the gatekeepers to serve at their assigned gates. 3 This was what David the man of God had ordered. 4	178	ENGLISH	1
Summary of “On His Blindness” by John Milton The poet is concerned that God will demand his to show his skills after having lost his sight. The symbolic meaning is that since he has not served God and done anything for Him, God will now ask him for his services. In an attempt to contradict and negate his such thoughts which he claims as foolish and idiotic, he says that his patience comes to the rescue to prevent him and tell him that God is complete in itself and he doesn’t need any gifts or service of any kind for himself. The real essence in living is in abiding by the orders of God. Those who allow their fates to be controlled by God and not question any suffering or misfortune that He gives live truly. A biblical image of God has been shown by using the term mild yoke. Duty and submissiveness are the ideas towards the end of the poem. Patience tells the poet that there is the entire world in God’s service. Positive and patience attitude can help serve the God. One must not lose patience. Instead one must see any pain and suffering like a service to God. The poet is also convinced that his blindness and the wait to meet and serve the God must also be by His orders and that he must abide by them.	<urn:uuid:810f6f11-ae74-453b-a351-9b7d8821120f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://farmersfeastmanitoba.com/summary-of-on-his-blindness-by-john-milton/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00213.warc.gz	en	0.991962	266	3.265625	3	[ -0.1770951747894287, 0.2320486307144165, 0.157546728849411, 0.06682556867599487, -0.040843114256858826, 0.061820853501558304, 0.6685487627983093, 0.12927834689617157, -0.18415112793445587, -0.13356450200080872, -0.10683837532997131, -0.32320424914360046, 0.010527798905968666, 0.11777742952...	1	Summary of “On His Blindness” by John Milton The poet is concerned that God will demand his to show his skills after having lost his sight. The symbolic meaning is that since he has not served God and done anything for Him, God will now ask him for his services. In an attempt to contradict and negate his such thoughts which he claims as foolish and idiotic, he says that his patience comes to the rescue to prevent him and tell him that God is complete in itself and he doesn’t need any gifts or service of any kind for himself. The real essence in living is in abiding by the orders of God. Those who allow their fates to be controlled by God and not question any suffering or misfortune that He gives live truly. A biblical image of God has been shown by using the term mild yoke. Duty and submissiveness are the ideas towards the end of the poem. Patience tells the poet that there is the entire world in God’s service. Positive and patience attitude can help serve the God. One must not lose patience. Instead one must see any pain and suffering like a service to God. The poet is also convinced that his blindness and the wait to meet and serve the God must also be by His orders and that he must abide by them.	261	ENGLISH	1
First Man in Space On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to travel into space. Yuri Gagarin was born March 9, 1934, on a collective farm west of Moscow. Nazis threw his family out of their home during World War II and carried two of his sisters away. Yuri helped dig a dugout, which would be the family’s home until the end of the war. As a child, Gagarin developed an early interest in space and the planets. While studying at a technical high school, he joined the “Aero Club,” learned to fly light aircraft, and dreamed of flying in space. He joined the Russian Air Force in 1955 and trained as a military fighter pilot. By 1960, Gagarin was a senior lieutenant in the Soviet Air Force. Gagarin was selected, along with 19 others, as a cosmonaut in the expanding space program. His top performance on physical and psychological tests, along with his short stature (5 feet 2 inches), won him the honor of piloting the Vostok I. On April 12, 1961, at 9:07 a.m., Gagarin entered earth’s orbit and made history as the first man in outer space. The flight took just 108 minutes. When the small module reentered the earth’s atmosphere, Gagarin had to eject from it at a height of more than four miles, then parachute down. Gagarin immediately became a “Hero of the Soviet Union,” the highest honor awarded by that nation. He was nicknamed “The Columbus of the Cosmos” and traveled the world sharing his experience. His wide smile helped him win the hearts of many. A leader of the space program at the time said Gagarin’s smile “lit up the Cold War.” Streets, cities, and a crater on the moon have been named in his honor. It’s been said the Russians feared to lose him in an accident and wouldn’t allow him to travel into space again, so Gagarin’s first space flight was also his last. Ironically, Yuri Gagarin died seven years later on March 27, 1968, when the MiG-15 he was test-piloting crashed near Moscow. But with his single orbit of the earth, the brave cosmonaut had affected our nation’s course in space for all time. Not content to let Russia dominate space exploration, just weeks after Gagarin’s voyage, President John F. Kennedy declared America’s intention to send a man to the moon by the end of the decade. Gagarin’s ashes are buried alongside other Russian heroes in the Kremlin wall. Gagarin was included on a plaque left on the moon by the crew of Apollo 15, in memory of the 14 American and Russian astronauts who died leading man into space. During his lifetime and after it was tragically cut short, Gagarin was given awards from countries around the world such as the Soviet Union, Indonesia, Poland, Brazil, Egypt, Italy, and England. The name of the town he grew up in, Gzhatsk, was changed to Gagarin, and he was given honorary citizenship to cities throughout Europe and Asia. Since 1962, April 12 has been celebrated in Russia as Cosmonautics Day. Click here for more Yuri Gagarin stamps. Click here to see what else happened on This Day in History.	<urn:uuid:dae1a5ae-bada-46ea-bff1-9a9fdfeaed10>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mysticstamp.com/info/this-day-in-history-april-12-1961/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00498.warc.gz	en	0.98388	728	3.71875	4	[ -0.32873260974884033, 0.1990470439195633, 0.40553683042526245, -0.23315834999084473, -0.3653832674026489, 0.09769570827484131, 0.5439693331718445, 0.312446653842926, 0.22798700630664825, -0.308300644159317, -0.08101877570152283, 0.14593207836151123, 0.11469428241252899, 0.6191206574440002,...	2	First Man in Space On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to travel into space. Yuri Gagarin was born March 9, 1934, on a collective farm west of Moscow. Nazis threw his family out of their home during World War II and carried two of his sisters away. Yuri helped dig a dugout, which would be the family’s home until the end of the war. As a child, Gagarin developed an early interest in space and the planets. While studying at a technical high school, he joined the “Aero Club,” learned to fly light aircraft, and dreamed of flying in space. He joined the Russian Air Force in 1955 and trained as a military fighter pilot. By 1960, Gagarin was a senior lieutenant in the Soviet Air Force. Gagarin was selected, along with 19 others, as a cosmonaut in the expanding space program. His top performance on physical and psychological tests, along with his short stature (5 feet 2 inches), won him the honor of piloting the Vostok I. On April 12, 1961, at 9:07 a.m., Gagarin entered earth’s orbit and made history as the first man in outer space. The flight took just 108 minutes. When the small module reentered the earth’s atmosphere, Gagarin had to eject from it at a height of more than four miles, then parachute down. Gagarin immediately became a “Hero of the Soviet Union,” the highest honor awarded by that nation. He was nicknamed “The Columbus of the Cosmos” and traveled the world sharing his experience. His wide smile helped him win the hearts of many. A leader of the space program at the time said Gagarin’s smile “lit up the Cold War.” Streets, cities, and a crater on the moon have been named in his honor. It’s been said the Russians feared to lose him in an accident and wouldn’t allow him to travel into space again, so Gagarin’s first space flight was also his last. Ironically, Yuri Gagarin died seven years later on March 27, 1968, when the MiG-15 he was test-piloting crashed near Moscow. But with his single orbit of the earth, the brave cosmonaut had affected our nation’s course in space for all time. Not content to let Russia dominate space exploration, just weeks after Gagarin’s voyage, President John F. Kennedy declared America’s intention to send a man to the moon by the end of the decade. Gagarin’s ashes are buried alongside other Russian heroes in the Kremlin wall. Gagarin was included on a plaque left on the moon by the crew of Apollo 15, in memory of the 14 American and Russian astronauts who died leading man into space. During his lifetime and after it was tragically cut short, Gagarin was given awards from countries around the world such as the Soviet Union, Indonesia, Poland, Brazil, Egypt, Italy, and England. The name of the town he grew up in, Gzhatsk, was changed to Gagarin, and he was given honorary citizenship to cities throughout Europe and Asia. Since 1962, April 12 has been celebrated in Russia as Cosmonautics Day. Click here for more Yuri Gagarin stamps. Click here to see what else happened on This Day in History.	736	ENGLISH	1
The Village: Book I The poem focuses on the life of the poor living predominately in rural areas, in places where there are few to no opportunities. The peasants work tirelessly but it seems that nothing they do helps them escape from poverty. People who make a living out of writing stopped finding inspiration in the country and the subjects they choose no longer include pastoral life. No longer focusing on nature is compares by the narrator with the idea of abandoning the truth, thus pointing out that for many, truth can only be found in nature. Those who live and work in the country no longer have access to this truth mainly because they are too busy with farming and taking care of their animals. Because of this, many of them became illiterate in time, not having time for ‘’syllables’’. The narrator compares the farmer with the poet, in the sense they both have to make efforts to see the fruits of their labor. However, the narrator does agree that a farmer has to put a lot more effort into his work while the poem can simply find inspiration anywhere and from anything he encounters. He work done by the peasants stopped them from experiencing pleasure and this is presented as a negative consequence by the narrator. The reason why those people were no longer finding pleasure in poetry was because they lacked the necessary things in life to survive. The land on which the farmers worked is described in a less than positive manner, as being harsh and reluctant to give the men what they truly need to survive. The battle between land and man is presented as being an epic journey done by Greek heroes, highlighting thus the problems many peasants had to face. The weather turned against the farmers as well, making it almost impossible for them to profit from their work. Still, almost ironically, the farmers chose to stay on their lands, refusing the let the harsh conditions affect them. The farmers continued to work, even when their health was declining and they were putting their own life in danger through the hard work they were performing. Many farmers died alone, having no one to look after them. The narrator ends the poem by claiming that even though many refuse to see peasants and people worth of respect, he thinks that they deserve to have a happy and fulfilling life, just like everybody else. The poem begins with the description of a restless soul, in pain. The source of the pain remains unnamed but the narrator claims the pain is so great that the body in which the soul sits is affected as well. Every object which the soul encounters in the world reminds him about the pain he feels and so traveling is described as something painful for the soul. The pain can be driven away by ‘’lively gales and gently clouded skies’’ or rather the presence of happy memories and experiences. Memories are presented as being one of the main sources for pain since it continues to make a person feel various emotions. Nothing can cure this type of sadness and Hope is described as being powerless when faced whit this type of pain. The solution to this type of pain is reading, or rather ‘’BOOKS’’ which can teach a person how to escape from pain and how to find solutions to different problems once may face. Books are not biased and they offer the same type of knowledge to every person who wants to listen and to learn more. Books are called children, created by those who wrote them and the result of a long and tedious process. Some books are compared with good and wise kings, having the ability to help people evolve while others are like blind and deaf men who lead others to their own ruin. Thus, the narrator transmits the idea that a reader must be careful about the literature he consumes, keeping in mind how some books may just do more harm than good and may mislead people and cause them pain. Good books are on the other hand like immortal gods, watching over the normal people and spreading their wisdom. They are compared with grand mausoleums, standing erect decade after decade, making the people looking at them feel insignificant and in need of guidance.	<urn:uuid:9ea6e6f9-69c3-486c-872c-6c94200dfd68>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gradesaver.com/george-crabbe-poems/study-guide/analysis	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00441.warc.gz	en	0.983509	831	3.34375	3	[ 0.04847704619169235, -0.0884360671043396, 0.04763033241033554, 0.4368174970149994, 0.4243175983428955, -0.3310316205024719, -0.20948030054569244, 0.020156770944595337, -0.23404985666275024, 0.059401024132966995, 0.05378331243991852, -0.0966351181268692, 0.3766552209854126, 0.27116304636001...	1	The Village: Book I The poem focuses on the life of the poor living predominately in rural areas, in places where there are few to no opportunities. The peasants work tirelessly but it seems that nothing they do helps them escape from poverty. People who make a living out of writing stopped finding inspiration in the country and the subjects they choose no longer include pastoral life. No longer focusing on nature is compares by the narrator with the idea of abandoning the truth, thus pointing out that for many, truth can only be found in nature. Those who live and work in the country no longer have access to this truth mainly because they are too busy with farming and taking care of their animals. Because of this, many of them became illiterate in time, not having time for ‘’syllables’’. The narrator compares the farmer with the poet, in the sense they both have to make efforts to see the fruits of their labor. However, the narrator does agree that a farmer has to put a lot more effort into his work while the poem can simply find inspiration anywhere and from anything he encounters. He work done by the peasants stopped them from experiencing pleasure and this is presented as a negative consequence by the narrator. The reason why those people were no longer finding pleasure in poetry was because they lacked the necessary things in life to survive. The land on which the farmers worked is described in a less than positive manner, as being harsh and reluctant to give the men what they truly need to survive. The battle between land and man is presented as being an epic journey done by Greek heroes, highlighting thus the problems many peasants had to face. The weather turned against the farmers as well, making it almost impossible for them to profit from their work. Still, almost ironically, the farmers chose to stay on their lands, refusing the let the harsh conditions affect them. The farmers continued to work, even when their health was declining and they were putting their own life in danger through the hard work they were performing. Many farmers died alone, having no one to look after them. The narrator ends the poem by claiming that even though many refuse to see peasants and people worth of respect, he thinks that they deserve to have a happy and fulfilling life, just like everybody else. The poem begins with the description of a restless soul, in pain. The source of the pain remains unnamed but the narrator claims the pain is so great that the body in which the soul sits is affected as well. Every object which the soul encounters in the world reminds him about the pain he feels and so traveling is described as something painful for the soul. The pain can be driven away by ‘’lively gales and gently clouded skies’’ or rather the presence of happy memories and experiences. Memories are presented as being one of the main sources for pain since it continues to make a person feel various emotions. Nothing can cure this type of sadness and Hope is described as being powerless when faced whit this type of pain. The solution to this type of pain is reading, or rather ‘’BOOKS’’ which can teach a person how to escape from pain and how to find solutions to different problems once may face. Books are not biased and they offer the same type of knowledge to every person who wants to listen and to learn more. Books are called children, created by those who wrote them and the result of a long and tedious process. Some books are compared with good and wise kings, having the ability to help people evolve while others are like blind and deaf men who lead others to their own ruin. Thus, the narrator transmits the idea that a reader must be careful about the literature he consumes, keeping in mind how some books may just do more harm than good and may mislead people and cause them pain. Good books are on the other hand like immortal gods, watching over the normal people and spreading their wisdom. They are compared with grand mausoleums, standing erect decade after decade, making the people looking at them feel insignificant and in need of guidance.	811	ENGLISH	1
One year had passed since the power of Egypt had been broken and Israel, no longer slaves, had crossed the Red Sea. What followed was the preparation of the Tabernacle for worship and then entry into the land of Canaan. Moses directed twelve men to enter and spy out the land, to "see the land, what it is; and the people that dwelleth therein" (Num 13.18). They had to examine the cities of the land, and the food and fruits which were available. Having almost completed the charge given to them they arrived at the "valley of Eshcol" (JND) ready to go back and re-join the host of Israel. They took a cluster of grapes, of such a weight that it was placed upon a staff, with two of the spies necessary to carry it. Together with pomegranates and figs it was an impressive display encouraging the Israelites to move forward. The message was brought to Moses. The fruits of the land were displayed; the ideal place for the children of Israel to settle. However, the returned spies were disconsolate. They claimed that the nations dwelling in Canaan - the Amalekites, the Jebusites, the Amorites and the Canaanites - were too mighty to be overcome by Israel. Their cry was that "the people be strong that dwell in the land, and the cities are walled, and very great" (v.28). Their complaint went further, "it is a land that eateth up the inhabitants thereof" (v.32). Two of the spies, Caleb and Joshua, spoke to the people and sought to still them before Moses: "Let us go up at once, and possess it; for we are well able to overcome it" (v.30), and "rebel not ye against the Lord" (14.9). However, the words of Caleb and Joshua were rejected and the Israelites waited many years before they crossed into the land of Canaan. Is this not a warning for today?	<urn:uuid:0988d3c8-e091-4589-a3df-8098a69d8c7d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.believersmagazine.com/bm.php?i=20150610	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00490.warc.gz	en	0.981337	416	3.265625	3	[ -0.3079800307750702, 0.5212494134902954, 0.05017375573515892, -0.18288834393024445, -0.14240898191928864, -0.38730064034461975, 0.33352717757225037, -0.1448678970336914, -0.2985304892063141, 0.28538966178894043, 0.1096997782588005, -0.40717482566833496, 0.26703912019729614, 0.0643936172127...	1	One year had passed since the power of Egypt had been broken and Israel, no longer slaves, had crossed the Red Sea. What followed was the preparation of the Tabernacle for worship and then entry into the land of Canaan. Moses directed twelve men to enter and spy out the land, to "see the land, what it is; and the people that dwelleth therein" (Num 13.18). They had to examine the cities of the land, and the food and fruits which were available. Having almost completed the charge given to them they arrived at the "valley of Eshcol" (JND) ready to go back and re-join the host of Israel. They took a cluster of grapes, of such a weight that it was placed upon a staff, with two of the spies necessary to carry it. Together with pomegranates and figs it was an impressive display encouraging the Israelites to move forward. The message was brought to Moses. The fruits of the land were displayed; the ideal place for the children of Israel to settle. However, the returned spies were disconsolate. They claimed that the nations dwelling in Canaan - the Amalekites, the Jebusites, the Amorites and the Canaanites - were too mighty to be overcome by Israel. Their cry was that "the people be strong that dwell in the land, and the cities are walled, and very great" (v.28). Their complaint went further, "it is a land that eateth up the inhabitants thereof" (v.32). Two of the spies, Caleb and Joshua, spoke to the people and sought to still them before Moses: "Let us go up at once, and possess it; for we are well able to overcome it" (v.30), and "rebel not ye against the Lord" (14.9). However, the words of Caleb and Joshua were rejected and the Israelites waited many years before they crossed into the land of Canaan. Is this not a warning for today?	425	ENGLISH	1
If you are a teacher, you know there are multiple advantages about encouraging questioning from the start. Questions from a student show a teacher their student's range and style of thinking. Questions point in the direction of the answers. In fact, questions can imply a limitation of what kind of answers that are possible to find. Better questions open up a rich field of personal discovery. How do you ask a really good question? As a student, you can ask any question to get started. Sometimes the first questions that come off the top of your head aren't the most appropriate, but everyone has to start somewhere. Most teachers understand this. As a learner, to ask a really juicy question, you have to listen carefully to learn any "lingo" about the topic. So the best questions to start with are often about the specialized use of words you hear your master teacher using. The other skill that's good to develop as a questioner is indicating "over-load, please change tactics now" or "I've got it, go on" to the teacher. There are some assumptions that create problems with encouraging this activity in learners; especially in a group situation. Some learners believe these kinds of questions are insulting to the teacher. How can a teacher encourage learners to get past their misconceptions that particular issues, communications or questions are somehow "forbidden"? At first, even in a private lesson, most students seem to want a teacher to "lecture" them. They want to let the master talk. The teacher saying something to preface a lesson might be appropriate in some cases. But what if the teacher doesn't really want to go on about the topic; what if they want their student's involvement from the very beginning? Some teachers address this hurdle by doing the asking themselves, and then answering. They hope that the students will get the idea of what kind of questions to ask. What to do when the teacher finds that students resort to parroting or restating the teacher's questions with other motivations such as to gain approval? It's easy for the students to misunderstand that questions posed by the teacher and then answered are merely rhetorical ones; that the teacher is asking these questions to show off their knowledge. The students may imagine that the teacher would never ask a question that they don't already know the answer to. It's very difficult to ask a question that will point in a new direction. Questions can imply that there is one answer, rather than a multiplicity of answers. It's also easy to think that just because you have come up with an answer to a question - that this one answer is enough of an answer. Fantastic and personally meaningful questions sometimes need quite a bit of personal experimentation to adequately explore their potential... Sometimes this kind of question can become a sort of "virtual question" that many actions of exploration are continually answering during the course of life... How can you encourage your students to ask really good question of you, to be a masterful teacher? How can a teacher get around student's misconceptions about the nature of authority, for instance, without inviting disrespect? (We're talking about adult learners here - who have already been trained into a lifetime of habits about how to treat teachers.) Instead of my lecturing, here's an account from many years ago about a teacher of mine who I considered to be a master. In this case, she was teaching Alexander Technique, but this relates to asking questions concerning any skill. My teacher was in her late eighties here. She's almost five feet tall. Classes could be huge; sixty to eighty people in one room. The advantage was that the workshop lasted for weeks. The disadvantage was that people figured it was too early in the workshop to dare to risk anything in front of everyone else. My teacher was too polite to be overt about what must have been some frustration beyond kidding the group, "What do I have to do to get some questions and thinking out of more of you people, do a jig?" Most often, laughter, but no daring questions. The humor did have some effect to loosen people up. The experience of getting a new perceptual assumption is unsettling to many people. A master of an art can sometimes come across as personally frightening. In this case, they were intimidated. This little old lady could shake people's foundations; pull the carpet out from underneath their very sense of self. So the group treated her with "respect." This turned out to be a kid glove sort of childish unquestioning loyalty and agreement. This little old lady hated that. She had a number of ways of dealing with it though. One was to invite different people to get up in front of the class for a "private" lesson with her... with everyone else watching. While working with someone she would ask, "So you see that little difference? Can someone describe what they see?" She wouldn't go on until someone described it. That's how she taught us to see very subtle indications of motion or a lack of movement. That also taught us to ask ourselves what these indications meant in each specific situation with each different person. She might ask the group to move in slow motion to illustrate a crucially pivotal point that influenced that entire outcome. Then we learned how to integrate the special points with the whole, normally speeded action again. These examples of techniques to encourage questions are,(or should be) commonplace to any teacher. The one I'll tell you about next surprised me because I regarded it as being positively sneaky. My teacher took me aside and told me that she appreciated having me and a few other people in the class. She said that it was because we'd pipe up with questions that nobody else would dare ask. She then told me a story about how she didn't understand when another student accused her of putting them on the spot by singling them out, inviting their participation. This is what made me realize that she was asking me to put her "on the spot" by bringing up what may be forbidden as defined by the group of students. This little old lady had some unusual ideas in her field about how her skill should be taught. People seemed to be avoiding asking her specifically about what made her ways different, and she wanted me to break the ice, so to speak. Essentially, she gave me license to be planted as a sort of "sacrificial fool" in the forbidden questioning department. People would stare at me with open mouths and shocked looks on their faces when I'd fire off these questions that nobody else would dare say. It pleased the two of us immensely. After those kind of questions were in the air, class would get much more interesting. Other students would then started to ask the questions that were very important to them personally. So if you are a teacher, don't be above encouraging one of your students to act as a 'secret plant' in the classroom! Certainly - if you've got any comments or questions to ask me - please speak up now!	<urn:uuid:4cea6baa-9faf-4af8-84ca-12384863de24>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://dialoguers.livejournal.com/5811.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00384.warc.gz	en	0.981341	1,428	3.390625	3	[ -0.18848282098770142, 0.11240561306476593, 0.10971681028604507, -0.5463389158248901, -0.24887195229530334, -0.18610969185829163, 0.42612141370773315, 0.12800587713718414, -0.0067793624475598335, -0.09236617386341095, -0.08915061503648758, 0.23974835872650146, -0.1353464275598526, 0.3708763...	2	If you are a teacher, you know there are multiple advantages about encouraging questioning from the start. Questions from a student show a teacher their student's range and style of thinking. Questions point in the direction of the answers. In fact, questions can imply a limitation of what kind of answers that are possible to find. Better questions open up a rich field of personal discovery. How do you ask a really good question? As a student, you can ask any question to get started. Sometimes the first questions that come off the top of your head aren't the most appropriate, but everyone has to start somewhere. Most teachers understand this. As a learner, to ask a really juicy question, you have to listen carefully to learn any "lingo" about the topic. So the best questions to start with are often about the specialized use of words you hear your master teacher using. The other skill that's good to develop as a questioner is indicating "over-load, please change tactics now" or "I've got it, go on" to the teacher. There are some assumptions that create problems with encouraging this activity in learners; especially in a group situation. Some learners believe these kinds of questions are insulting to the teacher. How can a teacher encourage learners to get past their misconceptions that particular issues, communications or questions are somehow "forbidden"? At first, even in a private lesson, most students seem to want a teacher to "lecture" them. They want to let the master talk. The teacher saying something to preface a lesson might be appropriate in some cases. But what if the teacher doesn't really want to go on about the topic; what if they want their student's involvement from the very beginning? Some teachers address this hurdle by doing the asking themselves, and then answering. They hope that the students will get the idea of what kind of questions to ask. What to do when the teacher finds that students resort to parroting or restating the teacher's questions with other motivations such as to gain approval? It's easy for the students to misunderstand that questions posed by the teacher and then answered are merely rhetorical ones; that the teacher is asking these questions to show off their knowledge. The students may imagine that the teacher would never ask a question that they don't already know the answer to. It's very difficult to ask a question that will point in a new direction. Questions can imply that there is one answer, rather than a multiplicity of answers. It's also easy to think that just because you have come up with an answer to a question - that this one answer is enough of an answer. Fantastic and personally meaningful questions sometimes need quite a bit of personal experimentation to adequately explore their potential... Sometimes this kind of question can become a sort of "virtual question" that many actions of exploration are continually answering during the course of life... How can you encourage your students to ask really good question of you, to be a masterful teacher? How can a teacher get around student's misconceptions about the nature of authority, for instance, without inviting disrespect? (We're talking about adult learners here - who have already been trained into a lifetime of habits about how to treat teachers.) Instead of my lecturing, here's an account from many years ago about a teacher of mine who I considered to be a master. In this case, she was teaching Alexander Technique, but this relates to asking questions concerning any skill. My teacher was in her late eighties here. She's almost five feet tall. Classes could be huge; sixty to eighty people in one room. The advantage was that the workshop lasted for weeks. The disadvantage was that people figured it was too early in the workshop to dare to risk anything in front of everyone else. My teacher was too polite to be overt about what must have been some frustration beyond kidding the group, "What do I have to do to get some questions and thinking out of more of you people, do a jig?" Most often, laughter, but no daring questions. The humor did have some effect to loosen people up. The experience of getting a new perceptual assumption is unsettling to many people. A master of an art can sometimes come across as personally frightening. In this case, they were intimidated. This little old lady could shake people's foundations; pull the carpet out from underneath their very sense of self. So the group treated her with "respect." This turned out to be a kid glove sort of childish unquestioning loyalty and agreement. This little old lady hated that. She had a number of ways of dealing with it though. One was to invite different people to get up in front of the class for a "private" lesson with her... with everyone else watching. While working with someone she would ask, "So you see that little difference? Can someone describe what they see?" She wouldn't go on until someone described it. That's how she taught us to see very subtle indications of motion or a lack of movement. That also taught us to ask ourselves what these indications meant in each specific situation with each different person. She might ask the group to move in slow motion to illustrate a crucially pivotal point that influenced that entire outcome. Then we learned how to integrate the special points with the whole, normally speeded action again. These examples of techniques to encourage questions are,(or should be) commonplace to any teacher. The one I'll tell you about next surprised me because I regarded it as being positively sneaky. My teacher took me aside and told me that she appreciated having me and a few other people in the class. She said that it was because we'd pipe up with questions that nobody else would dare ask. She then told me a story about how she didn't understand when another student accused her of putting them on the spot by singling them out, inviting their participation. This is what made me realize that she was asking me to put her "on the spot" by bringing up what may be forbidden as defined by the group of students. This little old lady had some unusual ideas in her field about how her skill should be taught. People seemed to be avoiding asking her specifically about what made her ways different, and she wanted me to break the ice, so to speak. Essentially, she gave me license to be planted as a sort of "sacrificial fool" in the forbidden questioning department. People would stare at me with open mouths and shocked looks on their faces when I'd fire off these questions that nobody else would dare say. It pleased the two of us immensely. After those kind of questions were in the air, class would get much more interesting. Other students would then started to ask the questions that were very important to them personally. So if you are a teacher, don't be above encouraging one of your students to act as a 'secret plant' in the classroom! Certainly - if you've got any comments or questions to ask me - please speak up now!	1,401	ENGLISH	1
On October 31, 1517, legend has it that the priest and scholar Martin Luther approaches the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany, and nails a piece of paper to it containing the 95 revolutionary opinions that would begin the Protestant Reformation. In his theses, Luther condemned the excesses and corruption of the Roman Catholic Church, especially the papal practice of asking payment—called “indulgences”—for the forgiveness of sins. At the time, a Dominican priest named Johann Tetzel, commissioned by the Archbishop of Mainz and Pope Leo X, was in the midst of a major fundraising campaign in Germany to finance the renovation of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. Though Prince Frederick III the Wise had banned the sale of indulgences in Wittenberg, many church members traveled to purchase them. When they returned, they showed the pardons they had bought to Luther, claiming they no longer had to repent for their sins. Luther’s frustration with this practice led him to write the 95 Theses, which were quickly snapped up, translated from Latin into German and distributed widely. A copy made its way to Rome, and efforts began to convince Luther to change his tune. He refused to keep silent, however, and in 1521 Pope Leo X formally excommunicated Luther from the Catholic Church. That same year, Luther again refused to recant his writings before the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V of Germany, who issued the famous Edict of Worms declaring Luther an outlaw and a heretic and giving permission for anyone to kill him without consequence. Protected by Prince Frederick, Luther began working on a German translation of the Bible, a task that took 10 years to complete. The term “Protestant” first appeared in 1529, when Charles V revoked a provision that allowed the ruler of each German state to choose whether they would enforce the Edict of Worms. A number of princes and other supporters of Luther issued a protest, declaring that their allegiance to God trumped their allegiance to the emperor. They became known to their opponents as Protestants; gradually this name came to apply to all who believed the Church should be reformed, even those outside Germany. By the time Luther died, of natural causes, in 1546, his revolutionary beliefs had formed the basis for the Protestant Reformation, which would over the next three centuries revolutionize Western civilization.	<urn:uuid:f6d3beab-0a32-4cff-bf49-92a0687f4d45>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/martin-luther-posts-95-theses	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00115.warc.gz	en	0.980399	493	3.796875	4	[ -0.27279213070869446, 0.27320805191993713, -0.009703380987048149, 0.13115762174129486, -0.23105750977993011, -0.2862307131290436, -0.31424641609191895, 0.06775373220443726, 0.23262187838554382, 0.07849551737308502, -0.17296525835990906, -0.07893282920122147, -0.09301671385765076, -0.302873...	15	On October 31, 1517, legend has it that the priest and scholar Martin Luther approaches the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany, and nails a piece of paper to it containing the 95 revolutionary opinions that would begin the Protestant Reformation. In his theses, Luther condemned the excesses and corruption of the Roman Catholic Church, especially the papal practice of asking payment—called “indulgences”—for the forgiveness of sins. At the time, a Dominican priest named Johann Tetzel, commissioned by the Archbishop of Mainz and Pope Leo X, was in the midst of a major fundraising campaign in Germany to finance the renovation of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. Though Prince Frederick III the Wise had banned the sale of indulgences in Wittenberg, many church members traveled to purchase them. When they returned, they showed the pardons they had bought to Luther, claiming they no longer had to repent for their sins. Luther’s frustration with this practice led him to write the 95 Theses, which were quickly snapped up, translated from Latin into German and distributed widely. A copy made its way to Rome, and efforts began to convince Luther to change his tune. He refused to keep silent, however, and in 1521 Pope Leo X formally excommunicated Luther from the Catholic Church. That same year, Luther again refused to recant his writings before the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V of Germany, who issued the famous Edict of Worms declaring Luther an outlaw and a heretic and giving permission for anyone to kill him without consequence. Protected by Prince Frederick, Luther began working on a German translation of the Bible, a task that took 10 years to complete. The term “Protestant” first appeared in 1529, when Charles V revoked a provision that allowed the ruler of each German state to choose whether they would enforce the Edict of Worms. A number of princes and other supporters of Luther issued a protest, declaring that their allegiance to God trumped their allegiance to the emperor. They became known to their opponents as Protestants; gradually this name came to apply to all who believed the Church should be reformed, even those outside Germany. By the time Luther died, of natural causes, in 1546, his revolutionary beliefs had formed the basis for the Protestant Reformation, which would over the next three centuries revolutionize Western civilization.	501	ENGLISH	1
German anger at the Treaty of Versailles between the wars is well known. Hitler, in his rise to power, exploited this deep resentment. So how did such a contentious document come into existence and why was it signed? Responsibility for drafting the treaty, rested with the ‘Big Four’ (the US, Britain, France and Italy). The conference started discussing the peace terms on 12 January 1919. The first time a German delegation was invited to participate in the peace conference was in April. The German Government was instructed to send plenipotentiaries, representatives with the authority to sign the treaty. The delegation stayed at the Hôtel des Réservoirs, where the French leaders resided in 1871 when negotiating with Bismarck. The draft document was presented to the Germans on 7 May, the anniversary of the Lusitania sinking. The atmosphere was tense, with diplomatic courtesies barely observed. Neither the treaty nor the conference were about reconciliation. The Big Four had different aims: - France, led by Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau: to combine reparations with territorial losses in order to prevent Germany from rising again - Britain, led by Prime Minister David Lloyd George: to punish Germany, as per the mandate on which the new government had been elected, but also wanted Germany to be strong enough to prevent the spread of Bolshevik Russia - The US: President Woodrow Wilson was trying both to prevent retribution, whilst satisfying domestic political pressure which sought a return to isolationism - Italy, led by Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando: to acquire territory from the former Austro-Hungarian empire. Germany was not their main concern President Wilson’s task was additionally complicated since his physical strength was weakened from a bout of so-called Spanish flu. Both Britain and the US were conscious of the strength of Germany’s pre-war manufacturing and trading and wanted to retain Germany as a trading partner. But as well as disagreement between delegations, there also a lack of unity within them. The first 26 clauses of the draft treaty covered the establishment of the League of Nations, an organisation intended to promote and keep the peace. This was ironic as Germany was initially excluded from membership, with the intention that they would be invited after a probationary period. From the first, the German government, led by President Friedrich Ebert, disliked the draft. The German press agreed. On 29 May, the German delegation presented a 434-page counter-proposal. The essential criticism was that the treaty was not based on President Wilson’s 14 points. Germany argued that it had agreed to the armistice on the understanding that these would be the basis of the peace agreement. Britain felt that the 14 points had actually constrained the treaty and prevented it from being more punitive. Wilson himself contended that the treaty did not violate his points. Three principles in particular caused consternation. The first of these was the boundary changes. America had been a champion of self-determination. Yet, according to the Germans, the territory taken from them handed large numbers of German-speaking peoples to other countries. The second hated point, Article 231, was dubbed ‘the war-guilt clause’, attributing responsibility for the war to Germany. In addition to national humiliation, this provided the basis for the third point of contention, reparations. The exact amount was to be determined by a committee, but would be at least 20,000,000,000 gold marks. This would be difficult to pay considering the industrial territories that Germany would lose. The allies replied to the German protests on 16 June. The German delegation were given 5 days to agree to sign. If they refused, Article 2 of the Convention extending the Armistice agreement would come into force, entitling the Allies to resume hostilities. The delegation refused to sign. At 1:10am on 20 June, the German Cabinet resigned in protest. The Allies extended the time for agreement by 2 days. On 21 June the German Navy, interned at Scapa Flow, scuttled the fleet, rather than hand over their ships. At the same time, President Ebert, who had remained in power despite the ministerial resignations, was quickly assembling a new cabinet to vote on the proposed treaty. He realised that the treaty was unpalatable to Germany, and checked with the Chief of the German General Staff, Paul von Hindenburg, whether the army would be in a position to resume fighting. The response was that it would not. On 23 June the Cabinet agreed to sign and the information was conveyed to the treaty committee. In addition to the fact that Germany was in no position to resume fighting, the British naval blockade was still in place. The Germans were not the only ones unhappy with the treaty. Some members of the American delegation complained that it was not a peace treaty. General Jan Smuts, later South African Prime Minister, was openly critical of it on similar grounds. Lloyd George’s memoirs indicate his disquiet with the treaty. However, there was no appetite for restarting negotiations. The logistics of signing the treaty still needed to be organised. The ceremony itself was full of historic symbolism. The treaty was signed on 28 June, the 5th anniversary of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The ceremony took place in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, where the treaty concluding the Franco-Prussian War had been signed. There were some changes to the earlier Allied position: there would be plebiscites to determine the nationality of Schleswig, Upper Silesia, Eupen and Malmedy, East Prussia and the Saar region. A few elements of the treaty were not readily enforced. The most notable of these was the demand that the (former) Kaiser should be tried for war crimes. He had emigrated to the Netherlands on 10 November. Despite pressure, the Dutch Government refused to extradite him. The Treaty of Versailles came into force on 10 January 1920, although decisions about reparations and from plebiscites and were still to be made. The treaty would have repercussions for history. But much of the symbolism involved in the ceremony looked back much further than 1918. Keep tabs on the past: sign up for our email alerts Follow our Foreign & Commonwealth Historians on Twitter @FCOHistorians	<urn:uuid:a696da39-c003-40a0-bad4-ad94e4e347f1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://history.blog.gov.uk/2019/06/27/forward-or-backward-looking-the-treaty-of-versailles/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00448.warc.gz	en	0.982258	1,306	4.21875	4	[ -0.4388313889503479, 0.4342944025993347, -0.09605050086975098, 0.008805766701698303, -0.028915423899888992, 0.05659522861242294, 0.04945491999387741, -0.03720930591225624, 0.0033345601987093687, -0.27692002058029175, 0.05362138897180557, -0.39618027210235596, 0.2001054435968399, 0.70033931...	13	German anger at the Treaty of Versailles between the wars is well known. Hitler, in his rise to power, exploited this deep resentment. So how did such a contentious document come into existence and why was it signed? Responsibility for drafting the treaty, rested with the ‘Big Four’ (the US, Britain, France and Italy). The conference started discussing the peace terms on 12 January 1919. The first time a German delegation was invited to participate in the peace conference was in April. The German Government was instructed to send plenipotentiaries, representatives with the authority to sign the treaty. The delegation stayed at the Hôtel des Réservoirs, where the French leaders resided in 1871 when negotiating with Bismarck. The draft document was presented to the Germans on 7 May, the anniversary of the Lusitania sinking. The atmosphere was tense, with diplomatic courtesies barely observed. Neither the treaty nor the conference were about reconciliation. The Big Four had different aims: - France, led by Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau: to combine reparations with territorial losses in order to prevent Germany from rising again - Britain, led by Prime Minister David Lloyd George: to punish Germany, as per the mandate on which the new government had been elected, but also wanted Germany to be strong enough to prevent the spread of Bolshevik Russia - The US: President Woodrow Wilson was trying both to prevent retribution, whilst satisfying domestic political pressure which sought a return to isolationism - Italy, led by Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando: to acquire territory from the former Austro-Hungarian empire. Germany was not their main concern President Wilson’s task was additionally complicated since his physical strength was weakened from a bout of so-called Spanish flu. Both Britain and the US were conscious of the strength of Germany’s pre-war manufacturing and trading and wanted to retain Germany as a trading partner. But as well as disagreement between delegations, there also a lack of unity within them. The first 26 clauses of the draft treaty covered the establishment of the League of Nations, an organisation intended to promote and keep the peace. This was ironic as Germany was initially excluded from membership, with the intention that they would be invited after a probationary period. From the first, the German government, led by President Friedrich Ebert, disliked the draft. The German press agreed. On 29 May, the German delegation presented a 434-page counter-proposal. The essential criticism was that the treaty was not based on President Wilson’s 14 points. Germany argued that it had agreed to the armistice on the understanding that these would be the basis of the peace agreement. Britain felt that the 14 points had actually constrained the treaty and prevented it from being more punitive. Wilson himself contended that the treaty did not violate his points. Three principles in particular caused consternation. The first of these was the boundary changes. America had been a champion of self-determination. Yet, according to the Germans, the territory taken from them handed large numbers of German-speaking peoples to other countries. The second hated point, Article 231, was dubbed ‘the war-guilt clause’, attributing responsibility for the war to Germany. In addition to national humiliation, this provided the basis for the third point of contention, reparations. The exact amount was to be determined by a committee, but would be at least 20,000,000,000 gold marks. This would be difficult to pay considering the industrial territories that Germany would lose. The allies replied to the German protests on 16 June. The German delegation were given 5 days to agree to sign. If they refused, Article 2 of the Convention extending the Armistice agreement would come into force, entitling the Allies to resume hostilities. The delegation refused to sign. At 1:10am on 20 June, the German Cabinet resigned in protest. The Allies extended the time for agreement by 2 days. On 21 June the German Navy, interned at Scapa Flow, scuttled the fleet, rather than hand over their ships. At the same time, President Ebert, who had remained in power despite the ministerial resignations, was quickly assembling a new cabinet to vote on the proposed treaty. He realised that the treaty was unpalatable to Germany, and checked with the Chief of the German General Staff, Paul von Hindenburg, whether the army would be in a position to resume fighting. The response was that it would not. On 23 June the Cabinet agreed to sign and the information was conveyed to the treaty committee. In addition to the fact that Germany was in no position to resume fighting, the British naval blockade was still in place. The Germans were not the only ones unhappy with the treaty. Some members of the American delegation complained that it was not a peace treaty. General Jan Smuts, later South African Prime Minister, was openly critical of it on similar grounds. Lloyd George’s memoirs indicate his disquiet with the treaty. However, there was no appetite for restarting negotiations. The logistics of signing the treaty still needed to be organised. The ceremony itself was full of historic symbolism. The treaty was signed on 28 June, the 5th anniversary of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The ceremony took place in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, where the treaty concluding the Franco-Prussian War had been signed. There were some changes to the earlier Allied position: there would be plebiscites to determine the nationality of Schleswig, Upper Silesia, Eupen and Malmedy, East Prussia and the Saar region. A few elements of the treaty were not readily enforced. The most notable of these was the demand that the (former) Kaiser should be tried for war crimes. He had emigrated to the Netherlands on 10 November. Despite pressure, the Dutch Government refused to extradite him. The Treaty of Versailles came into force on 10 January 1920, although decisions about reparations and from plebiscites and were still to be made. The treaty would have repercussions for history. But much of the symbolism involved in the ceremony looked back much further than 1918. Keep tabs on the past: sign up for our email alerts Follow our Foreign & Commonwealth Historians on Twitter @FCOHistorians	1,330	ENGLISH	1
Measure for Measure is a play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in 1603 or 1604. Originally published in the First Folio of 1623, where it was listed as a comedy, the play's first recorded performance occurred in 1604. The play's main themes include justice, "mortality and mercy in Vienna," and the dichotomy between corruption and purity: "some rise by sin, and some by virtue fall." Mercy and virtue predominate, since the play does not end tragically. Measure for Measure is often called one of Shakespeare's problem plays. It was, and continues to be, classified as comedy, though its tone and setting defy those expectations. AUDIO: Reading by Tony Addison, running time: 3 hours, 27 min. Unabridged full version. E-book: ePUB, 30 800 words, reading time approximately 2 hours, 30 min. William Shakespeare (1564-1616) was an English poet, playwright and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. His extant works, including some collaborations, consist of about 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright. Shakespeare was a respected poet and playwright in his own day, but his reputation did not rise to its present heights until the 19th century. His plays remain highly popular today and are constantly studied, performed, and reinterpreted in diverse cultural and political contexts throughout the world. In 2016, celebrations and festivals in the United Kingdom and across the world honoured The Bard's 400th anniversary.	<urn:uuid:d98799ae-11d3-45d2-8696-0e8f047451c9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bookbeat.se/bok/measure-measure-127490	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00265.warc.gz	en	0.984049	361	3.84375	4	[ -0.08632118999958038, -0.32895776629447937, 0.8185356855392456, -0.04917985200881958, -0.4993269741535187, 0.14663340151309967, 0.2902528643608093, 0.25177502632141113, 0.29766860604286194, -0.04177910462021828, 0.1017158180475235, -0.3619871735572815, -0.03993160277605057, 0.4532067179679...	6	Measure for Measure is a play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in 1603 or 1604. Originally published in the First Folio of 1623, where it was listed as a comedy, the play's first recorded performance occurred in 1604. The play's main themes include justice, "mortality and mercy in Vienna," and the dichotomy between corruption and purity: "some rise by sin, and some by virtue fall." Mercy and virtue predominate, since the play does not end tragically. Measure for Measure is often called one of Shakespeare's problem plays. It was, and continues to be, classified as comedy, though its tone and setting defy those expectations. AUDIO: Reading by Tony Addison, running time: 3 hours, 27 min. Unabridged full version. E-book: ePUB, 30 800 words, reading time approximately 2 hours, 30 min. William Shakespeare (1564-1616) was an English poet, playwright and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. His extant works, including some collaborations, consist of about 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright. Shakespeare was a respected poet and playwright in his own day, but his reputation did not rise to its present heights until the 19th century. His plays remain highly popular today and are constantly studied, performed, and reinterpreted in diverse cultural and political contexts throughout the world. In 2016, celebrations and festivals in the United Kingdom and across the world honoured The Bard's 400th anniversary.	390	ENGLISH	1
The National Education League was a political movement in England and Wales which promoted elementary education for all children, free from religious control. The National Education League, founded 1869, developed from the Birmingham Education League, co-founded in 1867 by George Dixon, a Birmingham Member of Parliament (MP) and past mayor, Joseph Chamberlain, a nonconformist and future mayor of Birmingham, and Jesse Collings, to include branches from all over England and Wales. Dixon was chairman of the League's council. Chamberlain became chairman of the executive committee. Collings was the honorary secretary. Other leading founding members (all in Birmingham) were R. W. Dale, A. Follett Osler, J. H. Chamberlain, and George Dawson. Twenty founding members subscribed £14,000. The first general meeting was in October 1869, by which time William Dronfield of Sheffield was acting as Secretary. It resolved that a bill should be prepared to present to Parliament at the next session.	<urn:uuid:291e2e84-400e-46fe-b171-2bfd7a3539d6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wn.com/National_Education_League	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00366.warc.gz	en	0.980448	200	3.34375	3	[ -0.0819329172372818, -0.021273287013173103, 0.15131765604019165, -0.13150544464588165, -0.14265021681785583, 0.3019249737262726, -0.1761312037706375, -0.1028742864727974, -0.04162181541323662, -0.003987940028309822, 0.24146363139152527, -0.470209002494812, 0.29150494933128357, -0.094729766...	1	The National Education League was a political movement in England and Wales which promoted elementary education for all children, free from religious control. The National Education League, founded 1869, developed from the Birmingham Education League, co-founded in 1867 by George Dixon, a Birmingham Member of Parliament (MP) and past mayor, Joseph Chamberlain, a nonconformist and future mayor of Birmingham, and Jesse Collings, to include branches from all over England and Wales. Dixon was chairman of the League's council. Chamberlain became chairman of the executive committee. Collings was the honorary secretary. Other leading founding members (all in Birmingham) were R. W. Dale, A. Follett Osler, J. H. Chamberlain, and George Dawson. Twenty founding members subscribed £14,000. The first general meeting was in October 1869, by which time William Dronfield of Sheffield was acting as Secretary. It resolved that a bill should be prepared to present to Parliament at the next session.	213	ENGLISH	1
\|Warfare Home History Glossary Guides Publishers Artists Techniques Topicals Blog Contact\| Belligerents and Participants The tricolor of gold, black, and red have a long standing history within the German states, but they had also become associated with Austria, which became problematic with German nationalists one Prussia and Austria went to war in the mid 19th century. As a new German empire emerged from this conflict the black white Prussian flag and the red white Brandenburg flag were combined into an imperial flag tricolor by the North German Confederation in 1867. Even though this new flag was not officially recognized until 1892, the tricolor had come to represent the Empire in most German minds and was widely used on all sorts of patriotic items. While many nations placed there national colors on patriotic postcards during World War One, they appeared so often on German cards that they are considered a specific theme referred to as black, white and reds. These colors were presented as flags, decorative borders, and were even used as a verbal rallying cry on German propaganda cards to represent nationalistic urges. Michel (Der Deutsche Michel) appears in many political cartoons as a pipe smoking nightcap (Zipfelmütze) topped character that dresses in German national colors when not wearing a nightgown. His origins date back earlier than most national personifications such as Germania, but he only began to appear in pictorial form during the revolutionary period of the 1840’s. While he originally represented a victim of authoritarian repression, the figure of Michel slowly evolved alongside nationalistic feelings to represent the aspirations of the German people. By World War One he had come to represent the typical German and was often substituted for soldiers on postcards. Michel can be characterized as a good natured simple man who is best not stirred, for those who wake this sleeping giant from his quiet lifestyle will feel his wrath. He usually arms himself with a flail, not the typical type used in warfare but the tradition tool used by peasants for threshing. He is a man of the land who can dispatch Germany’s enemies as efficiently as he mows grain. One of the most significant problems facing the German command throughout the War was that its troops were constantly being siphoned off to help with problems developing on the Austro-Hungarian fronts. With the collapse of Conrad’s offensive into Russia in 1914, the Germans had to open a new front in Poland to prevent the Russians from seizing Silesia. After two failed attempts to knock out Serbia, Germany took control of this front and victory was finally achieved with the aid of Bulgarian and German troops in October 1915. German troops also had to reinforce the Austro-Hungarian army when the Russians unexpectedly broke through thei defenses in 1916 during the Brusilov Offensive. When Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary and seized Transylvania, German troops were rushed in to counterattack and destroy this new opponent. Many of these same German soldiers found themselves aiding the Austro-Hungarian offensive at Caporetto in 1917 to put an end to the threat from Italy. While the loss of these men curtailed German operations elsewhere, there limited presence on all these fronts proved decisive. Germany also did a great deal to help its Ottoman ally. While there was no major troop deployment to this region, officers and specialists such as machine gunners and pilots served with many Turkish units. Their training skills helped the Turks face the modern Allied armies that fought against them. Even the leadership of Turkish were sometimes in German hands. This pipeline of men and arms played a crucial role in the defense of the Ottoman Empire. While not a common subject for postcards, German soldiers serving in exotic lands were enough of a curiosity to generate a fair amount of public interest. Germany had acquired a number of African and Asian colonies under Bismarck in the 1880’s, but little interest was shown in them. It seemed that having a colonial empire was more about earning respect and prestige as an important world player. These colonies remained relatively underdeveloped when the Great War broke out, making them susceptible to invasion from the neighboring colonies of their enemies. Though these far off colonies could not play any significant part in this great struggle, they were drawn into the conflict anyway. Their small contingent of troops was only meant to keep order among the locals, and with Germany blockaded they could not expect to receive reinforcements or supplies. Their main role was to hold down the Allied troops that were deployed against them as long as possible so they could not be used in the European theater of war. Under these conditions most fell rapidly. German troops spread across Asia were quickly concentrated to defend the Tsingtao naval base at their Klautschou Bay Concession in China. It was besieged and fell in November 1914. The poorly defended African colony of Togoland fell to the Allies in August 1914, South-West Africa surrendered in July 1915, and most Germans in Kamerun had fled by the end of the same year. Only German East Africa held out until the end of the War, largely due to the leadership of Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck. All of Germany’s colonies would be divided up among the victors after the War. While postcards exist of these campaigns, they are few in number when compared to the European theater of war. Despite the exotic appeal, there are relatively few postcards depicting these events. Speed was so crucial to the success of the German offensive through Belgium, that the German High Command was constantly worried about it being slowed do to irregular fighting by francs-tireurs behind the lines. Their attack on Liege suffered when Belgian saboteurs destroyed the railroad tunnel at Herbesthal, slowing the arrival of large siege guns. With few troops to spare to guard essential supply lines, violence initiated against Belgian civilians due to ethnic and religious hatred was initially overlooked by commanders believing fear would help generate respect for German authority. Even when large scale massacres occurred they were just seen as a necessity of war. In German eyes civilians not only had a duty to behave; failure to do so was tantamount to treason (Kriegsverrat) and punishable as such. In many ways this brutal strategy worked as there would be very little resistance from civilians forthcoming. Even so, German publishers produced postcards depicting snipers and even intense street fighting. While some of these fights may have been with civic guards within the Belgian army that did not wear uniforms, German publishers illustrated all such events as encounters with civilian francs-tireurs that probably never took place. This was most likely an attempt to help rationalize the actions of their army, though few outside of Germany were willing to listen. If artist drawn cards can be accused of being subject to a fanciful imagination, then real photo postcards are often given the benefit of the doubt when it comes to truthfulness. This is a popular perception even if it does not lie in reality. If doubts should be raised to the existence of francs-tireurs hindering the German advance through Belgium, then one need look no further than real photo postcards for proof. Many civilians were arrested or rounded up to work as forced labor in the industrial Ruhr, but this does not guarantee the people pictured were guilty of anything. The atrocities committed in Belgium would largely end once the Germans realized they were creating a propaganda bonanza for the Allies that was turning world opinion against them. This change however made no difference to Allied publishers who had quickly created the myth of German Barbarism that could not be easily erased. An endless supply of Allied propaganda cards would continue to be produced until the end of the War regardless of facts. German Publishers also produced postcards early in the War that showed the Allies suffering at the hands of their soldiers, but these were quickly banned when it was felt that they detracted from German professionalism. Instead a new propaganda strategy was introduced that stressed the Good German. German soldiers in occupied lands were now shown farming fields, helping civilians with chores, and sharing food with hungry children. Terms such as barbarian are often found in quotes on these cards indicating they were made in direct response to Allied allegations. Most Germans resented the label of Barbarian since they saw themselves as being more socially progressive than their neighbors. They did however often take pride that their ancestry was not based on the ancient Mediterranean cultures but the people that opposed Roman imperialism. To them the Teutonic warrior was not a symbol of the destroyer of civilization as portrayed on Allied postcards but a fierce protector of an independent people. This connection had long been played up through mythologies that found its way into German culture until it became an important element of national identity. While many German cards picked up on this theme, its use was probably curtailed by fears of reinforcing Allied propaganda. While the Allies set up immense programs for the creation and dispersal of propaganda, many in Germany were oblivious to its value. The mistreatment of civilians and purposeful destruction of cultural icons went ahead as a normal outcome of warfare, without realizing how it might turn others in neutral nations against them. Some military leaders wanted Germany to launch a propaganda war early on, but there was too little regard for public opinion among naive officials. Some censorship was directed against the images used on postcards; but a Censorship Department (Oberzensurstelle) operating under the general staff was only set up in February 1915. Even then many local administrators only took their proclamations as guidelines so rules were never evenly enforced. It was not until March 1917 that the War Press Office was set up as a department to concentrate on promoting government sponsored propaganda, but this paled in quantity and quality to what the Allies produced. Their failure was in their righteousness, they largely tried to refute Allied propaganda with facts instead of promoting myths that might have caught the public imagination. Much of what might pass for propaganda in Germany was little more than exaggerated forms of general patriotic themes. These cards tended to show off German military might and the strong character of its soldiers so that no one could ever doubt that a victory would be secured. None of this was substantiated with facts as these cards relied on simple cliches and long standing national myths that could pass their message across easily. While such formulas were common to many nations, one particular German trope was to represent their army as a single colossus towering over the fleeing enemy. Such representations are similar to horror movie posters that would appear in postwar years, but these cards are too overtly symbolic to be scary. They were primarily meant to reassure those at home, not frighten the enemy. This trope was also latter used with generals to symbolize their prowess. In Great Britain the Ministry of War had such complete control over news coming from the front that their optimistic reports became the basis for actual military and political planing. This created a strange paradox, for while they continually thought that German armies were growing so weak on the Western Front that one more great push would break their lines, they feared the Germans had enough spare troops to launch an invasion of Britain. Contradictions may be common in propaganda, but here it was taken seriously enough to create a home guard to secure Britain’s shores. Many British postcard publishers took up this theme showing the German navy on the Channel bottom. German publishers, just as ignorant of the facts followed suit showing the victorious conquest of Britain. While not in as bad shape as the Allies suggested, Germany still never had as many troops as they need for the campaigns on the Continent let alone an invasion. They were actually in more fear that Britain might open a new front in neutral Denmark or the Netherlands, and had to use sparse resources to guard these borders. Propaganda cards were produced in Germany early in the War, but there was no centralized control over their message. This gave German publishers mush more leeway to produce what they wanted even in the face of strict censorship. German military cards often have a more rounded approach to the War, covering a wider variety of subjects than found on cards from the Allies. Many seem more matter of fact as if attempting to capture the essence of the situation was more important than promote an overt patriotic message. Showing German troops bravely fighting was good enough. A simple propaganda message that was produced throughout the War was to promote Germany’s inevitable victory by reminding people of its past. Events where carefully chosen that were already packed with powerful messages of Germans overcoming their adversaries. If actual details sometimes diverged from this message, they were lost when the narrative was transformed from history into myth. It is through myth that most people find their national identity; and the more it is personalized, the less effective are facts on critical thinking. The most common historical associations represented by this myth on postcards were the defeat of the ancient Romans in the Rhineland by Germanic tribes, and the Liberation Wars fought against Napoleon. Also common were associations with the German Empire’s recent triumph over France in the Franco-Prussian War. It was more applicable to the current War, and promised an easy victory. Many publishers from many nations produced cards with maps on the during wartime, but most seem to come from Germany. This may stem from the situation maps that were largely published by newspapers, sold through newsstands and bookshops throughout Germany. They showed were the battle lines were drawn in a variety of military theaters, and were reprinted as circumstances on the ground changed. Even though these maps did not disclose troop dispositions for obvious reasons, families could still get some sense of where loved ones were fighting and better connected to those serving at the front. Map postcards performed the same task for the less detail oriented at a lower cost. Maps on postcards were sometimes issued in complicated forms. The triple folded fieldpostbrief card above published by Fritz Schneller of Nurenburg in 1915 had a unity propaganda message as a cover along with four separate campaign maps on front and back. While the front lines were not shown, all major battles up to this point were marked. While larger cards such as this would have cost more, it seems that an information hungry populace was willing to pay the price. Many illustrators worked for magazines and newspapers, supplying them with war related material throughout the conflict. Many of these same illustrations were later reproduced on postcards by the same publishers or licensed out to others in desperate need of images. While most illustrations were reused for the popular postcard format, some newspapers mounted these pictures on stiffer cardboard to sell as collectables for additional revenue. Though still a cards, these items were usually larger and more square than postcards and were not meant for mailing. Some of the same images however were reproduced on postcards as well. One of the easiest ways to distinguish German soldiers on postcards and photographs is to look for their distinctive spiked helmets (Pickelhaube). Originally designed by Frederick William IV for the Prussian infantry; it consisted of a shell of hardened leather that was reinforced with metal trim that helped hold a metal spike in place at the top. The spike gradually grew shorter over the years to reduce the helmet’s weight until it became a detachable feature. What makes this headgear so distinct to us today also made it highly visible to an enemy on the battlefield, so by September 1915 all German soldiers were wearing helmets without spikes. Shortly after the beginning of 1916 a newly styled Stahlhelm helmet made of steel was issued to German soldiers. It should also be noted that when not in combat, German soldiers usually wore caps. The image of the spiked helmet was so recognizable that it became to be internationally understood as a symbol of Germany even after it long disappeared from military use. As such it was widely used as a surrogate for Germany on postcards produced during the Great War. While the helmet was displayed on German cards with great reverence, it quickly became an instrument for satire and ridicule for many comic and political postcards produced by the Allies. The Pickelhaube still remains a symbol of the German Empire. Germany was the largest producer of military postcards during World War One, largely due to the size and quality of its prewar printing industry and the availability of essential supplies such as ink of which they had a near monopoly on its manufacture. Outside of Berlin, the printing houses of Bavaria produced a tremendous amount of postcards most notably those from Nuremberg and its capitol Munich. Likewise a tremendous amount of postcards were also manufactured in the printing houses of Saxony, most notably from Leipzig and its capitol Dresden. Most of their publishers seem to have issued their military cards early in the conflict and production trailed off near its end. While this may be at least in part attributable to the availability of resources, it seems more likely that this trend followed demand. Before the public became saturated with stories of stalemate and death of a never ending war, they were anxious to follow every detail of their army’s road to victory. War can be very exciting when romanticized, and postcards kept this illusion up at home long after it disappeared from the trenches. Even double fold postcards that had already fallen out of vogue were revived to celebrate important victories. Installment postcards were another type of elaborate novelty that German publishers kept up producing during the War years. They tended to be sold in a set of ten cards where each had its own narrative plus a fraction of a larger image that only appeared when the full set was assembled. These cards that portrayed national heroes and soldiers were usually mailed out one at a time to increase the anticipation of correspondence. To save time and money, some publishers used the artwork for cards already printed for the background. Oskar Martin-Amorbach was a student at the School of Applied Arts in Munich when he joined the German army in 1916. He served as a messenger, and was badly wounded while fighting in Flanders. He did not recover until 1920 when he resumed his studies. Afterwards he largely painted peasant themes and church frescos, but he also created paintings of battles in a highly expressive style that were placed on postcards by Gerling & Erbes. He would become a popular artist with the Nazis and he returned to military painting during World War Two. Karl Arnold began providing satyrical cartoons for Simplicissimus and Die Jugend magazines in 1907. His style took form during World War One when he worked for Liller Kriegszeitung, a German supported weekly newspaper in Lille for the occupation troops on the Western Front. This paper published many of his cartoons as fieldpost cards. He returned to do work for Simplicissimus after the War for which he is best known. Hans Baluschek began to divorce himself from the traditional German art scene ever since he left his academic studies in 1893. As he absorbed leftist ideas, his paintings came to embrace social narratives largely dealing with class differences that he found in the streets of Berlin. Although the social issues he dealt with fell into the realm of realism, he developed a unique style that was closer to expressionism. He became a board member of the Berlin Secession but eventually left over disagreements of where modern art should be headed. While his strong leftist politics mad him an enemy of the aristocracy, he supported the Great War by contributing military illustrations to the journal Wartime (Kriegszeit), and to the weekly Artists Journal of the War (Kunstlerblatter zum Krieg). Other scenes of battles, hospitals, and patriotic themes wound up on postcards. Baluschek volunteered for military service in 1916 and served as a reservist on both the Western and Eastern Fronts. This inspired many painting but their mood changed from highly patriotic to somber. He was deeply disturbed that despite the great sacrifices Germany made the War ended in their defeat. Afterwards he dropped out of politics and produced little artwork. Karl Otto Bartels is best known as a landscape painter who worked in a somewhat brushy style. While the postcard series he illustrated during World War One was drawn in a very different graphic style, these vast snowy mountain scenes capture the mood so prevalent in his paintings. Here the landscape dominates over the military narrative. Claus Bergen was a very successful marine artist who became the official marine painter to Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1914. He produced many battle scenes and images of U-boats during the First World War that were reproduced on postcards. Some of these pictures were based on first hand experience after going out into the Baltic aboard Admiral Scheer’s flagship to reinact the Battle of Jutland. He also participated on a combat mission with U-53 in the summer of 1917. He continued with this theme in postwar years, and these images were placed on continental size cards. The work of Emil Beithan revolved around depicting scenes of rural German life, particularly through the portrayal of types. In his more narrative work these figures evolved into recognizable characters. While his paintings a fairly naturalistic, the portraits in his graphic work show a strong almost cartoonish style. These characteristics carried over to the military themed postcards he illustrated during World War One. Many of these revolve around sentimental scenes of departure and often portray children. August Blepp was primarily a Stuttgart based church painter, though he spent much time in Switzerland. He was conscripted into the Wuertemberg Army in August of 1914, and was stationed on the Western Front for the duration of the War where he fought at the Somme and Verdun. He made a number of expressive battlefront sketches that were placed on postcards by C. Reithmuller in Kirchheim. Karl Blossfeld produced a wide variety of work while an illustrator working in Leipzig. His interests largely concentrated on naval themes, and he would become a well respected marine painter. His work, often loaded with heavy symbolism, is represented in both propaganda and satire issued during and in-between the two World Wars. Many of these images were placed on postcards and prints; some published by Fritz Finke and Grbr. Lempe. He also produced a good number of navel themed comic cards. (This artist should not be confused with the photographer Karl Blosfeldt). Hans Bohrdt fell in love with ships after visiting Hamburg when he was fifteen years of age. He taught himself marine painting, and his natural aptitude gained him recognition. He developed a personal friendship with Kaiser Wilhelm II after becoming his painting tutor, and the Kaiser continued to support him as an artist. Bohrdt’s paintings became highly sought, and they were used on steamship line posters and postcards. While Raphael Tuck placed his images on their cards, more German publishers took up Bohrdt’s work as it grew ever more focused on promoting Germany’s maritime interests. He would produce strong propaganda cards during World War One, but often at the cost of his earlier artistic flair. His images of defiant German sailors in the wreckage of their ships were some of the most popular cards sold during World War One. While Hans Bottcher is best known today for his surrealist paintings, he provided realistic field sketches that were used on fieldpost cards when a young soldier in World War One. Ferdinand Max Bredt was well established as an Orientalist painter when the First World War broke out. Much of this earlier work depicted the everyday life of the harem, and he continued to use this casual yet lush style when depicting life on the home front during the War. The narrative of these paintings placed on postcards can be so subtle that their military relevance is only revealed by their titles. Frederich Bruckmann of Munich was a major printing and publishing house that had a long history of producing high quality printed products made in a variety of techniques. During the Great War they produced many artist signed cards depicting a full range of military and propaganda subjects. He was one of the few publishers to capture scenes from Germany’s African colonies. Oscar Consée was a well known printer of art and advertising posters in Munich before the Great War. During the War and the years following they produced much propaganda work in fine lithography for both posters and postcards. Many of these were charity cards for the German Red Cross. Lovis Corinth was a painter and printmaker of note by the time the Great War broke out. Though a founding member of the Munich Secession, he moved to Berlin in 1901 and became president of the Berlin Secession in 1915. He had primarily been an academic figure painter but turned more toward expressionist landscapes and religious scenes after recovering from a stroke in 1911. During the War he produced military themed drawings to be placed on postcards. Ludwig Julius Christian Dettman began his career in the arts as an illustrator but was persuaded to take up landscape painting by Max Liebermann. Together they helped found the Berlin Secession in 1898, and Dettmann eventually became a member of their board. He organized a major exhibition of military art at the Berlin Academy in 1915, and would serve as an official war artist in the years that followed. Because his impressionist style infused romanticism, it became a good vehicle for heroic propaganda. His interest in heroic historical themes continued in the postwar years, most notably in his illustrations for Weltbrand – Deutschlands Tragödie 1914–1918 (Conflagration, Germany’s Tragedy). After joining the Nazi Party he sat on the board of the Reich Association of Visual Artists. A number of his Great War battle scenes were put on exhibition during the 1930’s, which were also reproduced on continental sized German postcards. Michael Zeno Diemer was well known for his illustrations on a large number of fine chromolithographic view-cards produced before the War. During World War One he illustrated a number of postcards depicting naval ships, airships, and airplanes. While some of these were produced as chromolithographs, he produced a popular set of monochrome cards for J.S. Lehmanns in Munich.	<urn:uuid:56bbd3e8-2706-4f05-922d-29e9a8d1a24c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.metropostcard.com/war7b-germany2.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00085.warc.gz	en	0.986308	5,311	3.609375	4	[ -0.1864408254623413, 0.6962186694145203, -0.11818298697471619, 0.28785157203674316, 0.07752031087875366, -0.02947000227868557, 0.05436373129487038, 0.3364783227443695, -0.027520889416337013, -0.3637668490409851, 0.08219777047634125, -0.30003345012664795, -0.2715293765068054, 0.349895417690...	1	\|Warfare Home History Glossary Guides Publishers Artists Techniques Topicals Blog Contact\| Belligerents and Participants The tricolor of gold, black, and red have a long standing history within the German states, but they had also become associated with Austria, which became problematic with German nationalists one Prussia and Austria went to war in the mid 19th century. As a new German empire emerged from this conflict the black white Prussian flag and the red white Brandenburg flag were combined into an imperial flag tricolor by the North German Confederation in 1867. Even though this new flag was not officially recognized until 1892, the tricolor had come to represent the Empire in most German minds and was widely used on all sorts of patriotic items. While many nations placed there national colors on patriotic postcards during World War One, they appeared so often on German cards that they are considered a specific theme referred to as black, white and reds. These colors were presented as flags, decorative borders, and were even used as a verbal rallying cry on German propaganda cards to represent nationalistic urges. Michel (Der Deutsche Michel) appears in many political cartoons as a pipe smoking nightcap (Zipfelmütze) topped character that dresses in German national colors when not wearing a nightgown. His origins date back earlier than most national personifications such as Germania, but he only began to appear in pictorial form during the revolutionary period of the 1840’s. While he originally represented a victim of authoritarian repression, the figure of Michel slowly evolved alongside nationalistic feelings to represent the aspirations of the German people. By World War One he had come to represent the typical German and was often substituted for soldiers on postcards. Michel can be characterized as a good natured simple man who is best not stirred, for those who wake this sleeping giant from his quiet lifestyle will feel his wrath. He usually arms himself with a flail, not the typical type used in warfare but the tradition tool used by peasants for threshing. He is a man of the land who can dispatch Germany’s enemies as efficiently as he mows grain. One of the most significant problems facing the German command throughout the War was that its troops were constantly being siphoned off to help with problems developing on the Austro-Hungarian fronts. With the collapse of Conrad’s offensive into Russia in 1914, the Germans had to open a new front in Poland to prevent the Russians from seizing Silesia. After two failed attempts to knock out Serbia, Germany took control of this front and victory was finally achieved with the aid of Bulgarian and German troops in October 1915. German troops also had to reinforce the Austro-Hungarian army when the Russians unexpectedly broke through thei defenses in 1916 during the Brusilov Offensive. When Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary and seized Transylvania, German troops were rushed in to counterattack and destroy this new opponent. Many of these same German soldiers found themselves aiding the Austro-Hungarian offensive at Caporetto in 1917 to put an end to the threat from Italy. While the loss of these men curtailed German operations elsewhere, there limited presence on all these fronts proved decisive. Germany also did a great deal to help its Ottoman ally. While there was no major troop deployment to this region, officers and specialists such as machine gunners and pilots served with many Turkish units. Their training skills helped the Turks face the modern Allied armies that fought against them. Even the leadership of Turkish were sometimes in German hands. This pipeline of men and arms played a crucial role in the defense of the Ottoman Empire. While not a common subject for postcards, German soldiers serving in exotic lands were enough of a curiosity to generate a fair amount of public interest. Germany had acquired a number of African and Asian colonies under Bismarck in the 1880’s, but little interest was shown in them. It seemed that having a colonial empire was more about earning respect and prestige as an important world player. These colonies remained relatively underdeveloped when the Great War broke out, making them susceptible to invasion from the neighboring colonies of their enemies. Though these far off colonies could not play any significant part in this great struggle, they were drawn into the conflict anyway. Their small contingent of troops was only meant to keep order among the locals, and with Germany blockaded they could not expect to receive reinforcements or supplies. Their main role was to hold down the Allied troops that were deployed against them as long as possible so they could not be used in the European theater of war. Under these conditions most fell rapidly. German troops spread across Asia were quickly concentrated to defend the Tsingtao naval base at their Klautschou Bay Concession in China. It was besieged and fell in November 1914. The poorly defended African colony of Togoland fell to the Allies in August 1914, South-West Africa surrendered in July 1915, and most Germans in Kamerun had fled by the end of the same year. Only German East Africa held out until the end of the War, largely due to the leadership of Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck. All of Germany’s colonies would be divided up among the victors after the War. While postcards exist of these campaigns, they are few in number when compared to the European theater of war. Despite the exotic appeal, there are relatively few postcards depicting these events. Speed was so crucial to the success of the German offensive through Belgium, that the German High Command was constantly worried about it being slowed do to irregular fighting by francs-tireurs behind the lines. Their attack on Liege suffered when Belgian saboteurs destroyed the railroad tunnel at Herbesthal, slowing the arrival of large siege guns. With few troops to spare to guard essential supply lines, violence initiated against Belgian civilians due to ethnic and religious hatred was initially overlooked by commanders believing fear would help generate respect for German authority. Even when large scale massacres occurred they were just seen as a necessity of war. In German eyes civilians not only had a duty to behave; failure to do so was tantamount to treason (Kriegsverrat) and punishable as such. In many ways this brutal strategy worked as there would be very little resistance from civilians forthcoming. Even so, German publishers produced postcards depicting snipers and even intense street fighting. While some of these fights may have been with civic guards within the Belgian army that did not wear uniforms, German publishers illustrated all such events as encounters with civilian francs-tireurs that probably never took place. This was most likely an attempt to help rationalize the actions of their army, though few outside of Germany were willing to listen. If artist drawn cards can be accused of being subject to a fanciful imagination, then real photo postcards are often given the benefit of the doubt when it comes to truthfulness. This is a popular perception even if it does not lie in reality. If doubts should be raised to the existence of francs-tireurs hindering the German advance through Belgium, then one need look no further than real photo postcards for proof. Many civilians were arrested or rounded up to work as forced labor in the industrial Ruhr, but this does not guarantee the people pictured were guilty of anything. The atrocities committed in Belgium would largely end once the Germans realized they were creating a propaganda bonanza for the Allies that was turning world opinion against them. This change however made no difference to Allied publishers who had quickly created the myth of German Barbarism that could not be easily erased. An endless supply of Allied propaganda cards would continue to be produced until the end of the War regardless of facts. German Publishers also produced postcards early in the War that showed the Allies suffering at the hands of their soldiers, but these were quickly banned when it was felt that they detracted from German professionalism. Instead a new propaganda strategy was introduced that stressed the Good German. German soldiers in occupied lands were now shown farming fields, helping civilians with chores, and sharing food with hungry children. Terms such as barbarian are often found in quotes on these cards indicating they were made in direct response to Allied allegations. Most Germans resented the label of Barbarian since they saw themselves as being more socially progressive than their neighbors. They did however often take pride that their ancestry was not based on the ancient Mediterranean cultures but the people that opposed Roman imperialism. To them the Teutonic warrior was not a symbol of the destroyer of civilization as portrayed on Allied postcards but a fierce protector of an independent people. This connection had long been played up through mythologies that found its way into German culture until it became an important element of national identity. While many German cards picked up on this theme, its use was probably curtailed by fears of reinforcing Allied propaganda. While the Allies set up immense programs for the creation and dispersal of propaganda, many in Germany were oblivious to its value. The mistreatment of civilians and purposeful destruction of cultural icons went ahead as a normal outcome of warfare, without realizing how it might turn others in neutral nations against them. Some military leaders wanted Germany to launch a propaganda war early on, but there was too little regard for public opinion among naive officials. Some censorship was directed against the images used on postcards; but a Censorship Department (Oberzensurstelle) operating under the general staff was only set up in February 1915. Even then many local administrators only took their proclamations as guidelines so rules were never evenly enforced. It was not until March 1917 that the War Press Office was set up as a department to concentrate on promoting government sponsored propaganda, but this paled in quantity and quality to what the Allies produced. Their failure was in their righteousness, they largely tried to refute Allied propaganda with facts instead of promoting myths that might have caught the public imagination. Much of what might pass for propaganda in Germany was little more than exaggerated forms of general patriotic themes. These cards tended to show off German military might and the strong character of its soldiers so that no one could ever doubt that a victory would be secured. None of this was substantiated with facts as these cards relied on simple cliches and long standing national myths that could pass their message across easily. While such formulas were common to many nations, one particular German trope was to represent their army as a single colossus towering over the fleeing enemy. Such representations are similar to horror movie posters that would appear in postwar years, but these cards are too overtly symbolic to be scary. They were primarily meant to reassure those at home, not frighten the enemy. This trope was also latter used with generals to symbolize their prowess. In Great Britain the Ministry of War had such complete control over news coming from the front that their optimistic reports became the basis for actual military and political planing. This created a strange paradox, for while they continually thought that German armies were growing so weak on the Western Front that one more great push would break their lines, they feared the Germans had enough spare troops to launch an invasion of Britain. Contradictions may be common in propaganda, but here it was taken seriously enough to create a home guard to secure Britain’s shores. Many British postcard publishers took up this theme showing the German navy on the Channel bottom. German publishers, just as ignorant of the facts followed suit showing the victorious conquest of Britain. While not in as bad shape as the Allies suggested, Germany still never had as many troops as they need for the campaigns on the Continent let alone an invasion. They were actually in more fear that Britain might open a new front in neutral Denmark or the Netherlands, and had to use sparse resources to guard these borders. Propaganda cards were produced in Germany early in the War, but there was no centralized control over their message. This gave German publishers mush more leeway to produce what they wanted even in the face of strict censorship. German military cards often have a more rounded approach to the War, covering a wider variety of subjects than found on cards from the Allies. Many seem more matter of fact as if attempting to capture the essence of the situation was more important than promote an overt patriotic message. Showing German troops bravely fighting was good enough. A simple propaganda message that was produced throughout the War was to promote Germany’s inevitable victory by reminding people of its past. Events where carefully chosen that were already packed with powerful messages of Germans overcoming their adversaries. If actual details sometimes diverged from this message, they were lost when the narrative was transformed from history into myth. It is through myth that most people find their national identity; and the more it is personalized, the less effective are facts on critical thinking. The most common historical associations represented by this myth on postcards were the defeat of the ancient Romans in the Rhineland by Germanic tribes, and the Liberation Wars fought against Napoleon. Also common were associations with the German Empire’s recent triumph over France in the Franco-Prussian War. It was more applicable to the current War, and promised an easy victory. Many publishers from many nations produced cards with maps on the during wartime, but most seem to come from Germany. This may stem from the situation maps that were largely published by newspapers, sold through newsstands and bookshops throughout Germany. They showed were the battle lines were drawn in a variety of military theaters, and were reprinted as circumstances on the ground changed. Even though these maps did not disclose troop dispositions for obvious reasons, families could still get some sense of where loved ones were fighting and better connected to those serving at the front. Map postcards performed the same task for the less detail oriented at a lower cost. Maps on postcards were sometimes issued in complicated forms. The triple folded fieldpostbrief card above published by Fritz Schneller of Nurenburg in 1915 had a unity propaganda message as a cover along with four separate campaign maps on front and back. While the front lines were not shown, all major battles up to this point were marked. While larger cards such as this would have cost more, it seems that an information hungry populace was willing to pay the price. Many illustrators worked for magazines and newspapers, supplying them with war related material throughout the conflict. Many of these same illustrations were later reproduced on postcards by the same publishers or licensed out to others in desperate need of images. While most illustrations were reused for the popular postcard format, some newspapers mounted these pictures on stiffer cardboard to sell as collectables for additional revenue. Though still a cards, these items were usually larger and more square than postcards and were not meant for mailing. Some of the same images however were reproduced on postcards as well. One of the easiest ways to distinguish German soldiers on postcards and photographs is to look for their distinctive spiked helmets (Pickelhaube). Originally designed by Frederick William IV for the Prussian infantry; it consisted of a shell of hardened leather that was reinforced with metal trim that helped hold a metal spike in place at the top. The spike gradually grew shorter over the years to reduce the helmet’s weight until it became a detachable feature. What makes this headgear so distinct to us today also made it highly visible to an enemy on the battlefield, so by September 1915 all German soldiers were wearing helmets without spikes. Shortly after the beginning of 1916 a newly styled Stahlhelm helmet made of steel was issued to German soldiers. It should also be noted that when not in combat, German soldiers usually wore caps. The image of the spiked helmet was so recognizable that it became to be internationally understood as a symbol of Germany even after it long disappeared from military use. As such it was widely used as a surrogate for Germany on postcards produced during the Great War. While the helmet was displayed on German cards with great reverence, it quickly became an instrument for satire and ridicule for many comic and political postcards produced by the Allies. The Pickelhaube still remains a symbol of the German Empire. Germany was the largest producer of military postcards during World War One, largely due to the size and quality of its prewar printing industry and the availability of essential supplies such as ink of which they had a near monopoly on its manufacture. Outside of Berlin, the printing houses of Bavaria produced a tremendous amount of postcards most notably those from Nuremberg and its capitol Munich. Likewise a tremendous amount of postcards were also manufactured in the printing houses of Saxony, most notably from Leipzig and its capitol Dresden. Most of their publishers seem to have issued their military cards early in the conflict and production trailed off near its end. While this may be at least in part attributable to the availability of resources, it seems more likely that this trend followed demand. Before the public became saturated with stories of stalemate and death of a never ending war, they were anxious to follow every detail of their army’s road to victory. War can be very exciting when romanticized, and postcards kept this illusion up at home long after it disappeared from the trenches. Even double fold postcards that had already fallen out of vogue were revived to celebrate important victories. Installment postcards were another type of elaborate novelty that German publishers kept up producing during the War years. They tended to be sold in a set of ten cards where each had its own narrative plus a fraction of a larger image that only appeared when the full set was assembled. These cards that portrayed national heroes and soldiers were usually mailed out one at a time to increase the anticipation of correspondence. To save time and money, some publishers used the artwork for cards already printed for the background. Oskar Martin-Amorbach was a student at the School of Applied Arts in Munich when he joined the German army in 1916. He served as a messenger, and was badly wounded while fighting in Flanders. He did not recover until 1920 when he resumed his studies. Afterwards he largely painted peasant themes and church frescos, but he also created paintings of battles in a highly expressive style that were placed on postcards by Gerling & Erbes. He would become a popular artist with the Nazis and he returned to military painting during World War Two. Karl Arnold began providing satyrical cartoons for Simplicissimus and Die Jugend magazines in 1907. His style took form during World War One when he worked for Liller Kriegszeitung, a German supported weekly newspaper in Lille for the occupation troops on the Western Front. This paper published many of his cartoons as fieldpost cards. He returned to do work for Simplicissimus after the War for which he is best known. Hans Baluschek began to divorce himself from the traditional German art scene ever since he left his academic studies in 1893. As he absorbed leftist ideas, his paintings came to embrace social narratives largely dealing with class differences that he found in the streets of Berlin. Although the social issues he dealt with fell into the realm of realism, he developed a unique style that was closer to expressionism. He became a board member of the Berlin Secession but eventually left over disagreements of where modern art should be headed. While his strong leftist politics mad him an enemy of the aristocracy, he supported the Great War by contributing military illustrations to the journal Wartime (Kriegszeit), and to the weekly Artists Journal of the War (Kunstlerblatter zum Krieg). Other scenes of battles, hospitals, and patriotic themes wound up on postcards. Baluschek volunteered for military service in 1916 and served as a reservist on both the Western and Eastern Fronts. This inspired many painting but their mood changed from highly patriotic to somber. He was deeply disturbed that despite the great sacrifices Germany made the War ended in their defeat. Afterwards he dropped out of politics and produced little artwork. Karl Otto Bartels is best known as a landscape painter who worked in a somewhat brushy style. While the postcard series he illustrated during World War One was drawn in a very different graphic style, these vast snowy mountain scenes capture the mood so prevalent in his paintings. Here the landscape dominates over the military narrative. Claus Bergen was a very successful marine artist who became the official marine painter to Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1914. He produced many battle scenes and images of U-boats during the First World War that were reproduced on postcards. Some of these pictures were based on first hand experience after going out into the Baltic aboard Admiral Scheer’s flagship to reinact the Battle of Jutland. He also participated on a combat mission with U-53 in the summer of 1917. He continued with this theme in postwar years, and these images were placed on continental size cards. The work of Emil Beithan revolved around depicting scenes of rural German life, particularly through the portrayal of types. In his more narrative work these figures evolved into recognizable characters. While his paintings a fairly naturalistic, the portraits in his graphic work show a strong almost cartoonish style. These characteristics carried over to the military themed postcards he illustrated during World War One. Many of these revolve around sentimental scenes of departure and often portray children. August Blepp was primarily a Stuttgart based church painter, though he spent much time in Switzerland. He was conscripted into the Wuertemberg Army in August of 1914, and was stationed on the Western Front for the duration of the War where he fought at the Somme and Verdun. He made a number of expressive battlefront sketches that were placed on postcards by C. Reithmuller in Kirchheim. Karl Blossfeld produced a wide variety of work while an illustrator working in Leipzig. His interests largely concentrated on naval themes, and he would become a well respected marine painter. His work, often loaded with heavy symbolism, is represented in both propaganda and satire issued during and in-between the two World Wars. Many of these images were placed on postcards and prints; some published by Fritz Finke and Grbr. Lempe. He also produced a good number of navel themed comic cards. (This artist should not be confused with the photographer Karl Blosfeldt). Hans Bohrdt fell in love with ships after visiting Hamburg when he was fifteen years of age. He taught himself marine painting, and his natural aptitude gained him recognition. He developed a personal friendship with Kaiser Wilhelm II after becoming his painting tutor, and the Kaiser continued to support him as an artist. Bohrdt’s paintings became highly sought, and they were used on steamship line posters and postcards. While Raphael Tuck placed his images on their cards, more German publishers took up Bohrdt’s work as it grew ever more focused on promoting Germany’s maritime interests. He would produce strong propaganda cards during World War One, but often at the cost of his earlier artistic flair. His images of defiant German sailors in the wreckage of their ships were some of the most popular cards sold during World War One. While Hans Bottcher is best known today for his surrealist paintings, he provided realistic field sketches that were used on fieldpost cards when a young soldier in World War One. Ferdinand Max Bredt was well established as an Orientalist painter when the First World War broke out. Much of this earlier work depicted the everyday life of the harem, and he continued to use this casual yet lush style when depicting life on the home front during the War. The narrative of these paintings placed on postcards can be so subtle that their military relevance is only revealed by their titles. Frederich Bruckmann of Munich was a major printing and publishing house that had a long history of producing high quality printed products made in a variety of techniques. During the Great War they produced many artist signed cards depicting a full range of military and propaganda subjects. He was one of the few publishers to capture scenes from Germany’s African colonies. Oscar Consée was a well known printer of art and advertising posters in Munich before the Great War. During the War and the years following they produced much propaganda work in fine lithography for both posters and postcards. Many of these were charity cards for the German Red Cross. Lovis Corinth was a painter and printmaker of note by the time the Great War broke out. Though a founding member of the Munich Secession, he moved to Berlin in 1901 and became president of the Berlin Secession in 1915. He had primarily been an academic figure painter but turned more toward expressionist landscapes and religious scenes after recovering from a stroke in 1911. During the War he produced military themed drawings to be placed on postcards. Ludwig Julius Christian Dettman began his career in the arts as an illustrator but was persuaded to take up landscape painting by Max Liebermann. Together they helped found the Berlin Secession in 1898, and Dettmann eventually became a member of their board. He organized a major exhibition of military art at the Berlin Academy in 1915, and would serve as an official war artist in the years that followed. Because his impressionist style infused romanticism, it became a good vehicle for heroic propaganda. His interest in heroic historical themes continued in the postwar years, most notably in his illustrations for Weltbrand – Deutschlands Tragödie 1914–1918 (Conflagration, Germany’s Tragedy). After joining the Nazi Party he sat on the board of the Reich Association of Visual Artists. A number of his Great War battle scenes were put on exhibition during the 1930’s, which were also reproduced on continental sized German postcards. Michael Zeno Diemer was well known for his illustrations on a large number of fine chromolithographic view-cards produced before the War. During World War One he illustrated a number of postcards depicting naval ships, airships, and airplanes. While some of these were produced as chromolithographs, he produced a popular set of monochrome cards for J.S. Lehmanns in Munich.	5,347	ENGLISH	1
Yiddish Theater in the United States During the Middle Ages and for most of the centuries since then, Ashkenazim—the Yiddish-speaking Jews of central and Eastern Europe—produced virtually no theater at all. Since ancient times, rabbinic Jewish tradition had disapproved of theater, for men and women alike. Moreover, it was specifically considered immodest for women to perform for men. Men were prohibited from hearing women’s voices singing, and women were prohibited from dressing as men. Finally, unlike other Western cultures, in many of whose theaters men played women’s roles up into early modern times, Jewish men were permitted to dress as women only as part of the topsy-turvy merrymaking of the Holiday held on the 14th day of the Hebrew month of Adar (on the 15th day in Jerusalem) to commemorate the deliverance of the Jewish people in the Persian empire from a plot to eradicate them.Purim holiday. For that reason, it was only during Purim, in early spring, that lively amateur entertainments were produced, and even then women participated only as spectators. Professional Yiddish theater did not exist until 1876. Until then there were only groups of wandering acrobats, among whom, however, two women’s names are recorded: Ruza and Feygele. During the late-nineteenth-century Jewish Enlightenment; European movement during the 1770sHaskalah [Enlightenment] period, when Eastern European Ashkenazi culture was becoming more modern and cosmopolitan, some Yiddish plays were written to be read at home as sophisticated literary entertainment. The first recorded actual performance of one of these plays was organized in 1862 by Madame Slonimsky, wife of the new headmaster of the Zhitomer Academy for boys in Zhitomer, Poland. Her husband’s students played all the roles. The play was Serkele, by Shlomo Etenger. The title role, a strong-willed female character, was played by a boy named Avrom [Abraham] Goldfaden, who grew up to establish the first professional Yiddish troupe. Goldfaden’s troupe, formed in Jassy, Romania, in 1876, was one manifestation of a general loosening of governmental restrictions on Jewish culture from the outside, as well as a loosening of traditional rabbinic restrictions from inside. The first company consisted of Goldfaden plus one actor. He soon hired a second actor, Sakher Goldstein, to play women’s roles as well as men’s. Goldfaden’s wife, Paulina, served the enterprise as the translator of French and German popular plays into Yiddish. Probably the first woman to perform on the Yiddish stage was Sara Segal, a sixteen-year-old seamstress with dark eyes and a sweet soprano voice. However, her mother refused permission until Goldstein, being the only unmarried company member, married her and took her along on their wandering life. She changed her name to the European-sounding Sophie, becoming Sophie Goldstein. Later, in New York, she married another actor, making her name Sophie Goldstein-Karp, or Sophia Karp. Karp was the first woman whose profession was Yiddish theater, and she was typical of the many hundreds who followed. She was an actor, known for glamour and charm. She occasionally participated in a venture as producer or even director as well as star. (Karp is said to have died of a theatrical dispute. In an effort to prove her claim on a certain theater, she refused to leave the building, even sleeping on the unheated stage, until she caught pneumonia and died.) But this was minor, and in fact women in Yiddish theater were primarily performers. The Golubok company was the first to arrive in the United States, in 1882, at the start of the great wave of Jewish immigration. Their prima donna was a Madame Sara Krantsfeld. Sophie Karp and many other actors came shortly afterward. For a decade and more, most American Yiddish actors were immigrants, as were their audiences, but Yiddish theater was so new that many who were born in Europe made their debuts in the new land. Others started careers in the Old Country and then immigrated; by 1900, talent scouts were aggressively importing actors whose reputations had arrived at Ellis Island along with other news from home. Most of the qualities associated with Yiddish actors were already clear in the 1880s. Theatergoers favored fiery temperament and emotionalism in drama, and “quicksilver” energy in comedy, for female and male actors alike. As the theater acquired serious playwrights and discriminating audiences, truthfulness and sensitivity became highly valued. Types, in the styles of the period, included queenly lovers, strong heroines, glamorous villainesses, saucy soubrettes, and devoted mammas. And since music was interpolated in most shows, even including serious straight dramas, a good singing voice was also important. From the beginning, many female actors married men in the theater community, and their names were and have remained linked in pairs with their husbands’. Eventually there came to be many actors’ daughters as well. Often families played in the same company. Companies generally formed for a season, or for a tour, and touring companies moved not only around the United States but also back and forth to Eastern Europe and Russia. It was also not unusual to visit Western Europe, South America, or South Africa. On tour many actors took along their children, who soon learned to perform. The American capital of Yiddish theater was New York City, where at times as many as fourteen theaters were filled simultaneously, not counting vaudeville and cabaret. But there were also professional theaters in other cities around the country, such as Philadelphia, Detroit, and Providence. Because the Yiddish public was passionate about theater, they generally were aware of actors’ private lives, including romances, which were matters of comment in theater columns and critiques in the press. Although respectable families were not pleased if their daughters went on the stage, actors committed to intellectual or political ideals were highly respected by the intelligentsia, and for the community at large the presence of actors lent dash and style to café life. Actors, like other performers, customarily contracted for one night a season to be played for their own benefit. In this practice, not unique to Yiddish theater, the performer picked and cast the play. On these benefit nights, the house might be filled with an actor’s enthusiastic fans, and the box office take came to a significant yearly bonus. She might also receive gifts in addition to money profits. In this early period began the long career of Bina Abramovich, who fifty years later was still known affectionately as the “mother” of Yiddish theater, both because she had always been there and because the roles she was associated with were folksy Old Country mammas. Pretty, lively Dina Stettin played with her husband Jacob Adler in London en route to America, and finished her career there married to Seymour Feinman, after which she became known as Dina Feinman. Regina Prager was known for her operatic singing and dignified carriage. Bessie Thomashefsky met her husband, Boris, when she was a girl in Baltimore and he came there to start a Yiddish theater. Through her long, successful career, she played many roles, both comic and deeply dramatic, light and intense. She even played mischievous little boys. Her many enthusiastic fans extolled her acting as “natural,” a term of particularly high praise. Starting in 1890, some actors were known not only for their work in popular theater but also in association with the playwright Jacob Gordin, whose literary repertory dominated the more intellectually ambitious Yiddish theater between roughly 1890 and 1905. Among Gordin’s political causes was women’s rights, and among his dramatic talents was writing juicy roles, often with certain stars in mind. Gordin was the first, though certainly not the last, professional Yiddish dramatist to create thoughtful and intelligent female characters. Keni Liptzin, bertha kalich, and Sara Adler remained permanently associated with Gordin roles. Keni or Kenia Liptzin ran away from home to join one of Goldfaden’s earliest troupes and played in many companies in Eastern Europe and London before she settled in New York and encountered Gordin. Tiny and elegant, she was known for her uncompromising high standards for Yiddish literary repertoire. She was able to play only those plays she respected because she was married to a successful publisher, making her perhaps the only Yiddish theater producer ever who could be financially independent of whether or not her vehicles sold tickets. The role she was best known for was Gordin’s Mirele Efros; or, The Jewish Queen Lear. This tells the story of a woman who loses everything to a scheming daughter-in-law and to her own pride. When the Polish Yiddish star Esther Rachel Kaminska toured in New York in that same role, the Yiddish press called it a duel of rival champions. Bertha Kalich began as a chorus lovely in Lemberg, Poland, and though she also played on the non-Yiddish Polish stage, talent scouts soon brought her to America. She was known for her grace and femininity. Gordin is supposed to have written his popular play of thwarted love, The Kreutzer Sonata, because once, as he sat in her dressing room, she flirted with him, brushing her long dark hair and coaxing, “Write a play for my hair.” She subsequently played the role in English translation on Broadway. She also created the female lead in his Sappho, a photographer who dares to bear a child out of wedlock because the father turns out to be unworthy, and in God, Man, and Devil, an unhappy wife. She played for many years in Yiddish and English even after she became totally blind. For Sara Adler, Gordin wrote Without a Home. Adler, who began her career as Sara Heine-Haimovitch, rose to fame while married to Jacob Adler. Her fiery temperament delighted her many fans, onstage and off, and she remained a star—possibly the most successful of her generation—for many years. Her daughters Frances, Julia, and Stella Adler all became actors; Stella soon transferred to the English-language stage, where she was an influential performer and teacher. Yiddish theater participated in the art theater movement in the United States, as well as in Western Europe and Russia. In 1917, New York acquired the Yiddish Art Theater, organized by Maurice Schwartz, and the following year the Jewish Art Theater organized by Jacob Ben-Ami. There were others in the New York area and elsewhere. Several actors were associated with this movement, which emphasized text, direction, and ensemble work as opposed to the star system. Celia Adler, raised in traditional Yiddish theater and known for her delicacy and vulnerability, was an enthusiastic reformer, later recalling the period as a “golden era.” So was the glamorous Berta Gersten. The popular theater in the first half of the twentieth century had many skilled and energetic female performers in a variety of styles. The following are some of the best known. Nellie Casman sang and recorded songs, some of which (like “Yosl”) she wrote herself. Jennie Goldstein starred in tearjerkers and later turned to comedies. Henrietta Jacobson and Yetta Zwerling were popular comediennes. Anna Appel and Malvina Lobel were known in dramas. Vera Rosanka billed herself as the Jewish Gypsy. Clara Young was a frilly coquette. Molly Picon, whose mother sewed costumes backstage, began in English-language vaudeville. Her husband, Jacob Kalich, groomed her for stardom—even tutoring her in Yiddish—and helped make her the darling of Yiddish musical theater, cabaret, and films. She was especially popular in gamin roles, even boy roles such as Yankl, the mischievous yeshiva student. Picon ended her career back on the English-language stage, playing in American musical comedies. By mid-century, new names drew audiences to the theaters. Mina Bern played kleynkunst, charming musical revues that included art songs and scenes of literary value, with her husband, Ben Bonus. Clever Reizl Bozyk, who was actually born onstage on her mother’s benefit night, performed with her husband, Max, and alone, and in old age was highly praised for her role in the Hollywood film Crossing Delancey written by Susan Sandler. Dina Halpern acted and also gave solo literary performances known as “word concerts.” Betty and Jacob Jacobs were a perennial song-and-dance duo. Miriam Kressyn played Yiddish dramas and musicals and in films. Shifra Lerer, trained in Argentinean theater, acted with her husband, Ben Zion Vitler, and appeared in Yiddish films. Lillian Lux, with her husband, Pesach Burstein, and son, Mike Burstyn, had her biggest international success in The Megile of Itsik Manger. A number of these actors also appeared in one or more of the Yiddish films made in the United States, though film acting was generally less respected than stage productions. Some are better remembered for their film work than from stage appearances: Helen Beverly, Judith Abarbanel, Gertrude Bullman, Lucy Gehrman, Lila Lee, Lucy Levine, Miriam Riselle, Mae Simon, and Florence Weiss. Yiddish radio programs were widespread and popular; Esther Field was a prominent personality. With her husband, Seymour Rechzeit, Miriam Kressyn presented a long-running series of radio shows evoking the history of the Yiddish theater. There was another venue for Yiddish performance: the resorts of the Catskills. The most famous was Grossinger’s, run by the hotel keeper Jennie Grossinger. Here Yiddish performers did their routines in a mixture of Yiddish and English for increasingly assimilated audiences. There were also opportunities to perform at summer camps like Nit Gedayget. By the 1970s and 1980s there were a number of new women on the professional Yiddish stage in America. Ida Kaminska, the intelligent and dignified daughter of Esther Rachel Kaminska, spent some years heading her own company here between the time she left Poland and settled permanently in Israel. Just as she performed alongside her famous mother, so her daughter Ruth Kaminska in turn performed alongside her. Mary Soreanu, born in Romania and based in Israel, spent a number of seasons in New York starring in light musical vehicles designed to show off her strong voice, easy good humor, and good looks. Rita Karen Karpinovitch, trained in the Moscow Art Theater, gave “word concerts.” Vivacious American-born Eleanor Reissa understudied Soreanu early in her career but went on to star in Yiddish, English, and bilingual shows, and to choreograph them as well. Besides her stage appearances here, dark-voiced Raquel Yossiffon has taught university courses about Yiddish theater in Israel. Other young performers of the 1980s and 1990s included Joanne Borts, Adrienne Cooper, Shira Flam, Rosalie Gerut, Ibi Kaufman, and Suzanne Toren. Amateur theater groups have always been active in Yiddish cultural communities, encouraging new dramatists and providing social cohesiveness. Many were associated with political or social positions, and many provided a congenial venue for artistically ambitious Yiddish dramas. Chayele Ash and Dina Halpern were professional actors who organized and sustained such groups. But there were many unknown heroic women who gave enormous time and energy to organize and sustain these theaters. At the moment, the major established Yiddish theater company in the United States is the Folksbiene, in New York City. The oldest continuously performing Yiddish theater company in the world, the Folksbiene was amateur through most of its years, though it now employs professional artists as well, among whom was Zypora Spaisman (1916–2002), who for fifty years produced and acted in forty-three consecutive productions at the theater. Women in professional Yiddish theater have been almost exclusively performers. In the early period, when male stars often headed their own companies, it was rare for women to do so. Keni Liptzin was a major exception, but she was subsidized by her husband; Bessie Thomashefsky, Sara Adler, and Jennie Goldstein were also intermittently company heads, as was Ida Kaminska. Playwrights and songwriters created vehicles for the well-known female performers, but although Molly Picon wrote songs, women rarely wrote their own material; there were no professional women writers or directors. Rose Pivar worked in the Hebrew Actors Union administrative office, and other women were active in the Hebrew Actors Guild. More recently, Renee Solomon served as musical director and piano accompanist for many productions, and Ruth Vool handled theater business as well as performing. Bessie White translated several volumes of Yiddish short plays. Celia Adler and Bessie Thomashefsky wrote their memoirs. There are women connected with professional Yiddish theater in creative capacities other than performing. Miriam Hoffman has created several plays. The best known are Songs of Paradise, with cowriter Rena Berkowicz Borow and composer Rosalie Gerut, and A Rendezvous with God, about the poet Itsik Manger. Hoffman is the executive director of the Joseph Papp Jewish Theater and teaches Yiddish language at Columbia University. Miriam Kressyn adapted a number of classics for contemporary productions and wrote lyrics for them. Bryna Wasserman Turetsky adapted Mirele Efros for productions at the Folksbiene and the Saidye Bronfman Centre in Montreal. Rina Elisha and Bryna Wasserman Turetsky directed Folksbiene productions. Eleanor Reissa won a Tony for choreographing the bilingual Those Were the Days. Joan Micklin Silver produced the Hollywood feature films Crossing Delancey and Hester Street; the latter, based on the Yiddish story Yekl, incorporated a great deal of Yiddish dialogue. Tova Ronni, of the Folksbiene’s board, organized the installation of devices for simultaneous translation—an innovation that has helped the Folksbiene continue to draw audiences. The United States has also seen numerous tours by the Yiddish Theatre of the Saidye Bronfman Centre of Montreal, founded and directed by Dora Wasserman, who when she suffered a stroke was succeeded by her daughter Bryna Turetsky. Women have also been active historians of the Yiddish theater. Diane Cypkin, besides performing in Yiddish theater, was curator of the Yiddish theater collection of the Museum of the City of New York. Sharon Pucker Rivo is executive director of the National Center for Jewish Film, which has rescued, preserved, and made available to viewers more Yiddish films than any other institution. Faina Burko has written a major study of the Moscow Yiddish Art Theater, and Edna Nahshon has chronicled the left-wing avant-garde theater ARTEF. Nahma Sandrow translates Yiddish plays, and created several original shows out of Yiddish theater material. Lulla Rosenfeld wrote a biography of her grandfather, Jacob Adler. Evelyn Torton Beck wrote about the influence of Yiddish theater on Franz Kafka’s work. The scholar Ruth Wisse taught a course in Yiddish theater at Harvard University. Women have always been important as Yiddish theater audiences. In the early sweatshop days, working girls spent hard-earned pennies for tickets. Girls went to the theater in friendly groups or on dates. It was the custom for fraternal organizations to buy out a performance and sell tickets to raise money, and women often went to such performances in order to meet people from back home in the Old Country. Mothers could bring along their children, with picnic lunches to keep them fed during long matinees. Dramas of life in America provided them with ways to learn about the new country and try out, vicariously, new ways to cope. Translations of world classics or of Broadway hits were glimpses of the outside world. Escapist operettas and comedies offered relief from the hardships of immigration and poverty. And women’s tastes influenced the theater world. Actors whom women found handsome played leading roles; there are many tales of women swooning in the aisles and running after Adler or Thomashefsky. Actors whom women admired, whose styles they copied, became stars and remained stars long past their youth. Now, as Yiddish theater is attenuated, the loyalties and memories of women are important for its survival. For a detailed overview of Yiddish theater see Vagabond Stars: A World History of Yiddish Theater, by Nahma Sandrow (1977). The volume includes an extensive bibliography of sources in both Yiddish and English. How to cite this page Sandrow, Nahma. "Yiddish Theater in the United States." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 20 March 2009. Jewish Women's Archive. (Viewed on January 20, 2020) <https://qa.jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/yiddish-theater-in-united-states>.	<urn:uuid:ac27afef-5162-4a18-9988-8ea7245dbf1c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://qa.jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/yiddish-theater-in-united-states	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00388.warc.gz	en	0.980076	4,598	3.609375	4	[ 0.05144891142845154, 0.5353473424911499, 0.06011686846613884, 0.08218947052955627, -0.4626985788345337, 0.442186176776886, 0.09438560903072357, 0.3983437716960907, -0.375637412071228, -0.31097549200057983, -0.07798472046852112, 0.3218172788619995, 0.018580004572868347, 0.38054582476615906,...	1	Yiddish Theater in the United States During the Middle Ages and for most of the centuries since then, Ashkenazim—the Yiddish-speaking Jews of central and Eastern Europe—produced virtually no theater at all. Since ancient times, rabbinic Jewish tradition had disapproved of theater, for men and women alike. Moreover, it was specifically considered immodest for women to perform for men. Men were prohibited from hearing women’s voices singing, and women were prohibited from dressing as men. Finally, unlike other Western cultures, in many of whose theaters men played women’s roles up into early modern times, Jewish men were permitted to dress as women only as part of the topsy-turvy merrymaking of the Holiday held on the 14th day of the Hebrew month of Adar (on the 15th day in Jerusalem) to commemorate the deliverance of the Jewish people in the Persian empire from a plot to eradicate them.Purim holiday. For that reason, it was only during Purim, in early spring, that lively amateur entertainments were produced, and even then women participated only as spectators. Professional Yiddish theater did not exist until 1876. Until then there were only groups of wandering acrobats, among whom, however, two women’s names are recorded: Ruza and Feygele. During the late-nineteenth-century Jewish Enlightenment; European movement during the 1770sHaskalah [Enlightenment] period, when Eastern European Ashkenazi culture was becoming more modern and cosmopolitan, some Yiddish plays were written to be read at home as sophisticated literary entertainment. The first recorded actual performance of one of these plays was organized in 1862 by Madame Slonimsky, wife of the new headmaster of the Zhitomer Academy for boys in Zhitomer, Poland. Her husband’s students played all the roles. The play was Serkele, by Shlomo Etenger. The title role, a strong-willed female character, was played by a boy named Avrom [Abraham] Goldfaden, who grew up to establish the first professional Yiddish troupe. Goldfaden’s troupe, formed in Jassy, Romania, in 1876, was one manifestation of a general loosening of governmental restrictions on Jewish culture from the outside, as well as a loosening of traditional rabbinic restrictions from inside. The first company consisted of Goldfaden plus one actor. He soon hired a second actor, Sakher Goldstein, to play women’s roles as well as men’s. Goldfaden’s wife, Paulina, served the enterprise as the translator of French and German popular plays into Yiddish. Probably the first woman to perform on the Yiddish stage was Sara Segal, a sixteen-year-old seamstress with dark eyes and a sweet soprano voice. However, her mother refused permission until Goldstein, being the only unmarried company member, married her and took her along on their wandering life. She changed her name to the European-sounding Sophie, becoming Sophie Goldstein. Later, in New York, she married another actor, making her name Sophie Goldstein-Karp, or Sophia Karp. Karp was the first woman whose profession was Yiddish theater, and she was typical of the many hundreds who followed. She was an actor, known for glamour and charm. She occasionally participated in a venture as producer or even director as well as star. (Karp is said to have died of a theatrical dispute. In an effort to prove her claim on a certain theater, she refused to leave the building, even sleeping on the unheated stage, until she caught pneumonia and died.) But this was minor, and in fact women in Yiddish theater were primarily performers. The Golubok company was the first to arrive in the United States, in 1882, at the start of the great wave of Jewish immigration. Their prima donna was a Madame Sara Krantsfeld. Sophie Karp and many other actors came shortly afterward. For a decade and more, most American Yiddish actors were immigrants, as were their audiences, but Yiddish theater was so new that many who were born in Europe made their debuts in the new land. Others started careers in the Old Country and then immigrated; by 1900, talent scouts were aggressively importing actors whose reputations had arrived at Ellis Island along with other news from home. Most of the qualities associated with Yiddish actors were already clear in the 1880s. Theatergoers favored fiery temperament and emotionalism in drama, and “quicksilver” energy in comedy, for female and male actors alike. As the theater acquired serious playwrights and discriminating audiences, truthfulness and sensitivity became highly valued. Types, in the styles of the period, included queenly lovers, strong heroines, glamorous villainesses, saucy soubrettes, and devoted mammas. And since music was interpolated in most shows, even including serious straight dramas, a good singing voice was also important. From the beginning, many female actors married men in the theater community, and their names were and have remained linked in pairs with their husbands’. Eventually there came to be many actors’ daughters as well. Often families played in the same company. Companies generally formed for a season, or for a tour, and touring companies moved not only around the United States but also back and forth to Eastern Europe and Russia. It was also not unusual to visit Western Europe, South America, or South Africa. On tour many actors took along their children, who soon learned to perform. The American capital of Yiddish theater was New York City, where at times as many as fourteen theaters were filled simultaneously, not counting vaudeville and cabaret. But there were also professional theaters in other cities around the country, such as Philadelphia, Detroit, and Providence. Because the Yiddish public was passionate about theater, they generally were aware of actors’ private lives, including romances, which were matters of comment in theater columns and critiques in the press. Although respectable families were not pleased if their daughters went on the stage, actors committed to intellectual or political ideals were highly respected by the intelligentsia, and for the community at large the presence of actors lent dash and style to café life. Actors, like other performers, customarily contracted for one night a season to be played for their own benefit. In this practice, not unique to Yiddish theater, the performer picked and cast the play. On these benefit nights, the house might be filled with an actor’s enthusiastic fans, and the box office take came to a significant yearly bonus. She might also receive gifts in addition to money profits. In this early period began the long career of Bina Abramovich, who fifty years later was still known affectionately as the “mother” of Yiddish theater, both because she had always been there and because the roles she was associated with were folksy Old Country mammas. Pretty, lively Dina Stettin played with her husband Jacob Adler in London en route to America, and finished her career there married to Seymour Feinman, after which she became known as Dina Feinman. Regina Prager was known for her operatic singing and dignified carriage. Bessie Thomashefsky met her husband, Boris, when she was a girl in Baltimore and he came there to start a Yiddish theater. Through her long, successful career, she played many roles, both comic and deeply dramatic, light and intense. She even played mischievous little boys. Her many enthusiastic fans extolled her acting as “natural,” a term of particularly high praise. Starting in 1890, some actors were known not only for their work in popular theater but also in association with the playwright Jacob Gordin, whose literary repertory dominated the more intellectually ambitious Yiddish theater between roughly 1890 and 1905. Among Gordin’s political causes was women’s rights, and among his dramatic talents was writing juicy roles, often with certain stars in mind. Gordin was the first, though certainly not the last, professional Yiddish dramatist to create thoughtful and intelligent female characters. Keni Liptzin, bertha kalich, and Sara Adler remained permanently associated with Gordin roles. Keni or Kenia Liptzin ran away from home to join one of Goldfaden’s earliest troupes and played in many companies in Eastern Europe and London before she settled in New York and encountered Gordin. Tiny and elegant, she was known for her uncompromising high standards for Yiddish literary repertoire. She was able to play only those plays she respected because she was married to a successful publisher, making her perhaps the only Yiddish theater producer ever who could be financially independent of whether or not her vehicles sold tickets. The role she was best known for was Gordin’s Mirele Efros; or, The Jewish Queen Lear. This tells the story of a woman who loses everything to a scheming daughter-in-law and to her own pride. When the Polish Yiddish star Esther Rachel Kaminska toured in New York in that same role, the Yiddish press called it a duel of rival champions. Bertha Kalich began as a chorus lovely in Lemberg, Poland, and though she also played on the non-Yiddish Polish stage, talent scouts soon brought her to America. She was known for her grace and femininity. Gordin is supposed to have written his popular play of thwarted love, The Kreutzer Sonata, because once, as he sat in her dressing room, she flirted with him, brushing her long dark hair and coaxing, “Write a play for my hair.” She subsequently played the role in English translation on Broadway. She also created the female lead in his Sappho, a photographer who dares to bear a child out of wedlock because the father turns out to be unworthy, and in God, Man, and Devil, an unhappy wife. She played for many years in Yiddish and English even after she became totally blind. For Sara Adler, Gordin wrote Without a Home. Adler, who began her career as Sara Heine-Haimovitch, rose to fame while married to Jacob Adler. Her fiery temperament delighted her many fans, onstage and off, and she remained a star—possibly the most successful of her generation—for many years. Her daughters Frances, Julia, and Stella Adler all became actors; Stella soon transferred to the English-language stage, where she was an influential performer and teacher. Yiddish theater participated in the art theater movement in the United States, as well as in Western Europe and Russia. In 1917, New York acquired the Yiddish Art Theater, organized by Maurice Schwartz, and the following year the Jewish Art Theater organized by Jacob Ben-Ami. There were others in the New York area and elsewhere. Several actors were associated with this movement, which emphasized text, direction, and ensemble work as opposed to the star system. Celia Adler, raised in traditional Yiddish theater and known for her delicacy and vulnerability, was an enthusiastic reformer, later recalling the period as a “golden era.” So was the glamorous Berta Gersten. The popular theater in the first half of the twentieth century had many skilled and energetic female performers in a variety of styles. The following are some of the best known. Nellie Casman sang and recorded songs, some of which (like “Yosl”) she wrote herself. Jennie Goldstein starred in tearjerkers and later turned to comedies. Henrietta Jacobson and Yetta Zwerling were popular comediennes. Anna Appel and Malvina Lobel were known in dramas. Vera Rosanka billed herself as the Jewish Gypsy. Clara Young was a frilly coquette. Molly Picon, whose mother sewed costumes backstage, began in English-language vaudeville. Her husband, Jacob Kalich, groomed her for stardom—even tutoring her in Yiddish—and helped make her the darling of Yiddish musical theater, cabaret, and films. She was especially popular in gamin roles, even boy roles such as Yankl, the mischievous yeshiva student. Picon ended her career back on the English-language stage, playing in American musical comedies. By mid-century, new names drew audiences to the theaters. Mina Bern played kleynkunst, charming musical revues that included art songs and scenes of literary value, with her husband, Ben Bonus. Clever Reizl Bozyk, who was actually born onstage on her mother’s benefit night, performed with her husband, Max, and alone, and in old age was highly praised for her role in the Hollywood film Crossing Delancey written by Susan Sandler. Dina Halpern acted and also gave solo literary performances known as “word concerts.” Betty and Jacob Jacobs were a perennial song-and-dance duo. Miriam Kressyn played Yiddish dramas and musicals and in films. Shifra Lerer, trained in Argentinean theater, acted with her husband, Ben Zion Vitler, and appeared in Yiddish films. Lillian Lux, with her husband, Pesach Burstein, and son, Mike Burstyn, had her biggest international success in The Megile of Itsik Manger. A number of these actors also appeared in one or more of the Yiddish films made in the United States, though film acting was generally less respected than stage productions. Some are better remembered for their film work than from stage appearances: Helen Beverly, Judith Abarbanel, Gertrude Bullman, Lucy Gehrman, Lila Lee, Lucy Levine, Miriam Riselle, Mae Simon, and Florence Weiss. Yiddish radio programs were widespread and popular; Esther Field was a prominent personality. With her husband, Seymour Rechzeit, Miriam Kressyn presented a long-running series of radio shows evoking the history of the Yiddish theater. There was another venue for Yiddish performance: the resorts of the Catskills. The most famous was Grossinger’s, run by the hotel keeper Jennie Grossinger. Here Yiddish performers did their routines in a mixture of Yiddish and English for increasingly assimilated audiences. There were also opportunities to perform at summer camps like Nit Gedayget. By the 1970s and 1980s there were a number of new women on the professional Yiddish stage in America. Ida Kaminska, the intelligent and dignified daughter of Esther Rachel Kaminska, spent some years heading her own company here between the time she left Poland and settled permanently in Israel. Just as she performed alongside her famous mother, so her daughter Ruth Kaminska in turn performed alongside her. Mary Soreanu, born in Romania and based in Israel, spent a number of seasons in New York starring in light musical vehicles designed to show off her strong voice, easy good humor, and good looks. Rita Karen Karpinovitch, trained in the Moscow Art Theater, gave “word concerts.” Vivacious American-born Eleanor Reissa understudied Soreanu early in her career but went on to star in Yiddish, English, and bilingual shows, and to choreograph them as well. Besides her stage appearances here, dark-voiced Raquel Yossiffon has taught university courses about Yiddish theater in Israel. Other young performers of the 1980s and 1990s included Joanne Borts, Adrienne Cooper, Shira Flam, Rosalie Gerut, Ibi Kaufman, and Suzanne Toren. Amateur theater groups have always been active in Yiddish cultural communities, encouraging new dramatists and providing social cohesiveness. Many were associated with political or social positions, and many provided a congenial venue for artistically ambitious Yiddish dramas. Chayele Ash and Dina Halpern were professional actors who organized and sustained such groups. But there were many unknown heroic women who gave enormous time and energy to organize and sustain these theaters. At the moment, the major established Yiddish theater company in the United States is the Folksbiene, in New York City. The oldest continuously performing Yiddish theater company in the world, the Folksbiene was amateur through most of its years, though it now employs professional artists as well, among whom was Zypora Spaisman (1916–2002), who for fifty years produced and acted in forty-three consecutive productions at the theater. Women in professional Yiddish theater have been almost exclusively performers. In the early period, when male stars often headed their own companies, it was rare for women to do so. Keni Liptzin was a major exception, but she was subsidized by her husband; Bessie Thomashefsky, Sara Adler, and Jennie Goldstein were also intermittently company heads, as was Ida Kaminska. Playwrights and songwriters created vehicles for the well-known female performers, but although Molly Picon wrote songs, women rarely wrote their own material; there were no professional women writers or directors. Rose Pivar worked in the Hebrew Actors Union administrative office, and other women were active in the Hebrew Actors Guild. More recently, Renee Solomon served as musical director and piano accompanist for many productions, and Ruth Vool handled theater business as well as performing. Bessie White translated several volumes of Yiddish short plays. Celia Adler and Bessie Thomashefsky wrote their memoirs. There are women connected with professional Yiddish theater in creative capacities other than performing. Miriam Hoffman has created several plays. The best known are Songs of Paradise, with cowriter Rena Berkowicz Borow and composer Rosalie Gerut, and A Rendezvous with God, about the poet Itsik Manger. Hoffman is the executive director of the Joseph Papp Jewish Theater and teaches Yiddish language at Columbia University. Miriam Kressyn adapted a number of classics for contemporary productions and wrote lyrics for them. Bryna Wasserman Turetsky adapted Mirele Efros for productions at the Folksbiene and the Saidye Bronfman Centre in Montreal. Rina Elisha and Bryna Wasserman Turetsky directed Folksbiene productions. Eleanor Reissa won a Tony for choreographing the bilingual Those Were the Days. Joan Micklin Silver produced the Hollywood feature films Crossing Delancey and Hester Street; the latter, based on the Yiddish story Yekl, incorporated a great deal of Yiddish dialogue. Tova Ronni, of the Folksbiene’s board, organized the installation of devices for simultaneous translation—an innovation that has helped the Folksbiene continue to draw audiences. The United States has also seen numerous tours by the Yiddish Theatre of the Saidye Bronfman Centre of Montreal, founded and directed by Dora Wasserman, who when she suffered a stroke was succeeded by her daughter Bryna Turetsky. Women have also been active historians of the Yiddish theater. Diane Cypkin, besides performing in Yiddish theater, was curator of the Yiddish theater collection of the Museum of the City of New York. Sharon Pucker Rivo is executive director of the National Center for Jewish Film, which has rescued, preserved, and made available to viewers more Yiddish films than any other institution. Faina Burko has written a major study of the Moscow Yiddish Art Theater, and Edna Nahshon has chronicled the left-wing avant-garde theater ARTEF. Nahma Sandrow translates Yiddish plays, and created several original shows out of Yiddish theater material. Lulla Rosenfeld wrote a biography of her grandfather, Jacob Adler. Evelyn Torton Beck wrote about the influence of Yiddish theater on Franz Kafka’s work. The scholar Ruth Wisse taught a course in Yiddish theater at Harvard University. Women have always been important as Yiddish theater audiences. In the early sweatshop days, working girls spent hard-earned pennies for tickets. Girls went to the theater in friendly groups or on dates. It was the custom for fraternal organizations to buy out a performance and sell tickets to raise money, and women often went to such performances in order to meet people from back home in the Old Country. Mothers could bring along their children, with picnic lunches to keep them fed during long matinees. Dramas of life in America provided them with ways to learn about the new country and try out, vicariously, new ways to cope. Translations of world classics or of Broadway hits were glimpses of the outside world. Escapist operettas and comedies offered relief from the hardships of immigration and poverty. And women’s tastes influenced the theater world. Actors whom women found handsome played leading roles; there are many tales of women swooning in the aisles and running after Adler or Thomashefsky. Actors whom women admired, whose styles they copied, became stars and remained stars long past their youth. Now, as Yiddish theater is attenuated, the loyalties and memories of women are important for its survival. For a detailed overview of Yiddish theater see Vagabond Stars: A World History of Yiddish Theater, by Nahma Sandrow (1977). The volume includes an extensive bibliography of sources in both Yiddish and English. How to cite this page Sandrow, Nahma. "Yiddish Theater in the United States." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 20 March 2009. Jewish Women's Archive. (Viewed on January 20, 2020) <https://qa.jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/yiddish-theater-in-united-states>.	4,535	ENGLISH	1
During the experiment, scientists transmitted information between qubits, which were at a distance of about five millimeters from each other. A team of researchers from Princeton was able to show the possibility of the interaction of two spin qubits located at a great distance from each other. For the first time, it was possible to do it on silicon chips: when before this was considered impossible. Silicon spin qubits have several advantages over superconducting qubits. They are able to maintain a quantum state for longer, and their production is much cheaper. Their main disadvantage is they are very small in size due to the fact that they consist of individual electrons. The team of scientists managed to solve the problem of the interconnection of qubits by creating a special ‘transmitter’ consisting of a narrow cavity with one photon, which transmitted the signal between the qubits. As a result, the researchers managed to transfer information between qubits, which were at a distance of about five millimeters from each other. Share this with your friends!	<urn:uuid:a9ccd185-844f-4715-8355-b3236788452e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hitecher.com/news/princeton-physicists-have-overcome-the-limitations-of-silicon-quantum-chips	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00466.warc.gz	en	0.981039	213	3.953125	4	[ -0.271352618932724, 0.30059149861335754, -0.3481178283691406, -0.02197856456041336, -0.4784184992313385, -0.017802897840738297, 0.45874008536338806, 0.24682080745697021, -0.010759536176919937, -0.016148056834936142, 0.3015662431716919, -0.48139598965644836, 0.23744148015975952, 0.203322723...	11	During the experiment, scientists transmitted information between qubits, which were at a distance of about five millimeters from each other. A team of researchers from Princeton was able to show the possibility of the interaction of two spin qubits located at a great distance from each other. For the first time, it was possible to do it on silicon chips: when before this was considered impossible. Silicon spin qubits have several advantages over superconducting qubits. They are able to maintain a quantum state for longer, and their production is much cheaper. Their main disadvantage is they are very small in size due to the fact that they consist of individual electrons. The team of scientists managed to solve the problem of the interconnection of qubits by creating a special ‘transmitter’ consisting of a narrow cavity with one photon, which transmitted the signal between the qubits. As a result, the researchers managed to transfer information between qubits, which were at a distance of about five millimeters from each other. Share this with your friends!	206	ENGLISH	1
\| 7 December 2019 Pre-Inca temple dedicated to Water Cult discovered in Peru Tucked away in northwestern Peru, in the Zana Valley, in an area known as Oyotun, you can find the Huaca El Toro site, where archaeologists from the Royal Tombs of Sipan Museum have just uncovered a megalithic temple, the first to be found in the valley. It is believed that the temple had evolved in three stages. The first stage was during the period from 1500 BCE to 800 BCE, which was the timespan referred to as the Formative or Neo-Indian Period. This was a period of major social development as well as an increase in monument building. This was when the original clay foundations were laid down forming a base for the main construction which consisted of large rocks, transported to the site from mountains located over 3 km away. The rocks were then carved in situ. The temple had been built at the confluence of two rivers, which joined to form the Zana River. This location gave rise to the theory that the temple was dedicated to a Water Cult. An archaeologist from the team, Edgar Bracamonte, believes that this theory is supported by the evidence of a series of wells in the area, showing that the occupants of the valley had a good understanding of weather patterns and the rainy/dry seasons. He also believed that its location was also a form of 'territorial symbolism', a trait of the Formative Period, an era of spectacular social transformation marked by the development of social stratification and monument building. The next period of occupation, evidenced by several burial tombs, occurred during the time of the Chumy People and this was followed by occupants of the Chavin Culture before being finally abandoned in approximately 250 BCE Edited from Live Science (20 Nov 2019), International Business Times (21 Nov 2019) Share this webpage:	<urn:uuid:d0fdd2e7-76ef-4175-9bae-14e1ae21c4c4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/006098.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00376.warc.gz	en	0.983182	386	3.546875	4	[ 0.1181478351354599, 0.4143061637878418, 0.2557087540626526, 0.3054508566856384, -0.44136926531791687, -0.04899938777089119, -0.017050394788384438, 0.11236085742712021, 0.3256240785121918, 0.07005748152732849, 0.22723914682865143, -0.8031971454620361, -0.014514589682221413, 0.39466959238052...	1	\| 7 December 2019 Pre-Inca temple dedicated to Water Cult discovered in Peru Tucked away in northwestern Peru, in the Zana Valley, in an area known as Oyotun, you can find the Huaca El Toro site, where archaeologists from the Royal Tombs of Sipan Museum have just uncovered a megalithic temple, the first to be found in the valley. It is believed that the temple had evolved in three stages. The first stage was during the period from 1500 BCE to 800 BCE, which was the timespan referred to as the Formative or Neo-Indian Period. This was a period of major social development as well as an increase in monument building. This was when the original clay foundations were laid down forming a base for the main construction which consisted of large rocks, transported to the site from mountains located over 3 km away. The rocks were then carved in situ. The temple had been built at the confluence of two rivers, which joined to form the Zana River. This location gave rise to the theory that the temple was dedicated to a Water Cult. An archaeologist from the team, Edgar Bracamonte, believes that this theory is supported by the evidence of a series of wells in the area, showing that the occupants of the valley had a good understanding of weather patterns and the rainy/dry seasons. He also believed that its location was also a form of 'territorial symbolism', a trait of the Formative Period, an era of spectacular social transformation marked by the development of social stratification and monument building. The next period of occupation, evidenced by several burial tombs, occurred during the time of the Chumy People and this was followed by occupants of the Chavin Culture before being finally abandoned in approximately 250 BCE Edited from Live Science (20 Nov 2019), International Business Times (21 Nov 2019) Share this webpage:	408	ENGLISH	1
Paradise Lost As An Epic Discuss Paradise Lost, written by John Milton, as an epic. The term "epic" has come to mean different things in common usage today, such as anything that is big, important, or impressive (used both as an adjective and as a noun -- such as an "epic" film, or any long book is called "an epic"). It has even worked its way into slang -- something cool or awe-inspiring is often called "epic". Originally, however, the term "epic" meant something specific -- a poem (often written in a prescribed meter) which addressed a major historical or mythico-historical event in a culture's past. It did not apply to just any poetry that was long, or written in a certain meter. It was poetry which was composed to address shared historical memory -- a war, such the Trojan War, described in the Iliad, a heroic journey, such as Odysseus's voyages in The Odyssey, or the founding myth of a culture, such as described in The Aeneid. In all cases, the importance was greater than just the narrative -- there were important cultural truths embedded in the poetry, and the culture derived some of its identity from the epic poetry. In all cases, the divine (gods, or in the case of Paradise Lost God and angels and devils) is involved in the story. Epic poetry, though it may address the adventures of one person, are not personal poetry (that is called lyric) -- epic poetry is about the story of a whole group of people, or a culture. The story of an epic was never a surprise to the listeners it was composed for -- they already knew the story, because it was the story of their history, their religion, and the cultural identity they already knew. It was an artful retelling of the stories that make a culture what it is. So what makes Paradise Lost an epic? The story was already known -- the main points of the fall of Satan and the story of the Garden of Eden were already stories that everyone in Milton's time and country knew. He certainly embroidered and expanded upon the story (the Bible, for example, doesn't really address Satan as a personality like Milton does) but the main points of the story were taken from the Christian Scriptures and church tradition. It is a poem written in an expansive, majestic verse, with a serious tone (that is another requirement of an epic). It is long (epics... (The entire section contains 2 answers and 788 words.) check Approved by eNotes Editorial	<urn:uuid:995d7c73-8410-479c-91ee-f63250881f4b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/discuss-paradise-lost-an-epic-written-by-john-155427?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=topics_related_hh_questions&en_category=internal_campaign	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00143.warc.gz	en	0.984514	535	3.71875	4	[ 0.2655627429485321, -0.13297919929027557, 0.057929154485464096, 0.4080922305583954, -0.03667401149868965, 0.020496442914009094, 0.39866766333580017, 0.2512192726135254, -0.058211617171764374, 0.2897971570491791, -0.2580399513244629, -0.06462521851062775, 0.3592015504837036, 0.4028159976005...	1	Paradise Lost As An Epic Discuss Paradise Lost, written by John Milton, as an epic. The term "epic" has come to mean different things in common usage today, such as anything that is big, important, or impressive (used both as an adjective and as a noun -- such as an "epic" film, or any long book is called "an epic"). It has even worked its way into slang -- something cool or awe-inspiring is often called "epic". Originally, however, the term "epic" meant something specific -- a poem (often written in a prescribed meter) which addressed a major historical or mythico-historical event in a culture's past. It did not apply to just any poetry that was long, or written in a certain meter. It was poetry which was composed to address shared historical memory -- a war, such the Trojan War, described in the Iliad, a heroic journey, such as Odysseus's voyages in The Odyssey, or the founding myth of a culture, such as described in The Aeneid. In all cases, the importance was greater than just the narrative -- there were important cultural truths embedded in the poetry, and the culture derived some of its identity from the epic poetry. In all cases, the divine (gods, or in the case of Paradise Lost God and angels and devils) is involved in the story. Epic poetry, though it may address the adventures of one person, are not personal poetry (that is called lyric) -- epic poetry is about the story of a whole group of people, or a culture. The story of an epic was never a surprise to the listeners it was composed for -- they already knew the story, because it was the story of their history, their religion, and the cultural identity they already knew. It was an artful retelling of the stories that make a culture what it is. So what makes Paradise Lost an epic? The story was already known -- the main points of the fall of Satan and the story of the Garden of Eden were already stories that everyone in Milton's time and country knew. He certainly embroidered and expanded upon the story (the Bible, for example, doesn't really address Satan as a personality like Milton does) but the main points of the story were taken from the Christian Scriptures and church tradition. It is a poem written in an expansive, majestic verse, with a serious tone (that is another requirement of an epic). It is long (epics... (The entire section contains 2 answers and 788 words.) check Approved by eNotes Editorial	529	ENGLISH	1
William Wordsworth (7 April 1770 – 23 April 1850) was an English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication Lyrical Ballads (1798). Wordsworth's magnum opus is generally considered to be The Prelude, a semi-autobiographical poem of his early years that he revised and expanded a number of times. It was posthumously titled and published by his wife in the year of his death, before which it was generally known as "the poem to Coleridge". Wordsworth was Britain's poet laureate from 1843 until his death from pleurisy on 23 April 1850. His most famous poem was called Daffodils and is the most famous poem in the english language. Daffodils well known line - ' I wondered lonely as a cloud' I will post the poem by him that I like the most. The World is too much with us	<urn:uuid:d5c212a7-5b2d-4893-9989-ebf863ce5790>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://poetical-lines.com/poet-of-the-month/william-wordsworth/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00280.warc.gz	en	0.99109	201	3.296875	3	[ -0.06235862150788307, -0.2504628896713257, 0.49915143847465515, 0.15471141040325165, -0.10624945908784866, -0.13102927803993225, -0.1471918672323227, -0.31090497970581055, -0.0988873541355133, -0.6294152736663818, 0.17432720959186554, -0.10996095836162567, 0.1099366843700409, -0.2062825262...	5	William Wordsworth (7 April 1770 – 23 April 1850) was an English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication Lyrical Ballads (1798). Wordsworth's magnum opus is generally considered to be The Prelude, a semi-autobiographical poem of his early years that he revised and expanded a number of times. It was posthumously titled and published by his wife in the year of his death, before which it was generally known as "the poem to Coleridge". Wordsworth was Britain's poet laureate from 1843 until his death from pleurisy on 23 April 1850. His most famous poem was called Daffodils and is the most famous poem in the english language. Daffodils well known line - ' I wondered lonely as a cloud' I will post the poem by him that I like the most. The World is too much with us	217	ENGLISH	1
From the series The Great Artists Collection Grade Range: 7th – 12th Page Count: 64 Lexile Level: 1190L Renoir was renowned for his works with their vibrant light and color and the harmony of the lines he portrayed within his landscapes, and figure paintings. At the beginning of his prolific career he employed the Impressionist techniques, where detail was denied, and replaced with soft fusions between characters and their surroundings. While he moved away from this style in the middle of his career — known as his Ingres Period, where he concentrated on more definition like the conventional and traditional painters — he returned to the softness of his earlier style toward the end of his life.Renoir was greatly influenced by artists such as Rubens, Titian, Raphael, Eugène Delacroix and his contemporary and friend, Claude Monet (1840-1926). Alongside Monet, he became obsessed with painting en plein air and exploring the subject matter provided by the open countryside toward the late 1860s. He firmly believed that black did not produce a shadow, but that shadows were reflected color of the objects surrounding them. Lightswitch Learning © 2020 All rights reserved. \| Sitemap	<urn:uuid:ab4c48db-5cc4-4958-a9de-d422fcf2ebdc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lightswitchlearning.com/product/renoir/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00046.warc.gz	en	0.983034	250	3.71875	4	[ 0.09579842537641525, 0.1645682156085968, 0.26917752623558044, -0.13414078950881958, -0.2246055006980896, 0.2413749396800995, 0.23562146723270416, 0.3474990427494049, -0.16297970712184906, -0.0895003154873848, -0.07066594809293747, -0.2725711464881897, -0.018344247713685036, 0.7056294679641...	4	From the series The Great Artists Collection Grade Range: 7th – 12th Page Count: 64 Lexile Level: 1190L Renoir was renowned for his works with their vibrant light and color and the harmony of the lines he portrayed within his landscapes, and figure paintings. At the beginning of his prolific career he employed the Impressionist techniques, where detail was denied, and replaced with soft fusions between characters and their surroundings. While he moved away from this style in the middle of his career — known as his Ingres Period, where he concentrated on more definition like the conventional and traditional painters — he returned to the softness of his earlier style toward the end of his life.Renoir was greatly influenced by artists such as Rubens, Titian, Raphael, Eugène Delacroix and his contemporary and friend, Claude Monet (1840-1926). Alongside Monet, he became obsessed with painting en plein air and exploring the subject matter provided by the open countryside toward the late 1860s. He firmly believed that black did not produce a shadow, but that shadows were reflected color of the objects surrounding them. Lightswitch Learning © 2020 All rights reserved. \| Sitemap	265	ENGLISH	1
This chapter explores social expectations imposed upon nineteenth-century middle-class women, being intellectually imprisoned remained a very real threat as educated women faced the conflict between the domestic and public worlds. Unlike the translator veiled by the original author, through teaching, journalism and fiction writing these women created roles for themselves that were no more mediated by employers, editors and reviewers than those of their male counterparts. Eliot and Martineau were very well-known figures amongst literary circles in London and interest in their writings was extensive, although Martineau was more forthcoming with her identity than Eliot. Martineau, Eliot and Bront went further, though, by overtly becoming professional translators, writers and social commentators who were clearly aware of, and involved in, the business of writing. Their writings never cease to betray a conflict between female intellectual ambition and dominant prescriptions for woman's role and function, prescriptions which dictated that female intellect should be placed in the service of male-dominated systems of discourse.	<urn:uuid:72d064c8-b771-41cd-a2ea-ced506affb4d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781315549927/chapters/10.4324/9781315549927-6	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00263.warc.gz	en	0.981554	194	3.359375	3	[ 0.4923425614833832, 0.3950817883014679, 0.21032005548477173, 0.07347206026315689, 0.16758601367473602, 0.10604624450206757, -0.16725008189678192, 0.315707266330719, 0.3663857579231262, -0.14642645418643951, -0.12213776260614395, 0.11676526069641113, 0.25927308201789856, 0.1145063266158104,...	1	This chapter explores social expectations imposed upon nineteenth-century middle-class women, being intellectually imprisoned remained a very real threat as educated women faced the conflict between the domestic and public worlds. Unlike the translator veiled by the original author, through teaching, journalism and fiction writing these women created roles for themselves that were no more mediated by employers, editors and reviewers than those of their male counterparts. Eliot and Martineau were very well-known figures amongst literary circles in London and interest in their writings was extensive, although Martineau was more forthcoming with her identity than Eliot. Martineau, Eliot and Bront went further, though, by overtly becoming professional translators, writers and social commentators who were clearly aware of, and involved in, the business of writing. Their writings never cease to betray a conflict between female intellectual ambition and dominant prescriptions for woman's role and function, prescriptions which dictated that female intellect should be placed in the service of male-dominated systems of discourse.	194	ENGLISH	1
BTEC LEVEL 3 B90 GRP A HEALTH & SOCIAL CARE UNIT 1: DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION IN H&SC Task 1: Role of effective communication and interpersonal communication in health and social care. This Induction pack aims to provide information regarding the importance of effective communication in the health and social care industry as well as providing information on barriers to communication and how these barriers can be overcome by service providers during communication processes with service users or other service providers. The pack will also include descriptions and detailed explanations of the various forms and contexts that are used during communication as well as an outline of the two communication theories that are used. First of all, the definition of effective communication is a verbal speech or other methods of relaying information that gets a point across. An example of effective communication is when you talk in clear and simple term. The different context of communication within health and social care are, one-to-one communication, group communication, informal communication, formal communication, communication between colleagues and multi-agency working. One-to-one communication is when two people are having a conversation. An example of one-to-one communication is greeting the other individual by saying “hello, how are you?” by greeting the individual this means that you are setting the atmosphere before you discuss the main point of the conversation. Say for instance in a care home, the care worker is giving the patient a bath and the care worker comes in and starting undressing the patient without any other conversation, this will come across a being disrespectful. Group communication is when you are sending a message to more than more receivers. Group communication is when more than two people communicate. In health and social care, care workers have meetings to discuss the treatment that they will be giving to their patientsInformal communication is when people know each other well. For example, you have friends and family who knows each other well or even a family friend that knows you very well. When you are around the people that know you, they tend to speak in a certain way that you other would not understand you. Also, people who live in the same local environment would not be able to understand what has been said. An example for this is, someone who lives in New Castle might say things like “you alight divi” someone who belongs in that category will understand what is meant by that greeting so speaking informally to someone, they will not understand the informal communication of people from different social groups. In health and social you need to able to communicate formally. For example, you are going to visit the GP and you are greeting the doctor, first of you going to say ‘good morning or good evening’ ‘how are you doing today’ you are not going to approach the doctor and say ‘listen mate, man’s here innit’. When you show formal communication, it simply means that you are showing respect to the individual. Approaching a professional or someone who works within professional setting, you should not speak informally to any as it may come across as disrespectful and being disrespectful sometimes leads to conflict. The right way to speak to people who are not your family member is to speak formally. FORMS OF COMMUNICATION Body language could give a negative sign to the individual and it could show that the person is not interested in what the care worker has to say. Moreover to keep body language respectful the individual should not fold their arms and slide down on their chairs as it would look inappropriate. For example, in a health care setting you, the care worker who is the professional should always have a positive body language as it can come across as rude towards the service user. Also, if its case where the service user is not comfortable talking about something it sometimes show through their body language and it will then me the care workers job to make sure that they are confortable speaking about their issue (the care worker will need to indicate a good body language which will show the service user that they are willing to help them with whatever problem they are going through) Written communication involves communicate that makes the use of written words. Written communication is used in different ways by writing, for example, formal letter to inform your hospital to inform higher professionals about the problems the individual is having. Also, written communication provides detailed information, can be faxed and sent to different people which means that it is time consuming and it can be permanently recorded Gesture is using hand movements can help to understand what the person is saying. Also, using hand gestures is natural for everyone. Some people do hand gesture and xhdfdoesn’t even recognise when they are doing it. However, in some cases using hand gestures could be insulting to someone. For example, showing putting up the middle finger, showing the middle finger is really disrespectful. In contrast to this having thumbs up and thumbs down indicates good or bad. Facial expression: Non-verbal communication includes facial expression. Facial expression conveys a lot of emotions such as, happy, sad, angry, surprise and fear. Having a conversation with someone is one thing but changing a facial expression could immediately tell someone how you are feeling indicates how an individual is feelings and how it allows them to express whilst they are communicating. For example, receiving good news means that your facial expression will enlighten how you feel and how happy you feel. Eye contact: Eye contact is very important and it’s the state in which two people are aware of looking directly into one another’s eyes. Some people find it very hard to look at others directly in their eyes. Not giving eye contact can come across as rude. However, if the individual cannot look them in their eyes the other person may feel offended; they may feel that the individual is not interested in what they have to say. On the other hand, if someone can look directly in the other person’s eye then it shows that the individual is interested in the conversation. Aspects of Interpersonal interactions/ Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication Verbal communication is a use of reverberations and words to express you. For example, having a conversation someone. Either one-to-one or a group interaction. Whist communicating with others you should have a clear speech and using skills for keeping a conversation going. You should have a content and lastly and ending. For example, a “bye or see you later”. On the other hand, Non-verbal is a form of communication not using words for example, eye contact. Eye contact is a non-verbal communication as it says a lot about how you are feeling. Say for instance at a resident care home someone with (visual impairment) who is fully blind and they cannot see but they can hear very well. For example, the care worker could be speaking to her about something exciting (doing an activity). Instantly the individual facial expression will change immediately because she’s excited. Her excitement will indicate to the care worker that she is enthusiastic all because of her facial expression. Non-verbal communication includes posture. Posture is the way you sit or stand. The way you stand or the way you sit can send messages. For example, a person may have a closed posture (crossing their legs with arms folded. This symbolises a defensive or negative attitude. Non-verbal communication includes facial expression. Facial expression conveys a lot of emotions such as, happy, sad, angry, surprise and fear. Having a conversation with someone is one thing but changing a facial expression could immediately tell someone how you are feeling. For example, two people are having a conversation, but the conversation is about their birthday. Their facial expression will change to happy because their excited. If someone is feeling sad you can automatically tell that the person is not feeling fine. I will now discuss the 2 theories of communication by Argyle’s and Tuckman, and I will also, discuss what happens at each stage of the cycle. At the first stage your ideas occur which means that the person is the person is thinking about how they are going to send the message. This depends on the individual who is receiving the message; the individual could be someone who is visually impaired, picture and objects of reference, British sign language etc. they will need to know how they are going to send the message. “The written words, spoken words, and nonverbal language selected are paramount in ensuring the receiver interprets the message as intended by the sender” (Burnett ; Dollar, 1989)At the second stage the message encoded which means the sender has to be able to begin by deciding what she/she wants to transmit. Whatever the sender decides to send is based on what they believe on what the topic is about. So a good way for the sender to improving encoding their message is to mentally visualize the communication from the receiver’s point of view. The next stage of the cycle is the message is coded, this is meant by the message has been sent to the receiver. Also, the sender has also thought about how they’re going to send the message to the receiver. Once the message has been coded this means that the sender should ask question to him/her different questions, so that they understand what has been sent to them. The message is then received; the receiver begins to take in what the sender has said which mean that the receiver starts to understand the message in their own way. In order to make the communication successful the receiver has to correctly interpret the sender’s message. Lastly the idea has understood, at this stage the receiver is going to response to the message. Once the receiver is going to response they need to respond in some way and signals that response the sender. The signal may take the form of a spoken comment, a written message, a smile, or some other action. “Even a lack of response, is in a sense, a form of response” (Bovee & Thill, 1992). Without a response, the sender cannot confirm that the receiver has interpreted the message correctly. 02514221. Forming stage- At this stage this is where all the group members meet for the first time, they will introduce themselves and they will also ask basic questions about what the group discussions is going to be about. Also, the group leader introduces themselves towards the group. 001. Forming stage- At this stage this is where all the group members meet for the first time, they will introduce themselves and they will also ask basic questions about what the group discussions is going to be about. Also, the group leader introduces themselves towards the group. Bruce Tuckman Group stages -32385965203. Norming stage- At this stage all group members have made final agreements and the group will then start to work together. Each person from the group will express their thoughts and feelings and they will have successful plans. 003. Norming stage- At this stage all group members have made final agreements and the group will then start to work together. Each person from the group will express their thoughts and feelings and they will have successful plans. -42545337292. Storming stage- At this stage, all the group members will start to get comfortable with each other and the topic of the conversation could start to have disagreement with each other and having disagreement could lead to conflicts. At the end of this stage, all members within the group will come to a conclusion and the conversation will end with everyone being on good terms. 002. Storming stage- At this stage, all the group members will start to get comfortable with each other and the topic of the conversation could start to have disagreement with each other and having disagreement could lead to conflicts. At the end of this stage, all members within the group will come to a conclusion and the conversation will end with everyone being on good terms. -43031614456 4. Performing stage- At the stage the group will then start to work effectively and have relationships with the entire group members have become more comfortable, therefore all members will be able to be more content and focus on achieving their goals. 00 4. Performing stage- At the stage the group will then start to work effectively and have relationships with the entire group members have become more comfortable, therefore all members will be able to be more content and focus on achieving their goals. I think that to have an effective communication you have to be able to communicate with different people. It is also, important that when you are communicating effectively you have to make sure that are using different context and different forms of communication. I think that the two theories are very useful as it break own as to what happens in a one-to-one communication and what happens in a group communication. Successful effective communication within the health and social care organisations tends to lead from one implementation straight to the communication process. Everyone within the health and social care will learn to improve their skills over time, by them improving their communication skills they are preventing different barriers. As we know preventing communication barriers, they have a greater chance of being successful. In this task I had to participate in a one-to-one interaction and group interaction and I will have to discuss how well I did with my partner/partners and what type of communication skills I used and also I will also evaluate possible influences in each interactions. Brief outline of the scenario In this 1:1 interaction, my partner and I will be playing the role of a counsellor having a session with a client. This will take place in a counselling office and they are there to have a discussion on how the client is coping with drug withdrawal. Topic: Counsellor having a session with client – Drug withdrawal Justice: Good morning Dyma Dyma: how are you doing, I hope this session helps me. Justice: yes, I’m fine I really do hope I can help. Dyma: where do we start? Justice: First of all I would like you to tell me how you’re doing. Dyma: I feel that since I’ve given up drug, i feel a lot better within myself that i know i can return healthy how i was before i started taking drugs Justice: Do you feel yourself going back to your old ways at times or do you feel like you are in total control Dyma: To be honest i don’t like feel like myself 100% but hopefully i get there eventually but the one thing i would say is that when i go out with friends, i tend to get triggered by their actions Justice: So what I am hearing from what you just told me is that even though you feel as if you have gotten better, you also have some hard times when you are interacting with your friends because of their actions. Dyma: Yes, i really do and i don’t know if my friends need help like how i needed it Dyma: Are there any solution you have for this? Justice: Well…(putting down the note book and giving eye contact) I feel that because you do not feel 100% at the moment then I feel you should learn how to deal with your situation at first and then take step by step actions when being around your friends because it is very easy to go back to your old ways where you of course don’t want to be when you are around influences that could set you back Justice: Try seeing if you can get a friend who is influential in a positive way and if you ever feel yourself going to make bad choices then call them and they can help you make a good choice, I understand that and i will try my best to take on board what you are truly saying to me. I’m happy to come and talk about my issues in confidence coz in the past i had problems opening up Justice: I am glad that you are at a point where you are comfortable because at the start you was a bit hostile but I hope you know I’m just here to help, if you have any other questions then please know you can contact me or email me Dyma: Can u write your email down for me please, I have already got your number. Justice: Yeah (writes email and both get up and walk towards the door) is there any other questions or thoughts you would like to express before we end this session Dyma: No, i should be fine for now but I’ll give you a ring if I’m unsure Justice: Alright no problem (both get up and walk to the door giving a hand shake and a smile)..(Dyma walks out). During my one-to-one interaction with my partner, the topic was about drug withdrawal. For this interaction I was the patient and Justice was the counsellor. I felt like the interaction was really good as I felt that I have used useful communication skills. First of all I used good body language. I used my body language very well as I was not being defiant towards the counsellor. Also, when the counsellor invited me into the room she offered me to take a seat and once i did before I sat down she shook my hands and so I do. When I sat down, I was not crossing my arms, resting my head on the table, puffin, etc. I simply sat down and show that I was actively listening. Showing that you are actively listening suggest that I was actually taking in everything what the counsellor was telling me. I also, used facial expression during the conversation as I was showing a happy face and not showing a face that does not seem interested in the conversation. For example, I said to the counsellor ‘I really hope you can help me in today’s sessions. She then replied ‘that is what I’m here for to help you to overcome issues that you are going through’ instantly I face expression changed from being happy to excited, reason for this is because the thought of you knowing a situation can be fixed shows that there is a relief of your chest and you and no longer have to worry about anything. I will say that I was not giving eye contact as I should have done. I also used hand gesture when I was speaking to the counsellor, there is absolutely nothing wrong using hand gestures, I use hand gestures all time not knowing I am actually doing it, the reason I felt that hand gesture was important during my interaction is because using means that I know what I am talking about and it helps me to my points quicker. I only have a one or two eye contact as I am not confortable looking in the people’s eyes for a long period a time. It is ok to give eye contact and look away but for me it’s a situation where I will give eye contact but then look away for the longest time and then go back giving eye contact. Not giving eye contact could come across as rude, it not that I was being rude, it is something that I physically cannot do. I will eventually need to work on it because it will come to a point where I will need to give eye contact. Another communication skill I have used was voice tone. During my session I was speaking quiet as the atmosphere was calm and I did not need to shout. Also due to me speaking quietly and calmly I noticed that the counsellor was being more friendly which suggest to me that she was almost speaking to me like I was her best friend which is a good thing. I was not using reflective listening as much as I should have been. At one point I was day dreaming which was rude as I was not actively listening at that point so if the counsellor was meant to ask me a question based on what she had said, I would not be able to give her the answer she is looking for. At the same time what the counsellor should have done is to actually make sure I understood everything she was saying to me. On the other hand, the skill that I used more effectively was gesture, I felt using gesture was effective for me as it help me to get to my point much quicker and also, using it meant that whilst I was speaking to the counsellor it gives that impression to her that I was really into the conversation and she knew where I was coming from. Brief outline of the scenario In this 1:1 interaction, my partner and I will be playing the role of a counsellor having a session with a client. This will take place in a counselling office and they are there to have a discussion on the client having relationship issues due to past event/relationships in her life. Topic: Counsellor having a session with client – Relationship issues Counsellor calls client into the office Counsellor-Dyma: “Good morning Justice, How are you today and what can I do for you today?” Justice: “Good morning, I’m not doing so well and I hope you can help me with my relationship issues.” (Looking nervous) Dyma: “Aww sorry to hear that…so tell me what is going on with your relationship.” (Ready to take notes) Justice: I have trust issues and it is really affecting me as I cannot move on having new relationship because of the past. Dyma: First of all if you not communicating with the other person you are more likely to feel that you can’t trust your partner. You have to be able to communicate as communication is the key to every relationship even with your own family. Justice: At times I feel that even when I’m communicating, in the back of my mind, I feel my partner is up to something. Dyma: Personally I would say that because you have this mentality of having trust issues you tend to fall back on the past and its only you can change that. How long do you talk to a person before you get into a relationship with them? Dyma: I would say you should give relationship for a break, clear your mind, do things that you would normally do and when you think your ready you can put yourself back out there to see if you find the perfect person. Justice: I hope so, can I please take your number so that I can call up if there is any problem and maybe if I need a next session I can pop by and we talk again. Dyma: sure. My number is 02988888123 Justice: alright, see you later and thank you. Dyma: no need to thank me it’s my job but your more than welcome, bye At this stage I was the counsellor and the topic that Justice and I were talking about was relationship. I would say that I was showing a form of care presence which is almost like putting you in someone else’s shoe. I really did put myself in my client shoe because she was having a rough tie trying to figure out why she had trust issues within her relationship. However, although I created some form of care presence it shows that I might have been in the same situations which then indicate to the client that I am there to help her but at the same time; I am there to comfort her. For example she said ‘I have trust issues and it is really affecting me as I cannot move on having new relationship because of the past’. I then replied and said ‘First of all if you not communicating with the other person you are more likely to feel that you can’t trust your partner. You have to be able to communicate as communication is the key to every relationship even with your own family. What I am trying to get across is that my response that I have given to my client, you can see where I try to a give her advice and it is something that I may have faced that has allowed me to give her that response to her question. I showed facial expression when I was speaking to my client because when she was telling me the issues, it was empathy that took over that allowed my facial expression. I was sad for her when she was telling me her problems but at the same I had to remember that I was a professional and I could not be sad all the way through as it may indicate negativity towards the patience and the atmosphere would be very depression. I felt that having a depress atmosphere meant that the client would have not be able to get everything out as she was relying on me for help. I did not give eye contact whilst I was talking to the client because I do find it very hard to look people in their eyes whilst speaking to them. Although I didn’t give eye contact, I am very sure that my client did not feel uncomfortable. Brief summary about the group interaction: There is a little girl who is African-Caribbean and she has been in care for 3 years and after 3years she has been fostered by an English couple who has be caring for her. They now want to adopt her. I was in a group of 5 and during out discussion I felt that the topic we had to discuss about was really interesting. However, the people within the group did make valid points. All group members were focused and we all stuck to the topic and no one was being quiet. I believe that everyone did actively listen to each other and no one was speaking over each other. We all took turns to speak and after one person speak about something, someone else either add on their point a view about what they think or they make a new point about the discussion. Furthermore, I think we all knew that if we allowed each other to speak there would be no form of conflicts between each other. Even though everyone has something to say, they did not speak as much as they should. In other words it could have been they are shy, they are not good at debating or they might not feel comfortable telling their point of view. Personally because I love debating/discussion I always have a lot of things to say about certain topics. This topic in particular I really did enjoy it because out of everyone in the group I mostly done all the talking, alongside with a group member by the name of Maria. Ruth, Ulas, and Shandy did not speak as much. For example, when Shandy started the conversation, Maria stated a lot of points and from what Maria has said, I then added on my own point of view. Ruth and Ulas did not say as much as they should have, but then I personally felt that the conversation was not going well as I did feel that the others did not really know what they were talking about. I then had to step back in the discussion to make it livelier so that everyone else could really come back into the conversation to participate more. I did this by suggesting different types of questions. I had to be careful because I did not want to go off task, so what I done was ask question around the topic to kind of make the discussion more understandable/interested. I type of question I asked was, ‘how do you think the child would feel knowing when they grow older they are going to have a lot of question about why they are in the situation that they are in?, ‘do you feel the child would stick around after they find out why they are being adopted?’ When I asked those type of type of question I realised that Ruth, Ulas and Shandy were answering them, not only were they answering them, they were adding their own point of view towards it. The points that they were making too them back into in the conversation about the topic. In contrast to this, I then noticed after a while that the conversation was going back to the way it was. I then went ahead to fully dominate myself for the conversation. Once I dominated myself, it had a great impact on the group. I went ahead and I started telling them about a programme I was watching. The programme was about a brother and sister, who got adopted by a white family. The family lives in a mansion and the family takes good care of them, they treat them equally and they make sure that they treat them like how they would treat their own. The children both call them mum and dad and the family with the biological children, their children are not mean towards them, and they share everything with them. Also, the family still makes them interact with their own culture and one of the things they did was the mother brought someone from the same background and the little girl and she made her get her hair done by the person who she bought in. As for the little boy the father takes him to the barber to get his hair cut. Once I told the group about the programme, I did pick up that everyone really got involved, as for Ulas and Ruth they did speak more about the topic, but I think that if I didn’t dominate myself I think the group discussion would not have gone too well, but I am pleased to say that our group discussion was truly successful. Factors about the environment for one-to-one and group interactions When Justice and I were doing our one-to-one reaction we noticed that they were not a lot of noise but there was a bit of noise in the background which was coming from the corridor as students were walking pass and talking. The noise in the background did not distract us from our conversation as it was minor noises. I personally did not even realise that they were minor noises in the background I heard everything what Justice was saying me. Also, even though I was speaking very quietly, Justice manages to hear me clear. I am not sure if she was not forcing herself to hear me or if she could just hear me in general. Bovee, C.L., & Thill, J.V. (1992). Business Communication Today. NY, NY: McGraw-Hill. Burnett, M.J., & Dollar, A. (1989). Business Communication: Strategies for Success. Houston, Texas: Dane.	<urn:uuid:0e1d1aff-19f3-4dc6-9c9e-6e21314fbad1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://youmademydayphotography.com/btec-level-3-b90-grp-a-health/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00134.warc.gz	en	0.980701	6,190	3.453125	3	[ 0.08033286035060883, 0.24012675881385803, 0.05077727884054184, -0.47262102365493774, -0.35327544808387756, -0.2203320860862732, 0.6519309282302856, 0.31535011529922485, -0.2225414216518402, -0.17297005653381348, 0.07482661306858063, -0.23251239955425262, 0.039449963718652725, 0.01692894101...	2	BTEC LEVEL 3 B90 GRP A HEALTH & SOCIAL CARE UNIT 1: DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION IN H&SC Task 1: Role of effective communication and interpersonal communication in health and social care. This Induction pack aims to provide information regarding the importance of effective communication in the health and social care industry as well as providing information on barriers to communication and how these barriers can be overcome by service providers during communication processes with service users or other service providers. The pack will also include descriptions and detailed explanations of the various forms and contexts that are used during communication as well as an outline of the two communication theories that are used. First of all, the definition of effective communication is a verbal speech or other methods of relaying information that gets a point across. An example of effective communication is when you talk in clear and simple term. The different context of communication within health and social care are, one-to-one communication, group communication, informal communication, formal communication, communication between colleagues and multi-agency working. One-to-one communication is when two people are having a conversation. An example of one-to-one communication is greeting the other individual by saying “hello, how are you?” by greeting the individual this means that you are setting the atmosphere before you discuss the main point of the conversation. Say for instance in a care home, the care worker is giving the patient a bath and the care worker comes in and starting undressing the patient without any other conversation, this will come across a being disrespectful. Group communication is when you are sending a message to more than more receivers. Group communication is when more than two people communicate. In health and social care, care workers have meetings to discuss the treatment that they will be giving to their patientsInformal communication is when people know each other well. For example, you have friends and family who knows each other well or even a family friend that knows you very well. When you are around the people that know you, they tend to speak in a certain way that you other would not understand you. Also, people who live in the same local environment would not be able to understand what has been said. An example for this is, someone who lives in New Castle might say things like “you alight divi” someone who belongs in that category will understand what is meant by that greeting so speaking informally to someone, they will not understand the informal communication of people from different social groups. In health and social you need to able to communicate formally. For example, you are going to visit the GP and you are greeting the doctor, first of you going to say ‘good morning or good evening’ ‘how are you doing today’ you are not going to approach the doctor and say ‘listen mate, man’s here innit’. When you show formal communication, it simply means that you are showing respect to the individual. Approaching a professional or someone who works within professional setting, you should not speak informally to any as it may come across as disrespectful and being disrespectful sometimes leads to conflict. The right way to speak to people who are not your family member is to speak formally. FORMS OF COMMUNICATION Body language could give a negative sign to the individual and it could show that the person is not interested in what the care worker has to say. Moreover to keep body language respectful the individual should not fold their arms and slide down on their chairs as it would look inappropriate. For example, in a health care setting you, the care worker who is the professional should always have a positive body language as it can come across as rude towards the service user. Also, if its case where the service user is not comfortable talking about something it sometimes show through their body language and it will then me the care workers job to make sure that they are confortable speaking about their issue (the care worker will need to indicate a good body language which will show the service user that they are willing to help them with whatever problem they are going through) Written communication involves communicate that makes the use of written words. Written communication is used in different ways by writing, for example, formal letter to inform your hospital to inform higher professionals about the problems the individual is having. Also, written communication provides detailed information, can be faxed and sent to different people which means that it is time consuming and it can be permanently recorded Gesture is using hand movements can help to understand what the person is saying. Also, using hand gestures is natural for everyone. Some people do hand gesture and xhdfdoesn’t even recognise when they are doing it. However, in some cases using hand gestures could be insulting to someone. For example, showing putting up the middle finger, showing the middle finger is really disrespectful. In contrast to this having thumbs up and thumbs down indicates good or bad. Facial expression: Non-verbal communication includes facial expression. Facial expression conveys a lot of emotions such as, happy, sad, angry, surprise and fear. Having a conversation with someone is one thing but changing a facial expression could immediately tell someone how you are feeling indicates how an individual is feelings and how it allows them to express whilst they are communicating. For example, receiving good news means that your facial expression will enlighten how you feel and how happy you feel. Eye contact: Eye contact is very important and it’s the state in which two people are aware of looking directly into one another’s eyes. Some people find it very hard to look at others directly in their eyes. Not giving eye contact can come across as rude. However, if the individual cannot look them in their eyes the other person may feel offended; they may feel that the individual is not interested in what they have to say. On the other hand, if someone can look directly in the other person’s eye then it shows that the individual is interested in the conversation. Aspects of Interpersonal interactions/ Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication Verbal communication is a use of reverberations and words to express you. For example, having a conversation someone. Either one-to-one or a group interaction. Whist communicating with others you should have a clear speech and using skills for keeping a conversation going. You should have a content and lastly and ending. For example, a “bye or see you later”. On the other hand, Non-verbal is a form of communication not using words for example, eye contact. Eye contact is a non-verbal communication as it says a lot about how you are feeling. Say for instance at a resident care home someone with (visual impairment) who is fully blind and they cannot see but they can hear very well. For example, the care worker could be speaking to her about something exciting (doing an activity). Instantly the individual facial expression will change immediately because she’s excited. Her excitement will indicate to the care worker that she is enthusiastic all because of her facial expression. Non-verbal communication includes posture. Posture is the way you sit or stand. The way you stand or the way you sit can send messages. For example, a person may have a closed posture (crossing their legs with arms folded. This symbolises a defensive or negative attitude. Non-verbal communication includes facial expression. Facial expression conveys a lot of emotions such as, happy, sad, angry, surprise and fear. Having a conversation with someone is one thing but changing a facial expression could immediately tell someone how you are feeling. For example, two people are having a conversation, but the conversation is about their birthday. Their facial expression will change to happy because their excited. If someone is feeling sad you can automatically tell that the person is not feeling fine. I will now discuss the 2 theories of communication by Argyle’s and Tuckman, and I will also, discuss what happens at each stage of the cycle. At the first stage your ideas occur which means that the person is the person is thinking about how they are going to send the message. This depends on the individual who is receiving the message; the individual could be someone who is visually impaired, picture and objects of reference, British sign language etc. they will need to know how they are going to send the message. “The written words, spoken words, and nonverbal language selected are paramount in ensuring the receiver interprets the message as intended by the sender” (Burnett ; Dollar, 1989)At the second stage the message encoded which means the sender has to be able to begin by deciding what she/she wants to transmit. Whatever the sender decides to send is based on what they believe on what the topic is about. So a good way for the sender to improving encoding their message is to mentally visualize the communication from the receiver’s point of view. The next stage of the cycle is the message is coded, this is meant by the message has been sent to the receiver. Also, the sender has also thought about how they’re going to send the message to the receiver. Once the message has been coded this means that the sender should ask question to him/her different questions, so that they understand what has been sent to them. The message is then received; the receiver begins to take in what the sender has said which mean that the receiver starts to understand the message in their own way. In order to make the communication successful the receiver has to correctly interpret the sender’s message. Lastly the idea has understood, at this stage the receiver is going to response to the message. Once the receiver is going to response they need to respond in some way and signals that response the sender. The signal may take the form of a spoken comment, a written message, a smile, or some other action. “Even a lack of response, is in a sense, a form of response” (Bovee & Thill, 1992). Without a response, the sender cannot confirm that the receiver has interpreted the message correctly. 02514221. Forming stage- At this stage this is where all the group members meet for the first time, they will introduce themselves and they will also ask basic questions about what the group discussions is going to be about. Also, the group leader introduces themselves towards the group. 001. Forming stage- At this stage this is where all the group members meet for the first time, they will introduce themselves and they will also ask basic questions about what the group discussions is going to be about. Also, the group leader introduces themselves towards the group. Bruce Tuckman Group stages -32385965203. Norming stage- At this stage all group members have made final agreements and the group will then start to work together. Each person from the group will express their thoughts and feelings and they will have successful plans. 003. Norming stage- At this stage all group members have made final agreements and the group will then start to work together. Each person from the group will express their thoughts and feelings and they will have successful plans. -42545337292. Storming stage- At this stage, all the group members will start to get comfortable with each other and the topic of the conversation could start to have disagreement with each other and having disagreement could lead to conflicts. At the end of this stage, all members within the group will come to a conclusion and the conversation will end with everyone being on good terms. 002. Storming stage- At this stage, all the group members will start to get comfortable with each other and the topic of the conversation could start to have disagreement with each other and having disagreement could lead to conflicts. At the end of this stage, all members within the group will come to a conclusion and the conversation will end with everyone being on good terms. -43031614456 4. Performing stage- At the stage the group will then start to work effectively and have relationships with the entire group members have become more comfortable, therefore all members will be able to be more content and focus on achieving their goals. 00 4. Performing stage- At the stage the group will then start to work effectively and have relationships with the entire group members have become more comfortable, therefore all members will be able to be more content and focus on achieving their goals. I think that to have an effective communication you have to be able to communicate with different people. It is also, important that when you are communicating effectively you have to make sure that are using different context and different forms of communication. I think that the two theories are very useful as it break own as to what happens in a one-to-one communication and what happens in a group communication. Successful effective communication within the health and social care organisations tends to lead from one implementation straight to the communication process. Everyone within the health and social care will learn to improve their skills over time, by them improving their communication skills they are preventing different barriers. As we know preventing communication barriers, they have a greater chance of being successful. In this task I had to participate in a one-to-one interaction and group interaction and I will have to discuss how well I did with my partner/partners and what type of communication skills I used and also I will also evaluate possible influences in each interactions. Brief outline of the scenario In this 1:1 interaction, my partner and I will be playing the role of a counsellor having a session with a client. This will take place in a counselling office and they are there to have a discussion on how the client is coping with drug withdrawal. Topic: Counsellor having a session with client – Drug withdrawal Justice: Good morning Dyma Dyma: how are you doing, I hope this session helps me. Justice: yes, I’m fine I really do hope I can help. Dyma: where do we start? Justice: First of all I would like you to tell me how you’re doing. Dyma: I feel that since I’ve given up drug, i feel a lot better within myself that i know i can return healthy how i was before i started taking drugs Justice: Do you feel yourself going back to your old ways at times or do you feel like you are in total control Dyma: To be honest i don’t like feel like myself 100% but hopefully i get there eventually but the one thing i would say is that when i go out with friends, i tend to get triggered by their actions Justice: So what I am hearing from what you just told me is that even though you feel as if you have gotten better, you also have some hard times when you are interacting with your friends because of their actions. Dyma: Yes, i really do and i don’t know if my friends need help like how i needed it Dyma: Are there any solution you have for this? Justice: Well…(putting down the note book and giving eye contact) I feel that because you do not feel 100% at the moment then I feel you should learn how to deal with your situation at first and then take step by step actions when being around your friends because it is very easy to go back to your old ways where you of course don’t want to be when you are around influences that could set you back Justice: Try seeing if you can get a friend who is influential in a positive way and if you ever feel yourself going to make bad choices then call them and they can help you make a good choice, I understand that and i will try my best to take on board what you are truly saying to me. I’m happy to come and talk about my issues in confidence coz in the past i had problems opening up Justice: I am glad that you are at a point where you are comfortable because at the start you was a bit hostile but I hope you know I’m just here to help, if you have any other questions then please know you can contact me or email me Dyma: Can u write your email down for me please, I have already got your number. Justice: Yeah (writes email and both get up and walk towards the door) is there any other questions or thoughts you would like to express before we end this session Dyma: No, i should be fine for now but I’ll give you a ring if I’m unsure Justice: Alright no problem (both get up and walk to the door giving a hand shake and a smile)..(Dyma walks out). During my one-to-one interaction with my partner, the topic was about drug withdrawal. For this interaction I was the patient and Justice was the counsellor. I felt like the interaction was really good as I felt that I have used useful communication skills. First of all I used good body language. I used my body language very well as I was not being defiant towards the counsellor. Also, when the counsellor invited me into the room she offered me to take a seat and once i did before I sat down she shook my hands and so I do. When I sat down, I was not crossing my arms, resting my head on the table, puffin, etc. I simply sat down and show that I was actively listening. Showing that you are actively listening suggest that I was actually taking in everything what the counsellor was telling me. I also, used facial expression during the conversation as I was showing a happy face and not showing a face that does not seem interested in the conversation. For example, I said to the counsellor ‘I really hope you can help me in today’s sessions. She then replied ‘that is what I’m here for to help you to overcome issues that you are going through’ instantly I face expression changed from being happy to excited, reason for this is because the thought of you knowing a situation can be fixed shows that there is a relief of your chest and you and no longer have to worry about anything. I will say that I was not giving eye contact as I should have done. I also used hand gesture when I was speaking to the counsellor, there is absolutely nothing wrong using hand gestures, I use hand gestures all time not knowing I am actually doing it, the reason I felt that hand gesture was important during my interaction is because using means that I know what I am talking about and it helps me to my points quicker. I only have a one or two eye contact as I am not confortable looking in the people’s eyes for a long period a time. It is ok to give eye contact and look away but for me it’s a situation where I will give eye contact but then look away for the longest time and then go back giving eye contact. Not giving eye contact could come across as rude, it not that I was being rude, it is something that I physically cannot do. I will eventually need to work on it because it will come to a point where I will need to give eye contact. Another communication skill I have used was voice tone. During my session I was speaking quiet as the atmosphere was calm and I did not need to shout. Also due to me speaking quietly and calmly I noticed that the counsellor was being more friendly which suggest to me that she was almost speaking to me like I was her best friend which is a good thing. I was not using reflective listening as much as I should have been. At one point I was day dreaming which was rude as I was not actively listening at that point so if the counsellor was meant to ask me a question based on what she had said, I would not be able to give her the answer she is looking for. At the same time what the counsellor should have done is to actually make sure I understood everything she was saying to me. On the other hand, the skill that I used more effectively was gesture, I felt using gesture was effective for me as it help me to get to my point much quicker and also, using it meant that whilst I was speaking to the counsellor it gives that impression to her that I was really into the conversation and she knew where I was coming from. Brief outline of the scenario In this 1:1 interaction, my partner and I will be playing the role of a counsellor having a session with a client. This will take place in a counselling office and they are there to have a discussion on the client having relationship issues due to past event/relationships in her life. Topic: Counsellor having a session with client – Relationship issues Counsellor calls client into the office Counsellor-Dyma: “Good morning Justice, How are you today and what can I do for you today?” Justice: “Good morning, I’m not doing so well and I hope you can help me with my relationship issues.” (Looking nervous) Dyma: “Aww sorry to hear that…so tell me what is going on with your relationship.” (Ready to take notes) Justice: I have trust issues and it is really affecting me as I cannot move on having new relationship because of the past. Dyma: First of all if you not communicating with the other person you are more likely to feel that you can’t trust your partner. You have to be able to communicate as communication is the key to every relationship even with your own family. Justice: At times I feel that even when I’m communicating, in the back of my mind, I feel my partner is up to something. Dyma: Personally I would say that because you have this mentality of having trust issues you tend to fall back on the past and its only you can change that. How long do you talk to a person before you get into a relationship with them? Dyma: I would say you should give relationship for a break, clear your mind, do things that you would normally do and when you think your ready you can put yourself back out there to see if you find the perfect person. Justice: I hope so, can I please take your number so that I can call up if there is any problem and maybe if I need a next session I can pop by and we talk again. Dyma: sure. My number is 02988888123 Justice: alright, see you later and thank you. Dyma: no need to thank me it’s my job but your more than welcome, bye At this stage I was the counsellor and the topic that Justice and I were talking about was relationship. I would say that I was showing a form of care presence which is almost like putting you in someone else’s shoe. I really did put myself in my client shoe because she was having a rough tie trying to figure out why she had trust issues within her relationship. However, although I created some form of care presence it shows that I might have been in the same situations which then indicate to the client that I am there to help her but at the same time; I am there to comfort her. For example she said ‘I have trust issues and it is really affecting me as I cannot move on having new relationship because of the past’. I then replied and said ‘First of all if you not communicating with the other person you are more likely to feel that you can’t trust your partner. You have to be able to communicate as communication is the key to every relationship even with your own family. What I am trying to get across is that my response that I have given to my client, you can see where I try to a give her advice and it is something that I may have faced that has allowed me to give her that response to her question. I showed facial expression when I was speaking to my client because when she was telling me the issues, it was empathy that took over that allowed my facial expression. I was sad for her when she was telling me her problems but at the same I had to remember that I was a professional and I could not be sad all the way through as it may indicate negativity towards the patience and the atmosphere would be very depression. I felt that having a depress atmosphere meant that the client would have not be able to get everything out as she was relying on me for help. I did not give eye contact whilst I was talking to the client because I do find it very hard to look people in their eyes whilst speaking to them. Although I didn’t give eye contact, I am very sure that my client did not feel uncomfortable. Brief summary about the group interaction: There is a little girl who is African-Caribbean and she has been in care for 3 years and after 3years she has been fostered by an English couple who has be caring for her. They now want to adopt her. I was in a group of 5 and during out discussion I felt that the topic we had to discuss about was really interesting. However, the people within the group did make valid points. All group members were focused and we all stuck to the topic and no one was being quiet. I believe that everyone did actively listen to each other and no one was speaking over each other. We all took turns to speak and after one person speak about something, someone else either add on their point a view about what they think or they make a new point about the discussion. Furthermore, I think we all knew that if we allowed each other to speak there would be no form of conflicts between each other. Even though everyone has something to say, they did not speak as much as they should. In other words it could have been they are shy, they are not good at debating or they might not feel comfortable telling their point of view. Personally because I love debating/discussion I always have a lot of things to say about certain topics. This topic in particular I really did enjoy it because out of everyone in the group I mostly done all the talking, alongside with a group member by the name of Maria. Ruth, Ulas, and Shandy did not speak as much. For example, when Shandy started the conversation, Maria stated a lot of points and from what Maria has said, I then added on my own point of view. Ruth and Ulas did not say as much as they should have, but then I personally felt that the conversation was not going well as I did feel that the others did not really know what they were talking about. I then had to step back in the discussion to make it livelier so that everyone else could really come back into the conversation to participate more. I did this by suggesting different types of questions. I had to be careful because I did not want to go off task, so what I done was ask question around the topic to kind of make the discussion more understandable/interested. I type of question I asked was, ‘how do you think the child would feel knowing when they grow older they are going to have a lot of question about why they are in the situation that they are in?, ‘do you feel the child would stick around after they find out why they are being adopted?’ When I asked those type of type of question I realised that Ruth, Ulas and Shandy were answering them, not only were they answering them, they were adding their own point of view towards it. The points that they were making too them back into in the conversation about the topic. In contrast to this, I then noticed after a while that the conversation was going back to the way it was. I then went ahead to fully dominate myself for the conversation. Once I dominated myself, it had a great impact on the group. I went ahead and I started telling them about a programme I was watching. The programme was about a brother and sister, who got adopted by a white family. The family lives in a mansion and the family takes good care of them, they treat them equally and they make sure that they treat them like how they would treat their own. The children both call them mum and dad and the family with the biological children, their children are not mean towards them, and they share everything with them. Also, the family still makes them interact with their own culture and one of the things they did was the mother brought someone from the same background and the little girl and she made her get her hair done by the person who she bought in. As for the little boy the father takes him to the barber to get his hair cut. Once I told the group about the programme, I did pick up that everyone really got involved, as for Ulas and Ruth they did speak more about the topic, but I think that if I didn’t dominate myself I think the group discussion would not have gone too well, but I am pleased to say that our group discussion was truly successful. Factors about the environment for one-to-one and group interactions When Justice and I were doing our one-to-one reaction we noticed that they were not a lot of noise but there was a bit of noise in the background which was coming from the corridor as students were walking pass and talking. The noise in the background did not distract us from our conversation as it was minor noises. I personally did not even realise that they were minor noises in the background I heard everything what Justice was saying me. Also, even though I was speaking very quietly, Justice manages to hear me clear. I am not sure if she was not forcing herself to hear me or if she could just hear me in general. Bovee, C.L., & Thill, J.V. (1992). Business Communication Today. NY, NY: McGraw-Hill. Burnett, M.J., & Dollar, A. (1989). Business Communication: Strategies for Success. Houston, Texas: Dane.	6,057	ENGLISH	1
- 1 Iqbal Day - 1.1 Why does Iqbal Day Celebrate? - 1.2 Importance of Iqbal Day - 1.3 Biography: When Allama Iqbal was born? - 1.4 Nationality - 1.5 Education: From Where Iqbal did Graduation? - 1.6 Higher Education and Career - 1.7 Death of Allama Iqbal - 1.8 Famous Books of Urdu Poetry by Allama Iqbal Iqbal day is celebrated in the memory of Allama Muhammad Iqbal, who is also known as Allama Iqbal. He was a great philosopher. Allama Iqbal is also recognized as the national poet of Pakistan. It was his poetry that united the Muslims of the sub-continent at one point. He served a lot in his life so that Muslims became able to recognize their powers and rights to live as a nation. His poetry produced immense strength in Muslims so that they became able to stand to get freedom, and later they succeeded in achieving their separate identity in the form of Pakistan. Due to the great efforts of Allama Iqbal, all Pakistani nation and also the government of Pakistan pay highly tribute to him on his birthday. Why does Iqbal Day Celebrate? Iqbal day is the birthday of Allama Muhammad Iqbal which is celebrated every year on 9th November. There is a public holiday all over the country. Teachers motivate the children in schools to prepare speeches to describe the dignity of their National hero. Also, they present beautiful tablows by wearing traditional costumes to recite his poetry. All institutions like to hold functions in different forms to recall the efforts of Allama Iqbal. Importance of Iqbal Day In addition to schools, a large number of literary and cultural organizations also conduct programs at the regional level to remember Allama Iqbal and his work. The entire nation shows his love on Iqbal Day. The guard change ceremony is held every year by the government of Pakistan at his grave, called “Mazaar-e-Iqbal,” which shows the importance of Iqbal day. Mazaar-e-Iqbal is located in the Hazuri Bagh, in between the Badshahi Mosque and the great Lahore Fort. Biography: When Allama Iqbal was born? Allama Iqbal was born on 9th November 1877 in Sialkot. His zodiac sign is Scorpio. This sign reflects great intelligence according to horoscope. His father’s name was Sheikh Noor Muhammad, who was a Tailor. His mother, Imam Bibi was a very humble and polite woman. Allama Iqbal much loved his mother. On her death, 9th November 1914, Iqbal suffered from severe grief. He also expressed his feelings in poetic form, “Every atom of creation is a prisoner of fate”. Sheikh Ata Muhammad was the brother of Allama Iqbal and his sister was Zaynab Bibi. Iqbal married with Karim Bibi in 1895. Khan Bahadur Ata Muhammad Khan, who was a physician, was the father of Karim Bibi. At the time of marriage, Iqbal’s age was 18 years. In December 1914, Iqbal married the second time with Mukhtar Begum. His second wife died in the year 1924 after giving birth to a son. This son also died at the time of delivery, along with his mother. Later, Iqbal married Sardar Begum. The couple became the parents of a son named Javed Iqbal. Iqbal blessed with two children from Karim Bibi. A daughter named Miraj Begum (1895–1915) and a son, Aftab Iqbal (1899–1979) who became a barrister. Javed Iqbal, who was a son from Sardar Begum, was born on 1924. He became a judge and died in 2015. Sardar Begum also gave birth to a daughter named Muneera Bano. She was born in 1930. Allama Iqbal belonged to a religious family. His mother often helped poor and needy people. Initially, Iqbal’s family was Kashmiri Brahmin Sapru, which later converted to Islam. Allama Iqbal kept British Raj Nationality and mixed ethnicity. His father was from Kashmir, and his mother was a Punjabi Muslim from Sialkot. Education: From Where Iqbal did Graduation? Allama Iqbal got his early education by Syed Mir Hassan in Sialkot. He learned Quran Majeed when he was only four years old. Iqbal got admission in Scotch Mission College and completed his matriculation in 1893. In 1895, he did intermediate in Faculty of Arts diploma. He also learned the Arabic language, and in 1897 he won the medal because he performed well in Arabic. He also did a Bachelor of Arts in philosophy and English literature from Government College University. Higher Education and Career Sir Thomas Arnold was the philosophy teacher of Iqbal who convinced him to go to England for higher education. In 1905, Iqbal went to England and qualified for a scholarship from the University of Cambridge. He got a Bachelor of Arts in 1906. In the same year, Iqbal was “called to the bar” (it is a terminology, uses in most common law jurisdictions) as a barrister at Lincoln’s Inn. In 1907, Iqbal traveled to Germany and earned a Doctor of Philosophy degree from the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich in 1908. Allama Iqbal had an in-depth sight of nature. He was highly educated, and his poetry had a vision in it due to which he got the title Hakeem ul Ummah and is also called Father e Millat. Death of Allama Iqbal Allama Iqbal suffered to throat illness in 1933 after he returned from a trip to Afghanistan and Spain. He died on 21 April 1938. His tomb is present in Lahore. In his final years, he helped Niaz Ali to establish a Trust named Dar ul Islam. He also frequently visited the Dargah of famous Sufi Ali Hijwiri for spiritual assistance. His efforts were exceptional, and this is the reason why he is famous in all over the world. People read his work after translating it into several different languages. Famous Books of Urdu Poetry by Allama Iqbal Allama Iqbal also wrote poetry in English and Persian. His book Armughan-e-Hijaz is mixed i.e Urdu and Persian. The work of Allama Iqbal played a considerable part that we have Pakistan. Now we enjoy the freedom and breathe in the atmosphere of a separate country where we can spend lives according to our traditions and can openly fulfill our religious obligations without any fear. His philosophy is still valid, and his ideas are reflected in his poetry and much touch the heart of Muslims. Iqbal Day celebrations held at the highest level all across the country, which is proof that the Pakistani nation can never forget his work. He is still alive in our hearts, and our generations will always remain thankful for him, and will always love him.	<urn:uuid:2b376e64-6154-49b5-a738-3a4dafe1b0c2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://zartash.pk/pakistan-people/iqbal-day/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00382.warc.gz	en	0.988802	1,548	3.265625	3	[ -0.262589693069458, 0.517950177192688, 0.25540727376937866, 0.04289211332798004, -0.18765988945960999, 0.04184983670711517, 0.8121058344841003, 0.1579340398311615, -0.05447504296898842, 0.07938425987958908, 0.5266128778457642, -0.31854572892189026, 0.32217907905578613, 0.22370299696922302,...	2	- 1 Iqbal Day - 1.1 Why does Iqbal Day Celebrate? - 1.2 Importance of Iqbal Day - 1.3 Biography: When Allama Iqbal was born? - 1.4 Nationality - 1.5 Education: From Where Iqbal did Graduation? - 1.6 Higher Education and Career - 1.7 Death of Allama Iqbal - 1.8 Famous Books of Urdu Poetry by Allama Iqbal Iqbal day is celebrated in the memory of Allama Muhammad Iqbal, who is also known as Allama Iqbal. He was a great philosopher. Allama Iqbal is also recognized as the national poet of Pakistan. It was his poetry that united the Muslims of the sub-continent at one point. He served a lot in his life so that Muslims became able to recognize their powers and rights to live as a nation. His poetry produced immense strength in Muslims so that they became able to stand to get freedom, and later they succeeded in achieving their separate identity in the form of Pakistan. Due to the great efforts of Allama Iqbal, all Pakistani nation and also the government of Pakistan pay highly tribute to him on his birthday. Why does Iqbal Day Celebrate? Iqbal day is the birthday of Allama Muhammad Iqbal which is celebrated every year on 9th November. There is a public holiday all over the country. Teachers motivate the children in schools to prepare speeches to describe the dignity of their National hero. Also, they present beautiful tablows by wearing traditional costumes to recite his poetry. All institutions like to hold functions in different forms to recall the efforts of Allama Iqbal. Importance of Iqbal Day In addition to schools, a large number of literary and cultural organizations also conduct programs at the regional level to remember Allama Iqbal and his work. The entire nation shows his love on Iqbal Day. The guard change ceremony is held every year by the government of Pakistan at his grave, called “Mazaar-e-Iqbal,” which shows the importance of Iqbal day. Mazaar-e-Iqbal is located in the Hazuri Bagh, in between the Badshahi Mosque and the great Lahore Fort. Biography: When Allama Iqbal was born? Allama Iqbal was born on 9th November 1877 in Sialkot. His zodiac sign is Scorpio. This sign reflects great intelligence according to horoscope. His father’s name was Sheikh Noor Muhammad, who was a Tailor. His mother, Imam Bibi was a very humble and polite woman. Allama Iqbal much loved his mother. On her death, 9th November 1914, Iqbal suffered from severe grief. He also expressed his feelings in poetic form, “Every atom of creation is a prisoner of fate”. Sheikh Ata Muhammad was the brother of Allama Iqbal and his sister was Zaynab Bibi. Iqbal married with Karim Bibi in 1895. Khan Bahadur Ata Muhammad Khan, who was a physician, was the father of Karim Bibi. At the time of marriage, Iqbal’s age was 18 years. In December 1914, Iqbal married the second time with Mukhtar Begum. His second wife died in the year 1924 after giving birth to a son. This son also died at the time of delivery, along with his mother. Later, Iqbal married Sardar Begum. The couple became the parents of a son named Javed Iqbal. Iqbal blessed with two children from Karim Bibi. A daughter named Miraj Begum (1895–1915) and a son, Aftab Iqbal (1899–1979) who became a barrister. Javed Iqbal, who was a son from Sardar Begum, was born on 1924. He became a judge and died in 2015. Sardar Begum also gave birth to a daughter named Muneera Bano. She was born in 1930. Allama Iqbal belonged to a religious family. His mother often helped poor and needy people. Initially, Iqbal’s family was Kashmiri Brahmin Sapru, which later converted to Islam. Allama Iqbal kept British Raj Nationality and mixed ethnicity. His father was from Kashmir, and his mother was a Punjabi Muslim from Sialkot. Education: From Where Iqbal did Graduation? Allama Iqbal got his early education by Syed Mir Hassan in Sialkot. He learned Quran Majeed when he was only four years old. Iqbal got admission in Scotch Mission College and completed his matriculation in 1893. In 1895, he did intermediate in Faculty of Arts diploma. He also learned the Arabic language, and in 1897 he won the medal because he performed well in Arabic. He also did a Bachelor of Arts in philosophy and English literature from Government College University. Higher Education and Career Sir Thomas Arnold was the philosophy teacher of Iqbal who convinced him to go to England for higher education. In 1905, Iqbal went to England and qualified for a scholarship from the University of Cambridge. He got a Bachelor of Arts in 1906. In the same year, Iqbal was “called to the bar” (it is a terminology, uses in most common law jurisdictions) as a barrister at Lincoln’s Inn. In 1907, Iqbal traveled to Germany and earned a Doctor of Philosophy degree from the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich in 1908. Allama Iqbal had an in-depth sight of nature. He was highly educated, and his poetry had a vision in it due to which he got the title Hakeem ul Ummah and is also called Father e Millat. Death of Allama Iqbal Allama Iqbal suffered to throat illness in 1933 after he returned from a trip to Afghanistan and Spain. He died on 21 April 1938. His tomb is present in Lahore. In his final years, he helped Niaz Ali to establish a Trust named Dar ul Islam. He also frequently visited the Dargah of famous Sufi Ali Hijwiri for spiritual assistance. His efforts were exceptional, and this is the reason why he is famous in all over the world. People read his work after translating it into several different languages. Famous Books of Urdu Poetry by Allama Iqbal Allama Iqbal also wrote poetry in English and Persian. His book Armughan-e-Hijaz is mixed i.e Urdu and Persian. The work of Allama Iqbal played a considerable part that we have Pakistan. Now we enjoy the freedom and breathe in the atmosphere of a separate country where we can spend lives according to our traditions and can openly fulfill our religious obligations without any fear. His philosophy is still valid, and his ideas are reflected in his poetry and much touch the heart of Muslims. Iqbal Day celebrations held at the highest level all across the country, which is proof that the Pakistani nation can never forget his work. He is still alive in our hearts, and our generations will always remain thankful for him, and will always love him.	1,585	ENGLISH	1
The American's won the battle. The British retreated back to Boston. The Battle of Concord proved to the British that the American army was not just a band of unorganized rebels. Battle Of Saratoga George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River, which occurred on the night of December 25–26, 1776, during the American Revolutionary War, was the first move in a surprise attack organized by George Washington against the Hessian forces in Trenton. The British took possession of both Breed's Hill and Bunker Hill. They had won the battle, but at a terrible cost: out of 2,200 troops, 268 British soldiers and officers had been killed; another 828 were wounded. The Battles of Saratoga marked the end of the Saratoga campaign, giving a decisive victory to the Americans over the British in the American Revolutionary War. At Valley Forge Washington and his men were met with harsh conditions like frostbite and starvation. Meanwhile the British were nice and warm at their camp, planning to wait the Americans out. This made Washington think he was incompetent but this only increased his willpower and allowed him to continue The Siege Of Yorktown, also knows as The End Of The Revolutionary War, this was the battle that ended it all Washington managed to pull through and won the battle with some help from the French Navy, He was able to corner the British and forced them to surrender	<urn:uuid:09604d76-bdb8-486d-91b5-a8c48ca853d3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/s540958/u-s--history-revolutionary-war-battles	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00031.warc.gz	en	0.986307	283	3.53125	4	[ -0.03298996388912201, 0.43149903416633606, 0.31148818135261536, 0.21444761753082275, -0.5736047029495239, 0.26361703872680664, -0.12182429432868958, 0.27251648902893066, -0.15342560410499573, 0.0016727917827665806, -0.20333053171634674, -0.24428661167621613, 0.021536091342568398, 0.2976619...	1	The American's won the battle. The British retreated back to Boston. The Battle of Concord proved to the British that the American army was not just a band of unorganized rebels. Battle Of Saratoga George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River, which occurred on the night of December 25–26, 1776, during the American Revolutionary War, was the first move in a surprise attack organized by George Washington against the Hessian forces in Trenton. The British took possession of both Breed's Hill and Bunker Hill. They had won the battle, but at a terrible cost: out of 2,200 troops, 268 British soldiers and officers had been killed; another 828 were wounded. The Battles of Saratoga marked the end of the Saratoga campaign, giving a decisive victory to the Americans over the British in the American Revolutionary War. At Valley Forge Washington and his men were met with harsh conditions like frostbite and starvation. Meanwhile the British were nice and warm at their camp, planning to wait the Americans out. This made Washington think he was incompetent but this only increased his willpower and allowed him to continue The Siege Of Yorktown, also knows as The End Of The Revolutionary War, this was the battle that ended it all Washington managed to pull through and won the battle with some help from the French Navy, He was able to corner the British and forced them to surrender	295	ENGLISH	1
Deep in the heart of Tanzania near the African Great Lakes region and South Sudan live the Maasai Tribe. They belong to the Nilotic ethnic group of tribes that inhabit the southern, northern and central parts of Kenya. Known for their culture, their ferocious history, and their brightly colored red robes, the Maasai tribe is the best-known tribe in the area because they live near the nature reserves and parks within the Great African Lakes. With a population of 800,000 strong, the men are usually seen wearing elaborate red robes while clutching their spears as if they are always prepared for a fight while the women, their heads shaved, wearing handmade white beaded neck adornments. The Maasai people are originally from the Nile Valley, north of Lake Turkana. In the 15th century, the Maasai Tribe started to move down south and arrived in the 17th and late 18th century in a long stretch of land that is presently known as Central Tanzania and Northern Kenya. The incoming Maasai displaced the smaller local tribes that were settling there and by the 19th century, the tribe was at its largest size. By 1904, the Maasai Tribe was cut in half due to many years of famine and disease. Also, most of the Maasai Tribe were evicted from their land when the British arrived and evicted them to make more room for settler ranches. While most of the Maasai resisted, they were easily outmatched by British rifles. By 1940, the Maasai people were again evicted from nearby Ngorongoro to make room for wildlife reserves and national parks. In the past, the fertile land near Ngorongoro was what the Maasai needed for a living. They are best known for raising cattle; some of them are also known for cattle-rustling. Today, the tribe welcome anyone who wishes to visit their tribe and experience their culture for a fee. The Tanzanian and Kenyan governments have tried to encourage the Maasai people to leave behind their pastoral ways and adapt to a more modern way of life. However, the Maasai refuse to leave behind their semi-nomadic lifestyle. They are also one of the few tribes whose culture, lore and traditions have survived for hundreds of years. The Maasai practice living together with nature in harmony. They do not hunt for food and are strongly against eating game and birds. They are also against slavery and welcome anyone who wishes to visit their home. Outsiders who are looking for people to enslave in the past avoided the Maasai, for they are known as fierce warriors who never back down from a fight. Even until today, the only way for a Maasai boy to be treated and recognized as a proper adult is to kill a lion with only a spear in his hand. The British also have great respect for the Maasai warrior. Despite their fearsome reputation, the Maasai are very hospitable to strangers. Visitors are always greeted by the Maasai with smiles, singing and jumping. To visit a Maasai village is always a treat. Today, the Maasai still struggle as Kenya continues to steal land from them for more agricultural land and to give to other growing tribes. There is also the danger of grabbing Maasai land to build wildlife reserves. This is because most of the land that the Maasai tribe live in are also some of the finest game areas for hunters and poachers. The Maasai people defend their territories fiercely and ideas have been pouring out from charitable institutions to employ the Maasai in defending the reserves that are near their territory.	<urn:uuid:10afcc20-caba-477d-8cac-8657d305682a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://luangisa.com/blogs/news/who-are-the-maasai-people-history-culture-traditions-of-the-maasai-tribe	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00398.warc.gz	en	0.981423	749	3.46875	3	[ -0.14227956533432007, 0.4472407102584839, 0.2573077380657196, 0.49046218395233154, 0.2379593700170517, -0.21562443673610687, 0.35654154419898987, -0.2877122759819031, -0.2986645996570587, 0.1694929301738739, 0.2742457389831543, -0.45084691047668457, 0.2546379268169403, 0.14717769622802734,...	10	Deep in the heart of Tanzania near the African Great Lakes region and South Sudan live the Maasai Tribe. They belong to the Nilotic ethnic group of tribes that inhabit the southern, northern and central parts of Kenya. Known for their culture, their ferocious history, and their brightly colored red robes, the Maasai tribe is the best-known tribe in the area because they live near the nature reserves and parks within the Great African Lakes. With a population of 800,000 strong, the men are usually seen wearing elaborate red robes while clutching their spears as if they are always prepared for a fight while the women, their heads shaved, wearing handmade white beaded neck adornments. The Maasai people are originally from the Nile Valley, north of Lake Turkana. In the 15th century, the Maasai Tribe started to move down south and arrived in the 17th and late 18th century in a long stretch of land that is presently known as Central Tanzania and Northern Kenya. The incoming Maasai displaced the smaller local tribes that were settling there and by the 19th century, the tribe was at its largest size. By 1904, the Maasai Tribe was cut in half due to many years of famine and disease. Also, most of the Maasai Tribe were evicted from their land when the British arrived and evicted them to make more room for settler ranches. While most of the Maasai resisted, they were easily outmatched by British rifles. By 1940, the Maasai people were again evicted from nearby Ngorongoro to make room for wildlife reserves and national parks. In the past, the fertile land near Ngorongoro was what the Maasai needed for a living. They are best known for raising cattle; some of them are also known for cattle-rustling. Today, the tribe welcome anyone who wishes to visit their tribe and experience their culture for a fee. The Tanzanian and Kenyan governments have tried to encourage the Maasai people to leave behind their pastoral ways and adapt to a more modern way of life. However, the Maasai refuse to leave behind their semi-nomadic lifestyle. They are also one of the few tribes whose culture, lore and traditions have survived for hundreds of years. The Maasai practice living together with nature in harmony. They do not hunt for food and are strongly against eating game and birds. They are also against slavery and welcome anyone who wishes to visit their home. Outsiders who are looking for people to enslave in the past avoided the Maasai, for they are known as fierce warriors who never back down from a fight. Even until today, the only way for a Maasai boy to be treated and recognized as a proper adult is to kill a lion with only a spear in his hand. The British also have great respect for the Maasai warrior. Despite their fearsome reputation, the Maasai are very hospitable to strangers. Visitors are always greeted by the Maasai with smiles, singing and jumping. To visit a Maasai village is always a treat. Today, the Maasai still struggle as Kenya continues to steal land from them for more agricultural land and to give to other growing tribes. There is also the danger of grabbing Maasai land to build wildlife reserves. This is because most of the land that the Maasai tribe live in are also some of the finest game areas for hunters and poachers. The Maasai people defend their territories fiercely and ideas have been pouring out from charitable institutions to employ the Maasai in defending the reserves that are near their territory.	761	ENGLISH	1
During the 1980s, software companies were started, developing application types that are popular today. During this time there were several popular operating systems and computer manufacturers. When Microsoft started to dominate the market in the 1990s and early 2000s, many of the companies went out of business, or they were bought out. For example, when the first Macintosh was released in 1984, its word processor MacWrite was one of the most popular on the market. However, in the 1990s, like many word processors it took a backseat to Microsoft Word. Many applications were discontinued due to Microsoft Office’s market share, and many people and organizations did not migrate their old documents to active applications and formats. As technology evolved, and they acquired new technology, many old documents could no longer be opened. This is one aspect of data rot, when data can no longer be accessed. A YouTube video gives more details. Now there is much less concern over data rot.	<urn:uuid:751c96cf-9e8c-4b50-87cf-4c905ac4d3ad>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://oscollege.com/2018/09/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00421.warc.gz	en	0.98863	196	3.4375	3	[ -0.19109149277210236, 0.03968747705221176, -0.08314817398786545, -0.30281171202659607, -0.028347482904791832, 0.1337207555770874, -0.3479800224304199, 0.2205890566110611, -0.05137354135513306, 0.10242439806461334, 0.13587243854999542, 0.8866263628005981, 0.4284293055534363, -0.183334842324...	4	During the 1980s, software companies were started, developing application types that are popular today. During this time there were several popular operating systems and computer manufacturers. When Microsoft started to dominate the market in the 1990s and early 2000s, many of the companies went out of business, or they were bought out. For example, when the first Macintosh was released in 1984, its word processor MacWrite was one of the most popular on the market. However, in the 1990s, like many word processors it took a backseat to Microsoft Word. Many applications were discontinued due to Microsoft Office’s market share, and many people and organizations did not migrate their old documents to active applications and formats. As technology evolved, and they acquired new technology, many old documents could no longer be opened. This is one aspect of data rot, when data can no longer be accessed. A YouTube video gives more details. Now there is much less concern over data rot.	211	ENGLISH	1
Foreshadowing in “Wuthering Heights foreshadowing in Wuthering Heights Foreshadowing is a really common literary device utilized in timeless literature. It gives a yearning of what might come ahead and an appealing tie from today to the past and vice versa. To foreshadow is “to shadow or characterize ahead of time” (Webster’s Dictionary). Wuthering Heights as a whole acts as a large-scale example of this foreshadowing impact and it includes many other examples within it. In the first half of the book, Emily Bronte offers the account of the fundamental characters, the very first generation. The account is given up a diverse way, it is stated as from the eyes of an outside observer with an inside scoop called Nelly Dean. Nelly had actually lived in both Thrushcross variety and Wuthering Heights and had a first hand account of all that had actually occurred in their residents’ life. The actions and choices of the very first generation were also extremely eminent in their descendants; they both had their share in heartache and catastrophe. Though the very same mistakes were not made they suffered simply the exact same. The reality that Heathcliff never corrected his relationship with Catherine and all the others he injured the hurt carried on down the household line. The repeating of occasions was exposed in everything that occurred. The way that the first generation was treated was how they dealt with the next. For example Heathcliff’s deprivation of Hareton repeats Hindley’s deprivation of Healthcliff. Even the first Catherine shows this, she mocked Joseph’s earnest evangelical passion and quickly so did her offspring. It is even said that Heathcliff attempting to “open” Catherine’s tomb was repeated. All things were “forecasted” and eminent of persisting in the future. The foreshadowing gadget was also utilized yet another time, to explain the basis of the whole story. In the time of Heathcliff and Catherine’s journey through turmoil numerous things were stated. Frequently when you are in a fit of rage or a time of passion you state things and some are implied and others are not. Emily Bronte to advantage of that fact. Through the many pieces of discussion found in the story in between Catherine and Heathcliff there was one thing stated in the middle of it all that was indicated and dominated through the story. Heathcliff in a fight cursed Catherine’s soul to haunt him until he died and Mr. Lockwood saw that ghost and the ghost wound up haunting Heathcliff to insanity and eventually death. Bronte gave us that predicting to intrigue us to see the depth of the relationship that Catherine and Heathcliff had actually shared, Heathcliff cursed her and Catherine brought it out up until revenge was attained. There are lots of examples that can be found of foreshadowing if you only look deeper into the story. Emily Bronte had such a talent of hoax in her writing, if you take the literature at stated value you can gain from it, however when you look at it with detail you see a lot more of the story, a story of vengeance on both sides and a dispute of the culture and nature of that time. The characters lives were so complicated if they could have just seen the proclaimed future or had looked and learned from the past it would have been different. The obvious foreshadowing in this book is what might agitate and frustrate its readers due to the fact that the story is either distributed or you slap yourself for not understanding what was coming.	<urn:uuid:d9b5b290-b9fa-4fdd-b9de-fe47eed10d58>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://whisperseer.com/foreshadowing-in-wuthering-heights	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00252.warc.gz	en	0.982025	738	3.328125	3	[ -0.46845436096191406, -0.13120533525943756, 0.3399718701839447, 0.16182918846607208, -0.14642216265201569, 0.2764478623867035, 0.002194562926888466, 0.016381513327360153, -0.027404392138123512, -0.38888856768608093, 0.03195226937532425, -0.08146132528781891, 0.00316610187292099, 0.40857827...	1	Foreshadowing in “Wuthering Heights foreshadowing in Wuthering Heights Foreshadowing is a really common literary device utilized in timeless literature. It gives a yearning of what might come ahead and an appealing tie from today to the past and vice versa. To foreshadow is “to shadow or characterize ahead of time” (Webster’s Dictionary). Wuthering Heights as a whole acts as a large-scale example of this foreshadowing impact and it includes many other examples within it. In the first half of the book, Emily Bronte offers the account of the fundamental characters, the very first generation. The account is given up a diverse way, it is stated as from the eyes of an outside observer with an inside scoop called Nelly Dean. Nelly had actually lived in both Thrushcross variety and Wuthering Heights and had a first hand account of all that had actually occurred in their residents’ life. The actions and choices of the very first generation were also extremely eminent in their descendants; they both had their share in heartache and catastrophe. Though the very same mistakes were not made they suffered simply the exact same. The reality that Heathcliff never corrected his relationship with Catherine and all the others he injured the hurt carried on down the household line. The repeating of occasions was exposed in everything that occurred. The way that the first generation was treated was how they dealt with the next. For example Heathcliff’s deprivation of Hareton repeats Hindley’s deprivation of Healthcliff. Even the first Catherine shows this, she mocked Joseph’s earnest evangelical passion and quickly so did her offspring. It is even said that Heathcliff attempting to “open” Catherine’s tomb was repeated. All things were “forecasted” and eminent of persisting in the future. The foreshadowing gadget was also utilized yet another time, to explain the basis of the whole story. In the time of Heathcliff and Catherine’s journey through turmoil numerous things were stated. Frequently when you are in a fit of rage or a time of passion you state things and some are implied and others are not. Emily Bronte to advantage of that fact. Through the many pieces of discussion found in the story in between Catherine and Heathcliff there was one thing stated in the middle of it all that was indicated and dominated through the story. Heathcliff in a fight cursed Catherine’s soul to haunt him until he died and Mr. Lockwood saw that ghost and the ghost wound up haunting Heathcliff to insanity and eventually death. Bronte gave us that predicting to intrigue us to see the depth of the relationship that Catherine and Heathcliff had actually shared, Heathcliff cursed her and Catherine brought it out up until revenge was attained. There are lots of examples that can be found of foreshadowing if you only look deeper into the story. Emily Bronte had such a talent of hoax in her writing, if you take the literature at stated value you can gain from it, however when you look at it with detail you see a lot more of the story, a story of vengeance on both sides and a dispute of the culture and nature of that time. The characters lives were so complicated if they could have just seen the proclaimed future or had looked and learned from the past it would have been different. The obvious foreshadowing in this book is what might agitate and frustrate its readers due to the fact that the story is either distributed or you slap yourself for not understanding what was coming.	717	ENGLISH	1
Located on the southern side of Erechtheion, gaze the Parthenon and in the background the city of Athens. THE HISTORY OF THEIR CONSTRUCTION After the end of Persian wars (451 B.C) and the win of Greeks, the Athenians who had played a decisive and leading role, decided through their leader Pericles a magnificent plan for the reconstruction of the Acropolis rock. These sanctuaries had already been destroyed during the war, since they were mostly made of wood. The plans and the supervision were undertaken by the well- known sculptor Phidias. Erechtheion was built on the foundations of an old temple that existed there in honor of Goddess Athena. It was the last building on the Acropolis rock and it was probably designed by the architect Mnesicles. Its construction started in 421 B.C and lasted till 407 B.C. The strange thing with this particular building is its different architectural approach since it consists of levels of different height because it is built on a slope. The temple was dedicated to Athena and Poseidon for remembrance of the confrontation of who will give his name to the city. For this reason the eastern part was devoted to Athena and the western to Poseidon. On the south side instead of the columns, we observe 6 female statues in Π shape. The Caryatids while they look like each other, they are unique. Their hands are free and all the weight falls to the head although the canister helps to see the support of the temple in a natural way. In their hands, they wore bracelets with snakes and carried utensils with libations. Their hair was differently combed in each one and caught back wearing a long tunic. Pentelic marble has been used and it is possible that each one was painted in different colors. THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF THEIR NAME In our time 3 are the most prevalent theories. The name Caryatids was taken much later and according to the Roman architect Vitrouvios, they were virgin dancers from Caryes in Laconia who were dancing in honor to Artemis. Another theory is that before the battle of Thermopyles a city in Laconia, Caryes despised the alliance and supported the Persians. After their victory the Greeks completely destroyed the city, killed all the men and sold the women as slaves. In order not to forgive their betrayal, they started constructing statues of women and placed them in their monuments instead of columns. None of the above theories can be justified because originally they were created in Athens and also because the Carya girls used to dance and pray with a short tunic. Nowadays, it is considered by the scientific community that they are Athenians daughters dressed in the Doric veil and with a simple tunic which was common in the area of Attica. More likely their first name was “Kores” which means daughters. Whatever is the truth about the origin of their name is lost in the depths of centuries. The fact is that the goal to endure and not to cause any damage due to them in the monument was achieved.	<urn:uuid:52e37c8e-f3b5-4c15-a417-91bdc16f9c81>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://arcastravel.com/index.php/2017/09/06/the-daughters-of-athens/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=the-daughters-of-athens	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00039.warc.gz	en	0.982934	640	3.390625	3	[ -0.017412949353456497, 0.4280468225479126, 0.4845353662967682, -0.15981262922286987, -0.519762396812439, -0.14754928648471832, 0.08204434812068939, 0.5431771278381348, -0.31092143058776855, 0.3191256821155548, -0.4316498637199402, -0.48363614082336426, -0.3889212906360626, 0.52606534957885...	4	Located on the southern side of Erechtheion, gaze the Parthenon and in the background the city of Athens. THE HISTORY OF THEIR CONSTRUCTION After the end of Persian wars (451 B.C) and the win of Greeks, the Athenians who had played a decisive and leading role, decided through their leader Pericles a magnificent plan for the reconstruction of the Acropolis rock. These sanctuaries had already been destroyed during the war, since they were mostly made of wood. The plans and the supervision were undertaken by the well- known sculptor Phidias. Erechtheion was built on the foundations of an old temple that existed there in honor of Goddess Athena. It was the last building on the Acropolis rock and it was probably designed by the architect Mnesicles. Its construction started in 421 B.C and lasted till 407 B.C. The strange thing with this particular building is its different architectural approach since it consists of levels of different height because it is built on a slope. The temple was dedicated to Athena and Poseidon for remembrance of the confrontation of who will give his name to the city. For this reason the eastern part was devoted to Athena and the western to Poseidon. On the south side instead of the columns, we observe 6 female statues in Π shape. The Caryatids while they look like each other, they are unique. Their hands are free and all the weight falls to the head although the canister helps to see the support of the temple in a natural way. In their hands, they wore bracelets with snakes and carried utensils with libations. Their hair was differently combed in each one and caught back wearing a long tunic. Pentelic marble has been used and it is possible that each one was painted in different colors. THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF THEIR NAME In our time 3 are the most prevalent theories. The name Caryatids was taken much later and according to the Roman architect Vitrouvios, they were virgin dancers from Caryes in Laconia who were dancing in honor to Artemis. Another theory is that before the battle of Thermopyles a city in Laconia, Caryes despised the alliance and supported the Persians. After their victory the Greeks completely destroyed the city, killed all the men and sold the women as slaves. In order not to forgive their betrayal, they started constructing statues of women and placed them in their monuments instead of columns. None of the above theories can be justified because originally they were created in Athens and also because the Carya girls used to dance and pray with a short tunic. Nowadays, it is considered by the scientific community that they are Athenians daughters dressed in the Doric veil and with a simple tunic which was common in the area of Attica. More likely their first name was “Kores” which means daughters. Whatever is the truth about the origin of their name is lost in the depths of centuries. The fact is that the goal to endure and not to cause any damage due to them in the monument was achieved.	633	ENGLISH	1
23 Mar 2015 Dr. Kwame Nkrumah was a political leader and icon throughout Africa. He was able to liberate the Gold Coast and form it into the modern day state of Ghana. Around this same time, Africa was undergoing a complete political change, they were attempting to escape the wrath of imperial rulers from countries such as; Britain, France Poland, and Portugal. Immediately after the colonial rule, only eight independent states were established: Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Libya, Morocco, Sudan, and Tunisia. Even as he watched the beginnings of independence forming in Africa, Nkrumah stillfeared that the imperialist rulers had “cleverly postponed their ultimate and inevitable demise by previously granting formal sovereignty to their colonies, yet by various economic and political demises continuing to exploit and direct the fortunes of new states.” Nkrumah had devised many political objectives to combat imperialist and he was able to implement them at just the right time. His personal beliefs and ideologies led him to strive for Ghana’s colonial independence and Africa’s unity. His drive and passion towards what he believed in make him an everlasting part of Africa’s history. Nkrumah was able to present his political beliefs against colonialism early on in his career as a graduate student in England. He joined a student club and advanced his message through the local papers during his time at the London School of Economics. In 1947, Nkrumah was able to publish a pamphlet that was focused on showing the down side of the imperialist rule on the Gold Coast. It also described his thoughts towards colonial freedom and how it could be obtained. The pamphlet presented his four points to success; which was a program that preached “the abolition of political illiteracy, the organization of the masses, the establishment of an educational fund, and the need for a national press.” His leadership role progressed even further when he was elected to the executive board of the West African Student Union at his college. While vice president he continued to discredit foreign rule in Africa. His passion towards ending the foreign rule in Africa was so great that it compelled him to form a secret union known as the Circle Union of Socialist African Republics. This secret group sought to liberate Africa from its imperialistic rulers. After developing the secret society in England, the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) employed him as their secretary. The UGCC was “an organization formed mainly by lawyers, doctors and chiefs, to end British colonial rule in the Gold Coast in the shortest possible time” in 1947.3 This new position allowed Nkrumah to show his skills in action by expanding the UGCC offices in Ghana from only a few to over six hundred in a six month period. This program proved to be very effective by spreading the ideas of self government to farmers, unions, women’s groups, and many of Ghana’s youth. This accomplishment, helped show the leaders of the UGCC that he was capable of leading and expanding his beliefs and ideologies to the public while at the same time creating a political community for the development of his political party the Conventions Peoples Party (CPP). Nkrumah officially founded the CPP to help liberate Ghana from the colonialist political oppression on June 12, 1949. The members were comprised of former members of the Committee on Youth Organization (CYO), which was previously a part of the UGCC. Nkrumah declared, “I am happy to be able to tell you that the CYO, owing to the present political tension, has decided to transform itself into a fully fledged political party with the object of promoting the fight for full self government." In Nkrumah’s eyes, the only way that the citizens of Ghana would be able to take control of their government would be through political unity. He publicly voiced that in his opinion a united Ghana was a necessity in order for the British influence to be removed from the Ghanaian political affairs. Once Ghana was able to establish political independence, Nkrumah argued that economic and cultural independence would follow close behind. Along with his formation of the CPP, Nkrumah’s policies instilled a positive influence on the people of Ghana and seemed detrimental to the British government’s chance of maintaining control. He was able to gain support from the people by using propaganda in the form of signs and also the appearance of the CPP flag was very colorful using red, white, and green, and he also found unity by coming up with party songs that would generally state, “there is victory for us”. All of these things were being used to make the public aware and to gain support in the removal of the colonial government. Nkrumah’s campaign, which soon became described as a positive action campaign, began on January 8, 1950. His formal campaign began immediately after the parliament refused to make up a constitution that contained the rights of the citizens of Ghana. This caused the entire country to come to a stand still; shops, factories, and many transportation services closed. It seemed as if the citizens were boycotting their own nation. The government took what it saw as its only option they arrested Nkrumah and closed down the CPP offices. While serving his time in jail, Nkrumah drew up his political campaign that he planned to implement in the 1951 election. In this election the CPP won seventy-one seats while sixteen were won by independents. By gaining a political voice Nkrumah was able to become the Prime Minister of Ghana in 1952. His title later became president on March 6, 1957 the day Ghana declared their independence. Once the country of Ghana gained their Independence, Nkrumah focused all of his energy on removing the imperialistic influences that still remained. Nkrumah felt that there were five key ways in which he could help fight against imperialistic pressures which were: political education, propaganda, nationalist aid, diplomatic cooperation, and finally implementing a policy in which the entire country of Ghana would not associate themselves with any form of imperialist.7 In his eyes every one of these steps was positive, and he also felt that any political opposition to these five ideas would only slow down his overall goal, which was to establish a united Africa. Due to this he developed Ghana into a single party state. His main reason for doing this was he felt that one group of leaders could represent the people’s common interests and he felt that any opposition would only cause a delay. Nkrumah also made strides to remove the temporary regional assemblies, which were the safeguards that were in the constitution that would help his opposition, and he enacted the Preventive Detention Act of 1957. This act was a law that allowed the police to arrest and detain people that were believed to be helping or working with imperialistic opposition. There were not only political obstacles to over come if Ghana was going to gain their independence, but Nkrumah also felt that the only way to maintain political independence and keep the imperialist forces from rising again was for Ghana to become economically independent. The key way for Ghana to become economically independent would be to industrialize the country. The first plan that was implemented by Nkrumah was in 1957, this plan was focused on getting the country ready for the industrialization that was going to come. This plan included increasing the availability of electricity, bettering roads, railways, and canals, using machinery in agriculture, educating the masses, and also raising the standards of many general services offered throughout the country. Nkrumah was able to follow through with his plans by establishing the Volta River project. This project was designed to help provide electricity by building the Accra to Tema Motorway while also developing an air traffic system and a shipping company. The only let down was that the plan did not help Ghana shift its agriculture from its dependency on cocoa. Cocoa is the country’s cash crop that accounts for almost seventy-five percent of the countries exports. Nkrumah also believed that state ownership and control of Ghana’s infrastructure would help avoid foreigners from gaining control of the country’s key factors of production. However, the country’s rapid modernization was one of the factors that made Nkrumah interested in implementing communism, but he refused to allow Ghana to become a Soviet satellite state. In Nkrumah’s eyes communism was an extremely effective way for a developing country to become an industrialized nation very quickly. Also, he felt that the communist’s system would help relieve the country of injustices that were generally seen in countries that used capitalist tactics. One of these injustices that Nkrumah extremely disliked was the thought that a small group of citizens would become extremely rich at the expense of a large group of poor citizens. For this very reason Nkrumah established a new development board known as the Agricultural Development Board. This board main function was to regulate the production of the country’s main crop, cocoa, and also to raise the country’s production of other goods such as: cotton, pineapple, and rubber. The board was able to provide a short economic growth of twelve percent between the years of 1957 and 1962, but the country’s dependency on cocoa would end up causing Ghana’s market to collapse on February 24, 1966. At the same time he was working on gaining independence for Ghana, his leadership was able to provide support and stability for other African states that were beginning to support the African Liberation Movement and turning against the colonial powers. Nkrumah enthusiastically said, “our independence is meaningless unless it is linked up with the total liberation of the African continent.” The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was developed in 1964 is looked upon as a reflection of Nkrumah’s sole efforts to unite the entire continent of Africa into a single, powerful nation. The OAU’s charter describes the immutability of colonial borders and it ensures the improbability of African microstates. Overall, its existence made both the ex-colonial and neo-colonial powers happy where as the revolutionary side of Nkrumah’s political ideologies generally made them upset. According to Nkrumah, the only way for the colonial powers to be removed would be through a total unified effort because in his eyes there is no one country that has the resources to strive above alone, but, a unified Africa would most definitely prevail. In Nkrumah’s book, Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism Nkrumah presents the thought of neo-colonialism. This is a situation in which the relationship between a former ruling power and its formal colony remains the same even after the colony declares its independence. He expresses the tactics of foreign power, which included the policy of balkanization, which is the lowering of the standards of living in a developing country, military bases remaining in former colonies, the forced approval of military pacts with African powers, and also the ruling of countries through the puppet regimes in Africa. Later on Nkrumah stated “In this book I exposed the economic stranglehold exercised by foreign monopolistic complexes such as the Anglo-American Corporation, and illustrated the ways in which this financial grip perpetuated the paradox of Africa poverty in the midst of plenty. The American Government sent me a note of protest, and promptly refused Ghana $35 million of aid.” In Nkrumah’s final published work, he denounces what he calls new imperialism and he blames his downfall on the fact that Ghana remained dependent and never became fully independent. His writings showed many things; one main thing that was shown was that Nkrumah was not supportive of the American government. This was due to the fact that at that time they were engaged in fighting the Vietnam War and he felt that Ghana was going to fall under communist control through the domino effect. At the same time the economy in Ghana had collapsed and the foreign exchange and government’s reserves disappeared. The Unemployment rate rose dramatically and food prices skyrocketed. The food prices were up over 250 percent from the year 1957 and up sixty-six percent in 1965.14 Later on there were huge food shortages that effected every area and individual in the country. Thus on February 24, 1966, Colonel Emmanuel Kwasi Kotoka who was a member of the National Liberation Council (NLC), which was the opposing force to Nkrumah, took over the government. The take over was conducted under the code name Operation Cold Chop. The United States and Ghana’s neo-colonialists supported this operation which then caused the parliament to be dissolved and outlawed Nkrumah’s political party, and also dismissed Nkrumah as President of Ghana’s First Republic. Certainly, his accomplishments, his enthusiasm for a united Africa, his political support of an independent society, his leadership and drive to gain independence for Ghana, and his multiple economic achievements have earned Nkrumah an important and well deserved place in history. His messages of independence have allowed the people of Ghana to have a base for passion and self-reliance. Throughout Ghana, in every region of the country, the citizens were affected by the principles of the CPP. He was able to organize the independence of a country which set the standards that all other African countries can use and follow. This was especially apparent in the Grand Liberation of 1960 in which Nigeria, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia all became independent.15 His main political objectives of strengthening the government of Ghana and modernizing the entire country prove to be effective, even if it was only for a short time. Most Africans remember Nkrumah as the redeemer because he was able to provide leadership in with a charismatic attitude that the Africans had needed to help guide the country away from imperialism. Though Nkrumah inevitably lost his power he is not remembered as a failure. He is mostly remembered as a man who had a goal and was willing to sacrifice everything for that goal. He was able to give all Africans a way to achieve their unity and he was also able to end Africa’s economic dependence on western countries. His fight did not end until the day he died; even in exile Nkrumah voiced his beliefs and thoughts. He continued to fight for what he believed in until he passed away on April 27, 1972 after a battle with cancer. If you are the real writer of this essay and no longer want to have the essay published on the our website then please click on the link below to send us request removal:Request the removal of this essay Get in touch with our dedicated team to discuss about your requirements in detail. We are here to help you our best in any way. If you are unsure about what you exactly need, please complete the short enquiry form below and we will get back to you with quote as soon as possible.	<urn:uuid:d80470f9-3bdc-4a51-95aa-4b35ad781097>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.essaycompany.com/essays/politics/dr-kwame-nkruma	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00361.warc.gz	en	0.984338	3,067	3.59375	4	[ -0.18025586009025574, 0.6584201455116272, 0.5434922575950623, 0.10007405281066895, 0.2187860608100891, 0.021888136863708496, 0.0916137844324112, -0.12066318094730377, -0.16208094358444214, 0.3598463535308838, 0.01250726543366909, -0.47740909457206726, -0.18482348322868347, 0.15383008122444...	4	23 Mar 2015 Dr. Kwame Nkrumah was a political leader and icon throughout Africa. He was able to liberate the Gold Coast and form it into the modern day state of Ghana. Around this same time, Africa was undergoing a complete political change, they were attempting to escape the wrath of imperial rulers from countries such as; Britain, France Poland, and Portugal. Immediately after the colonial rule, only eight independent states were established: Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Libya, Morocco, Sudan, and Tunisia. Even as he watched the beginnings of independence forming in Africa, Nkrumah stillfeared that the imperialist rulers had “cleverly postponed their ultimate and inevitable demise by previously granting formal sovereignty to their colonies, yet by various economic and political demises continuing to exploit and direct the fortunes of new states.” Nkrumah had devised many political objectives to combat imperialist and he was able to implement them at just the right time. His personal beliefs and ideologies led him to strive for Ghana’s colonial independence and Africa’s unity. His drive and passion towards what he believed in make him an everlasting part of Africa’s history. Nkrumah was able to present his political beliefs against colonialism early on in his career as a graduate student in England. He joined a student club and advanced his message through the local papers during his time at the London School of Economics. In 1947, Nkrumah was able to publish a pamphlet that was focused on showing the down side of the imperialist rule on the Gold Coast. It also described his thoughts towards colonial freedom and how it could be obtained. The pamphlet presented his four points to success; which was a program that preached “the abolition of political illiteracy, the organization of the masses, the establishment of an educational fund, and the need for a national press.” His leadership role progressed even further when he was elected to the executive board of the West African Student Union at his college. While vice president he continued to discredit foreign rule in Africa. His passion towards ending the foreign rule in Africa was so great that it compelled him to form a secret union known as the Circle Union of Socialist African Republics. This secret group sought to liberate Africa from its imperialistic rulers. After developing the secret society in England, the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) employed him as their secretary. The UGCC was “an organization formed mainly by lawyers, doctors and chiefs, to end British colonial rule in the Gold Coast in the shortest possible time” in 1947.3 This new position allowed Nkrumah to show his skills in action by expanding the UGCC offices in Ghana from only a few to over six hundred in a six month period. This program proved to be very effective by spreading the ideas of self government to farmers, unions, women’s groups, and many of Ghana’s youth. This accomplishment, helped show the leaders of the UGCC that he was capable of leading and expanding his beliefs and ideologies to the public while at the same time creating a political community for the development of his political party the Conventions Peoples Party (CPP). Nkrumah officially founded the CPP to help liberate Ghana from the colonialist political oppression on June 12, 1949. The members were comprised of former members of the Committee on Youth Organization (CYO), which was previously a part of the UGCC. Nkrumah declared, “I am happy to be able to tell you that the CYO, owing to the present political tension, has decided to transform itself into a fully fledged political party with the object of promoting the fight for full self government." In Nkrumah’s eyes, the only way that the citizens of Ghana would be able to take control of their government would be through political unity. He publicly voiced that in his opinion a united Ghana was a necessity in order for the British influence to be removed from the Ghanaian political affairs. Once Ghana was able to establish political independence, Nkrumah argued that economic and cultural independence would follow close behind. Along with his formation of the CPP, Nkrumah’s policies instilled a positive influence on the people of Ghana and seemed detrimental to the British government’s chance of maintaining control. He was able to gain support from the people by using propaganda in the form of signs and also the appearance of the CPP flag was very colorful using red, white, and green, and he also found unity by coming up with party songs that would generally state, “there is victory for us”. All of these things were being used to make the public aware and to gain support in the removal of the colonial government. Nkrumah’s campaign, which soon became described as a positive action campaign, began on January 8, 1950. His formal campaign began immediately after the parliament refused to make up a constitution that contained the rights of the citizens of Ghana. This caused the entire country to come to a stand still; shops, factories, and many transportation services closed. It seemed as if the citizens were boycotting their own nation. The government took what it saw as its only option they arrested Nkrumah and closed down the CPP offices. While serving his time in jail, Nkrumah drew up his political campaign that he planned to implement in the 1951 election. In this election the CPP won seventy-one seats while sixteen were won by independents. By gaining a political voice Nkrumah was able to become the Prime Minister of Ghana in 1952. His title later became president on March 6, 1957 the day Ghana declared their independence. Once the country of Ghana gained their Independence, Nkrumah focused all of his energy on removing the imperialistic influences that still remained. Nkrumah felt that there were five key ways in which he could help fight against imperialistic pressures which were: political education, propaganda, nationalist aid, diplomatic cooperation, and finally implementing a policy in which the entire country of Ghana would not associate themselves with any form of imperialist.7 In his eyes every one of these steps was positive, and he also felt that any political opposition to these five ideas would only slow down his overall goal, which was to establish a united Africa. Due to this he developed Ghana into a single party state. His main reason for doing this was he felt that one group of leaders could represent the people’s common interests and he felt that any opposition would only cause a delay. Nkrumah also made strides to remove the temporary regional assemblies, which were the safeguards that were in the constitution that would help his opposition, and he enacted the Preventive Detention Act of 1957. This act was a law that allowed the police to arrest and detain people that were believed to be helping or working with imperialistic opposition. There were not only political obstacles to over come if Ghana was going to gain their independence, but Nkrumah also felt that the only way to maintain political independence and keep the imperialist forces from rising again was for Ghana to become economically independent. The key way for Ghana to become economically independent would be to industrialize the country. The first plan that was implemented by Nkrumah was in 1957, this plan was focused on getting the country ready for the industrialization that was going to come. This plan included increasing the availability of electricity, bettering roads, railways, and canals, using machinery in agriculture, educating the masses, and also raising the standards of many general services offered throughout the country. Nkrumah was able to follow through with his plans by establishing the Volta River project. This project was designed to help provide electricity by building the Accra to Tema Motorway while also developing an air traffic system and a shipping company. The only let down was that the plan did not help Ghana shift its agriculture from its dependency on cocoa. Cocoa is the country’s cash crop that accounts for almost seventy-five percent of the countries exports. Nkrumah also believed that state ownership and control of Ghana’s infrastructure would help avoid foreigners from gaining control of the country’s key factors of production. However, the country’s rapid modernization was one of the factors that made Nkrumah interested in implementing communism, but he refused to allow Ghana to become a Soviet satellite state. In Nkrumah’s eyes communism was an extremely effective way for a developing country to become an industrialized nation very quickly. Also, he felt that the communist’s system would help relieve the country of injustices that were generally seen in countries that used capitalist tactics. One of these injustices that Nkrumah extremely disliked was the thought that a small group of citizens would become extremely rich at the expense of a large group of poor citizens. For this very reason Nkrumah established a new development board known as the Agricultural Development Board. This board main function was to regulate the production of the country’s main crop, cocoa, and also to raise the country’s production of other goods such as: cotton, pineapple, and rubber. The board was able to provide a short economic growth of twelve percent between the years of 1957 and 1962, but the country’s dependency on cocoa would end up causing Ghana’s market to collapse on February 24, 1966. At the same time he was working on gaining independence for Ghana, his leadership was able to provide support and stability for other African states that were beginning to support the African Liberation Movement and turning against the colonial powers. Nkrumah enthusiastically said, “our independence is meaningless unless it is linked up with the total liberation of the African continent.” The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was developed in 1964 is looked upon as a reflection of Nkrumah’s sole efforts to unite the entire continent of Africa into a single, powerful nation. The OAU’s charter describes the immutability of colonial borders and it ensures the improbability of African microstates. Overall, its existence made both the ex-colonial and neo-colonial powers happy where as the revolutionary side of Nkrumah’s political ideologies generally made them upset. According to Nkrumah, the only way for the colonial powers to be removed would be through a total unified effort because in his eyes there is no one country that has the resources to strive above alone, but, a unified Africa would most definitely prevail. In Nkrumah’s book, Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism Nkrumah presents the thought of neo-colonialism. This is a situation in which the relationship between a former ruling power and its formal colony remains the same even after the colony declares its independence. He expresses the tactics of foreign power, which included the policy of balkanization, which is the lowering of the standards of living in a developing country, military bases remaining in former colonies, the forced approval of military pacts with African powers, and also the ruling of countries through the puppet regimes in Africa. Later on Nkrumah stated “In this book I exposed the economic stranglehold exercised by foreign monopolistic complexes such as the Anglo-American Corporation, and illustrated the ways in which this financial grip perpetuated the paradox of Africa poverty in the midst of plenty. The American Government sent me a note of protest, and promptly refused Ghana $35 million of aid.” In Nkrumah’s final published work, he denounces what he calls new imperialism and he blames his downfall on the fact that Ghana remained dependent and never became fully independent. His writings showed many things; one main thing that was shown was that Nkrumah was not supportive of the American government. This was due to the fact that at that time they were engaged in fighting the Vietnam War and he felt that Ghana was going to fall under communist control through the domino effect. At the same time the economy in Ghana had collapsed and the foreign exchange and government’s reserves disappeared. The Unemployment rate rose dramatically and food prices skyrocketed. The food prices were up over 250 percent from the year 1957 and up sixty-six percent in 1965.14 Later on there were huge food shortages that effected every area and individual in the country. Thus on February 24, 1966, Colonel Emmanuel Kwasi Kotoka who was a member of the National Liberation Council (NLC), which was the opposing force to Nkrumah, took over the government. The take over was conducted under the code name Operation Cold Chop. The United States and Ghana’s neo-colonialists supported this operation which then caused the parliament to be dissolved and outlawed Nkrumah’s political party, and also dismissed Nkrumah as President of Ghana’s First Republic. Certainly, his accomplishments, his enthusiasm for a united Africa, his political support of an independent society, his leadership and drive to gain independence for Ghana, and his multiple economic achievements have earned Nkrumah an important and well deserved place in history. His messages of independence have allowed the people of Ghana to have a base for passion and self-reliance. Throughout Ghana, in every region of the country, the citizens were affected by the principles of the CPP. He was able to organize the independence of a country which set the standards that all other African countries can use and follow. This was especially apparent in the Grand Liberation of 1960 in which Nigeria, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia all became independent.15 His main political objectives of strengthening the government of Ghana and modernizing the entire country prove to be effective, even if it was only for a short time. Most Africans remember Nkrumah as the redeemer because he was able to provide leadership in with a charismatic attitude that the Africans had needed to help guide the country away from imperialism. Though Nkrumah inevitably lost his power he is not remembered as a failure. He is mostly remembered as a man who had a goal and was willing to sacrifice everything for that goal. He was able to give all Africans a way to achieve their unity and he was also able to end Africa’s economic dependence on western countries. His fight did not end until the day he died; even in exile Nkrumah voiced his beliefs and thoughts. He continued to fight for what he believed in until he passed away on April 27, 1972 after a battle with cancer. If you are the real writer of this essay and no longer want to have the essay published on the our website then please click on the link below to send us request removal:Request the removal of this essay Get in touch with our dedicated team to discuss about your requirements in detail. We are here to help you our best in any way. If you are unsure about what you exactly need, please complete the short enquiry form below and we will get back to you with quote as soon as possible.	3,070	ENGLISH	1
Georgia, one of the original 13 colonies, entered the Union in January 1788. The state has participated in every presidential election except 1864 (due to secession). From 1868 thru 1960, the state was as “blue” as can be – voting Democratic in every election. Like many other southern states, its residents were conservative Democrats that went “red” in 1964 in response to unhappiness over the Civil Rights Act, which was effectively exploited by the Republicans in a tactic called the “southern strategy.” In 1968, Georgia voted for Independent George Wallace in an election that marked the last time a third-party candidate received any electoral votes. Georgia has been reliably Republican since 1972, except when a southern Democrat was on the ticket – Georgians sided with native son Jimmy Carter in 1976 and 1980 and Bill Clinton in 1992. In 2004, George Bush easily defeated John Kerry by 58% to 41%. Republican margins have been more narrow since then, as the state's rapidly growing population has led to some shifts in overall demographics. In 2016, Donald Trump beat Hillary Clinton by about 5%. The growing population has led to Georgia gaining at least one electoral vote in each of the last three Census reapportionments. Only seven states now have more than its 16 electoral votes.	<urn:uuid:5325626c-26ce-4ef5-a2d4-f62e34f1f2c8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.270towin.com/states/Georgia	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00288.warc.gz	en	0.98086	261	3.390625	3	[ -0.4812503159046173, -0.17475555837154388, 0.1983136385679245, 0.014110756106674671, -0.422661691904068, 0.45276376605033875, 0.003732462879270315, -0.1441291868686676, -0.00011769949196605012, 0.19551031291484833, -0.051648158580064774, 0.48876628279685974, 0.000510405283421278, 0.3453611...	1	Georgia, one of the original 13 colonies, entered the Union in January 1788. The state has participated in every presidential election except 1864 (due to secession). From 1868 thru 1960, the state was as “blue” as can be – voting Democratic in every election. Like many other southern states, its residents were conservative Democrats that went “red” in 1964 in response to unhappiness over the Civil Rights Act, which was effectively exploited by the Republicans in a tactic called the “southern strategy.” In 1968, Georgia voted for Independent George Wallace in an election that marked the last time a third-party candidate received any electoral votes. Georgia has been reliably Republican since 1972, except when a southern Democrat was on the ticket – Georgians sided with native son Jimmy Carter in 1976 and 1980 and Bill Clinton in 1992. In 2004, George Bush easily defeated John Kerry by 58% to 41%. Republican margins have been more narrow since then, as the state's rapidly growing population has led to some shifts in overall demographics. In 2016, Donald Trump beat Hillary Clinton by about 5%. The growing population has led to Georgia gaining at least one electoral vote in each of the last three Census reapportionments. Only seven states now have more than its 16 electoral votes.	308	ENGLISH	1
The Chorus sets the scene in the English and French camps at night. The neighing of horses pierce the night air, as does the sound of the armourers' hammers as they prepare the knights' armor. At three o'clock in the morning, the overconfident French are impatient for dawn, while the English sit patiently by their fires like men waiting to be sacrificed. Their thoughts are heavy. But Henry walks around the camp, visiting his men and encouraging them. With his cheerful manner, he gives no sign of the dire situation they are all in. Every soldier is comforted by the sight of their King. Their fears dissipate. The Chorus describes another lesson in leadership given by Henry. He does not cajole or bully his men, but talks to them as friends and brothers. He knows that any chance they have of victory rests on their morale and courage, rather than their weaponry. Refusing to show any fear, he leads by example. In Renaissance thought, a King was often compared to the sun, a comparison made here also. Just as the sun warms everyone, so the sight of Henry comforts all his troops and thaws their fear.	<urn:uuid:f5dd8f9b-8156-4fbd-9532-a5279e1a2a25>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.novelguide.com/henry-v/summaries/act4	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00143.warc.gz	en	0.98255	243	3.6875	4	[ -0.2972780764102936, 0.4090200364589691, 0.045727916061878204, 0.20897050201892853, -0.058129291981458664, 0.02420436032116413, 0.46627676486968994, -0.07371613383293152, 0.15321865677833557, -0.38211724162101746, -0.11737202852964401, -0.23640543222427368, 0.2545183598995209, 0.2333659678...	7	The Chorus sets the scene in the English and French camps at night. The neighing of horses pierce the night air, as does the sound of the armourers' hammers as they prepare the knights' armor. At three o'clock in the morning, the overconfident French are impatient for dawn, while the English sit patiently by their fires like men waiting to be sacrificed. Their thoughts are heavy. But Henry walks around the camp, visiting his men and encouraging them. With his cheerful manner, he gives no sign of the dire situation they are all in. Every soldier is comforted by the sight of their King. Their fears dissipate. The Chorus describes another lesson in leadership given by Henry. He does not cajole or bully his men, but talks to them as friends and brothers. He knows that any chance they have of victory rests on their morale and courage, rather than their weaponry. Refusing to show any fear, he leads by example. In Renaissance thought, a King was often compared to the sun, a comparison made here also. Just as the sun warms everyone, so the sight of Henry comforts all his troops and thaws their fear.	239	ENGLISH	1
The bulk of human history has been that of a culture of hunter gathers or foragers. They did not plant crops or modify ecosystem dynamics in any significant manner as they were passively dependent on what the local environment had to offer. They did however domesticate dogs as early as 100,000 BCE (Vila et al. 1997); these animals were useful as hunting aids, guardians, and occasionally as food during times of scarcity. Hunter gatherers maintained social organization and interdependence, and prevented the loss of food to spoilage by sharing the harvest among community members. These people lived in harmony with their supporting ecosystems and their ability to unsustainably stress and damage their environment was limited by the fact that if their numbers exceeded the carrying capacity of the complex, self-managing, species diverse, resilient terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems from which they gained their sustenance, then hunger and lower fertility exercised negative feedback controls on further expansion.	<urn:uuid:6cd569af-79b2-44e1-a0eb-63dc99259f47>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.fieldandstream.com/pages/chad-love-hunting-and-apocalypse/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00139.warc.gz	en	0.983631	187	3.484375	3	[ -0.03108545020222664, 0.24439528584480286, 0.44828224182128906, 0.17785264551639557, 0.24577739834785461, -0.33370649814605713, -0.014225505292415619, 0.2309412658214569, -0.18447206914424896, -0.04864411801099777, 0.08964365720748901, -0.6392269134521484, 0.2308858036994934, 0.18857625126...	1	The bulk of human history has been that of a culture of hunter gathers or foragers. They did not plant crops or modify ecosystem dynamics in any significant manner as they were passively dependent on what the local environment had to offer. They did however domesticate dogs as early as 100,000 BCE (Vila et al. 1997); these animals were useful as hunting aids, guardians, and occasionally as food during times of scarcity. Hunter gatherers maintained social organization and interdependence, and prevented the loss of food to spoilage by sharing the harvest among community members. These people lived in harmony with their supporting ecosystems and their ability to unsustainably stress and damage their environment was limited by the fact that if their numbers exceeded the carrying capacity of the complex, self-managing, species diverse, resilient terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems from which they gained their sustenance, then hunger and lower fertility exercised negative feedback controls on further expansion.	193	ENGLISH	1
In 1933 a portion of the Nazi Party’s Schutzstaffel (SS) was armed and trained along military lines and served as an armed force. These troops were originally known as the SS-Verfügungstruppen, the name indicating that they served at the Führer’s pleasure. By 1939, four regiments (Standarten) had been organized. The Verfügungstruppen took part in the occupation of Austria and Czechoslovakia side by side with the Army (Heer). During the months preceding the outbreak of the war, they were given intensive military training and were formed into units that took part in the Polish campaign. In addition, elements of Death’s Head formations (Totenkopfverbände), which served as concentration camp guards, also took to the field as combat units. During the following winter and spring, regiments that had fought in Poland were expanded into brigades and later divisions. This purely military branch of the SS was known at first as the Bewaffnete SS (Armed SS) and later as the Waffen-SS. The regiment Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler eventually became a division of the same name; the Standarte Deutschland together with the Austrian Standarte Der Führer formed the Verfügungs Division, to which a third regiment, Langemarck, was later added, creating the division Das Reich; and the Totenkopf units were formed into the Totenkopf Division. These three divisions were to be the nucleus of the Waffen-SS in its subsequent rapid expansion. The Evolving Waffen-SS The Waffen-SS was based on a policy of strict racial selection and emphasis on political indoctrination. The reasons for its formation were as much political as they were an opportunity to acquire the officer material that was to prove valuable to the SS later. As the war intensified, the Waffen-SS began recruiting “Nordic” peoples. In 1940, the Standarten Nordland and Westland were created to incorporate such “Germanic” volunteers into the organization. They were combined with the existing Standarte Germania to form the Wiking Division. Subsequently, the Waffen-SS formed native “Legions” in many of the occupied territories. These were eventually converted into brigades and divisions. A relaxation of the principles of racial selection occurred as the war turned against Germany. During 1943-1944 the SS turned more and more to recruiting all available manpower in occupied areas. While its main efforts were directed toward the incorporation of the “racial” Germans (Volksdeutsche), a scheme was devised that permitted the recruiting of foreigners of all nationalities while retaining at least some semblance of the original principles of “Nordic” superiority. Spreading foreigners thinly throughout trustworthy units soon proved insufficient to digest the mass of recruits. Consequently, divisions of foreigners were formed that received a sprinkling of regular Waffen-SS cadres. Finally, it became necessary to complement the Waffen-SS officer corps with foreigners. Concerned with the racial aspects of their units, Waffen-SS leaders developed a naming system that dubbed a unit as foreign with an addition to its designation. Units with a high percentage of racial Germans and “Germanic” volunteers—Scandinavians, Dutch, Flemings, Walloons, and Frenchmen—such as the 11th SS-Freiwilligen Panzergrenadier Division Nordland, carried the designation “Freiwilligen.” Units containing a preponderance of non-Germanic personnel, especially Slavic and Baltic peoples, such as the 15th Waffen-Grenadier Division-SS, carried the designation “Waffen-” as part of the unit name. This organizational expansion modified the character of the Waffen-SS as an elite political formation. Nevertheless, these divisions were expected to fight to the bitter end, especially since the individual soldiers had been made to feel personally involved in war crimes, and propaganda convinced most that their treatment, either in captivity or after Germany’s defeat, would compare unfavorably with that accorded other members of the armed forces. SS Panzer Divisions Over time, the Waffen-SS created some 42 divisions and three brigades as well as a number of small, independent units. Of the divisions, seven were panzer divisions. The balance included 12 panzergrenadier divisions, six mountain divisions, 11 grenadier divisions, four cavalry divisions, and a police division. Many of the divisions, organized late in the war, were divisions in name only and never exceeded regimental strength. The SS panzer divisions were the purest in terms of German members, as well as being the best equipped and supported of all German combat units. They formed the strongest and politically most reliable portion of the Waffen-SS. The creation of an SS panzer division was sometimes evolutionary. Formed from Hitler’s bodyguard unit, the Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler became a full infantry regiment with three battalions, an artillery battalion, and antitank, reconnaissance, and engineer attachments in 1939. After it was involved in the annexation of Bohemia and Moravia, it was redesignated the Infanterie-Regiment Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler (motorized). In mid-1939 Hitler ordered it organized as an SS division, but the Polish crisis put these plans on hold. The regiment proved itself an effective fighting unit during the campaign, though several Army generals had reservations about the high casualties it had sustained in combat. In early 1940, the regiment was expanded to an independent motorized infantry regiment, and an assault gun battery was added. After the Western campaign, it was expanded to brigade size. Despite this, it retained the designation as a regiment. Following an outstanding performance in Greece, Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler ordered it upgraded to division status. However, there was no time to refit the unit before launching Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union, and so it remained the size of a reinforced brigade. In late July 1942, severely understrength and completely exhausted from operations in Russia, the unit was pulled out of the line and sent to France to rebuild and join the newly formed SS Panzer Corps, where it was reformed as a panzergrenadier division. Thanks to Himmler and Obergruppenführer (General) Paul Hausser, the SS Panzer Corps commander, the four SS panzergrenadier divisions—Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler, Wiking, Das Reich, and Totenkopf—were organized to include a full panzer regiment rather than only a battalion as found in Army units. This meant that the SS panzergrenadier divisions were full-strength panzer divisions in terms of their complement of tanks. Following the capitulation of Italy, the Leibstandarte engaged in several major counterinsurgency operations against Italian partisans. During its time in Italy, the Leibstandarte was reformed as a full panzer division and designated the 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler. SS Panzergrenadiers From Abroad Waffen-SS grenadier or infantry divisions were mainly recruited outside Germany. One was formed from French recruits, two in Latvia, one in Estonia, one with Ukrainians, another from Soviet prisoners, and one of Italian Fascists. The latter two each held the designation as the 29th SS Grenadier Division at different times, the former Soviet prisoners in 1944 and the Italian Fascists in 1945. All of these divisions were created from 1943 to 1945. Ukrainians, Latvians, Estonians, and Russian turncoats who joined the SS were executed if taken prisoner by the Soviets. Those found in the hands of the Western Allies after the war were returned to the Soviets to suffer the same fate. Waffen-SS prisoners taken by the Red Army seldom survived their initial capture or lengthy imprisonment in the Soviet Union. Six SS mountain divisions were formed from Volksdeutsche. Three were short-lived units made up of Balkan Muslims, and one, which never exceeded regimental strength, was formed from Italian Fascists. Eleven of the 12 SS panzergrenadier divisions were created or their designations were assigned from 1943 to 1945. Nine of the divisions were formed from Volksdeutsche and non-Germans, which included Dutch, Walloons, Belgians, and Hungarians, but many were never stronger than regimental strength. Two SS Armies Command formations during the war included two SS armies, the Sixth SS Panzer Army and the Eleventh SS Army. Of the 13 SS corps, four were panzer corps, two were mountain corps, and seven were infantry corps. Seven of these corps were not created until 1944. The Sixth SS Panzer Army was created in the autumn of 1944 in northwestern Germany as the Sixth Panzer Army to oversee the refit of panzer divisions shattered during operations in France. It played a key role in the 1944 Ardennes offensive, then in Hungary in 1945, and finally in the fight for the Austrian capital of Vienna. The Eleventh SS Army was formed in February 1945. It operated in northern Germany until the end of the war. One Waffen-SS division was designated the SS-Panzer Grenadier-Polizei Division. This was the only unit made up of members of the police that had been incorporated into the Waffen-SS. In addition, the 35th SS Police Grenadier Division was organized from German policemen in early 1945, although it only reached regimental strength. Raising the Waffen-SS In principle, the SS was to accept no new members after 1933, except from selected graduates of the Hitler Youth. However, the creation of the Waffen-SS and its rapid growth caused the partial suspension of this rule. However, service in the Waffen-SS did not necessarily include membership in the SS proper. Prior to the war, suitable SS candidates were singled out while still in the Hitler Youth (HJ). Boys who had proved themselves, often under SS leadership, in the HJ patrol service were often tabbed for later SS service. If the candidate satisfied SS requirements in political reliability, racial purity, and physique, he was accepted as a candidate at the age of 18. At the annual Nazi Party Congress in September, candidates were accepted, received SS certificates, and were enrolled in the SS.	<urn:uuid:46ed7bf1-31cc-488c-a79f-4ad74a8b4157>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/waffen-ss-hitlers-private-nazi-army-evil-42552	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00553.warc.gz	en	0.980999	2,209	3.4375	3	[ -0.3497946560382843, 0.5296151638031006, 0.029155690222978592, -0.23154062032699585, -0.008471846580505371, 0.41710367798805237, -0.2192228138446808, -0.06060151755809784, -0.35671356320381165, -0.39585793018341064, 0.6373817920684814, -0.15834173560142517, 0.34134891629219055, 0.309377908...	2	In 1933 a portion of the Nazi Party’s Schutzstaffel (SS) was armed and trained along military lines and served as an armed force. These troops were originally known as the SS-Verfügungstruppen, the name indicating that they served at the Führer’s pleasure. By 1939, four regiments (Standarten) had been organized. The Verfügungstruppen took part in the occupation of Austria and Czechoslovakia side by side with the Army (Heer). During the months preceding the outbreak of the war, they were given intensive military training and were formed into units that took part in the Polish campaign. In addition, elements of Death’s Head formations (Totenkopfverbände), which served as concentration camp guards, also took to the field as combat units. During the following winter and spring, regiments that had fought in Poland were expanded into brigades and later divisions. This purely military branch of the SS was known at first as the Bewaffnete SS (Armed SS) and later as the Waffen-SS. The regiment Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler eventually became a division of the same name; the Standarte Deutschland together with the Austrian Standarte Der Führer formed the Verfügungs Division, to which a third regiment, Langemarck, was later added, creating the division Das Reich; and the Totenkopf units were formed into the Totenkopf Division. These three divisions were to be the nucleus of the Waffen-SS in its subsequent rapid expansion. The Evolving Waffen-SS The Waffen-SS was based on a policy of strict racial selection and emphasis on political indoctrination. The reasons for its formation were as much political as they were an opportunity to acquire the officer material that was to prove valuable to the SS later. As the war intensified, the Waffen-SS began recruiting “Nordic” peoples. In 1940, the Standarten Nordland and Westland were created to incorporate such “Germanic” volunteers into the organization. They were combined with the existing Standarte Germania to form the Wiking Division. Subsequently, the Waffen-SS formed native “Legions” in many of the occupied territories. These were eventually converted into brigades and divisions. A relaxation of the principles of racial selection occurred as the war turned against Germany. During 1943-1944 the SS turned more and more to recruiting all available manpower in occupied areas. While its main efforts were directed toward the incorporation of the “racial” Germans (Volksdeutsche), a scheme was devised that permitted the recruiting of foreigners of all nationalities while retaining at least some semblance of the original principles of “Nordic” superiority. Spreading foreigners thinly throughout trustworthy units soon proved insufficient to digest the mass of recruits. Consequently, divisions of foreigners were formed that received a sprinkling of regular Waffen-SS cadres. Finally, it became necessary to complement the Waffen-SS officer corps with foreigners. Concerned with the racial aspects of their units, Waffen-SS leaders developed a naming system that dubbed a unit as foreign with an addition to its designation. Units with a high percentage of racial Germans and “Germanic” volunteers—Scandinavians, Dutch, Flemings, Walloons, and Frenchmen—such as the 11th SS-Freiwilligen Panzergrenadier Division Nordland, carried the designation “Freiwilligen.” Units containing a preponderance of non-Germanic personnel, especially Slavic and Baltic peoples, such as the 15th Waffen-Grenadier Division-SS, carried the designation “Waffen-” as part of the unit name. This organizational expansion modified the character of the Waffen-SS as an elite political formation. Nevertheless, these divisions were expected to fight to the bitter end, especially since the individual soldiers had been made to feel personally involved in war crimes, and propaganda convinced most that their treatment, either in captivity or after Germany’s defeat, would compare unfavorably with that accorded other members of the armed forces. SS Panzer Divisions Over time, the Waffen-SS created some 42 divisions and three brigades as well as a number of small, independent units. Of the divisions, seven were panzer divisions. The balance included 12 panzergrenadier divisions, six mountain divisions, 11 grenadier divisions, four cavalry divisions, and a police division. Many of the divisions, organized late in the war, were divisions in name only and never exceeded regimental strength. The SS panzer divisions were the purest in terms of German members, as well as being the best equipped and supported of all German combat units. They formed the strongest and politically most reliable portion of the Waffen-SS. The creation of an SS panzer division was sometimes evolutionary. Formed from Hitler’s bodyguard unit, the Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler became a full infantry regiment with three battalions, an artillery battalion, and antitank, reconnaissance, and engineer attachments in 1939. After it was involved in the annexation of Bohemia and Moravia, it was redesignated the Infanterie-Regiment Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler (motorized). In mid-1939 Hitler ordered it organized as an SS division, but the Polish crisis put these plans on hold. The regiment proved itself an effective fighting unit during the campaign, though several Army generals had reservations about the high casualties it had sustained in combat. In early 1940, the regiment was expanded to an independent motorized infantry regiment, and an assault gun battery was added. After the Western campaign, it was expanded to brigade size. Despite this, it retained the designation as a regiment. Following an outstanding performance in Greece, Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler ordered it upgraded to division status. However, there was no time to refit the unit before launching Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union, and so it remained the size of a reinforced brigade. In late July 1942, severely understrength and completely exhausted from operations in Russia, the unit was pulled out of the line and sent to France to rebuild and join the newly formed SS Panzer Corps, where it was reformed as a panzergrenadier division. Thanks to Himmler and Obergruppenführer (General) Paul Hausser, the SS Panzer Corps commander, the four SS panzergrenadier divisions—Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler, Wiking, Das Reich, and Totenkopf—were organized to include a full panzer regiment rather than only a battalion as found in Army units. This meant that the SS panzergrenadier divisions were full-strength panzer divisions in terms of their complement of tanks. Following the capitulation of Italy, the Leibstandarte engaged in several major counterinsurgency operations against Italian partisans. During its time in Italy, the Leibstandarte was reformed as a full panzer division and designated the 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler. SS Panzergrenadiers From Abroad Waffen-SS grenadier or infantry divisions were mainly recruited outside Germany. One was formed from French recruits, two in Latvia, one in Estonia, one with Ukrainians, another from Soviet prisoners, and one of Italian Fascists. The latter two each held the designation as the 29th SS Grenadier Division at different times, the former Soviet prisoners in 1944 and the Italian Fascists in 1945. All of these divisions were created from 1943 to 1945. Ukrainians, Latvians, Estonians, and Russian turncoats who joined the SS were executed if taken prisoner by the Soviets. Those found in the hands of the Western Allies after the war were returned to the Soviets to suffer the same fate. Waffen-SS prisoners taken by the Red Army seldom survived their initial capture or lengthy imprisonment in the Soviet Union. Six SS mountain divisions were formed from Volksdeutsche. Three were short-lived units made up of Balkan Muslims, and one, which never exceeded regimental strength, was formed from Italian Fascists. Eleven of the 12 SS panzergrenadier divisions were created or their designations were assigned from 1943 to 1945. Nine of the divisions were formed from Volksdeutsche and non-Germans, which included Dutch, Walloons, Belgians, and Hungarians, but many were never stronger than regimental strength. Two SS Armies Command formations during the war included two SS armies, the Sixth SS Panzer Army and the Eleventh SS Army. Of the 13 SS corps, four were panzer corps, two were mountain corps, and seven were infantry corps. Seven of these corps were not created until 1944. The Sixth SS Panzer Army was created in the autumn of 1944 in northwestern Germany as the Sixth Panzer Army to oversee the refit of panzer divisions shattered during operations in France. It played a key role in the 1944 Ardennes offensive, then in Hungary in 1945, and finally in the fight for the Austrian capital of Vienna. The Eleventh SS Army was formed in February 1945. It operated in northern Germany until the end of the war. One Waffen-SS division was designated the SS-Panzer Grenadier-Polizei Division. This was the only unit made up of members of the police that had been incorporated into the Waffen-SS. In addition, the 35th SS Police Grenadier Division was organized from German policemen in early 1945, although it only reached regimental strength. Raising the Waffen-SS In principle, the SS was to accept no new members after 1933, except from selected graduates of the Hitler Youth. However, the creation of the Waffen-SS and its rapid growth caused the partial suspension of this rule. However, service in the Waffen-SS did not necessarily include membership in the SS proper. Prior to the war, suitable SS candidates were singled out while still in the Hitler Youth (HJ). Boys who had proved themselves, often under SS leadership, in the HJ patrol service were often tabbed for later SS service. If the candidate satisfied SS requirements in political reliability, racial purity, and physique, he was accepted as a candidate at the age of 18. At the annual Nazi Party Congress in September, candidates were accepted, received SS certificates, and were enrolled in the SS.	2,226	ENGLISH	1
Francisco A. Lomelí Eusebio Chacón was a Mexican American (sometimes referred to as Chicano) figure who straddled the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He is someone who was forgotten and overlooked for about eighty years within the annals of Southwestern literature. He resurfaced in the mid-1970s as a key missing link in what is now called Chicano literature, at a time when its literary lineage was blurry and unknown. He was, therefore, instrumental in allowing critics to look back into the dusty shelves of libraries to identify writers who embodied the Mexican American experience within specific moments in history. Both his person and his writings provide an important window into subjects that interfaced with identity, literary formation and aesthetics, and social conditions, as well as how such early writers negotiated a new sense of Americanism while retaining some of their cultural background. Eusebio Chacón stands out as an outstanding example of turn-of-the-century intelligence, sensibility, versatility, and historical conscience in his attempts to educate people of Mexican descent about their rightful place in the United States as writers, social activists, and cultural beings. He fills a significant void that had remained up to the mid-1970s, which reveals how writings by such Mexican American writers were considered marginal.	<urn:uuid:b2d427be-bf86-403f-90ab-30d74df9a3b8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://oxfordre.com/literature/browse?btog=chap&f_0=keyword&pageSize=20&sort=titlesort&subSite=literature&t_0=ORE_LIT%3AREFLIT019&t_1=ORE_LIT%3AREFLIT007&t_2=ORE_LIT%3AREFLIT012&t_3=ORE_LIT%3AREFLIT031	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00293.warc.gz	en	0.984852	268	3.5	4	[ 0.33925414085388184, 0.20781855285167694, 0.2831934988498688, 0.4925137758255005, 0.06914234906435013, -0.05657344311475754, 0.06921058148145676, 0.40630701184272766, -0.0653984546661377, -0.3194204270839691, -0.2174970805644989, -0.12136285752058029, -0.1991279423236847, 0.448872089385986...	1	Francisco A. Lomelí Eusebio Chacón was a Mexican American (sometimes referred to as Chicano) figure who straddled the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He is someone who was forgotten and overlooked for about eighty years within the annals of Southwestern literature. He resurfaced in the mid-1970s as a key missing link in what is now called Chicano literature, at a time when its literary lineage was blurry and unknown. He was, therefore, instrumental in allowing critics to look back into the dusty shelves of libraries to identify writers who embodied the Mexican American experience within specific moments in history. Both his person and his writings provide an important window into subjects that interfaced with identity, literary formation and aesthetics, and social conditions, as well as how such early writers negotiated a new sense of Americanism while retaining some of their cultural background. Eusebio Chacón stands out as an outstanding example of turn-of-the-century intelligence, sensibility, versatility, and historical conscience in his attempts to educate people of Mexican descent about their rightful place in the United States as writers, social activists, and cultural beings. He fills a significant void that had remained up to the mid-1970s, which reveals how writings by such Mexican American writers were considered marginal.	274	ENGLISH	1
“The battle Chancellorsville was one which I believe neither side, the Union nor the Confederates won. Both sides made major mistakes that hurt them in their efforts to win the war.” With these words our guide from the National Parks Service opened her 45 minute presentation on the battle of Chancellorsville and the events surrounding the death of General ‘Stonewall’ Jackson. This battle is often considered to be General Robert E Lee’s most decisive and best example of his superior military decision making. With less than half the forces of General Hooker, Union Commander of the Army of the Potomac, Lee decisively defeated Hooker in the two day battle that took place on May 1st and 2nd1963. Its decisive events gave Lee the confidence that he could invade the North and ultimately led to the Battle of Gettysburg. Here’s how our guide and Wikipedia described the strategy for the North: Hooker planned a bold double envelopment of Lee's forces, sending four corps on a stealthy march northwest, turning south to cross the Rappahannock and Rapidan rivers, turning east, and striking Lee in his rear. The remaining corps would strike Lee's front through Fredericksburg. Meanwhile, some 7,500 cavalry under Maj. Gen. George Stoneman were to raid deep into the Confederate rear areas, destroying crucial supply depots along the railroad from the Confederate capital in Richmond to Fredericksburg, which would cut Lee's lines of communication and supply. This bold, aggressive plan was later known as Stoneman's Raid. The problem occurred when first Stoneman’s cavalry were thwarted by the rising river and were unable to achieve their goal of cutting Lee’s lines of communication and supply. Despite this Hooker’s plan still had the chance to succeed if only he would have persisted in his own strategy. Lee broke one of the principals of war by dividing his small force in half with the intent of having Jackson attack Hooker’s flank. If Hooker had kept with his own strategy and continued to concentrate his forces and drive against Lee’s position he would have eventually overwhelmed Lee’s defensive position. Instead he decided to divide his own forces believing what he thought Lee would do when he faced the overwhelming Union Army - retreat. When Hooker spotted Jackson’s forces moving away from Lee’s defensive position he immediately believed Lee was retreating, when in fact Jackson was moving to the left to flank Hooker. Later that evening Hooker’s troops were attacked by Jackson and, totally unprepared, were routed. Why didn’t Hooker stay with his original plan and continue to move forward in a line toward Fredericksburg? No one knows for sure. However how often do we as leaders change our strategy? It’s a lesson that is often learned the hard way. In this case once again the Union leader of the Army of the Potomac would pay for it with his job. Lincoln quickly replaced Hooker after this battle with General Meade. When one spends considerable time working on a plan for your business why would you change your plans so quickly? The power of being decisive leads to confidence. Confidence in the preparations you’ve made and in the ability to lead. The contrast in strategy and decision making is most apparent in this battle. Lee, faced with enormous odds against him was decisive. He divided his forces and sent Jackson on a wide maneuver that could have been disastrous. Yet at the end of the day he won the battlefield. Had Hooker only advanced, his concentrated forces would have totally overwhelmed Lee’s greatly reduced forces which were directly in line with his first objective Fredericksburg. Yet as great a victory as Lee achieved the final outcome was hollow and equally devastating to Lee. As Jackson moved to the head of his battle lines late in the evening of May 1st he was shot by his own troops as he returned from a reconnaissance exercise. As advancing sunset descended on the battlefield, the fog of war and a failure to communicate who he was and where he intended to go was not delivered to the Confederate troops who were in the area Jackson scouted. Jackson hoped to press the advantage his army had gained that day by discovering the measure of his opponent. He was shot several times as he returned to the lines, suggesting just how poorly informed his troops were. In fact when one of Jackson’s officer’s told the Confederates they were shooting at friendly forces, one of the skirmishes shouted back, “That’s a lie, pour it on them men!” The result, while Jackson’s immediate wounds were not fatal, he did lose his arm and eventually succumbed to pneumonia about 8 days later. General Lee and Confederate forces won a decisive victory. Yet in the end Lee lost his most trusted General, someone whom he could rely on to carry out his plans exactly as he intended. It would cost him dearly at the Battle of Gettysburg not to have Jackson’s leadership. Communication is so important in our organizations and how many times do we lose the initiative or end up shooting ourselves in the foot simply because we fail to communicate well? Meeting Rhythms, particularly the daily huddles offer the greatest opportunity to communicate responsibilities, roadblocks and victories to our co-workers. Victory in our businesses can often be easily attained with just a consistent system for communication. Have you found communication to be a frequent obstacle in your business? I urge you to ask for our help with the Meeting Rhythms described in Verne Harnish’s book Mastering the Rockefeller Habits which were so instrumental in helping John D Rockefeller achieve his extraordinary success.	<urn:uuid:e8cbd7e2-47e3-4e62-b64a-e5089fb92f4d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://strategicdiscipline.positioningsystems.com/bid/46516/Strategy-Communication	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00456.warc.gz	en	0.984276	1,180	3.75	4	[ -0.48280760645866394, 0.4158218801021576, 0.21793100237846375, 0.18430685997009277, -0.0017409948632121086, 0.2414875328540802, -0.007699273061007261, 0.12497295439243317, -0.23433618247509003, 0.04244900494813919, -0.32377928495407104, -0.053871870040893555, 0.0872851014137268, 0.09907005...	3	“The battle Chancellorsville was one which I believe neither side, the Union nor the Confederates won. Both sides made major mistakes that hurt them in their efforts to win the war.” With these words our guide from the National Parks Service opened her 45 minute presentation on the battle of Chancellorsville and the events surrounding the death of General ‘Stonewall’ Jackson. This battle is often considered to be General Robert E Lee’s most decisive and best example of his superior military decision making. With less than half the forces of General Hooker, Union Commander of the Army of the Potomac, Lee decisively defeated Hooker in the two day battle that took place on May 1st and 2nd1963. Its decisive events gave Lee the confidence that he could invade the North and ultimately led to the Battle of Gettysburg. Here’s how our guide and Wikipedia described the strategy for the North: Hooker planned a bold double envelopment of Lee's forces, sending four corps on a stealthy march northwest, turning south to cross the Rappahannock and Rapidan rivers, turning east, and striking Lee in his rear. The remaining corps would strike Lee's front through Fredericksburg. Meanwhile, some 7,500 cavalry under Maj. Gen. George Stoneman were to raid deep into the Confederate rear areas, destroying crucial supply depots along the railroad from the Confederate capital in Richmond to Fredericksburg, which would cut Lee's lines of communication and supply. This bold, aggressive plan was later known as Stoneman's Raid. The problem occurred when first Stoneman’s cavalry were thwarted by the rising river and were unable to achieve their goal of cutting Lee’s lines of communication and supply. Despite this Hooker’s plan still had the chance to succeed if only he would have persisted in his own strategy. Lee broke one of the principals of war by dividing his small force in half with the intent of having Jackson attack Hooker’s flank. If Hooker had kept with his own strategy and continued to concentrate his forces and drive against Lee’s position he would have eventually overwhelmed Lee’s defensive position. Instead he decided to divide his own forces believing what he thought Lee would do when he faced the overwhelming Union Army - retreat. When Hooker spotted Jackson’s forces moving away from Lee’s defensive position he immediately believed Lee was retreating, when in fact Jackson was moving to the left to flank Hooker. Later that evening Hooker’s troops were attacked by Jackson and, totally unprepared, were routed. Why didn’t Hooker stay with his original plan and continue to move forward in a line toward Fredericksburg? No one knows for sure. However how often do we as leaders change our strategy? It’s a lesson that is often learned the hard way. In this case once again the Union leader of the Army of the Potomac would pay for it with his job. Lincoln quickly replaced Hooker after this battle with General Meade. When one spends considerable time working on a plan for your business why would you change your plans so quickly? The power of being decisive leads to confidence. Confidence in the preparations you’ve made and in the ability to lead. The contrast in strategy and decision making is most apparent in this battle. Lee, faced with enormous odds against him was decisive. He divided his forces and sent Jackson on a wide maneuver that could have been disastrous. Yet at the end of the day he won the battlefield. Had Hooker only advanced, his concentrated forces would have totally overwhelmed Lee’s greatly reduced forces which were directly in line with his first objective Fredericksburg. Yet as great a victory as Lee achieved the final outcome was hollow and equally devastating to Lee. As Jackson moved to the head of his battle lines late in the evening of May 1st he was shot by his own troops as he returned from a reconnaissance exercise. As advancing sunset descended on the battlefield, the fog of war and a failure to communicate who he was and where he intended to go was not delivered to the Confederate troops who were in the area Jackson scouted. Jackson hoped to press the advantage his army had gained that day by discovering the measure of his opponent. He was shot several times as he returned to the lines, suggesting just how poorly informed his troops were. In fact when one of Jackson’s officer’s told the Confederates they were shooting at friendly forces, one of the skirmishes shouted back, “That’s a lie, pour it on them men!” The result, while Jackson’s immediate wounds were not fatal, he did lose his arm and eventually succumbed to pneumonia about 8 days later. General Lee and Confederate forces won a decisive victory. Yet in the end Lee lost his most trusted General, someone whom he could rely on to carry out his plans exactly as he intended. It would cost him dearly at the Battle of Gettysburg not to have Jackson’s leadership. Communication is so important in our organizations and how many times do we lose the initiative or end up shooting ourselves in the foot simply because we fail to communicate well? Meeting Rhythms, particularly the daily huddles offer the greatest opportunity to communicate responsibilities, roadblocks and victories to our co-workers. Victory in our businesses can often be easily attained with just a consistent system for communication. Have you found communication to be a frequent obstacle in your business? I urge you to ask for our help with the Meeting Rhythms described in Verne Harnish’s book Mastering the Rockefeller Habits which were so instrumental in helping John D Rockefeller achieve his extraordinary success.	1,134	ENGLISH	1
Understanding seasonality and preserving food could be the one of the most important topics within an early modern household. Seasonality determines what household tasks you do, and when you do them, especially if the household was to be productive and efficient. Preservation refers to the storage of food, and a process of keeping food throughout the winter. It can also include how the preserved food items are used throughout the year. Without knowledge of either seasonality or preservation the household and the members within would have an even harder time surviving. The Gard’ners Kalendar by John Reid lays out monthly tasks to ensure that the garden is fruitful. It suggests how to prepare the garden, what vegetables or fruit to plant and even which pests to eliminate. When reading Reid’s directions, I noticed how the North American Farmer’s Almanac is very similar to it. This suggests that seasonality is still an important concept today, but now on a larger scale. Farmers may use an almanac to help them when planting crops to ensure they make enough of a profit to keep their business afloat. The Farmers’ Almanac sometimes also has natural health remedies and recipes which mirrors the texts read by women in the early modern period. Weather predictions are also made in each type of calendar which confirms the ideas that weather is the most important factor relating to the production of food. Texts such as the Gard’ners Kalendar were likely directed towards women since they were the ones who did most of the gardening and preparation of food. However, The Farmers’ Almanac seems to be aimed more towards men, at least in the first decades of its publication. It is interesting to note who oversaw the gardening in the different time periods and countries. Recipes for preserving food were probably added to a women’s own personalized cookbook. As she used a recipe, new steps or ingredients were added while other sections of the recipe could be taken out entirely. I fond it interesting that people still do this to recipes today. It shows that no recipe is guaranteed to be perfect, nor will everyone agree with the measurements and types of ingredients. However, what might work for someone, may for whatever reason, not work for someone else. I think it is important to not be completely reliant on the instructions of recipes because sometimes they just don’t work out. But following the recipes when preserving food is more important since the food needs to be stored safely for an extended period of time. Once the fruits and vegetables had been grown at the right time and nurtured with the correct supplements, the produce could be preserved. It’s important to think of the preservation process as a science since it requires careful amounts of chemicals and other ingredients to ensure the food is safe to eat later. It amazes me how well early modern households were able to preserve their food. Preservation is still an important way of storing and selling food today. I have made jam before, so I know it is quite the process to get all the measurements and timing right. Reading about seasonality and preservation has made me realize and appreciate how much time and effort goes into growing, harvesting, and preparing all sorts of food.	<urn:uuid:592131ad-976d-4e67-8b96-771f1422b999>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://drbp.hypotheses.org/date/2019/03	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00450.warc.gz	en	0.981032	640	3.40625	3	[ 0.018450221046805382, 0.37322482466697693, 0.3531354069709778, -0.30754783749580383, 0.7615485191345215, -0.17138078808784485, 0.30470630526542664, 0.09872086346149445, -0.4356086850166321, -0.10753456503152847, -0.5092387199401855, -0.132400244474411, 0.45196428894996643, 0.39397138357162...	10	Understanding seasonality and preserving food could be the one of the most important topics within an early modern household. Seasonality determines what household tasks you do, and when you do them, especially if the household was to be productive and efficient. Preservation refers to the storage of food, and a process of keeping food throughout the winter. It can also include how the preserved food items are used throughout the year. Without knowledge of either seasonality or preservation the household and the members within would have an even harder time surviving. The Gard’ners Kalendar by John Reid lays out monthly tasks to ensure that the garden is fruitful. It suggests how to prepare the garden, what vegetables or fruit to plant and even which pests to eliminate. When reading Reid’s directions, I noticed how the North American Farmer’s Almanac is very similar to it. This suggests that seasonality is still an important concept today, but now on a larger scale. Farmers may use an almanac to help them when planting crops to ensure they make enough of a profit to keep their business afloat. The Farmers’ Almanac sometimes also has natural health remedies and recipes which mirrors the texts read by women in the early modern period. Weather predictions are also made in each type of calendar which confirms the ideas that weather is the most important factor relating to the production of food. Texts such as the Gard’ners Kalendar were likely directed towards women since they were the ones who did most of the gardening and preparation of food. However, The Farmers’ Almanac seems to be aimed more towards men, at least in the first decades of its publication. It is interesting to note who oversaw the gardening in the different time periods and countries. Recipes for preserving food were probably added to a women’s own personalized cookbook. As she used a recipe, new steps or ingredients were added while other sections of the recipe could be taken out entirely. I fond it interesting that people still do this to recipes today. It shows that no recipe is guaranteed to be perfect, nor will everyone agree with the measurements and types of ingredients. However, what might work for someone, may for whatever reason, not work for someone else. I think it is important to not be completely reliant on the instructions of recipes because sometimes they just don’t work out. But following the recipes when preserving food is more important since the food needs to be stored safely for an extended period of time. Once the fruits and vegetables had been grown at the right time and nurtured with the correct supplements, the produce could be preserved. It’s important to think of the preservation process as a science since it requires careful amounts of chemicals and other ingredients to ensure the food is safe to eat later. It amazes me how well early modern households were able to preserve their food. Preservation is still an important way of storing and selling food today. I have made jam before, so I know it is quite the process to get all the measurements and timing right. Reading about seasonality and preservation has made me realize and appreciate how much time and effort goes into growing, harvesting, and preparing all sorts of food.	627	ENGLISH	1
Giacomo da Lentini Giacomo da Lentini, also known as Jacopo (il) Notaro, was an Italian poet of the 13th century. He was a senior poet of the Sicilian School and was a notary at the court of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Giacomo is credited with the invention of the sonnet. His poetry was originally written in literary Sicilian, though it only survives in Tuscan. His poetry, which was an adaptation to Italian of the Provençal poetry of the troubadours, concerns courtly, chivalrous love. As with other poets of the time, he corresponded often with fellow poets, circulating poems in manuscript and commenting on others; one of his main correspondents was Pier della Vigna. Some of his sonnets were produced in tenzone, a collaborative form of poetry writing in which one poet would write a sonnet and another would respond, likewise in a sonnet; da Lentini cooperated in this manner with the Abbot of Tivoli.	<urn:uuid:2830c2cb-c780-4e9a-9134-fa393807e40d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_da_Lentini	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00205.warc.gz	en	0.988959	218	3.34375	3	[ -0.4067912995815277, -0.00812939740717411, -0.01641841232776642, 0.3581688106060028, -0.5004648566246033, -0.4699334502220154, 0.17247919738292694, 0.2429232895374298, -0.2290419042110443, -0.6963906288146973, -0.46169593930244446, -0.09187159687280655, 0.24621227383613586, 0.5541812777519...	1	Giacomo da Lentini Giacomo da Lentini, also known as Jacopo (il) Notaro, was an Italian poet of the 13th century. He was a senior poet of the Sicilian School and was a notary at the court of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Giacomo is credited with the invention of the sonnet. His poetry was originally written in literary Sicilian, though it only survives in Tuscan. His poetry, which was an adaptation to Italian of the Provençal poetry of the troubadours, concerns courtly, chivalrous love. As with other poets of the time, he corresponded often with fellow poets, circulating poems in manuscript and commenting on others; one of his main correspondents was Pier della Vigna. Some of his sonnets were produced in tenzone, a collaborative form of poetry writing in which one poet would write a sonnet and another would respond, likewise in a sonnet; da Lentini cooperated in this manner with the Abbot of Tivoli.	217	ENGLISH	1
Louis XIII inherited a difficult situation with regards to religion. His mother, Marie de Medici, was a dévot, an ardent Roman Catholic, and she must have shaped his beliefs in his formative years. His father, Henry IV, had been a Huguenot who had converted to the Roman Catholic Church to bring religious stability to France. Henry’s conversion seemed to have been genuine because as king, he was very harsh on the Huguenots. They were forbidden from rebuilding or repairing strongholds damaged in war and he did what he could to stop Huguenots achieving government positions. Henry also encouraged Roman Catholic missionaries to go into Huguenot strongholds. From 1550 to 1600, the Huguenots had made great gains in France. The dislocation caused by the French Wars of Religion had given them an opportunity to make gains. This peaked when Henry IV became the legitimate king of France. He had been a Huguenot, but Henry had converted to Roman Catholicism to satisfy 90% of the French population. Louis attempted to stem the flow of Huguenot expansion. The Counter-Reformation had made an impact in France and in the early days of the reign of Louis, the Huguenots developed a defensive mentality. This was probably because the regency was dominated by the dévot Marie de Medici. It is also possible that they were very wary about Galigai and Concini who dominated the royal court – both were Roman Catholic. The early Seventeenth Century France also witnessed a better quality of Roman Catholic clergy. They were now better educated and the abuses in the Roman Catholic Church that had sparked off the revolt by Martin Luther were less obvious now. In 1611, the Oratory had been established by Pierre Berulle. This order put itself at the disposal of bishops who were in charge of the education that the clergy received in their see. The laity responded to the improvement in the Roman Catholic Church clergy and the number of French people who converted to the Huguenots probably never exceeded 10% of the population. The Jesuits also made an impact on the quality of spiritual leadership given to the laity. Francis I had seen the Jesuits as a threat to his power in France but under the Regency of Marie and from 1617 on when Louis XIII had power, the Jesuits made their mark in France. In 1604, the Ursulines opened their first convent in France that was dedicated to educating women. By the time Louis assumed full power in France, the Roman Catholic Church was in a much better shape – but that still left the Huguenots. In 1598, the Edict of Nantes had guaranteed the legal status of the Huguenots in France and their political rights had been guaranteed in later acts. Though he helped to formulate Nantes, Henry IV tried not to keep to its terms. The Huguenots and the magnates had allied in the early 1600’s. The magnates saw the move as an opportunity to re-assert themselves while the Huguenots wanted to re-claim their religious rights. They formed “circles” in the south and the west of France and each circle had its own army and military leader. They acted like independent states and they were a clear threat to Louis XIII and his rule in France. Louis had inherited this problem from Henry IV. Henry had promised Rome, after his conversion to the Roman Catholic faith, that Navarre and Bearn, the Huguenot strongholds, would return to the Roman Catholic Church confiscated Catholic property. As the Huguenot Henry of Navarre, all of this confiscated property belonged to Henry. After he succeeded as king of France, this property remained with the crown. Louis XIII inherited them in 1610. Henry had not carried out his promise to Rome probably because Navarre and Bearn were too far away to really trouble him. However, Louis decided that the promise must be kept. In June 1617, a royal council ordered the restoration of Roman Catholic property in Navarre and Bearn. Those owners who were affected were to receive generous financial compensation. However, they refused to co-operate and Louis XIII decided that he had to enforce his authority in the two regions. Why did he decide on this course of action when his father had appeared less than concerned about the two regions? First, Louis always felt that he had to prove himself. Possibly because he was ill so often (at least, so he thought he was), Louis felt that he had to be as dynamic as his father had been. Second, the number of dévots at court was growing and he had to satisfy them as well. Third, it is known that Louis enjoyed leading his army so he may have done it simply because it gave him the opportunity to be with his army. By the end of 1619, both Navarre and Bearn had been brought to heel. But as soon as Louis returned to Paris, trouble started again. This time Louis showed little mercy. He occupied both areas with a royal army. Huguenots leaders were forced to leave. Former Roman Catholic property was handed back to the Catholic Church and Huguenot cemeteries were vandalised. These acts horrified the Huguenot community. Those that could met at an assembly in La Rochelle in November 1620. They were lead by the Duke of Rohan who planned on a defensive campaign of survival. The Huguenots owned 100 fortified places and many of the remaining Huguenot congregations lived near the coast and mountains. Louis took the advice of Luynes who believed that internal security and stability was needed if France was to embark on a successful foreign policy. In the spring of 1621, Louis lead a campaign against Rohan. He was adamant that he did not want a long campaign as he had ideas for a grand foreign policy to secure for France status she had not enjoyed for many years. The campaign was not a success in that the two main towns of the Huguenots did not surrender. Louis, therefore, agreed to the Peace of Montpellier in October 1622 which upheld the Treaty of Nantes (1598). Rohan was pardoned and the Huguenots were allowed to keep their forts. The Montpellier agreement was not what Louis wanted. He appeared weak in that he had not achieved what he had intended to do. However, far worse for Louis was the death of Luynes who accompanied the king during the campaign. The Peace of Montpellier solved nothing and it only delayed another campaign organised by the formidable Richelieu. This time the days of Huguenot resistance were numbered. - Louis XIV held simple views regarding religion that dated back to Francis I - that the king controlled the Catholic Church and that the Church…	<urn:uuid:78fbcd6b-f903-447c-8255-e432452c7a03>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/france-in-the-seventeenth-century/louis-xiii-and-religion/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00079.warc.gz	en	0.991985	1,413	3.734375	4	[ -0.26911425590515137, 0.31769484281539917, -0.061963409185409546, -0.3656400442123413, -0.04611022397875786, -0.18017075955867767, -0.24609673023223877, 0.15362855792045593, 0.23369792103767395, -0.2161727249622345, -0.13096541166305542, -0.20442166924476624, -0.052151504904031754, 0.09543...	10	Louis XIII inherited a difficult situation with regards to religion. His mother, Marie de Medici, was a dévot, an ardent Roman Catholic, and she must have shaped his beliefs in his formative years. His father, Henry IV, had been a Huguenot who had converted to the Roman Catholic Church to bring religious stability to France. Henry’s conversion seemed to have been genuine because as king, he was very harsh on the Huguenots. They were forbidden from rebuilding or repairing strongholds damaged in war and he did what he could to stop Huguenots achieving government positions. Henry also encouraged Roman Catholic missionaries to go into Huguenot strongholds. From 1550 to 1600, the Huguenots had made great gains in France. The dislocation caused by the French Wars of Religion had given them an opportunity to make gains. This peaked when Henry IV became the legitimate king of France. He had been a Huguenot, but Henry had converted to Roman Catholicism to satisfy 90% of the French population. Louis attempted to stem the flow of Huguenot expansion. The Counter-Reformation had made an impact in France and in the early days of the reign of Louis, the Huguenots developed a defensive mentality. This was probably because the regency was dominated by the dévot Marie de Medici. It is also possible that they were very wary about Galigai and Concini who dominated the royal court – both were Roman Catholic. The early Seventeenth Century France also witnessed a better quality of Roman Catholic clergy. They were now better educated and the abuses in the Roman Catholic Church that had sparked off the revolt by Martin Luther were less obvious now. In 1611, the Oratory had been established by Pierre Berulle. This order put itself at the disposal of bishops who were in charge of the education that the clergy received in their see. The laity responded to the improvement in the Roman Catholic Church clergy and the number of French people who converted to the Huguenots probably never exceeded 10% of the population. The Jesuits also made an impact on the quality of spiritual leadership given to the laity. Francis I had seen the Jesuits as a threat to his power in France but under the Regency of Marie and from 1617 on when Louis XIII had power, the Jesuits made their mark in France. In 1604, the Ursulines opened their first convent in France that was dedicated to educating women. By the time Louis assumed full power in France, the Roman Catholic Church was in a much better shape – but that still left the Huguenots. In 1598, the Edict of Nantes had guaranteed the legal status of the Huguenots in France and their political rights had been guaranteed in later acts. Though he helped to formulate Nantes, Henry IV tried not to keep to its terms. The Huguenots and the magnates had allied in the early 1600’s. The magnates saw the move as an opportunity to re-assert themselves while the Huguenots wanted to re-claim their religious rights. They formed “circles” in the south and the west of France and each circle had its own army and military leader. They acted like independent states and they were a clear threat to Louis XIII and his rule in France. Louis had inherited this problem from Henry IV. Henry had promised Rome, after his conversion to the Roman Catholic faith, that Navarre and Bearn, the Huguenot strongholds, would return to the Roman Catholic Church confiscated Catholic property. As the Huguenot Henry of Navarre, all of this confiscated property belonged to Henry. After he succeeded as king of France, this property remained with the crown. Louis XIII inherited them in 1610. Henry had not carried out his promise to Rome probably because Navarre and Bearn were too far away to really trouble him. However, Louis decided that the promise must be kept. In June 1617, a royal council ordered the restoration of Roman Catholic property in Navarre and Bearn. Those owners who were affected were to receive generous financial compensation. However, they refused to co-operate and Louis XIII decided that he had to enforce his authority in the two regions. Why did he decide on this course of action when his father had appeared less than concerned about the two regions? First, Louis always felt that he had to prove himself. Possibly because he was ill so often (at least, so he thought he was), Louis felt that he had to be as dynamic as his father had been. Second, the number of dévots at court was growing and he had to satisfy them as well. Third, it is known that Louis enjoyed leading his army so he may have done it simply because it gave him the opportunity to be with his army. By the end of 1619, both Navarre and Bearn had been brought to heel. But as soon as Louis returned to Paris, trouble started again. This time Louis showed little mercy. He occupied both areas with a royal army. Huguenots leaders were forced to leave. Former Roman Catholic property was handed back to the Catholic Church and Huguenot cemeteries were vandalised. These acts horrified the Huguenot community. Those that could met at an assembly in La Rochelle in November 1620. They were lead by the Duke of Rohan who planned on a defensive campaign of survival. The Huguenots owned 100 fortified places and many of the remaining Huguenot congregations lived near the coast and mountains. Louis took the advice of Luynes who believed that internal security and stability was needed if France was to embark on a successful foreign policy. In the spring of 1621, Louis lead a campaign against Rohan. He was adamant that he did not want a long campaign as he had ideas for a grand foreign policy to secure for France status she had not enjoyed for many years. The campaign was not a success in that the two main towns of the Huguenots did not surrender. Louis, therefore, agreed to the Peace of Montpellier in October 1622 which upheld the Treaty of Nantes (1598). Rohan was pardoned and the Huguenots were allowed to keep their forts. The Montpellier agreement was not what Louis wanted. He appeared weak in that he had not achieved what he had intended to do. However, far worse for Louis was the death of Luynes who accompanied the king during the campaign. The Peace of Montpellier solved nothing and it only delayed another campaign organised by the formidable Richelieu. This time the days of Huguenot resistance were numbered. - Louis XIV held simple views regarding religion that dated back to Francis I - that the king controlled the Catholic Church and that the Church…	1,437	ENGLISH	1
Research reveals a simple way to help your child get better maths marks New European research has found that encouraging children to talk positively to themselves could boost their maths performance. Carried out by researchers at Utrecht University, the University of Applied Sciences Leiden and the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands, along with the University of Southampton in the UK, the new study looked at 212 Dutch children in grades 4 to 6 (ages 9 to 13 years). The children were first asked to report their beliefs about their competence, with the researchers pointing out that children who think poorly of themselves often underachieve in school. Researchers pointed out that children who think poorly of themselves often underachieve in school A few days later, they were asked to take the first half of a standardised maths test, and then immediately after, were randomly told to silently take part in either a self-talk focused on effort (for example "I will do my very best!"), a self-talk focused on ability ("I am very good at this!"), or no self-talk at all. They then completed the second half of the maths test. The findings, published online in the journal Child Development, showed that the children who gave themselves a self-talk focused on effort showed an improvement in their performance on the second part of the test, compared to children in the self-talk group which focused on ability and the no self-talk group. The benefits of self-talk focused on effort were also particularly strong among the children who already had negative beliefs about their competence. However, no improvement was seen in the performance of children who engaged in self-talk focused on ability, regardless of their perception about their competence. The researchers explained that they chose this age as negative perceptions of competence become more common in late childhood. Moreover, children with negative competence beliefs often achieve below their potential in school. This simple mental task could now help to boost their performance. "Parents and teachers are often advised to encourage children to repeat positive self-statements at stressful times, such as when they're taking academic tests," notes lead author Sander Thomaes, "but until now, we didn't have a good idea of whether this helped children's achievement. We discovered that children with low self-confidence can improve their performance through self-talk focused on effort, a self-regulation strategy that children can do by themselves every day." "Our study found that the maths performance of children with low self-confidence benefits when they tell themselves that they will make an effort," explains co-author Eddie Brummelman. "We did not find the same result among children with low self-confidence who spoke to themselves about ability. Self-talk about effort is the key."	<urn:uuid:fc12f004-ccd7-4fc4-befb-ab1fe0695ed3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/s-mag/2020-01-06-research-reveals-a-simple-way-to-help-your-child-get-better-maths-marks/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00434.warc.gz	en	0.985633	558	3.78125	4	[ -0.05111454054713249, 0.050149522721767426, 0.07599705457687378, -0.1966901421546936, -0.494978129863739, 0.48358154296875, -0.005266221240162849, 0.388934850692749, 0.1292252391576767, -0.001633001840673387, 0.14404810965061188, -0.2382573038339615, 0.1521379053592682, 0.3447147309780121,...	4	Research reveals a simple way to help your child get better maths marks New European research has found that encouraging children to talk positively to themselves could boost their maths performance. Carried out by researchers at Utrecht University, the University of Applied Sciences Leiden and the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands, along with the University of Southampton in the UK, the new study looked at 212 Dutch children in grades 4 to 6 (ages 9 to 13 years). The children were first asked to report their beliefs about their competence, with the researchers pointing out that children who think poorly of themselves often underachieve in school. Researchers pointed out that children who think poorly of themselves often underachieve in school A few days later, they were asked to take the first half of a standardised maths test, and then immediately after, were randomly told to silently take part in either a self-talk focused on effort (for example "I will do my very best!"), a self-talk focused on ability ("I am very good at this!"), or no self-talk at all. They then completed the second half of the maths test. The findings, published online in the journal Child Development, showed that the children who gave themselves a self-talk focused on effort showed an improvement in their performance on the second part of the test, compared to children in the self-talk group which focused on ability and the no self-talk group. The benefits of self-talk focused on effort were also particularly strong among the children who already had negative beliefs about their competence. However, no improvement was seen in the performance of children who engaged in self-talk focused on ability, regardless of their perception about their competence. The researchers explained that they chose this age as negative perceptions of competence become more common in late childhood. Moreover, children with negative competence beliefs often achieve below their potential in school. This simple mental task could now help to boost their performance. "Parents and teachers are often advised to encourage children to repeat positive self-statements at stressful times, such as when they're taking academic tests," notes lead author Sander Thomaes, "but until now, we didn't have a good idea of whether this helped children's achievement. We discovered that children with low self-confidence can improve their performance through self-talk focused on effort, a self-regulation strategy that children can do by themselves every day." "Our study found that the maths performance of children with low self-confidence benefits when they tell themselves that they will make an effort," explains co-author Eddie Brummelman. "We did not find the same result among children with low self-confidence who spoke to themselves about ability. Self-talk about effort is the key."	540	ENGLISH	1
Bartholomew Dias was a Portuguese nobleman who was chosen by the King of Portugal to lead an expedition that would sail around the horn of Africa for the purposes of finding a trading route by sea to India. In addition, Dias would search for the Kingdom of Prester John, who was said to rule over a vast Christian empire, filled with riches and magical creatures, somewhere in Asia. During the time of Dias' expedition, the seas and oceans were largely unexplored and water routes betwen Europe and Asia had not yet been established. Dias's ship, the Sao Cristovao, and two other ships left Portugal in 1487 and set sail south along the west coast of Africa. By December of 1487, Dias had reached the west African nation of Angola. As his expedition continued south, it endured a violent storm which caused the expedition to stray south and west to a latitude well south of the horn of Africa. Turning northeast, Dias entered modern-day Mossel Bay, about 250 miles east of present-day Capetown. A Drawing of the Sao Cristovao Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope Although Dias wanted to sail east to Asia, his crew refused and Dias was forced to return to Portugal. Early into the return trip, Dias discovered the Cape of Good Hope in May of 1488. Dias named it "the Cape of Storms," but it was renamed by the Cape of Good Hope by the Portuguese King John II as it represented a monumental discovery and potential trade with Asia. By 1497, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama had successfully sailed around Africa to India and Asia. Bartholomew Dias is thought to have died in 1500 when a ship he was on wrecked during a terrible storm near the Cape of Good Hope.	<urn:uuid:de937ba8-7650-4c6b-8832-eca53463240e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mrnussbaum.com/bartholomew-dias-biography	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00511.warc.gz	en	0.983345	369	3.5	4	[ -0.5553513765335083, 0.5561144351959229, 0.04737428203225136, -0.2619363069534302, -0.2878643572330475, -0.31657665967941284, -0.04057221859693527, -0.00284690223634243, 0.02444167248904705, 0.35831671953201294, 0.22402891516685486, -0.8469502925872803, -0.18506735563278198, 0.396735936403...	1	Bartholomew Dias was a Portuguese nobleman who was chosen by the King of Portugal to lead an expedition that would sail around the horn of Africa for the purposes of finding a trading route by sea to India. In addition, Dias would search for the Kingdom of Prester John, who was said to rule over a vast Christian empire, filled with riches and magical creatures, somewhere in Asia. During the time of Dias' expedition, the seas and oceans were largely unexplored and water routes betwen Europe and Asia had not yet been established. Dias's ship, the Sao Cristovao, and two other ships left Portugal in 1487 and set sail south along the west coast of Africa. By December of 1487, Dias had reached the west African nation of Angola. As his expedition continued south, it endured a violent storm which caused the expedition to stray south and west to a latitude well south of the horn of Africa. Turning northeast, Dias entered modern-day Mossel Bay, about 250 miles east of present-day Capetown. A Drawing of the Sao Cristovao Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope Although Dias wanted to sail east to Asia, his crew refused and Dias was forced to return to Portugal. Early into the return trip, Dias discovered the Cape of Good Hope in May of 1488. Dias named it "the Cape of Storms," but it was renamed by the Cape of Good Hope by the Portuguese King John II as it represented a monumental discovery and potential trade with Asia. By 1497, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama had successfully sailed around Africa to India and Asia. Bartholomew Dias is thought to have died in 1500 when a ship he was on wrecked during a terrible storm near the Cape of Good Hope.	377	ENGLISH	1
A trust is a legal relationship in which a person who has legal rights to property has the duty to hold it for the benefit of another person. Persons benefited by a trust are considered to have “equitable title” to the property because it is being maintained for their benefit. This means that persons are regarded as the real owners even though the trustee has the legal title in his name. Trust may be created in a number of different ways, owner of the property may declare that he is holding certain property in trust. A mother might state that she is holding shares in trust for her son. The owner of property may transfer property with the expressed intent that the person is not to have the use of it but rather for others benefit. Moreover, a trust may be created by operation of the law. For example, where a lawyer who represents a client injured in a car accident, receives a settlement payment from the insurance company, the lawyer holds the settlement as trustee for his clients. There are many other instances. Certain special terminologies are used, a person who creates a trust is known as the “donor” or the “settlor”. The person who holds the property in trust is known as the “trustee”. The person for whose benefit the property is held known as the “beneficiary”. A single person may occupy more than one of these positions. However, if there is one beneficiary, he can’t be the sole trustee. The property held is sometimes called the “corpus” or “res”, and a distinction is made between the property in trust, which is known as the “principal” and the income that is produced by the principal. A trust that is established and made effective during the donor’s lifetime is known as “inter vivios” or “living trust”. If a trust is established by a will and takes effect on the donor’s death, it is known as a “testamentary trust”. Important to say that, there are basic elements for the creation of trust, including, the legal capacity of the donor, the donor must intend to create a trust in clear words, the trust must involve specific property or otherwise that the donor has the full right to convey, the beneficiary must be sufficiently identified and the trust must be created for a proper purpose. All must be available in order.	<urn:uuid:db6208bc-3e97-40d0-9aac-c1cc0c850f1c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.africanewsanalysis.com/legal-viewponit-trust-by-dr-abdelgadir-warsama-ghalib-legal-counsel-bahrain/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00356.warc.gz	en	0.981729	505	3.265625	3	[ -0.1490446925163269, 0.04769233614206314, -0.30637019872665405, -0.23628804087638855, -0.6263216137886047, 0.15335507690906525, 1.0375229120254517, -0.3297012448310852, -0.13136544823646545, 0.16653043031692505, -0.008783320896327496, -0.08394144475460052, 0.031335439532995224, 0.071650013...	2	A trust is a legal relationship in which a person who has legal rights to property has the duty to hold it for the benefit of another person. Persons benefited by a trust are considered to have “equitable title” to the property because it is being maintained for their benefit. This means that persons are regarded as the real owners even though the trustee has the legal title in his name. Trust may be created in a number of different ways, owner of the property may declare that he is holding certain property in trust. A mother might state that she is holding shares in trust for her son. The owner of property may transfer property with the expressed intent that the person is not to have the use of it but rather for others benefit. Moreover, a trust may be created by operation of the law. For example, where a lawyer who represents a client injured in a car accident, receives a settlement payment from the insurance company, the lawyer holds the settlement as trustee for his clients. There are many other instances. Certain special terminologies are used, a person who creates a trust is known as the “donor” or the “settlor”. The person who holds the property in trust is known as the “trustee”. The person for whose benefit the property is held known as the “beneficiary”. A single person may occupy more than one of these positions. However, if there is one beneficiary, he can’t be the sole trustee. The property held is sometimes called the “corpus” or “res”, and a distinction is made between the property in trust, which is known as the “principal” and the income that is produced by the principal. A trust that is established and made effective during the donor’s lifetime is known as “inter vivios” or “living trust”. If a trust is established by a will and takes effect on the donor’s death, it is known as a “testamentary trust”. Important to say that, there are basic elements for the creation of trust, including, the legal capacity of the donor, the donor must intend to create a trust in clear words, the trust must involve specific property or otherwise that the donor has the full right to convey, the beneficiary must be sufficiently identified and the trust must be created for a proper purpose. All must be available in order.	464	ENGLISH	1
This may be old news to some, but for many it wont be. A study published in the Journal of Archaeological Science in December of 2013 found that the earliest known (according to the study) iron artifacts that date back to circa 3200 BC, from two burials in northern Egypt were made from meteoritic iron, and shaped by careful hammering of the metal. (1) After hammering pieces into thin sheets before being rolled into tubes, the nine beads that were found were originally strung into a necklace with other materials like gold and gemstones. This discovery reveals the value of these materials in ancient times. It also reveals that in the fourth millennium BC, metal workers had mastered the smithing of meteoritic iron, well before what was previously thought. The beads were excavated in 1911, found in a cemetery, and are believed to be the earliest known iron artifacts. A total of nine beads were retrieved, and the necklace beads were found in their original order. Since both tombs securely date back to Naqada, 3400-3100 BC, the beads predate the emergence of iron smelting by nearly 2000 years, and other known meteoritic iron artefacts by 500 years or more. Professor Thilo Rehren from Hamad bin Khalifa University in Qatar was the lead author of the paper. They used x-ray methods to determine whether the 5,000 year old beads were actually meteoric iron, and not magnetite, which can often be mistaken to be corroded iron due to similar properties. “The really exciting outcome of this research is that we were for the first time able to demonstrate conclusively that there are typical trace elements such as cobalt and germanium present in the beads, at levels that only occur in meteoritic iron. We are also excited to be able to see the internal structure of the beads, revealing how they were rolled and hammered into form. “This is very different technology from the usual stone bead drilling, and shows quite an advanced understanding of how the metal smiths worked this rather difficult material” – Professor Rehren There is a lot of mystery surrounding Egypt, but the fact that they made cosmic jewelery is pretty cool. We don’t often reflect on just how advanced civilizations were in these times. Even today, how the pyramids were built, the mathematical precision and the astronomical alignments that correlate with them are astonishing. If we wanted to do something like that today, even with all of our technology, it would still be almost impossible to recreate. There is a lot of evidence to suggest that these ancient civilizations were much more advanced than we are. I find it quite amusing that they knew that the Earth was round, before we even believed it to be flat! Ancient Egyptians were fascinated with the sky, and according to Joyce Tyldesley, who co-authored a study on the same findings that was published in the journal Meteoritics and Planetary Science: “the sky was very important to the ancient Egyptians, something that falls from the sky is going to be considered as a gift from the gods.” (2) While we are on the topic of meteorites, just a year earlier a group of scientists claimed with certainty that tiny fossils uncovered inside a meteorite found in Sri Lanka in late December 2012, are proof of extraterrestrial life. The paper was published in the Journal of Cosmology by Chandra Wickramasinghe, the director of the Buckingham Centre for Astrobiology at the University of Buckingham in the United Kingdom. The study was conducted alongside researchers at the School of Mathematics at Cardiff University and from the Medical Research Institute in Colombo, Sri Lanka. Obviously, the study is surrounded by much controversy, you can read more about that and view the study here.	<urn:uuid:9da3dee3-97af-44e7-ad49-7a66496b0b69>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://humansarefree.com/2014/08/5000-year-old-egyptian-artifacts-from-space-discovered-by-archaeologists.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00085.warc.gz	en	0.981855	778	3.90625	4	[ -0.6877102255821228, 0.7277734279632568, 0.19525635242462158, 0.1136682778596878, -0.3208889961242676, -0.22967450320720673, -0.03936390206217766, -0.13172857463359833, -0.4606262147426605, -0.17205260694026947, 0.2916494905948639, -0.32477283477783203, -0.06802275776863098, 0.354341387748...	2	This may be old news to some, but for many it wont be. A study published in the Journal of Archaeological Science in December of 2013 found that the earliest known (according to the study) iron artifacts that date back to circa 3200 BC, from two burials in northern Egypt were made from meteoritic iron, and shaped by careful hammering of the metal. (1) After hammering pieces into thin sheets before being rolled into tubes, the nine beads that were found were originally strung into a necklace with other materials like gold and gemstones. This discovery reveals the value of these materials in ancient times. It also reveals that in the fourth millennium BC, metal workers had mastered the smithing of meteoritic iron, well before what was previously thought. The beads were excavated in 1911, found in a cemetery, and are believed to be the earliest known iron artifacts. A total of nine beads were retrieved, and the necklace beads were found in their original order. Since both tombs securely date back to Naqada, 3400-3100 BC, the beads predate the emergence of iron smelting by nearly 2000 years, and other known meteoritic iron artefacts by 500 years or more. Professor Thilo Rehren from Hamad bin Khalifa University in Qatar was the lead author of the paper. They used x-ray methods to determine whether the 5,000 year old beads were actually meteoric iron, and not magnetite, which can often be mistaken to be corroded iron due to similar properties. “The really exciting outcome of this research is that we were for the first time able to demonstrate conclusively that there are typical trace elements such as cobalt and germanium present in the beads, at levels that only occur in meteoritic iron. We are also excited to be able to see the internal structure of the beads, revealing how they were rolled and hammered into form. “This is very different technology from the usual stone bead drilling, and shows quite an advanced understanding of how the metal smiths worked this rather difficult material” – Professor Rehren There is a lot of mystery surrounding Egypt, but the fact that they made cosmic jewelery is pretty cool. We don’t often reflect on just how advanced civilizations were in these times. Even today, how the pyramids were built, the mathematical precision and the astronomical alignments that correlate with them are astonishing. If we wanted to do something like that today, even with all of our technology, it would still be almost impossible to recreate. There is a lot of evidence to suggest that these ancient civilizations were much more advanced than we are. I find it quite amusing that they knew that the Earth was round, before we even believed it to be flat! Ancient Egyptians were fascinated with the sky, and according to Joyce Tyldesley, who co-authored a study on the same findings that was published in the journal Meteoritics and Planetary Science: “the sky was very important to the ancient Egyptians, something that falls from the sky is going to be considered as a gift from the gods.” (2) While we are on the topic of meteorites, just a year earlier a group of scientists claimed with certainty that tiny fossils uncovered inside a meteorite found in Sri Lanka in late December 2012, are proof of extraterrestrial life. The paper was published in the Journal of Cosmology by Chandra Wickramasinghe, the director of the Buckingham Centre for Astrobiology at the University of Buckingham in the United Kingdom. The study was conducted alongside researchers at the School of Mathematics at Cardiff University and from the Medical Research Institute in Colombo, Sri Lanka. Obviously, the study is surrounded by much controversy, you can read more about that and view the study here.	785	ENGLISH	1
Confucius was a Chinese philosopher at the time of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty who lived from 551 to 479 BC. He was born in Lu, a providence on the East coast of China. Today, it is known as Shandong. In China, Confucius was known as K'ung Fu-Tse or Master Kong.Confucius turned his house into a school where anyone was welcome to learn history, poetry, etiquette, and ethics.He started as a building minister, moving up to a justice minister, to the Chancellor of Lu. School of the Learned Today we are learning about the famous Chinese philosopher, Confucius. The Analects of Confucius The prince of Lu did not agree with the rules of the government, so he decided not to follow them. This made Confucius very mad, so he resigned as Chancellor of Lu and left on a 13 year hike. "Do unto others as you would have done to yourself." All of the subjects of Lu wanted Confucius back as Chancellor of Lu, so he came back and he spent the rest of his life there. Confucius later died due to natural causes. He was lived to be no older than 40 years old. In China, Confuciansim is referred to as Rujia or School of the Learned. Most of what we know about Confucius and his teachings are seen in notes called Lunyu or the Analects of Confucius. The heart of Confucuis's teachings were man and humanity. His golden rule was "Do unto others as you would have done to yourself." Confucius had 5 constants that everyone in the empire had to follow to have peace. The 5 constants were humanity, rectitude, tradition, knowledge, and scrupulousness.	<urn:uuid:63a694f2-e6fc-4b31-9e04-303dbceff77f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/1824ee09/confucius	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00130.warc.gz	en	0.99	376	3.703125	4	[ -0.4477776885032654, 0.1986599564552307, 0.4499726891517639, -0.1924504190683365, 0.04405263811349869, -0.005763417109847069, 0.5962069630622864, 0.04843860864639282, -0.06090865284204483, -0.14478059113025665, 0.41346418857574463, -0.5036287307739258, 0.5261235237121582, 0.036892220377922...	1	Confucius was a Chinese philosopher at the time of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty who lived from 551 to 479 BC. He was born in Lu, a providence on the East coast of China. Today, it is known as Shandong. In China, Confucius was known as K'ung Fu-Tse or Master Kong.Confucius turned his house into a school where anyone was welcome to learn history, poetry, etiquette, and ethics.He started as a building minister, moving up to a justice minister, to the Chancellor of Lu. School of the Learned Today we are learning about the famous Chinese philosopher, Confucius. The Analects of Confucius The prince of Lu did not agree with the rules of the government, so he decided not to follow them. This made Confucius very mad, so he resigned as Chancellor of Lu and left on a 13 year hike. "Do unto others as you would have done to yourself." All of the subjects of Lu wanted Confucius back as Chancellor of Lu, so he came back and he spent the rest of his life there. Confucius later died due to natural causes. He was lived to be no older than 40 years old. In China, Confuciansim is referred to as Rujia or School of the Learned. Most of what we know about Confucius and his teachings are seen in notes called Lunyu or the Analects of Confucius. The heart of Confucuis's teachings were man and humanity. His golden rule was "Do unto others as you would have done to yourself." Confucius had 5 constants that everyone in the empire had to follow to have peace. The 5 constants were humanity, rectitude, tradition, knowledge, and scrupulousness.	374	ENGLISH	1
3 \| 6701 views Hong Kong's Kowloon Walled City is a tourist park today, but few can truly remember all of the events that occurred within those walls. Kowloon's walled city developed over a few decades in the early 20th century, when it was a place that refugees could turn in the midst of much political upheaval, war, and poverty on the streets. It became a sort of lawless city, where the police forces never entered. How Was it Built? Construction of the city was done by handymen and carpenters who sometimes learned on the job. No regulations occurred for the buildings; if someone wanted to build something, all they needed was the money and and labor force to get it built. As a result, many poor and undocumented individuals came to live in the Walled City. Regulation of space was done among individuals, and to some extent by the rules of the community. Over three hundred towers sprung up over a few decades, and thousands of residents came to live within the Walled City. With 1.3 million inhabitants per square kilometer, this was once thought to be the most densely inhabited place in the world. Before its evacuation in 1993, it is estimated that as many as 35,000 families lived in the seven-acre plot. Old pictures of the city are incredible; they show a massive block full of nothing but buildings, one building on top of the others. Life in the Walled City Citizens of the Walled city, while having no government to completely regulate the operations within the walls, formed a set of rules to live by so that they could all survive and prosper while sharing the limited space they had available. People who didn't follow the rules faced backlash by the rest of the community, and for the most part, everyone learned to cooperate and share the space respectfully. And because there was no authority, there was no welfare system; residents relied on each other to maintain basic standards of living. The ability to spontaneously create a society was one of the things that made this settlement successful for so many years. Many people lived their entire lives in the walled city. There was a lot of commerce between residents, and people quickly learned who they could go to for certain goods and services. A community developed within the Walled city, where neighbors helped each other through the hard times. Despite the poverty, life within the Walled City certainly wasn't miserable, and people grew to care about one another and look after each other. City of Darkness This isn't to say that there weren't problems within the city. Issues arise in every community. Since there was no police force or authority to govern the people in the Walled City, this meant that a few bad apples took advantage of their impunity to try to take more than their share of the city's resources. Because of the lack of laws governing vices, the area became a haven for prostitution, drug use, and gambling, even for citizens who lived in the greater Hong Kong city. For these reasons, the city earned its reputation as being Hong Kong's “City of Darkness”. Thieves could escape into the darkness of the night with no one to stop them. All of Hong Kong city's criminal activity could be conducted within the Walled City with little trouble from the outside police force. Despite these problems, residents of the Walled City still made their lives work within this problematic home. The Walled City Today Today, visitors can see the site where the Walled City used to stand. While most of the buildings have been demolished, a few key buildings and sites still stand today. This historical area is a must see part of any trip to Hong Kong. For more information: Kowloon Walled City Illustrated	<urn:uuid:8e6ce39d-74e2-45b8-9e75-f810376e0a30>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.50plus-club.com/magazine/travel/kowloon-walled-city-remembering-hong-kongs-city-of-darkness-467.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00489.warc.gz	en	0.982408	767	3.265625	3	[ 0.040044546127319336, 0.011161677539348602, 0.2935190200805664, -0.03900587558746338, 0.032999102026224136, 0.3032684922218323, 0.07328294217586517, -0.2105744183063507, -0.30469492077827454, 0.5129575729370117, 0.380523681640625, -0.21114027500152588, 0.012097422033548355, 0.1128620654344...	1	3 \| 6701 views Hong Kong's Kowloon Walled City is a tourist park today, but few can truly remember all of the events that occurred within those walls. Kowloon's walled city developed over a few decades in the early 20th century, when it was a place that refugees could turn in the midst of much political upheaval, war, and poverty on the streets. It became a sort of lawless city, where the police forces never entered. How Was it Built? Construction of the city was done by handymen and carpenters who sometimes learned on the job. No regulations occurred for the buildings; if someone wanted to build something, all they needed was the money and and labor force to get it built. As a result, many poor and undocumented individuals came to live in the Walled City. Regulation of space was done among individuals, and to some extent by the rules of the community. Over three hundred towers sprung up over a few decades, and thousands of residents came to live within the Walled City. With 1.3 million inhabitants per square kilometer, this was once thought to be the most densely inhabited place in the world. Before its evacuation in 1993, it is estimated that as many as 35,000 families lived in the seven-acre plot. Old pictures of the city are incredible; they show a massive block full of nothing but buildings, one building on top of the others. Life in the Walled City Citizens of the Walled city, while having no government to completely regulate the operations within the walls, formed a set of rules to live by so that they could all survive and prosper while sharing the limited space they had available. People who didn't follow the rules faced backlash by the rest of the community, and for the most part, everyone learned to cooperate and share the space respectfully. And because there was no authority, there was no welfare system; residents relied on each other to maintain basic standards of living. The ability to spontaneously create a society was one of the things that made this settlement successful for so many years. Many people lived their entire lives in the walled city. There was a lot of commerce between residents, and people quickly learned who they could go to for certain goods and services. A community developed within the Walled city, where neighbors helped each other through the hard times. Despite the poverty, life within the Walled City certainly wasn't miserable, and people grew to care about one another and look after each other. City of Darkness This isn't to say that there weren't problems within the city. Issues arise in every community. Since there was no police force or authority to govern the people in the Walled City, this meant that a few bad apples took advantage of their impunity to try to take more than their share of the city's resources. Because of the lack of laws governing vices, the area became a haven for prostitution, drug use, and gambling, even for citizens who lived in the greater Hong Kong city. For these reasons, the city earned its reputation as being Hong Kong's “City of Darkness”. Thieves could escape into the darkness of the night with no one to stop them. All of Hong Kong city's criminal activity could be conducted within the Walled City with little trouble from the outside police force. Despite these problems, residents of the Walled City still made their lives work within this problematic home. The Walled City Today Today, visitors can see the site where the Walled City used to stand. While most of the buildings have been demolished, a few key buildings and sites still stand today. This historical area is a must see part of any trip to Hong Kong. For more information: Kowloon Walled City Illustrated	772	ENGLISH	1
A Guide to the Tenth Amendment The Tenth Amendment, or Amendment X of the United States Constitution is the section of the Bill of Rights that basically says that any power that is not given to the federal government is given to the people or the states. The Tenth Amendment of the Bill of Rights put into the United States Constitution on September 5, 1789 and was voted for by 9 out of 12 states on December 15, 1791. Text of the Tenth Amendment The text of the Tenth Amendment is very short and says the following: “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.” History of the Tenth Amendment The Tenth Amendment is very similar to an earlier part of the Articles of Confederation. These articles said that every state would keep their freedom, independence, jurisdiction, rights, and sovereignty. Once the U.S. Constitution was ratified by the states, some people wanted to add amendments that would only give the federal governments powers that were mentioned in the Constitution. However, because the world “expressly” did not show up in the Tenth Amendment, the Federal government still had some implied powers. When James Madison introduced the Tenth Amendment, he explained that many of the states were very eager to ratify the Tenth amendment, even though many people thought it was not necessary. The States ultimately decided to vote for the Tenth Amendment which made it clearer that there were still powers that were not mentioned that the Federal government had. Modern Use of the Tenth Amendment Today, the Tenth Amendment is often thought of as something very obvious or self-evident. In a 1931 Supreme Court case, the justices said that the Tenth Amendment did not really add anything new to the United States Constitution. Sometimes, local or state governments try to say that they do not have to follow some federal laws because of the Tenth Amendment. In the Supreme Court, there have been very few cases that use the Tenth Amendment to call a law unconstitutional. The only times the Court has done this is in situations where the Federal government forces a state to follow their laws. However, in 1996, a Justice said that Congress can try to make a state follow a law by setting certain laws that may involve commerce or spending power, but Congress cannot force a state to follow federal laws. Facts about the Tenth Amendment • The Tenth Amendment was introduced to the U.S. Constitution by James Madison. • The Tenth Amendment is a good example of a part of the Constitution that talks about federalism, which is a type of government that is split up into different governing sections. • The Tenth Amendment was supposed to help limit Congress’s powers, by preventing any un-enumerated rights, but instead it resulted in more uncertainty about uncertainty about their rights.	<urn:uuid:a4038aee-1758-42cb-9fab-ba53c2d77ed8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kids.laws.com/tenth-amendment	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00215.warc.gz	en	0.982159	583	4.15625	4	[ -1.0584501028060913, -0.04556472972035408, 0.11322230100631714, -0.7381575107574463, -0.3688523769378662, 0.6394318342208862, 0.0715285986661911, 0.15068112313747406, -0.163637176156044, 0.33504050970077515, 0.10644574463367462, 0.5269136428833008, 0.14232665300369263, -0.1723945438861847,...	4	A Guide to the Tenth Amendment The Tenth Amendment, or Amendment X of the United States Constitution is the section of the Bill of Rights that basically says that any power that is not given to the federal government is given to the people or the states. The Tenth Amendment of the Bill of Rights put into the United States Constitution on September 5, 1789 and was voted for by 9 out of 12 states on December 15, 1791. Text of the Tenth Amendment The text of the Tenth Amendment is very short and says the following: “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.” History of the Tenth Amendment The Tenth Amendment is very similar to an earlier part of the Articles of Confederation. These articles said that every state would keep their freedom, independence, jurisdiction, rights, and sovereignty. Once the U.S. Constitution was ratified by the states, some people wanted to add amendments that would only give the federal governments powers that were mentioned in the Constitution. However, because the world “expressly” did not show up in the Tenth Amendment, the Federal government still had some implied powers. When James Madison introduced the Tenth Amendment, he explained that many of the states were very eager to ratify the Tenth amendment, even though many people thought it was not necessary. The States ultimately decided to vote for the Tenth Amendment which made it clearer that there were still powers that were not mentioned that the Federal government had. Modern Use of the Tenth Amendment Today, the Tenth Amendment is often thought of as something very obvious or self-evident. In a 1931 Supreme Court case, the justices said that the Tenth Amendment did not really add anything new to the United States Constitution. Sometimes, local or state governments try to say that they do not have to follow some federal laws because of the Tenth Amendment. In the Supreme Court, there have been very few cases that use the Tenth Amendment to call a law unconstitutional. The only times the Court has done this is in situations where the Federal government forces a state to follow their laws. However, in 1996, a Justice said that Congress can try to make a state follow a law by setting certain laws that may involve commerce or spending power, but Congress cannot force a state to follow federal laws. Facts about the Tenth Amendment • The Tenth Amendment was introduced to the U.S. Constitution by James Madison. • The Tenth Amendment is a good example of a part of the Constitution that talks about federalism, which is a type of government that is split up into different governing sections. • The Tenth Amendment was supposed to help limit Congress’s powers, by preventing any un-enumerated rights, but instead it resulted in more uncertainty about uncertainty about their rights.	603	ENGLISH	1
The poem “Theme for English B” by Langston Hughes depicts a black young adult who is attempting to fgure out what is true in his life via an English assignment. As the only black male in his college English class, the speaker is not sure whether to take on the persona of a typical English student, regardless of race, or to stay true to his heritage and culture. The structure of this poem conveys a struggle for identity and truth in a fast-paced world whose ideas are constantly changing. The poem begins with a quote from the speaker’s English instructor, claiming that any piece written rom the heart will automatically be true. However, in the next stanza, the speaker expresses doubts about his instructor’s advice. However, the student finds himself unsure of who he is, what he stands for, and what is “true” for him. Being “the only colored student in [his] class,” he feels like somewhat of an outcast from the other students. He lists facts about himself that set him apart from his classmates, including the fact that he is the only African American man in his class and that he resides in Harlem. In the third stanza, the speaker then switches to expressing traits he knows to be similar between himself and his classmates, “l like to eat, sleep, drink, and be in love. / I like to work, read, learn, and understand life” By showing that he has things in common with his peers, even though they are very different at first glance, the speaker is depicting his dilemma at fguring out who he is and how he fits in with the world. He is both a part of Harlem and a part of a mostly white English class: “l guess I’m what / I feel and see and hear, Harlem, I hear you. While he holds nto his African American culture, he also acknowledges that it does not define him as a person: “l guess being colored doesn’t make me not like / the same things other folks like who are other races. ” The speaker comes to the conclusion that although he is different from his peers in some ways, they are all Americans with common likes and purposes. Therefore, he, his classmates, and his instructor will all learn from each other, increasing the diversity, richness, and truth that they can discover because, although they have parallels, everyone can bring a different perspective, or heir own truth, to the table to share. A quick scan through the lines of this poem reveals the frequent use of the words “l”, “me”, and “you”, which are a clue for the poem’s overall theme: should one find his identity through his race, or through ordinary, everyday elements, likes and dislikes, enjoyable pastimes and perceptions of life? In lines 6-15 alone, the word “l” is used to ask questions, tell his age, race, and birthplace, his college, and route home to the Harlem Branch YMCA. This is how he identifies himself outwardly to others. The third tanza uses “l” and “me” to compare himself to “you”, the instructor. The speaker identifies himself with Harlem in the lines which read “But I guess I’m what / I feel and see and hear, Harlem, I hear you: / hear you, hear me – we two – you, me, talk on this page. ” Many black people during this time were inspired by Harlem’s empowerment of their community. Having a black heritage was seen as positive and black poets, musicians and authors thrived in Harlem. The speaker has likely been encouraged by living in Harlem, and therefore sees his black identity in direct ontrast to “you”, the white identity of his instructor. He’s not entirely sure, though, because the snort line “Me – who? ” (II. 20) indicates that his identity isn’t clear to him, or maybe to whites. The fourth stanza’s conclusion about this issue recognizes that to allow blacks to be proud of their heritage is “American” (II. 33). I find this poem very easy to relate to both for myself and any other young adult or college student who is still trying to fgure out how to relate to other people in “real life”. It can sometimes e hard to find commonalities with new acquaintances, especially when my peers and I come from such diverse and varying backgrounds. Although, I have lived in a very large city for my entire life, I have met people in college from almost every state and every situation imaginable. It can be overwhelming and easy to recede back into one’s comfort zone of easily stated facts, such as race and hometown. However, if one digs a little deeper, it is not hard to find small similarities like the speaker in the poem does: “l like to work, read, learn, and understand life” (Hughes 22). I find myself surrounded by active, engaging people who pursue a multitude of topics, some similar to my own interests and others that I have never even thought about pursuing. I feel as if Langston Hughes captures my exact feelings on the matter of diversity when he writes, “As I learn from you, / I guess you learn from me” (Hughes 37-38). Rather than isolating ourselves, we can choose to find similarities among our peers, creating a rich environment with many perspectives from which to learn while seeking out truth and knowledge in all situations.	<urn:uuid:155fc41a-e7f4-4bcb-a110-223d40bc231a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://indybedbugpros.com/analysis-of-theme-for-english-b-111/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00524.warc.gz	en	0.981746	1,179	3.328125	3	[ -0.1967909336090088, 0.21994981169700623, -0.124293252825737, 0.16244006156921387, -0.3984218239784241, 0.0702982097864151, 0.5973050594329834, -0.02618858590722084, -0.13471576571464539, -0.3652469515800476, -0.14246293902397156, 0.06391915678977966, -0.015074420720338821, 0.3303509056568...	1	The poem “Theme for English B” by Langston Hughes depicts a black young adult who is attempting to fgure out what is true in his life via an English assignment. As the only black male in his college English class, the speaker is not sure whether to take on the persona of a typical English student, regardless of race, or to stay true to his heritage and culture. The structure of this poem conveys a struggle for identity and truth in a fast-paced world whose ideas are constantly changing. The poem begins with a quote from the speaker’s English instructor, claiming that any piece written rom the heart will automatically be true. However, in the next stanza, the speaker expresses doubts about his instructor’s advice. However, the student finds himself unsure of who he is, what he stands for, and what is “true” for him. Being “the only colored student in [his] class,” he feels like somewhat of an outcast from the other students. He lists facts about himself that set him apart from his classmates, including the fact that he is the only African American man in his class and that he resides in Harlem. In the third stanza, the speaker then switches to expressing traits he knows to be similar between himself and his classmates, “l like to eat, sleep, drink, and be in love. / I like to work, read, learn, and understand life” By showing that he has things in common with his peers, even though they are very different at first glance, the speaker is depicting his dilemma at fguring out who he is and how he fits in with the world. He is both a part of Harlem and a part of a mostly white English class: “l guess I’m what / I feel and see and hear, Harlem, I hear you. While he holds nto his African American culture, he also acknowledges that it does not define him as a person: “l guess being colored doesn’t make me not like / the same things other folks like who are other races. ” The speaker comes to the conclusion that although he is different from his peers in some ways, they are all Americans with common likes and purposes. Therefore, he, his classmates, and his instructor will all learn from each other, increasing the diversity, richness, and truth that they can discover because, although they have parallels, everyone can bring a different perspective, or heir own truth, to the table to share. A quick scan through the lines of this poem reveals the frequent use of the words “l”, “me”, and “you”, which are a clue for the poem’s overall theme: should one find his identity through his race, or through ordinary, everyday elements, likes and dislikes, enjoyable pastimes and perceptions of life? In lines 6-15 alone, the word “l” is used to ask questions, tell his age, race, and birthplace, his college, and route home to the Harlem Branch YMCA. This is how he identifies himself outwardly to others. The third tanza uses “l” and “me” to compare himself to “you”, the instructor. The speaker identifies himself with Harlem in the lines which read “But I guess I’m what / I feel and see and hear, Harlem, I hear you: / hear you, hear me – we two – you, me, talk on this page. ” Many black people during this time were inspired by Harlem’s empowerment of their community. Having a black heritage was seen as positive and black poets, musicians and authors thrived in Harlem. The speaker has likely been encouraged by living in Harlem, and therefore sees his black identity in direct ontrast to “you”, the white identity of his instructor. He’s not entirely sure, though, because the snort line “Me – who? ” (II. 20) indicates that his identity isn’t clear to him, or maybe to whites. The fourth stanza’s conclusion about this issue recognizes that to allow blacks to be proud of their heritage is “American” (II. 33). I find this poem very easy to relate to both for myself and any other young adult or college student who is still trying to fgure out how to relate to other people in “real life”. It can sometimes e hard to find commonalities with new acquaintances, especially when my peers and I come from such diverse and varying backgrounds. Although, I have lived in a very large city for my entire life, I have met people in college from almost every state and every situation imaginable. It can be overwhelming and easy to recede back into one’s comfort zone of easily stated facts, such as race and hometown. However, if one digs a little deeper, it is not hard to find small similarities like the speaker in the poem does: “l like to work, read, learn, and understand life” (Hughes 22). I find myself surrounded by active, engaging people who pursue a multitude of topics, some similar to my own interests and others that I have never even thought about pursuing. I feel as if Langston Hughes captures my exact feelings on the matter of diversity when he writes, “As I learn from you, / I guess you learn from me” (Hughes 37-38). Rather than isolating ourselves, we can choose to find similarities among our peers, creating a rich environment with many perspectives from which to learn while seeking out truth and knowledge in all situations.	1,109	ENGLISH	1
In August 1914, the Isle of Man was in the middle of a very successful summer season. The tourist industry was crucial to the island, but suddenly holiday-makers left and the Steam Packet vessels that normally brought them were requisitioned. The future was uncertain for those who relied on the season and their pleas for assistance were ignored. For some, the cost of living became impossibly high and without the welfare measures that had been brought about in Britain, many faced destitution. Others however, particularly farmers and those involved with the internment camps, would find war very profitable. The divisions between rich and poor grew creating much social disaffection and a bitter battle for reform was fought. As arguments raged over conscription, taxation, the economy and the housing of enemy aliens, the personalities of the period came to prominence. The unprecedented scenes of direct action and several dramatic court cases are brought to life in this account of how the island began its path to progress. The Isle of Man played an important role in World War One, supplying troops and vessels and running special camps for the internment of enemy. 8,261 men enlisted in the armed forces, which was 82.3% of the Isle of Man’s male population of military age. Of these, 1,165 gave their lives and 987 were wounded. The experience of war significantly impacted on the Island, from the initial enthusiasm for sorting out the German Kaiser in time for Christmas 1914, to the gradual realization of the enormity of human sacrifice the families of the Isle were committed to as the war stretched out over the next four years. The Great War affected everyone. At home there were wounded soldiers in military hospitals, refugees from Belgium and later on German prisoners of war. There were food and fuel shortages and disruption to schooling. The role of women changed dramatically and they undertook a variety of work undreamed of in peacetime. Extracts from contemporary letters reveal their heroism and give insights into what it was like under battle conditions. ISLE OF MAN IN THE GREAT WAR Introducing Your Towns and Cities in the Great War, describing the impact of the First World War on local communities in the UK. The series records, through words and photographs, how each year of the war brought a change in the spirit of the populace as the huge battles taking place in Belgium, France, Gallipoli and elsewhere, took their toll on the menfolk. Knowledgeable authors document the stories of how these cities and towns were affected by the conflict by researching the local newspapers of the day; along with letters, diaries, photograph albums, parish magazines, trade journals and contemporary printed pamphlets etc, located in the local library archives.	<urn:uuid:292ddfac-253a-422a-af8e-2e9ca52ce93e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.naval-military-press.com/product/isle-of-man-in-the-great-war/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00329.warc.gz	en	0.980559	545	3.53125	4	[ 0.06441313028335571, 0.6056959629058838, 0.45617350935935974, -0.16916894912719727, 0.14294932782649994, -0.02079838514328003, 0.20009517669677734, 0.11771078407764435, -0.37816089391708374, -0.29924631118774414, 0.06128937751054764, -0.02212676964700222, 0.13673584163188934, 0.71311175823...	1	In August 1914, the Isle of Man was in the middle of a very successful summer season. The tourist industry was crucial to the island, but suddenly holiday-makers left and the Steam Packet vessels that normally brought them were requisitioned. The future was uncertain for those who relied on the season and their pleas for assistance were ignored. For some, the cost of living became impossibly high and without the welfare measures that had been brought about in Britain, many faced destitution. Others however, particularly farmers and those involved with the internment camps, would find war very profitable. The divisions between rich and poor grew creating much social disaffection and a bitter battle for reform was fought. As arguments raged over conscription, taxation, the economy and the housing of enemy aliens, the personalities of the period came to prominence. The unprecedented scenes of direct action and several dramatic court cases are brought to life in this account of how the island began its path to progress. The Isle of Man played an important role in World War One, supplying troops and vessels and running special camps for the internment of enemy. 8,261 men enlisted in the armed forces, which was 82.3% of the Isle of Man’s male population of military age. Of these, 1,165 gave their lives and 987 were wounded. The experience of war significantly impacted on the Island, from the initial enthusiasm for sorting out the German Kaiser in time for Christmas 1914, to the gradual realization of the enormity of human sacrifice the families of the Isle were committed to as the war stretched out over the next four years. The Great War affected everyone. At home there were wounded soldiers in military hospitals, refugees from Belgium and later on German prisoners of war. There were food and fuel shortages and disruption to schooling. The role of women changed dramatically and they undertook a variety of work undreamed of in peacetime. Extracts from contemporary letters reveal their heroism and give insights into what it was like under battle conditions. ISLE OF MAN IN THE GREAT WAR Introducing Your Towns and Cities in the Great War, describing the impact of the First World War on local communities in the UK. The series records, through words and photographs, how each year of the war brought a change in the spirit of the populace as the huge battles taking place in Belgium, France, Gallipoli and elsewhere, took their toll on the menfolk. Knowledgeable authors document the stories of how these cities and towns were affected by the conflict by researching the local newspapers of the day; along with letters, diaries, photograph albums, parish magazines, trade journals and contemporary printed pamphlets etc, located in the local library archives.	560	ENGLISH	1
An 18,000-year-old puppy buried for centuries in a lump of frozen mud was unveiled on Monday by scientists who hope it can help bridge the connection between dogs and wolves. The puppy, which was male, was discovered 18 months ago, preserved in a layer of permafrost in Siberia's Far Eastern reaches, according to Dave Stanton, a research fellow at the Center for Palaeogenetics in Stockholm and one of the scientists who examined its DNA. The fur, skeleton, teeth, head, lashes and whiskers of the pup, named Dogor, are still intact, he said. But scientists don't know whether it is a dog or wolf. Stanton said more DNA research would be conducted in the coming months. "We need to put this information into context," he said in an interview. Many scientists say dogs evolved about 15,000 years ago from a species of extinct wolves. Others suggest it could have happened much earlier, perhaps 30,000 years ago or more. These wolves evolved after generations of exposure to humans, were domesticated and became the canine companions we know today. The puppy, which was found by locals, is being studied at North-Eastern Federal University in Yakutsk, the capital of Yakutia, a sprawling region in eastern Siberia that constitutes 20% of Russia. (The puppy remains were found near Yakutsk.) Nikolai Androsov, director of the Northern World museum where the remains will be kept, presented the discovery on Monday, according to The Associated Press. Yakutia is known for its oil and gas reserves and abundance of diamond mines. Several extinct animals have been found in the thick permafrost, in part because of the melting of ice resulting from climate change. They include a male steppe bison, a woolly rhinoceros, a mummified pony and several mammoths. Stanton said treasure seekers sometimes used water cannons to break through the permafrost to extract mammoth ivory tusks, which are later sold. "It must have frozen quickly before scavengers could get to it," Stanton said of the puppy. "We also found a lot of samples that were not well preserved. There seems to be natural traps in the landscape where animals are frozen before they decomposed." He said the DNA used to date the puppy and figure out its gender was extracted from a rib bone. He said he was not sure if a necropsy was performed to see if its organs, including the heart and liver, were intact. "The body is well preserved, which is rare," Stanton said. "It's the best I've seen." Modern dogs are not like modern wolves. Wolves are reticent to eat in front of people, for example, while domesticated dogs beg for dinner table scraps. Their physiology is different, with dogs having shorter snouts and wider skulls. And male wolves participate in pup raising, while male dogs generally avoid it. Stanton said the dating of the dog was done at Oxford University, and he and his colleagues will continue to collaborate with scientists at North-Eastern Federal University. "We need to look at more samples from that time period," he said. "Then we will be able to understand if it was a dog or a wolf." The New York Times	<urn:uuid:006db532-1cf2-46e5-a332-c8926d6ebc3d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.watoday.com.au/world/europe/was-this-18-000-year-old-siberian-puppy-a-dog-or-a-wolf-20191203-p53gik.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00536.warc.gz	en	0.982479	674	3.296875	3	[ -0.3702159523963928, -0.07948663830757141, 0.3592837452888489, 0.3766176700592041, 0.15925553441047668, 0.12064354121685028, -0.3131904900074005, 0.20544341206550598, -0.2287580817937851, 0.1835915744304657, 0.0962224006652832, -0.6373593807220459, 0.1904052495956421, 0.11016102880239487, ...	4	An 18,000-year-old puppy buried for centuries in a lump of frozen mud was unveiled on Monday by scientists who hope it can help bridge the connection between dogs and wolves. The puppy, which was male, was discovered 18 months ago, preserved in a layer of permafrost in Siberia's Far Eastern reaches, according to Dave Stanton, a research fellow at the Center for Palaeogenetics in Stockholm and one of the scientists who examined its DNA. The fur, skeleton, teeth, head, lashes and whiskers of the pup, named Dogor, are still intact, he said. But scientists don't know whether it is a dog or wolf. Stanton said more DNA research would be conducted in the coming months. "We need to put this information into context," he said in an interview. Many scientists say dogs evolved about 15,000 years ago from a species of extinct wolves. Others suggest it could have happened much earlier, perhaps 30,000 years ago or more. These wolves evolved after generations of exposure to humans, were domesticated and became the canine companions we know today. The puppy, which was found by locals, is being studied at North-Eastern Federal University in Yakutsk, the capital of Yakutia, a sprawling region in eastern Siberia that constitutes 20% of Russia. (The puppy remains were found near Yakutsk.) Nikolai Androsov, director of the Northern World museum where the remains will be kept, presented the discovery on Monday, according to The Associated Press. Yakutia is known for its oil and gas reserves and abundance of diamond mines. Several extinct animals have been found in the thick permafrost, in part because of the melting of ice resulting from climate change. They include a male steppe bison, a woolly rhinoceros, a mummified pony and several mammoths. Stanton said treasure seekers sometimes used water cannons to break through the permafrost to extract mammoth ivory tusks, which are later sold. "It must have frozen quickly before scavengers could get to it," Stanton said of the puppy. "We also found a lot of samples that were not well preserved. There seems to be natural traps in the landscape where animals are frozen before they decomposed." He said the DNA used to date the puppy and figure out its gender was extracted from a rib bone. He said he was not sure if a necropsy was performed to see if its organs, including the heart and liver, were intact. "The body is well preserved, which is rare," Stanton said. "It's the best I've seen." Modern dogs are not like modern wolves. Wolves are reticent to eat in front of people, for example, while domesticated dogs beg for dinner table scraps. Their physiology is different, with dogs having shorter snouts and wider skulls. And male wolves participate in pup raising, while male dogs generally avoid it. Stanton said the dating of the dog was done at Oxford University, and he and his colleagues will continue to collaborate with scientists at North-Eastern Federal University. "We need to look at more samples from that time period," he said. "Then we will be able to understand if it was a dog or a wolf." The New York Times	674	ENGLISH	1
Sarah Dean is a senior at Millersville University. She is a dual early education and special education major with a minor in integrative STEM. The process of creating this project began in her Social Studies for the Young Learner class with Dr. Jennifer Burke. Dr. Burke introduced the class to a project called a Journey Box, where teachers would collect pictures, articles, and other artifacts about a place or time period. The project was meant to be interactive, meaningful, and created as a teachable unit. Sarah decided upon Black History Month because it was something she had never learned about in school, other than a few days in February, and something she was sure many other students were not exposed to very often. Her end product was a five-day unit including important people, dates, places, and events all based around the topic question, Why Do We Celebrate Black History Month? Students are able to conduct their own research, break past herofication and its myths, talk about race and injustice, and complete interactive simulations. Sarah wanted to open up the conversation about race and provide students with the opportunity to see more than just old white men in their history lessons. She wants to have passionate, well-informed students that are comfortable talking about the tough stuff. In the future, she plans to modify her Journey Box to fit her classroom and better serve her students' learning.	<urn:uuid:7eb8d67a-e6cd-4984-a6eb-8ab527848424>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mimjournal.com/sarah	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00444.warc.gz	en	0.981555	277	3.453125	3	[ -0.12486771494150162, 0.6172710061073303, 0.36136072874069214, 0.07264074683189392, -0.1900869607925415, 0.04185217246413231, -0.3779069185256958, 0.34089893102645874, -0.5873278379440308, 0.039530958980321884, -0.04956446960568428, -0.18856337666511536, -0.27506858110427856, 0.18138034641...	12	Sarah Dean is a senior at Millersville University. She is a dual early education and special education major with a minor in integrative STEM. The process of creating this project began in her Social Studies for the Young Learner class with Dr. Jennifer Burke. Dr. Burke introduced the class to a project called a Journey Box, where teachers would collect pictures, articles, and other artifacts about a place or time period. The project was meant to be interactive, meaningful, and created as a teachable unit. Sarah decided upon Black History Month because it was something she had never learned about in school, other than a few days in February, and something she was sure many other students were not exposed to very often. Her end product was a five-day unit including important people, dates, places, and events all based around the topic question, Why Do We Celebrate Black History Month? Students are able to conduct their own research, break past herofication and its myths, talk about race and injustice, and complete interactive simulations. Sarah wanted to open up the conversation about race and provide students with the opportunity to see more than just old white men in their history lessons. She wants to have passionate, well-informed students that are comfortable talking about the tough stuff. In the future, she plans to modify her Journey Box to fit her classroom and better serve her students' learning.	276	ENGLISH	1
(Last Updated on : 04/11/2014) The Punjab Province was among the final regions of the Indian subcontinent that came under the rule of the British Empire in India . After the withdrawal of the British and the Indian independence in the year 1947, the Punjab province was divided between East Punjab that became a part of India and West Punjab that became a part of Pakistan. In India, the territory includes the present day areas of the state of Punjab ; Himachal Pradesh , but without the erstwhile Indian princely states that were later merged with the Patiala and East Punjab States Union; Delhi . The Punjab Province of British India was a triangular shaped region of which the Sutlej and the Indus to their convergence formed the either sides. The lower Himalaya hills that were situated between the 2 rivers formed the base but the province under the British rule also incorporated a vast area outside these borders. The region was segregated from Tibet and Kashmir by the Himalayan ranges along the northern border. It was divided from the North West Frontier Province by the Indus River, until it reached the boundary of the district of Dera Ghazi Khan. Rajputana and Sindh laid in the south, where as it were separated from the United Provinces by the rivers Jumna and Tons on the east. The historically significant city of Delhi was also included in the province. History of Punjab Province During the battle of Gujarat , the Sikhs were defeated by the British forces on 21 February 1849. The victorious British seized the region of Punjab and it was annexed on 2 April 1849. Thus the territory became an integral part of British India. In the year 1901 the frontier districts, which were beyond the Indus River , were divided from Punjab and a new province was formed, which came to be known as the North West Frontier Province. Administration of Punjab Province The British East India Company annexed Punjab in March 1849 and established a Board of Administration for the proper administration and governance of the province. But in February 1853, the Board was abolished and its authority and functions were reassigned to the Chief Commissioner, who was assisted by a Judicial and a Financial Commissioner. After the territory of Delhi was transferred to Punjab Province from the North Western Provinces, Punjab was developed into a Lieutenant Governorship. On 1st January 1859, Sir John Lawrence, who served as the Chief Commissioner at the time, was appointed as the first Lieutenant Governor. Later he was succeeded in the office by the following members- * Sir Robert Montgomery (1859) * Sir Donald McLeod (1865) * Sir Henry Durand (1870) * Sir Henry Davies (1871) * Sir Robert Egerton (1877) * Sir Charles Aitchison (1882) * Sir James Lyall (1887) * Sir Dennis Fitzpatrick (1892) * Sir Macworth Young (1897) * Sir Charles Rivaz (1902) * Sir Denzil Ibbetson (1907) * Sir Louis Dane (1908) Later a Chief Court replaced the Judicial Commissioner in the year 1866. The Lieutenant Governor conducted the direct administrative functions of the British Government through the Secretariat, which consisted of a Chief Secretary, a Secretary and 2 Under-Secretaries. They were generally members of the Indian Civil Service . The region directly under the Lieutenant comprised of 29 districts which were assembled under 5 divisions and 43 princely states of India . Each district was under a Deputy Commissioner, who reported to the Commissioner of the division. Every district was sub-divided into 3 to 7 Tahsils and each of the Tahsils was under a Tahsildar, who was assisted by a Naib Tahsildar, who acted as a deputy.	<urn:uuid:2611a513-e1f7-413b-b60a-a97b1179d004>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.indianetzone.com/60/punjab_province.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00078.warc.gz	en	0.980904	791	4.03125	4	[ -0.06868822872638702, 0.2151506543159485, 0.5779272317886353, 0.040290214121341705, -0.40397655963897705, -0.3352908492088318, 0.25758984684944153, -0.010713918134570122, 0.06447863578796387, 0.1179315447807312, 0.2574383020401001, -0.8753000497817993, 0.4070277214050293, 0.232829779386520...	1	(Last Updated on : 04/11/2014) The Punjab Province was among the final regions of the Indian subcontinent that came under the rule of the British Empire in India . After the withdrawal of the British and the Indian independence in the year 1947, the Punjab province was divided between East Punjab that became a part of India and West Punjab that became a part of Pakistan. In India, the territory includes the present day areas of the state of Punjab ; Himachal Pradesh , but without the erstwhile Indian princely states that were later merged with the Patiala and East Punjab States Union; Delhi . The Punjab Province of British India was a triangular shaped region of which the Sutlej and the Indus to their convergence formed the either sides. The lower Himalaya hills that were situated between the 2 rivers formed the base but the province under the British rule also incorporated a vast area outside these borders. The region was segregated from Tibet and Kashmir by the Himalayan ranges along the northern border. It was divided from the North West Frontier Province by the Indus River, until it reached the boundary of the district of Dera Ghazi Khan. Rajputana and Sindh laid in the south, where as it were separated from the United Provinces by the rivers Jumna and Tons on the east. The historically significant city of Delhi was also included in the province. History of Punjab Province During the battle of Gujarat , the Sikhs were defeated by the British forces on 21 February 1849. The victorious British seized the region of Punjab and it was annexed on 2 April 1849. Thus the territory became an integral part of British India. In the year 1901 the frontier districts, which were beyond the Indus River , were divided from Punjab and a new province was formed, which came to be known as the North West Frontier Province. Administration of Punjab Province The British East India Company annexed Punjab in March 1849 and established a Board of Administration for the proper administration and governance of the province. But in February 1853, the Board was abolished and its authority and functions were reassigned to the Chief Commissioner, who was assisted by a Judicial and a Financial Commissioner. After the territory of Delhi was transferred to Punjab Province from the North Western Provinces, Punjab was developed into a Lieutenant Governorship. On 1st January 1859, Sir John Lawrence, who served as the Chief Commissioner at the time, was appointed as the first Lieutenant Governor. Later he was succeeded in the office by the following members- * Sir Robert Montgomery (1859) * Sir Donald McLeod (1865) * Sir Henry Durand (1870) * Sir Henry Davies (1871) * Sir Robert Egerton (1877) * Sir Charles Aitchison (1882) * Sir James Lyall (1887) * Sir Dennis Fitzpatrick (1892) * Sir Macworth Young (1897) * Sir Charles Rivaz (1902) * Sir Denzil Ibbetson (1907) * Sir Louis Dane (1908) Later a Chief Court replaced the Judicial Commissioner in the year 1866. The Lieutenant Governor conducted the direct administrative functions of the British Government through the Secretariat, which consisted of a Chief Secretary, a Secretary and 2 Under-Secretaries. They were generally members of the Indian Civil Service . The region directly under the Lieutenant comprised of 29 districts which were assembled under 5 divisions and 43 princely states of India . Each district was under a Deputy Commissioner, who reported to the Commissioner of the division. Every district was sub-divided into 3 to 7 Tahsils and each of the Tahsils was under a Tahsildar, who was assisted by a Naib Tahsildar, who acted as a deputy.	840	ENGLISH	1
Who Was MacBeth? The real MacBeth was the High King of Alba from 1040-1057. (In the eleventh century the name Scotland was beginning to appear, but Alba was how the area would have been most commonly named at the time.) Chroniclers from the time describe him in complimentary terms. He is referred to as “ruddy of countenance, tall with yellow hair; a liberal king fair and tall”. St. Berchan called him a “handsome youth”. The early Scottish High Kings were actually elected to their thrones — something that probably would have been an unusual concept to Shakespeare when he wrote “The Scottish play” 500 hundred years later. This system of law seems to have been a direct descendant of similar laws among most of the early Celtic peoples. Later chroniclers who did not understand the system assumed the Scots of the time were barbarians who flouted the “natural order” of kingship through hereditary lines. But it was actually this system of elective kingship that made Macbeth the first king of a progressive (for the time) and increasingly united country. Alba was ruled by elected chieftains whose offices were part of a system that had been long defined by ancient law. These started at the low end with heads of prominent families, to the more powerful Mormaers (provincial rulers), to the lesser or petty kings. New leaders, “tanists” were selected as successors by their chieftain and required approval by the tribe or clan before taking power. Of course, these offices tended to follow family lines, but there was no requirement or guarantee that an eldest son would inherit the power as under English law. It is partially a lack of understanding of this system that seems to have lead to the drama portrayed by Shakespeare. The ideal behind elected kings was that they could be drawn from among those most capable and worthy to lead. The people could even depose kings, or chieftains who were corrupt, or abusive. As opposed to the concept of a king’s divine right to rule which had grown in strength by Shakespeare’s time. Naturally, even this elective system was subject to abuse. Members of certain great families were most often elected to the office of High King and feuds still arose over the selection, but it was not Macbeth who was the hated tyrant. In the case of Macbeth, his assumption of the throne seems to be the opposite of what Shakespeare portrayed. Shakespeare describes his predecessor as a gracious king who was slain by a usurper. However no complaints seem to have been raised when the historical Duncan was deposed and Macbeth was elected by his peers to replace him. Shakespeare’s MacDuff portrays Macbeth as “Fit to govern! No, not to live! O nation miserable with an untitled tyrant, bloody sceptered?” Whereas his contemporary, St Berchan said “The liberal king will possess Scotland. This strong one was fair, yellow haired, tall. Very pleasant was that handsome youth to me. Brimful of food was Scotland, east and west, during the reign of the brave ruddy king.” -Certainly a glowing review, practically along the lines of the modern campaign promise of “a chicken in every pot” Other contemporary writers confirm that Macbeth and his wife were good rulers and even instituted legal reforms early in his reign. These included statutory support for orphans and women, legal inheritance for daughters, and regulation of itinerant and non-productive citizens for the benefit of the community. These were not actually uncommon, or novel laws, even for the time, and were based in surviving Celtic oral traditions. But even if Macbeth only reaffirmed existing legal traditions it paints a much more favorable portrait than the one presented centuries later in the infamous “Scottish Play.”	<urn:uuid:62dd996b-66fa-41f6-835f-111bd5ce1c1b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.kilts-n-stuff.com/Blog/who-was-macbeth/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00011.warc.gz	en	0.989622	808	3.75	4	[ -0.5755519866943359, 0.278104305267334, 0.19074876606464386, 0.050110407173633575, -0.2724173665046692, -0.4626929759979248, 0.5500277280807495, 0.18436115980148315, 0.0145795289427042, 0.055832814425230026, 0.09886500239372253, -0.3045482635498047, -0.32178372144699097, 0.1036385297775268...	2	Who Was MacBeth? The real MacBeth was the High King of Alba from 1040-1057. (In the eleventh century the name Scotland was beginning to appear, but Alba was how the area would have been most commonly named at the time.) Chroniclers from the time describe him in complimentary terms. He is referred to as “ruddy of countenance, tall with yellow hair; a liberal king fair and tall”. St. Berchan called him a “handsome youth”. The early Scottish High Kings were actually elected to their thrones — something that probably would have been an unusual concept to Shakespeare when he wrote “The Scottish play” 500 hundred years later. This system of law seems to have been a direct descendant of similar laws among most of the early Celtic peoples. Later chroniclers who did not understand the system assumed the Scots of the time were barbarians who flouted the “natural order” of kingship through hereditary lines. But it was actually this system of elective kingship that made Macbeth the first king of a progressive (for the time) and increasingly united country. Alba was ruled by elected chieftains whose offices were part of a system that had been long defined by ancient law. These started at the low end with heads of prominent families, to the more powerful Mormaers (provincial rulers), to the lesser or petty kings. New leaders, “tanists” were selected as successors by their chieftain and required approval by the tribe or clan before taking power. Of course, these offices tended to follow family lines, but there was no requirement or guarantee that an eldest son would inherit the power as under English law. It is partially a lack of understanding of this system that seems to have lead to the drama portrayed by Shakespeare. The ideal behind elected kings was that they could be drawn from among those most capable and worthy to lead. The people could even depose kings, or chieftains who were corrupt, or abusive. As opposed to the concept of a king’s divine right to rule which had grown in strength by Shakespeare’s time. Naturally, even this elective system was subject to abuse. Members of certain great families were most often elected to the office of High King and feuds still arose over the selection, but it was not Macbeth who was the hated tyrant. In the case of Macbeth, his assumption of the throne seems to be the opposite of what Shakespeare portrayed. Shakespeare describes his predecessor as a gracious king who was slain by a usurper. However no complaints seem to have been raised when the historical Duncan was deposed and Macbeth was elected by his peers to replace him. Shakespeare’s MacDuff portrays Macbeth as “Fit to govern! No, not to live! O nation miserable with an untitled tyrant, bloody sceptered?” Whereas his contemporary, St Berchan said “The liberal king will possess Scotland. This strong one was fair, yellow haired, tall. Very pleasant was that handsome youth to me. Brimful of food was Scotland, east and west, during the reign of the brave ruddy king.” -Certainly a glowing review, practically along the lines of the modern campaign promise of “a chicken in every pot” Other contemporary writers confirm that Macbeth and his wife were good rulers and even instituted legal reforms early in his reign. These included statutory support for orphans and women, legal inheritance for daughters, and regulation of itinerant and non-productive citizens for the benefit of the community. These were not actually uncommon, or novel laws, even for the time, and were based in surviving Celtic oral traditions. But even if Macbeth only reaffirmed existing legal traditions it paints a much more favorable portrait than the one presented centuries later in the infamous “Scottish Play.”	778	ENGLISH	1
Rape in early modern England was considered a capital crime, however, it constituted about one percent of indicted felonies1. The majority of rape trials were held in silence due to the social restraints placed on women. Consequently, the silence of rape victims has resulted in a lack of historical records. Today, one identifies the crime of rape, as a violation of a woman, forcing her to submit against her will to sexual intercourse. This definition regards the violation in terms of the female victim, but this was not necessarily the case of rape law in early modern England. Instead, what was witnessed was a legal system that denied women the right to their own sexual autonomy. In medieval England the majority of felonies were those in accordance with property. Rape crime became much like property crime, a felony that was done to male’s property. Much of the law in England pertaining to rape regarded the act as a violation of a father’s property, and a women’s assertion was viewed to be irrelevant. Legislations passed in eighteenth century English law reflected a female’s lack of importance and rights, due to the fact that its purpose was for the protection of a father’s property interest in his daughter. Baine’s article states that rape was primarily a crime against property since it concerned the loss of virginity in rape. For instance the punishment of the rapist was dependent on the “quality of damaged property”2. The historical movement of rape law in England reflected a shift from the idea of protecting women as a particular form of male property, to preserving women’s integrity and her right to be free from sexual assault. Although this represented a release from a male dominated legal framework thus posing as improvement for the view of women in society, what may be argued is that the legal system still acted as a vehicle portraying male supremacy. To determine if a shift occurred from female rape victims as property to person during the Medieval to Early Modern periods, the social restrictions placed on women, the laws pertaining to rape, and the way rapists were dealt with will be further examined. Due to the social restrictions in place women were discouraged to prosecute rape crimes. It was painful and embarrassing for a woman to publicly prove in court that an attack had taken place, and that it was indeed a rape3. Only in few cases did women bring rape charges to court. For instance between 1660 and 1800 on average one case was brought to court in a year4. The cases that most commonly came forward had a particular character; either women were seriously injured, or the rape was interrupted by a witness5. Also cases came before the courts when women had to seek medical attention and the story would come out. Others very often encouraged the prosecution in those circumstances. The Surrey Assize proceedings suggest that very few women on their own reported to a magistrate6. Thus, women were only encouraged to report rape crimes if it damaged a women physically or if there was a witness, not necessarily because it caused the victim emotional distress. Often the cases involving a sexual attack that did come to court were victims found to be children not women. Victims of rape were primarily those of lower social class such as servants. Servants were seen as particularly vulnerable and were often sexually violated. The masters often sexually exploited the female servants, and if they were to get pregnant they were dismissed immediately7. Clearly those who were socially inferior were taken advantage of. Social customs and boundaries at this time in England placed a great deal of emphasis on chastity and women’s obligation to marry within their own class. Any doubt cast on a woman’s chastity would compromise her chances of finding a suitable husband. The parents were forced to consider “whether they could make any match for their daughter other than the match proposed by the extortioner/kidnapper once the daughter’s reputation had been tarnished by her captor”8. The possibility of having a sexual violation occurred was sufficient to ruin a women’s reputation and as a “commodity” in the marriage market. Rape was not awful because of the emotional devastation inflicted on the victim but on account of the distress it causes her family and peers9. Women were to submit to the authority of their fathers and husbands not only for the well ordering of family life, but to preserve the social order10. Clearly women were threatened by their social order to restrain from prosecuting rape crimes merely because it would disrupt her family life. In some instances when women did not report the crime themselves the indictment would be brought through the king’s name or the father’s voice. The father would report that his property is despoiled, which is in fact the loss of his daughter’s virginity11. English law from the beginning of the medieval period has primarily been interested with property rights. This emphasis on property is portrayed in rape crime. Evidently statues at that time identified rape as a crime against family property12. Thus, the societal restraints and norms placed on women demonstrated that they were in fact property not autonomous individuals. The control of women by either their fathers or husbands invariably led to women becoming restricted within their own space. During Medieval England women were expected to remain within their own boundaries. Men during this time felt the need to enclose women as a method of control, whether it was a women’s husband or father. It was generally assumed that “women who strayed from their designated space might be subject to sexual assault because they were neither under the protection of a responsible male nor in the accustomed space”13. Women during this time felt the societal pressure to stay within their boundaries otherwise they would risk humiliation or even rape. Hanawalt expresses women could freely move only in specific environments such as, the home, castle, nunnery, village or city quarter14. If they had to move outside of those areas they did so with “proper dress, demeanor, and escort or they risked compromising their honor or their persons”15. Societal norms established that those women who were dressed inappropriately such as wearing “lewd” clothing on the streets were likely to be punished by rape16. Thus, rape was portrayed as a form of punishment to women who stepped out of their social boundary. This encourages the notion that women were merely treated as property. Therefore the societal restrictions placed on women literally restricted them from moving about in fear of rape. The belief that women were to remain within their own space remained into the early modern period of England. Robert Shoemaker states “By the 1820’s the notion that sexual violence made the streets unsafe for respectable women was rarely questioned”17. Therefore this fear of rape, which limited women’s freedom of movement, did not even diminish in the early modern period. It can be stated that women were held within a particular boundary, and thus have not evolved from property to person in the early modern period due to the societal restraints placed upon them. The rape laws from Medieval to Early Modern England changed but failed to establish that women were to be treated as autonomous individuals in the eyes of the law. In the Medieval period rape law was “constructed around the protection of male property in the form of their movable goods, their wives and daughters, their bequeathed inheritances, their future heirs”18. Women had limited access to the legal system except through their fathers or husbands, of whom they were merely extensions 19. Baines indicates that medieval law was designed to protect a rigid class structure based on bloodline, as well as property20. During this time when rape crime took place it was a crime against the king’s peace, not against the woman. This emphasis of women as property during the medieval period is evident and is also portrayed in the law. For instance the first Statute of Westminster in 1275 essentially made the punishment of rape a trespass rather than a felony. It tried to regularize the appeal of rape, giving women forty days to make an appeal and prescribing two years imprisonment and ransom at the king’s pleasure in case of conviction21. Ten years later the second Statute of Westminster declared that the conviction of rape would carry the death penalty, since judges and juries were prescribing that punishment for less heinous crimes22. Rape appeals were constraining and caused the victim emotional pain. As soon as a crime of rape had been committed she was to go to the nearest place and show “trustworthy men” the injury done to her by her torn clothes23. Her testimony was then made to an audience of men in a public setting and the narrative was then repeated to the hundred reeves, to a coroner on a later date, to the country court, and to the royal justices24. Undergoing the trauma of rape was no excuse at this time to not disclose the story the necessary amount of times. Not only was it traumatic for a woman to have to repeat this story a number of times; but also the women would have to tell the story correctly following a particular formula, otherwise she would be imprisoned or fined for making a false appeal25. However, rape charges could be settled prior to judgment, that is if the women was willing to marry the defendant, this was a notion passed on from the medieval period that continued to exist until the early modern period. This solution allowed for a family to keep their honor after such “illicit defloration”26. This concept would not necessarily work in every situation not only because women would find it degrading, but also rape victims were often young girls. Persecutions during the medieval period almost always pertained to cases involving the virginity of young girls27. Primarily because rape was a crime against property and thus the law was concerned with the loss of virginity in rape. Bracton, the most prestigious authority of the Middle Ages explains how he felt “that payment in life and member (true felony) was only applicable in conviction for rape of a virgin, whereas a man convicted of raping a married women or widow would suffer corporal punishment only”28. Dependent on the women’s virginity, rape would be essentially either considered a felony or a trespass. It is clear that the loss of virginity, which was viewed as property value, influenced legal discourse. From the earliest statute of Westminster I, girls under the age of twelve years old were assumed incapable of giving her consent29. The reason being that girls that young were incapable of becoming pregnant, and pregnancy corresponded directly to consent. If a woman conceived as a result of rape then it was unquestionable she consented to it, because it was further assumed that women became pregnant only if they had an orgasm. These ludicrous assumptions about female sexuality resulted in defendants becoming acquitted if a child was conceived. The male assumptions about female sexuality played a role in the interpretation of law and consequently disadvantaged mature, married women30. The laws and statutes during the medieval period were no great deterrent to rape because women were silenced regardless of the law, either because she was “so little offended with the injury, or so ashamed to confess the outrage”31. Nevertheless, women were punished by being disinherited and were considered a loss of family property, and this notion carried on into the early modern period. During the medieval period there was little distinction made between rape and abduction. The will of a woman was clearly irrelevant at that time, and the laws mirrored that belief. Laws were clearly designed to protect patriarchal interests32. During the Early Modern period changes in the law did occur; however, changes in the depiction of the rape victim did not. In 1576 a statute denied the benefit of clergy to rapists, and men continued to be hanged for it in the eighteenth century. Also, in 1555 and 1597 statutes were passed to separate the two offences of rape and abduction. Baines states it inadvertently separated these two offences and thus placed greater emphasis on a woman’s will33. Rape was perceived as a result of these laws to have placed a greater emphasis as a crime against person as opposed to property. At first it may have seemed that there was an improvement of the way the rape victim was portrayed; however, statistical data indicates the contrary34. Statistics show that convictions of rape were still very rare, and “almost always involved the rape of a child or young girl whose virginity was presumed forfeited”35. Thus, women were still depicted as male’s property since virginity was still seen as a valuable attribute. However, in the Early Modern period the number of indictments pertaining to older women did increase, although, the percentage of convictions did not. Male supremacy in the courts was a reality and in effect did not change the attitude that rape crime was against property and class hierarchy36. Baines determines that women’s subjectivity during the Early Modern period was constructed as both property, or a person “invested with agency with the will and discernment that define consent”37. Thus, women had the ability to prove that they did not consent; however, court realities suggest that male supremacy surmounted the law. For instance the courts were likely to discount a women’s testimony if it could be shown that she had not reported the attack immediately, or had not at least told someone about it38. Also it was considered a weakness if during the attack she had not made an attempt to cry out for help39. The inability to understand the traumatic conventions of rape by male authorities resulted in laws that suppressed women. Nonetheless, there was an attempt to give women more ability to prosecute offenders during the early modern period. Women could charge their attacker with attempted rape. This was considered a misdemeanor and therefore not a capital offence40. Rape victims found this to be a less demanding method in convicting offenders since they did not have to prove that penetration occurred, but simply that was what the attacker had in mind41. Otherwise women had to be put through the disgrace of proceeding with a number of trials, and thus reducing her status in society. Another advantage of charging attempted rape was that it could be tried at the quarter sessions since it was a lesser offence, and therefore would be less expensive42. By the eighteenth century there were twice as many charges of attempted rape over rape itself because women did not have to be cross-examined. During the early modern period laws did not drastically change in regards to rape. Even though some laws did change the traditional views cast on the female rape victim did not. For instance the notion that if a women conceived she consented still remained prominent during the early modern period. The view that women were treated as property remained even though laws may have suggested otherwise. Punishment to the rapist much like the law was not a great deterrent since it was rarely practiced. The punishment to rapists before the statute of Westminster was castration and blinding. However, this was not practiced very frequently. The punishment to the rapist was dependent on the “quality of the damaged property”43. Thus, loss of virginity being the most detrimental. Essentially the laws that later developed were to make the punishment more realistic. Writers of legal theory such as Bracton, addressed that rapists should be sentenced to death (in case of virgins) and corporal punishment for older women. However, in practice defendants were subject to monetary fines or imprisonment44. Therefore, even though the Statute of Westminster II required punishment in life and member it was not frequently practiced. Between Westminster I and II thirty-seven rape cases appeared in the plea rolls, and only one of the men appealed of rape was convicted45. Thus, the reluctance in courts to accept evidence of appeals was extremely rare. Punishment to rapists were merely what the text of law suggested not what necessarily occurred. Following Westminster II twelve percent of indictments ended up in conviction, since indictment replaced appeals of rape. However, the successful convictions were usually cases of young virgins46. Although conviction rates were considerably low, many women attempted to indict merely because statistics were not kept at that time, therefore, were not aware of the unsuccessful conviction rates. Otherwise, in order to prevent the humiliation women would undergo in the court system they would compromise with the offender to give them a monetary payment in replace of their, “loss of virginity and any other complications that this might cause in the marriage market”47. Thus, several women at this time ought to have been aware of the lack of justice that occurred in the courts since they asked for monetary payments instead. Even though the punishment of rape was not carried out offenders were nonetheless outlawed since a number of them would flee the community. Accordingly, the victim’s stories did hold some credit and impacted the offender. It is clear to state that women continued to be depicted until the early modern period of England as property as opposed to individuals with will and integrity. The laws of England attempted to overcome the traditional belief of women as a form of male property; however, they failed to do so since male supremacy represented the justice system. A disparity existed between the text of the law and its practice, that is to say the severity of the laws and the will to apply them in regards to rape in medieval and Early Modern periods48. This disparity has resulted in women being unable to speak out against rape crimes due to their feelings of embarrassment and humiliation in a society highly based on social class and custom. The social restrictions placed on women created an environment where they invariably had little control over their own bodies. The emerging laws in early modern England attempted to give women more control; however, the laws and practices of punishment were not followed through. Although offenders were not punished the way the law imagined it did illustrate the way the society was constructed. That is the rule of law was no the practice of law, and is evident with regards to rape crime. Women continued in the early modern period to be portrayed as property regardless of what laws became enacted, since male supremacy was the construct of those laws.	<urn:uuid:f2e2b25c-a6f9-47f2-91e8-93dcdca45892>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thenewstandardgallery.com/women-as-property-in-regards-to-rape/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00104.warc.gz	en	0.988082	3,676	3.640625	4	[ 0.3565487861633301, 0.137916699051857, 0.3367069959640503, -0.04013637453317642, 0.22123482823371887, 0.23667378723621368, 0.22516638040542603, -0.25116783380508423, 0.5998410582542419, 0.02588079310953617, -0.3901558518409729, -0.11697927117347717, 0.041990071535110474, 0.0099573116749525...	2	Rape in early modern England was considered a capital crime, however, it constituted about one percent of indicted felonies1. The majority of rape trials were held in silence due to the social restraints placed on women. Consequently, the silence of rape victims has resulted in a lack of historical records. Today, one identifies the crime of rape, as a violation of a woman, forcing her to submit against her will to sexual intercourse. This definition regards the violation in terms of the female victim, but this was not necessarily the case of rape law in early modern England. Instead, what was witnessed was a legal system that denied women the right to their own sexual autonomy. In medieval England the majority of felonies were those in accordance with property. Rape crime became much like property crime, a felony that was done to male’s property. Much of the law in England pertaining to rape regarded the act as a violation of a father’s property, and a women’s assertion was viewed to be irrelevant. Legislations passed in eighteenth century English law reflected a female’s lack of importance and rights, due to the fact that its purpose was for the protection of a father’s property interest in his daughter. Baine’s article states that rape was primarily a crime against property since it concerned the loss of virginity in rape. For instance the punishment of the rapist was dependent on the “quality of damaged property”2. The historical movement of rape law in England reflected a shift from the idea of protecting women as a particular form of male property, to preserving women’s integrity and her right to be free from sexual assault. Although this represented a release from a male dominated legal framework thus posing as improvement for the view of women in society, what may be argued is that the legal system still acted as a vehicle portraying male supremacy. To determine if a shift occurred from female rape victims as property to person during the Medieval to Early Modern periods, the social restrictions placed on women, the laws pertaining to rape, and the way rapists were dealt with will be further examined. Due to the social restrictions in place women were discouraged to prosecute rape crimes. It was painful and embarrassing for a woman to publicly prove in court that an attack had taken place, and that it was indeed a rape3. Only in few cases did women bring rape charges to court. For instance between 1660 and 1800 on average one case was brought to court in a year4. The cases that most commonly came forward had a particular character; either women were seriously injured, or the rape was interrupted by a witness5. Also cases came before the courts when women had to seek medical attention and the story would come out. Others very often encouraged the prosecution in those circumstances. The Surrey Assize proceedings suggest that very few women on their own reported to a magistrate6. Thus, women were only encouraged to report rape crimes if it damaged a women physically or if there was a witness, not necessarily because it caused the victim emotional distress. Often the cases involving a sexual attack that did come to court were victims found to be children not women. Victims of rape were primarily those of lower social class such as servants. Servants were seen as particularly vulnerable and were often sexually violated. The masters often sexually exploited the female servants, and if they were to get pregnant they were dismissed immediately7. Clearly those who were socially inferior were taken advantage of. Social customs and boundaries at this time in England placed a great deal of emphasis on chastity and women’s obligation to marry within their own class. Any doubt cast on a woman’s chastity would compromise her chances of finding a suitable husband. The parents were forced to consider “whether they could make any match for their daughter other than the match proposed by the extortioner/kidnapper once the daughter’s reputation had been tarnished by her captor”8. The possibility of having a sexual violation occurred was sufficient to ruin a women’s reputation and as a “commodity” in the marriage market. Rape was not awful because of the emotional devastation inflicted on the victim but on account of the distress it causes her family and peers9. Women were to submit to the authority of their fathers and husbands not only for the well ordering of family life, but to preserve the social order10. Clearly women were threatened by their social order to restrain from prosecuting rape crimes merely because it would disrupt her family life. In some instances when women did not report the crime themselves the indictment would be brought through the king’s name or the father’s voice. The father would report that his property is despoiled, which is in fact the loss of his daughter’s virginity11. English law from the beginning of the medieval period has primarily been interested with property rights. This emphasis on property is portrayed in rape crime. Evidently statues at that time identified rape as a crime against family property12. Thus, the societal restraints and norms placed on women demonstrated that they were in fact property not autonomous individuals. The control of women by either their fathers or husbands invariably led to women becoming restricted within their own space. During Medieval England women were expected to remain within their own boundaries. Men during this time felt the need to enclose women as a method of control, whether it was a women’s husband or father. It was generally assumed that “women who strayed from their designated space might be subject to sexual assault because they were neither under the protection of a responsible male nor in the accustomed space”13. Women during this time felt the societal pressure to stay within their boundaries otherwise they would risk humiliation or even rape. Hanawalt expresses women could freely move only in specific environments such as, the home, castle, nunnery, village or city quarter14. If they had to move outside of those areas they did so with “proper dress, demeanor, and escort or they risked compromising their honor or their persons”15. Societal norms established that those women who were dressed inappropriately such as wearing “lewd” clothing on the streets were likely to be punished by rape16. Thus, rape was portrayed as a form of punishment to women who stepped out of their social boundary. This encourages the notion that women were merely treated as property. Therefore the societal restrictions placed on women literally restricted them from moving about in fear of rape. The belief that women were to remain within their own space remained into the early modern period of England. Robert Shoemaker states “By the 1820’s the notion that sexual violence made the streets unsafe for respectable women was rarely questioned”17. Therefore this fear of rape, which limited women’s freedom of movement, did not even diminish in the early modern period. It can be stated that women were held within a particular boundary, and thus have not evolved from property to person in the early modern period due to the societal restraints placed upon them. The rape laws from Medieval to Early Modern England changed but failed to establish that women were to be treated as autonomous individuals in the eyes of the law. In the Medieval period rape law was “constructed around the protection of male property in the form of their movable goods, their wives and daughters, their bequeathed inheritances, their future heirs”18. Women had limited access to the legal system except through their fathers or husbands, of whom they were merely extensions 19. Baines indicates that medieval law was designed to protect a rigid class structure based on bloodline, as well as property20. During this time when rape crime took place it was a crime against the king’s peace, not against the woman. This emphasis of women as property during the medieval period is evident and is also portrayed in the law. For instance the first Statute of Westminster in 1275 essentially made the punishment of rape a trespass rather than a felony. It tried to regularize the appeal of rape, giving women forty days to make an appeal and prescribing two years imprisonment and ransom at the king’s pleasure in case of conviction21. Ten years later the second Statute of Westminster declared that the conviction of rape would carry the death penalty, since judges and juries were prescribing that punishment for less heinous crimes22. Rape appeals were constraining and caused the victim emotional pain. As soon as a crime of rape had been committed she was to go to the nearest place and show “trustworthy men” the injury done to her by her torn clothes23. Her testimony was then made to an audience of men in a public setting and the narrative was then repeated to the hundred reeves, to a coroner on a later date, to the country court, and to the royal justices24. Undergoing the trauma of rape was no excuse at this time to not disclose the story the necessary amount of times. Not only was it traumatic for a woman to have to repeat this story a number of times; but also the women would have to tell the story correctly following a particular formula, otherwise she would be imprisoned or fined for making a false appeal25. However, rape charges could be settled prior to judgment, that is if the women was willing to marry the defendant, this was a notion passed on from the medieval period that continued to exist until the early modern period. This solution allowed for a family to keep their honor after such “illicit defloration”26. This concept would not necessarily work in every situation not only because women would find it degrading, but also rape victims were often young girls. Persecutions during the medieval period almost always pertained to cases involving the virginity of young girls27. Primarily because rape was a crime against property and thus the law was concerned with the loss of virginity in rape. Bracton, the most prestigious authority of the Middle Ages explains how he felt “that payment in life and member (true felony) was only applicable in conviction for rape of a virgin, whereas a man convicted of raping a married women or widow would suffer corporal punishment only”28. Dependent on the women’s virginity, rape would be essentially either considered a felony or a trespass. It is clear that the loss of virginity, which was viewed as property value, influenced legal discourse. From the earliest statute of Westminster I, girls under the age of twelve years old were assumed incapable of giving her consent29. The reason being that girls that young were incapable of becoming pregnant, and pregnancy corresponded directly to consent. If a woman conceived as a result of rape then it was unquestionable she consented to it, because it was further assumed that women became pregnant only if they had an orgasm. These ludicrous assumptions about female sexuality resulted in defendants becoming acquitted if a child was conceived. The male assumptions about female sexuality played a role in the interpretation of law and consequently disadvantaged mature, married women30. The laws and statutes during the medieval period were no great deterrent to rape because women were silenced regardless of the law, either because she was “so little offended with the injury, or so ashamed to confess the outrage”31. Nevertheless, women were punished by being disinherited and were considered a loss of family property, and this notion carried on into the early modern period. During the medieval period there was little distinction made between rape and abduction. The will of a woman was clearly irrelevant at that time, and the laws mirrored that belief. Laws were clearly designed to protect patriarchal interests32. During the Early Modern period changes in the law did occur; however, changes in the depiction of the rape victim did not. In 1576 a statute denied the benefit of clergy to rapists, and men continued to be hanged for it in the eighteenth century. Also, in 1555 and 1597 statutes were passed to separate the two offences of rape and abduction. Baines states it inadvertently separated these two offences and thus placed greater emphasis on a woman’s will33. Rape was perceived as a result of these laws to have placed a greater emphasis as a crime against person as opposed to property. At first it may have seemed that there was an improvement of the way the rape victim was portrayed; however, statistical data indicates the contrary34. Statistics show that convictions of rape were still very rare, and “almost always involved the rape of a child or young girl whose virginity was presumed forfeited”35. Thus, women were still depicted as male’s property since virginity was still seen as a valuable attribute. However, in the Early Modern period the number of indictments pertaining to older women did increase, although, the percentage of convictions did not. Male supremacy in the courts was a reality and in effect did not change the attitude that rape crime was against property and class hierarchy36. Baines determines that women’s subjectivity during the Early Modern period was constructed as both property, or a person “invested with agency with the will and discernment that define consent”37. Thus, women had the ability to prove that they did not consent; however, court realities suggest that male supremacy surmounted the law. For instance the courts were likely to discount a women’s testimony if it could be shown that she had not reported the attack immediately, or had not at least told someone about it38. Also it was considered a weakness if during the attack she had not made an attempt to cry out for help39. The inability to understand the traumatic conventions of rape by male authorities resulted in laws that suppressed women. Nonetheless, there was an attempt to give women more ability to prosecute offenders during the early modern period. Women could charge their attacker with attempted rape. This was considered a misdemeanor and therefore not a capital offence40. Rape victims found this to be a less demanding method in convicting offenders since they did not have to prove that penetration occurred, but simply that was what the attacker had in mind41. Otherwise women had to be put through the disgrace of proceeding with a number of trials, and thus reducing her status in society. Another advantage of charging attempted rape was that it could be tried at the quarter sessions since it was a lesser offence, and therefore would be less expensive42. By the eighteenth century there were twice as many charges of attempted rape over rape itself because women did not have to be cross-examined. During the early modern period laws did not drastically change in regards to rape. Even though some laws did change the traditional views cast on the female rape victim did not. For instance the notion that if a women conceived she consented still remained prominent during the early modern period. The view that women were treated as property remained even though laws may have suggested otherwise. Punishment to the rapist much like the law was not a great deterrent since it was rarely practiced. The punishment to rapists before the statute of Westminster was castration and blinding. However, this was not practiced very frequently. The punishment to the rapist was dependent on the “quality of the damaged property”43. Thus, loss of virginity being the most detrimental. Essentially the laws that later developed were to make the punishment more realistic. Writers of legal theory such as Bracton, addressed that rapists should be sentenced to death (in case of virgins) and corporal punishment for older women. However, in practice defendants were subject to monetary fines or imprisonment44. Therefore, even though the Statute of Westminster II required punishment in life and member it was not frequently practiced. Between Westminster I and II thirty-seven rape cases appeared in the plea rolls, and only one of the men appealed of rape was convicted45. Thus, the reluctance in courts to accept evidence of appeals was extremely rare. Punishment to rapists were merely what the text of law suggested not what necessarily occurred. Following Westminster II twelve percent of indictments ended up in conviction, since indictment replaced appeals of rape. However, the successful convictions were usually cases of young virgins46. Although conviction rates were considerably low, many women attempted to indict merely because statistics were not kept at that time, therefore, were not aware of the unsuccessful conviction rates. Otherwise, in order to prevent the humiliation women would undergo in the court system they would compromise with the offender to give them a monetary payment in replace of their, “loss of virginity and any other complications that this might cause in the marriage market”47. Thus, several women at this time ought to have been aware of the lack of justice that occurred in the courts since they asked for monetary payments instead. Even though the punishment of rape was not carried out offenders were nonetheless outlawed since a number of them would flee the community. Accordingly, the victim’s stories did hold some credit and impacted the offender. It is clear to state that women continued to be depicted until the early modern period of England as property as opposed to individuals with will and integrity. The laws of England attempted to overcome the traditional belief of women as a form of male property; however, they failed to do so since male supremacy represented the justice system. A disparity existed between the text of the law and its practice, that is to say the severity of the laws and the will to apply them in regards to rape in medieval and Early Modern periods48. This disparity has resulted in women being unable to speak out against rape crimes due to their feelings of embarrassment and humiliation in a society highly based on social class and custom. The social restrictions placed on women created an environment where they invariably had little control over their own bodies. The emerging laws in early modern England attempted to give women more control; however, the laws and practices of punishment were not followed through. Although offenders were not punished the way the law imagined it did illustrate the way the society was constructed. That is the rule of law was no the practice of law, and is evident with regards to rape crime. Women continued in the early modern period to be portrayed as property regardless of what laws became enacted, since male supremacy was the construct of those laws.	3,653	ENGLISH	1
People - Ancient Egypt: Ramesses I (Menpehtyre) NEW KINGDOM 19th Dynasty (1295-1294) Extreme prosperity and renaissance in art and building projects mark the beginning of this period. Towards the end of the 19th Dynasty the increasing power of the priesthood corrupts the central government. During the 20th Dynasty tomb robbing is done by officials. The priesthood becomes hereditary and begins to assume secular power. The government breaks down. Ramesses I (Menpehtyre) in Tour Egypt KING RAMESSES I, FOUNDER OF THE 19TH DYNASTY BY JIMMY DUNN - Ramesses I was the founder of the 19th Dynasty (though there is some evidence to suggest that they themselves saw Horemheb as he dynastic founder) and the grandfather of the great and famous pharaoh, Ramesses II. Though he began a Dynasty that would actually see several powerful kings, his reign was really somewhat of a low point during the New Kingdom. A vizier under the last king of the 18th Dynasty, Horemheb, Ramesses I appears to have come to the throne as an appointment of his predecessor, who seems to have produced no heir. Ramesses had been a colleague of Horemheb while the earlier king was still serving as an army commander, and he may even be depicted in Horemheb's Saqqara tomb being rewarded by the King's Deputy. Ramesses rose in army rank, holding a number of military titles including that of commander of the fortress of Sile, an important stronghold on the land-bridge connecting the Egyptian Delta with Syria-Palestine, before ultimately receiving the civil title of (presumably Northern) vizier. His high status was further confirmed by the office of Overseer of Priests of Upper and Lower Egypt, thus placing him at the head of the civil and religious communities. Ramesses I, who may have even served as a co-regent of Horemheb, took the throne rather late during Ramesses I's life, when he was perhaps around fifty years of age. His birth name, Ramesses (Ramses, Paramessu) means "Re has Fashioned him". His throne name was Menpehtyre, which means "Eternal is the Strength of Re". Horemheb's selection of Ramesses as his successor seems to have been well thought out, for Ramesses I chose the Golden Horus name of "He who confirms Ma'at throughout the Two Lands", indicating his desire to carry on the work of Horemheb in re-establishing religious order after the heretic rule of Akhenaten. His names and titles also stresses the privileged nature of his relationship with Re, the sun god. Ramesses was not of royal blood, but rather a career army officer who was the son of a troop commander and judge named Seti. His mother is unknown. His family came from the north-eastern Delta area of Avaris (probably modern Tell el-Dab'a), which had been the capital of the Hyksos invaders some 400 years earlier. We do know of one of his wives named Sitre, who's parentage is unknown but who was probably the daughter of another army officer. Together, Ramesses I and Sitre had one son, Seti I, who held the titles vizier and Troop Commander under his father prior to succeeding him. He also may have served as a co-regent with his father. During the last few months of Ramesses I's life, Seti may have led an expedition to Palestine, which would be the only military action we are aware of during his father's reign. Early on in the reign of Ramesses I, Seti was appointed vizier and commander of Sile, but also held a number of priestly titles linking him with various gods worshipped in the Delta, including that of high priest of Seth. Ramesses I probably only ruled Egypt for about two years, which hardly gave him the time needed to make his mark in Egyptian history. This is evidenced by the fact that Ramesses I's son, and perhaps even his grandson had been borne before his accession. However, there were a few reliefs added to the Second Pylon in the Temple of Amun at Karnak that was completed by Ramesses I during his reign, and a stele dated early in his second regnal year found at Wadi Halfa. Otherwise, he focused mot of his building efforts on the construction of a chapel and a temple at Abydos, which had to be finished by Seti I after Ramesses I's death. After his death, Ramesses I was buried in his small tomb (KV 16) in the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank of Thebes (modern Luxor). Around October 10th of 1817, the strongman of Egyptology, Belzoni, discovered his tomb, which showed to have been a hasty interment. In fact, the burial chamber was unfinished, and had been intended to be merely an antechamber in a much larger tomb. The decorative theme of this tomb was modeled on that of Horemheb, and featured the Book of Gates. Though some of the burial provisions were left behind, including a large granite sarcophagus, a pair of almost two meter high wooden statues of the king once covered with gold foil and a number of wooden statuettes of underworld deities and curious animal heads, the tomb had been robbed during antiquity. However, these funerary goods seem stylistically similar to those at the beginning of the 18th Dynasty. Though the mummy of Ramesses I has remained unidentified from many years, some scientists now believe that a mummy discovered in the Niagra Falls Museum and Daredevil Hall of Fame is none other then that of Ramesses I. In 1999, this facility closed its doors and sold off its antiquities, which were purchased by the Carlos Museum. After careful analysis of a number of different factors related to this mummy, such as the care with which the mummification took place, its general appearance in relationship to others of the 19th Dynasty kings, and other factors, these scientists have concluded that this must have been Ramesses I. In light of all this evidence, Egyptian authorities have accepted the return of the mummy in a spirit of cooperation. The burial of Queen Sitre broke with earlier tradition where the queen was apparently buried in her husband's tomb at a later date if she outlived him. Sitre's tomb set a new precedent by being situated in the Valley of the Queens on the West Bank. However, her tomb was also unfinished, with only a few paintings on the walls of the first chamber. Ramesses I in Wikipedia Menpehtyre Ramesses I (traditional English: Ramesses or Ramses) was the founding Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt's 19th dynasty. The dates for his short reign are not completely known but the time-line of late 1292-1290 BC is frequently cited as well as 1295-1294 BC. While Ramesses I was the founder of the 19th Dynasty, in reality his brief reign marked the transition between the reign of Horemheb who had stabilised Egypt and the rule of the powerful Pharaohs of this dynasty, in particular his son Seti I and grandson Ramesses II, who would bring Egypt up to new heights of imperial power. Originally called Pa-ra-mes-su, Ramesses I was of non-royal birth, being born into a noble military family from the Nile delta region, perhaps near the former Hyksos capital of Avaris, or from Tanis. He was a son of a troop commander called Seti. His uncle Khaemwaset, an army officer married Tamwadjesy, the matron of the Harem of Amun, who was a relative of Huy, the Viceroy of Kush, an important state post. This shows the high status of Ramesses' family. Ramesses I found favor with Horemheb, the last pharaoh of the tumultuous Eighteenth dynasty, who appointed the former as his Vizier. Ramesses also served as the High Priest of Amun – as such, he would have played an important role in the restoration of the old religion following the Amarna heresy of a generation earlier, under Akhenaten. Horemheb himself had been a nobleman from outside the immediate royal family, who rose through the ranks of the Egyptian army to serve as the royal advisor to Tutankhamun and Ay and, ultimately, Pharaoh. Since Horemheb was childless, he ultimately chose Ramesses to be his heir in the final years of his reign presumably because Ramesses I was both an able administrator and had a son (Seti I) and a grandson (the future Ramesses II) to succeed him and thus avoid any succession Upon his accession, Ramesses assumed a prenomen, or royal name, which is written in Egyptian hieroglyphs to the right. When transliterated, the name is mn-pḥty-r‘, which is usually interpreted as Menpehtyre, meaning "Established by the strength of Ra". However, he is better known by his nomen, or personal name. This is transliterated as r‘-ms-sw, and is usually realised as Ramessu or Ramesses, meaning 'Ra bore him'. Already an old man when he was crowned, Ramesses appointed his son, the later pharaoh Seti I, to serve as the Crown Prince and chosen successor. Seti was charged with undertaking several military operations during this time– in particular, an attempt to recoup some of Egypt's lost possessions in Syria. Ramesses appears to have taken charge of domestic matters: most memorably, he completed the second pylon at Karnak Temple, begun under Horemheb. Ramesses I enjoyed a very brief reign, as evidenced by the general paucity of contemporary monuments mentioning him: the king had little time to build any major buildings in his reign and was hurriedly buried in a small and hastily finished tomb. The Egyptian priest Manetho assigns him a reign of 16 months but this pharaoh certainly ruled Egypt for a minimum of 17 months based on his highest known date which is a Year 2 II Peret day 20 (Louvre C57) stela which ordered the provision of new endowments of food and priests for the Temple of Ptah within the Egyptian fortress of Buhen. Jürgen von Beckerath observes that Ramesses I died just 5 months later-in June 1290 BC-since his son Seti I succeeded to power on III Shemu day 24. Ramesses I's only known action was to order the provision of endowments for the aforementioned Nubian temple at Buhen and "the construction of a chapel and a temple (which was to be finished by his son) at Abydos." The aged Ramesses was buried in the Valley of the Kings. His tomb, discovered by Giovanni Belzoni in 1817 and designated KV16, is small in size and gives the impression of having been completed with haste. Joyce Tyldesley states that Ramesses I's tomb consisted of a single corridor and one unfinished room whose " walls, after a hurried coat of plaster, were painted to show the king with his gods, with Osiris allowed a prominent position. The red granite sarcophagus too was painted rather than carved with inscriptions which, due to their hasty preparation, included a number of unfortunate errors." " Seti I, his son, and successor, later built a small chapel (or temple) with fine reliefs in memory of his deceased father Ramesses I at Abydos. In 1911, John Pierpont Morgan donated several exquisite reliefs from this chapel to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Rediscovery and repatriation According to current theory, his mummy was stolen by the Abu-Rassul family of grave robbers and brought to North America around 1860 by Dr. James Douglas. It was then placed in the Niagara Museum and Daredevil Hall of Fame in Ontario, Canada. Ramesses I remained there, his identity unknown, next to other curiosities and so-called freaks of nature for more than 130 years. When the owner of the museum decided to sell his property, Canadian businessman William Jamieson purchased the contents of the museum. In 1999, Jamieson sold the Egyptian artifacts in the collection, including the various mummies, to the Michael C. Carlos Museum at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia for US $2 million. His identity cannot be conclusively determined, but is persuasively deduced from CT scans, X-rays, skull measurements and radio-carbon dating tests by researchers at the University, as well as aesthetic interpretations of family resemblance. Moreover, the mummy's arms were found crossed high across his chest which was a position reserved solely for Egyptian royalty until 600 BC. His mummy was returned to Egypt on October 24, 2003 with full official honors and is on display at the Luxor Museum.	<urn:uuid:0de27201-bc0b-4b7d-b600-1152946802a0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bible-history.com/links.php?cat=46&sub=3439&cat_name=People+-+Ancient+Egypt&subcat_name=Ramesses+I+%28Menpehtyre%29+	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00280.warc.gz	en	0.98213	2,823	3.484375	3	[ -0.17701782286167145, 1.066542387008667, 0.36453497409820557, -0.24211613833904266, -0.4477367699146271, -0.3503812551498413, 0.17278292775154114, -0.24496200680732727, 0.03992964327335358, -0.1016567051410675, -0.12914204597473145, -0.642943263053894, 0.2958577573299408, -0.09322767704725...	1	People - Ancient Egypt: Ramesses I (Menpehtyre) NEW KINGDOM 19th Dynasty (1295-1294) Extreme prosperity and renaissance in art and building projects mark the beginning of this period. Towards the end of the 19th Dynasty the increasing power of the priesthood corrupts the central government. During the 20th Dynasty tomb robbing is done by officials. The priesthood becomes hereditary and begins to assume secular power. The government breaks down. Ramesses I (Menpehtyre) in Tour Egypt KING RAMESSES I, FOUNDER OF THE 19TH DYNASTY BY JIMMY DUNN - Ramesses I was the founder of the 19th Dynasty (though there is some evidence to suggest that they themselves saw Horemheb as he dynastic founder) and the grandfather of the great and famous pharaoh, Ramesses II. Though he began a Dynasty that would actually see several powerful kings, his reign was really somewhat of a low point during the New Kingdom. A vizier under the last king of the 18th Dynasty, Horemheb, Ramesses I appears to have come to the throne as an appointment of his predecessor, who seems to have produced no heir. Ramesses had been a colleague of Horemheb while the earlier king was still serving as an army commander, and he may even be depicted in Horemheb's Saqqara tomb being rewarded by the King's Deputy. Ramesses rose in army rank, holding a number of military titles including that of commander of the fortress of Sile, an important stronghold on the land-bridge connecting the Egyptian Delta with Syria-Palestine, before ultimately receiving the civil title of (presumably Northern) vizier. His high status was further confirmed by the office of Overseer of Priests of Upper and Lower Egypt, thus placing him at the head of the civil and religious communities. Ramesses I, who may have even served as a co-regent of Horemheb, took the throne rather late during Ramesses I's life, when he was perhaps around fifty years of age. His birth name, Ramesses (Ramses, Paramessu) means "Re has Fashioned him". His throne name was Menpehtyre, which means "Eternal is the Strength of Re". Horemheb's selection of Ramesses as his successor seems to have been well thought out, for Ramesses I chose the Golden Horus name of "He who confirms Ma'at throughout the Two Lands", indicating his desire to carry on the work of Horemheb in re-establishing religious order after the heretic rule of Akhenaten. His names and titles also stresses the privileged nature of his relationship with Re, the sun god. Ramesses was not of royal blood, but rather a career army officer who was the son of a troop commander and judge named Seti. His mother is unknown. His family came from the north-eastern Delta area of Avaris (probably modern Tell el-Dab'a), which had been the capital of the Hyksos invaders some 400 years earlier. We do know of one of his wives named Sitre, who's parentage is unknown but who was probably the daughter of another army officer. Together, Ramesses I and Sitre had one son, Seti I, who held the titles vizier and Troop Commander under his father prior to succeeding him. He also may have served as a co-regent with his father. During the last few months of Ramesses I's life, Seti may have led an expedition to Palestine, which would be the only military action we are aware of during his father's reign. Early on in the reign of Ramesses I, Seti was appointed vizier and commander of Sile, but also held a number of priestly titles linking him with various gods worshipped in the Delta, including that of high priest of Seth. Ramesses I probably only ruled Egypt for about two years, which hardly gave him the time needed to make his mark in Egyptian history. This is evidenced by the fact that Ramesses I's son, and perhaps even his grandson had been borne before his accession. However, there were a few reliefs added to the Second Pylon in the Temple of Amun at Karnak that was completed by Ramesses I during his reign, and a stele dated early in his second regnal year found at Wadi Halfa. Otherwise, he focused mot of his building efforts on the construction of a chapel and a temple at Abydos, which had to be finished by Seti I after Ramesses I's death. After his death, Ramesses I was buried in his small tomb (KV 16) in the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank of Thebes (modern Luxor). Around October 10th of 1817, the strongman of Egyptology, Belzoni, discovered his tomb, which showed to have been a hasty interment. In fact, the burial chamber was unfinished, and had been intended to be merely an antechamber in a much larger tomb. The decorative theme of this tomb was modeled on that of Horemheb, and featured the Book of Gates. Though some of the burial provisions were left behind, including a large granite sarcophagus, a pair of almost two meter high wooden statues of the king once covered with gold foil and a number of wooden statuettes of underworld deities and curious animal heads, the tomb had been robbed during antiquity. However, these funerary goods seem stylistically similar to those at the beginning of the 18th Dynasty. Though the mummy of Ramesses I has remained unidentified from many years, some scientists now believe that a mummy discovered in the Niagra Falls Museum and Daredevil Hall of Fame is none other then that of Ramesses I. In 1999, this facility closed its doors and sold off its antiquities, which were purchased by the Carlos Museum. After careful analysis of a number of different factors related to this mummy, such as the care with which the mummification took place, its general appearance in relationship to others of the 19th Dynasty kings, and other factors, these scientists have concluded that this must have been Ramesses I. In light of all this evidence, Egyptian authorities have accepted the return of the mummy in a spirit of cooperation. The burial of Queen Sitre broke with earlier tradition where the queen was apparently buried in her husband's tomb at a later date if she outlived him. Sitre's tomb set a new precedent by being situated in the Valley of the Queens on the West Bank. However, her tomb was also unfinished, with only a few paintings on the walls of the first chamber. Ramesses I in Wikipedia Menpehtyre Ramesses I (traditional English: Ramesses or Ramses) was the founding Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt's 19th dynasty. The dates for his short reign are not completely known but the time-line of late 1292-1290 BC is frequently cited as well as 1295-1294 BC. While Ramesses I was the founder of the 19th Dynasty, in reality his brief reign marked the transition between the reign of Horemheb who had stabilised Egypt and the rule of the powerful Pharaohs of this dynasty, in particular his son Seti I and grandson Ramesses II, who would bring Egypt up to new heights of imperial power. Originally called Pa-ra-mes-su, Ramesses I was of non-royal birth, being born into a noble military family from the Nile delta region, perhaps near the former Hyksos capital of Avaris, or from Tanis. He was a son of a troop commander called Seti. His uncle Khaemwaset, an army officer married Tamwadjesy, the matron of the Harem of Amun, who was a relative of Huy, the Viceroy of Kush, an important state post. This shows the high status of Ramesses' family. Ramesses I found favor with Horemheb, the last pharaoh of the tumultuous Eighteenth dynasty, who appointed the former as his Vizier. Ramesses also served as the High Priest of Amun – as such, he would have played an important role in the restoration of the old religion following the Amarna heresy of a generation earlier, under Akhenaten. Horemheb himself had been a nobleman from outside the immediate royal family, who rose through the ranks of the Egyptian army to serve as the royal advisor to Tutankhamun and Ay and, ultimately, Pharaoh. Since Horemheb was childless, he ultimately chose Ramesses to be his heir in the final years of his reign presumably because Ramesses I was both an able administrator and had a son (Seti I) and a grandson (the future Ramesses II) to succeed him and thus avoid any succession Upon his accession, Ramesses assumed a prenomen, or royal name, which is written in Egyptian hieroglyphs to the right. When transliterated, the name is mn-pḥty-r‘, which is usually interpreted as Menpehtyre, meaning "Established by the strength of Ra". However, he is better known by his nomen, or personal name. This is transliterated as r‘-ms-sw, and is usually realised as Ramessu or Ramesses, meaning 'Ra bore him'. Already an old man when he was crowned, Ramesses appointed his son, the later pharaoh Seti I, to serve as the Crown Prince and chosen successor. Seti was charged with undertaking several military operations during this time– in particular, an attempt to recoup some of Egypt's lost possessions in Syria. Ramesses appears to have taken charge of domestic matters: most memorably, he completed the second pylon at Karnak Temple, begun under Horemheb. Ramesses I enjoyed a very brief reign, as evidenced by the general paucity of contemporary monuments mentioning him: the king had little time to build any major buildings in his reign and was hurriedly buried in a small and hastily finished tomb. The Egyptian priest Manetho assigns him a reign of 16 months but this pharaoh certainly ruled Egypt for a minimum of 17 months based on his highest known date which is a Year 2 II Peret day 20 (Louvre C57) stela which ordered the provision of new endowments of food and priests for the Temple of Ptah within the Egyptian fortress of Buhen. Jürgen von Beckerath observes that Ramesses I died just 5 months later-in June 1290 BC-since his son Seti I succeeded to power on III Shemu day 24. Ramesses I's only known action was to order the provision of endowments for the aforementioned Nubian temple at Buhen and "the construction of a chapel and a temple (which was to be finished by his son) at Abydos." The aged Ramesses was buried in the Valley of the Kings. His tomb, discovered by Giovanni Belzoni in 1817 and designated KV16, is small in size and gives the impression of having been completed with haste. Joyce Tyldesley states that Ramesses I's tomb consisted of a single corridor and one unfinished room whose " walls, after a hurried coat of plaster, were painted to show the king with his gods, with Osiris allowed a prominent position. The red granite sarcophagus too was painted rather than carved with inscriptions which, due to their hasty preparation, included a number of unfortunate errors." " Seti I, his son, and successor, later built a small chapel (or temple) with fine reliefs in memory of his deceased father Ramesses I at Abydos. In 1911, John Pierpont Morgan donated several exquisite reliefs from this chapel to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Rediscovery and repatriation According to current theory, his mummy was stolen by the Abu-Rassul family of grave robbers and brought to North America around 1860 by Dr. James Douglas. It was then placed in the Niagara Museum and Daredevil Hall of Fame in Ontario, Canada. Ramesses I remained there, his identity unknown, next to other curiosities and so-called freaks of nature for more than 130 years. When the owner of the museum decided to sell his property, Canadian businessman William Jamieson purchased the contents of the museum. In 1999, Jamieson sold the Egyptian artifacts in the collection, including the various mummies, to the Michael C. Carlos Museum at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia for US $2 million. His identity cannot be conclusively determined, but is persuasively deduced from CT scans, X-rays, skull measurements and radio-carbon dating tests by researchers at the University, as well as aesthetic interpretations of family resemblance. Moreover, the mummy's arms were found crossed high across his chest which was a position reserved solely for Egyptian royalty until 600 BC. His mummy was returned to Egypt on October 24, 2003 with full official honors and is on display at the Luxor Museum.	2,885	ENGLISH	1
Why were aircraft carriers not used during and following D-Day? They could have added a great deal of range to the air support operations. The only landing in Europe and Africa that got carrier support was the Torch landing in North Africa in late 1942. In that case, it was not possible to use land-based air support, since there weren't any bases there. All later European Theatre landings were within land-based air range (deliberately) and relied on it solely. Aircraft carriers were very valuable, being necessary for fighting enemy fleets, supporting landings, raiding, and other missions. At the time of D-Day, the Japanese still had a powerful fleet, and it attacked US landings about two weeks after the Normandy invasion. Moreover, with the island-hopping strategy, Pacific invasions were often not within support range of any Allied airfield. Moreover, Normandy would have been a difficult landing to support with carriers. Carriers need to have a lot of wind blowing down the deck for aircraft to take off or land, which means that they generally need a large clear maneuvering area. The English Channel, near Normandy, was too small for effective operations and crowded with landing craft. The carriers would have had to stay either in the North Sea, which was still dangerous, or the Atlantic, and the ground air bases would have been closer than the carriers. After the Allied breakout, the air bases in England were still fairly close to the action, closer than carriers could have operated, and the Allies set up lots of air bases in France and other liberated areas. The Allied offensive didn't get anywhere near the open areas of the North Sea, where carriers could usefully operate, until about a month before the end of the war. Much of the allied airpower used in the invasion was for ground attack and for bombing. The aircraft used for these purposes weren't designed to operate from carriers. Also, the airfields of Southern England were only 25 minutes flying time to Normandy and the allies had so many ground based aircraft, carriers weren't needed. Strategically, it didn't make sense to use aircraft carriers in the Atlantic. Any portion of the war that was taking place in the European theater could be reached from air bases already available in that area. The air support for D-Day was pretty considerable as it was. Towards the end of 1942, the US only had two aircraft carriers that were operational. They needed them to provide air support on the Pacific front. As they added more aircraft carriers to the fleet in 1943 and 1944, they were sent to the Pacific to help support advances being made there. Even though the US tried to build airfields on each island they captured in the Pacific, these temporary strips were not sufficient enough to provide continuous support in the Pacific. Air superiority wasn't really in question for the Allies in mid-1944 over Western Europe and so the extra aircraft that would have been provided weren't necessary. The Allies had thousands of aircraft operating from airfields not far away in southern England - a few hundred more from aircraft carriers wouldn't have been all that helpful. Carrier based aircraft were not as good at their jobs as land-based aircraft, for example the best fighters of the day, the Spitfire and Mustang could not operate from carriers. No large bombers could operate from carriers. The English Channel is quite a confined stretch of water and it was absolutely stuffed full of ships around D-Day, carriers are large vessels that would have struggled to operate in such confines. All the carriers the Allies had were busy elsewhere, in the Pacific for example. The Allies were worried about mines in the channel and wouldn't want to lose such a valuable ship as a carrier to a mine. My father was assigned to a destroyer during WWII, and he was always in the Atlantic fleet. He talked very little about the war, but the one thing he did say was his ship was assigned to an aircraft carrier. However, he said he didn't know where they were going in such a hurry, but he remembers waking up and walking up on deck and he couldn't believe his eyes -- every where he looked, he saw ships - all kinds. The English were supposed to provide air support for D Day, but they were fogged in, therefore the decision was made to bring the gun ships in as close as they could to fire on the beach; however, they weren't close enough and a lot of the soldiers that were killed during the landing were actually killed by friendly fire. This was shown in the movie, Saving Private Ryan. If you watch closely at the invasion, you will notice the Germans did not have big guns, not the type that were exploding on the beach and in the waters just off shore. Oh, one other family history about D Day, my father was the youngest of 5 sons, Pearl Harbor happened on his 16th birthday, they all joined the Navy, but were on different ships. After the war, as they were talking, they learned that they were all there off the shores of Normandy on D Day. Aircraft could fly from Air Force bases in South England. Aircraft Carriers would be more useful in the Pacific were not all attacks could be covered by land based aircraft. Plus it would take a long time to get these ships to Europe and as I said, they were not really needed. It should also be remembered that heavier bombers, paratrooper transports, some types of fighters e.t.c couldn't take of from aircraft carriers. Also, aircraft carriers are very expensive and only limited numbers were produced. That means even if all the allied aircraft carriers were used they simply would be too much planes for them to carry. One point left out in the other answers is that it was important that the German command believed that the invasion in Normandy wasn't actually the actual invasion, but only a ploy to get the german forces spread out to allow for the actual invasion around Calais. So besides the fact that carriers in the Channel are very restricted in operation, requiring protection from large support groups where the ships were far better utilized protecting the invasion fleet, risking carriers would have removed any possibility of the germans believing the operation was still a decoy.	<urn:uuid:47cc72cc-d886-42d9-98cc-0214ddd3779a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/490/why-werent-aircraft-carriers-utilized-during-d-day/1601	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00430.warc.gz	en	0.992267	1,270	3.328125	3	[ -0.3289016783237457, 0.22312337160110474, 0.22107353806495667, -0.4871675372123718, 0.2587023377418518, 0.07684855163097382, -0.09584787487983704, 0.4107811152935028, -0.11975862085819244, -0.20269989967346191, 0.39091432094573975, 0.07652632892131805, 0.02398526854813099, 0.37160760164260...	15	Why were aircraft carriers not used during and following D-Day? They could have added a great deal of range to the air support operations. The only landing in Europe and Africa that got carrier support was the Torch landing in North Africa in late 1942. In that case, it was not possible to use land-based air support, since there weren't any bases there. All later European Theatre landings were within land-based air range (deliberately) and relied on it solely. Aircraft carriers were very valuable, being necessary for fighting enemy fleets, supporting landings, raiding, and other missions. At the time of D-Day, the Japanese still had a powerful fleet, and it attacked US landings about two weeks after the Normandy invasion. Moreover, with the island-hopping strategy, Pacific invasions were often not within support range of any Allied airfield. Moreover, Normandy would have been a difficult landing to support with carriers. Carriers need to have a lot of wind blowing down the deck for aircraft to take off or land, which means that they generally need a large clear maneuvering area. The English Channel, near Normandy, was too small for effective operations and crowded with landing craft. The carriers would have had to stay either in the North Sea, which was still dangerous, or the Atlantic, and the ground air bases would have been closer than the carriers. After the Allied breakout, the air bases in England were still fairly close to the action, closer than carriers could have operated, and the Allies set up lots of air bases in France and other liberated areas. The Allied offensive didn't get anywhere near the open areas of the North Sea, where carriers could usefully operate, until about a month before the end of the war. Much of the allied airpower used in the invasion was for ground attack and for bombing. The aircraft used for these purposes weren't designed to operate from carriers. Also, the airfields of Southern England were only 25 minutes flying time to Normandy and the allies had so many ground based aircraft, carriers weren't needed. Strategically, it didn't make sense to use aircraft carriers in the Atlantic. Any portion of the war that was taking place in the European theater could be reached from air bases already available in that area. The air support for D-Day was pretty considerable as it was. Towards the end of 1942, the US only had two aircraft carriers that were operational. They needed them to provide air support on the Pacific front. As they added more aircraft carriers to the fleet in 1943 and 1944, they were sent to the Pacific to help support advances being made there. Even though the US tried to build airfields on each island they captured in the Pacific, these temporary strips were not sufficient enough to provide continuous support in the Pacific. Air superiority wasn't really in question for the Allies in mid-1944 over Western Europe and so the extra aircraft that would have been provided weren't necessary. The Allies had thousands of aircraft operating from airfields not far away in southern England - a few hundred more from aircraft carriers wouldn't have been all that helpful. Carrier based aircraft were not as good at their jobs as land-based aircraft, for example the best fighters of the day, the Spitfire and Mustang could not operate from carriers. No large bombers could operate from carriers. The English Channel is quite a confined stretch of water and it was absolutely stuffed full of ships around D-Day, carriers are large vessels that would have struggled to operate in such confines. All the carriers the Allies had were busy elsewhere, in the Pacific for example. The Allies were worried about mines in the channel and wouldn't want to lose such a valuable ship as a carrier to a mine. My father was assigned to a destroyer during WWII, and he was always in the Atlantic fleet. He talked very little about the war, but the one thing he did say was his ship was assigned to an aircraft carrier. However, he said he didn't know where they were going in such a hurry, but he remembers waking up and walking up on deck and he couldn't believe his eyes -- every where he looked, he saw ships - all kinds. The English were supposed to provide air support for D Day, but they were fogged in, therefore the decision was made to bring the gun ships in as close as they could to fire on the beach; however, they weren't close enough and a lot of the soldiers that were killed during the landing were actually killed by friendly fire. This was shown in the movie, Saving Private Ryan. If you watch closely at the invasion, you will notice the Germans did not have big guns, not the type that were exploding on the beach and in the waters just off shore. Oh, one other family history about D Day, my father was the youngest of 5 sons, Pearl Harbor happened on his 16th birthday, they all joined the Navy, but were on different ships. After the war, as they were talking, they learned that they were all there off the shores of Normandy on D Day. Aircraft could fly from Air Force bases in South England. Aircraft Carriers would be more useful in the Pacific were not all attacks could be covered by land based aircraft. Plus it would take a long time to get these ships to Europe and as I said, they were not really needed. It should also be remembered that heavier bombers, paratrooper transports, some types of fighters e.t.c couldn't take of from aircraft carriers. Also, aircraft carriers are very expensive and only limited numbers were produced. That means even if all the allied aircraft carriers were used they simply would be too much planes for them to carry. One point left out in the other answers is that it was important that the German command believed that the invasion in Normandy wasn't actually the actual invasion, but only a ploy to get the german forces spread out to allow for the actual invasion around Calais. So besides the fact that carriers in the Channel are very restricted in operation, requiring protection from large support groups where the ships were far better utilized protecting the invasion fleet, risking carriers would have removed any possibility of the germans believing the operation was still a decoy.	1,271	ENGLISH	1
In 1791 the Commonwealth of Virginia chartered a new town in Berkeley County and named it after former 8th Virginia Captain William Darke. He deserved it, but the honor was born of deep personal tragedy. The 55 year-old veteran of three wars would absolutely have forgone the distinction if he could have turned back the clock. Darke fought in the French & Indian War as a young man and may have been at Braddock’s defeat in 1755. He raised one of the first companies for the 8th Virginia in 1776 and was promoted from captain to major in 1777 shortly before his capture at Germantown. That was followed by three years in British captivity. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel while in enemy hands. He was exchanged late in 1780 and returned home just before Lord Cornwallis invaded Virginia. Darke helped General Daniel Morgan recruit a militia army in the lower Shenandoah Valley and was present for the victory at Yorktown. A decade later, in 1791, he was appointed by President Washington to lead a regiment of federal troops on short enlistments in an expedition to defeat the Indians in northeast Ohio. The expedition, under the command of General Arthur St. Clair, was a complete disaster. American soldiers ran for their lives as Indians butchered their comrades to pieces in the forest. Hundreds of bodies were left behind, mutilated and frozen, through the winter. It was the greatest victory for an Indian army ever and a major setback for the Washington Administration. Those who survived, however, made it out alive because Lt. Colonel Darke led one last desperate charge through the Indian line, opening a hole through which the panicking soldiers could flee. Darke himself was wounded in the leg. His son, Captain Joseph Darke, was shot in the head and would die after a month of “unparalleled suffering.” Colonel Darke returned home just in time to witness the death of another of his three sons. (Darke’s last surviving son died five years later, leaving the hero with no one to carry on his name—something that bothered him greatly.) Many lives were lost at St. Clair’s Defeat. Reputations were ruined as well. Darke, however, survived with his reputation improved. A month after the battle, Virginia created Darkesville to honor him. Two years later, after Virginia reorganized its militia system, Darke was made a general in command of a regional brigade. According to tradition he kept his headquarters in Darkesville, which was 13 miles west of his home south of Shepherdstown. He remained a militia general until his death in 1801. Darkesville grew into a respectable town, but never prospered to an extent that would have required the destruction of old houses to make room for larger and taller ones. In 1980, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places on the basis of its “45 historical or architecturally important buildings or sites.” As of that date, there were 25 log houses dating from between 1790 and 1810 and another five stone ones built before 1830. Among them was the house believed to be Darke’s headquarters, though it was moved and altered in the 20th century. Near it is another log building known as “the barracks.” Most of these log houses are covered with siding, as they likely were soon after their construction. Still, the logs are visible on houses that have had their siding removed or where it has deteriorated. I recently stopped in Darkesville (now in West Virginia) to look around. For the casual observer, there is little to distinguish the village from more modern development along the road (Route 11). Even the state historic marker appears to be missing. I wasn’t able to find General Darke’s Headquarters, though I was later able to find its apparent location on a map. Here at Darkesville, mostly concealed under clapboard or off the main road, is an early American frontier town, complete with log houses and stone fences. It is hiding there barely noticed by the drivers of the cars that whiz by going fifty miles an hour. Many of the houses date to a time when George Washington was in his first term as president and Americans were still fighting with the Shawnee for control of Ohio. Though they have survived for more than two centuries, these structures won’t survive forever. Already, a few appear to have been left to deteriorate. The name of Darkesville was born of tragedy. It would be another tragedy if this unique and special place were to be lost to development or to neglect. In 1855 an elderly widow named Jane Roberts applied for bounty land for her husband’s service “in the war with the Cherokees & British in the year 1776.” We don’t often think of the Revolution as a two-front war, but it was. Americans fought an Anglo-German army in the east and an Anglo-Indian opponent in the west. Most of the western fighting was against Indians who were fighting as proxies of the Crown. In Virginia’s northwest territory along the Ohio River and beyond, the Shawnee were the most fearsome. An 8th Virginia soldier like Captain George Slaughter might have seen the Revolution as just one chapter in a six-decade fight with the Indians for control of Kentucky and Ohio. The territories were the scenes of nearly constant bloodshed from the defeat of General Edward Braddock in 1755 to the defeat of Shawnee chief Tecumseh in 1813. After more than two decades of intermittent barbarity, Slaughter and his comrades suffered from no moral anguish when it came to killing Indians. In 1781 he wrote Virginia Gov. Thomas Jefferson from Kentucky, “The Savages have been very troublesome this Spring; almost every other day we have accounts of some one being either kill’d or Captured; upwards of 40 Men, Women and Children have fallen a prey to them within the County of Jefferson in the course of 2 Months past and we have not had the satisfaction of getting but one of there Scalps.” George Slaughter was born in Culpeper County, Virginia in 1739. He was a sixth-generation Virginian, descending from John Slaughter who is believed by genealogists to have arrived at Jamestown before 1620. When he was twenty-five years old, George volunteered to help put down a major Indian uprising known as Pontiac’s Rebellion—which was a sort of postlude to the French and Indian War. Colonel Henry Bouquet led nearly 1500 militiamen out of Fort Pitt (Pittsburgh) in 1764 and subdued the Indians in Ohio. Bouquet required the Indians to return 200 white people who had been kidnapped over the years. This liberation combined joy with sorrow: most of the captives had been taken as small children and were fully assimilated into the tribes. A decade later, Slaughter participated in Dunmore’s War. This was another campaign, led by the royal governor of Virginia, to “pacify” the Indians. After a lengthy and bloody battle at Point Pleasant on the Ohio River, the Virginians were victorious. Slaughter’s unit, however, reportedly arrived too late to participate in the fighting. After the campaign ended, Slaughter explored Kentucky for a while and planted corn—perhaps to lay claim to some land. A year later, in 1775, he recruited one of the first companies for the famous Culpeper Minutemen, which probably means he participated in the Battle of Great Bridge—an early patriot victory in Virginia. The minute battalions were replaced in 1776 by additional full-time regular regiments, including the 8th Virginia. Slaughter recruited a company in Culpeper County, including an unknown number of former minutemen. Slaughter remained with the regiment through Charleston and Brandywine and was then promoted to major of the 12th Virginia just before the Battle of Germantown. At Valley Forge, in December of 1777, he learned that his family in Culpeper had lost their house in a fire. That, and a smallpox epidemic (against which he, but not his family, had been inoculated), prompted him to request a furlough from General Washington. When the furlough was turned down, he resigned his commission on December 23 and headed home. On February 1, he contritely wrote to Washington begging to be reinstated. “If my reenstation can take place with propriety,” he wrote, “it will afford me great satisfaction; if not, I hope I can Acquiesce without murmuring.” The request was denied. The next few months of his life are not well documented. Navigating some apparent contradictions among sources suggests that he was a “colonel of volunteers” for a time in 1778 before joining the Illinois Regiment commanded by Col. George Rogers Clark at the rank of major. This was a state regiment (neither Continental nor militia) authorized in January 1778 for the defense of the western frontier. Precisely when he joined is not clear. There is no evidence that he was at Clark’s first victories at Kaskaskia and Vincennes in July. However, an 1897 history by William Hayden English includes a vague and unsourced report that Slaughter was “a colonel of volunteers in 1778.” What this means and where Slaughter was during this time hasn’t been determined. After Clark’s victories, Maj. John Montgomery returned to Virginia with dispatches. While there, Montgomery was promoted to lieutenant colonel and ordered to recruit additional forces to reinforce Clark. On January 1, 1779, Gov. Patrick Henry drafted orders for Clark based on decisions of the state legislature. “They have directed your battalion to be completed, 100 men to be stationed at the falls of the Ohio under Major Slaughter, and one only of the additional battalions to be completed. Major Slaughter’s men are raised, and will march in a few days, this letter being to go by him. The returns which have been made to me do not enable me to say whether men enough are raised to make up the additional battalion, but I suppose there must be nearly enough. This battalion will march as early in the spring as the weather will admit.” Montgomery was redirected to help suppress an Indian uprising among the Cherokee in April of 1779, an operation known as Evan Shelby’s Chickamauga Campaign. William Hayden English wrote that Slaughter was along for this campaign, though documents to support this have not been found. Slaughter’s participation in Shelby’s campaign is circumstantially supported by the fact that he was once again recruiting in Virginia in the fall of 1779. Slaughter recruited 150 men who were sworn into the service in mid-December when they headed west. They made it as far as Redstone Fort in Pennsylvania before getting bogged down by snow. In the spring, they made it to Fort Pitt and boated downstream to the falls of the Ohio River. This site is now Louisville, Kentucky, a city of which Slaughter is considered a founder. Slaughter joined Clark on a 1780 campaign against the Shawnee in Ohio known as the Battle of Peckuwe (or “Piqua”). Clark then left for Virginia and left Slaughter in command. Slaughter oversaw the construction of Fort Nelson at Louisville. It was from there that he reported to Jefferson on the dangerous situation with the Indians. Safety was not his only problem. He also reported, “We are here without money, Clothing, or any thing else scarsely to subsist on. By the fault of the Commissaries, Hunters or I cannot tell who upwards of One hundred and Thirty Th[ousan]d weight of meat was intirely spoiled and lost.” Things improved for Slaughter and his neighbors from there. This can be seen in a letter his old 8th Virginia commander Colonel Abraham Bowman (who moved to Kentucky in 1779) sent home on October 10, 1784. Bowman wrote to a brother that "General Clark has laid off a town on the other side of the Ohio, opposite the falls, at the mouth of Silver creek, and is building a saw and grist mill there." This was Clarksville, in Clark County, Indiana. The same year, Slaughter was elected to the Virginia legislature. In 1792 Kentucky became its own state. Slaughter eventually followed Clark and moved across the river. This was land that had been set aside for Virginia soldiers who had participated in “the reduction of the British in the Illinois.” Slaughter does not seem to have been one of them. Nevertheless, he moved to Charleston, then the seat of Clark County, in his last years and died there in 1818. No grave marker survives, but (according to a genealogy website) he may be in the Shelby Family Cemetery, better known as the Halcyon Hill Cemetery. Like many 8th Virginia veterans who were prominent and important in their day, Slaughter has been largely forgotten. It is never too late for Louisville (or Culpeper, or Charleston) to memorialize him. (Revised and updated, December 22, 2019) is researching the history of the Revolutionary War's 8th Virginia Regiment. Its ten companies formed on the frontier, from the Cumberland Gap to Pittsburgh. © 2015-2020 Gabriel Neville	<urn:uuid:73ac6426-b807-4646-b735-a577d616a461>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.8thvirginia.com/blog/archives/09-2018	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00150.warc.gz	en	0.984957	2,759	3.515625	4	[ -0.4530450701713562, 0.5450069904327393, -0.08730471134185791, -0.0931144431233406, -0.10011933743953705, 0.10213753581047058, 0.14678458869457245, 0.0035117466468364, -0.0471951887011528, 0.295329213142395, -0.05027088150382042, -0.02676517330110073, -0.14582066237926483, 0.32486000657081...	1	In 1791 the Commonwealth of Virginia chartered a new town in Berkeley County and named it after former 8th Virginia Captain William Darke. He deserved it, but the honor was born of deep personal tragedy. The 55 year-old veteran of three wars would absolutely have forgone the distinction if he could have turned back the clock. Darke fought in the French & Indian War as a young man and may have been at Braddock’s defeat in 1755. He raised one of the first companies for the 8th Virginia in 1776 and was promoted from captain to major in 1777 shortly before his capture at Germantown. That was followed by three years in British captivity. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel while in enemy hands. He was exchanged late in 1780 and returned home just before Lord Cornwallis invaded Virginia. Darke helped General Daniel Morgan recruit a militia army in the lower Shenandoah Valley and was present for the victory at Yorktown. A decade later, in 1791, he was appointed by President Washington to lead a regiment of federal troops on short enlistments in an expedition to defeat the Indians in northeast Ohio. The expedition, under the command of General Arthur St. Clair, was a complete disaster. American soldiers ran for their lives as Indians butchered their comrades to pieces in the forest. Hundreds of bodies were left behind, mutilated and frozen, through the winter. It was the greatest victory for an Indian army ever and a major setback for the Washington Administration. Those who survived, however, made it out alive because Lt. Colonel Darke led one last desperate charge through the Indian line, opening a hole through which the panicking soldiers could flee. Darke himself was wounded in the leg. His son, Captain Joseph Darke, was shot in the head and would die after a month of “unparalleled suffering.” Colonel Darke returned home just in time to witness the death of another of his three sons. (Darke’s last surviving son died five years later, leaving the hero with no one to carry on his name—something that bothered him greatly.) Many lives were lost at St. Clair’s Defeat. Reputations were ruined as well. Darke, however, survived with his reputation improved. A month after the battle, Virginia created Darkesville to honor him. Two years later, after Virginia reorganized its militia system, Darke was made a general in command of a regional brigade. According to tradition he kept his headquarters in Darkesville, which was 13 miles west of his home south of Shepherdstown. He remained a militia general until his death in 1801. Darkesville grew into a respectable town, but never prospered to an extent that would have required the destruction of old houses to make room for larger and taller ones. In 1980, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places on the basis of its “45 historical or architecturally important buildings or sites.” As of that date, there were 25 log houses dating from between 1790 and 1810 and another five stone ones built before 1830. Among them was the house believed to be Darke’s headquarters, though it was moved and altered in the 20th century. Near it is another log building known as “the barracks.” Most of these log houses are covered with siding, as they likely were soon after their construction. Still, the logs are visible on houses that have had their siding removed or where it has deteriorated. I recently stopped in Darkesville (now in West Virginia) to look around. For the casual observer, there is little to distinguish the village from more modern development along the road (Route 11). Even the state historic marker appears to be missing. I wasn’t able to find General Darke’s Headquarters, though I was later able to find its apparent location on a map. Here at Darkesville, mostly concealed under clapboard or off the main road, is an early American frontier town, complete with log houses and stone fences. It is hiding there barely noticed by the drivers of the cars that whiz by going fifty miles an hour. Many of the houses date to a time when George Washington was in his first term as president and Americans were still fighting with the Shawnee for control of Ohio. Though they have survived for more than two centuries, these structures won’t survive forever. Already, a few appear to have been left to deteriorate. The name of Darkesville was born of tragedy. It would be another tragedy if this unique and special place were to be lost to development or to neglect. In 1855 an elderly widow named Jane Roberts applied for bounty land for her husband’s service “in the war with the Cherokees & British in the year 1776.” We don’t often think of the Revolution as a two-front war, but it was. Americans fought an Anglo-German army in the east and an Anglo-Indian opponent in the west. Most of the western fighting was against Indians who were fighting as proxies of the Crown. In Virginia’s northwest territory along the Ohio River and beyond, the Shawnee were the most fearsome. An 8th Virginia soldier like Captain George Slaughter might have seen the Revolution as just one chapter in a six-decade fight with the Indians for control of Kentucky and Ohio. The territories were the scenes of nearly constant bloodshed from the defeat of General Edward Braddock in 1755 to the defeat of Shawnee chief Tecumseh in 1813. After more than two decades of intermittent barbarity, Slaughter and his comrades suffered from no moral anguish when it came to killing Indians. In 1781 he wrote Virginia Gov. Thomas Jefferson from Kentucky, “The Savages have been very troublesome this Spring; almost every other day we have accounts of some one being either kill’d or Captured; upwards of 40 Men, Women and Children have fallen a prey to them within the County of Jefferson in the course of 2 Months past and we have not had the satisfaction of getting but one of there Scalps.” George Slaughter was born in Culpeper County, Virginia in 1739. He was a sixth-generation Virginian, descending from John Slaughter who is believed by genealogists to have arrived at Jamestown before 1620. When he was twenty-five years old, George volunteered to help put down a major Indian uprising known as Pontiac’s Rebellion—which was a sort of postlude to the French and Indian War. Colonel Henry Bouquet led nearly 1500 militiamen out of Fort Pitt (Pittsburgh) in 1764 and subdued the Indians in Ohio. Bouquet required the Indians to return 200 white people who had been kidnapped over the years. This liberation combined joy with sorrow: most of the captives had been taken as small children and were fully assimilated into the tribes. A decade later, Slaughter participated in Dunmore’s War. This was another campaign, led by the royal governor of Virginia, to “pacify” the Indians. After a lengthy and bloody battle at Point Pleasant on the Ohio River, the Virginians were victorious. Slaughter’s unit, however, reportedly arrived too late to participate in the fighting. After the campaign ended, Slaughter explored Kentucky for a while and planted corn—perhaps to lay claim to some land. A year later, in 1775, he recruited one of the first companies for the famous Culpeper Minutemen, which probably means he participated in the Battle of Great Bridge—an early patriot victory in Virginia. The minute battalions were replaced in 1776 by additional full-time regular regiments, including the 8th Virginia. Slaughter recruited a company in Culpeper County, including an unknown number of former minutemen. Slaughter remained with the regiment through Charleston and Brandywine and was then promoted to major of the 12th Virginia just before the Battle of Germantown. At Valley Forge, in December of 1777, he learned that his family in Culpeper had lost their house in a fire. That, and a smallpox epidemic (against which he, but not his family, had been inoculated), prompted him to request a furlough from General Washington. When the furlough was turned down, he resigned his commission on December 23 and headed home. On February 1, he contritely wrote to Washington begging to be reinstated. “If my reenstation can take place with propriety,” he wrote, “it will afford me great satisfaction; if not, I hope I can Acquiesce without murmuring.” The request was denied. The next few months of his life are not well documented. Navigating some apparent contradictions among sources suggests that he was a “colonel of volunteers” for a time in 1778 before joining the Illinois Regiment commanded by Col. George Rogers Clark at the rank of major. This was a state regiment (neither Continental nor militia) authorized in January 1778 for the defense of the western frontier. Precisely when he joined is not clear. There is no evidence that he was at Clark’s first victories at Kaskaskia and Vincennes in July. However, an 1897 history by William Hayden English includes a vague and unsourced report that Slaughter was “a colonel of volunteers in 1778.” What this means and where Slaughter was during this time hasn’t been determined. After Clark’s victories, Maj. John Montgomery returned to Virginia with dispatches. While there, Montgomery was promoted to lieutenant colonel and ordered to recruit additional forces to reinforce Clark. On January 1, 1779, Gov. Patrick Henry drafted orders for Clark based on decisions of the state legislature. “They have directed your battalion to be completed, 100 men to be stationed at the falls of the Ohio under Major Slaughter, and one only of the additional battalions to be completed. Major Slaughter’s men are raised, and will march in a few days, this letter being to go by him. The returns which have been made to me do not enable me to say whether men enough are raised to make up the additional battalion, but I suppose there must be nearly enough. This battalion will march as early in the spring as the weather will admit.” Montgomery was redirected to help suppress an Indian uprising among the Cherokee in April of 1779, an operation known as Evan Shelby’s Chickamauga Campaign. William Hayden English wrote that Slaughter was along for this campaign, though documents to support this have not been found. Slaughter’s participation in Shelby’s campaign is circumstantially supported by the fact that he was once again recruiting in Virginia in the fall of 1779. Slaughter recruited 150 men who were sworn into the service in mid-December when they headed west. They made it as far as Redstone Fort in Pennsylvania before getting bogged down by snow. In the spring, they made it to Fort Pitt and boated downstream to the falls of the Ohio River. This site is now Louisville, Kentucky, a city of which Slaughter is considered a founder. Slaughter joined Clark on a 1780 campaign against the Shawnee in Ohio known as the Battle of Peckuwe (or “Piqua”). Clark then left for Virginia and left Slaughter in command. Slaughter oversaw the construction of Fort Nelson at Louisville. It was from there that he reported to Jefferson on the dangerous situation with the Indians. Safety was not his only problem. He also reported, “We are here without money, Clothing, or any thing else scarsely to subsist on. By the fault of the Commissaries, Hunters or I cannot tell who upwards of One hundred and Thirty Th[ousan]d weight of meat was intirely spoiled and lost.” Things improved for Slaughter and his neighbors from there. This can be seen in a letter his old 8th Virginia commander Colonel Abraham Bowman (who moved to Kentucky in 1779) sent home on October 10, 1784. Bowman wrote to a brother that "General Clark has laid off a town on the other side of the Ohio, opposite the falls, at the mouth of Silver creek, and is building a saw and grist mill there." This was Clarksville, in Clark County, Indiana. The same year, Slaughter was elected to the Virginia legislature. In 1792 Kentucky became its own state. Slaughter eventually followed Clark and moved across the river. This was land that had been set aside for Virginia soldiers who had participated in “the reduction of the British in the Illinois.” Slaughter does not seem to have been one of them. Nevertheless, he moved to Charleston, then the seat of Clark County, in his last years and died there in 1818. No grave marker survives, but (according to a genealogy website) he may be in the Shelby Family Cemetery, better known as the Halcyon Hill Cemetery. Like many 8th Virginia veterans who were prominent and important in their day, Slaughter has been largely forgotten. It is never too late for Louisville (or Culpeper, or Charleston) to memorialize him. (Revised and updated, December 22, 2019) is researching the history of the Revolutionary War's 8th Virginia Regiment. Its ten companies formed on the frontier, from the Cumberland Gap to Pittsburgh. © 2015-2020 Gabriel Neville	2,844	ENGLISH	1
Chesapeake and New England Colonies’ Developmental Differences By the 1700s the New England and Chesapeake colonies had vast differences in their societies and in their development, even though they were settled by people of mostly English origin. The colonies had political, economic, social and religious differences as well as differences in their founding and climate that lead to the formation of these two distinct regions. The New England and the Chesapeake colonies were unalike each other in many ways. The first reason for the difference in development between the Chesapeake and New England colonies was that they were founded for entirely opposite purposes and under different climates. The New England colonies were founded for religious purposes. Since the Puritans were unhappy with the slow reform in the Anglican Church in England, a group called the Separatists broke away from the church and founded the Plymouth colony. The goal was to create a new place to worship without being persecuted. Connecticut was also founded in order to create a closer church-government alliance, however Rhode Island was the exception. Rhode Island was founded by Roger Williams to protest against the Puritans and give freedom of worship within the colony.On the other hand, the Chesapeake colonies were founded for economic purposes. Jamestown was founded for the search of gold, and James Rolfe discovered tobacco in Virginia which came to be a staple crop. There were no Puritans, but instead plenty of indentured servants who came to the colonies to start an economic life for themselves. Similar to New England there was one colony within the region that was an exception, in the Chesapeake colonies Maryland was the exception. Maryland was founded to be a safe haven for Catholics, but was also economically geared toward indentured servitude and was a major competitor with Virginia for tobacco. New England’s climate had long winters and rocky soil which was poor for farming, this in turn affected their economy and farm organization. The Chesapeake climate was hot and had fertile soil that was perfect for growing tobacco, because of these great farming conditions their economy was also affected and as well as community organization. Due to the different climates of the two regions, political and economic differences evolved which is the second reason for their differences in development. Because of the fact that New England was colder and had poor farming conditions there were mostly small farms with no plantation owners or slaves. Because there were small scale farms, the region turned to an industry based economy, with more major cities as a result of manufacturing, shipbuilding, fishing, lumber,etc. Compact towns were created and town meetings were often held, making New England more democratic. The Chesapeake economy was based primarily on agriculture. Large plantations and staple crops, such as tobacco, rice and indigo, were a result of this agriculture based economy. With large plantations there was little industry in this region. Because of the small amount of industry Charleston, South Carolina is the only big city that formed in the region. The Chesapeake colonies’ political legislative was owned by aristocrats and there were county governments spread out across the land, which created unhappiness in the backcountry farmers who felt they were being underrepresented. Lastly,… fishing communities. The men would hunt, fish, and clear land. Factories Contributing to European Exploration-During the 15th and 16th century technology was advancing and there were new rulers who wanted to find better access to goods in Asia and Africa. The desire for the goods grew as a result of the new rulers. The exploration trips served as both spreading religion and finding the access necessary to receive more goods from foreign countries. Encomienda System- This system was established… The characteristics of individuals have a large impact on the development of a society. The New England and Chesapeake regions were settled primarily by people of English origin; however, by the 1700s the regions had developed into two distinct societies. The distinctions of these societies can be accredited partly to varying motives of the English settlers. The composition of the settlers can also account for the contrast of these two societies. Varying ideals of these settlers affected the political… Chapter 1: New World Beginnings: 33,000 B.C.-A.D. 1769 A. True-False: Where the statement is true, circle T; where it is false, circle F. 1. T F The geography of the North American continent was fundamentally shaped by the glaciers of the Great Ice Age. 6. 2. T F North America was first settled by people who came by boat across the waters of the Pacific Strait from Japan to Alaska. The early Indian civilizations of Mexico & Peru were built on the economic foundations of cattle & wheat growing… DBQ 1- New England and Chesapeake Bay In 1492, Christopher Columbus discovered the New World while attempting to discover a route to India. This accidental discovery revealed a land full of rich resources, and through a series of wars between nations, Great Britain would control this new territory. People from all across Europe flocked to this New World for a chance at a new beginning. Despite a similar European background, the people of this new territory separated and lived in two distinct… THE NEW WORLD In 1609 King James I commissioned the Virginia Company with colonizing North America between the 35th and 45th parallels. The Chesapeake and New England colonies would emerge as the cornerstones of America. The two colonies navigated the world in sight of different objectives, but ultimately through their economic triumphs and the social and political hardships, these colonies would eventually develop into stability. In an effort to financially benefit Europe, the Chesapeake colony… RULES & REGULATIONS Characteristics of early exploration and settlements in the New World ← New England was settled by Puritans seeking freedom from religious persecution in Europe. They formed a “covenant community” based on the principles of the Mayflower Compact and Puritan religious beliefs and were often intolerant of those not sharing their religion. They also sought economic opportunity and practiced a form of direct democracy through… Life in the Colonies New England colonies, Middle colonies, and Southern colonies The New England colonies: New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. There was little farming, just enough to feed family. They made money through manufacturing and trade. Climate was colder than the two regions Long cold winter Fish, whales, trees, and furs were natural resources The religion was Puritans. No religious freedom. Pilgrims Work hard and strict rules Most that settled were from… work, a study in 1992 by Larry Hunter, the chief economist for the Joint Economic Committee, stated that after interviewing restaurant owners regarding the effects of raising minimum wages, it was found that no jobs were lost. The study was done in New Jersey, where the legislature had boosted minimum wage to the highest level in the United States (Meroney, 1995). What happens said Hunter, is that people don't go out and begin firing workers after a raise in minimum wages. "You just adjust." DBQ # Two England then sent out land seekers, and what they had found were the New England and Chesapeake colonies, although Europeans discovered both they became their own. By 1700’s New England and Chesapeake formed into two separate colonies due to their differences in economy, religion, and social aspects. Economical differences occurred between New England and Chesapeake with slavery, trade, and agriculture. In New England, slavery was very much present and had a huge impact… Question: Although New England and the Chesapeake region were both settled largely by of English origin, by 1700 the region had evolved into two different societies. Why did this difference in development occur? Thesis Statement: When talking about New England and the Chesapeake region, you have to consider the differences in motives and geography. Consider economic situations (reasons for settling where they did, reasons why they came to New England in the first place). One has to…	<urn:uuid:0900cee7-c22c-4c73-9b9f-87ab0456448c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Chesapeake-And-New-England-Colonies-Developmental-537167.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00545.warc.gz	en	0.980156	1,621	3.78125	4	[ -0.025854621082544327, -0.06008424609899521, 0.5142079591751099, -0.12226873636245728, 0.11948857456445694, 0.2526537775993347, -0.22611895203590393, -0.29363441467285156, -0.00646062009036541, -0.07086922228336334, -0.13811320066452026, -0.05977620184421539, 0.14086657762527466, -0.059068...	1	Chesapeake and New England Colonies’ Developmental Differences By the 1700s the New England and Chesapeake colonies had vast differences in their societies and in their development, even though they were settled by people of mostly English origin. The colonies had political, economic, social and religious differences as well as differences in their founding and climate that lead to the formation of these two distinct regions. The New England and the Chesapeake colonies were unalike each other in many ways. The first reason for the difference in development between the Chesapeake and New England colonies was that they were founded for entirely opposite purposes and under different climates. The New England colonies were founded for religious purposes. Since the Puritans were unhappy with the slow reform in the Anglican Church in England, a group called the Separatists broke away from the church and founded the Plymouth colony. The goal was to create a new place to worship without being persecuted. Connecticut was also founded in order to create a closer church-government alliance, however Rhode Island was the exception. Rhode Island was founded by Roger Williams to protest against the Puritans and give freedom of worship within the colony.On the other hand, the Chesapeake colonies were founded for economic purposes. Jamestown was founded for the search of gold, and James Rolfe discovered tobacco in Virginia which came to be a staple crop. There were no Puritans, but instead plenty of indentured servants who came to the colonies to start an economic life for themselves. Similar to New England there was one colony within the region that was an exception, in the Chesapeake colonies Maryland was the exception. Maryland was founded to be a safe haven for Catholics, but was also economically geared toward indentured servitude and was a major competitor with Virginia for tobacco. New England’s climate had long winters and rocky soil which was poor for farming, this in turn affected their economy and farm organization. The Chesapeake climate was hot and had fertile soil that was perfect for growing tobacco, because of these great farming conditions their economy was also affected and as well as community organization. Due to the different climates of the two regions, political and economic differences evolved which is the second reason for their differences in development. Because of the fact that New England was colder and had poor farming conditions there were mostly small farms with no plantation owners or slaves. Because there were small scale farms, the region turned to an industry based economy, with more major cities as a result of manufacturing, shipbuilding, fishing, lumber,etc. Compact towns were created and town meetings were often held, making New England more democratic. The Chesapeake economy was based primarily on agriculture. Large plantations and staple crops, such as tobacco, rice and indigo, were a result of this agriculture based economy. With large plantations there was little industry in this region. Because of the small amount of industry Charleston, South Carolina is the only big city that formed in the region. The Chesapeake colonies’ political legislative was owned by aristocrats and there were county governments spread out across the land, which created unhappiness in the backcountry farmers who felt they were being underrepresented. Lastly,… fishing communities. The men would hunt, fish, and clear land. Factories Contributing to European Exploration-During the 15th and 16th century technology was advancing and there were new rulers who wanted to find better access to goods in Asia and Africa. The desire for the goods grew as a result of the new rulers. The exploration trips served as both spreading religion and finding the access necessary to receive more goods from foreign countries. Encomienda System- This system was established… The characteristics of individuals have a large impact on the development of a society. The New England and Chesapeake regions were settled primarily by people of English origin; however, by the 1700s the regions had developed into two distinct societies. The distinctions of these societies can be accredited partly to varying motives of the English settlers. The composition of the settlers can also account for the contrast of these two societies. Varying ideals of these settlers affected the political… Chapter 1: New World Beginnings: 33,000 B.C.-A.D. 1769 A. True-False: Where the statement is true, circle T; where it is false, circle F. 1. T F The geography of the North American continent was fundamentally shaped by the glaciers of the Great Ice Age. 6. 2. T F North America was first settled by people who came by boat across the waters of the Pacific Strait from Japan to Alaska. The early Indian civilizations of Mexico & Peru were built on the economic foundations of cattle & wheat growing… DBQ 1- New England and Chesapeake Bay In 1492, Christopher Columbus discovered the New World while attempting to discover a route to India. This accidental discovery revealed a land full of rich resources, and through a series of wars between nations, Great Britain would control this new territory. People from all across Europe flocked to this New World for a chance at a new beginning. Despite a similar European background, the people of this new territory separated and lived in two distinct… THE NEW WORLD In 1609 King James I commissioned the Virginia Company with colonizing North America between the 35th and 45th parallels. The Chesapeake and New England colonies would emerge as the cornerstones of America. The two colonies navigated the world in sight of different objectives, but ultimately through their economic triumphs and the social and political hardships, these colonies would eventually develop into stability. In an effort to financially benefit Europe, the Chesapeake colony… RULES & REGULATIONS Characteristics of early exploration and settlements in the New World ← New England was settled by Puritans seeking freedom from religious persecution in Europe. They formed a “covenant community” based on the principles of the Mayflower Compact and Puritan religious beliefs and were often intolerant of those not sharing their religion. They also sought economic opportunity and practiced a form of direct democracy through… Life in the Colonies New England colonies, Middle colonies, and Southern colonies The New England colonies: New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. There was little farming, just enough to feed family. They made money through manufacturing and trade. Climate was colder than the two regions Long cold winter Fish, whales, trees, and furs were natural resources The religion was Puritans. No religious freedom. Pilgrims Work hard and strict rules Most that settled were from… work, a study in 1992 by Larry Hunter, the chief economist for the Joint Economic Committee, stated that after interviewing restaurant owners regarding the effects of raising minimum wages, it was found that no jobs were lost. The study was done in New Jersey, where the legislature had boosted minimum wage to the highest level in the United States (Meroney, 1995). What happens said Hunter, is that people don't go out and begin firing workers after a raise in minimum wages. "You just adjust." DBQ # Two England then sent out land seekers, and what they had found were the New England and Chesapeake colonies, although Europeans discovered both they became their own. By 1700’s New England and Chesapeake formed into two separate colonies due to their differences in economy, religion, and social aspects. Economical differences occurred between New England and Chesapeake with slavery, trade, and agriculture. In New England, slavery was very much present and had a huge impact… Question: Although New England and the Chesapeake region were both settled largely by of English origin, by 1700 the region had evolved into two different societies. Why did this difference in development occur? Thesis Statement: When talking about New England and the Chesapeake region, you have to consider the differences in motives and geography. Consider economic situations (reasons for settling where they did, reasons why they came to New England in the first place). One has to…	1,643	ENGLISH	1
History of Baptists – A brief overview Knowledge of history is valuable, especially when considering the different churches that make up the spectrum of what is called Christendom. Most of Christianity views history through the Roman Catholic, or Protestant perspective of church history. This belief is basically the position that the Roman Catholic church was the church of the New Testament and is in accordance with their claim as Peter being the first pope. While Protestant history doesn’t try and dispute those claims, the basis of Protestantism is that the church had become corrupt and needed to return to a more Biblical position, both doctrinally and practically. While there is a mix of truth and error in those historical positions, the primary thing is that it does not contain all the facts of church history. There are several questions that come to mind. Such as, is there credible supportive evidence that the Roman Catholic church started in the New Testament, or did it have a later origin? Or who were the heretics that the Roman Catholic church was putting to death through the dark ages? Did the Protestant churches really follow through on the five “Solas” in which they claimed they were returning to? Who were the Anabaptists? And why did the Church of Rome persecute them? And why did Martin Luther also persecute the Anabaptists, now called Baptists. There were also other denominations that persecuted the Baptist people during the Reformation. The primary purpose of this article is to present historical statements regarding the Anabaptists, and their place in church history. Virtually all of the Protestant denominations have an origin on this side of the Reformation, and it is important to note that Baptists are not Protestants. Prior to the Reformation, there were 3 different types of churches, the Roman Catholic churches, the Greek Orthodox churches, and the Anabaptist churches which at the time of the Reformation became known as Baptists without the prefix “Ana”. Prior to the split between the Greek Orthodox church and the Roman Catholic church, there were basically two different types of churches, the Anabaptists or Baptists, and the Roman Catholic churches. One has a record of departing from the scripture, and oppressing the scriptures while the other preached the scriptures and practiced them. The statements that will be presented are made by denominational historians that are not Baptists. The significance of this should not be underestimated, nor undervalued as many who are a part of a denomination are unawares of this information. If more Christians in the Protestant denominations, and Roman Catholicism were aware of a more complete accounting of church history, they would realize that there was, and always have been churches that came from the New Testament lineage of churches, and have gone down through the ages, and are present today, adhering to the New Testament as their rule of faith and practice. Before we consider the statements from history regarding the Anabaptists, let us define why they were called “Anabaptists.” The term Anabaptist was given to them by the churches that were in opposition to their practice of “rebaptizing” converts. While their detractors said that they were rebaptizing people, the Anabaptists claim was that they were not rebaptizing. The Anabaptist believed they were baptizing them for the first time, acknowledging that their first baptism was lacking scriptural requirements and therefore not to be counted as a legitimate baptism. There were two things that were called into question regarding the persons baptism, authority to baptize, and the qualification of the candidate being baptized, and a third issue in later years was the mode of baptism. First, the Anabaptists rejected the idea of the Roman Catholic churches as being scriptural churches because of their departure from the scriptures. The practice of baptism was an obvious public practice and they began to practice baptism as necessary to salvation, which in turn led to the baptizing of infants. As a result, the Baptist churches did not recognize the Roman Catholic churches as having authority to baptize. Their departure from the scripture was considered as evidence that the Bible was not the sole rule of faith and practice. The practice of infant baptism not being found in the scripture, was a confirmation to the Baptists that those churches had departed from truth. They had given up an identifying mark of a New Testament church. Secondly, the candidate to be baptized was to be a believer in Jesus Christ, knowing and understanding the gospel prior to being baptized. Baptismal regeneration is the teaching that baptism is salvific. They would baptize infants for the purpose of their salvation, believing that through baptism they were united with Jesus Christ and recipients of eternal life. The Bible does not teach the doctrine, nor give any examples of baptismal regeneration. The testimony of Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531), the Swiss reformer who was contemporary with Martin Luther and John Calvin bears witness to the long history of the Anabaptists. “The institution of Anabaptism is no novelty, but for thirteen hundred years has caused great disturbance in the church, and has acquired such a strength that the attempt in this age to contend with it appears futile for a time.” (1) It was also declared that those who practiced anabaptism were to be drowned, and that took place under Zwinglis leadership in Switzerland. If you go back 1300 years from Zwingli, it places you at the end of the 2nd and the beginning of the 3rd century, which is just a little over a hundred years past the time of the apostles. The apostle John died in approximately 93-95 A.D. John Lawrence von Mosheim The testimony of the famous Lutheran historian, John Lawrence von Mosheim wrote this: “The true origin of that sect which acquired the denomination of the Anabaptists, by their administering anew the rite of baptism to those who came over to their communion, and derived that of Mennonites from that famous man, to whom they owe the greatest part of their present felicity, is hid in the remote depths of antiquity, and is extremely difficult to be ascertained.” (2) This statement by a distinguished historian bears witness to the early origin of the Anabaptists. The testimony of Alexandar Campbell the founder of the Church of Christ denomination, in a debate with a Presbyterian minister on the subject of baptism made this statement: “… from the apostolic age to the present time, the sentiments of Baptists, and the practice of baptism has had a continued chain of advocates, and public monuments of their existence in every century can be seen.” John Clark Ridpath John Clark Ridpath was known for his monumental work, History of the World. In a letter to a Baptist preacher and writer, John Clark Ridpath made this statement regarding Baptists. “I should not readily admit that was a Baptist church as far as back as 100 A.D., although without doubt there were Baptists then, as all Christians were then Baptists. (3) Recognizing the early history of Baptist, and specifically as noted to be 100 A.D., places them just a few years after the death of the apostle John. This is just a sampling of quotes to introduce the reader to the truth of church history, regarding the Baptists. Our hope is that this will be the beginning of your pursuing a greater knowledge of church history. The New Testament church has a history that begins with Jesus in the gospels, and continues through the book of Acts, and continues on in Baptist churches today. The apostle Paul wrote in Ephesians 3:21 Unto him be glory in the church by Christ Jesus, throughout all ages, world without end. Amen As you consider what church you will attend, it is our hope that the Bible and history will be influential in your decision. (1) G.W. Bromiley, The Library of Christian Classics, (Philadelphia, Westminster Press) (2) Johann Laurenz von Mosheim, An Ecclesiastical History) (3) John Clark Ridpath, personal letter to W.A. Jarrell, quoted in W.A. Jarrells Baptist Church Perpetuity History of Baptists – A brief overview	<urn:uuid:7c9ece39-6c08-4808-aa62-995972b0ece8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.cbcjamestown.org/baptist-history/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00256.warc.gz	en	0.98137	1,712	3.328125	3	[ 0.01604328118264675, 0.08378301560878754, 0.1885073333978653, -0.07653170824050903, 0.14760053157806396, 0.1236094981431961, -0.1876276135444641, -0.07475174963474274, 0.35892051458358765, 0.11545731127262115, -0.16211754083633423, -0.2536691427230835, -0.2711835503578186, 0.00331801269203...	2	History of Baptists – A brief overview Knowledge of history is valuable, especially when considering the different churches that make up the spectrum of what is called Christendom. Most of Christianity views history through the Roman Catholic, or Protestant perspective of church history. This belief is basically the position that the Roman Catholic church was the church of the New Testament and is in accordance with their claim as Peter being the first pope. While Protestant history doesn’t try and dispute those claims, the basis of Protestantism is that the church had become corrupt and needed to return to a more Biblical position, both doctrinally and practically. While there is a mix of truth and error in those historical positions, the primary thing is that it does not contain all the facts of church history. There are several questions that come to mind. Such as, is there credible supportive evidence that the Roman Catholic church started in the New Testament, or did it have a later origin? Or who were the heretics that the Roman Catholic church was putting to death through the dark ages? Did the Protestant churches really follow through on the five “Solas” in which they claimed they were returning to? Who were the Anabaptists? And why did the Church of Rome persecute them? And why did Martin Luther also persecute the Anabaptists, now called Baptists. There were also other denominations that persecuted the Baptist people during the Reformation. The primary purpose of this article is to present historical statements regarding the Anabaptists, and their place in church history. Virtually all of the Protestant denominations have an origin on this side of the Reformation, and it is important to note that Baptists are not Protestants. Prior to the Reformation, there were 3 different types of churches, the Roman Catholic churches, the Greek Orthodox churches, and the Anabaptist churches which at the time of the Reformation became known as Baptists without the prefix “Ana”. Prior to the split between the Greek Orthodox church and the Roman Catholic church, there were basically two different types of churches, the Anabaptists or Baptists, and the Roman Catholic churches. One has a record of departing from the scripture, and oppressing the scriptures while the other preached the scriptures and practiced them. The statements that will be presented are made by denominational historians that are not Baptists. The significance of this should not be underestimated, nor undervalued as many who are a part of a denomination are unawares of this information. If more Christians in the Protestant denominations, and Roman Catholicism were aware of a more complete accounting of church history, they would realize that there was, and always have been churches that came from the New Testament lineage of churches, and have gone down through the ages, and are present today, adhering to the New Testament as their rule of faith and practice. Before we consider the statements from history regarding the Anabaptists, let us define why they were called “Anabaptists.” The term Anabaptist was given to them by the churches that were in opposition to their practice of “rebaptizing” converts. While their detractors said that they were rebaptizing people, the Anabaptists claim was that they were not rebaptizing. The Anabaptist believed they were baptizing them for the first time, acknowledging that their first baptism was lacking scriptural requirements and therefore not to be counted as a legitimate baptism. There were two things that were called into question regarding the persons baptism, authority to baptize, and the qualification of the candidate being baptized, and a third issue in later years was the mode of baptism. First, the Anabaptists rejected the idea of the Roman Catholic churches as being scriptural churches because of their departure from the scriptures. The practice of baptism was an obvious public practice and they began to practice baptism as necessary to salvation, which in turn led to the baptizing of infants. As a result, the Baptist churches did not recognize the Roman Catholic churches as having authority to baptize. Their departure from the scripture was considered as evidence that the Bible was not the sole rule of faith and practice. The practice of infant baptism not being found in the scripture, was a confirmation to the Baptists that those churches had departed from truth. They had given up an identifying mark of a New Testament church. Secondly, the candidate to be baptized was to be a believer in Jesus Christ, knowing and understanding the gospel prior to being baptized. Baptismal regeneration is the teaching that baptism is salvific. They would baptize infants for the purpose of their salvation, believing that through baptism they were united with Jesus Christ and recipients of eternal life. The Bible does not teach the doctrine, nor give any examples of baptismal regeneration. The testimony of Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531), the Swiss reformer who was contemporary with Martin Luther and John Calvin bears witness to the long history of the Anabaptists. “The institution of Anabaptism is no novelty, but for thirteen hundred years has caused great disturbance in the church, and has acquired such a strength that the attempt in this age to contend with it appears futile for a time.” (1) It was also declared that those who practiced anabaptism were to be drowned, and that took place under Zwinglis leadership in Switzerland. If you go back 1300 years from Zwingli, it places you at the end of the 2nd and the beginning of the 3rd century, which is just a little over a hundred years past the time of the apostles. The apostle John died in approximately 93-95 A.D. John Lawrence von Mosheim The testimony of the famous Lutheran historian, John Lawrence von Mosheim wrote this: “The true origin of that sect which acquired the denomination of the Anabaptists, by their administering anew the rite of baptism to those who came over to their communion, and derived that of Mennonites from that famous man, to whom they owe the greatest part of their present felicity, is hid in the remote depths of antiquity, and is extremely difficult to be ascertained.” (2) This statement by a distinguished historian bears witness to the early origin of the Anabaptists. The testimony of Alexandar Campbell the founder of the Church of Christ denomination, in a debate with a Presbyterian minister on the subject of baptism made this statement: “… from the apostolic age to the present time, the sentiments of Baptists, and the practice of baptism has had a continued chain of advocates, and public monuments of their existence in every century can be seen.” John Clark Ridpath John Clark Ridpath was known for his monumental work, History of the World. In a letter to a Baptist preacher and writer, John Clark Ridpath made this statement regarding Baptists. “I should not readily admit that was a Baptist church as far as back as 100 A.D., although without doubt there were Baptists then, as all Christians were then Baptists. (3) Recognizing the early history of Baptist, and specifically as noted to be 100 A.D., places them just a few years after the death of the apostle John. This is just a sampling of quotes to introduce the reader to the truth of church history, regarding the Baptists. Our hope is that this will be the beginning of your pursuing a greater knowledge of church history. The New Testament church has a history that begins with Jesus in the gospels, and continues through the book of Acts, and continues on in Baptist churches today. The apostle Paul wrote in Ephesians 3:21 Unto him be glory in the church by Christ Jesus, throughout all ages, world without end. Amen As you consider what church you will attend, it is our hope that the Bible and history will be influential in your decision. (1) G.W. Bromiley, The Library of Christian Classics, (Philadelphia, Westminster Press) (2) Johann Laurenz von Mosheim, An Ecclesiastical History) (3) John Clark Ridpath, personal letter to W.A. Jarrell, quoted in W.A. Jarrells Baptist Church Perpetuity History of Baptists – A brief overview	1,690	ENGLISH	1
James Baldwin became a celebrated part of a global intellectual community during his adult years as a writer and activist. He made friends, engaged with other artists and thinkers, and developed lifelong relationships with people in all the cities and towns abroad in which he dwelled—Paris and St. Paul de Vence in France; Istanbul, Bodrum, and Erdek in Turkey; and Löeche-les-Bains in Switzerland. But Harlem, New York was the community that first nurtured Baldwin and provided the lens through which he cultivated his initial insights into the social, political, economic, and cultural milieux and inequities of the United States in the 1920s, ‘30s, and ‘40s. It was Harlem that remained at his core and that surfaced as a powerful memory throughout his life in some of his speeches and writings. Rising from his humble birth and difficult upbringing in Harlem, James Baldwin was able to continue the legacy of his artistic forefathers from the Harlem Renaissance and inspire many succeeding generations. Baldwin was born August 2, 1924 at Harlem Hospital. Founded in 1887 in a brownstone on 120th Street and the East River, the hospital was greatly expanded once it relocated in 1911 to Lenox Avenue between 135th and 137th Streets, about four blocks from the first of several Baldwin residences in Harlem. Emma Berdis Jones, the young single mother of James Baldwin, married a Baptist minister, David Baldwin, when James was about three years of age. James, or “Jimmy,” grew up the eldest of nine children in a poverty-stricken household in Harlem. Baldwin asserts that his father provided for them as well as he could through the years of the Great Depression, but that he had trouble keeping them alive, as he experienced great difficulty in feeding his children. David’s paternal grandmother Barbara, who was born a slave, also spent the last of her years in the Baldwin household in Harlem. As the mother of 14 children, “some black and some—it was said—white,” Barbara would inevitably become for James Baldwin the symbol of what Baldwin biographer David Leeming calls that “ancient forced motherhood that makes black and white Americans brothers and sisters whether they like it or not.” Baldwin reminisced in an interview that the first house he remembered was located on Uptown Park Avenue, where the railroad tracks were. There he played on the roof of the building, near the river and garbage dump. After his parent’s migration, Harlem resembled southern communities in many ways. Parents on the block knew each other and their children, which helped to create a shared responsibility for one’s neighbor. When Baldwin was growing up, Harlem was multi-racial, and among many other aspects of life that brought its dwellers close, there was a sense of shared poverty that created a community rather than fostering hopeless isolation that later became the staple of suburbia. The Harlem of Baldwin’s early memory reflected a place where people clung to the possibility of a normal life. There was a grocery store run by the old Jewish couple, a soda pop joint, a shoe shine parlor, and the candy shop run by his father’s sister, Taunty, on 133rd Street between Lenox and Fifth. However, as James Baldwin grew older, he became increasingly aware of the racial and economic struggles around him that pushed more and more people to despair and suicide. The problem, for example, of police brutality against African Americans in Harlem was pervasive, and Baldwin experienced harassment by police for being both black and gay. Years later in “A Report From Occupied Territory” published in 1966 in The Nation, Baldwin would write about the treatment of Harlem’s black community by law enforcement. He reports on a specific case in which a man and several youth had been beaten and jailed: My report is based on what I myself know, for I was born in Harlem and raised there. This means that I know ... the thunder and fire of the billy club, the paralyzing shock of spittle in the face, and I know what it is to find oneself ... at the bottom of the flight of steps down which one has just been hurled ... People are destroyed very easily. Where is the civilization and where, indeed, is the morality which can afford to destroy so many? ... What I have said about Harlem is true of every Northern city with a large Negro population. And the police are simply the hired enemies of this population. They are present to keep the Negro in his place and to protect white business interests, and they have no other function. In 1929, Baldwin began school, soon developed a passion for reading, and demonstrated a gift for writing during his early years. At his first public school, his teachers and principal encouraged him to engage with the collections of African and African Diaspora materials of the black Puerto Rican scholar Arturo Alfonso Schomburg. The collections had been acquired by the nearby 135th Street Branch of the New York Public Library in 1926. Located in Harlem, this library became Baldwin’s second home, where he spent three or four days a week. Many of Baldwin’s public school teachers were noted educators and held high standards of achievement for their students. At Frederick Douglass Junior High School in Harlem, Baldwin received encouragement in his studies from two African American teachers, the acclaimed Harlem Renaissance poet Countee Cullen and Herman W. Porter, a Harvard-educated math teacher, who introduced Baldwin to New York’s great 42nd Street Public Library, called “an important sanctuary during the rest of his school years” by Baldwin biographer David Leeming. In the 1920s, ‘30s, and ‘40s, the social gospel movement as well as individual, evangelical Christianity were integral to the religious experience of Harlemites. Churches both large and small rested on Harlem street corners. During his high school years, Baldwin served as a youth minister in the Harlem Pentecostal church from the age of fourteen to seventeen. He preached at a church located in a former business that, like many others in Harlem, occupied a storefront. One of his early, unrealized projects as a writer was to compile photographs of such storefront churches and discuss their role in the community. While he never finished the project, he channeled some of the energy from it into his first play, The Amen Corner (1953), which takes place in such a storefront place of worship. By the time high school ended, Baldwin decided on a secular direction in life, or as his Clinton yearbook indicates, his goal was to become a “Novelist-Playwright.” He received no encouragement from his stepfather, a stern and embittered preacher. In Notes of a Native Son he describes a brief interaction with his father: “My father asked me abruptly, ‘You’d rather write than preach, wouldn’t you?’ I was astonished at his question - because it was a real question. I answered, ‘Yes.’ That was all we said. It was awful to remember that was all we had ever said.” Shortly after graduating high school, Baldwin left for New Jersey to find work, and after the death of his father, he moved to Greenwich Village around 1943. The Harlem that Baldwin left behind imprinted memories of intense racial tension, discrimination, race riots, poverty-stricken communities, hyperawareness of police presence, and the unrelenting crime and violence that defined the experiences of African American city dwellers. Although the racial and social predicaments of the United States drove James Baldwin to seek international accommodations, he returned to New York many times throughout his career. W.J. Weatherby of The Guardian, Robert Coles of The New York Times, and the famous Civil Rights photographer Steve Schapiro are among the few that documented Baldwin’s return to his native city and neighborhood. Baldwin not only returned periodically to his roots in Harlem but also, through a number of interviews and speeches, made it clear that Harlem remained at the heart of his analytical and artistic endeavors. For example, Go Tell It On The Mountain (1953), his first novel, was a semi-autobiographical work about growing up in Harlem told through the eyes of fourteen-year-old John Grimes. In the famous 1965 debate with William F. Buckley, Baldwin made several powerful references to Harlem, one of them being, “If you walk out of Harlem, ride out of Harlem, downtown, the world agrees what you see is much bigger, cleaner, whiter, richer, safer than where you are.” Baldwin hoped to “remember well” the “struggle for a handle on life” that the people of Harlem had to face every day.	<urn:uuid:c4f43a36-6825-477a-82c1-05d2924ff8fe>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://nmaahc.si.edu/blog-post/harlem%E2%80%94born-and-bred	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00336.warc.gz	en	0.985989	1,809	3.453125	3	[ -0.0995950996875763, 0.22312696278095245, 0.8069150447845459, -0.2619493305683136, -0.7193413972854614, 0.33248040080070496, 0.19916003942489624, -0.0059473542496562, -0.3613377511501312, -0.22715502977371216, -0.002716139191761613, 0.008869195356965065, 0.10933192819356918, 0.004396155010...	3	James Baldwin became a celebrated part of a global intellectual community during his adult years as a writer and activist. He made friends, engaged with other artists and thinkers, and developed lifelong relationships with people in all the cities and towns abroad in which he dwelled—Paris and St. Paul de Vence in France; Istanbul, Bodrum, and Erdek in Turkey; and Löeche-les-Bains in Switzerland. But Harlem, New York was the community that first nurtured Baldwin and provided the lens through which he cultivated his initial insights into the social, political, economic, and cultural milieux and inequities of the United States in the 1920s, ‘30s, and ‘40s. It was Harlem that remained at his core and that surfaced as a powerful memory throughout his life in some of his speeches and writings. Rising from his humble birth and difficult upbringing in Harlem, James Baldwin was able to continue the legacy of his artistic forefathers from the Harlem Renaissance and inspire many succeeding generations. Baldwin was born August 2, 1924 at Harlem Hospital. Founded in 1887 in a brownstone on 120th Street and the East River, the hospital was greatly expanded once it relocated in 1911 to Lenox Avenue between 135th and 137th Streets, about four blocks from the first of several Baldwin residences in Harlem. Emma Berdis Jones, the young single mother of James Baldwin, married a Baptist minister, David Baldwin, when James was about three years of age. James, or “Jimmy,” grew up the eldest of nine children in a poverty-stricken household in Harlem. Baldwin asserts that his father provided for them as well as he could through the years of the Great Depression, but that he had trouble keeping them alive, as he experienced great difficulty in feeding his children. David’s paternal grandmother Barbara, who was born a slave, also spent the last of her years in the Baldwin household in Harlem. As the mother of 14 children, “some black and some—it was said—white,” Barbara would inevitably become for James Baldwin the symbol of what Baldwin biographer David Leeming calls that “ancient forced motherhood that makes black and white Americans brothers and sisters whether they like it or not.” Baldwin reminisced in an interview that the first house he remembered was located on Uptown Park Avenue, where the railroad tracks were. There he played on the roof of the building, near the river and garbage dump. After his parent’s migration, Harlem resembled southern communities in many ways. Parents on the block knew each other and their children, which helped to create a shared responsibility for one’s neighbor. When Baldwin was growing up, Harlem was multi-racial, and among many other aspects of life that brought its dwellers close, there was a sense of shared poverty that created a community rather than fostering hopeless isolation that later became the staple of suburbia. The Harlem of Baldwin’s early memory reflected a place where people clung to the possibility of a normal life. There was a grocery store run by the old Jewish couple, a soda pop joint, a shoe shine parlor, and the candy shop run by his father’s sister, Taunty, on 133rd Street between Lenox and Fifth. However, as James Baldwin grew older, he became increasingly aware of the racial and economic struggles around him that pushed more and more people to despair and suicide. The problem, for example, of police brutality against African Americans in Harlem was pervasive, and Baldwin experienced harassment by police for being both black and gay. Years later in “A Report From Occupied Territory” published in 1966 in The Nation, Baldwin would write about the treatment of Harlem’s black community by law enforcement. He reports on a specific case in which a man and several youth had been beaten and jailed: My report is based on what I myself know, for I was born in Harlem and raised there. This means that I know ... the thunder and fire of the billy club, the paralyzing shock of spittle in the face, and I know what it is to find oneself ... at the bottom of the flight of steps down which one has just been hurled ... People are destroyed very easily. Where is the civilization and where, indeed, is the morality which can afford to destroy so many? ... What I have said about Harlem is true of every Northern city with a large Negro population. And the police are simply the hired enemies of this population. They are present to keep the Negro in his place and to protect white business interests, and they have no other function. In 1929, Baldwin began school, soon developed a passion for reading, and demonstrated a gift for writing during his early years. At his first public school, his teachers and principal encouraged him to engage with the collections of African and African Diaspora materials of the black Puerto Rican scholar Arturo Alfonso Schomburg. The collections had been acquired by the nearby 135th Street Branch of the New York Public Library in 1926. Located in Harlem, this library became Baldwin’s second home, where he spent three or four days a week. Many of Baldwin’s public school teachers were noted educators and held high standards of achievement for their students. At Frederick Douglass Junior High School in Harlem, Baldwin received encouragement in his studies from two African American teachers, the acclaimed Harlem Renaissance poet Countee Cullen and Herman W. Porter, a Harvard-educated math teacher, who introduced Baldwin to New York’s great 42nd Street Public Library, called “an important sanctuary during the rest of his school years” by Baldwin biographer David Leeming. In the 1920s, ‘30s, and ‘40s, the social gospel movement as well as individual, evangelical Christianity were integral to the religious experience of Harlemites. Churches both large and small rested on Harlem street corners. During his high school years, Baldwin served as a youth minister in the Harlem Pentecostal church from the age of fourteen to seventeen. He preached at a church located in a former business that, like many others in Harlem, occupied a storefront. One of his early, unrealized projects as a writer was to compile photographs of such storefront churches and discuss their role in the community. While he never finished the project, he channeled some of the energy from it into his first play, The Amen Corner (1953), which takes place in such a storefront place of worship. By the time high school ended, Baldwin decided on a secular direction in life, or as his Clinton yearbook indicates, his goal was to become a “Novelist-Playwright.” He received no encouragement from his stepfather, a stern and embittered preacher. In Notes of a Native Son he describes a brief interaction with his father: “My father asked me abruptly, ‘You’d rather write than preach, wouldn’t you?’ I was astonished at his question - because it was a real question. I answered, ‘Yes.’ That was all we said. It was awful to remember that was all we had ever said.” Shortly after graduating high school, Baldwin left for New Jersey to find work, and after the death of his father, he moved to Greenwich Village around 1943. The Harlem that Baldwin left behind imprinted memories of intense racial tension, discrimination, race riots, poverty-stricken communities, hyperawareness of police presence, and the unrelenting crime and violence that defined the experiences of African American city dwellers. Although the racial and social predicaments of the United States drove James Baldwin to seek international accommodations, he returned to New York many times throughout his career. W.J. Weatherby of The Guardian, Robert Coles of The New York Times, and the famous Civil Rights photographer Steve Schapiro are among the few that documented Baldwin’s return to his native city and neighborhood. Baldwin not only returned periodically to his roots in Harlem but also, through a number of interviews and speeches, made it clear that Harlem remained at the heart of his analytical and artistic endeavors. For example, Go Tell It On The Mountain (1953), his first novel, was a semi-autobiographical work about growing up in Harlem told through the eyes of fourteen-year-old John Grimes. In the famous 1965 debate with William F. Buckley, Baldwin made several powerful references to Harlem, one of them being, “If you walk out of Harlem, ride out of Harlem, downtown, the world agrees what you see is much bigger, cleaner, whiter, richer, safer than where you are.” Baldwin hoped to “remember well” the “struggle for a handle on life” that the people of Harlem had to face every day.	1,802	ENGLISH	1
As drivers pass by the Reichert Farm on North Main Street in Columbia each day, few realize what the farm symbolizes. Some may notice it, nestled among subdivisions and modern homes, seeming a bit out of place in the middle of town. The farm is not unlike several other ancestral farms in the area. It has no historical marker and has not been designated as a landmark. Tours of the farm are not conducted, nor do local historians flock there for study or archival research. Still, when one learns the history of the land and the buildings, it soon becomes evident the Reichert Farm represents a different time in our nation’s history. It harkens back to a time when the hard work of having a farm, enabling one to be self-sufficient, was the norm. Simply walking through the buildings and around the grounds can provide visitors insight into the lives of pioneers and numerous lessons left to learn of those days gone by. When Lenard and Marguerite Neff Petri moved to the land in 1838, they had lived in America for only a short time, having emigrated from Germany and living briefly in Sugar Loaf Township in St. Clair County. Mr. Petri, born in 1797, undoubtedly came to America, along with countless other immigrants, to escape the hardships in his native country. By the late 18th century, Germany had experienced agricultural reform, the collapse of the Industrial Revolution, crop failure, and political and religious turmoil, among other things. German farmers found things particularly difficult when investors began turning their attentions toward profitable endeavors such as railroad building or artisan work. Farmers could not secure loans and many were forced to sell their land and start new lives in America. Soon after the Petris purchased the Monroe County property, the family began the long and arduous task of clearing the land and making the place into a viable farm. Knowing only their native language, the Petris were forced to communicate with their English neighbors by making hand signals and gestures. One of the first things they pantomimed to neighbors was the need to borrow a clap-board knife, which was a tool used in those days for splitting trees into rough planks. The first building completed was a primitive cabin. It was comprised of one small room to serve all the family’s needs. A fire burned outside in warm months and inside when the weather grew cooler. The cabin was furnished with a few rough-hewn pieces, along with mattresses made of cloth and stuffed with straw. Perhaps the most important building was constructed next: a large barn used for storing hay and housing animals. Numerous other buildings would eventually be added, all constructed using wooden pegs — not one nail was used. The evidence of attention to detail can be observed all over the farm. Placement of trees and buildings are strategic, meticulous craftsmanship evidenced by the ages of many of the buildings. One of the large barns, constructed in the early 1850s, stood for more than 100 years on the property; it was eventually torn down by the most recent owners, the Reichert family. Most, if not all, of the original buildings, including the Petris’ one-room cabin, have long since been torn down. After Lenard Petri’s death in 1861, ownership of the farm was passed to the couple’s daughters, Elizabeth and Mary. Mary became the bride of Joseph Weilbacher in 1864, and with her husband eventually took full ownership of the farm. Mary continued “keeping house,” much as her mother had done on the same farm where she was born and raised, and her husband Joseph continued to improve the land, adding acreage spreading out in all directions from the farmhouse. Six children were born and raised on the farm, with son Bernhardt “Ben” Weilbacher taking over ownership after the death of his father in 1916. Ben and his wife, Ida Wecker Weilbacher, raised a family there that included their three grandsons, who now own the property. Although it is not known if a larger and more modern structure replaced the original log cabin while the Petris still lived there, a carving on a wood post indicates the current white frame house was constructed by Joseph Weilbacher in 1893, with the sturdy summer kitchen added four years later. The house is simple and was built to serve the needs of the family. On close inspection of the attic area, expert craftsmanship is evident. The house was “stick-built,” meaning it was constructed piece by piece and with great care. Long ago when the existing trees were little more than sap- lings, “hog houses” dotted the lot to the northeast, and a little further down the hill is where the cows hurried in for their meal while family members and farm hands did the daily milking. A pear tree that still produces pears stands to the north of the farmhouse. There were, at one time, grape arbors, apple trees and apricot trees dotting the landscape. Garden vegetables were used for cooking, canning, and sharing with neighbors. Small plant starts were raised and sold to passersby to purchase and use in their own gardens. There have been many beautiful flowers and decorative bushes grown on the farm over the years, but the lilac bush to the south of the driveway holds special significance. In the days when doctors traveled through small towns, a chiropractor from St. Louis would routinely come through Columbia via Rural Route 2, which was what northern Main Street was called in the early-to mid-1900s. On days when “Grandma Weilbacher” wanted the doctor to stop at the farm, she would tie a white handkerchief to the lilac bush. When no white handkerchief fluttered in the breeze, the doctor knew to pass on by the house. The farm operated with the help of farmhands who were paid $3 a week plus room and board. They slept upstairs in the farmhouse, and when they finished up their weekend chores they might travel home to a nearby town to visit family. There would have been activity all over the farm: stacking or retrieving hay from the big barn, getting coal from the coal bin, unloading corn in the corn crib, or teaching a mean, biting gander a lesson by giving him a good toss against the barn door. Over the years, acreage has been sold to developers and the town of Columbia has “grown up” around the farm itself. No, this farm was probably not anything particularly unusual. However, passersby today can be certain that within the parameters of the property, the visions and voices of the past and the joys of ordinary farm life and hard work can still be seen and heard.	<urn:uuid:0c7f6ff6-8d96-4ff3-9612-9ad6ba858a41>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.republictimes.net/a-history-lesson-on-columbias-farm-in-the-city/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00304.warc.gz	en	0.980672	1,417	3.5	4	[ 0.06722654402256012, 0.1785946488380432, 0.2233578860759735, 0.24876151978969574, 0.07711818814277649, 0.09239421039819717, 0.022965310141444206, 0.07408340275287628, -0.28886938095092773, -0.23706074059009552, 0.3120863735675812, -0.302492618560791, -0.1326311230659485, 0.0225507747381925...	6	As drivers pass by the Reichert Farm on North Main Street in Columbia each day, few realize what the farm symbolizes. Some may notice it, nestled among subdivisions and modern homes, seeming a bit out of place in the middle of town. The farm is not unlike several other ancestral farms in the area. It has no historical marker and has not been designated as a landmark. Tours of the farm are not conducted, nor do local historians flock there for study or archival research. Still, when one learns the history of the land and the buildings, it soon becomes evident the Reichert Farm represents a different time in our nation’s history. It harkens back to a time when the hard work of having a farm, enabling one to be self-sufficient, was the norm. Simply walking through the buildings and around the grounds can provide visitors insight into the lives of pioneers and numerous lessons left to learn of those days gone by. When Lenard and Marguerite Neff Petri moved to the land in 1838, they had lived in America for only a short time, having emigrated from Germany and living briefly in Sugar Loaf Township in St. Clair County. Mr. Petri, born in 1797, undoubtedly came to America, along with countless other immigrants, to escape the hardships in his native country. By the late 18th century, Germany had experienced agricultural reform, the collapse of the Industrial Revolution, crop failure, and political and religious turmoil, among other things. German farmers found things particularly difficult when investors began turning their attentions toward profitable endeavors such as railroad building or artisan work. Farmers could not secure loans and many were forced to sell their land and start new lives in America. Soon after the Petris purchased the Monroe County property, the family began the long and arduous task of clearing the land and making the place into a viable farm. Knowing only their native language, the Petris were forced to communicate with their English neighbors by making hand signals and gestures. One of the first things they pantomimed to neighbors was the need to borrow a clap-board knife, which was a tool used in those days for splitting trees into rough planks. The first building completed was a primitive cabin. It was comprised of one small room to serve all the family’s needs. A fire burned outside in warm months and inside when the weather grew cooler. The cabin was furnished with a few rough-hewn pieces, along with mattresses made of cloth and stuffed with straw. Perhaps the most important building was constructed next: a large barn used for storing hay and housing animals. Numerous other buildings would eventually be added, all constructed using wooden pegs — not one nail was used. The evidence of attention to detail can be observed all over the farm. Placement of trees and buildings are strategic, meticulous craftsmanship evidenced by the ages of many of the buildings. One of the large barns, constructed in the early 1850s, stood for more than 100 years on the property; it was eventually torn down by the most recent owners, the Reichert family. Most, if not all, of the original buildings, including the Petris’ one-room cabin, have long since been torn down. After Lenard Petri’s death in 1861, ownership of the farm was passed to the couple’s daughters, Elizabeth and Mary. Mary became the bride of Joseph Weilbacher in 1864, and with her husband eventually took full ownership of the farm. Mary continued “keeping house,” much as her mother had done on the same farm where she was born and raised, and her husband Joseph continued to improve the land, adding acreage spreading out in all directions from the farmhouse. Six children were born and raised on the farm, with son Bernhardt “Ben” Weilbacher taking over ownership after the death of his father in 1916. Ben and his wife, Ida Wecker Weilbacher, raised a family there that included their three grandsons, who now own the property. Although it is not known if a larger and more modern structure replaced the original log cabin while the Petris still lived there, a carving on a wood post indicates the current white frame house was constructed by Joseph Weilbacher in 1893, with the sturdy summer kitchen added four years later. The house is simple and was built to serve the needs of the family. On close inspection of the attic area, expert craftsmanship is evident. The house was “stick-built,” meaning it was constructed piece by piece and with great care. Long ago when the existing trees were little more than sap- lings, “hog houses” dotted the lot to the northeast, and a little further down the hill is where the cows hurried in for their meal while family members and farm hands did the daily milking. A pear tree that still produces pears stands to the north of the farmhouse. There were, at one time, grape arbors, apple trees and apricot trees dotting the landscape. Garden vegetables were used for cooking, canning, and sharing with neighbors. Small plant starts were raised and sold to passersby to purchase and use in their own gardens. There have been many beautiful flowers and decorative bushes grown on the farm over the years, but the lilac bush to the south of the driveway holds special significance. In the days when doctors traveled through small towns, a chiropractor from St. Louis would routinely come through Columbia via Rural Route 2, which was what northern Main Street was called in the early-to mid-1900s. On days when “Grandma Weilbacher” wanted the doctor to stop at the farm, she would tie a white handkerchief to the lilac bush. When no white handkerchief fluttered in the breeze, the doctor knew to pass on by the house. The farm operated with the help of farmhands who were paid $3 a week plus room and board. They slept upstairs in the farmhouse, and when they finished up their weekend chores they might travel home to a nearby town to visit family. There would have been activity all over the farm: stacking or retrieving hay from the big barn, getting coal from the coal bin, unloading corn in the corn crib, or teaching a mean, biting gander a lesson by giving him a good toss against the barn door. Over the years, acreage has been sold to developers and the town of Columbia has “grown up” around the farm itself. No, this farm was probably not anything particularly unusual. However, passersby today can be certain that within the parameters of the property, the visions and voices of the past and the joys of ordinary farm life and hard work can still be seen and heard.	1,382	ENGLISH	1
The battles of Barfleur and La Hougue took place during the Nine Years' War, between 29 May and 4 June 1692. The first was fought near Barfleur on 29 May, with later actions occurring between 30 May and 4 June at Cherbourg and Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue in Normandy, France. The French attempt to restore James II to the English throne--the Williamite War in Ireland--ended in defeat in October 1691. Instead, a fleet of 44 ships of the line under Admiral de Tourville was to transport an invasion force commanded by Bernardin Gigault de Bellefonds. The Anglo-Dutch ships wintered in separate ports and Tourville was ordered to put to sea as early as possible, hoping to intercept them before they could combine. However, when he finally did so in late May, the two fleets under Admiral Edward Russell had already met up and were 82 strong when they encountered the French off Cape Barfleur. Following his instructions, Tourville attacked but after an indecisive clash that left many ships on both sides damaged, he disengaged. The Anglo-Dutch fleet pursued the French into the harbours of Cherbourg and La Hogue, destroying a total of fifteen ships and ending the threat to England. The French victory at the battle of Beachy Head two years earlier, in June 1690, had opened up the possibility of destroying a significant part of the Anglo-Dutch fleet and landing an invading army. King Louis XIV and his naval minister, Louis Phélypeaux, planned to land an army in England and restore James II to the throne. They planned to launch the invasion in April 1692, which was earlier than the separate English and Dutch fleets were expected to put to sea and combine. Much of the invasion force was to be made up of the Irish Royal Army which had gone into exile in the Flight of the Wild Geese after the siege of Limerick in 1691. Troops were collected at Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue, and the cavalry and guns were to be loaded into transports at Le Havre. The French commander Admiral Anne Hilarion de Tourville was to bring the French fleet up from Brest, collect the transports and the troops, then fight off the English fleet and land the army in England. Despite Tourville being in command of the fleet, strategic decisions were to be taken by James II, François d'Usson de Bonrepaus and Bernardin Gigault de Bellefonds. However, the French fleet was unable to concentrate in time; D'Estrees and the Toulon fleet were beaten back at the Strait of Gibraltar, losing two ships in a storm, and Villette Mursay with the Rochefort squadron was delayed. Tourville's Brest fleet was undermanned, and when he sailed, on 29 April4 May [O.S. 29 April], he was forced to leave 20 ships under Chateau-Renault behind. His fleet was further delayed by adverse winds, and did not clear Berteaume Roads until 2 May. Tourville entered the English Channel with 37 ships of the line, accompanied by seven fireships, plus frigates, scouts, and transports. He was joined on 15 May by Villette and the Rochefort squadron, seven ships of the line and attendant vessels, giving Tourville a combined fleet of 44 ships plus attendant vessels, 70 or 80 sail altogether. Meanwhile, the allied fleet was assembling at St Helens on the Isle of Wight. Vice Admiral of the Red Sir Ralph Delaval arrived on 8 May; next day he was joined by Richard Carter, who had been in the western channel guarding a convoy, and delivering troops to Guernsey. The Dutch had despatched a fleet, under Philips van Almonde, from the Texel in April, which was making its way south. Admiral of the Blue Sir John Ashby sailed from the Nore on 27 April. Admiral of the Fleet Edward Russell was delayed until 29 April, but gained time by making a risky passage through the Gull channel. He met Almonde at the Downs and a further Dutch squadron at Dungeness, arriving at St Helens in the second week of May. More detachments joined over the next few days, and by 14 May, Russell had a force of over 80 ships of the line, plus auxiliaries. Thus by 14 May, the allied fleet was fully assembled and the French strategic aim of acting with a concentrated force while the allies were scattered was already lost. However, Louis XIV had furnished Tourville with strict orders to seek battle, strong or weak (fort ou faible), and this he proceeded to do. The fleets sighted each other at first light on 29 May 1692, off Cap Barfleur. The story that Tourville then held a conference with his officers, whose advice, and his own opinion, was against action seems inaccurate in view of Tourville's strict orders from the king to engage. He had also been advised by James II's envoys to expect some defections by English captains with Jacobite sympathies, though none in fact did so. The fleets slowly closed in the light southwesterly breeze--Russell from the northeast, and Tourville, who had the weathergage, from the south, on a starboard tack to bring his line of battle into contact with Russell's. Both fleets were in three squadrons, each split into three divisions and commanded by a flag officer. Owing to the calm conditions, it was not until after 10:00, four hours after first sighting each other, that the two fleets engaged. As long as he held the weathergage Tourville was able to break off the engagement when he had carried out his orders to damage the enemy. He had reinforced his centre, the White squadron under his own command, in order to engage Russell's Red squadron with close to equal numbers. Elsewhere, he sought to minimise damage by extending and refusing the van, to avoid them being turned and overwhelmed, while the rear was held back to keep the weathergage. Russell countered by holding fire as long as possible, to allow the French to come closer; Almonde, in the van, extended to try to overlap the French line, while Ashby, with the rear and some way off, sought to close and bring his Blue squadron into action. From around 11:00, and for the next few hours, both fleets bombarded each other, causing considerable damage. The battle continued for the rest of the day and into the night, and was full of incident. At 13:00, a change in the wind allowed Rear Admiral of the Red Sir Cloudesley Shovell to break the French line and the Dutch to start enveloping the French van. A flat calm descended at 16:00, leaving both fleets in a fog. At 18:00, Tourville was able to use the tide to gain a respite, and Shovell used the same tide at 20:00 for a fireship attack. By 10:00, the battle was almost over. Surprisingly, though most ships on both sides were damaged, some severely, no ships from either battle line were lost. At the turn of the tide, Tourville again took advantage of this to cut cables and be carried down channel on the ebb, away from the scene of battle. Russell also cut when he realised what had happened, in order to give chase into the night. On 30 May, the French withdrawal was hampered by wind and tide and by the fact that, due to cost concerns by the French Naval Ministry, many of the ships had anchors inadequate to withstand the strong tidal races in the region. The nearest French port, Cherbourg was not fortified. First light on 20 May saw the French fleet scattered into groups across a wide area. To the north of the battle scene, and heading northward, were Gabaret and Langeron, with four ships between them. They skirted the English coast later that day, and headed out into the Atlantic; eventually they would arrive safely at Brest. To the south, Nesmond was heading south-east towards the Normandy coast with six ships. Two of these would be beached at Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue, while another two would later put into Le Havre, one of which, L'Entendu, was wrecked at the harbour entrance. Nesmond, with the remaining two ships Monarque and Aimable, passed through the Strait of Dover, went north around Britain and finally arrived safely at Brest. Heading west was the main body in three groups: Villette leading with 15, followed by d'Amfreville with 12, and Tourville bringing up the rear with seven. The French were able to close up during the day, but Tourville was hampered by his efforts to save his flagship, Soleil Royal, which was in a pitiable condition. He recognised this later that day, and transferred his flag to L'Ambiteux. On 21 May, the French fleet was anchored against the tide off Cap de la Hague. The leading contingent, 21 ships--now under Pannetier--had rounded the cape and was in the Alderney Race, while the remainder, thirteen with Tourville and the other flag officers, were to the east. As the weather deteriorated, these ships began to drag their anchors and were forced to cut and run before the wind and tide. Russell pursued Tourville eastward along the Cotentin coast. Trouville, without anchors, was unable to do more than beach his ships. Three of the most badly damaged were forced to beach at Cherbourg. The rest, ten ships, reached St Vaast la Hougue where they too were beached, joining the two of Nesmond's division that were already there. Russell and the ships with him, together with some of Ashby's Blue squadron, also cut to pursue him, while Ashby and Almonde continued to shadow Pannetier's group. Pannetier, in order to escape the pursuing allied fleet, sought to make the hazardous passage through the Alderney Race; in this he was helped by finding in his crew a local man, Hervé Riel, to act as pilot when his navigators demurred. Almonde and Ashby did not try to follow him; they were criticised later by Russell for not doing so, although the only flag officer who knew the waters, Carter, had died of his wounds. Almonde attempted pursuit by taking his squadron west of Alderney, but the delay allowed Pannetier to pull too far ahead, and Almonde abandoned the chase. Pannetier later reached Saint-Malo and safety, while Almonde and Ashby turned east to rejoin Russell at la Hogue. The Soleil Royal, Admirable, and Triomphant were in such bad shape they had to be beached at Cherbourg. They were destroyed there the next day, 23 May, by Vice-Admiral Delaval, attacking from long boats and with fireships. Meanwhile, Russell had turned on the remaining ships. These had sought refuge at La Hougue where they would be under the protection of the assembled land forces and a battery. On 3 June and 4 June, the Dutch and English attacked with long boats. By this time, the French crews were exhausted and disheartened. The allies successfully deployed shore parties and fireships that burnt all twelve French ships of the line which had sought shelter there. This last action became celebrated in England as the Battle of La Hogue. The dispersal of the French fleet put an end to the invasion plans, and the Allied victory was commemorated in England by a Fleet Review. Following the battle, the French abandoned the idea of seeking naval superiority for its own sake, adopting instead a continental strategy on land and pursuing a war against trade at sea. The battle is seen differently on either side of the English Channel. The English have seen the action as a single action over six days; it has often been referred to as the battle of La Hogue, or simply Hogue. On the other hand, the French have seen the various actions as separate battles, of Barfleur, Cherbourg and La Hougue. However, more neutral observers, such as Mahan, have also seen the action as a whole, as does Pemsel, and naval actions over a period of days were not unusual for the time. Each side regards the outcome differently. The English claim this as an outright victory. The French, while acknowledging La Hougue and Cherbourg as defeats, prefer to claim Barfleur as a victory. The English view of this as an out-and-out victory, while plausible tactically, is flawed strategically. In earlier times it was widely celebrated, though by Mahan's time it was seen as less important. The French invasion plan was foiled, but La Hogue was not the devastating blow to the French Navy it was once thought. French losses were quickly made good, and by the following year Tourville was able to inflict a defeat on the Allies in the battle of Lagos. Although the French dropped their invasion plans for the rest of the conflict and switched to a guerre de course, this was a matter of policy rather than necessity. However, the French view of the action at Barfleur as a victory is similarly flawed. The actions at Cherbourg and La Hogue can only be seen as defeats, but the view of the action at Barfleur as a victory is not tenable. The strategic aim, to concentrate the fleet and seize control of the channel before the allied fleet had assembled, had already failed by 14 May, and the chance for invasion was lost even if the battle had never taken place. Tactically Tourville made the best he could of a difficult situation. He made skilled use of the tides, first to disengage his fleet and, later to escape, but with no ships lost on either side and the action ending with Russell in hot pursuit, it can be seen at best as inconclusive. Nevertheless, historians have generally acknowledged the skill, bravery, courage and ferocious fighting ability of the French in this action. Barfleur remains a battle of which the French are most proud, while the British complained of a lack of spirit among their captains and two lieutenants were court martialled and dismissed from the navy for retreating from the battle after their captains were incapacitated.	<urn:uuid:ffdc33bc-58d9-41af-8138-608454eae396>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Battles_of_Barfleur_and_La_Hogue	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00073.warc.gz	en	0.985498	2,981	3.34375	3	[ -0.24578456580638885, 0.437946081161499, 0.3167833089828491, -0.42169302701950073, -0.18650570511817932, -0.15845510363578796, -0.17635934054851532, 0.4460654854774475, -0.23964758217334747, -0.31162363290786743, -0.30049189925193787, -0.5432002544403076, -0.12336266785860062, 0.5419571399...	1	The battles of Barfleur and La Hougue took place during the Nine Years' War, between 29 May and 4 June 1692. The first was fought near Barfleur on 29 May, with later actions occurring between 30 May and 4 June at Cherbourg and Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue in Normandy, France. The French attempt to restore James II to the English throne--the Williamite War in Ireland--ended in defeat in October 1691. Instead, a fleet of 44 ships of the line under Admiral de Tourville was to transport an invasion force commanded by Bernardin Gigault de Bellefonds. The Anglo-Dutch ships wintered in separate ports and Tourville was ordered to put to sea as early as possible, hoping to intercept them before they could combine. However, when he finally did so in late May, the two fleets under Admiral Edward Russell had already met up and were 82 strong when they encountered the French off Cape Barfleur. Following his instructions, Tourville attacked but after an indecisive clash that left many ships on both sides damaged, he disengaged. The Anglo-Dutch fleet pursued the French into the harbours of Cherbourg and La Hogue, destroying a total of fifteen ships and ending the threat to England. The French victory at the battle of Beachy Head two years earlier, in June 1690, had opened up the possibility of destroying a significant part of the Anglo-Dutch fleet and landing an invading army. King Louis XIV and his naval minister, Louis Phélypeaux, planned to land an army in England and restore James II to the throne. They planned to launch the invasion in April 1692, which was earlier than the separate English and Dutch fleets were expected to put to sea and combine. Much of the invasion force was to be made up of the Irish Royal Army which had gone into exile in the Flight of the Wild Geese after the siege of Limerick in 1691. Troops were collected at Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue, and the cavalry and guns were to be loaded into transports at Le Havre. The French commander Admiral Anne Hilarion de Tourville was to bring the French fleet up from Brest, collect the transports and the troops, then fight off the English fleet and land the army in England. Despite Tourville being in command of the fleet, strategic decisions were to be taken by James II, François d'Usson de Bonrepaus and Bernardin Gigault de Bellefonds. However, the French fleet was unable to concentrate in time; D'Estrees and the Toulon fleet were beaten back at the Strait of Gibraltar, losing two ships in a storm, and Villette Mursay with the Rochefort squadron was delayed. Tourville's Brest fleet was undermanned, and when he sailed, on 29 April4 May [O.S. 29 April], he was forced to leave 20 ships under Chateau-Renault behind. His fleet was further delayed by adverse winds, and did not clear Berteaume Roads until 2 May. Tourville entered the English Channel with 37 ships of the line, accompanied by seven fireships, plus frigates, scouts, and transports. He was joined on 15 May by Villette and the Rochefort squadron, seven ships of the line and attendant vessels, giving Tourville a combined fleet of 44 ships plus attendant vessels, 70 or 80 sail altogether. Meanwhile, the allied fleet was assembling at St Helens on the Isle of Wight. Vice Admiral of the Red Sir Ralph Delaval arrived on 8 May; next day he was joined by Richard Carter, who had been in the western channel guarding a convoy, and delivering troops to Guernsey. The Dutch had despatched a fleet, under Philips van Almonde, from the Texel in April, which was making its way south. Admiral of the Blue Sir John Ashby sailed from the Nore on 27 April. Admiral of the Fleet Edward Russell was delayed until 29 April, but gained time by making a risky passage through the Gull channel. He met Almonde at the Downs and a further Dutch squadron at Dungeness, arriving at St Helens in the second week of May. More detachments joined over the next few days, and by 14 May, Russell had a force of over 80 ships of the line, plus auxiliaries. Thus by 14 May, the allied fleet was fully assembled and the French strategic aim of acting with a concentrated force while the allies were scattered was already lost. However, Louis XIV had furnished Tourville with strict orders to seek battle, strong or weak (fort ou faible), and this he proceeded to do. The fleets sighted each other at first light on 29 May 1692, off Cap Barfleur. The story that Tourville then held a conference with his officers, whose advice, and his own opinion, was against action seems inaccurate in view of Tourville's strict orders from the king to engage. He had also been advised by James II's envoys to expect some defections by English captains with Jacobite sympathies, though none in fact did so. The fleets slowly closed in the light southwesterly breeze--Russell from the northeast, and Tourville, who had the weathergage, from the south, on a starboard tack to bring his line of battle into contact with Russell's. Both fleets were in three squadrons, each split into three divisions and commanded by a flag officer. Owing to the calm conditions, it was not until after 10:00, four hours after first sighting each other, that the two fleets engaged. As long as he held the weathergage Tourville was able to break off the engagement when he had carried out his orders to damage the enemy. He had reinforced his centre, the White squadron under his own command, in order to engage Russell's Red squadron with close to equal numbers. Elsewhere, he sought to minimise damage by extending and refusing the van, to avoid them being turned and overwhelmed, while the rear was held back to keep the weathergage. Russell countered by holding fire as long as possible, to allow the French to come closer; Almonde, in the van, extended to try to overlap the French line, while Ashby, with the rear and some way off, sought to close and bring his Blue squadron into action. From around 11:00, and for the next few hours, both fleets bombarded each other, causing considerable damage. The battle continued for the rest of the day and into the night, and was full of incident. At 13:00, a change in the wind allowed Rear Admiral of the Red Sir Cloudesley Shovell to break the French line and the Dutch to start enveloping the French van. A flat calm descended at 16:00, leaving both fleets in a fog. At 18:00, Tourville was able to use the tide to gain a respite, and Shovell used the same tide at 20:00 for a fireship attack. By 10:00, the battle was almost over. Surprisingly, though most ships on both sides were damaged, some severely, no ships from either battle line were lost. At the turn of the tide, Tourville again took advantage of this to cut cables and be carried down channel on the ebb, away from the scene of battle. Russell also cut when he realised what had happened, in order to give chase into the night. On 30 May, the French withdrawal was hampered by wind and tide and by the fact that, due to cost concerns by the French Naval Ministry, many of the ships had anchors inadequate to withstand the strong tidal races in the region. The nearest French port, Cherbourg was not fortified. First light on 20 May saw the French fleet scattered into groups across a wide area. To the north of the battle scene, and heading northward, were Gabaret and Langeron, with four ships between them. They skirted the English coast later that day, and headed out into the Atlantic; eventually they would arrive safely at Brest. To the south, Nesmond was heading south-east towards the Normandy coast with six ships. Two of these would be beached at Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue, while another two would later put into Le Havre, one of which, L'Entendu, was wrecked at the harbour entrance. Nesmond, with the remaining two ships Monarque and Aimable, passed through the Strait of Dover, went north around Britain and finally arrived safely at Brest. Heading west was the main body in three groups: Villette leading with 15, followed by d'Amfreville with 12, and Tourville bringing up the rear with seven. The French were able to close up during the day, but Tourville was hampered by his efforts to save his flagship, Soleil Royal, which was in a pitiable condition. He recognised this later that day, and transferred his flag to L'Ambiteux. On 21 May, the French fleet was anchored against the tide off Cap de la Hague. The leading contingent, 21 ships--now under Pannetier--had rounded the cape and was in the Alderney Race, while the remainder, thirteen with Tourville and the other flag officers, were to the east. As the weather deteriorated, these ships began to drag their anchors and were forced to cut and run before the wind and tide. Russell pursued Tourville eastward along the Cotentin coast. Trouville, without anchors, was unable to do more than beach his ships. Three of the most badly damaged were forced to beach at Cherbourg. The rest, ten ships, reached St Vaast la Hougue where they too were beached, joining the two of Nesmond's division that were already there. Russell and the ships with him, together with some of Ashby's Blue squadron, also cut to pursue him, while Ashby and Almonde continued to shadow Pannetier's group. Pannetier, in order to escape the pursuing allied fleet, sought to make the hazardous passage through the Alderney Race; in this he was helped by finding in his crew a local man, Hervé Riel, to act as pilot when his navigators demurred. Almonde and Ashby did not try to follow him; they were criticised later by Russell for not doing so, although the only flag officer who knew the waters, Carter, had died of his wounds. Almonde attempted pursuit by taking his squadron west of Alderney, but the delay allowed Pannetier to pull too far ahead, and Almonde abandoned the chase. Pannetier later reached Saint-Malo and safety, while Almonde and Ashby turned east to rejoin Russell at la Hogue. The Soleil Royal, Admirable, and Triomphant were in such bad shape they had to be beached at Cherbourg. They were destroyed there the next day, 23 May, by Vice-Admiral Delaval, attacking from long boats and with fireships. Meanwhile, Russell had turned on the remaining ships. These had sought refuge at La Hougue where they would be under the protection of the assembled land forces and a battery. On 3 June and 4 June, the Dutch and English attacked with long boats. By this time, the French crews were exhausted and disheartened. The allies successfully deployed shore parties and fireships that burnt all twelve French ships of the line which had sought shelter there. This last action became celebrated in England as the Battle of La Hogue. The dispersal of the French fleet put an end to the invasion plans, and the Allied victory was commemorated in England by a Fleet Review. Following the battle, the French abandoned the idea of seeking naval superiority for its own sake, adopting instead a continental strategy on land and pursuing a war against trade at sea. The battle is seen differently on either side of the English Channel. The English have seen the action as a single action over six days; it has often been referred to as the battle of La Hogue, or simply Hogue. On the other hand, the French have seen the various actions as separate battles, of Barfleur, Cherbourg and La Hougue. However, more neutral observers, such as Mahan, have also seen the action as a whole, as does Pemsel, and naval actions over a period of days were not unusual for the time. Each side regards the outcome differently. The English claim this as an outright victory. The French, while acknowledging La Hougue and Cherbourg as defeats, prefer to claim Barfleur as a victory. The English view of this as an out-and-out victory, while plausible tactically, is flawed strategically. In earlier times it was widely celebrated, though by Mahan's time it was seen as less important. The French invasion plan was foiled, but La Hogue was not the devastating blow to the French Navy it was once thought. French losses were quickly made good, and by the following year Tourville was able to inflict a defeat on the Allies in the battle of Lagos. Although the French dropped their invasion plans for the rest of the conflict and switched to a guerre de course, this was a matter of policy rather than necessity. However, the French view of the action at Barfleur as a victory is similarly flawed. The actions at Cherbourg and La Hogue can only be seen as defeats, but the view of the action at Barfleur as a victory is not tenable. The strategic aim, to concentrate the fleet and seize control of the channel before the allied fleet had assembled, had already failed by 14 May, and the chance for invasion was lost even if the battle had never taken place. Tactically Tourville made the best he could of a difficult situation. He made skilled use of the tides, first to disengage his fleet and, later to escape, but with no ships lost on either side and the action ending with Russell in hot pursuit, it can be seen at best as inconclusive. Nevertheless, historians have generally acknowledged the skill, bravery, courage and ferocious fighting ability of the French in this action. Barfleur remains a battle of which the French are most proud, while the British complained of a lack of spirit among their captains and two lieutenants were court martialled and dismissed from the navy for retreating from the battle after their captains were incapacitated.	3,061	ENGLISH	1
Born into a culture that persistently denied African Americans their right to freedom, Nance Legins Costley proved herself to be a woman of singular bravery and resilience when she took an important public stand for her own legal emancipation, setting a precedent that helped numerous others secure their own freedom. Nance was born at the end of 1813, in the home of Thomas Cox in Kaskaskia. The land that Cox’s house stood was located in the capital of the Illinois Territory, and five years after her birth, it would become part of the state capital of Illinois. Kaskaskia and the rest of Illinois had been ceded by the British to the United States in 1783, in the treaty that ended the Revolutionary War. Congress had established a government for the new territory in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which, among other provisions, prohibited slavery. When Illinois was admitted to the union in 1818, its constitution mandated that slavery must not be introduced in the new state. The reality, however, was much more complicated. The French colonists who had settled present-day Kaskaskia in the eighteenth-century had brought enslaved people from the Caribbean to the Illinois Country as early as 1720, and the practice of slavery was quickly integrated into the French agrarian society of the area. One colonial settler, Philip François Renault, intended to establish a mining company in the area and acquired a large number of enslaved people in the West Indies to help with his enterprise. The mining endeavor never materialized, but the enslaved people that he brought to Kaskaskia and the surrounding area became the ancestors of the “French slaves” of the region. In 1752, 41% of households in Illinois owned at least one enslaved person; in Kaskaskia, enslaved people of African descent made up 40% of the population. Native Americans were also enslaved by the French. Nearly a thousand enslaved people lived in Illinois when the British took over after the French and Indian War in 1763, and the new government allowed the practice to continue. Even after the Northwest Ordinance went into effect, the territorial government did not enforce the ordinance’s prohibition of slavery, and on at least one occasion, four residents of Kaskaskia organized a petition to the government to allow slavery in the region. (The petition was not recognized.) Even as laws were enacted to restrict or forbid slavery in Illinois, loopholes were exploited to allow the practice to continue. The “French slaves,” descendants of the enslaved people brought to Illinois by French colonial settlers, continued to be legally enslaved, a practice that persisted until 1845. Enslaved people were also legally allowed to be brought to Illinois from slave states on year-long temporary (but renewable) work contracts. The territory also codified a system of indentured servitude into law — a system which allowed for slavery in all but name. A new law setting out the terms of indentured servitude for people who had been enslaved in other territories was legally adopted in the territory in 1807, when Illinois was still formally part of the Indiana Territory. The law’s provisions set out a system that permitted slave owners to retain people as property, even within the confines of an area that legally prohibited slavery. The act allowed owners to bring enslaved people from other parts of the country to Illinois and maintain them as “indentured servants.” For example, an owner who purchased an enslaved “negro or mulatto” in Alabama could bring that person to Kaskaskia. Within 30 days, that owner would need to bring that enslaved person to the local county clerk, where he or she would have to consent to a contract of indenture that specified the length of time he or she would serve the owner. But although the system nominally sounds like it hinged on the consent of the enslaved person, there were caveats built into the act that made it clear that the enslaved person ultimately lacked any power in the transaction. The lengths of contracts, for example, differed based on age. If the enslaved person was older than 15, the contract could be as long as 99 years. But the act also included regulations for the indenture of children, even babies. If he was a child younger than 15, he could only be contracted until he was 35; a female child younger than 15 could be contracted until she reached the age of 32. The contracts extended to the next generation, too. Any children born to an indentured person were also required to serve the owner for several decades after their birth; girls had to serve until they were 28, and boys had to serve until they were 30. And declining to agree to the contract didn’t mean freedom. If the enslaved person objected to the indenture, the owner then had 60 days to take the enslaved person out of Illinois, removing them to a part of the country where slavery was permitted in order to retain ownership of the person. The act allowed an owner to physically punish their indentured servants (“with stripes” — i.e., with a whip) for infractions like laziness or misbehavior. And, confirming that indentured servants were essentially slaves called by another name, an indentured servant’s contract could be sold to a different owner without his or her consent. Numerous indentured servitude contracts were registered at courthouses in Illinois in the years that followed. In 1810, for example, a man named Nathaniel Green indentured three servants at the courthouse in Randolph County. Green lived in an area known as Clear Creek (which is now part of Union County). He operated a ferry across the Mississippi — an enterprise that could certainly have benefited from extra hands. Green traveled to Louisiana and returned with three people, indenturing all three of them according to the requirements set out by the act. The eldest, a black man named Randall Legins, was 38 years old. Green indentured him on April 13, 1810, for a term of 16 years. On the same date, he indentured Anachy, a 26-year-old black woman, for 25 years. And two months earlier, in February 1810, he had brought Charles to the county courthouse, indenturing him for a term of 35 years. The record notes starkly that “Charles was five months old at time entry was made.” Green had indentured the baby, who was not yet old enough to walk or talk, to the maximum term legally allowed for a black male child. Randall, Anachy, and Charles lived in Nathaniel Green’s household in Clear Creek until his death, which happened around 1812. Because all three of them were legally bound to him, they were included in the contents of his estate after he died. His estate papers, probated in Johnson County, reveal what happened to them afterward. A man named John Earthman bought “one negro boy, Charlie” from the estate for $220. Randall and Anachy were sold, too — and the record of the sale reveals that the pair had had a child together while living in Green’s household. They were sold along with “a child named Reuben” to Thomas Cox for the total sum of $770. Although Reuben had never signed an indenture contract of his own, under the terms of Illinois’s indentured servitude laws, he was legally bound to serve his mother’s owner until he turned 30, and he could be sold at any point during that time. Randall, Anachy, and Reuben’s new owner had grand aspirations. Born in Kentucky, Thomas Cox had moved with his family to Kaskaskia around 1810. He had quickly sought out positions of power in local government, taking a job in the local sheriff’s office, helping to enumerate the population of Randolph County for the 1810 census, and working as a land surveyor. He’d also served with the military during the War of 1812, and he continued to hold a commissioned rank in the Illinois militia. Cox was a single man in his mid-twenties when he purchased the contracts of the Legins family from the Green estate. But he wasn’t the only person living in his household. Following the death of his father, his widowed mother and siblings often lived either with him or just nearby. Supporting them may have been financially taxing — and Thomas Cox was never very good at managing money. In February 1814, Cox sold the Legins family, which had expanded in late 1813 to include one more member: a two-month-old girl, unnamed on the recorded bill of sale, who was almost certainly Randall and Anachy’s daughter, Nance. She had been born in Cox’s boarding house in Kaskaskia while the Territorial Assembly was meeting there. Like her elder brother, Reuben, Nance was not indentured herself — but like Reuben, the fact that she was born in the Cox household to indentured parents meant that she was also contracted to serve their master. Under the terms of Illinois’s servitude laws, Nance was bound to serve until she was 28, an age she wouldn’t reach until around 1841. The two-month-old baby was sent in the winter of 1814 with her father, mother, and three-year-old brother to live in the household of the largest slaveholder in Randolph County: Kaskaskia merchant William Morrison. Although Cox had paid more than $700 for Randall, Anachy, and Reuben only a short time before, he sold the family, including baby Nance, to Morrison for only $400. The Legins joined a large and growing group of enslaved people living in the Morrison household. The 1810 census noted that eight people of color (one indentured servant and seven slaves) were part of the household, and by 1820, 20 people of color were living with the Morrisons. When the Legins family were purchased in February 1813, there were at least ten people of color living in the household, and thanks to the servitude records kept by Illinois courthouses, we know their names and ages. Isidor and Mathew had been purchased by Morrison from Jean Dumoulin in St. Clair County in 1805, when they were 14 and 12 years old, respectively. Three years later, a 27-year-old woman named Phebe had signed an indenture contract with Morrison, exchanging four years of servitude for ten cents. In September 1811, Morrison had indentured three more servants: a 35-year-old man named Charles (for 25 years), a 20-year-old woman named Peggy (for 30 years), and a 16-year-old man named Sarrah (for 60 years). That October, he also indentured 37-year-old Isaac for a term of 25 years, and a month later, a 16-year-old woman named Dunky signed an indenture contract with Morrison for 40 years of service. In the spring of 1812, a 16-year-old woman named Rachel had been sold to Morrison by his brother, Robert, for an unknown sum of money. And about a week after he purchased the contracts of the Legins family, Morrison also purchased a 16-year-old man named Reuben from Robert, paying $400 for the teenager. Morrison’s mercantile enterprise was one of the most thriving businesses in Kaskaskia, supplying goods to establishments as far north as St. Louis and as far south as Cape Girardeau and New Madrid. M. Scott Heerman, a historian who specializes in the history of slavery and servitude in Illinois, describes Morrison as a man “who enjoyed unrivaled success in Illinois’s shipping economy,” explaining that “Morrison spent years amassing a bound labor force.” According to E.J. Montague’s 1859 history of Randolph County, the wealth that Morrison amassed enabled him to build “a large stone mansion, where he displayed hospitality in a princely style.” His family was large and growing larger in 1813; he had seven living children from his first marriage to Euphrasine Huberdeau, who had died in April 1812. In the summer of 1813, he had married his second wife, Eliza Sebor Bissell, in St. Louis. She had given birth to her first child, Mary Jane, in 1815, and five more children followed. Remembered in local history books as a gregarious, sociable man who loved to entertain visitors in his spacious home, Morrison is often lauded for his success. But that success wouldn’t have been possible without the people that Morrison purchased and contracted to work for him. Morrison’s entire life, both business and personal, was built and maintained using labor from enslaved people and indentured servants. As a businessman, Morrison was used to brokering transactions, and he frequently moved, rented, and sold the slaves and servants in his possession. Charles and Peggy, who were both living in Morrison’s household when the Legins family arrived in 1814, were sold to Moses Short that December. Morrison also sent enslaved and indentured men and women to work in the households of family members. For example, Dunky, who had been indentured to Morrison in 1811, was later given to Andrew Hay, the husband of Morrison’s daughter, Emilie. (Dunky was later taken by Hay to St. Louis, where she filed a formal petition for her freedom in the courts in 1834.) Although several of Morrison’s transactions were recorded in formal court records, many more of them were informal deals, in which Morrison loaned enslaved and indentured people out on temporary contracts in exchange for cash. At some point, Nance Legins was removed from the Morrison household and delivered back to Thomas Cox and his family, but records don’t show us precisely what kind of transaction was completed or what compensation was provided in exchange for her. Her parents were also eventually delivered back to the Cox household. In 1815, Thomas Cox had started a family of his own. He married a woman named Roba Bartlett, who lived on a farm across the Mississippi in Ste. Genevieve. After their wedding, the Coxes opened a hotel in Kaskaskia, an enterprise that would certainly have required additional help. In a foreshadowing of problems that would nearly ruin him later, Thomas also ran advertisements for a tavern, perhaps connected to the hotel, in the summer of 1816. Soon after, Thomas and Roba also started a family. Their first son, Daniel, was born in Jonesboro in September 1816. The Coxes had moved to the capital of newly-established Union County that summer, and Thomas was appointed Justice of the Peace there in April 1818. Kaskaskia, though, is where someone with political aspirations wanted to be in the summer of 1818. That July, a convention met in Kaskaskia to frame a constitution for the new State of Illinois. On August 3, delegates from each of the territory’s counties held a meeting at Kaskaskia. According to John Reynolds, who became one of the first Justices of the Illinois State Supreme Court, the delegates were largely in agreement over various constitutional issues, but significant questions were raised about slavery. A considerable number of delegates owned enslaved or indentured people, including Jesse B. Thomas of St. Clair County (who was president pro tempore of the convention), Benjamin Stephenson of Madison County, Caldwell Cairns of Monroe County, Elias Kane of Randolph County, Conrad Will and James Hall of Jackson County, Michael Jones and Leonard White of Gallatin County, and Willis Hargrave of White County. Although Illinois entered the union as a free state, the committee sought compromise on the issue of slavery, permitting the practice to continue freely in the salt mines at Shawneetown, grandfathering in existing slaves (and only freeing their children when they reached adulthood), and retaining the territory’s system of indentured servitude. The constitution was signed at the end of August, and Illinois officially became a state in December 1818, around the time that Nance Legins turned five years old. The first governor of the state, Kaskaskia farmer Shadrach Bond, owned numerous slaves; so did the state’s first lieutenant governor, Pierre Menard, who was also a large landowner in Kaskaskia. From his home in Kaskaskia, Thomas Cox was in the middle of the excitement as the new state government was developed. He was elected as a state senator from Union County. He was also active in lobbying for the election of Ninian Edwards, who had previously served as governor of the Illinois Territory, as one of the new US Senators from Illinois. (Like Cox and so many others in the new government, Edwards was a slave owner. During his term as territorial governor, the legislature had passed a bill to end the territory’s indentured servitude system; Edwards vetoed the bill.) Edwards had already been elected to a very short initial term as senator, and he was in Washington as opposition began to grow to his election to a full six-year term. After he prevailed and was elected in February 1819, Cox wrote to Edwards to inform him of the victory: “You are re-elected to the United States Senate for six years, which has completely placed you out of the reach of your enemies … I wish I was with you one hour, just to give you a history of matters and things.” Cox signed the letter “Your friend and humble servant.” In the midst of all of this political excitement, Roba Cox gave birth to her second child, a daughter named Florida, in Kaskaskia in January 1819. Florida was the last member of the family to be born in Kaskaskia. Because of the constant threat of flooding in Kaskaskia, a new state capital was established at Vandalia. Cox, as a member of the legislature, relocated with it. The rest of the family, including Cox’s widowed mother, Jane, and his wife and children, came along with him. So did the enslaved and indentured people in his household: according to the 1820 census, that included “four slaves or servants.” Randall Legins was no longer a part of the Cox household; he had died in 1817. Carl Adams notes that Anachy was sold by Thomas Cox in 1820 to a Kentucky lawyer. The number of slaves or servants residing in the household definitely did include Nance, and another of the servants was a young black girl called Dice, who is often described as Nance’s younger sister. The two girls, who were around the ages of seven and five, were trained to work in the Cox’s new boarding house, the Columbian Hotel, which was situated across the street from the new state capitol building. Carl Adams, Nance’s biographer, writes that the time she spent working in the hotel, in close proximity to men having conversations about the political questions of the day, was an important formative period for the girl, explaining that the “leading issues of the day were land titles and slavery” — both of which were important topics for Thomas Cox and his colleagues. Cox supported an (ultimately unsuccessful) effort to call a new constitutional convention for the state — one that would allow the constitution to be rewritten to legalize slavery in Illinois. Debates about the legality of slavery were commonplace, especially so close to the center of power in the state. “And,” Adams adds, “Nance was listening.” In 1822, the Cox household moved again, this time to the newly-created town of Springfield in Sangamon County. Ninian Edwards had recommended Cox for the role of register in the new United States Land Office in Springfield, a position that was confirmed by an official appointment from President Monroe in January 1823. Cox’s biographer, Harvey Reid, explains the reasons why he was chosen for the job; he had become “a heavy speculator in lands,” and the “knowledge which he obtained in his surveying tours gave him unusual opportunities for selection.” He had amassed quite a lot of property, including land “in southeastern Missouri and northeastern Arkansas in the region of the ‘sunken lands’ and in southern Illinois.” When the Cox family moved to Springfield, Nance and Dice came with them. Zimri Enos, son of Pascal P. Enos (Cox’s partner as receiver at the land office), recalled in his memoirs, “Some of the first settlers of Sangamon county brought with them one or more slaves. One of the Kirkpatricks brought with him his colored boy Titus; Col. Thomas Cox, two girls, Nance and Dice; Daniel Cutright his boy Major; Dr. Todd, his colored woman Phoebe, and George Forquer his boy Smith. These colored persons were known and called by the surnames of their masters, the same as in slave states.” As he had in Kaskaskia and in Vandalia, Cox opened a hotel in Springfield, and Nance and Dice worked in that establishment. He also opened two other businesses: a mill and a whiskey distillery. Zimri Enos writes that the distillery proved to be Cox’s downfall in Springfield: “He acquired so great a passion for, and indulged to such an extent in liquor, that he became totally incapacitated and indifferent to his business and suffered all his property to be covered with mortgages, judgments, liens, and executions.” Reid sighs that the “extensive land speculations in which Colonel Cox had engaged for several years, together with unwise endorsements for friends into which his generous nature had led him, culminated in financial embarrassments from which he was unable to free himself.” Simply put, Cox had speculated too wildly and drunk too freely, and the combination had landed him in debt to far too many people. Even old allies began to call in their debts. Reid noted, “Most of his property passed out of his hands by legal proceedings and otherwise — Governor Ninian Edwards being a creditor who pressed his claims in the courts.” Cox was fired from his position at the land office in January 1827 for official misconduct. Unsurprisingly, he had mismanaged the office’s money as well as that of his personal creditors. And then, two wealthy citizens of Springfield, both of whom had loaned Cox large sums of money, decided to take back their investments from Cox by any means possible. Adams writes that the local sheriff, John Taylor, and a gun dealer, Nathan Cromwell, planned to divide Cox’s property between themselves to satisfy his debts to them. Cromwell won a judgment against Cox in the local courts at the end of January 1827. Taylor filed suit to take over the mill and the distillery. And the two men each decided that they would take over the contracts of one of Cox’s indentured servants. In July 1827, the local coroner, John Howard, executed a court order to auction off Cox’s possessions, including livestock, land — and Nance and Dice. Heerman notes that “Cox held Nance under a servitude contract that bound her to Cox until she reached age twenty-eight” — because she was the child of a person who had been indentured to him. Dice was presumably bound to Cox under similar terms. Adams writes, “There is no record of whether Dice said nor did anything other than submit to her fate” at the auction, where she was purchased by John Taylor for $150. (Dice began using the surname “Taylor” after the auction, and in August 1835 she married Major Cutright, another indentured servant who had been brought to Springfield by an early settler.) The official record notes that Cromwell purchased Nance for a dollar more — $151 — and “the said Coroner in pursuance of said sale did deliver said Nance to the said Cromwell … [and] the said Nance voluntarily and of her own free will and consent did agree to go with the said Cromwell to his place of residence.” Although the official record suggests that Nance submitted meekly to her fate, the reality was much different. Cox’s mother, Jane, later testified that Nance had been shackled and became physically ill and distraught while in chains. Heerman relates that, after Howard sold Nance to Cromwell, Jane “overheard Cromwell ask ‘Nance if she would go and live with him and said Nance refused and presented she would not.’” When she resisted, Jane stated that Howard tied Nance up and confined her in “the old salt house.” Adams explains that Nance was imprisoned for six days in “the community salt shed,” which “was used to preserve meat and fish” and “was not intended as a prison.” After nearly a week spent confined in “the small, hot, and windowless shed,” an unknown person opened the door to let Nance out while Springfield was up in arms about the threat of a possible Indian attack. Nance returned to the only home she’d ever known — the residence of the Cox family. Jane Cox testified that, at some point afterward, “Cromwell took her off.” Following the sale — the only recorded public slave auction ever held in the state of Illinois — thirteen-year-old Nance took a remarkable step, filing suit in Sangamon County Circuit Court to attempt to secure her freedom. During the hearing of the case, filed in October 1827 as Nance, a Negro Girl v. Nathan Cromwell, Nance testified that the official record of the auction was patently false. “It is not true that I, Nance, voluntarily and of my own free will, agreed to go with Cromwell to his house in Sangamotown,” she stated, “nor is it true I still live with Cromwell by my own choice.” She further testified that she had “never before or since made any contract with Cromwell,” and firmly argued that she “was now detained and restrained of her personal liberty against her will and consent.” The circuit court referred the case to the Illinois State Supreme Court in Vandalia. Before the court would proceed with the case, however, Judge Samuel Lockwood asked for proof of Nance’s age, to establish whether she was an adult or a minor. Because the records that would establish Nance’s age were in the archives in Kaskaskia, the case was delayed until her birth records could be produced. Adams states that Nance lived in the Taylor household with Dice during the delay. When the trial resumed in December 1828, the court found that Nance’s sale to Cromwell had been legal. Heerman explains, “The supreme court of Illinois upheld Nance’s sale to Cromwell and concluded that Nance freely consented to be sold at public auction as chattel. In sanctioning Nance’s status as human property, the court ignored the coercion — the chains and threats of violence — that compelled her submission.” Nance was ordered to continue to serve in Cromwell’s household. Meanwhile, Thomas Cox and his family slowly worked to recover from his staggering fall. He served in the Black Hawk War and eventually moved to Iowa, where he found his way back into territorial politics. Nance’s time in the Cox household had officially ended, but her journey to freedom was far from over. Shortly after the court decided the case in favor of Cromwell and those who had assisted the sale, she moved once again to unfamiliar territory. In 1830, Cromwell and his wife, Ann Eliza, became early settlers of the town of Pekin in Tazewell County. Ann Eliza died in the early 1830s, and Cromwell decided to relocate once more, this time to Texas. For Nance, the prospect of moving once more, this time to a slave state, was horrifying. According to Adams, she decided to take her fate into her own hands. In 1836, she became pregnant. Adams notes that “Cromwell was sixty-four years old and traveling with a single, black twenty-three year old slave who was a mother-to-be would attract too much attention.” As abandoning Nance, a contracted servant, was illegal, Cromwell convinced one of his business partners, a local merchant named David Bailey, to sign a temporary contract so that Nance could work in his store. Bailey, whose father-in-law was a conductor on the Underground Railroad, signed a promissory note in exchange for Nance, agreeing to pay around $400 for her temporary contract — but only delivering the money when Cromwell produced the documents that proved that Nance was a legal indentured servant. Cromwell left for Texas before giving Bailey that proof, and he died in St. Louis before his journey could be completed. Bailey, an abolitionist, was not prepared to force Nance to serve in his household or place of business. After she was “purchased” by Bailey in 1836, Nance began living an essentially independent life. In October 1840, she married Benjamin Costley, a free man of color living in Pekin. By this time, she had three children: Amanda, William Henry, and Eliza Jane. Even so, her freedom was still conditional. When Cromwell’s son, William, decided to compel Bailey to pay the $400 he allegedly owed for Nance, more lawsuits followed. In Tazewell County Circuit Court in September 1839, Bailey argued that his “purchase” of Nance was never valid at all, because Cromwell had failed to provide proof that she was legally bound to serve him. The judge disagreed, confirming yet again that Nance was a possession that could be exchanged, and ordered Bailey to pay more than $400 to Cromwell’s estate. Bailey was struggling financially, and he decided to appeal the verdict to the Illinois State Supreme Court. Once again, Nance’s liberty was in the hands of the highest court in the state. For legal counsel, Bailey turned to a friend with whom he had served in Black Hawk War: Abraham Lincoln. In the summer of 1841, as he prepared to argue Bailey and Nance’s case in court, Lincoln was 32 years old. Recently re-elected to his fourth term in the Illinois legislature, Lincoln had also just broken off his engagement to Mary Todd. He was absorbed in the law practice he shared in Springfield with Stephen T. Logan. (Interestingly, Logan represented Cromwell’s estate in the appeal.) His feelings about the institution of slavery were complex and evolving. In 1837, he wrote an opinion stating both his opposition to slavery and his dislike of the ardent abolitionist movement. A year later, he gave a speech to the Young Men’s Lyceum in Springfield in which he discussed the dangers that slavery posed to the nation, warning that the institution had the potential to corrupt the United States through the lawlessness and disorder of pro-slavery mobs. He supported (in theory) the notion of emancipating slaves and transporting them to another country, where they could start over on “free soil.” (In Lincoln’s presidential administration, John Willis Menard did work researching the feasibility of such a scheme.) Scholars often point to his involvement in Nance’s case as one of the formative moments for young Lincoln on the subject of race and slavery, though he served later as counsel both for a man who helped an enslaved person escape and for a slave holder. In preparing for Bailey v. Cromwell, Lincoln researched a long list of legal precedents, citing previous cases (like Livingston v. Bain, which dealt with the sale of a black man who asserted his freedom) as well as the Illinois Constitution and the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. On Friday, July 9, 1841, Lincoln appeared before the state supreme court in the new capital city of Springfield to argue the case. The session was held in St. Paul’s Episcopal Church before four justices: Samuel D. Lockwood, Theophilus W. Smith, Thomas Ford, and Sidney Breese. Both Lockwood and Smith had been on the bench to decide Nance’s previous court case in 1828, while Ford and Breese (who had spent a good deal of his early life in Kaskaskia) were new additions to the court. Two weeks after Lincoln and Logan argued the case, the justices handed down their opinion, which was delivered by Sidney Breese. The court sided with Bailey and Nance, finding that the onus to prove that Nance was indentured, not free, had fallen on Cromwell, who had failed to provide said proof. Breese wrote that Nance had been “asserting and declaring all the time that she was free” since arriving in Bailey’s household. He reiterated that an earlier court decision held that “the presumption of law was, in this state, that every person was free, without regard to color. This presumption must be allowed in this case, that the girl, which was the consideration of the note, was free, and it was incumbent on the plaintiff [Cromwell] to rebut that presumption, by showing some legal claim to her services, which, partaking of the nature of property, he could sell and transfer.” Nance had lived like a free person since arriving in Bailey’s household, and for the court, that was significant. Breese asserted, “The girl being free, and asserting her freedom in the only modes she could, by doing as she pleased, making purchases, contracting debts, and controlling her own motions, could not be the subject of a sale.” He ended his opinion with a simple, declarative statement: “The sale of a free person is illegal.” On Friday, July 23, 1841, Nance was finally, legally free. Sidney Breese went on to a long and illustrious career as a judge and a representative, serving as United States Senator for Illinois from 1843 until 1849, and later returning to the Illinois State Supreme Court as Chief Justice in the 1860s. One wonders, though, whether he might have had any glimmer of recognition of Nance Legins Costley from his earlier life. He was present in Kaskaskia when Illinois became a state in 1818, serving as an assistant to Secretary of State Elias Kane, and in Vandalia when the capital was moved in 1819. Perhaps most interesting, though, is a family connection. Breese’s wife, Eliza, was the daughter of William Morrison of Kaskaskia — one of the men who had once owned Nance and her family. For Nance, daily life as a free person continued much as it had before the supreme court decision. She remained in Pekin with her husband, Benjamin, and their family. Eventually the couple had five more children: Mary Jane, Ann, Harriet, Leander, and James. Life wasn’t easy, though, for a free black person living in Illinois. Restrictive laws, often called “black codes,” had been in place since the 1820s. A free black man or woman was required to register at the local courthouse, show paperwork confirming that he or she was free, and, if he or she had been born in another state, file a $1000 bond. (The bond was, it was said, needed to ensure that the person would not become a burden on the taxpayer.) During the first half of the nineteenth-century, Illinois restricted the movements of free black people in the state to an incredible degree. They were prohibited from testifying in court or bringing suit against a white person; they could not vote; they could not gather in public in groups of three or more; and they could not own firearms or weapons. They were also required to carry freedom papers on their person at all times. In 1853, even after slavery and indentured servitude had been abolished in the state, the laws were made even more stringent. According to the new law, a free black person from another state could not stay in Illinois for more than 10 days. Those who overstayed the limit were subject to imprisonment and fines. The 1853 law was, ironically, sponsored by John A. Logan, a state legislator from Murphysboro who would later gain fame as a general in the Union Army during the Civil War. The government of Illinois made it clear that they did not want to welcome new people of color to their state; the law essentially prohibited any new free black citizens from settling in Illinois. The black codes remained in effect until 1865. Nance embarked on a new life of freedom in a state that wanted to continue to regulate as much of her existence as possible, but she and Benjamin built a successful life for themselves and their children in Pekin. She ensured that her children received the education that had been denied her; census records showed that the Costley children attended school. One of her sons, William Henry, who served in the Civil War, later became one of the famed “Buffalo Soldiers,” while another, Leander, became one of the first Pullman porters. But after a life tracked meticulously by legal and court records, Nance’s later years slipped privately into history. We know that Nance lived to see her case become an important precedent in freedom suits for others, and she also witnessed the man who had successfully argued for her own freedom become president and emancipate all enslaved people in the country. Historians haven’t been able to come to a solid consensus, however, about where she lived in her final years or precisely where and when she died. After a life of constant surveillance by the state, the courts, and the men who bought and sold her, Nance was able finally to live quietly and freely, on her own terms, outside of the glare of public scrutiny. In 1870, a City Directory of Pekin, Illinois, paid tribute to one of their longtime citizens: “With the arrival of Major Cromwell … came a slave. That slave still lives in Pekin and is now known, as she has been known for nearly half a century … [as] ‘Black Nancy.’ She came here a chattel, with ‘no rights that a white man was bound to respect.’ For more than forty years she has been known here as a ‘negro’ upon whom there was no discount, and her presence and services have been indispensable on many a select occasion. But she has outlived the age of barbarism, and now, in her still vigorous old age, she sees her race disenthralled; the chains that bound them forever broken, their equality before the law everywhere recognized and her children enjoying the elective franchise.” The enslaved child from Kaskaskia, Illinois, had witnessed remarkable changes during her lifetime, and thanks to her own acts of bravery and persistence, Nance had secured her freedom — and helped transform the world. Nance Legins Costley was inducted into The Randolph Society in 2019. Note: this biography quotes copyrighted material from Nance: Trials of the First Slave Freed By Abraham Lincoln, Carl Adams, © 2014 (revised 2016). Used with permission of the author.	<urn:uuid:127c7943-b3c5-4b14-92bc-d00a84d7a01c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://randolphsociety.org/nance-legins-costley/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00526.warc.gz	en	0.987099	8,273	3.875	4	[ -0.2185588926076889, 0.23721209168434143, 0.11949345469474792, -0.08070603013038635, -0.09170421957969666, 0.03897211328148842, 0.1717578023672104, -0.15059898793697357, -0.31063857674598694, -0.111348956823349, 0.045881837606430054, 0.2180914580821991, -0.31518983840942383, 0.073365457355...	13	Born into a culture that persistently denied African Americans their right to freedom, Nance Legins Costley proved herself to be a woman of singular bravery and resilience when she took an important public stand for her own legal emancipation, setting a precedent that helped numerous others secure their own freedom. Nance was born at the end of 1813, in the home of Thomas Cox in Kaskaskia. The land that Cox’s house stood was located in the capital of the Illinois Territory, and five years after her birth, it would become part of the state capital of Illinois. Kaskaskia and the rest of Illinois had been ceded by the British to the United States in 1783, in the treaty that ended the Revolutionary War. Congress had established a government for the new territory in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which, among other provisions, prohibited slavery. When Illinois was admitted to the union in 1818, its constitution mandated that slavery must not be introduced in the new state. The reality, however, was much more complicated. The French colonists who had settled present-day Kaskaskia in the eighteenth-century had brought enslaved people from the Caribbean to the Illinois Country as early as 1720, and the practice of slavery was quickly integrated into the French agrarian society of the area. One colonial settler, Philip François Renault, intended to establish a mining company in the area and acquired a large number of enslaved people in the West Indies to help with his enterprise. The mining endeavor never materialized, but the enslaved people that he brought to Kaskaskia and the surrounding area became the ancestors of the “French slaves” of the region. In 1752, 41% of households in Illinois owned at least one enslaved person; in Kaskaskia, enslaved people of African descent made up 40% of the population. Native Americans were also enslaved by the French. Nearly a thousand enslaved people lived in Illinois when the British took over after the French and Indian War in 1763, and the new government allowed the practice to continue. Even after the Northwest Ordinance went into effect, the territorial government did not enforce the ordinance’s prohibition of slavery, and on at least one occasion, four residents of Kaskaskia organized a petition to the government to allow slavery in the region. (The petition was not recognized.) Even as laws were enacted to restrict or forbid slavery in Illinois, loopholes were exploited to allow the practice to continue. The “French slaves,” descendants of the enslaved people brought to Illinois by French colonial settlers, continued to be legally enslaved, a practice that persisted until 1845. Enslaved people were also legally allowed to be brought to Illinois from slave states on year-long temporary (but renewable) work contracts. The territory also codified a system of indentured servitude into law — a system which allowed for slavery in all but name. A new law setting out the terms of indentured servitude for people who had been enslaved in other territories was legally adopted in the territory in 1807, when Illinois was still formally part of the Indiana Territory. The law’s provisions set out a system that permitted slave owners to retain people as property, even within the confines of an area that legally prohibited slavery. The act allowed owners to bring enslaved people from other parts of the country to Illinois and maintain them as “indentured servants.” For example, an owner who purchased an enslaved “negro or mulatto” in Alabama could bring that person to Kaskaskia. Within 30 days, that owner would need to bring that enslaved person to the local county clerk, where he or she would have to consent to a contract of indenture that specified the length of time he or she would serve the owner. But although the system nominally sounds like it hinged on the consent of the enslaved person, there were caveats built into the act that made it clear that the enslaved person ultimately lacked any power in the transaction. The lengths of contracts, for example, differed based on age. If the enslaved person was older than 15, the contract could be as long as 99 years. But the act also included regulations for the indenture of children, even babies. If he was a child younger than 15, he could only be contracted until he was 35; a female child younger than 15 could be contracted until she reached the age of 32. The contracts extended to the next generation, too. Any children born to an indentured person were also required to serve the owner for several decades after their birth; girls had to serve until they were 28, and boys had to serve until they were 30. And declining to agree to the contract didn’t mean freedom. If the enslaved person objected to the indenture, the owner then had 60 days to take the enslaved person out of Illinois, removing them to a part of the country where slavery was permitted in order to retain ownership of the person. The act allowed an owner to physically punish their indentured servants (“with stripes” — i.e., with a whip) for infractions like laziness or misbehavior. And, confirming that indentured servants were essentially slaves called by another name, an indentured servant’s contract could be sold to a different owner without his or her consent. Numerous indentured servitude contracts were registered at courthouses in Illinois in the years that followed. In 1810, for example, a man named Nathaniel Green indentured three servants at the courthouse in Randolph County. Green lived in an area known as Clear Creek (which is now part of Union County). He operated a ferry across the Mississippi — an enterprise that could certainly have benefited from extra hands. Green traveled to Louisiana and returned with three people, indenturing all three of them according to the requirements set out by the act. The eldest, a black man named Randall Legins, was 38 years old. Green indentured him on April 13, 1810, for a term of 16 years. On the same date, he indentured Anachy, a 26-year-old black woman, for 25 years. And two months earlier, in February 1810, he had brought Charles to the county courthouse, indenturing him for a term of 35 years. The record notes starkly that “Charles was five months old at time entry was made.” Green had indentured the baby, who was not yet old enough to walk or talk, to the maximum term legally allowed for a black male child. Randall, Anachy, and Charles lived in Nathaniel Green’s household in Clear Creek until his death, which happened around 1812. Because all three of them were legally bound to him, they were included in the contents of his estate after he died. His estate papers, probated in Johnson County, reveal what happened to them afterward. A man named John Earthman bought “one negro boy, Charlie” from the estate for $220. Randall and Anachy were sold, too — and the record of the sale reveals that the pair had had a child together while living in Green’s household. They were sold along with “a child named Reuben” to Thomas Cox for the total sum of $770. Although Reuben had never signed an indenture contract of his own, under the terms of Illinois’s indentured servitude laws, he was legally bound to serve his mother’s owner until he turned 30, and he could be sold at any point during that time. Randall, Anachy, and Reuben’s new owner had grand aspirations. Born in Kentucky, Thomas Cox had moved with his family to Kaskaskia around 1810. He had quickly sought out positions of power in local government, taking a job in the local sheriff’s office, helping to enumerate the population of Randolph County for the 1810 census, and working as a land surveyor. He’d also served with the military during the War of 1812, and he continued to hold a commissioned rank in the Illinois militia. Cox was a single man in his mid-twenties when he purchased the contracts of the Legins family from the Green estate. But he wasn’t the only person living in his household. Following the death of his father, his widowed mother and siblings often lived either with him or just nearby. Supporting them may have been financially taxing — and Thomas Cox was never very good at managing money. In February 1814, Cox sold the Legins family, which had expanded in late 1813 to include one more member: a two-month-old girl, unnamed on the recorded bill of sale, who was almost certainly Randall and Anachy’s daughter, Nance. She had been born in Cox’s boarding house in Kaskaskia while the Territorial Assembly was meeting there. Like her elder brother, Reuben, Nance was not indentured herself — but like Reuben, the fact that she was born in the Cox household to indentured parents meant that she was also contracted to serve their master. Under the terms of Illinois’s servitude laws, Nance was bound to serve until she was 28, an age she wouldn’t reach until around 1841. The two-month-old baby was sent in the winter of 1814 with her father, mother, and three-year-old brother to live in the household of the largest slaveholder in Randolph County: Kaskaskia merchant William Morrison. Although Cox had paid more than $700 for Randall, Anachy, and Reuben only a short time before, he sold the family, including baby Nance, to Morrison for only $400. The Legins joined a large and growing group of enslaved people living in the Morrison household. The 1810 census noted that eight people of color (one indentured servant and seven slaves) were part of the household, and by 1820, 20 people of color were living with the Morrisons. When the Legins family were purchased in February 1813, there were at least ten people of color living in the household, and thanks to the servitude records kept by Illinois courthouses, we know their names and ages. Isidor and Mathew had been purchased by Morrison from Jean Dumoulin in St. Clair County in 1805, when they were 14 and 12 years old, respectively. Three years later, a 27-year-old woman named Phebe had signed an indenture contract with Morrison, exchanging four years of servitude for ten cents. In September 1811, Morrison had indentured three more servants: a 35-year-old man named Charles (for 25 years), a 20-year-old woman named Peggy (for 30 years), and a 16-year-old man named Sarrah (for 60 years). That October, he also indentured 37-year-old Isaac for a term of 25 years, and a month later, a 16-year-old woman named Dunky signed an indenture contract with Morrison for 40 years of service. In the spring of 1812, a 16-year-old woman named Rachel had been sold to Morrison by his brother, Robert, for an unknown sum of money. And about a week after he purchased the contracts of the Legins family, Morrison also purchased a 16-year-old man named Reuben from Robert, paying $400 for the teenager. Morrison’s mercantile enterprise was one of the most thriving businesses in Kaskaskia, supplying goods to establishments as far north as St. Louis and as far south as Cape Girardeau and New Madrid. M. Scott Heerman, a historian who specializes in the history of slavery and servitude in Illinois, describes Morrison as a man “who enjoyed unrivaled success in Illinois’s shipping economy,” explaining that “Morrison spent years amassing a bound labor force.” According to E.J. Montague’s 1859 history of Randolph County, the wealth that Morrison amassed enabled him to build “a large stone mansion, where he displayed hospitality in a princely style.” His family was large and growing larger in 1813; he had seven living children from his first marriage to Euphrasine Huberdeau, who had died in April 1812. In the summer of 1813, he had married his second wife, Eliza Sebor Bissell, in St. Louis. She had given birth to her first child, Mary Jane, in 1815, and five more children followed. Remembered in local history books as a gregarious, sociable man who loved to entertain visitors in his spacious home, Morrison is often lauded for his success. But that success wouldn’t have been possible without the people that Morrison purchased and contracted to work for him. Morrison’s entire life, both business and personal, was built and maintained using labor from enslaved people and indentured servants. As a businessman, Morrison was used to brokering transactions, and he frequently moved, rented, and sold the slaves and servants in his possession. Charles and Peggy, who were both living in Morrison’s household when the Legins family arrived in 1814, were sold to Moses Short that December. Morrison also sent enslaved and indentured men and women to work in the households of family members. For example, Dunky, who had been indentured to Morrison in 1811, was later given to Andrew Hay, the husband of Morrison’s daughter, Emilie. (Dunky was later taken by Hay to St. Louis, where she filed a formal petition for her freedom in the courts in 1834.) Although several of Morrison’s transactions were recorded in formal court records, many more of them were informal deals, in which Morrison loaned enslaved and indentured people out on temporary contracts in exchange for cash. At some point, Nance Legins was removed from the Morrison household and delivered back to Thomas Cox and his family, but records don’t show us precisely what kind of transaction was completed or what compensation was provided in exchange for her. Her parents were also eventually delivered back to the Cox household. In 1815, Thomas Cox had started a family of his own. He married a woman named Roba Bartlett, who lived on a farm across the Mississippi in Ste. Genevieve. After their wedding, the Coxes opened a hotel in Kaskaskia, an enterprise that would certainly have required additional help. In a foreshadowing of problems that would nearly ruin him later, Thomas also ran advertisements for a tavern, perhaps connected to the hotel, in the summer of 1816. Soon after, Thomas and Roba also started a family. Their first son, Daniel, was born in Jonesboro in September 1816. The Coxes had moved to the capital of newly-established Union County that summer, and Thomas was appointed Justice of the Peace there in April 1818. Kaskaskia, though, is where someone with political aspirations wanted to be in the summer of 1818. That July, a convention met in Kaskaskia to frame a constitution for the new State of Illinois. On August 3, delegates from each of the territory’s counties held a meeting at Kaskaskia. According to John Reynolds, who became one of the first Justices of the Illinois State Supreme Court, the delegates were largely in agreement over various constitutional issues, but significant questions were raised about slavery. A considerable number of delegates owned enslaved or indentured people, including Jesse B. Thomas of St. Clair County (who was president pro tempore of the convention), Benjamin Stephenson of Madison County, Caldwell Cairns of Monroe County, Elias Kane of Randolph County, Conrad Will and James Hall of Jackson County, Michael Jones and Leonard White of Gallatin County, and Willis Hargrave of White County. Although Illinois entered the union as a free state, the committee sought compromise on the issue of slavery, permitting the practice to continue freely in the salt mines at Shawneetown, grandfathering in existing slaves (and only freeing their children when they reached adulthood), and retaining the territory’s system of indentured servitude. The constitution was signed at the end of August, and Illinois officially became a state in December 1818, around the time that Nance Legins turned five years old. The first governor of the state, Kaskaskia farmer Shadrach Bond, owned numerous slaves; so did the state’s first lieutenant governor, Pierre Menard, who was also a large landowner in Kaskaskia. From his home in Kaskaskia, Thomas Cox was in the middle of the excitement as the new state government was developed. He was elected as a state senator from Union County. He was also active in lobbying for the election of Ninian Edwards, who had previously served as governor of the Illinois Territory, as one of the new US Senators from Illinois. (Like Cox and so many others in the new government, Edwards was a slave owner. During his term as territorial governor, the legislature had passed a bill to end the territory’s indentured servitude system; Edwards vetoed the bill.) Edwards had already been elected to a very short initial term as senator, and he was in Washington as opposition began to grow to his election to a full six-year term. After he prevailed and was elected in February 1819, Cox wrote to Edwards to inform him of the victory: “You are re-elected to the United States Senate for six years, which has completely placed you out of the reach of your enemies … I wish I was with you one hour, just to give you a history of matters and things.” Cox signed the letter “Your friend and humble servant.” In the midst of all of this political excitement, Roba Cox gave birth to her second child, a daughter named Florida, in Kaskaskia in January 1819. Florida was the last member of the family to be born in Kaskaskia. Because of the constant threat of flooding in Kaskaskia, a new state capital was established at Vandalia. Cox, as a member of the legislature, relocated with it. The rest of the family, including Cox’s widowed mother, Jane, and his wife and children, came along with him. So did the enslaved and indentured people in his household: according to the 1820 census, that included “four slaves or servants.” Randall Legins was no longer a part of the Cox household; he had died in 1817. Carl Adams notes that Anachy was sold by Thomas Cox in 1820 to a Kentucky lawyer. The number of slaves or servants residing in the household definitely did include Nance, and another of the servants was a young black girl called Dice, who is often described as Nance’s younger sister. The two girls, who were around the ages of seven and five, were trained to work in the Cox’s new boarding house, the Columbian Hotel, which was situated across the street from the new state capitol building. Carl Adams, Nance’s biographer, writes that the time she spent working in the hotel, in close proximity to men having conversations about the political questions of the day, was an important formative period for the girl, explaining that the “leading issues of the day were land titles and slavery” — both of which were important topics for Thomas Cox and his colleagues. Cox supported an (ultimately unsuccessful) effort to call a new constitutional convention for the state — one that would allow the constitution to be rewritten to legalize slavery in Illinois. Debates about the legality of slavery were commonplace, especially so close to the center of power in the state. “And,” Adams adds, “Nance was listening.” In 1822, the Cox household moved again, this time to the newly-created town of Springfield in Sangamon County. Ninian Edwards had recommended Cox for the role of register in the new United States Land Office in Springfield, a position that was confirmed by an official appointment from President Monroe in January 1823. Cox’s biographer, Harvey Reid, explains the reasons why he was chosen for the job; he had become “a heavy speculator in lands,” and the “knowledge which he obtained in his surveying tours gave him unusual opportunities for selection.” He had amassed quite a lot of property, including land “in southeastern Missouri and northeastern Arkansas in the region of the ‘sunken lands’ and in southern Illinois.” When the Cox family moved to Springfield, Nance and Dice came with them. Zimri Enos, son of Pascal P. Enos (Cox’s partner as receiver at the land office), recalled in his memoirs, “Some of the first settlers of Sangamon county brought with them one or more slaves. One of the Kirkpatricks brought with him his colored boy Titus; Col. Thomas Cox, two girls, Nance and Dice; Daniel Cutright his boy Major; Dr. Todd, his colored woman Phoebe, and George Forquer his boy Smith. These colored persons were known and called by the surnames of their masters, the same as in slave states.” As he had in Kaskaskia and in Vandalia, Cox opened a hotel in Springfield, and Nance and Dice worked in that establishment. He also opened two other businesses: a mill and a whiskey distillery. Zimri Enos writes that the distillery proved to be Cox’s downfall in Springfield: “He acquired so great a passion for, and indulged to such an extent in liquor, that he became totally incapacitated and indifferent to his business and suffered all his property to be covered with mortgages, judgments, liens, and executions.” Reid sighs that the “extensive land speculations in which Colonel Cox had engaged for several years, together with unwise endorsements for friends into which his generous nature had led him, culminated in financial embarrassments from which he was unable to free himself.” Simply put, Cox had speculated too wildly and drunk too freely, and the combination had landed him in debt to far too many people. Even old allies began to call in their debts. Reid noted, “Most of his property passed out of his hands by legal proceedings and otherwise — Governor Ninian Edwards being a creditor who pressed his claims in the courts.” Cox was fired from his position at the land office in January 1827 for official misconduct. Unsurprisingly, he had mismanaged the office’s money as well as that of his personal creditors. And then, two wealthy citizens of Springfield, both of whom had loaned Cox large sums of money, decided to take back their investments from Cox by any means possible. Adams writes that the local sheriff, John Taylor, and a gun dealer, Nathan Cromwell, planned to divide Cox’s property between themselves to satisfy his debts to them. Cromwell won a judgment against Cox in the local courts at the end of January 1827. Taylor filed suit to take over the mill and the distillery. And the two men each decided that they would take over the contracts of one of Cox’s indentured servants. In July 1827, the local coroner, John Howard, executed a court order to auction off Cox’s possessions, including livestock, land — and Nance and Dice. Heerman notes that “Cox held Nance under a servitude contract that bound her to Cox until she reached age twenty-eight” — because she was the child of a person who had been indentured to him. Dice was presumably bound to Cox under similar terms. Adams writes, “There is no record of whether Dice said nor did anything other than submit to her fate” at the auction, where she was purchased by John Taylor for $150. (Dice began using the surname “Taylor” after the auction, and in August 1835 she married Major Cutright, another indentured servant who had been brought to Springfield by an early settler.) The official record notes that Cromwell purchased Nance for a dollar more — $151 — and “the said Coroner in pursuance of said sale did deliver said Nance to the said Cromwell … [and] the said Nance voluntarily and of her own free will and consent did agree to go with the said Cromwell to his place of residence.” Although the official record suggests that Nance submitted meekly to her fate, the reality was much different. Cox’s mother, Jane, later testified that Nance had been shackled and became physically ill and distraught while in chains. Heerman relates that, after Howard sold Nance to Cromwell, Jane “overheard Cromwell ask ‘Nance if she would go and live with him and said Nance refused and presented she would not.’” When she resisted, Jane stated that Howard tied Nance up and confined her in “the old salt house.” Adams explains that Nance was imprisoned for six days in “the community salt shed,” which “was used to preserve meat and fish” and “was not intended as a prison.” After nearly a week spent confined in “the small, hot, and windowless shed,” an unknown person opened the door to let Nance out while Springfield was up in arms about the threat of a possible Indian attack. Nance returned to the only home she’d ever known — the residence of the Cox family. Jane Cox testified that, at some point afterward, “Cromwell took her off.” Following the sale — the only recorded public slave auction ever held in the state of Illinois — thirteen-year-old Nance took a remarkable step, filing suit in Sangamon County Circuit Court to attempt to secure her freedom. During the hearing of the case, filed in October 1827 as Nance, a Negro Girl v. Nathan Cromwell, Nance testified that the official record of the auction was patently false. “It is not true that I, Nance, voluntarily and of my own free will, agreed to go with Cromwell to his house in Sangamotown,” she stated, “nor is it true I still live with Cromwell by my own choice.” She further testified that she had “never before or since made any contract with Cromwell,” and firmly argued that she “was now detained and restrained of her personal liberty against her will and consent.” The circuit court referred the case to the Illinois State Supreme Court in Vandalia. Before the court would proceed with the case, however, Judge Samuel Lockwood asked for proof of Nance’s age, to establish whether she was an adult or a minor. Because the records that would establish Nance’s age were in the archives in Kaskaskia, the case was delayed until her birth records could be produced. Adams states that Nance lived in the Taylor household with Dice during the delay. When the trial resumed in December 1828, the court found that Nance’s sale to Cromwell had been legal. Heerman explains, “The supreme court of Illinois upheld Nance’s sale to Cromwell and concluded that Nance freely consented to be sold at public auction as chattel. In sanctioning Nance’s status as human property, the court ignored the coercion — the chains and threats of violence — that compelled her submission.” Nance was ordered to continue to serve in Cromwell’s household. Meanwhile, Thomas Cox and his family slowly worked to recover from his staggering fall. He served in the Black Hawk War and eventually moved to Iowa, where he found his way back into territorial politics. Nance’s time in the Cox household had officially ended, but her journey to freedom was far from over. Shortly after the court decided the case in favor of Cromwell and those who had assisted the sale, she moved once again to unfamiliar territory. In 1830, Cromwell and his wife, Ann Eliza, became early settlers of the town of Pekin in Tazewell County. Ann Eliza died in the early 1830s, and Cromwell decided to relocate once more, this time to Texas. For Nance, the prospect of moving once more, this time to a slave state, was horrifying. According to Adams, she decided to take her fate into her own hands. In 1836, she became pregnant. Adams notes that “Cromwell was sixty-four years old and traveling with a single, black twenty-three year old slave who was a mother-to-be would attract too much attention.” As abandoning Nance, a contracted servant, was illegal, Cromwell convinced one of his business partners, a local merchant named David Bailey, to sign a temporary contract so that Nance could work in his store. Bailey, whose father-in-law was a conductor on the Underground Railroad, signed a promissory note in exchange for Nance, agreeing to pay around $400 for her temporary contract — but only delivering the money when Cromwell produced the documents that proved that Nance was a legal indentured servant. Cromwell left for Texas before giving Bailey that proof, and he died in St. Louis before his journey could be completed. Bailey, an abolitionist, was not prepared to force Nance to serve in his household or place of business. After she was “purchased” by Bailey in 1836, Nance began living an essentially independent life. In October 1840, she married Benjamin Costley, a free man of color living in Pekin. By this time, she had three children: Amanda, William Henry, and Eliza Jane. Even so, her freedom was still conditional. When Cromwell’s son, William, decided to compel Bailey to pay the $400 he allegedly owed for Nance, more lawsuits followed. In Tazewell County Circuit Court in September 1839, Bailey argued that his “purchase” of Nance was never valid at all, because Cromwell had failed to provide proof that she was legally bound to serve him. The judge disagreed, confirming yet again that Nance was a possession that could be exchanged, and ordered Bailey to pay more than $400 to Cromwell’s estate. Bailey was struggling financially, and he decided to appeal the verdict to the Illinois State Supreme Court. Once again, Nance’s liberty was in the hands of the highest court in the state. For legal counsel, Bailey turned to a friend with whom he had served in Black Hawk War: Abraham Lincoln. In the summer of 1841, as he prepared to argue Bailey and Nance’s case in court, Lincoln was 32 years old. Recently re-elected to his fourth term in the Illinois legislature, Lincoln had also just broken off his engagement to Mary Todd. He was absorbed in the law practice he shared in Springfield with Stephen T. Logan. (Interestingly, Logan represented Cromwell’s estate in the appeal.) His feelings about the institution of slavery were complex and evolving. In 1837, he wrote an opinion stating both his opposition to slavery and his dislike of the ardent abolitionist movement. A year later, he gave a speech to the Young Men’s Lyceum in Springfield in which he discussed the dangers that slavery posed to the nation, warning that the institution had the potential to corrupt the United States through the lawlessness and disorder of pro-slavery mobs. He supported (in theory) the notion of emancipating slaves and transporting them to another country, where they could start over on “free soil.” (In Lincoln’s presidential administration, John Willis Menard did work researching the feasibility of such a scheme.) Scholars often point to his involvement in Nance’s case as one of the formative moments for young Lincoln on the subject of race and slavery, though he served later as counsel both for a man who helped an enslaved person escape and for a slave holder. In preparing for Bailey v. Cromwell, Lincoln researched a long list of legal precedents, citing previous cases (like Livingston v. Bain, which dealt with the sale of a black man who asserted his freedom) as well as the Illinois Constitution and the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. On Friday, July 9, 1841, Lincoln appeared before the state supreme court in the new capital city of Springfield to argue the case. The session was held in St. Paul’s Episcopal Church before four justices: Samuel D. Lockwood, Theophilus W. Smith, Thomas Ford, and Sidney Breese. Both Lockwood and Smith had been on the bench to decide Nance’s previous court case in 1828, while Ford and Breese (who had spent a good deal of his early life in Kaskaskia) were new additions to the court. Two weeks after Lincoln and Logan argued the case, the justices handed down their opinion, which was delivered by Sidney Breese. The court sided with Bailey and Nance, finding that the onus to prove that Nance was indentured, not free, had fallen on Cromwell, who had failed to provide said proof. Breese wrote that Nance had been “asserting and declaring all the time that she was free” since arriving in Bailey’s household. He reiterated that an earlier court decision held that “the presumption of law was, in this state, that every person was free, without regard to color. This presumption must be allowed in this case, that the girl, which was the consideration of the note, was free, and it was incumbent on the plaintiff [Cromwell] to rebut that presumption, by showing some legal claim to her services, which, partaking of the nature of property, he could sell and transfer.” Nance had lived like a free person since arriving in Bailey’s household, and for the court, that was significant. Breese asserted, “The girl being free, and asserting her freedom in the only modes she could, by doing as she pleased, making purchases, contracting debts, and controlling her own motions, could not be the subject of a sale.” He ended his opinion with a simple, declarative statement: “The sale of a free person is illegal.” On Friday, July 23, 1841, Nance was finally, legally free. Sidney Breese went on to a long and illustrious career as a judge and a representative, serving as United States Senator for Illinois from 1843 until 1849, and later returning to the Illinois State Supreme Court as Chief Justice in the 1860s. One wonders, though, whether he might have had any glimmer of recognition of Nance Legins Costley from his earlier life. He was present in Kaskaskia when Illinois became a state in 1818, serving as an assistant to Secretary of State Elias Kane, and in Vandalia when the capital was moved in 1819. Perhaps most interesting, though, is a family connection. Breese’s wife, Eliza, was the daughter of William Morrison of Kaskaskia — one of the men who had once owned Nance and her family. For Nance, daily life as a free person continued much as it had before the supreme court decision. She remained in Pekin with her husband, Benjamin, and their family. Eventually the couple had five more children: Mary Jane, Ann, Harriet, Leander, and James. Life wasn’t easy, though, for a free black person living in Illinois. Restrictive laws, often called “black codes,” had been in place since the 1820s. A free black man or woman was required to register at the local courthouse, show paperwork confirming that he or she was free, and, if he or she had been born in another state, file a $1000 bond. (The bond was, it was said, needed to ensure that the person would not become a burden on the taxpayer.) During the first half of the nineteenth-century, Illinois restricted the movements of free black people in the state to an incredible degree. They were prohibited from testifying in court or bringing suit against a white person; they could not vote; they could not gather in public in groups of three or more; and they could not own firearms or weapons. They were also required to carry freedom papers on their person at all times. In 1853, even after slavery and indentured servitude had been abolished in the state, the laws were made even more stringent. According to the new law, a free black person from another state could not stay in Illinois for more than 10 days. Those who overstayed the limit were subject to imprisonment and fines. The 1853 law was, ironically, sponsored by John A. Logan, a state legislator from Murphysboro who would later gain fame as a general in the Union Army during the Civil War. The government of Illinois made it clear that they did not want to welcome new people of color to their state; the law essentially prohibited any new free black citizens from settling in Illinois. The black codes remained in effect until 1865. Nance embarked on a new life of freedom in a state that wanted to continue to regulate as much of her existence as possible, but she and Benjamin built a successful life for themselves and their children in Pekin. She ensured that her children received the education that had been denied her; census records showed that the Costley children attended school. One of her sons, William Henry, who served in the Civil War, later became one of the famed “Buffalo Soldiers,” while another, Leander, became one of the first Pullman porters. But after a life tracked meticulously by legal and court records, Nance’s later years slipped privately into history. We know that Nance lived to see her case become an important precedent in freedom suits for others, and she also witnessed the man who had successfully argued for her own freedom become president and emancipate all enslaved people in the country. Historians haven’t been able to come to a solid consensus, however, about where she lived in her final years or precisely where and when she died. After a life of constant surveillance by the state, the courts, and the men who bought and sold her, Nance was able finally to live quietly and freely, on her own terms, outside of the glare of public scrutiny. In 1870, a City Directory of Pekin, Illinois, paid tribute to one of their longtime citizens: “With the arrival of Major Cromwell … came a slave. That slave still lives in Pekin and is now known, as she has been known for nearly half a century … [as] ‘Black Nancy.’ She came here a chattel, with ‘no rights that a white man was bound to respect.’ For more than forty years she has been known here as a ‘negro’ upon whom there was no discount, and her presence and services have been indispensable on many a select occasion. But she has outlived the age of barbarism, and now, in her still vigorous old age, she sees her race disenthralled; the chains that bound them forever broken, their equality before the law everywhere recognized and her children enjoying the elective franchise.” The enslaved child from Kaskaskia, Illinois, had witnessed remarkable changes during her lifetime, and thanks to her own acts of bravery and persistence, Nance had secured her freedom — and helped transform the world. Nance Legins Costley was inducted into The Randolph Society in 2019. Note: this biography quotes copyrighted material from Nance: Trials of the First Slave Freed By Abraham Lincoln, Carl Adams, © 2014 (revised 2016). Used with permission of the author.	8,275	ENGLISH	1
Langston Hughes was born on the 1st of February in 1902 in Joplin, Missouri. He was a brilliant son of James Hughes, a practicing lawyer and Carrie Langston, a school teacher. He was an unfortunate child as his parents were separated soon after his birth. His father moved to Mexico, while his mother mostly left him with his maternal grandmother in search of steady employment. He found living with his maternal mother entertaining and consoling. Yet, again misfortune struck him when his maternal grandmother left him in 1915. As a young boy, he felt insecure and neglected as he didn’t experience the love and comfort of a family. Langston had disturbed from the heart-wrenching separation of his parents. However, he started his educational journey from Ohio, where he attended a local high school. Unfortunately, he faced racial discrimination at school as all black students were forced to sit in a separate row, which he termed as Jim Crow Row. Despite all these injustices, Langston performed well. With all the bitter experiences of his childhood, he wrote his first poem during his stay in the school. His teachers greatly appreciated it. Soon he became a junior published talent when his first poem was published in his school magazine, The Central High Monthly. After finishing high school, he went to Colombia for graduation and started his career as a writer. However, he did not finish his degree. Later in 1926, he attended Lincoln University in Pennsylvania for further education. This iconic figure led a life full of pain and misery, partly because of his separation from his parents and partly due to the struggle he waged to earn a name. His parents parted their ways when he was young, depriving him of the joys and sweet memories of childhood. Although he started living with his mother after his grandmother’s demise, those hours of pleasures were also short-lived. His mother and stepfather moved to Chicago, while he stayed behind to complete his studies. Later, when he was in the junior year of school, his father reentered in his life and longed for their reunion. He went to Mexico, but once again experienced pain and suffering as he could not meet his father. However, after graduation, his father supported him to complete his education. This shows that all these challenges contributed to his maturity. Though he remained grief-stricken throughout his life, he managed to carve a better future for himself and earned greatness through his writing. This legendary figure breathed his last on the 22nd of May in 1967 after having abdominal surgery. Unlike his poetry, his funeral was also jazz and blues. The famous jazz pianist was called to play for his funeral. Some Important Facts of His Life - Langston Hughes played a pivotal role in the Harlem Renaissance movement. - He received many awards and honors during his lifetime on account of his marvelous services. - His home at East 127th street in Harlem became a nationally registered landmark. Although destiny never favored him, Langston became a published poet. When he was a student of eighth grade, his first piece of writing was published in a school magazine. He had a unique literary taste and great poetic skills, but his introduction with Walt Whitman and Carl Sandburg gave flight to his poetic imaginations. He wrote one of his famous poems, “The Negro Speaks of a River” on his way to Mexico on a train. His first book of poetry, “The Weary Blue” appeared in 1924, while in 1930, his first novel, “Not without Laughter” won the Harmon gold medal. Throughout his life, he wrote many poems, novels, and plays. He was also known for his interest in the world of Jazz which is reflected in his book, “Montage of a Dream Deferred” in 1951. He produced many masterpieces in his life, including eleven plays and countless pieces of prose, including The Book of Negro Folklore, The Big Sea, Simple Takes a Wife and Simple Speaks his Mind. After establishing his career as a great American poet, Langston Hughes added enough into the world of literature. Despite facing countless challenges and unrest in life, he successfully coined a prominent place in the literary world with his lucid and creative ideas. Also, his dark childhood and separation from parents shaped his writing and made him experience the irreparable loss of life. Therefore, he documented these ideas well in his poems such as, “Negro Speaks of a River”, “I Too” and “Harlem”. Moreover, his ideas about the sufferings of the black race are reflected well in his masterpieces. The recurring themes in most of his writings stand, sorrow, loneliness, freedom, prejudice, and racial discrimination. Regarding literary devices, he often turns to metaphors, similes, visual and sensory imagery, and sound devices to create a unique style. Langston Hughes Works - Best Poems: He was an outstanding poet, some of his best poems include: “I Too”, “The Negro Speaks of the River”, “The Weary Blues”, “As I Grew Older” and “Theme for English B.” - Best Plays: Some of the other notable plays he wrote include: Mule Bone, Mulatto, Simply Heavenly, Black Nativity and Street Scene. Langston Hughes’s Impact on Future Literature Langston’s literary qualities and unique way of expression helped shape American literature and politics. He promoted equality through his writings and condemned injustices and racial discrimination. Also, he celebrated and admired the African American culture in most of his works. It is due to these qualities. He had a powerful influence over many poets and writers. His great works are not only admired but also taught in various curriculum across the globe. He brought into light the beauty and simplicity of African American culture and the forces that tried to dismantle its innocence. He is considered a beacon for writing prose and poetry by many aspiring poets. - “Books -where if people suffered, they suffered in beautiful language, not in monosyllables, as we did in Kansas” (I Wonder as I Wander: An Autobiographical Journey, 1956) - “My soul has grown deep like the rivers.” (The Negro Speaks of Rivers, 1920) - “Let the rain kiss you. Let the rain beat upon your head with silver liquid drops. Let the rain sing you a lullaby.” (April Rain Song) - “Hold fast to your dreams, for without them life is a broken winged bird that cannot fly.” (Montage of a Dream Deferred, 1951)	<urn:uuid:75269075-a600-41c0-b8fc-22039c945a5b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://literarydevices.net/langston-hughes-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00054.warc.gz	en	0.991736	1,388	3.65625	4	[ -0.06858150660991669, 0.4903523623943329, 0.5030505657196045, -0.03670581430196762, -0.44593721628189087, 0.07486407458782196, 0.5386987328529358, -0.3889124393463135, -0.30320268869400024, -0.19171974062919617, -0.11573675274848938, 0.06509064137935638, 0.04489940032362938, 0.396767467260...	11	Langston Hughes was born on the 1st of February in 1902 in Joplin, Missouri. He was a brilliant son of James Hughes, a practicing lawyer and Carrie Langston, a school teacher. He was an unfortunate child as his parents were separated soon after his birth. His father moved to Mexico, while his mother mostly left him with his maternal grandmother in search of steady employment. He found living with his maternal mother entertaining and consoling. Yet, again misfortune struck him when his maternal grandmother left him in 1915. As a young boy, he felt insecure and neglected as he didn’t experience the love and comfort of a family. Langston had disturbed from the heart-wrenching separation of his parents. However, he started his educational journey from Ohio, where he attended a local high school. Unfortunately, he faced racial discrimination at school as all black students were forced to sit in a separate row, which he termed as Jim Crow Row. Despite all these injustices, Langston performed well. With all the bitter experiences of his childhood, he wrote his first poem during his stay in the school. His teachers greatly appreciated it. Soon he became a junior published talent when his first poem was published in his school magazine, The Central High Monthly. After finishing high school, he went to Colombia for graduation and started his career as a writer. However, he did not finish his degree. Later in 1926, he attended Lincoln University in Pennsylvania for further education. This iconic figure led a life full of pain and misery, partly because of his separation from his parents and partly due to the struggle he waged to earn a name. His parents parted their ways when he was young, depriving him of the joys and sweet memories of childhood. Although he started living with his mother after his grandmother’s demise, those hours of pleasures were also short-lived. His mother and stepfather moved to Chicago, while he stayed behind to complete his studies. Later, when he was in the junior year of school, his father reentered in his life and longed for their reunion. He went to Mexico, but once again experienced pain and suffering as he could not meet his father. However, after graduation, his father supported him to complete his education. This shows that all these challenges contributed to his maturity. Though he remained grief-stricken throughout his life, he managed to carve a better future for himself and earned greatness through his writing. This legendary figure breathed his last on the 22nd of May in 1967 after having abdominal surgery. Unlike his poetry, his funeral was also jazz and blues. The famous jazz pianist was called to play for his funeral. Some Important Facts of His Life - Langston Hughes played a pivotal role in the Harlem Renaissance movement. - He received many awards and honors during his lifetime on account of his marvelous services. - His home at East 127th street in Harlem became a nationally registered landmark. Although destiny never favored him, Langston became a published poet. When he was a student of eighth grade, his first piece of writing was published in a school magazine. He had a unique literary taste and great poetic skills, but his introduction with Walt Whitman and Carl Sandburg gave flight to his poetic imaginations. He wrote one of his famous poems, “The Negro Speaks of a River” on his way to Mexico on a train. His first book of poetry, “The Weary Blue” appeared in 1924, while in 1930, his first novel, “Not without Laughter” won the Harmon gold medal. Throughout his life, he wrote many poems, novels, and plays. He was also known for his interest in the world of Jazz which is reflected in his book, “Montage of a Dream Deferred” in 1951. He produced many masterpieces in his life, including eleven plays and countless pieces of prose, including The Book of Negro Folklore, The Big Sea, Simple Takes a Wife and Simple Speaks his Mind. After establishing his career as a great American poet, Langston Hughes added enough into the world of literature. Despite facing countless challenges and unrest in life, he successfully coined a prominent place in the literary world with his lucid and creative ideas. Also, his dark childhood and separation from parents shaped his writing and made him experience the irreparable loss of life. Therefore, he documented these ideas well in his poems such as, “Negro Speaks of a River”, “I Too” and “Harlem”. Moreover, his ideas about the sufferings of the black race are reflected well in his masterpieces. The recurring themes in most of his writings stand, sorrow, loneliness, freedom, prejudice, and racial discrimination. Regarding literary devices, he often turns to metaphors, similes, visual and sensory imagery, and sound devices to create a unique style. Langston Hughes Works - Best Poems: He was an outstanding poet, some of his best poems include: “I Too”, “The Negro Speaks of the River”, “The Weary Blues”, “As I Grew Older” and “Theme for English B.” - Best Plays: Some of the other notable plays he wrote include: Mule Bone, Mulatto, Simply Heavenly, Black Nativity and Street Scene. Langston Hughes’s Impact on Future Literature Langston’s literary qualities and unique way of expression helped shape American literature and politics. He promoted equality through his writings and condemned injustices and racial discrimination. Also, he celebrated and admired the African American culture in most of his works. It is due to these qualities. He had a powerful influence over many poets and writers. His great works are not only admired but also taught in various curriculum across the globe. He brought into light the beauty and simplicity of African American culture and the forces that tried to dismantle its innocence. He is considered a beacon for writing prose and poetry by many aspiring poets. - “Books -where if people suffered, they suffered in beautiful language, not in monosyllables, as we did in Kansas” (I Wonder as I Wander: An Autobiographical Journey, 1956) - “My soul has grown deep like the rivers.” (The Negro Speaks of Rivers, 1920) - “Let the rain kiss you. Let the rain beat upon your head with silver liquid drops. Let the rain sing you a lullaby.” (April Rain Song) - “Hold fast to your dreams, for without them life is a broken winged bird that cannot fly.” (Montage of a Dream Deferred, 1951)	1,360	ENGLISH	1
Iron Cross, Kulm Cross (for men 1816) Estimated market value: The Iron Cross was a military decoration founded by King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia and it was awarded for acts of heroism, bravery and exemplary leadership. The Cross was primarily a military decoration, yet on numerous occasions it was awarded to civilians for services rendered to the military. The design of the Cross was inspired by the Cross pattée, which was used as a symbol of the Teutonic Order, as well as the Prussian Army from 1871 to 1918. The Order consisted of three grades, I Class Cross, II Class Cross and Grand Cross. The I and II Class are largely the same in size and composition. The Grand Cross was double the size of the former. The I and II Class Crosses were worn on the left breast, and the Grand Cross was worn suspended from the neck. The Cross was first awarded in recognition of exemplary military and civil service during the Napoleonic Wars. Model II of the Decoration was awarded during the Franco-Prussian War (1870). Model III of the Decoration was awarded during the First World War (1914), and subsequent versions were awarded during World War II and featured a swastika in the center of the obverse. Sign in to comment and reply.	<urn:uuid:f4d70a13-a682-47bb-83ae-7536501d4e0f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.medalbook.com/europe/germany/german-empire-1871-1918/prussia/medals-decorations/iron-cross/i-model-1813/iron-cross-kulm-cross-7/iron-cross-kulm-cross-(for-men-1816)-1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00407.warc.gz	en	0.981594	274	3.78125	4	[ -0.16963285207748413, 0.7760435938835144, -0.10985630005598068, -0.056573960930109024, 0.052313245832920074, 0.20175248384475708, 0.036645401269197464, 0.5497928261756897, -0.28914305567741394, -0.34107905626296997, 0.20446687936782837, -0.8219032287597656, 0.0879790335893631, -0.032412808...	2	Iron Cross, Kulm Cross (for men 1816) Estimated market value: The Iron Cross was a military decoration founded by King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia and it was awarded for acts of heroism, bravery and exemplary leadership. The Cross was primarily a military decoration, yet on numerous occasions it was awarded to civilians for services rendered to the military. The design of the Cross was inspired by the Cross pattée, which was used as a symbol of the Teutonic Order, as well as the Prussian Army from 1871 to 1918. The Order consisted of three grades, I Class Cross, II Class Cross and Grand Cross. The I and II Class are largely the same in size and composition. The Grand Cross was double the size of the former. The I and II Class Crosses were worn on the left breast, and the Grand Cross was worn suspended from the neck. The Cross was first awarded in recognition of exemplary military and civil service during the Napoleonic Wars. Model II of the Decoration was awarded during the Franco-Prussian War (1870). Model III of the Decoration was awarded during the First World War (1914), and subsequent versions were awarded during World War II and featured a swastika in the center of the obverse. Sign in to comment and reply.	276	ENGLISH	1

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